Principles and Practices of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook 1908999586, 9781908999580

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James murphy

Principles and Practices of Bar and Beverage Management the drinks handbook

The Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management The Drinks Handbook James Murphy

(G)

Goodfellow Publishers Ltd

(G)

Published by Goodfellow Publishers Limited, Woodeaton, Oxford, OX3 9TJ http://www.goodfellowpublishers.com

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data: a catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: on file. ISBN: 978-1-908999-59-7 Copyright © James Murphy, 2013 All rights reserved. The text of this publication, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, storage in an information retrieval system, or otherwise, without prior permission of the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners, The use of trademarks or brand names in this text does not imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. Design and typesetting by P.K. McBride, www.macbride.org.uk

Cover design by Cylinder, www.cylindermedia.com

Contents

1

2

3

Brewing and Beers

1

1.1 History and evolution of making beer 1.2 The raw materials of beer 1.3 The brewing process 1.4 Processing beer for packaging and sale 1.5 Beer strengths 1.6 A systematic approach for tasting beers 1.7 Beer glassware 1.8 Major categories of beer 1.9 The World’s best known beers 1.10 The marriage of beer and food 1.11 Sake 1.12 Microbrewery: definition and scope 1.13 Draught beer 1.14 Gas dispense systems 1.15 Beer line maintenance 1.16 Cooling systems for draught beers

1 3 6 8 9 10 11 12 14 19 20 22 23 26 29 31

Cider and Perry

36

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Cider: definition and legislation governing its production 2.3 Cider apple varieties 2.4 Cider production 2.5 Cider evaluation and tasting 2.6 Perry

36 36 42 43 47 48

Introduction to Wine

51

3.1 Introduction 3.2 The production of wine 3.3 Producing alcohol from grapes 3.4 The components and flavours of wine 3.5 The main stages of wine production 3.6 Labelling

51 51 57 58 59 63

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The Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 4

5

Tasting wine Sparkling wine Wine and food Storing wine

Principal Wine Regions of the World

66 68 70 73 75

4.1 Argentina 4.2 Australia 4.3 Austria 4.4 Bulgaria 4.5 Canada 4.6 Chile 4.7 China 4.8 Czech Republic 4.9 England and Wales 4.10 France 4.11 Germany 4.12 Greece 4.13 Hungary 4.14 India 4.15 Israel 4.16 Italy 4.17 Japan 4.18 Macedonia 4.19 New Zealand 4.20 Portugal 4.21 Romania 4.22 South Africa 4.23 Spain 4.24 Switzerland 4.25 United States

75 76 79 81 81 82 85 86 87 87 114 119 119 121 122 123 130 131 131 133 135 135 137 141 142

Fortified, Aromatised and Quinine Wines

146

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

146 151 156 160 162 164

Fortified wine: Port Fortified wine: Sherry Fortified wine: Madeira Fortified wine: Marsala Fortified and aromatised wine: vermouth Quinine wine

Contents

6

7

8

Distilling: How Spirits are Made

166

6.1 Introduction 6.2 Raw materials and base ingredients 6.3 Methods of alcohol separation 6.4 Principles of distillation 6.5 Systems for determining alcohol strengths 6.6 Maturing and oxidation 6.7 Tasting distilled spirits

166 167 168 169 172 175 178

Spirits of the World

181

7.1 Akvavit 7.2 Anise spirits 7.3 Armagnac 7.4 Brandy 7.5 Brännvin 7.6 Calvados 7.7 Cognac 7.8 Gin and genever 7.9 Rum 7.10 Schnapps 7.11 Tequila and mezcal 7.12 Vodka 7.13 Whisky 7.14 Bitters

181 183 185 188 193 193 196 202 209 215 215 221 225 240

Liqueurs 243 8.1 Introduction 8.2 History and background 8.3 Ingredients and production of liqueurs 8.4 Categories of liqueurs 8.5 World famous liqueurs

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243 243 245 246 247

Non-alcoholic DrinksA 261 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Juices 9.3 Freshly squeezed fruit juices 9.4 Soft drinks and carbonated beverages 9.5 Draught soft drinks systems 9.6 Famous soft drinks

261 261 264 267 269 270

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The Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

9.7 Waters 9.8 Tea 9.9 Coffee 9.10 Hot chocolate

271 278 281 294

Cocktails and Mixed Drinks

298

10.1 Introduction 298 10.2 Old World cocktail and mixed drinks categories 299 10.3 Authoritative (seminal) cocktail publications 306 10.4 Development and promotion of cocktails 308 10.5 Cocktail and mixed drinks making methods 310 10.6 The basics of good cocktail making 313 10.7 Modern cocktail categories 316 10.8 Creating cocktail recipes 316 10.9 Creating cocktail menus 318 10.10 Calculating profits on cocktails 321 Appendices I: Cocktail recipes II: Conversion tables III: Garnishing techniques

323 323 338 339



Bibliography 341



Index 351

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Preface Customer expectations of the level of service they regard as satisfactory are rising. Bars are constantly exploring what their customers want, and this focus has placed increased demands on all staff to perform, not just in terms of productivity, but also in terms of comprehensive product knowledge and specialized service skills. It is within this context that I welcome you to ‘The Principles and Practices of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook’. In my previous book, ‘The Principles and Practices of Bar and Beverage Management’, I concentrated on the complexities of managing modern bars. In this publication my focus has been on providing a comprehensive training guide and authoritative resource textbook, to suit students across the hospitality, hotel, bar, restaurant and culinary fields of study internationally. This book is designed to provide bartenders, sommeliers, mixologists, waiters and food and beverage practitioners with valuable background knowledge of the key beverage areas of the bar. The chapters are structured with specific learning aims and objectives, comprehensive indicative content, tables, illustrations and models of the significant issues surrounding the topic area. Chapters 1 and 2 explore brewing and brewed products, which include beer, cider and perry, and the dispense management knowledge for dealing with various types of draught beers. The following three chapters focus on wine: Chapter 3 provides a foundation of knowledge; Chapter 4 presents the principal wine growing regions of the world and their unique wines; and Chapter 5 identifies the fortified, aromatised and quinine wines. Chapter 6 introduces the world of distillation, exploring in detail how spirits are made. We go on to consider the major spirit types and brands sold around the world in Chapter 7. The many varied ingredients, production processes and categories of liqueurs are covered in Chapter 8. The areas central to the background, production, varieties and service of hot and cold non-alcoholic beverages are examined in Chapter 9. Finally, Chapter 10 deals with the background and methods for making cocktails and mixed drinks, together with a comprehensive range of classic and contemporary recipes which can be prepared in your bar. You may have never before mixed some of the drinks highlighted in this book, but you can certainly gain confidence by following its instructions. I hope that you enjoy reading about, discussing, demonstrating and recommending the many beverages of the bar, and finally please ensure that you always serve and consume alcoholic beverages responsibly. James Murphy MSc (Hosp Mgt), MA (H.Ed), Mgt Dip Programme Chairman, School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology, College of Arts and Tourism, Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland.

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The Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

Acknowledgements If I were to mention everyone who had assisted me in the compilation of this book then another publication would be required to include them all. So please accept a warm and affectionate thanks to all those special people, with my apologies to anyone I may have inadvertently omitted. I would however like to express my thanks in particular to: „„ The incredibly hard working team at Goodfellows Publishing for their support in the development of this book, especially Sally North and Tim Goodfellow. „„ The industry and trade associations, Government and public service bodies around the world whose collective work helps to consistently raise the standards and safety of the bar and its beverages. „„ The international, national and local food and drinks companies for their research and innovation in bringing new products and services which enhance the bar and beverage industry and for their collective sponsorship of awards and scholarships which help to recognise excellence and promote creativity in the bar and its staff members worldwide. „„ The authors listed in the bibliography and web resources sections of this book for their research and work in the areas of their specialist knowledge. „„ Last but certainly not least the picture credits: every effort has been made to trace ownership of copyright. The author and publishers will be glad to make suitable arrangements with any copyright holders whom it has not been possible to contact. We would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce illustrative material: Fig. 1.3 craftbeer.com; Figs. 1.4, 1.7-1.13 MicromaticUSA. Inc; Fig. 1.5 Morepour.co.uk; Fig. 1.15 Kilkenny Cooling Systems; 2.1 Natural Organic Cider; 2.3 Ehow.com; Fig. 2.4 Tuthill Temperley; Fig. 3.1 Ocean Bridge; Figs. 4.1, 4.2, 4.9-4.13, 4.15 University of Bath Students Union Wine Society; Fig. 4.3 Dal Gobbo M: Creative Commons; Figs. 4.4, 4.5 Terroir-France; Fig. 4.6 Zelas Natural Wines; Fig. 4.7 J.D. Headrick; Fig. 4.8 imlifestyler.com; Fig. 4.14 spainishwine.com; Fig. 5.1 OnReserve.com; Fig. 5.2 Atlanta Wine School; Fig 5.3. alademics.com; Fig. 5.4 Consejo Regulador Vinos de Jerez Y Manzanilla; Fig. 5.5 Wine Australia.com; Fig. 5.6 Introwine.com; Fig. 5.7 Dr. Peter Reutter, madeirawineguide.com; Fig. 6.1, 7.6 BNIC; Fig. 6.2 Luigi Chiesa: Creative Commons; Fig. 6.3 stillcooker.com; Fig. 6.5 Kentucky Barrels; Fig. 7.2, 9.4 Water Codex II – San Pellegrino, Fig. 7.3 Bureau National Interprefessional de l’Armagnac; Fig. 7.4 Creative Commons, Wikipedia.org; Fig. 7.5 Palmbay. com; Fig. 7.10 World Fact book, CIA; Fig. 7.11 GagaExportsGroupz.com; Fig. 7.12 Secretario de Turismo de Jalisco; Fig. 7.16 Edinburgh Whiskey Blog; Fig. 7.17 Scotch Whisky Association; Fig. 9.2 Hach Company, hach.com; Fig. 9.3 wunderbar.com; Fig. 9.5 oncoffeemakers.com; Fig. 9.7 TurkishCoffeeWorld. com; Fig. 9.8 Cona Ltd. UK; Fig. 10.3 Achim Schleuning: Creative Commons. „„ Figs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.6, 1.14, 1.16, 2.2, 5.8, 5.9, 6.4, 6.6, 7.1, 7.7-9, 7.12, 7.14, 7.15, 7.18–21, 8.1-6, 9.1, 9.9, 10.1, 10.2, 10.6-16, 11.1-7 were photographed by the author.

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About the author James Murphy is author and winner of numerous national and international industry awards, which includes World Champion - Bacardi Martini Grand Prix for Elite Bartenders in 1993. A former Education Chairman of the International Bartenders Association (IBA), he has managed in the bar and beverage industry for over 30 years. James is co-ordinator of licensed trade development programmes, Chairman and Author of the BSc (Honours) degree in Bar Management and Entrepreneurship. He holds multiple Masters Degrees in Hospitality Management and Higher Education and currently lectures full time in the Bar Management area at the Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology, Cathal Brugha Street, Dublin, Ireland. Author: Bartenders Association of Ireland – A History (1997).

Dedication It is quite common for authors to dedicate their books to individuals whom they admire. But what if this book was dedicated to the practitioners? To all the bartenders, servers, sommeliers, brand ambassadors and mixologists I dedicate this book, you are the true champions and trailblazers in the bar and beverage world

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The Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

Also available to accompany this text, The Principles and Practices of Bar and Beverage Management. a comprehensive text and resource book designed to explain the latest developments in and new complexities of managing modern bars – be they stand-alone or part of larger institutions such as hotels and resorts. Principles and Practices of Bar and Beverage Management gives the reader a complete guide to every aspect of bar management; a well defined pedagogic structure; links to relevant web and audio-visual resources; coverage of all the key topics plus the technical skills and practices in the bar and beverage sector; over 200 explanatory illustrations and tables; and numerous examples and case studies from within the industry. ISBN 978-1-908999-36-8 Hardback; 978-1-908999-37-5 Paperback 256pp 978-1-908999-44-3 eBook

See www.goodfellowpublishers.com for further details

1

Brewing and Beers

Aims and learning outcomes This chapter aims to introduce learners to the world of beers and the skills and knowledge involved in dispensing draught beer. On completion the learner should be able to: „„

Describe the raw materials, production process and the methods used to establish the strength and taste of beers and sake.

„„

Demonstrate the appropriate glassware and foods to compliment the major categories and types of beers.

„„

Identify the equipment, service procedures and solutions to common problems when dispensing draught beers.

„„

Explain the major types of gas and cooling systems used to dispense draught beer.

1.1 History and evolution of making beer Beer etymology The origins of the word for beer range from the Latin word bibere,meaning to drink, to the German word Poer or Bior and the Scandinavians Bjor, which was a brew made from mashed, germinated barley (Etymology Dictionary, 2012). Beer can be defined as an ‘alcoholic beverage made from the fermented extracts of malt, with or without the extract of other cereal grains and it is usually flavoured with hops’ or ‘a generic term for all alcoholic beverages that are fermented and brewed from malted barley, hops, water, and yeast. Other starchy cereals, such as corn and rice may also be used where legal’ (Oxford Dictionary,2013).

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Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

Beer in the ancient world Beer is truly an ancient beverage. Some state it is actually the oldest made by humankind. Its origins are intermingled with the origins of bread. Both are made from grains, both fermented by yeast, and both can be considered an accessible, easily digested, wholesome source of energy and nutrition. The earliest detailed mention of beer, is officially attributed to a 9,000 year-old Mesopotamian tablet which mentions a recipe for beer as ‘barley wine made from malted barley’ by the Sumerians, who had a goddess of intoxicating drink called ‘Nikasi’ (Black et al, 2006). The Sumerians lived in an area called Mesopotamia, which is now known as Iraq.

The Middle Ages In medieval times, ‘ale wives’ were brewing in their kitchens in Europe, and the popularity of beer was becoming established in growing towns and cities, where it was safer to drink than polluted water. As brewing became more organized, it drew the attention of the tax collector’s beady eye. Paying tax on ale or beer has been normal practice since as far back as 1188, when King Henry II of England brought in the ‘Saladin Tithe’ in order to pay for the crusades. Traditionally beer was brewed in the home, on farms, in the wayside taverns and in monasteries (Hornsey, 2004). Many events of this era incorporate the word ‘ale’, reflecting its importance in society. Brides traditionally sold ale on their wedding day to defray the expenses - hence ‘bride-ale’ which became ‘bridal’.

Lager is born Bavaria monks were responsible for discovering a new technique – bottom fermentation. In the summer months, fermentation could run out of control and spoil the brew. When Bavarian monasteries stored beer for long periods in cool cellars, they found that the yeasts sank to the bottom of the vessel instead of frothing at the top, and so fermented more slowly. This bottom fermented beer could be stored for much longer periods, and became known as ‘lagering’, from the German word for storage Briggs et al (2004).

The Industrial Revolution There was no brewing in breweries, such as we would today recognize, and until refrigeration was introduced in the 1880s, beer was only brewed in the colder months from September to April or May. The 19th century brought technological development and the local craft changed to large scale industries, brought about by the invention of the steam engine by James Watt, which was used for firing brew houses, and artificial refrigeration by Carl von Linde. The invention of refrigeration made it possible to brew year round. Another decisive development

Brewing and Beers

3

was the discovery of microorganisms by Louis Pasteur – thus the science of the fermentation process was finally established. Building commercial lager breweries close to rivers, allowed boats to transport beer internationally.

Beer today Changing consumer tastes have not diminished the global interest in beer. Today it is huge, and as it continues to grow specialty style beers are in ever-greater demand, as well as the major brands. These styles were brought about in direct response to the mass produced carbonated and pasteurized keg beers that were dominating pubs around the world. This renaissance brought about the surge of designer lagers and boutique beers. The microbrewery bar is another way of making beer on a smaller individual scale, establishing a tiny brewery within the bar premises (brew pub). The Germans refer to these as Hausbrauerei, the British call them brewpubs and the Americans and Irish refer to them as microbrewery bars which usually incorporate a good food offering (steakhouse or fish restaurant) and lively entertainment (see Microbrewery below).

1.2 The raw materials of beer Water Water, called ‘liquor’ by brewers, is the least expensive and the main ingredient in beer. It comprises 80 to 90 per cent of the final weight of a beer. Since it is used in every stage of the brewing process, the quality and taste of the water has a great impact on the character of a beer. This is why, historically, breweries were located in and around areas with an abundant supply of ‘good’ quality water. The best styles of beers in the world, for example Dortmund and Dublin, owe their distinction to the type of water available at each brewing location. The liquor must be biologically pure and its mineral content must be analysed. Most waters used for brewing are treated to render them suitable. Water types used for different beers include: „„ soft water with low mineral content for light coloured beers, „„ harder water for darker lagers, stout and ales „„ and exceptionally, neither hard nor soft water used for Munich dark beers. The brewer prepares the water with a process called burtonizing, which involves the addition of different minerals.

Barley, malt (fermentable sugars) Most of the barley used in brewing is malted. That means it has been soaked in water for a time, until it has absorbed enough water to begin germination, which

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Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

produces the enzymes that will turn the starch into sugar during the later mashing process. After that it is kilned (dried in an oven) and sometimes roasted in order to reach the desired colour. From now on, it is called malt. Most breweries get their malted barley from independent malteries. The different varieties and uses of malt include: pale, which is mild in flavour, black malt for dark colour and dryness, carastan and crystal malt for a malty sweet base, cara-pils malt for pale lagers. The other non-malt cereals which are used for making beer include oats, wheat, rice, corn, rye and sugar. The colour can range from very light (pilsner malt, lager malt, pale malt) to dark brown or black (chocolate malt, black malt). Between those extremes there are several more grades. A special scale, known as EBC (European Brewing Convention) is used to indicate colour in malts (and beers). The lower the EBC, the lighter the malt (because it was kilned for a shorter time). „„ Mild ale malt: 7 EBC „„ Munich malt: 20 EBC „„ Amber malt: 40-60 EBC „„ Brown malt: 150 EBC „„ Crystal malt: 100-300 EBC Some beer styles need roasted barley (1000-1550 EBC) for their colouring. That is un-malted but roasted barley that gives a very black, often opaque beer.

Hops (humulous lupilous) Hops are long vine-like creepers, which exist as male and female plants. Only the unfertilized flower of the female hop vine is used in brewing. Hops primarily supply the pleasant bitter flavour and aroma to beer. Prior to the use of hops, beers were flavoured with herbs, roots and spices such as juniper, coriander, nutmeg and oak leaves, etc. With over one hundred commercially available varieties, hops fall into two general categories: the bittering hop - high in resins, low in oil, and the aroma hop - low in resins, high in oils.

Figure 1.1: Samples of barley and hop pellets.

Brewing and Beers

5

The choice of hops greatly influences the character of the beer. Hops are added to the brew because they provide the beer with: „„ aroma, bitterness, tangy, flavour „„ antiseptic action preventing the development of microorganisms and „„ the tannin which helps clarify the beer. Major varieties include the Fuggle (UK) known for its softness, Goldings (UK) with a rounded pungency, Savaz (Czech Rep) which is said to be the best quality in the world, Cascade (USA) with excellent aroma, Hallertau (Ger), Hersbruch (Ger) and Tettnang (Germany) all with a fresh delicate aroma.

Yeast This is a microscopic, free-living unicellular fungus, which we manipulate in alcoholic beverage production. The yeasts used must be very particular, as a change of yeast will result in a different character of beer. This unicellular, microscopic organism is protected more carefully in a brewery than any other ingredient, for once the particular strain has been selected it must not be allowed to change otherwise the character of the beer changes with it. Brewer’s yeast is divided into three categories: „„ Ale yeasts: (top fermented beers) Ale yeasts stick together, multiply and form a surface on the liquid, therefore fermentation takes place on top. It takes 3 - 4 days at 16 to 27 degrees Celsius, and the total time of the process is between 2 to 4 weeks. „„ Lager yeasts: (bottom fermented beers) Lager yeasts fall through the liquid and work on the sugars at the bottom of the vessel, so that fermentation takes place at the bottom. „„ Wild yeast (naturally fermented beers): Wild yeast is a form of fungus (like all yeast) found in the air. If it settles onto new wort, fermentation will start. The wild yeast used in brewing is not any wild yeast though. It is only in the Zenne Valley that brewers use this special yeast. The brewers make their wort like any other brewer, but when it comes to the fermentation period they leave a hatch or a window open and wait for the wild yeast to start munching the sugar in the wort. This spontaneous fermentation produces a very special type of beer, known as Lambic (see Timmermans Brewery, established in 1781, www.anthonymartin.be).

Adjuncts, sugar Rice, flaked maize, raw barley, wheat and oats are all examples of adjuncts. They have a similar amount of fermentable extracts to malt and some of them also contribute to head formation and retention. In some cases the brewer wants to achieve a special taste or a certain colour for his beer; then adjuncts might be the answer. The use of adjuncts partly comes from the U.S.A., where they used maize and

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Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

rice for economic reasons. Maize and rice gives a lighter, more easily-drinkable beer for the mainstream consumer. Many American (mainstream) beers have up to 50 per cent of adjuncts in them. Sugar is another kind of adjunct. The sugar used in brewing must be specially treated; this treatment is dependent upon the desired flavour and character of the beer. A little amount of caramelisation and a darkening of the colour occurs. Table 1.1: The major differences between top and bottom fermented beers Top-fermented beers

Bottom-fermented beers

Fermented by Sacchromyces cerevisaie.

Fermented by Sacchromyces.

Fermented at higher temperatures (15 to 25 °C).

Fermented at lower temperatures (0 to 12°C).

Stored & matured at about 12 degree Celsius.

Stored & matured at about 0 degree Celsius.

May be primed to add carbonation and dryhopping to offset the sweetness of the priming.

May be Krausened, especially German lagers.

Matured for a relatively short period, from 3 to 21 days.

Matured (lagered) for up to 3 months to allow yeast to ‘condition’ beers to add carbonation.

Clarified by fining agents like Isinglass as the maturation period is short.

Clarified by cold setting and racking over the long lagering period.

Some beers are not filtered and yeast is left in the bottle or cask to ‘condition’ (sur lie) the beers.

Yeasts filtered out just prior to bottling.

More pronounced flavours, richer with distinct characteristics.

Cleaner tasting, less flavoured, more thirst quenching.

Best served at higher temperatures from 12 °C (cellar temperature).

Best served cold, 7 to 10 °C.

Generally less stable (lasts up to a month in a cask if More stable as yeasts are filtered out during the cask if not tapped). bottling. Generally improves with age, especially if bottleconditioned or cask conditioned

Does not improve with further ageing.

Source: adapted from (Bright, 2005)

1.3 The brewing process There are five major types of beers: lager, ale, stout, porter and bock. For all of these, the stages of brewing are similar. Usually made from barley, beer begins with the germination of the grain. Once germinated, the barley is called malt. The malt is then dried in a hot kiln. The temperatures and duration of roasting controls the caramelization of malt sugars which determine both the color and sweetness of the beer.

Brewing and Beers

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The brewing process consists of these stages: „„ Milling: In the brew house, the malted and roasted barley grains are milled to produce a coarse material, which is mixed with a portion of milled barley to produce the grist. „„ Mashing: The grist is weighted and transferred to a mash vessel along with hot water and mixed, at approximately 65 degrees Celsius, to produce a porridgelike consistency. (This temperature is the optimum for the malt enzyme activity, which converts the starches contained in the barley to fermentable sugars).

When the conversion is complete the mash is transferred to a kieve. The kieve acts like a giant strainer (each one has a false bottom of slotted plates) retaining the mash solids while the sugary liquid, known as worts, filters through to the next giant vessels - known as the kettles, usually holding 1000 hectoliters each.

Figure 1.2: mash tun vessels at Heineken, Holland

„„ Boiling: The wort is filtered to the kettles where hops are added and the contents are boiled for one and half hours. This sterilizes the brew and extracts the distinctive taste, which the hops impart. After the mixture has boiled, it is settled (approximately forty minutes), cooled (for example, to 20°C for Guinness) and aerated en route to the fermentation process. „„ Fermentation: This takes place in the fermenting vessel, where the magic ingredient of yeast is added. The wort acts as a nutrient for the yeast, which multiplies many times by budding until the dissolved air in the wort is exhausted. In the absence of air, the yeast converts the wort sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide, and various flavour substances. Yeast can be reused for the next batch of fermentation up to a maximum of five times. The product at this point reaches 10 degrees average and has various names, e.g. wash, weak alcohol solution or young beer. Fermentation usually takes one week.

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Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

„„ Storage: This process is often called lagering, which is German for storage. The young beer flavour will improve after two weeks of storage at a temperature of zero degrees Celsius. The undesired flavours will naturally be removed by the yeast remnants still present in the beer, thus improving the beer flavour. The beer is now called mature beer and is ready for drinking. „„ Filtering and maturing: The mature beer has to be filtered because it still contains a high level of yeast remnants and protein matters, which makes its appearance cloudy. In the filter vessel, many layers of filters powder are formed, which will help in trapping the yeast and protein, but allows the beer to flow through. The filtered beer is called bright beer and is now ready to be packed in bottles, cans and kegs for draught beer.

The lager brewing process Lager is made slightly different to other beers by a decoction method. This unique process involves splitting the batches. One third of the brew is heated up in stages up to a boiling point of 100°C, and the remaining two thirds of the brew batch is heated in stages up to 70°C. Both these batches are then combined in one mash tun. The mash then mixes with the wort and all the contents are transferred to the copper kettle where it’s boiled and the hops are added causing bottom fermentation.

Pasteurisation Pasteurisation of beer is carried out by flash-heating canned or bottled beers. The object of pasteurizing is to stabilise the beer and extend its shelf life. Pasteurisation of beer slows down, but does not halt the ravages of time and lengthen the shelf life of the product. Pasteurisation is the main difference between draft and bottled/canned beers.

1.4 Processing beer for packaging and sale Beer in its various forms and styles now has to be prepared for sale to the public. There are numerous methods adopted according to tradition and practice of the country, region and producer. In most countries there will be a range of products available, the following are some examples;

Traditional cask conditioned ale This type of beer is produced by the traditional method of preparation, which is still being used in the United Kingdom and parts of America, but normally only for bitter and mild ales. The beer, on being filled into the cask is often dry hopped (a handful of dried hops is added to the cask), to give the beer extra aroma and flavour.

Brewing and Beers

9

Finings are also added to help clarify the beer whilst it is in the cask. Primings (a sugar solution) are occasionally added to ensure an adequate secondary fermentation in the cask. They also give some extra sweetness to the finished beer. Once the cask arrives at the retailer, it is his task to ensure that it is ready for sale. This may take anything from 3 to 10 days or even longer, depending on the beer and the storage conditions.

Sediment or bottle conditioned beer This type of beer is still produced by many large brewery companies internationally and uses the same principle as cask conditioned ale, in that the beer is bottled ‘flat’, that is without carbon dioxide, but when it is bottled the beer still retains some living yeast cells. Given the right conditions, the yeast multiplies, and as it multiplies carbon dioxide is formed in the beer to produce the sparkle. This cannot escape as the bottle is sealed. Unfortunately as there is still yeast in the bottle it causes problems with the clarity of the beer. The beer has to be handled very carefully when removing from the shelf, when opening and when pouring, in order to avoid the beer becoming cloudy. The sediment itself does no harm, but it does tend to spoil the presentation.

Stabilised beer Stabilised beers account for the vast majority of the international market. This type of beer is ready to consume as soon as it arrives at the retailer. It may be packed in a variety of ways, either in: „„ cans „„ bottles (glass or plastic) „„ kegged (pressurized containers) „„ or filled into road tankers, for transferring into large holding tanks in the retailers’ cellars. The entire preparation is carried out at the brewery where the beer is: 1 Artificially carbonated (injected with carbon dioxide at low temperatures). 2 Heat treated (pasteurized on its way to the filling machine – flash pasteurized) to kill off any bacteria or yeast that may be present in the beer. 3 Filtered to remove any solids that may be remaining in the beer.

1.5 Beer strengths Beer is expressed in three main systems of strengths: „„ Alcohol by weight: since water is heavier than alcohol, this traditionally produces lower figures, used by US brewers. „„ Alcohol by volume (ABV): used in Europe and Canada, the simplest rating to understand.

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Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

„„ German Plato system and Czech Balling systems: based on density or original gravity, developed with the tax implications for malt, wheat or other fermentable sugars. The strength of a beer is not a measure of its quality, and there are a great number of high quality beers of lower strength. However, high strength beers usually means high price due to increase in local taxes.

1.6 A systematic approach for tasting beers Beers flavours and compounds Beer tasting is distinctly different from, for example, a wine tasting session. There are over 400 flavours and aroma compounds in various beers, the detection of which has as much to do with the concentration of the compound causing the sensation as it does with the sensitivity of the taster. Different people have differing sensitivities to certain flavours and odours. The American Society of Brewing Chemists has organized a flavour wheel (http://www.brew-monkey.com/brewschool/beerwheel.php). This provides the taster with a quick and easy reference to overcome somewhat the very common problem of taste and word association. We judge a beer on its aroma, taste and its level of carbonation.

Aroma Beer aromas range from being quite malty to rather fruity styles. Some, like Kriek and Framboise, are dominated by the fruits used in making these fruit-based beers. The bouquet of a beer is determined by: „„ The type of malt „„ The types of hops „„ Any other ingredients like fruits.

Taste Beers range from light and refreshing style to rich, full-flavoured distinctively heavy styles. The taste or palate of a beer is determined by: „„ The type and amount of hops „„ The type of malt „„ The type of yeasts „„ The amount of residual sugars „„ The water used in the mashing and brewing.

Carbonation The level of carbonation is determined by the use or non-use of various techniques. Krausening, priming and conditioning are natural forms of carbonation whereas impregnation (injection of carbon dioxide) is not. The taste and aroma

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of a beer can be judged by olfactory senses. The level of carbonation is visually judged by observing the beer for the following characteristics „„ Head „„ Bead „„ Brussel’s lace.  (Murphy, 2008) A dense, uneven head is the sign of a beer that has received natural carbonation. Beads are the bubbles that rise in a glass of beer. Bubbles that are large and rush to the surface quickly with carbonation that fades quickly are signs of an artificially carbonated beer. A naturally carbonated beer will have tiny beads that spiral upwards. The carbonation lasts for a longer period of time than one that is artificially carbonated. The foam that sticks to the side of a glass as the beer is consumed is termed Brussel’s Lace. This is a sure sign of a beer that has been carbonated naturally.

1.7 Beer glassware Different styles of glassware complement different styles of beer, usually enhancing aromatic volatiles or showcasing the appearance. „„ German Weizenbier glass: a wheat beer glass used to serve wheat beer, known also as Weizenbier or Weißbier Taller than a pint glass, the German glass holds 0.5 litres with room for foam or ‘head’. In Belgium, the glass may be 0.25 litres or 0.33 litres. The tall glass provides room for the often thick, fluffy heads produced by the style, which traps aromas and is visually pleasing. „„ Pint glass: a British pint holds (568 millitres or 1.2 US pints) of beer, available in nonic, dimple and tumbler designs. Good for serving stouts, porters and English ales. „„ Pilsner glass: used to serve many types of light beers, generally smaller than a pint glass, usually 25cl or 33cl sizes, tall, slender, tapered without curvature. Made to showcase the colour, effervescence and clarity of the Pilsner style, as well as to maintain a nice head. „„ Beer stein: a traditionally German beer tankard or mug, made of pewter, silver, wood, porcelain, earthenware or glassware, and usually with a hinged lid and levered thumb lift. The lid was implemented during the age of the Black Plague, to prevent diseased flies from getting into the beer. „„ Flute glass: the preferred serving vessel for Belgian Lambics and fruit beers. The narrow shape helps maintain carbonation, while providing a strong aromatic front. Sparkling colour and soft lacing are features of this distinct style. „„ Goblet or chalice: large, stemmed bowl shaped glasses adequate for serving heavy Belgian ales, German Doppelbocks and Eisbocks and other big sipping beers. The distinction between goblet and chalice is typically in the glass thickness. Goblets tend to be more delicate and thin, while the chalice is heavy and thick walled.

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Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

„„ Snifters: perfect for capturing the volatiles of aromatic beers, such as Belgian ales, India Pale Ales (IPAs), barley wines and wheat wines. The shape helps trap the volatiles, while allowing swirling to agitate them and produce an intense aroma.

Figure 1.3: Beer glassware, the right glass is important. Image source: craftbeer.com.

1.8 Major categories of beer Lager „„ Bavarian: dark lager, originating in the early 19th century in Munich or Munchener. Mildly hopped, the malt flavour dominates the palate due to use of Munich malt. „„ Bock: origins in the 13th century in Northern Germany as an ale, traditionally dark and heavy, though nowadays bocks come in many colour variations and strengths. „„ Dortmunder: introduced in the 1840s, blond or gold coloured, drier than the above and more bitter than a pilsner. Elegantly refreshing. „„ Pilsner: introduced in 1842, and widely copied, the archetypal pilsner is the Pilsner Urquell (from Plzen, in the Czech Republic), pale to golden hued, highly hopped lager. „„ Steam beer: a highly hopped, highly carbonated lager, fermented at temperatures more typical of ale.

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„„ Vienna: term synonymous with Maruzen or Oktoberfest beer styles, light golden in colour with a slight redness, sweet and bitter taste equally balanced.

Ale „„ Altbier: German ale, aged for long periods. „„ Bitter, pale ale: the archetypal bitter was from Burton (UK) where the water is high in gypsum which accentuates the hop character in their ales. Pale ale is bottled bitter. „„ Brown ale: not hoppy in aroma as a rule, wide ranging style, more malty than bitter. „„ Barley wines, old ales: highly alcoholic ales brewed to age for long periods, and can be stored in casks sometimes up to 20 years e.g. Eldridge or Thomas Hardy’s. „„ Biere de garde: a top-fermenting ‘beer for keeping’ from north-west France. A medium to strong spicy ale, some of these are bottle-conditioned and many are sealed with champagne wired corks. „„ Belgian red ale: the reddish colour of these sour beers of west Flanders in Belgium comes from using Vienna malt. „„ Belgian wit biers: the white wheat beers are brewed using 50 per cent wheat, and flavoured most notably with orange peel and coriander. They have a spicy, fruity flavour and an enticing aroma. „„ Cream ale: a 50/50 blend of ale and lager. The term is also used in reference to conditioned beers for trade package. „„ Flemish Brown ale: this sweetish, bottled mild ale is dark in colour and low in alcohol. The northeast of the country produces stronger, drier versions. Sweetand-sour ones are produced in East Flanders in Belgium. „„ Kolsch: originating in Koln (Cologne), pale, light, refreshing, highly hopped and carbonated. „„ Berliner Weisse: a wheat beer, low in alcohol, and low in bitterness often served with a dash of fruit syrup. „„ Lambic - unique, and made from at least 30 per cent un-malted wheat in order to produce a milky wort from the mash. Old hops are used. It is only brewed in the cooler months, then left to ferment in large wooden casks for many years. The taste is sour like acidic cider. „„ Porter: dark ale, often sweet, bitter taste. Like stout uses large amounts of roasted malt and cereals. „„ Stock ale: strong ale, designed for long storage. „„ Stout: a very dark, heavy, bitter ale, 7 - 15% roasted barley in the mash. „„ Scotch ale: brewed with very hard water, deep amber to dark, strong, thick and heavy with pronounced hop character. Usually contains small amounts of roast and amber malts.

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1.9 The World’s best known beers Australia Fosters Lager: sweetish and full-bodied lager (4% abv). www.fosters.com.au Cascade Lager: Tasmanian influence: from the oldest established brewery in Australia, the draught version has a fuller colour and more flavour than the Special lager version. James Boag’s (5% abv): Premium lager brewed in Tasmania, a Munich Helles style lager. Brewery located on Esk River, soft water, ideally suited to premium lager.

Belgium La Trappe Blonde (6.5% abv): Trappiste Blonde – golden colour. Rich combination of flavours, fruit and hop aroma, organic fermentation. Character, candy sugar and malt sweetness, soft fruit, rich hop bitterness, complex yet surprisingly refreshing ‘entry point’ for Trappiste beers. Trappiste beer is brewed under the supervision and control of monks from the Cistercian Order. Profits from the brewery go to charitable causes. Monks have final say on all decisions relating to the brewery. There are only seven Trappiste breweries in the World – six in Belgium, one in Holland. Duvel, Moortgat Brewery, Breendonk: golden ale with a frothy white top, it appears attractive but unremarkable in its balloon goblets. Just one sniff of its heady hop aroma and one taste of its complex fruity flavour, together with its sustaining strength (8.5% abv) make the beer drinker appreciate that this is a glass apart. www.duvel.com Stella Artois, Leuven, (5.2% abv): pilsner style lager with a hint of new-mown hay in the nose. www.stellaartois.com Affligem: Blond 6.8% abv (Belgium): Affligem Abbey 1074 (glass: snifter or chalice). A 6.8% abv certified Belgium Abbey beer dating back as early as 1074. Tasting note: a delicious aromatic beer with a complex nose (spicy and citrus) and rich palate and warmth generated by the% abv. The sweetness of the beer is balanced by a slight tartness and gentle after bitterness. This beer is also bottle conditioned. Best served at 8-10c and poured slowly to avoid disturbing the yeast sediment. Chimay, Hainaut: best-known and biggest monastery brewery in Belgium. Rich, red-brown Trappist ale (7% abv) with a spicy, fruity flavour is known as Chimay Rouge, others include Chimay Blanche (8% abv) and Chimay Bleu rich, fruity and complex ale (9% abv). www.chimay.com

Canada Labatt ice beer: this pioneering ice beer (1993 originally developed), with a golden colour and full body, weighs in at (5.6% abv), but Labatt’s Blue (5% abv) is in fact the brewery’s main lager. www.labatt.com

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Czech Republic Budejovicky Budvar (5% abv): From Budvar Brewery, first brewed in 1265, the result of carefully nurtured classical brewing techniques combined with modern technology and the finest natural ingredients (Zatec hop and Moravian barley). The 700 year old tradition and the unique 90-day period of maturity increase its sublime character. www.budvar.cz Pilsner Urquell: produced since 1842 in Pilsen, Bohemia – now Czech Republic, (4.4% abv), delicate hop aroma and deep soft fruitiness. The word Urquell means ‘original source’. Brewery was voted best brewery tour by UNESCO. www. pilsenerurquell.com Staropramen (5% abv): Fresh and hoppy pale lager. www.staropramen.com

Denmark Carlsberg, draught (4.3% abv), Copenhagen: International name, producing or licensing its beers in at least a dozen countries, some of which have as many as four or five different strengths and styles of soft smooth, malt dryness. The company is uniquely run as a charity for the benefit of the sciences and art. www. carlsberg.com Tuborg: International name, producing a full range of Danish styles. Tuborg’s beers are perhaps a little lighter in body and more hoppy than those of Carlsberg. www.tuborg.com Kronenbourg 1664: uses strisselpalt, the caviar of hops. www.kronenbourg.com

Germany Holsten Pils, Hamburg: the widely available premium Pilsner (5.8% abv), dry and hoppy, this very dry low carbohydrate beer was originally produced for diabetics; though its calorie count does not suit weight watchers. www.holsten.com Lowenbrau Premium Pils (5.2% abv), Munich: this light, refreshing golden lager is made according to the Bavarian purity law, with Hallertau hops, spring barley and yeast. In general Lowenbrau is malt-accented but well balanced, with a late hint of hoppiness in the finish. www.lowenbrau.com Beck’s, Bremen: crisp, dry Pilsner (5% abv) with a fresh aroma, a faintly fruity firm, crisp palate and a clean, dry finish. Very pale malt is used, and the hopping leans heavily on Hallertau, the largest hop cultivating area in the World. Made under the Reinheitsgebot beer purity law 1516). www.becks.com Erdinger Weiss bier (5.2% abv): top fermented wheat beers brewed according to Bavarian purity law 1516, which stipulates that no chemicals or additives are added. www.erdinger.com Maisel’s Hefe-Weiss: original Hefe (means with yeast), unfiltered beer, brewed with wheat. Rheinheitsgebot only allowed brewers to use wheat when brewing for the aristocracy. Weiss Beer Style ranges from citric, through soft fruit (peaches, apricots) to ripe bananas and cloves.

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Kristal filtered Weiss: Usually crisper Dunkel, dark Weiss. Combination of caramel, brown sugar, toffee, digestive biscuit character in a refreshing, clean finishing drink alcohol free.

Holland Amstel Lager, Amsterdam: Heineken’s second-string brand name covers a range of beers, which are generally light and sharper in palate. www.heinekeninternational.com Grolsch Pilsner Lager: brewed since 1615, a fresh hoppy Pilsner (5% abv) with a hint of new-mown hay in the nose; a soft, fluffy body; and a dryish palate. It is left unpasterurized in the bottle. www.grolsch.com Heineken Lager, Amsterdam: brewed and bottle at Brouwerigen, Amsterdam, Holland, Heineken is a 5% abv Pilsner style pale lager, made of purified water, malted barley (the company stresses the use of summer barley), hops, yeast and a total process time of not less than six weeks. Tasting notes: appearance clear and bright, no bubbles, aroma, bouquet fruity, taste: characteristically refreshing hint of fruitiness, only a light hop character, and a spritzy finish. www.heinekeninternational.com

Ireland Beamish stout, Cork: distinctive flavour partly due to malted wheat as well as barley in the mash, very creamy, only medium-dry, with some chocolate notes (4.2% abv). Guinness stout, Dublin: draught version is unpasteurized dry, fresh and soft texture due to nitrogen gas used to dispense the beer (4.3% abv), Guinness Extra Stout; far less creamy, bottle-conditioning frees the full, hoppy intensity that characterizes Guinness, unpasteurized. Foreign Extra stout (7.5% abv) is partly blended to crate a richly astringent taste and Guinness Special Export (8% abv) is produced exclusively for Belgium. www.diageo.com Murphy’s stout, Cork: (4% abv), brewed in Murphy’s Brewery since 1856. Purest water, hops, chocolate malt, pale malt, roasted barley, yeast. Taste note: firmbodied, a roasty character, relatively light, smooth stout (4% abv). http://www. murphys.com Smithwicks Ale, draught version (3.8% abv), brewed in Kilkenny since 1705; pale ale, rich golden colour and creamy head; hints of biscuit and caramel from the malt, Amarillo hops deliver grassy and piney hop characters. http://www. smithwicks.ie/

Japan Kirin Beer, (5% abv), Japan’s best selling beer. Made using the unique Ichiban Shibori Process: First Mash Pressings, Highest quality run-off wort used for beer. This is an Asian Pilsner style beer brewed using Saaz and Hallertau hops, sold unpasterized. Tasting note: crisp, full-bodied and fresh-flavoured Pilsner clean

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tasting, easy drinking, soft rice sweetness, low hop character, refreshing. www. kirin.com Sapporo www.sapporobeer.com

Poland Tyskie (5.6% abv): Premium lager brewed in the Czech Pilsner style. Brewery was established in Tychy (Poland) in 1629. Multi-award winning beer, winner Overall Grand Prix (twice) at the International Brewing Industry Awards – no other beer in the world has achieved this accolade. Tasting notes: Solid malt foundation, superb hop character, floral hop aromas, subtly spicy hop character, with superbly balanced hop bitterness, Complex, and incredibly refreshing lager beer. Krakus Zywiec (5.6% abv): brewed in southern Poland in the city of the same name since 1856, using premium quality malt, select Polish hops and crystal clear spring water from the Beskidy Mountains. Tasting note: a beer with an aroma with a fresh hop character, some lemon hints and a palate, which is full, but with a balanced bitterness and dryness and a decided malt character. A Polish beer to be enjoyed with traditional Polish food, but also goes wonderfully well with sausages and mash.

Spain San Miguel Premium, (5.4% abv) malt, hoppy lager is relatively strong lager with light, citrus notes and good body. www.sanmiguel.es

Switzerland Samichlaus, Hurlimann’s, Zurich: One of the world’s strongest lagers (14% abv), reddish brown brew, highly alcoholic cognac and cough-mixture character, a smooth beer to sip and savor before going to sleep.

United Kingdom Bass, Midlands, Burton: classic ale is cask-conditioned, and available only in Britain, Draught Bass available worldwide remains highly distinctive. This superb bitter (4.4% abv) has malt flavour and light hop bitterness. www.bass.com Boddingtons, Manchester: a straw-colored brew (3.8% abv), it was once worshipped for its parch-dry bitterness, but it now has a smoother flavour. Courage Best, Tadcaster, London: a traditional golden brown, malt, dry cask bitter (4 % abv). Double Diamond, Burton-on-Trent: a dark-amber and bottled pale ale (4% abv), stronger export version (5.2% abv). John Smith’s Bitter, Yorkshire: this is a dark-amber, sweetish, malt cask bitter (3.8% abv) with a creamy texture, from Yorkshire. One of the most popular English beers. McEwans Export, Edinburgh: a sweet and malt Scottish ale (4.5% abv).

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Newcastle Brown Ale, a Northern brown ale with a nutty, caramel taste, strong, dry and light in colour (4.7% abv). Tennents Lager, Scotland: (4% abv) fizzy, grainy, pale-gold keg lager. Bitter & Twisted (4.2% abv): a golden (blond) ale, craft brewed beer, brewed by Harviestoun Brewery, Scotland. Tasting note: clean malt foundation, pale malts crisp, refreshing, zesty character.

United States Ballantine’s Ale, Milwaukee: copper-colored and hoppy taste. Budweiser Lager, Midwest: the World’s biggest selling beer, very light in both body and palate, and sweetish. It has lost some of its already delicate hop character in recent years, has characteristic hint of apple-like, estery fruitiness (4.7% abv). In addition to the regular Budweiser, Anheuser Busch brews several beers under the brand including: Bud Light (4.2% abv), Budweiser select light pale lager (4.35% abv), Budweiser Select 55, 55 calories per bottle, (2.4% abv), Bud Ice (5.5% abv), Budweiser Brew Masters Private Reserve, an all-malt lager honey coloured, Bud Dry, Bud Silver, contains ginseng and alcohol, contains (6.6% abv), Budweiser, Bud Light Chelada a blend of Budweiser or Bud light and Clamato, Budweiser American Ale a distinctive hoppy flavour, Budweiser NA, Bud Light Lime, Bud Light Golden Wheat, (4.1% abv). www.anheuser-Busch.com ; Miller Lager, Midwest: genuine draught has a fresh start, smooth body, and a watery finish; others include Miller Reserve, High Life and Miller Lite. www. mgd.com Coors, Colorado: using rocky mountain spring water help to brew a very light Coors lager and a slightly fuller-flavoured Coors Gold. www.coors.com Table 1.2: Other world beers of significant interest Country

Beer

Country

Beer

Argentina

Quilmes

Malta

Cisk Lager

Brazil

Xingu

Mexico

China

Tsingtao

Corona Extra, Modelo Especial, Estrella

Cuba

Tinima

Nepal

Star Beer

Cyprus

Keo

Portugal

Sagres, Super Bock.

Dominican Republic

Presidente

Singapore

Tiger Beer

Estonia

Ruutli Olu

South Africa

Castle Lager

Haiti

Prestige Stout

South Korea

Hite

India

Cobra

Turkey

Efes Pilsen

Israel

Maccabee

Ukraine

Obolon Premium

Italy

Moretti

Vietnam

Hue Beer



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1.10 The marriage of beer and food When it comes to beer and food pairing, there are three basic considerations to take into account. These are contrast, complement and cut. To ‘cut’ a dish is to try to offset its dominant flavours by proper beer selection, or dish selection if you start with the beer first. For example, a heavily buttered duck can be cut well by a light pilsner, helping to achieve a good balance. To ‘contrast’ is almost self explanatory. Beyond cutting flavours, you want to actually highlight both by finding pairs that are distinctly different. The hearty flavour of barbecued steak is delightfully contrasted with a pale ale, for example. To ‘complement’ is just what it sounds like, combining like with like or pairing two that go together naturally. A Belgian beer complements a chocolate dish in ways that go beyond geography. And remember that sometimes beer can be a dessert all on its own.

Lager Lagers are popular because they are so versatile and go well with many foods. Lagers seem to go best with spicy foods, but to divide the lagers further: „„ Pale lagers pair best lighter foods like appetizers, for example, Tiger beer and deep fried prawns or tofu. „„ Dark lagers work well saucy meals like beef stew, goulash and curries because they cut the heaviness of the sauces. „„ American light lagers pair well with spring rolls, salads and pizzas. „„ Pilsner lager, with its strong hoppy aroma, pairs with fat fish like salmon and tuna or well marbled meats like steak. Also partners well with younger goats milk cheese and, thanks to the sharply bitter hops, perfectly meets the high oil, high acidity found in slices of fresh white cheddar. „„ Pilsner is also exceptional with seafood (crabs, clam, shrimp, oyster or lobster) as their flavours are accentuated by the hop presence and the relatively high carbonation levels of the beer doesn’t overpower the delicate shellfish flavour. „„ The high maltiness of amber lager gives an almost sweet flavour, which goes well with tomato sauces and foods with sundried tomatoes. Marzen or Oktoberfest (highly malted for sweetness and mildly hopped creating both a smooth but complex flavour) pairs well with char grilled meats and fish. „„ Wheat beers pair well with fish. American wheat beers pair well with cream or ricotto cheese.

Ale Ale is brewed from malted barley using top fermented brewer’s yeast. It is full bodied, sweet type of beer. Ale types pair as follows: „„ Brown ale, chicken satay or cashew chicken (compliments the nuttiness of the dishes and brings out the flavours).

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„„ Barley wine is best served with sweet dishes, i.e. rich sweet chocolate, caramel or strong cheese. „„ Amber ale, goes well with stew and goulash dishes or thanksgiving meal. „„ Pale ale, complements the flavours of Smokey dishes such as smoked fish plus pizzas or roast chicken. „„ Ale can also used with a beef and ale pie, or beer battered fish. „„ Fruity ale complements with cheddar cheese

Stout/porter As stouts and porters are heavy drinks, they are quite hard to pair „„ Porters pair well with hard or Roquefort cheese or roast beef. „„ Guinness: Steak and Guinness pie, with oysters „„ Beamish: Slightly lighter meals, such as home made burgers

1.11 Sake Sake is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin that is made from fermented rice. Gauntner (2002) contends that sake is sometimes referred to in English-speaking countries as rice wine. However, unlike wine, in which alcohol is produced by fermenting sugar that is naturally present in grapes and other fruits, sake is produced by means of a brewing process more like that of beer. To make beer or sake, the sugar needed to produce alcohol must first be converted from starch. The brewing process for sake differs from the process for beer, in that for beer, the conversion from starch to sugar and from sugar to alcohol occurs in two discrete steps. But when Sake is brewed, these conversions occur simultaneously. Furthermore, the alcohol content differs between sake, wine, and beer. Robinson (2006) states that wine for example generally contains 9% to16% abv, while most beer contain 3% to 9%, and undiluted sake contains 18% to 20% (although this is often lowered to about 15% by diluting with water prior to bottling).

How it is made – the sake brewing process Sake is made from five main ingredients (water, rice, technical skill, yeast, and land/weather). More than anything else, sake is a result of a brewing process that uses rice and lots of water. In fact, water comprises as much as 80% of the final product, so fine water and fine rice are natural prerequisites to brew great sake. But beyond that, the technical skill needed to pull this all off lies with the toji (head brewers), the type of yeast they use, and the limitations entailed by local land and weather conditions. The rice is washed and steam-cooked. This is then mixed with yeast and koji (rice cultivated with a mold known technically as aspergillus oryzae). The whole mix is then allowed to ferment, with more rice, koji, and water added in three

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batches over four days. This fermentation, which occurs in a large tank, is called shikomi. The quality of the rice, the degree to which the koji mold has propagated, temperature variations, and other factors are different for each shikomi. This mash is allowed to sit from 18 to 32 days, after which it is pressed, filtered and blended. For a further and more detailed explanation of the main ingredients used to make sake see http://www.sake-world.com/html/brewing-process.html.

The grades and flavours of sake There are four basic types of sake, and each requires a different brewing method, study these basic sake types and their flavour profiles they will help you to understand which kind of sake you are tasting or recommending to your customers according to their likes and dislikes; „„ Junmai-shu (rice only; no adding of distilled alcohol): pure rice sake, nothing is used in its production except rice, water, and koji, the magical mold that converts the starch in the rice into fermentable and non-fermentable sugars. Junmai-shu is made with rice that has been polished (milled) so that at least 30% of the outer portion of each rice grain has been ground away. The taste of junmai-shu is usually a bit heavier and fuller than other types, and the acidity is often a touch higher as well. „„ Honjozo-shu (a small amount of distilled alcohol is added): Honjozo, like Junmai-shu, is made with rice that has been polished so that at least 30% of the outer portion has been ground away. This, plus the addition of distilled alcohol, makes the sake lighter, sometimes a bit drier, and in the opinion of many, easier to drink. It also makes the fragrance of the sake more prominent. Honjozo often makes a good candidate for warm sake. Note that most run-ofthe-mill cheap sake has an excessive amount of brewers alcohol added to it, which is not good. Honjozo has only a very small amount of added alcohol. „„ Ginjo-shu (highly milled rice, with or without alcohol added): This is sake made with rice that has been polished so that no more than 60% of its original size remains. In other words, at least the outer 40% has been ground away. This removes things like fats and proteins and other things that impede fermentation and cause off-flavors. But that is only the beginning: ginjo-shu is made in a very labour intensive way, fermented at colder temperatures for a longer period of time. The flavour is more complex and delicate, and both the flavor and the fragrance are often (but not always) fruity and flowery. „„ Daiginjo-shu (even more highly milled rice, with/without added alcohol): Daiginjo-shu is ginjo-shu made with rice polished even more, so that no more than 50% of the original size of the grain remains. Some daiginjo is made with rice polished to as far as 35%. Daiginjo is made in even more painstaking ways, with even more labor intensive steps. „„ Nama-zake refers to sake that is not pasteurized and is mutually independent of the above four: It should be stored cold, or the flavour and clarity could

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suffer. Nama-zake has a fresh, lively touch to the flavour. All types of sake (junmaishu, honjozo, ginjo-shu, and daiginjo-shu) can be nama-zake, or not. The top four listed above combine to form what is known as Special Designation Sake (premium sake), or Tokutei Meishoshu. Each of these has a general flavour profile based on the brewing methods employed. However, there is a whole lot of overlap between them. „„ Futsuu-shu is normal sake, i.e. sake that does not qualify for one of the above top levels of classifications. It is the equivalent of ‘table wine’, and makes up about 80% of all sake. Sake like this is produced with copious amounts of pure distilled alcohol added to increase yields. Although a lot of futsuu-shu is cheap, nasty, and vile, there is plenty of sake in this group is perfectly and enjoyably drinkable. While some cheaper sake in this group also has sugars and organic acids added to ‘improve’ the flavour (better futsuu-shu does not), note that no sake at all has any preservatives added to it. (Gautner, 2013)

1.12 Microbrewery: definition and scope A microbrewery could be broadly defined as a brewery of less than 50,000 hectolitres annual production (Boteler, 2009). Unlike the large brewers, the microbrewery presents a craft-based production approach with small batch sizes and a higher labour component. This scale allows the creation of stylistically accurate, full-flavoured beers which aim to please the discriminating, and not necessarily the average, palate. Unlike the large brewers, the focus is not on volume and efficiency, but instead is on quality. Small brewers tend to command a premium price for such attention to ingredients and handling. The premium price of the microbrewed beer compared with national brands supports the perception of quality in the marketplace. The typically all natural, additive and preservative-free, unpasteurised, whole grain nature of most microbrewed beers was considered difficult to achieve cost effectively by most large industrial breweries, but many large brewers are now investing in microbreweries of their own in order to exploit the market. Microbrewers continue to offer interpretations of classic styles, which had all but disappeared from the marketplace. They have also caused resurgence in the acceptance of beer as a wholesome food product, often possessing refreshingly energizing properties, and not just a recreational libation. Table 1.3: Brewery definition and scope in relation to output volumes Definition Brewery, cottage brewery

Hectoliters 3,000

BBL 1,850

Microbrewery

3,000 to 30,000

1,850 to 18,500

Regional brewery

30,000 to 200,000

18500 to 122,000

National brewery

greater than 200,000

greater than 122,000

33cl Bottles 910,000 910,000 to 9.1 million 9.1 to 60.6 million greater than 60.6 million

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1.13 Draught beer Maintaining the quality levels of draught beers sold in the bar requires the skills and knowledge of draught dispense management. This multi-disciplined field covers the areas of gas and cooling systems, beer line cleaning, draught dispense and cellar management techniques. Understanding how these areas individually and collectively function will help bar staff and management deliver high quality draught beers to their customers. Draught beers are usually supplied in aluminium, stainless steel, rubber or hardened plastic kegs, ranging in weights from approximately 64kg (full keg) to 40kg (small or half keg). These should ideally be stored at a constant temperature of 8°C in a purpose-built cold room. The draught beer within these kegs is transferred to the draught beer tap through beer lines. This draught beer is actually pushed out of the keg and along the draught beer lines by gas under pressure. This gas is usually a precise mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide gases and is supplied either in a pre-mixed form from gas cylinders, or is blended on the premises. A tapping head on the end of the beer line connects into the keg closure, opening the valve in the keg. This allows beer to leave and gas to enter, ensuring the product is kept under pressure by the gas. During the dispensing period, it is essential that the gases dissolved in the beer do not ‘break free’, but must remain in solution in the beer. If the gases did break free, the draught beer would pour high. Keeping the beer under pressure in the keg and beer lines prevents this from happening. The temperatures of the beers can be reduced within the beer line, as needed to suit the type of draught beer. These various temperatures can be achieved by a variety of beer cooling systems, such as a simplex chiller (multi-circ chiller), a duplex chiller (coffin), an under-counter cooler (in-line), a Classic cooler or a Jewel cooler, as it travels to the bar dispense point. If the system incorporates a cold room and a simplex chiller, or a duplex chiller, the beer lines are run to the bar through a python, which also has chilled water circulating along its length. This prevents the temperature of the products from rising.

Figures 1.4, 1.5: Multiple and single pour draught beer dispense systems (Micromatic USA.Inc and Morepour.co.uk).

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Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

Draught dispense skills In recent years, the majority of beer companies have developed best practice procedures for pouring draught beers. Guinness use the six steps to perfection: 1 The glass: select a cool, dry, clean glass. 2 The angle:hold the glass at a 45 degree angle to the tap. 3 The pour: pull the handle fully forward, almost fill glass (15-20mm from top). 4 The settle: allow the surge to settle – it takes 119.5 seconds. 5 The top up: push the beer handle backwards to reduce the gas input to the beer, and pour until the head is proud of the glass. 6 Presentation: present the perfect pint with a steady hand and no overspill.

Draught beer: faultfinding and problem solving Pouring draught beers with the right techniques and knowledge can be one of the most enjoyable skills to perform in the bar, but what do we do when we have a problem with the draught beer? The following faultfinding and problem solving tables will guide you to identify common problems which can affect the draught dispense equipment. The different problems are given in the column headings. The ticks in each individual row suggest the possible causes. Table 1.4: Draught beer pouring problems Possible cause key empty faulty keg closure faulty tapping head faulty gas cylinder / RV pressure wrongly set gas leak gas cylinder empty obstruction in the draught beer line kinked draught beer line dirty draught beer line fob detector float has dropped frozen beer coil faulty draught beer tap jetting holes in the draught beer tap blocked draught beer tap flow control wrongly set

Source: (GuinnessUDV, 2007)

Symptom Does not pour Too slowly Too fast                   

  

Spurts   

  

 

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1

Figure 1.6: Bar management students perfect their Guinness draught pouring skills

Pouring bottled beers Start with glasses that are clean, have been previously rinsed in plain water and are free of dust and cotton or paper particles. You should always hold the glass at a 45° angle, and pour slowly, aiming for the middle of the side of the glass. When the glass is half full, tip the glass upright and continue to pour into the middle. The resulting beer should have about an inch to an inch and a half of foam head.

Adjustments for speciality beers „„ Ale beer: gentle pouring down the side of the tilted glass helps keep the foam head down to moderate height. Steepen the angle or pour from a higher distance for a thicker foam. Too much creaminess erases the delightful zing of a bitter. Too much agitation will cause hop oils to move from the body of the beer into the head. „„ Stouts: stouts are darker, thicker ales with full bodied flavor, lots of hops and great mouth feel. Pouring slowly will allow the best size head to develop. Pour, pause and pour some more. Creating a denser, creamier head will bring out the dark flavor of a stout. Once poured, a good stout should be left to stand for a short period to allow it to settle. The poured glass may then need a small top up. „„ Pilsner beer: pilsner lagers are light and golden coloured. Work with them and not against them, by encouraging a healthy head. A vigorous pour should result in the foam curling just above the rim. This maximizes the light, hoppy aroma and releases dissolved carbon dioxide to produce good carbonation. Pilsners should be foamy and bubbly, not flat.

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„„ Weizenbier or Wheat beer: yeasty and full flavored, with high carbonation, Weizenbier does best with a gentle pour. For those who want the maximum this beer offers, pour some of the settled yeast out of the bottle into the glass. To accomplish that, leave a small layer of liquid in the bottle and swirl, and then pour.

One technique commonly employed in Europe entails wetting the glass prior to pouring, in order to control the head.

„„ Bottle conditioned beers may have a substantial amount of yeast left at the end of the brewing process. For those who prefer their beer a little less like bread, pour carefully or filter. However, for those who want to get their vitamin supplements from beer, add the yeast filled sediment to taste and enjoy your B-complex the old-fashioned way.

1.14 Gas dispense systems Draught beers in kegs have nitrogen and carbon dioxide dissolved in them. These gases maintain the flavour of the product, control the sparkle and produce the characteristic head, which is crucial to the presentation of the beer. The gas pressure in the system is maintained at about 35 psi (pressure per square inch) to: „„ produce adequate flow rates for the beer „„ keep enough CO2 and N2 dissolved in the beer. The pressure varies slightly due to the length and height of the run from the keg to the tap. The proportions of nitrogen and carbon dioxide in the gas mixture depend on the supply system, the storage conditions and the products being dispensed. The type of gas blending system (bulk, cylinder or direct) used also depends on the volume of draught beer dispensed in each bar (which can vary considerably from rural to urban locations).

Gas dispense pressure for CO2 gas: setting CO2 regulators When dispensing keg draft beer, the goal is to keep the CO2 level prescribed by the brewer. Any change in the CO2 level will alter the taste, pouring characteristics and appearance of the beer. Most breweries in Europe and the U.S. recommend the CO2 pressures to dispense ale and lager types of draft beers. These CO2 pressures help to maintain the level of carbonation specified by the individual breweries. The major issues to consider here are if the draft beer is dispensed with too low a pressure, over time the CO2 dissolved in the beer will ‘break out’ of it. This will result in under-pressurized flat beer. If the draft beer is dispensed with too high a pressure, over time more CO2 will be absorbed into the beer. This will result in over-pressurized foamy beer. The head height increases as the amount of beer left in the keg decreases, as it absorbs CO2 and pours high.

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1

Figure 1.7: Carbonation in draught beer. Left to right: Over-carbonated, perfect CO2 blend, under-carbonated. (Micromatic.com) Table 1.5: Draught beer: common problems with draught beer heads Possible cause faulty keg closure keg has not spent long enough in the cold room poor quality draught beer in the keg temperature of cold room/storage area too low temperature of cold room/storage area too high faulty tapping head faulty gas cylinder/RV pressure incorrectly set gas cylinder empty beer pours too warm pours too cold kinked beer line draught beer line dirty glass dirty faulty draught beer tap jetting holes blocked jetting holes too big draught beer tap flow control wrongly adjusted

Pours high       

Symptom Pours Head too flat bubbly       



Head falls away quickly



 

    

    

   





Source: (GuinnessUDV, 2007)

Gas regulators Gas regulators help to regulate the gas pressures required for draught beers for which they are intended; there any many types, styles and quality factors involved in selecting the right gas regulators for draught beers. The difference between a regulator with one gauge and one with two gauges: A typical single gauge CO2 gas regulator has a 0-60 lb. pressure gauge showing the gas output pressure. A typical dual gauge CO2 gas regulator has a 0-60 lb. pressure gauge showing the gas output pressure, and a 0-3000 lb. pressure gauge showing the amount of gas remaining in the gas cylinder (tank).

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Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

Figure 1.8: Primary single and dual gauge gas regulators. (Micromatic.com)

Bulk gas blending systems A bulk gas blending system produces nitrogen (N2) on the outlet’s premises, extracting it from the surrounding air. The nitrogen is blended with carbon dioxide (from cylinders delivered to the premises) to supply mixed gas in the correct proportions and at the right pressure to suit each individual product. The recommended proportions are as follows below Table 1.6: Nitrogen and carbon dioxide gas mixtures in relation to temperature. Gas mix

  

stouts lager, ale, cider

Cold room storage 8 C

Beer stored at ambient temp

  80% N2: 20% CO2

  75% N2: 25% CO2

  57% N2: 43% CO2

  50% N2: 50% CO2

Source: (GuinnessUDV, 2007) Bulk gas alarm system – blending panels: The bulk gas system is monitored by two sensors, one for CO2 and one for N2. The alarm display will turn from green to red, or flash, and the alarm will sound whenever the CO2 cylinder needs changing, or the N2 service cylinders are empty, and one or more reserve cylinders should be brought on-line.

Cylinder gas blending systems A cylinder gas blending (CGB) system can supply two gas mains with different gas mixtures: one in the correct proportions for stouts and cream bitters and a second, richer in CO2, for ale, lager and cider. Individual blenders and gas mains are used for each level in the premises. Changing the mixed gas cylinder: change to the reserve cylinder by turning the handle on the changeover valve and contact your gas supplier to order replacement mixed gas cylinders.

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Changing the carbon dioxide cylinder: change to the reserve cylinder by turning the handle on the changeover valve and contact again your gas supplier for replacement CO2 cylinders.

Direct gas blending systems The direct gas blending (DGB) system was developed for small to medium volume premises and smaller temporary installations. It is similar to and has replaced the traditional mixed gas cylinder system. The DGB system supplies two gas mains with different gas mixtures: one in the correct proportions for stout and cream bitters and a second, richer in CO2 for lager, ale and cider. Each gas cylinder is connected to the gas main through a reducing valve, which reduces the pressure from the 3,000 psi in the cylinder to the pressure required in the keg (around 35 psi). Security issues: Carbon dioxide and nitrogen are dangerous gases. They can cause asphyxiation. It is therefore essential that CO2 cylinders be stored in a wellventilated area, ideally outside. The storage area inside a building must also be well ventilated; under certain circumstances a forced extraction system will have to be installed.

1.15 Beer line maintenance Wild yeast and bacteria grow naturally in the draught beer lines, beer taps and beer fob detectors, and can be absorbed into walls of tubing and the surface of other dispense equipment. If growths of yeast and bacteria are allowed to develop, the beer can become cloudy, high and develop unpleasant flavours. It is essential that the beer lines and dispensing equipment be cleaned using an approved detergent and following the correct procedure. The beer line cleaning and maintenance procedures are usually undertaken by the owner, their bar staff or in some countries the brewery’s representative.

Beer line cleaning detergents Most beer line cleaning detergents have a chlorinated caustic substance specifically designed to clean and sanitise draught beer dispense equipment. The dosage amount used for beer line cleaning depends on the individual brewery and the frequency of the beer line cleaner. Some detergents contain no caustic soda and have built in solution status indicator and bactericides for quick and efficient application and long lasting. These purple coloured detergents turn the draught beer line blue or green when dirty, then purple again when the beer line is clean.

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Beer line cleaning equipment Wash bottles These are usually made of stainless steel or plastic with individual or multiple beer tapping heads. The wash bottle’s cap has an integral pressure release valve so the pressure in it can be released before the cap is removed.

Figure 1.9: Wash bottles. Left to right 5 ltr, 15 ltr and 50 ltr. Far right: An 18 ltr stainless steel can with four valves installed. (Micromatic.com)

Cleaning bottle caps and socket boards Cleaning caps and sockets are usually set in fixed positions within or outside the cold room area. The tapping heads are tapped into the cleaning cups for single and multiple beer line cleaning and are available in the D, S, U, A, G and M systems.

Figures 1.10: System cups. Left to right: U, G and S. (Micromatic.com)

Faucet cleaning brushes Faucet (beer taps) cleaning brushes made of stainless steel or nylon are used for day-to-day cleaning of the faucets (beer taps), couplers (tapping heads) and general beer line cleaning needs. If you encounter faucets or equipment with extreme build up, try the more robust stainless steel bristle brushes.

Figures 1.11: Nylon brush, stainless steel brush, coupler stainless steel body brush twin probe. (Micromatic.com)

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Beer line cleaning kits: Pump and probe lubricant /faucet cleaning attachment The lubricant allows couplers and pumps to work freely and prevents wear and tear that can occur during normal operation. Only a very small amount is required to re-lube o-rings.

Figure 1.12: Beer equipment lubricant. (Micromatic.com) Faucet cleaning attachments traditionally used in the USA are solid brass and have the U.S. Beer Industry Standard 1-1/8”-18 thread.

Figure 1.13: Faucet cleaning attachment. (Micromatic.com)

1.16 Cooling systems for draught beers The two most common draught beer cooling systems used in premises are: „„ Primary cooling systems: the main cooling system, depends on business volume, example cold room python system. „„ Secondary cooling systems: primary cooled beer that requires further cooling, example the under-counter cooler.

In-line (under counter) draught beer coolers The draught beer passes through a coiled metal tube, which is immersed in a tank of very cold water (actually below 1°C). The water is kept cool by passing over an ice bank which forms on the evaporator coils running round the inside walls of the tank. An agitator inside the tank keeps the water moving; if a python is attached to the cooler, the water flowing around it also produces a flow inside the tank. Several cooling devices may be used to bring a draught beer’s temperature down to its ideal dispense temperature.

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Table 1.7: In-line draught beer cooling systems and their uses In-line draught beer cooling systems

  

  Primary cooling   Secondary cooling

under-counter cooler (see below)

   yes

yes

yes

no

     yes

no

    no

yes

simplex chiller –water recirculation unit (see below) duplex chiller classic cooler

(see below)

Source: GuinnessUDV, 2007

Figures 1.14: In-line cooler in the bar

Cornelius Super Astra flash cooler A flash cooler is ideal for dispensing beer; the Super Astra has a flow pump to circulate the ice bath water along the product lines to maintain ice temperature in the deliver lines. The Super Astra has a ½ hp compressor with a copper evaporator and represents a 20 pound ice bank which holds 3 gallons (11.36 litres of water) for the capability of cooling over 100 12 oz drinks at a rate of 2 drinks a minute to below 45°F (7°C) assuming the product temperature is below 75°F (24°C).

Simplex chiller (water recirculation unit) The simplex (also called multi-circ or water recirculation unit) chills beers as the lines emerge from the cold room. It consists of two main components, the base unit and a remote condensing /compressor unit. The base unit consists of a heavily insulated bath with evaporator coils running round the inside walls

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(see Figure 1.15). The unit is filled with water so that a thick ice-bank forms on the evaporator coils. This keeps the water in the unit below 1°C. An agitator keeps the water moving in the tank to maintain an even temperature throughout the unit. An inspection hatch in the top of the unit enables the trader to check that the agitator is running and that ice is being formed. Important note: The simplex chiller should always be sited in a well-ventilated area with easy access for servicing. Figure 1.15: Beer simplex chiller – water recirculation unit (Kilkenny Cooling Systems).

Cold room (python) refrigeration system A cold room is a draught beer storage area in which the air temperature is maintained at 7 to 9°C by a refrigeration unit mounted on the ceiling. When the temperature rises above 9°C a thermostat turns on the compressor, which feeds cold refrigerant through the evaporator unit. A premises’ cold room should be large enough to store the draught beer used in a busy week (including all suppliers’ products). It should ideally be big enough to hold one and a half week’s sales. Safety note: Draught beer kegs may be stored in stacks two high. They should never be stored in stacks of three or more for safety reasons.

Figure 1.16: Cold room – interior view.

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Python tubing A python consists of either 8 or 14 draught beer lines surrounding two tubes carrying chilled water. The tubes are held in position by a layer of polythene film, a layer of insulation such as Armaflex, and a taped outer layer. Chilled water from the cooler’s water bath is pumped along the water lines to help maintain the low temperature of the product.

Identifying draught dispense problems The following faultfinding and problem solving tables will guide you to identify common problems affecting the draught dispense equipment. . Table 1.8: Draught beer temperature, quality problems Possible cause storage time for the keg in the cold room too short

Symptom Too warm

Too cold

Poor flavour



poor quality beer in keg



temperature of the cold room / storage area too low



temperature of the cold room / storage area too high



no water recirculation in python



simplex chiller or duplex chiller is faulty





cooler (under-counter cooler/classic/jewel) is faulty







draught beer line is dirty



glass dirty



Source: (GuinnessUDV, 2007)

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Summary „„ Beers will continue to be an integral beverage offering which bars can use to differentiate themselves. „„ We will continue to witness the introduction of more brands, coupled with innovative processing and packaging forms for sale in the bar. „„ Beer offers flavours and odours which can differ according to the taster. „„ When judging a beer, consider its aroma, taste and level of carbonation. „„ This famous beverage is consumed in glassware which best complements the different style of the individual beer. „„ Its diverse flavours when properly paired with food can also help to achieve a perfectly balanced gastronomic experience. „„ Consistent research indicates that the appearance and quality of draught beers offered in the bar is the single most important factor involved in the customer’s choice of which bar they will regularly visit. „„ A draught beer will only be perfect when it is dispensed out of a sealed keg or barrel into a glass and presented to the customer at the right temperature, with a good head, in an acceptable time period, with the minimum waste and with care and attention to detail. „„ Draught beer drinkers are very important to the success of the bar; they now expect their beers to be delivered through an inspiring culinary experience. „„ Bartenders can meet this challenge, by realising that they have a huge role to play in the proper storage, maintenance, pouring and presentation techniques which they use around the bar and cellar areas.

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Cider and Perry

Aim and learning outcomes This chapter aims to introduce readers to the world of cider and perry. On completion of it, the learner should be able to: „„

Describe the legislation, production process and the major types of ciders and Perry made worldwide.

„„

Explain the principle characteristics of bitter, sharp and sweet apple varieties which contribute to making fine ciders.

„„

Act on the knowledge and techniques involved in the evaluation and tasting of different ciders and Perry.

2.1 Introduction Cider has been made for thousands of years, and has recently seen a significant rise in popularity. The cider market is one of the fasting growing segments of the drinks industry considered by many, young and old, to be the preferred draught and bottled drink. Cider, once a rural, seasonal drink, has changed in terms of image and perception and is nationally consumed throughout the year. The international market is now comprised of a good range of high quality and wellknown brands which are produced in many flavours. Today it can be confidently claimed that there is a cider variety to meet every consumer requirement.

2.2 Cider: definition and legislation governing its production Cider is the sweet juice of apples that can be consumed as a beverage or used as a raw material in vinegar making. It is typically a clear, golden drink, which can range in colour from a pale yellow to a dark amber rose. It has a fruity flavour and a varying degree of taste from very sweet to tart, and ranging in alcohol content

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from 2 to 8.5% ABV, or sometimes higher in traditional English ciders. Brown (1978) notes that when sugar or extra fruit has been added and a secondary fermentation increases the alcoholic strength, a cider is classified as apple wine in the USA. Sweet cider is the non-alcoholic versions of cider and it can be made into apple juice by pasteurizing it and adding preservatives to stop the natural fermentation process. Hard cider is the product that results when the juice is allowed to undergo fermentation. This cider contains alcohol, and is often effervescent due to the activity of the natural yeasts present. Cider may be made from any variety of apples, but certain cultivars grown solely for use in cider are known as cider apples (NCAM, 2012). The United Kingdom has the highest per capita consumption of cider, as well as the largest cider-producing companies in the world (NCAM, 2012). Cider is also popular and traditional in Ireland; France, Brittany ( where it’s called chistr), Normandy (cidre); Spain, Basque Country (sagardo), Asturias and Galicia (Sidra); Sweden; Germany, Rheinland Pfalz, Hessen and Frankfurt am Main (and called Most, Viez or Apfelwein); Argentina, the provinces of Río Negro and Mendoza; and Australia, Tasmania.

Figure 2.1: Cider, from the apple to the bottle (Natural Organic Cider)

Cider in the European Union There is no common EU legislation covering cider, unlike for instance wine. The Association of the Cider and Fruit Wine Industries of the EU (L’Association des Industries des Cidres et Vins de fruits de l’U.E.), AICV, is an organisation of the producers with members from 11 cider and fruit wine producing countries within the EU. According to the Code of Practice set out by AICV, cider and perry are derived by the fermentation of the juices of apples or pears respectively without at any time adding distilled alcohol. Cider is produced from apples and possibly a limited volume of pears’ and likewise perry is produced from pears and possibly a limited volume of apples. Cider and perry can be still or carbonated either by secondary fermentation or the injection of carbon dioxide. Its alcoholic strength varies between 1.2% and 8.5% by volume. The fortification of cider and perry by adding distilled alcohol is not permitted. The use of concentrate and the addi-

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tion of flavours, colourings or preservatives are not mentioned and thus fully accepted. Neither the amount of fruit juice nor the limited volume of pears/apples in cider/perry is defined. The definition includes the alcoholic cider, but not the soft drink cider.

Cider in the United Kingdom In the UK the relevant law covering cider is the Alcoholic Liquor Duties Act 1979. For information reference is made to HM Customs and Excise Public Notice 162, Cider and Wine production: „„ In cider only 25% pear juice is allowed and in perry only 25% apple juice is allowed „„ Colourings may only be used to produce cider or perry in the colour range straw/gold/golden brown „„ There is no limit for adding sugar or water „„ Preservatives are permitted according to the food legislation. Cider is liable to duty, when the alcohol content is between 1.2 and 8.5% vol. Above 8.5% it is considered wine. The use of concentrate is permitted and there is no lower limit for the juice content. The soft drink cider below 1.2% alcohol exists in the Notice. The RTD-cider is called alcoholic carbonates or alcopops. The British organisation for producers of cider and perry, National Association of Cider Makers (NACM), accounts for more than 90% of the cider sales in Britain.

NCAM code of practice Cider is defined as a beverage obtained by the partial or complete fermentation of: „„ The juice of apples (and pears, if desired, provided that no more than 25% of the mixed juice is pear), either fresh juice or from concentrated juice or from a mixture of both „„ With or without the addition before or after fermentation of sugars and/or of potable water „„ Without at any time adding alcoholic liquor „„ Without at any time adding any substance which gives colour or flavour, other than certain specifically permitted ingredients. The alcohol content must be greater than 1.2% alcohol by volume (ABV) but less than 8.5% ABV. NACM considers cider at 8.5% ABV or more to be Apple Wine. In the case of perry, NACM requires that no more than 25% of the juice may be from apples. This Code of Practice is in full accordance with AICV Code of Practice. The soft drink cider is not included, but the RTD-cider is. The British beer consumer organisation CAMRA, Campaign for Real Ale – has set up a committee to promote traditional cider and perry called Apple and Pear Produce Liaison Executive (APPLE).

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In the UK scrumpy is also a term used for cider products. Originally scrumpy was cider made from windfalls (scrumps). Scrumpy is often rough and cloudy and made by traditional methods. For some people scrumpy implies an inferior or poorly made cider – for other people scrumpy is high quality real cider. In North America, cider means unfiltered apple juice directly from the press and not pasteurised. They distinguish between sweet cider, which is apple juice and hard cider, which is like the European cider.

Ciders of the UK Birmingham: Frosty Jack. Devon: Three Hammers. Dorset: Jack Ratt. Channel Islands: Jersey – Bouche, Guernsey - The Rocquette Cider Co. Somerset: Aspall, Blackthorn, White Star, Diamond White and Gaymer’s Olde English ciders all produced by Gaymer. Burrow Hill. Thatcher’s. Hecks, Sheppys. Samual Smith’s Organic. Herefordshire: Dunkertons. H. P. Bulmer British makers of Scrumpy Jack, Strongbow, Strongbow Sirrus, Woodpecker, White Lightning, Pomagne and Bulmer’s Original. Old Rosie. Henry Weston’s. Sussex: Merrydown. Wales: Gwynt-Y-Draig, Ty Gwyn, Halletts. Scotland: Thistly Cross. Waulkmill Cider. Herefordshire, Gloucestershire and Worcestershire are also known as ‘the three countries’ reputed for growing the best pears for perry (see Perry below).

Cider in France The French cider organisation UNICID (l’Union Nationale Interprofessionnelle Cidricole) distinguishes between the British and French spelling of the word: Cider is a drink obtained from fermented apple juice, sugar and water, whereas cidre is a drink fermented from apple juice or from a mixture of apples and pears. Addition of sugar or water to cidre is not allowed. A geographically protected designation exists for cider made in Brittany or Normandy. The cider is to be made from cider apples grown in Brittany, Normandy respectively. They distinguish between the different forms of cidre: „„ Cidre traditionnel/de tradition: cider made from recommended varieties of cider apples or varieties used traditionally in the local area and according to fixed terms. The finished product presents a slight, natural residual haziness and has an alcohol content above 4% ABV, likewise for poiré (perry). „„ Cidre fermier: cider exclusively made from fruits grown on the farm under the farmer’s responsibility. „„ Cidre de cru: cider made from local varieties and with a name connected to either the geographical designation or the name of a variety, if that variety constitute a majority of the apples from which the cider has been made. „„ Cidre de table: cider for daily consumption. „„ Cidre de terroir: cider specific for a region according to utilisation of local varieties and certain skills. „„ Cidre brut: cider containing less than 28 g per. litre of residual sugar.

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„„ Cidre demi-sec: cider containing at least 3% vol. alcohol and between 28 and 42 g per litre of residual sugar. „„ Cidre doux: cider containing less than 3% vol. alcohol and more than 35 g per litre of residual sugar. „„ Cidre bouché: cider of a superior quality. Bottled in special bottles. „„ Pétillant de pomme – ‘sparkling apple juice’, obtained from a light fermentation of pure apple juice, the perfect name for the soft drink cider. With a system like this the consumer knows what to expect. Note: It is apparent that cider is a word used for very different products. Particularly in the Scandinavian countries the definition of cider is very broad. The soft drink cider has become very popular in Scandinavia, but is hardly available anywhere else in Europe. In Denmark the word cider has become synonymous with a soft drink so that a lot of people are not aware of the original meaning of the word.

Ciders of France Cidre Pays d’Auge (Coudray-Rabut). Domaine Christian Drouin (CoudrayRabut). Domaine Dupont (Normandy). Eric Bordelet (Charchigné, Normandy). Michel Hubert(Les Vergers de la Morinière),

Cider in Germany Although Germany is world-famous for beer the Hessen region prefers apfelwein, a still cider between 5% and 7% ABV. The Sachsenhausen district of Frankfurt is almost entirely devoted to cider houses where the drink is taken neat, or diluted with water or orange juice, accompanied by local delicacy handkäse, a greasy, delicious cheese and onion concoction.

Ciders of Germany Stowford (leading cider of Germany). Cape Cide GmbH brands. German cider is mainly produced and consumed in Hessen by several large producers, as well as numerous small, private producers often using traditional recipes.

Cider in Sweden In Sweden the National Food Administration (Livsmedelsverket) has defined some rules for cider produced in Sweden for the Swedish market: „„ Cider is a drink produced from fermented fruit juice of apple and/or pear, besides permitted additives and natural aromas is it allowed to use nonfermented fruit juice of apples and/or pears (which may be from concentrate), water and sugar. The content of fruit juice in the final product to be at least 15% vol, and cider can be carbonated. „„ The alcohol in cider can only originate from fermentation of apple or pear

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juice, except for the minimum amount necessary as solvent for additives or aromas. „„ Cider can only be named apple cider or pear cider, added aromas from other fruits to be stated in the name. „„ In apple cider more than 50% vol. of the juice must be from apples, likewise for pear cider. The definition includes all three types of cider and there is no minimum content of alcohol. This definition originates from the soft drink cider. Previously only products below 2.25% alcohol could be called cider. Now, cider with less than 2.25% ABV. is called weak cider (no wine tax) and ‘strong cider’ is that which contains more than 2.25% ABV.

Ciders of Sweden Herrljunga. Kopparberg’s (Bergslagen). Kwik (Skane). Rekorderlig.

Cider in Denmark When the Fruit Juice Regulation was suggested, Danish Fruit Culture tried to influence the decision-making process. Danish Fruit Culture is a network of people interested in genuine fruit products, including traditional cider. A suggestion was made with two levels of definitions covering the traditional cider in general and the very traditional farm cider. The Danish definition of strong cider is currently as follows. A drink made by fermentation of apple juice, which can contain up to 25% pear juice, but not juice from other fruits. Sugar or concentrate can be added, but no other adjuncts are allowed. Strong cider can be still or sparkling and the addition of carbon dioxide is allowed. Correction of the sweetness with sugar and apple juice or concentrate is allowed. It is not allowed to add distilled alcohol, aroma or colourings. The end product must contain at least 85% fruit juice (fermented or not fermented). The alcohol content must be at least 2.0 and max. 8.5% vol.

Ciders of Denmark Cult A/S (leading cider of Denmark). Ciderprojektet. Dancider. Fejø. Pomona. Ørbæk Bryggeri. Svaneke Bryghus. Sombersby (owned by Carlberg).

Ciders of the World Argentina: Real, La Victoria, Del Valle, La Farruca, Rama Caida. Australia: Western – Blue Angel, Castaway, Pipsqueak, Tasmania – Capt. Blighs, Mercury, Victoria – Coldstream, Kelly Brothers, Henry of Harcourt, Bress, South – Three Oaks. Belgium: Strassen X, Strongbow Jacques, Konings NV, Stella Artois Cidre. Canada: Quebec, Quebec producers also make ice cider (cidre de glace). Finland: Golden Cap, Fizz (made by Olvi), Upcider.

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Ireland: Druids Celtic (Dublin), Bulmer’s (Tipperary) marketed as Magners cider outside Ireland. New Zealand: Johnny Arrow, Monteiths, Isaac’s, McCashins, Old Mout. Pakistan: Bigg Apple, Mehran. South Africa: Hunters Gold, Savanna Dry Spain: Asturian sidra traditionally served in sidrerías, chigres or sagardotegi (cider house or pubs specializing in cider). USA: California - Ace, Crispin, Fox Barrel. Michigan - Vandermill. New York - McKenzie’s. Windsor, Vermont and Boston, Massachesetts - Cider Jack made by Harpoon Brewery, Woodchuck Hard Cider (Vermont). Washington - Spire Mountain.

Figure 2.2: A selection of premium and vintage ciders

2.3 Cider apple varieties The apple strains used for cider are not ones with which the average consumer is familiar: Somerset Redstreak, Medaille d’Or, Bulmer’s Norman, Kingston Black and Dabinett, for example. You won’t find such popular eating apples as Macintosh, Delicious, Granny Smith, Cortland and the like in anything considered a fine cider. There are only ten or so varieties of apples widely grown for cider making. Cider is traditionally made with one third each of sweet, bittersweet, and sharp apples. The principle characteristics of cider apples which contribute to this classification are the content of phenolic compounds (tannins) and the acidity. „„ Bittersweet apples contain more than 0.2% (w/v) of tannins and less than 0.45% (w/v) acidity (calculated as malic acid).

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„„ Sharp apples have less than 0.2% (w/v) tannins and greater than 0.45% (w/v) acidity; a subgroup of this classification, bittersharps, have the same range of acidity but have a tannin content of greater than 0.2% (w/v). „„ Sweet apples have less than 0.2% (w/v) tannins and less than 0.45% (w/v) acid. Most modern cider makers making cider in the traditional manner will use one or more varieties of bittersweet apples. England, France, Ireland, USA and Spain are the major countries with true cider apple orchards. These apples are characterized by high acid and tannin levels, which make them unfit for table fruit but give ciders distinctive flavours and body. French varieties mostly fall into the classification of bittersweets, as do Spanish cider apples. Swiss and German cider apples tend to be high in acid and sugar, with fairly low tannin levels, and are often used for table apples as well as cider making.

Apple orchards The majority of orchard managers usually plant only bittersweet varieties because of their varying maturation periods. Examples include sharps and sweets which they purchase from the culinary dessert markets and bitter sharps which are no longer used. Examples of bittersweet varieties include: „„ Early croppers: Nehou, Tremlett’s Bitter „„ Mid season maturing: Michelin, Dabinett, Somerset, Red Streak, Harry Master’s Jersey „„ Later maturing varieties: brown snout, Vilberie, Reine des Pommes, Medaille d’Or, Yarlington Mill „„ Other maturing varieties: Breakwell Seedling, Chisel Jersey, Tardive Forrestier, Bulmer’s Norman.

2.4 Cider production The harvest Cider apples become ripe and are harvested between the months of September and December. Ripe apples have brown seeds, which are good test for ripeness. Green, immature apples make poor cider. Sound, ripe apples of several varieties are used to make a balanced cider blend. In the smaller farms ,poles with hooks were used to shake the branches of the trees until the orchard was covered with a veritable carpet of apples. Sacks were then filled and stacked in readiness for transportation from the main apple-producing areas around the country. Larger orchards are harvested mechanically; it’s quick, hygienic and less labour intensive. The apples used in cider making will mature at different times, which leads the farmer to a lot of care and labour during the processing stage of cidermaking.

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Figure 2.3: Manual harvesting (ehow.com).

Figure 2. 4: Machine harvesting (Tuthill Temperley).

Sweating The apples are stored in a clean, odour free area and allowed to mellow and soften for about a week to ten days before grinding. This is called ‘sweating’ and it makes the apples easier to grind, increases the sugar in the juice, and allows good flavour to develop.

Washing and quality checking The apples will be weighed, checked for fruit type and quality and passed through a water bath to remove leaves, twigs, harmful bacteria, insects and any spray residues. Rotten apples will be removed at this stage. The apples are then pushed along canals by streams of water to the presses.

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Grinding It is paramount to grind, crush or mill the apples to a fine pulp to extract the maximum amount of juice. As apples are a hard fruit, slicing is necessary to facilitate juice extraction. This is done with high-speed rotary blades, which reduce the fruit to a pulp.

Pressing It is from this pulp that the juice must be extracted by pressure. In the old days the pulp would be built into a ‘cheeses’ with alternate layers of straw and pulp, all wrapped in straw, covered with oak board, which would then be slowly pressed, the juices running out through the channels in the straw. Today however the milled pulp is normally held in press cloths and bags, usually made of nylon, which are easy to clean, and sturdy enough to withstand many pressings. Building a cheese is a traditional craft and is one of the core skills of the cider-maker. What remains after pressing is a substance known as pomace. This cake or sheet-like compacted substance contains skins and solids of the apples, seeds which contain sugar, tannins, flavour and pectin. Pomace is used for: „„ Livestock feed, mixed one-to-four with other forage it aids animals digestions. „„ Seedling stock, spreading pomace directly on the fields as a fertilizer produces many wild apple crab trees which are used for rootstock. „„ Weed killer and brush reducer, promace spread directly on the ground, discourages the growth of noxious weeds and brush due to its high acid content. „„ Compost, added to the compost heap with a sprinkling of lime, a layer of soil, then left for two years, but never spread it fresh onto soil, as it is too acidic.

Blending Many varieties of apples can be used for a well-balanced cider. Juices of aromatic, astringent and acid-tart apples are added to a neutral or bland juice base until the mixture tastes right to the maker. This blending can be done at any of the stages – before grinding, or before or after fermentation. Hydrometers will measure the sugar and potential alcohol; the acid tester will gauge the level of acidity; and quality assurance tasters will check for astringency, which gives cider good flavor and body. Sometimes sugar or honey is added to get a higher level of alcohol.

Fermentation The squeezed apple juice flows to a small vat and on its way passes through a series of filters. It is then pumped into a vat house for fermentation at a temperature of 18 to 24°C. The apple juice ferments for eight weeks, often in two stages. The first stage is one in which the yeast flora in the juice are nourished

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by the natural hextose sugars, converting them into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The second fermentation occurs when lactic acid bacteria in the cider ferment the natural malic acid into carbon dioxide and lactic acid. During the fermentation periods the juice is drawn off from the residue (lees or dregs) into different vats. Here it may be held indefinitely, provided that the vat is made airtight by topping up with additional cider. The Vat House is a cool, airy stone building housing cylinder vats. The majority of these vats are built in oak, hand crafted by coopers. Traditionally the vats range from 2000 to 60000 gallons capacity. The connoisseur believes that the oak lends itself greatly to the unique flavour that is premium cider fermented in these vast bellied vats.

Racking off Cider is siphoned off its lees, the thick sediment that has settled at the bottom of the fermenting vessel, with a clean plastic tube into the second fermentation tank, into storage containers, or directly into bottles. Acid levels and alcohol content is tested and compared to pre-fermentation readings.

Filtering or fining Traditionalists like the natural slight haze in cider, others prefer it crystal clear. Racking off clears the cider considerably ,but filtering and fining will clarify it still further. During filtering the cider can be run through muslin bags or diatomaceous earth, mediums that entrap or catch the suspended particles that make the cider hazy, but usually a closed filter system will be used which reduces the risk of acetic bacteria contamination. Fining with gelatin, bentonite or pectic enzyme will allow the affected particles to drop to the bottom of the vessel, helping to clear the liquid.

Maturation and packaging The cider will mature slowly over a period of several months. Samples are then drawn off and laboratory tested for purity and alcohol content, and afterwards put through several separate filtering processes. After chilling, further filtering and carbonating, the cider is then packaged and ready for distribution.

Variables affecting cider making The acidity of the juice, the weather, the varieties of apples used, the bacteria in and around the juice and the conditions for their growth, the size of the cidermaking operation itself and the nature of the equipment, the use of sweeteners or chemical additives, different procedures in the making proscribed by law or custom (AC), and finally the regional tastes and preferences of the cider drinkers – all these can affect the final cider product.

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2.5 Cider evaluation and tasting Cider tasting can be real fun and an excellent event for fun nights, themed evenings or a business tasting event. Deciphering the still, sparkling, dry and sweet types within the wonderful world of ‘real’ cider by learning about how to taste and enjoy a hand picked selection of regional ciders can get you really excited about this wonderful traditional and ancient drink. Like wine, cider can be judged by the sensual criterion of a tasting ritual. Tangy, spicy, refreshing, bittersweet, and fragrant are just five ways of describing cider. Regardless of whatever commentary and glossary of terms that you decide to use, tasting cider is a physical process in which the senses of sight, smell, taste, hearing and touch make up the examination outline. The manner in which the cider is served is important. Serve in clean, elegant glasses at the right temperature. Avoid cut crystal, Styrofoam cups or transparent plastic cups, and use glass vessels with great depth. The sweeter the cider the colder it must be served, drier ciders may be served at room temperature, ciders high in alcohol should be served cold but not always ice cold. A cider evaluation can be broken down into three parts appearance, aroma, and taste. Each of these individual components contributes to the overall quality and drinkability of the cider, and each should be taken into account when you evaluate it. The physiological processes involved in isolating and judging delicate flavours and aromas are complex, and both wine and cider tasting are acquired arts. Describing scents, flavours and tastes is a difficult job, since people perceive them differently, may link them to obscure personal memories, and to different culturally acquired food habits.

Appearance „„ Is it a still cider or is it carbonated? „„ If it is carbonated, is it a natural carbonation or a forced carbonation? Naturally sparkling cider will foam up as it hits the bottom of the glass, and the bubbles that swirl up to the surface are smaller and longer-lasting than those in an artificially carbonated cider. „„ What colour is it? Example of colour descriptions include pale straw, golden yellow, salmon, apricot, or amber. Ciders that have a green, gray, or orangered tint may not be drinkable, as the colour would be evidence to oxidation or cider sickness. „„ Is it hazy or clear? Words to use include brilliant, clear, hazy or cloudy.

Aroma A hard cider’s aroma or bouquet usually comes from the percentage of fragrant apple varieties that were used in the original cider blend. Yeasts, both natural and cultured, plus other fruits, spices or adjuncts can also contribute to the complex aroma of a good cider.

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To evaluate the aroma, put your nose near the top of the glass and take a good whiff; the cider’s bouquet should be a preview of the flavor. If it smells bad or is excessively sharp or vinegary, don’t even bother tasting the cider.

Tasting cider The evaluation can be broken into feel in the mouth and how it tastes on the tongue. Take some of the cider in your mouth and do the following. Chew on the cider a bit or roll it around in your mouth to get a feeling for the body. Full bodied ciders will feel heaver and richer, and thinner, watery ciders will have little sensation. There is no right or wrong to this, just an observation. However, watery ciders will not be as flavourful. „„ Is it a sweet or dry cider? „„ Is there a nice balance between sugar, acid, tannins, and alcohol? Are all the elements balanced in the tasting, or is there an element that over powers the others? For example, if it makes you pucker, it may have too much tannin. „„ Is the alcohol content strong or weak? After you swallow, does the aroma linger on? Do not fault a cider because it does not taste like apples, as grape wines do not taste like grapes. Most important when tasting ciders is personal preference. Do you like it? It doesn’t matter how you scored a cider in relationship to others, but that you liked the cider, as your tastes will be different from your colleagues and friends.

2.6 Perry Perry is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented pears (Huddleston, 2008). This definition follows the code of practice for perry set by l’Association des Industries des Cidres et Vins de fruits de L’U.E. However, as there is no common EU legislation covering its production, perry can be produced from pears and possibly a limited volume of apples. Perry has been common for centuries in England, particularly in Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Worcestershire; in parts of south Wales; and in France, especially Normandy and Anjou. Huddleston (2008) notes that in recent years commercial perry has been referred to as ‘pear cider’ by some producers and is enjoyed in countries like Sweden, Australia, New Zealand and USA. Organisations like CAMRA do not accept this name for this traditional drink.

The pears Special pear cultivars are used: in the UK the most commonly used variety is the Blakeney Red, which produces fruit that makes top quality perry. There are at present some 120 accepted varieties of perry pear and distribution can be very localised, hence over 200 names are used for these varieties (Oliver, 2010). Perry pear trees can be fully productive for 60 to 250 years. They grow to a considerable

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height and can have very large canopies; fruit can appear from the earliest years and be worthwhile harvesting from year 10 on standards and year 5 on bush.

Harvesting and preparation Harvesting will be from early September through to December depending on the variety concerned and the year. Perry pears can be hand picked into bags or bulk containers or machine picked into bulk containers. Handpicking is viewed as the best way to ensure clean harvesting of ripe fruit. The yields vary dependent on tree maturity and season. After transport to the perry maker, some fruit requires immediate washing and milling (within 24 hours of harvest, especially for early varieties such as Moorcroft), others (such as Butt) can be stored off the ground, possibly on straw, in boxes or on tollit floors, kept cool, sorted and sweated until mature, then washed and pressed. After milling and prior to pressing, varieties that are high in tannin, (such as Butt, Flakey Bark, Rock or Teddington Green), can be macerated to reduce the tannin levels in the finished juice by up to two thirds, depending on degree of exposure to air (Oliver, 2010).

Types of perry „„ Still perry Colour: Typically very pale almost clear through to a deep straw colour. Smell: Exotic citrus, tropical and hedgerow fruits, meadow flowers and pear. Taste: Clean, lingering, full bodied with the balance of acidity, tannin and unfermented sugars dictated by variety of perry pear. Dry, medium or sweet. Packaging is at the discretion of the producer and the market to which the product is destined. Draught still perry can be filtered or pasteurised and packaged in barrels, manucubes, bag in the box or into suitable glass bottles with appropriate closures. „„ Bottle conditioned perry: As still perry but with sparkle ranging from petillant to effervescent. Slight character enhancement typical with finishing of fermentation in the bottle. A slight sediment is possible. Dry, medium or sweet. „„ Bottle fermented perry: As still perry but with sparkle consistent with secondary fermentation and further characteristics (such as typical biscuity character) developed during the ageing process ‘sur lees’ in the bottle. Dry to medium.

Perry used for this process is manufactured to the same specification as still perry. To start the secondary fermentation within the bottle, liqueur de triage (either fermentable sugar and active yeast, or perry from same batch or yeast nutrients) is added (Oliver, 2010)

„„ Forced carbonation: Will yield a different bubble characteristic dependent on the level of carbonation. Dry, medium or sweet. The bottles for bottle conditioned or fermented perry must be heavy-duty, punted and capable of being sealed with either a 29mm crown cap or a cork and wire cage, and able to withstand a sustained pressure of 6 atmospheres at 10°C.

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Labelling perry Although labelling regulations will differ from country to country perry labels should contain the ingredients listed in descending order of magnitude of weight. All processing aids must be listed. The label should also show sweetness levels: dry, medium, or sweet; whether it is still, bottle conditioned or bottle fermented or forced carbonation; the name and address of producer, quantity, alcohol strength, allergen advice, lot mark, storage conditions and/or usage instructions if necessary with any other wording as required and defined by legislation. If a single variety perry, then the variety must be declared.

Summary „„ Cider has come a long way from three centuries ago, when it was referred to as ‘the English Champagne’, through the last few decades, when it was the preferred drink for the over-indulgent on street corners or parks. „„ Today, cider has been reborn, sales are on the rise especially amongst smaller producers using traditional methods and a higher apple juice content. „„ Cider is best known as a great, refreshing summer drink and given how well it pairs with food; it’s no surprise that the world’s most famous chefs are using ciders instead of spirits and liqueurs in their signature dishes. „„ Cider is acidic and fruit based with a flavour ranging from dry to sweet like wine. „„ The apple varieties available to the cider producer are as wide as the grape varieties available to the wine producer. „„ The cider makers’ work has helped bars to bring to their customers a wider range of ciders which express the land, the apple varieties and the rich traditions which surround cider. „„ Perry is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented pears. 120 accepted varieties of perry pear exist today, the main types and quality of perry are still, conditioned, bottle fermented and forced carbonated. „„ Draught still perry can be filtered or pasteurised and packaged in various forms while conditioned and bottle fermented perry is packaged in heavy duty bottles with cork and wire tops.

3

Introduction to Wine

Aims and learning outcomes This chapter aims to provide an introduction to wine. On completion of this chapter the learner should be able to: „„

Explain the major factors which influence the production of all wines.

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Describe the classification, main stages of production, labelling and appellations systems used in wine making.

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Recommend wines to ideally pair with all foods.

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Outline best practice techniques to taste, talk about and correctly store wines.

3.1 Introduction The wine market in the bar today is extremely dynamic and has undergone huge growth since the early 1990s. Wine is now an everyday commodity enjoyed by many people regardless of their social status. Although wine education is now widely available, the majority of bar and hospitality staff have a limited but growing knowledge of wine. Nowadays the major reason for the bartender to share the knowledge of the sommelier is the current change of lifestyle, at least as we see it in the industrialised world. Fashion, health and lifestyle choices are helping to change drinking habits. Wine and its story are unique. Civilised consumption of this beverage has helped to promote its positive aspects, and today people might be drinking less but they are insisting on a better quality of wine.

3.2 The production of wine Wine growing areas Vines grow in the 30-50 degrees latitude band, in both the northern and southern hemispheres, which usually contain a temperate climate.

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Two thirds of all wines are grown in Europe, one third are grown in the New World (Chile, Argentina, Australia, South Africa, United States and New Zealand).

Wine production Vines must be at least 3½ years old before you can make wine from them in the EU. This is not the case in other wine growing countries of the world, but one fact is certain – wine production begins in the vineyard. The style, the colour, taste and nature of the drink all depend on what you do in the vineyard. The grape variety, soil and climate contribute to what you get in the glass; these factors plus others (listed below) influence the production of all wines. „„ Climate „„ Soil „„ Grape „„ Viticulture „„ Vinification „„ Luck of the year

Climate The climatic conditions of a geographical region are a relatively constant factor, unlike changes in weather which can vary drastically on a day-today basis. Variations in climate seldom occur. The seasonal changes in the temperate climates of the vine growing regions provide the necessary sunlight, warmth and moisture for vines to flourish. Generally, all vines require an average annual temperature ranging from 10 to 14°C, sufficient moisture either in the form of rainfall or through irrigation, and an average of seven hours of sunshine daily during the ripening period.

Climate Zone System In the past Vitis Vinfera wines grown in the New World, especially the United States, did not appeal to the European palate. During research into vines and micro climates to counteract this problem, the Climate Zone or Degree Day System was devised at the Oenological Faculty of the Davis Campus University in California and Roseworthy in Australia by Albert J Winkler. The scale is based on the observation that vines grow when the temperature is above 50°F. The following calculations are done to find out how much the temperature is above this minimum during the growing season. 1 The temperature is monitored from 1st April to 31st October. 2 Each day, the temperature is taken at intervals and averaged calculated. 3 50°F is subtracted (the temperature at which the vine is activated) 4 The accumulated total is averaged over a number of years to give the regional classification.

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Regional climates are ranged on a scale of I (the coolest) to V (the hottest). This system has been used to classify the grape varieties most suited to each zone. Zones I – III are most suited for producing premium wines. The five zones are: „„ Region I Less than 2,500 degree days (Germany, Loire valley, Alsace) Riesling, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Cabernet Sauvignon. „„ Region II 2,501 – 3,000 degree days (Bordeaux, Barossa valley, Douro valley, Burgundy, little of Loire valley, Northern Rhone valley) Beaujolais, Syrah, Viognier, Marsanne, Rousanne. „„ Region III 3,001 – 3,500 degree days (Rhone valley, Clare valley and Adelaide) Semillion, Carignan, Zinfandel, Cabernet Sauvignon. „„ Region IV 3,501 – 4,000 degree days (South Spain, Rutherglen, Great Western) Barbera, Cabernet Sauvignon and Port grapes. „„ Region V 4,001 upward degree days (North Africa, Swan valley, Jerez) Port grapes, Dessert wines, Verdelho.

Soil The deeper the roots go into the soil, the more constant is their environment, and so they are less subject to the ravages of floods or drought. Dr. Gerard Sequin’s research study in Bordeaux, as cited in Johnson (2003), stated that that ‘the nearer a vineyard is to effective drainage, gives drier subsoil roots which go deeper’. Old vines with deeper roots give better wines; clay or sand drains badly; gravel and larger stones are best. Stones store heat on surface and prevent rapid evaporation of moisture. Vines thrive where vegetables will not; with poor soil you will need good drainage. Vines with roots, for example 300 metres down gain, potassium and iron, which gives great complexity and quality to the wine. Major soil types: Sandy - Colares (Portugal), gravel (left bank Bordeaux), limestone (all whites Burgundy – Chardonnay), slate (Mosel), chalk (Champagne,), granite (Northern Rhone), stones pudding (Southern Rhone). A designated region is based on its soil, for example Chablis must not be grown beyond its soil designation (Kimmeridgen soil).

Grape Vitis Vinifera (V.V.) vine has 3,000 noble grape varieties. V.V. is the only vine variety allowed to produce wines, which are sold in the E.U. New world countries wishing to trade in the E.U must plant the major grape varieties of the V.V known to Europe to gain legal permission to market their wines..

White grape varieties Chardonnay: The grape of white Burgundy (Chablis, Montrachet, Meursault, Pouilly-Fuisse) and Champagne. It gives firm, full, strong wine with scent and character, on chalky soils becoming almost luscious without being sweet. Ages well, with or without oak, by fermentation and/or maturing in barrel. Planted uni-

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versally, with best result in parts of California, Australia, Italy, South Africa and New Zealand. Decent wine, with hints of wood, melon, green, apple, pineapple. Chenin Blanc: (often called Pineau de la Loire) the white grape of Anjou and Touriane in the Loire Valley, underestimated but ideal for a developed sweet/sour palate. High acidity spots as it ripens. Intense wine, honey-like when very ripe but always with high acidity, so it ages well longer than Riesling. Known in South Africa as Steen where it’s the favourite white wine. Furmint: Hungarian white grape producing one of the Europe’s least known great classic wines, Tokay, this straw coloured wine with a distinctive old-apple like aroma when young, richly honeyed when aged. Ranging from dry to sweet, concentrated essence. Gewürztraminer: The pungent spicy grape of Alsace, with small crops ripening early in the season tending to potent fatness, but at best irresistibly perfumed. Gewurztraminer can be excellent in California, Oregon and New Zealand. Spicy, eastern, passion fruit, high alcohol, deep colour. Muscat: Found in several varieties, easily recognised by its aromas, Muscat can be black or white, and the best is the Muscat Blanc a Petits Grains. Beaumes de Venise Muscats are the best wines produced from this variety in France. Pinot Gris: (Alsace) almondy, savoury. Riesling: (most noble) suits cool climate with longer slower autumn; has high acidity; makes sweet wines, varietal, green apple flavours; very sweet and develops oily kerosene in old age. Sauvignon Blanc: Chief white Bordeaux grape, used with Semillon and a little Muscadelle to make dry Graves and sweet Sauternes. Very aromatic and smoky, or like gooseberries, at Pouilly and Sauternes on the upper Loire and throughout Touraine, in the Dordogne, near Chablis, and in northeast Italy; in Chile, coastal valleys of California, and in New Zealand it can bring out wild pungency; Australia and South Africa riper flavours, through the wine is never better than very good, young drinking. Semillon (Bordeaux) often blended with Sauvignon Blanc to balance. This grape has the great gift, shared with the Riesling, of rotting nobly. Under certain conditions of warmth and humidity a fungus (Botrytis cineria) softens the skin and lets the juice evaporate concentrating the sugar and flavour to make luscious creamy wine. The great golden wines of Sauternes are made like this, with a proportion of Sauvignon. Semillon is also important for dry wines in the Graves and is the speciality of Australia’s Hunter Valley, whose Semillons can age for decades. Other important white grape varieties include: Aligote, Chasselas, Colombard, Folle Blanche, Muscadelle, Muscadet, Pinot Blanc, Sylvaner, Ugni Blanc, Palomino, Muller-Thurgau, Gruner Veltliner, Gros Plant, and Viognier.

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Red grape varieties Cabernet Sauvignon: Sister red grape of Chardonnay. Happy traveller and easy to produce. Good balance between quantity and quality with blackcurrant flavours. Small, tough-skinned grape that gives tannin, body and aroma to the red wines of Bordeaux, although always blended with Merlot and sometimes Cabernet Franc. All Cabernet Sauvignon wine ages well in bottle and wood for long periods. Gamay: A dark wine which can age well for 5 to 7 years, but in the granite soils of Beaujolais it produces, using a special process called carbonic maceration, wine that is light and fruity, excellent for lunchtime drinking. Grenache: A sweet grape making strong wine with character but not much colour, one of the 13 varieties used in a blend to make Chateauneuf-du-Pape, or on its own the famous Travel (rosé wine). Known as Garnacha in Spain. Chocolaty texture, with the ability to develop earthy, vegetable flavours later. Does not age well. Merlot: Related to the Cabernet Sauvignon grown in Bordeaux (St-Emilion and Pomerol) gives big plumy – big spiced plum flavour, grown on limestone soils and hillsides, ripens earlier than the CS giving wine which usually matures sooner. Nebbiolo: One of the great red grapes of Italy, making the deep, powerful firm and classic Barolos. Pinot Noir: Single red grape of the Cote d’Or in Burgundy. The most difficult to grow, but acknowledged as the best in the world if grown in the right place. Sullen, likes a cool climate, the best wines are only produced one in every seven years. It is never cheap. A thin-skinned grape, clones easily, but prone to disease, and a shy bearer, producing low yields. In youth the grape is red currant/ raspberry, tart and tangy, but loses this colour quickly. In age takes on a cabbage flavour and a tawny colour. Used in Champagne. Pinotage: The classic clone, a cross between pinot and hermitage, is grown in South Africa producing a rather jammy, alcoholic wine, best enjoyed with food. Sangiovese: Italy’s most planted grape, grown in 16 to of its 20 regions, the nearest Italy has to an international grape variety. The principal grape for Chianti. Its wine is firm, full, long lasting and with a distinctive dry, almost bitter finish. Syrah, Shiraz: The oldest grape variety, came from Iraq. In the Northern Rhone granite soil it produces dark, tannic, long-lived, spicy, big meaty wines, which need maturing (Core Rotie). Although Australia has the largest Syrah planting in the world the Barossa Valley actually produces some of the best. Zinfandel: Noble red wine grape, makes good lively fruit-driven wine, usually for drinking young but can age and make top quality, highly concentrated wines for long ageing, which are thick soupy wines immense colour, body, mulberry, smoky bacon tasting like Bordeaux. Prefers a dry climate and cool area.

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Other important red grape varieties include: Cabernet Franc, Malbec, Petit Verdot, Pinot Meunier, Mourvedre, Barbera, Aglianico, Touriga Nacional, Tempranillo and Trebbiano.

Diseases, pests and animals which effect wines „„ Phylloxera vastrix: a little white louse that feeds on the sap of vines, first appeared in late 19th century and destroyed large percentage of European vines. Grafting on resistant American rootstock controls phylloxera. In grafting, by hand or machine, the fruit-bearing vine is joined to rootstock just above the ground, near a bud. When wine production fell, some growers mixed cheaper wine from other areas to make up the shortfall. The AOC system was introduced in response. ‘Wine is as the wine says it is’. „„ Powdery mildew – viticultural name: oidium „„ Pourriture grise (grey rot) viticultural name: botrytis „„ Downy mildew – viticultural name: peronosphera „„ Botrytis Cinera – noble rot, porriture noble, edelfaule. Can add value to the vine as it reduces the moisture content and increases the sugar in the grape. This condition develops from morning mist, leaving dew on the grapes so the fungus can grow, hot midday sun to shrivel grapes, and long afternoons to help ripening. The grapes produce little must, but very concentrated, and sugar rich. Fermentation is more complex as the fungus kills yeast. Treatments „„ Rabbit’s buttage: pile of soil around roots, protects from frost, and stops rabbits eating roots. „„ Bordeaux mix: copper sulphate, water and limestone, controls fungus. Spraying must stop 6 weeks before harvest.

Viticultural practices Many wine-makers will not use the crop from plants younger than 8 years old as it takes that long for the crops to achieve the required quality. As the vines mature, their crops become increasingly larger and better in flavour, however when these plants reach their 40th or 50th year, the tendency is toward increasingly flavoured and higher quality but smaller crops. The majority of such vines are then uprooted to be replaced by new stocks. If the grapes are harvested on a warm day, the resulting extracted juice or must will tend to create a wine with considerably less fruit characters. Therefore winemakers resort to techniques such as using refrigerated trucks to cool the harvested fruit on its way to the winery, or harvesting the grapes in the cool of the night.

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Vinification Both red and white grapes are used to make wines. The juice of either grapes will yield juice that is relatively without much colour. White wines are easily made from white (actually pale green) grapes as very little pigment is contained in the skins of these grapes. On labels, this is termed ‘blanc de blanc’ (white from white). When crushed, red (actually almost black) grapes are tinted with the pigment contained in their skins. However, it is possible to press a red grape and draw its juice without the juice being tinted with pigmentation. This is how white wine can be made from black grapes. If a white wine is made from black grapes, the term on labels to describe this is ‘blanc de noire’ (white from black).

3.3 Producing alcohol from grapes The grape contains everything required for making alcohol either inside or on the skin. Once the grapes are crushed and the skin is broken, the natural yeasts on the outside of the skin come into contact with the natural sugars in the juice. A chemical reaction known as fermentation takes place, which breaks down the natural sugars to form alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. Fermentation can continue until (a) the strength of the alcohol reaches 16%, at which point yeasts normally die, (b) all the sugars are used up, or (c) fermentation is stopped by lowering the temperature or removing the yeasts by filtering.

The alcohol composition of wine „„ under 0.05% alcohol free (forbidden, goes against the definition of wine). „„ 0.05%-0.5% de-alcoholized „„ 0.5%-1.2%

low alcohol

„„ 1.2%-5.5%

reduced alcohol

„„ 8%-15% ABV acceptable range for wine in most countries. Some allow higher alcohol levels (e.g. Greece, Southern Italy: 16.5%ABV).

Classification of wines Wines can be classified by: „„ Colour: red, white or rosé „„ Sweetness: dry, medium-dry or sweet „„ Body: light, medium or full-bodied „„ Still or sparkling „„ Additions: fortified, aromatised or natural table wines Wine can be described using its combined characteristics. Thus a white wine maybe a light, dry and sparkling like Champagne or a red wine which is fortified and full bodied like Port.

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Colour Wines generally come in three colours: white, rosé (pink, blush) and red. Red wines range in colour from light, brilliant reds and purples to dark opaque, inkylooking wines. White wines range in colour from watery, transparent examples to deep shades of yellow and straw gold. The colours can be deeper if they are matured in oak barrels, drawing the colour from the wood. Rosé wines have colours ranging from light pinks to orangey-salmon pinks to very light, pale reds.

Sugar content Wines vary in the amount of sugar remaining in the wine after the fermentation stops. Depending on the residual sugar content, wine may be classified as sweet, medium-dry (also termed medium-sweet) or as dry. Sweet wines are those with high amounts of residual sugar and thus taste distinctively sweet. Medium-dry wines are those with residual sugar contents lower than sweet wines but higher than dry wines. Dry wines are those with residual sugar content lower than medium-dry wines, usually between 0 and 4 grams of residual sugars per litre.

Alcohol content Wines may also be classified by the level of alcohol in the wines. Table wines are lower than 15% abv. Fortified are still wines, which have had their alcohol increased, usually by adding grape brandy or neutral spirit, to a range between 16 to 21% abv.

Carbon dioxide content By considering the carbon dioxide content in a wine, we may classify them as either still or sparkling wines. Still wines go through the standard fermentation process and they are not sparkling or effervescent. Sparkling wines go through two separate fermentations. Since the secondary fermentation takes place within an enclosed container, carbon dioxide gas dissolves in the wine creating an effervescent or bubbly wine.

Flavour addition Wines may also have flavours incorporated into them through the addition of extracts of aromatic herbs and spices or by macerating these in the wines. These wines are also usually fortified to increase the alcoholic content and thus are described as fortified (liqueur), aromatised or quinine wines.

3.4 The components and flavours of wine Scientific analysis has shown that there are some 250 different components in wine. The character and originally of each wine depends on the variation in the proportions of these elements.

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The main components of wine „„ Water: 85 to 93% vol of biologically pure water that is drawn directly from the earth by the vines. „„ Ethanol (alcohol): 7 to 15% vol, produced by fermenting the grape sugar. „„ Sugar (glucose/fructose): varying amounts of residual sugars depending on the style of wine (0–100 g/l [grams/litre]) „„ Organic (fruit) acids: varying amounts of fruit acids like citric acid (0.1 to 0.5 g/L), tartaric acid (1.0 to 3.0 g/L), malic acid (0.0 to 4.0 g/L), lactic acid (1.0 to 3.0 g/L), succinic acid (0.5 to 1.5 g/L), acetic acid (0.2 to 0.8 g/L). „„ Glycerol: 4 to 15 g/L „„ Aroma components: 1 to 2 g/L includes carbonyls, acetals, higher alcohols, esters and terpenes „„ Nitrogen compounds: 0.05 to 0.9 g/L includes amino acids, biogenic amines „„ Phenolics: 0.2 to 1.3 g/L (red), 0.05 to 1.3 g/L (whit)e includes anthocyanins and tannins „„ Minerals: 1.3 to 4.4 g/L „„ Trace elements: 0.1 to 30 mg/L „„ Vitamins: 250 to 500 mg/L „„ Additives: total sulphur dioxide (50 to 300 mg/L), sorbic acid (0 to 200 mg/L) „„ Carbon dioxide: 0.1 to 10 grams/L Organic chemicals in wines, such as phenolics and anthocyanin, gives wines its colour as well as its textural properties, while esters, ketones and aldehydes combine to create the aroma so appreciated in wines. Fruit acids provide a foil to the alcohol and sugar in wines, creating what is known as ‘balance’.

3.5 The main stages of wine production Destemming and extraction of juice Destemming is the process where the stalks of the grapes are removed. The winemaker must decide if the stalks are to be partially or totally removed from the grapes. If no stalks are desired, a crusher-stemmer is used to remove the stalks before crushing the grape. Stalks may be removed or left on depending on the style of wine that is being made. Stalks contain high amounts of harsh-tasting tannins and are added only when robust, tannic styles of wines are being created. There are two methods of extracting the juice from the ripened grape berries: pressing and crushing. „„ Pressing used to extract juice meant for fermentation into white wines. Presses are used to apply only just enough pressure to draw the juice from the grapes, and as a result, the juice is relatively untainted by pigment from the skins.

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„„ In crushing the grapes are put through a larger crusher, which literally tears apart the berries and allows the pigment to colour the juice of the grapes.

Treatment of the must Extracted grape juice known as must. This must is treated with a small amount of sulphur dioxide which is used as a disinfectant to kill off wild yeasts and other micro-organisms which may be present in the juice, helping to prevent microbiotic activity which may turn the wine into vinegar. Sulphur dioxide also acts as a preservative helps prevent the oxidation of the juice and the wine.

Skin contact Leaving the grape skins with the must allows the wine maker to extract some elements of flavour in the wine. The skins of white grapes are left in contact with the juice to further extract flavour compounds, allowing the wine-maker to make a fruitier style of wine. After a short period, the solids are then filtered off and the clear juice is then sent for fermentation.

Maceration In red wine production, the skins are left to macerate with the fermenting must. The colour and tannin are contained in the skin and drawn out by the presence of alcohol, so the longer the skins are left with the must, the darker the colour and the more tannic the wine. Rosé wines are made in almost the same manner as red wines. Their light red and rosé colours are created by limiting the contact time of skins and must – no more than 48 hours. This gives the skins sufficient time to tint the must a colour that ranges from orangey-salmon pinks to very light, pale onion skin reds.

Racking and removal of gross lees After the must has been fermented into wine, the solids or sediments, which are present in the wine, must be removed. These solids, called gross lees consist of dead yeast, pips and amongst other things, pieces of grape skin. Racking is a method is used to clarify the wine by transferring wine from one vat or cask into another, leaving behind any solids.

Adding to yeast and alcoholic fermentation Yeast is added to convert the natural sugars in the must into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The yeast used in wine production is usually a culture of the strain saccharomyces cerevisaie. The activity of the yeast becomes inhibited once the amount of alcohol reaches 15% abv, and any of the original natural sugar remaining in fermented wine is termed ‘residual sugar’. The higher the residual sugar, the sweeter the wine.

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Figure 3.1: Overview of the wine making process (Ocean Bridge)

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Malo-lactic fermentation Lactic acid bacteria present in wine become active as alcoholic fermentation slows down. These bacteria, carry out the next phase of development in a wine that is malo-lactic fermentation. Malo-lactic fermentation is the bacterial conversion of the natural malic acids to lactic acids. This converts the harsh-tasting malic acids (similar to the tart acidity found in green apples) into lactic acids (richer softer, milk-like). Malo-lactic fermentation thus remains an optional activity for white wine production. Red wines are made from grapes grown in generally warmer climates and are put through malo-lactic fermentation.

Maturation and oak ageing Wine is matured to improve its flavour. At this stage wine may be left to mature either in oak barrels or in stainless steel vats. When fermented and aged in stainless steel vats, the wine tends to be very fruity in style, fresh tasting (with high acidity) but would generally lack substance and body. Oak ageing is generally used for wines that are of a higher quality. Oak imparts a special quality to wine. It gives to wine tannins present in the wood, adding to its body. As the insides of oak barrels are often toasted, wines aged in oak barrels often possess an increased depth in colour (for white wines) and a distinctive vanilla-like aroma. This attractive aroma is the result of the introduction of a substance called vanillin into the wine from the toasted wood.

Fining and cold stabilisation These processes allow the winemaker to produce a clearer more brilliant wine. Fining is a process which involves using a colloidal matter to coagulate any solid matter within the wine to ensure the clarity of the product. The fining was and in some cases still carried out by adding a mixture of a small amount of wine to egg whites and beating the mixture vigorously. This mixture is then added to the wine from the top of the vat and allowed to slowly settle to the bottom. However, other more effective and less messy colloidal matter are now being used such as Islinglass (from fish), Kieselgur and Bentonite (types of powered clay). Cold stabilisation involves removing the substance responsible for the tiny white crystals found on the insides of corks or at the bottom of a bottle of wine that has been well chilled. These crystals of tartaric acid are harmless, tasteless and in no way detract from the flavour of the wine. These fine-precipitated white crystals are removed by filtration.

Blending Once the wines are made, the cellar master or wine-maker assesses them and then decides on a blend (known as the cuvée in French). Blending allows winemakers to create a wine that has the characteristics, which are judged as desirable, and to eliminate possible variations in fruit quality within a vintage or several vintages.

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Final filtration To ensure that the wine is perfectly clear (a desired quality), unwanted particles and sediment must be filtered off. This is carried out in several ways including the use of centrifuges and filters. However, it must be noted that super-fine filters exist that can even filter out the colour and flavour in a wine and therefore some wine-makers are increasingly in flavour of leaving the wine (especially red wines), unfiltered.

Bottling The wine is bottled and a cork is rammed in to form a seal. Capsules are placed over the mouth of the bottle and to protect the cork from pests and moulds.

Luck of the year Climate, soil, grape and production techniques are the controllable factors behind the quality of wine. What cannot be controlled is the weather, and that’s all down to the luck of the year. Hailstorms may rip the young shoots apart or even destroy the vines and reduce the yield. Strong winds, particularly during the flowering season, when the pollen to be carired by insects or by light winds for fertilisation, can be blown away in a gale and the grapes may not form. Rainfall can prove to be a blessing or a curse to the wine-maker. During summer, light rainfall is desired but if heavy rains come during the autumn months near harvest, this tends to dilute the concentration of flavours (e.g. in 1984 and 1987 in France).

3.6 Labelling Labelling gives a guarantee of the level of quality and therefore items which must appear on the label are: „„ name of the wine „„ country of origin and region „„ alcohol level „„ bottle volume, „„ quality classification (e.g. AC or vin de pays), „„ name of the producer. Items which may appear on the label are: „„ the vintage or year, and if given, it must not contain wine from other years „„ a description of the wine „„ grape variety, and if given it must contain 85% of this variety (75% in Australia) „„ ‘e’ to signifiy bottled in accordance with European standards. Health warnings are given in the US, but are currently not required in the E.U. Alcohol level for all zones is strictly controlled by EU rules.

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Appellations: the evolution of quality in wine making The appellation system for wines has been introduced into different countries at different times, beginning with France in 1935. The 1935: Institut National des Appellations d’origine (see AC system below) 1940: Louis Larmat Appellation remapped 1960: Italy 1970: Spain 1971: Germany 1980s: Portugal, Greece, Bulgaria, Argentina, New Zealand 1993: Australia. As an example, the appellation system used in France is outlined below. The appellation systems of other countries will be dealt with when we look at their wines in the next chapter.

Four classes or quality levels exist today in French wine „„ Two upper quality levels: AC (1935) and VDQS (1949) „„ Two lower quality levels: Vin de Pays (1979) and Vin de Table

AOC (appellation d’origine controlee = controlled designation of origin) The system started in the 15th century with restricted use of the name Roquefort to cheese made and matured in a certain area, by a certain method, from ewe’s milk. Also known as AC (appellation contrôlée), this was first applied to wines in 1935. It was introduced because the loss of many vines through the epidemic of phylloxera (a vine parasite that arrived from America in the late 19th century) meant that demand was greater than supply. This lead some winemakers to abuse the trade, with superior wine was being sold as famous region wine, a fraudulent practice. The system has a governing body with a broad umbrella, which is used for the whole of France, and local councils to carry out the work in all the regions.

AC rules in France Each region has its own specific rules, but restrictions always apply to: 1 Areas of production, which relates to soil composition 2 Grape varieties permitted 3 Viticulture: planting distance, pruning, handling, vines training, certain treatments 4 Vinification: ageing (minimum age specifications for area). Whether or not wood is used, maceration techniques. 5 Maximum yield per H/A (which changes per year, varying with the weather, for example 40 HL/HA maximum is allowed some years at A.C. level)

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6 Minimum level of alcohol: without the use of chaptalization (added sugar). French follow the OIML method of measuring the wine.

VDQS (Vin Délimité Qualité Supérieure) In 1949 it was felt that A.C. was too restricted and France introduced VDQS Vin Délimité Qualité Supérieure (“Delimited Wine of Superior Quality”) which means great wine that just missed the A.C. cut (sometimes they get upgraded in the future). Wine in this category has much the same restrictions as AC, but higher yields are allowed and more grape varieties are used. VDQS is only granted after tasting. If it has not been bottled after 6 months, it has to be tasted again. VDQS is the proving ground for wines (often promoted from vin de pays) aspiring to AC status. It should be stated that not all growers aspire to this. There are good growers who prefer more freedom of manoeuvre than an AC would ever allow.

Vin de Pays (1979) Montpellier University, in Southern France started copying New World wine production grape varieties and technology, and as a result of this the vin de pays category was introduced and started in Langerdoc. It designates the region in which the wine was grown, sets some restrictions on grape varieties and production methods and acts as a guarantee of quality. Vin de Pays saved the French wine business with better quality and access for all. To upgrade the quality and reduce the quantity of wine being made, the maximum yield was dropped from 90 to 80 HA/HL, but good makers would only aim for 40-45 HA/HL. Lots of grape varieties are being used and great experimentation is going on. The wines are named in various ways, e.g. Vin Pays d’Aube. Small areas within the area can be named to show exactly where the wine originated. If blending across départements, e.g. Vin de Pay Jardins de France.

Vin de Table (table wine) To meet this category, all grapes used in the wine must be sourced in France, at a maximum yield of 100 hectolitres per hectare. If the yield is over the 100 HL/HA it must be checked and a proportion will be sent for distillation. The more growers makes over this figure, the less payment they will receive for it.

Naming of a wine and the use of vintage on labels Vintage This word is also used to describe the year in which the grapes for a particular bottle of wine were grown and harvested. Wine labelled as 1988 is thus made from grapes grown and harvested in 1988. Those wines that are blended from several years’ stock of wines cannot be labelled with a single vintage as they are multi-vintaged. These wines as are simply called non vintage. Having an indicated vintage does not guarantee a quality wine, it merely states its year of origin.

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Varietal versus generic A wine made from a specific grape is called varietal, whereas a wine made from mixed grapes from a certain area or region is called generic. For example most Californian and French Alsacian wines are varietally named.

3.7 Tasting wine Knowledge of wine can only be acquired with practice, which develops a vinous memory. Some people have a more delicate and sensitive palate than others, but this alone, without training, is less useful than a normal but well trained palate.

Tasting and talking about wine Tasting is intelligent drinking. „„ Wines differ from one another in terms of colour, texture, strength, structure, body and length, as well as smell and their complexity of flavours. A taster takes all these into account (Johnson, 2003). „„ We smell tastes, rather than tasting them with our tongue. The real organ of discrimination is the upper nasal cavity. Smells stir memories, which helps your powers of analysis. „„ Apart from sweet, sour, salt and bitter, every taste term is borrowed from other senses. „„ Most people are not attuned to what a wine offers, for example they may be occupied with conversation, or also drinking whiskey or gin which overwhelms it, or have a cold or simply never have tuned to the differences between ordinary and fine wines. „„ Communicating the sensation of wine is harder than appreciating it. Words give identity to sensations, and help to clarify them. Experience tasters have a wider range of reference available to them than beginners.

Preparation for wine tasting In tasting, three of the senses play a primary role: sight, to evaluate the appearance of the wine; smell, to evaluate the flavours of the wine on the nose; and taste, to evaluate the sweetness, acidity and bitterness of the wine on the palate. The sense of touch plays a secondary role when assessing the texture of a wine, especially sparkling wines. It is important that the major senses should be given a free rein to operate to best effect; thus the environment in which the tasting takes place should be as neutral as possible.

The room or area „„ Lighting should be as natural as possible. Daylight is best; failing that fluorescent strip-lighting is the best alternative.

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„„ There must be a white background (white tasting bench or sheet of plain white paper) against which the wine can be studied. „„ Tasters should try to approach the tasting with palates free from cigarettes, food, fizzy drinks or other strong flavours. A piece of bread or plain water helps cleanse the palate. „„ Colds or hay fever affect the ability to smell and taste well. „„ The location should not be influenced by outside or internal odours which could confuse the power of smell – tobacco, perfume and aftershave should be avoided, and there should be no food smells coming from nearby kitchens. „„ Tasting glasses with residual smells, e.g. cardboard, detergent or cloth, can invalidate a tasting. Smell the glass before use and look to see if it is star-bright.

The glass This should be an ISO glass. Why? Because it incorporates the following: „„ Large enough to allow a tasting measure of wine to be swirled around. „„ Sides that slope inwards, in a tulip shape, so that the wines can move freely to release the flavours, to be concentrated at the top for smelling. „„ A stem so that the glass can be held without the temperature of the wine being affected, and the colour assessed. „„ A separate glass for each wine is best, gives the possibility to return to any wine at your leisure.

The tasting „„ A tasting notebook for recording your judgements of the wines is useful. „„ A systematic approach helps you to make comparisons over long periods with similar wines. „„ Memory plays an important role; detailed notes provide the essential support.

Preparing the wines „„ Each wine has its ideal temperature. „„ White wines should be served cool, but not cold. „„ Red wines should be served at room temperature, provided the tasting room is not too warm. „„ Wines can be decanted before the tasting to allow them to breathe and/or separate them from the sediment, and also to avoid pre-judgement by seeing the label or bottle shape. „„ The order of the wines is crucial for the palate: white & rosé wines (dry before sweet), then red wines (young before old). „„ Consuming food with wine: Spanish and Italian wines in isolation may taste harsh, but when married with the local cuisine seem more appealing.

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3.8 Sparkling wine Sparkling wine label terms „„ Pink Champagne: made by saignée method (removing the must after a very short period of skin contact). „„ Blanc de Blanc: a wine made from only white grapes. „„ Blanc de Noir: white wine made only from black grapes. „„ Cremant: wines with a little less than full sparkling wine pressure, and hence a more ‘creamy’ mousse.

Sparkling wines: methods of production Today there are three basic ways of producing bubbles in a wine: secondary fermentation in the bottle; second fermentation in the tank; and carbonation.

The traditional method This is used to produce Champagne, the sparkling wines of the Loire Valley, Cava from the Penedes region of Spain, Limoux and premium New World sparkling wines. This is the classic method of producing Champagne and the best sparkling wines around the world, where they are sold under a variety of names. These include Cremant in France and Luxembourg, Cava in Spain, Cap Classique in South Africa and méthode traditionale (traditional method). First fermentation The aim is to produce a wine with crisp to high acidity and moderate alcohol. Blending (assemblage) The aim is consistency over the years, and the reputation of the company rests or falls here. The blender may have a range of wines from different grape varieties different vineyards and even different years. Extra depths of flavours can be gained from aged wines (these are produced by retaining a portion of wine from various years to be used for blending). If the vintage is stated on the label, the Champagne must be produced from base wines of the one year. Over 100 different wines from just one vintage can be used. Secondary fermentation Liqueur de triage (sugar, yeast nutrients and a clarifying agent) is added to the wine to create the sparkle. A crown cork is added; and bottles are laid to rest horizontally. The wine is then stored for some time before its sediments are removed. At the final stage, the dosage (degree of sweetness) is checked and a portion of wine added to compensate the loss during sediment removal, before corking. The sweetness or dryness of sparkling wine is decided here.

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Table 3.1: Sugar content (including liqueur d’expedition) in sparkling wines and Champagne Brut nature, Brut Zero, Ultra Brut



Extra Brut Brut Extra Sec, Extra Dry Sec, Dry , Secco, Seco, Trocken

bone dry, 0 to 2 g/l (grams per litre) .



very dry, 0 to 6 g/l .



very dry to dry, 0 to 15 g/l .

off-dry to medium-dry, 12 to 20 g/l .

medium-dry, 17 to 35 g/l .

Demi Sec, Riche, Halbtrocken, SemiDulce, Abbocato sweet, 33 to 50 g/l . Doux, Sweet, Dolce, Doce, Dulce



luscious, 50 plus g/l .

Source: adapted from (Fielden, 2004) Quality conscious producers sometimes age the wine for a further period (few months) to allow the liqueur d’expedition to integrate into the wine, and for the wine to recover from the violent process of disgorgement.

The transfer method This is mainly used in the New World, and the sparkling wines so produced are labelled ‘bottle fermented’. The wine is filtered under pressure at –3°C (26°F). This method attempts to gain the advantages of a second fermentation in the bottle without the disadvantages and expense of the complicated process of sediment removal required by the full traditional method. In this process the entire contents of the bottle are disgorged into a tank under pressure, filtered in bulk and rebottled into a fresh bottle.

The Tank method (cuve close in France) Used for inexpensive sparkling wines, this method was invented Frenchman Eugene Charmont at the beginning of the twentieth century. The secondary fermentation takes place in a sealed tank. Dry base wine is placed, together with sugar, yeast nutrients and a clarifying agent, and the resulting sediment is removed by filtration under pressure, before the wine is bottled. Under French law, no tank method sparkling wine can be of AC status.

The Carbonation method Used for cheap sparkling wines, the CO2 is not produced as part of the fermentation, but taken from a cylinder. The bubbles are large and disappear quickly. For this reason this method is not used for any wines with claims to quality.

The cork This takes the form of a conic cylinder with an area on its face about three times that of the neck of the bottle. This cork is made up of two sections, the combination of which has been shown to give the most effective seal. The end that is in contact with the wine consists of two or three horizontal slices of whole cork; the balance is made up of composition cork.

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3.9 Wine and food To match food and wine, try to assess the power of the food by its similarity in terms of impact on the palate to the wines. The white and red wines listed below are given in order of increasing powerfulness. Remember warmer climates and years produce fuller bodied wines. Tannin levels drop dramatically with age and can vary according to the year’s weather and wine-making techniques. Variation is particularly marked between different regions, single grape variety use or blends.

Pairing wine with food using the principle grape variety White wine – grape variety Chardonnay: seafood with butter sauce, chicken, pasta with cream sauce, veal, turkey, ham, cheese, gruyeres, Riesling: mild cheese, clams, mussels, Asian dishes, sashimi, ham, pork, lobster newberg, Tandoori chicken, Coquilles St Jacques. Sauvignon Blanc: oysters, grilled or poached salmon, seafood salad, Irish stew, ham, goat’s cheese and strongly flavoured cheeses, asparagus quiche. Gewürztraminer: spicy dishes, Thai food, curry, smoked salmon, pork and sauerkraut, Muenster, spiced/peppered cheeses, onion tart.

Red white - grape variety Cabernet Sauvignon: duck, spicy beef, paté, rabbit, roasts, spicy poultry, cheddar, blue cheese, sausage, kidneys. Pinot Noir: braised chicken, cold duck, rabbit, charcuterie, partridge, roasted turkey, roasted beef, lamb, veal, truffles, and gruyeres. Merlot: braised chicken, cold duck, roasted turkey, roasted beef, lamb, veal, stew, liver, venison, meat casseroles. Shiraz: braised chicken, chilli, goose, meat stew, peppercorn steak, barbequed meat, spicy meats, garlic casserole, and ratatouille.

Pairing specific wines and foods within the meal experience Food Soups:

Suggested wines

French onion

Sancerre, Sauvignon Blanc (New Zealand or California), Beaujolais Villages. Sauvignon Blanc from New Zealand or Touraine, California Riesling, Alsace Riesling. Dry Amontillado, Zinfandel, Californian Chenin Blanc, Savennieres. (Blander soups always need a lift)

Asparagus Consommé

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Eggs

Omelette Quiche Lorraine

Barbera d’Alba Piedmont, Amarone della Valpolicella DOC, Coteaux du Languedoc, Cote du Rhone Villages. Alsace Pinot Blanc, Alsace Edelwicker, Morey St Denis.

Pasta, Pizzas and Grains

Lasagne (meat) Pizza Spaghetti carbonora Pates  Chicken liver pate Salmon pate Rough pate Salads  Chefs salad Seafood Salad Fish and shellfish Fish & Chips Sushi Crab Lobster (grilled) Mussels in wine sauce Oysters Prawns Trout Snails (white wine sauce Big fish on sauces Smoked river fish Meat Roast beef Pork & apple sauce Boeuf a la Bourguignonne Corned beef Irish stew (rustic stews)

Chianti Classico, Beaujolais Villages. Valpolicella (Veneto), Washington State Chenin Blanc, Frascati (Latium, Italy). Dry white Burgundy, US – Merlot, Rias Baixas, Bourgogne Blanc, Sancerre, Vin de Pays d’Oc (red). Cote du Rhone Viognier, Alsace & Austrian Riesling, Rias Baixas, Alsace, Tokay, Pinot Gris. California Chardonnay, Bourgogne Rouge, Chassagne- Montrachet. Chinon (Loire). Vin de Pays d’Oc Rousanne, Savennieres (Chenin Blanc from Loire Valley). Chablis (un-oaked Chardonnay), California SB (oaky dry white), Alsace Riesling. Dry rosé from Navarre, un-oaked fruity dry white, California Chenin Blanc. Riesling Alsace. With Wasabi stick to beer or sake. This food is a wine killer. Sauvignon Blanc from Chile or South Africa, Chardonnay from NY State. Grand Cru Burgundy Chardonnay (Corton Charlemagne), Chassagne Montrachet, Puligny Montrachet, Meursault (AC for white). Muscadet de Sevre et Maine, Chardonnay from Oregon. Chablis or Guinness. Alsace Pinot Blanc. Chinon (Loire). Nuits St. Georges. Meursault. Sancerre (AC for whites). Top Bordeaux, Chenin Blanc from California, Chateauneuf-du-Pape, Chianti. Alsace Pinot Blanc, California Pinot Noir. Red Burgundy (Nuits St. Georges, Pinot Noir), California Syrah. Beaujolais (med weight reds), or Californian Chenin Blanc. Corbieres from Languedoc, California Chenin Blanc or med weight reds, Fitou (AC for reds)

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Roast lamb

Spicy saussages Big pot roasts Veal

Red Pauillac Bordeaux, Chianti Classico (Tuscan, Italy), California or NY State – Merlot, St. Emilion, Haut Medoc. Chianti Classico, Brunello di Montalcino, California Chenin Blanc, Chateauneuf du Pape. Rioja Spain, medium weight red from Loire (Chinon, Cabernet Sauvignon ideal), Washington State – Merlot. Chinon (Loire), Beaujolais. Cahors (AC for reds). Alsace (Riesling).

Poultry Roast turkey Coq au vin (chicken in wine Foie gras Meaty chicken

Alsace Riesling, Oaky Chardonnay, med weight red – California Zinfandel. PN Burgundy (med weight red), Riserva Chianti Tuscany – red with elegance, Nuits St. Georges. Sauternes, Vendage Tardive, Gewürztraminer. Beaujolais.

T-bone steak Roast veal

Game Roast duck Duck a l’orange Roast venison Rabbit casserole

Burgundy Red (for elegance & style), American – Merlot. Pinot Noir (for elegance and style). Northern Rhone, Cabernet Sauvignon from Bordeaux or California, Chinon (Loire). Nuits St. Georges.

Sauces and dressings Barbeque sauce Dry rosé, Chenin Blanc California. Black bean sauce Alsace Pinot Blanc. Curry sauce Med sweet Riesling, California Gewürztraminer. White wine sauce Consider the nature of the wine in the sauce and partner accordingly. White wine cream Fruity dry white Juracon, aromatic Riesling, oaky dry white California. sauce Desserts  Apple pie Sauternes, US Riesling. Blueberry pie Sweet red Recioto della Valipolicella. Crème caramel California Semillon, Asti Piedmont, California Brandy. Crepes suzette The hot liqueur based sauce precludes drinking wine. Vanilla ice cream Usually doesn’t need wine but a Pedro Ximenez sherry is wonderful Cheeses  Blue cheese, strong Brie Cheddar Feta Edam

Sauternes, Vintage Port. Beaujolais, Demi-Sec Vouvray. Chateauneuf-du-Pape, Old Oloroso Sherry. white wine, ideally Retsina (Greece). California Zinfandel.

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3.10 Storing wine Cork’s effect on wine storage Oxygen has an adverse effect on wine, making it spoil and go vinegary. This adverse affect is often referred to as the wine being corked, not that there are bits of cork floating in the glass. Corking can also occur when bacteria grows on an improperly sterilised cork. The wine will not be harmful to drink, but you’ll get a whiff of sulphur (rotten egg) when you pull the cork, hence the reason why many wine producers are slowly moving to plastic corks and screw tops.

Rationale for wine storage The majority of bars do not need to stock fine wines and they will therefore feel that investing in the equipment and training to ensure that their wines are stored properly is a waste of time and money. In fairness this can be the case in most bars where the wines are consumed immediately. What is the point of stashing away wines? I must point out however the common re-occurring problems with wines today. Far too many wines nowadays are released for sale at far too tender an age – at the behest of winery accounts fretting about cash flow. This means that even quite inexpensive young reds will benefit from a year or so in your wine cellar. More serious whites (like premier cru or grand cru) would also improve if kept for a year or two.

Best practice procedures for storing wine Wines that will improve with keeping are known as vins de garde. Johnson (2004) argues that to buy wine and not look after it properly is equivalent to ‘hanging a masterpiece in a dark corner or not exercising a racehorse, storing wines badly can turn nectar into sludge’. Good wine storage and cellar organisation can be summarised under the following headings. 1 Provide a good cellar: a concrete floor is a necessity, concrete walls and floor ceiling if possible, make sure that your storage is generous. 2 Maintain a constant cellar temperature: around 50 to 55°F (10 to 13°C). An air conditioner is very useful here. No wine will stand alternate boiling and freezing. In high temperatures the wine will age quicker, and there is the danger of it seeping around the cork 3 Maintain the humidity at about 70 to 75 %. Wine breathes through the cork, so if the atmosphere is too dry air will be sucked into the bottle, and the quality of the wine will be destroyed. 4 Wine bottles should always be kept lying down to prevent the cork from drying and shrinking and letting in air. Properly constructed racks so that bottles can easily be taken from the top to the bottom are a good addition

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5 Light should be controlled, especially neon lighting, it has a browning effect on white wine and it results in loss of colour, particularly in red wine. 6 Sources of vibration should be avoided at all costs, e.g. boiler or other machinery located in the cellar. 7 Avoid unwanted smells and odours. Only wine and spirits should be stored in the wine cellar as wine absorbs smells and pungent odours very easily 8 Have a systems of books (detailed wine biography). Keep an up to date cellar book where quantities are recorded, as well as the delay between ordering and supplying required by each supplier, plus if the wines are really expensive note details about the vintage, vineyard, merchant, price and maybe an estimation of when a vintage will peak. In bars, restaurants and hotels a properly structured and professionally organised wine cellar may prove a good economical investment. This will serve to improve the quality of the wine, as well as being practical for tutored tastings. Remember the primary objective here is to help your wines achieve their full potential.

Summary „„ Wine is now an everyday commodity enjoyed in the bar by many people regardless of their social status. Wine has muscled its way to the bar in recent years. „„ This beverage is the naturally fermented juice of ripe grapes which ideally have been freshly gathered and pressed at or near the place where harvested. „„ Wine is a complex liquid in a constant state of change. „„ The climate, soil, grape, viticulture, vinification and luck of the year are the crucial factors that influence the production of all wines. „„ The three primary senses of sight, smell and taste are used to properly evaluate wines but the environment, glassware and preparation of the wines is also important. „„ Wine can be ideally enjoyed with all types of food due to its unique composition. „„ It is crucial that you increase your wine service and storage standards and adopt best practice procedures to ensure customer satisfaction and to help your wines achieve their full potential in your bar.

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Principal Wine Regions of the World

Aims and learning outcomes of this chapter The chapter will focus on the principle wine growing regions of the world, on completion of this chapter the learner will be expected to be able to „„

Describe the major wine growing countries and regions, their individual classifications and their related wine laws

„„

Outline the grape characteristics, geographical and geological factors, viticultural and vinification techniques used to produce wines around the world.

4.1 Argentina 70% of Argentina’s vineyards are located in the state of Mendoza, which lies under the Andes Mountains and is geographically located on the same latitude as Morocco. A unique intricate system of irrigation, which is supplied from the melted snows of the Andes Mountains by a network of canals begun by the native Indians a thousand years ago (which included a legal framework for equitably dividing water rights, that subsequent generations have luckily inherited), coupled with balanced temperatures and little or no disease ensures that crops are huge. The average crop produces an amazing 70 hectolitres. The vineyards of Argentina lie above 500 metres above sea level with the exception of Salta (in the sub tropical north), which is close to the town of Cafayate those vineyards reach a height to 2,000 metres. The majority of the vineyards are planted in the parral, or pergola system because of the heat, this helps keep the grapes away from the scorching ground heat. The best vineyards are located near the Andes, due to the unique canal system and high altitudes between 600 to 950 metres. Phylloxera is controlled in Argentina by flooding the vineyards with water from big dams located in the Andes Mountains.

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Major regions Argentina was the first South American country to introduce a DOC system in 1992. Mendoza: only region with a hierarchy of appellations, divided into five regions and a larger number of departments and then subdivisions. San Juan: warmer climates produces light wines, lots of vermouths and grape concentrate. Famatina: far north, very hot contains co-operative cellars, the La Rioja province wines although popular are labelled Famatina Valley because of Spain. Cafayate: the Torrontes (white) grape reigns here in this Salta province. High growing altitudes help develop aromas and flavours. Cabernet Sauvignon also grows well here. Rio Negro: located in the far south, this cool region produces a lot of Malbec

Grape varieties Malbec (Mendoza, Rio Negro) produces full-bodied, bramley red wines with the dark purple colour, rich tannins, peppery and spicy flavours. The most widely planted grape variety, once dominant in Bordeaux and flourishing as Auxerrois in Cahors, in Argentina it produces top rich red wine Torrontes (Cafayate) produces full-bodied, dry white wines with Muscat-like aromas. Argentina’s indigenous white variety, popular and very easy to drink, both for old-style brownish wines and fruiter modern ones. Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Merlot (Cafayate, Mendoza) planted widely for red wines. Chardonnay and Viognier (Mendoza) for white wines. Criolla and Cereza used for basic, local market table wine or in some cases grape concentrates.

4.2 Australia The best vineyards are to the south and close to the sea. Australia’s red and white wines display a delicate fruity softness, which is ideal for immediate consumption. The climate is Mediterranean, with cooler areas found at altitude or close to the coast. Drought can be the biggest problem. Weather can also cause vintage variation.

Soils Very mixed for separate regions, some special soils include the Terra Rossa of Connawarra.

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Grape varieties Although there are about 90 different grape varieties planted commercially in Australia the main grape varieties grown are: White: Semillion, Riesling, Chardonnay, Muscat Gordo Blanco, Sauvignon Blanc, Colombard, Verdelho. Black: Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Ruby Cabernet, Grenache, Mataro (Mourvedre), Cabernet Franc.

Geographical Indications (GI) Created in 1993 ‘to determine geographical indications for wine in relation to regions and localities in Australia’. The GI is part of Label Integrity Program to ensure the validity of the information on the bottle label. If regions, varieties or vintages are stated on the label, then 85% of the wine in the bottle must come from those regions, varieties or vintages.

Major wines Hunter Valley Semillon, Barossa Shiraz, Connawarra Cabernet Sauvignon, Clare and Eden Valley Rieslings, Adelaide Hills Chardonnay, Yarra Valley Pinot Noir, Margaret River Cabernet Sauvignon, Margaret River Chardonnay, Rutherglen Liqueur Muscat.

Figure 4.1: Wine regions of Australia (University of Bath Student’s Union Wine Society)

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Major regions and wines New South Wales Hunter Valley Zone: the most northerly of Australia’s first-class vineyards, located about 160 kilometres to the north of Sydney. Divided into two, the majority of the wine production is concentrated in the Lower Hunter Valley. The main grapes here are the Semillon (harvested early low sugar levels and high acidity) and the Shiraz (very soft and earthy in style). Upper Hunter Valley has a drier climate, Chardonnay dominates here. Central Ranges Zone: inland from Sydney, located on the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, lie the three regions of Mudgee, Orange and Cowra. In all three areas the cooler climate gives some very concentrated Chardonnays and Cabernet Sauvignons. Big Rivers Zone: inland from the central ranges, lie the bulk production regions of the Murray-Darling Region, where those two rivers join, and the Riverina Region, in the irrigated valley of the Murrumbidgee. Botrytised wines made from Semillon are a speciality of the region around the town of Griffith, in Riverina.

Victoria What is interesting about Victoria is the broad diversity of the wines it offers. Western Victoria Zone: The regions of Pyrenees and Grampians are located here producing powerful tannic Shiraz. Central Victoria Zone: This region is a good source of Shiraz and Cabernet wines; the Goulburn Valley Region is a source of distinctive white wines from Rhone varieties such as Marsanne, Rousanne and Viognier. North-West Victoria Zone: The bulk producing vineyards of the Murray-Darling Region are located here providing large quantities of healthy fruit for the SouthEastern Australia blends. North-East Victoria: The world renowned Rutherglen Region, which produces its famous liqueur Muscats and Tokays, is located here along the Murray River. Port Phillip Zone: a maritime-influenced region which circles the city of Melbourne. Mainly small estates. Amongst the best are the Yarra Valley Region, produce good Pinot Noir, there is also much Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon and some excellent sparkling wine. Mornington Peninsula Region to the south of the city also produces good Pinot Noir and Chardonnay.

South Australia The vineyards are located to the south-east of the state. This phylloxera-free area produces over 40% of all Australia’s wines. Limestone Coast Zone: 400 kilometres south-east of Adelaide, bordering Victoria. This region is distinctly cool, the Connawarra Region, a narrow strip of land 1.5km by 15 km, with a distinctive red, terra rossa, soil over limestone subsoil, lies to the

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south of the region producing excellent Cabernet Sauvignon. Padthaway Region with its similar conditions produces similar wines. Mount Lofty Ranges Zone: Contains Clare Valley which lies to north of Barossa, Riesling is major grape variety here. Adelaide Hills Region to the east of Adelaide is also in this zone (makes elegant Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc). Lower Murray Zone: Riverland region which supplies large amounts of grapes for bulk wine production, hot weather grapes reach sugar ripeness prematurely. Barossa Zone: North of Adelaide, 30 kilometre long, making excellent wines in Germanic character. Soil contains ironstone and limestone, hot climate. Contains old bush vines which produce outstanding Shiraz, Grenache, Mataro and Cabernet Sauvignon. Barossa Shiraz is classic. Eden Valley region here also produces (dry medium bodied Rieslings). Fleurieu Peninsular Zone: Lies to the south contains the McLaren region, nearby ocean keeps the climate cool. Red wines from Cabernet Sauvigon, Shiraz and Merlot. Langhorne Creek region is also located here producing good Shiraz.

Western Australia This area mainly contains boutinque wineries which create quality award winning wines. Greater Perth Zone: North of Perth is the Swan Valley sub-region, hot climate and historic wineries. South-West Australia Zone: contains Marageret River region, 200 kilometeres south of Perth, near the sea, its micro climate is suited to Cabernet and Bordeaux blends and cool enough to produce Chardonnay, Semillon. Sub-region of Mount Barker and Frankland River produce Cabernet Sauvigon. Pemberton region reputation for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay.

Tasmania Coolest climate in Australia, good region for Pinot Noirs and aromatic white wines from Alsatian varieties.

4.3 Austria Much of the Austrian wine is consumed locally, while Germany is its biggest export market. Winemaking in Austria pre-dates the Romans; no country in Europe has changed its attitudes and upgraded its standards so much in recnt years as Austria.

Austrian wine laws Completely revamped and introduced in 1993, the classification system for the Austrian wine is similar to that of Germany, for example chaptalisation is forbidden for quality wines and the wine label information is also similar for both

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countries. The main difference is with the two extra quality levels: Ausbruch, a classification between Beernauslese (BA) and Trockenbeerenaulese (TBA), and Stohwein or Shilfwein, where bunches of grapes are laid out on beds of straw or reeds during the winter, to take on extra sweetness. The minimum must weights required in Austria are higher when compared to Germany.

Classification system for Austrian quality wines „„ Trockenbeernaulese (top level) „„ Eiswein „„ Ausbruch „„ Beerauslese „„ Auslese „„ Strohwein or Shilfwein.

Vineyards and grape varieties The vineyards are mainly concentrated to the east of Austria. They spill over into the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Slovenia and take their grape varieties with them, just as they did in the days when the Austro-Hungarian Empire covered the whole region. 85% of the wines are white and dry made from the indigenous ‘Gruner Veltliner’ (a grape capable of giving a broad variety of flavours, which until recently it was sold young) and other varieties, including the noble Riesling (grown for the quality wines giving dry full bodied wines with ripe peachy fruits), and Welschriesling (susceptible to noble rot, produces excellent sweet wines in southern Austria),

Major regions and wines Currently under new legislation, Austria is split into four regions (Weinbauregion), which in turn are split into Weinbaugebiete and Grosslage (districts). The first two are the most important regions for the international markets. Niederosterreich (Lower Austria) Key wines – Wachau, Kamptal, Kremstal using Gruner Veltliner or Riesling and Weinvieretel DAC using Gruner Vertliner. Burgenland: Key wines – Eisewein using various grape varieties and Burgenland reds using Blaufrankisch, cuvees. Burgenland lies to the east of Austria on the Hungarian border and produces outstanding sweet wines. Steiermark (Styria) Wien (Vienna) where vineyards are located within the residential areas and the produce is called Heurige which is served and consumed locally in the many taverns by jug or litre bottle to be drunk or taken away.

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4.4 Bulgaria Bulgaria has made great strides in recent years with its wines against the challenges of the weather, the econmomy and political instability. Investments here are beginning to show signs of value, and in recent years Bulgaria’s winemakers have started producing quality wines.

Wine classification The Wine Act of 1978 classified Bulgaria’s wines as follows: „„ Standard wines: bottom level, light wines drank locally „„ Special wines: covers sparkling, liqueur and fruit wines „„ High quality wines geographical origin: wines from unspecified region sold under a brand name, the lowest export standard. „„ High quality wines with declared geographical origin (DGO): states the grape variety and region for example ‘Russe Welschriesling’ Russe being the producing region. Two varieties are blended to make an original taste. „„ Controliran: similar to AC in France, limited mainly to single varieties. The label will have the word ‘Controliran’ and the specified region and grape variety. This wine will have been tasted and approved by a professional panel. „„ Reserve: this can only appears on the label on a DGO or Controliran wine and indicates that these wines have been aged in oak for 3-4 years. „„ Special Reserve: limited lots, these wines are the country’s best.

Wine regions and grape varieties For administrative reasons the country is split into five regions: Black Sea Region, Danube Plain Region, Thracian Valley Region (East and West) and the Struma Valley Region. Of the international red varieties Cabernet Sauvignon wines are the major export favourite, Merlot and local varieties Mavrud, Melnik, Pamid and Gamza. The whites include Chardonnay, Aligote, Dimiat, Rkatsiteli and Muscat Ottonel. Cabernet Sauvignon, grown in Danube Plain, West and East Thracian Valley, Merlot in East Thracian Valley, Melnik in Struma Valley Region, and Chardonnay in Black Sea Region.

4.5 Canada Canada extends more than 7,821 km from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. Numerous microclimates produced by the mountain ranges and bodies of water have produced some of the world’s best areas from grape growing. Wine regions: The most recognized areas for wines in Canada are Southern Ontario around the Great Lakes, most notably the Niagara Peninsula and the Okanagen

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Valley of British Columbia. Other main regions in Ontario are the Lake Erie North Shore and Prince Edward County. In British Columbia you have the Naramata Beach, Simikameen Valley, Vancouver Island and Kootenay’s. Quebec has five main regions of note: Monteregie, Eastern Townships Wineries Les Contans de L’est, Lower Laurentials Wineries – Basses Laurential, Laurentials Wineries and Quebec City. Nova Scotia have five main growing regions with Annapolis Valley been the best known, Malaagash Peninsula, La Have River Valley and Bear river valley.

Grape varieties The main grape varieties used in Canada fall into three categories (a) European vinifrea – i.e. Chardonnay, Riesling, Pinot Noir, which are widely grown and make good wines, (b) American or labruscana – i.e. Concord and Niagara which are no longer considered good wine grapes and (c) Hybrids – i.e. Baco Noir, Marechal Foch, L’Acadie, and Leon Millot which were developed to have superior hardiness and disease resistance. Ice wine: This wine began in Germany (Eiswein) but today Canada is the biggest producer of ice wine. The regions most famous for ice-wine are the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario and the Okangen Valley of British Columbia. The unique climate in these regions allows for conditions that ripen the grapes in the summer and freeze them in the extreme winter. The grapes are picked at the coldest moment of a winter’s night. As the grape freezes new sensations of sweet juice are created. Quality control: VQA Ontario was designated as Ontario’s wine authority under the Vintners Quality Alliance Act, 1999. Ontario has so far identified three primary Viticultural Areas or appellations of origin: Niagara Peninsula, Lake Erie North Shore, and Prince Edward County. Across Canada, there are now eight primary Viticultural Areas that are recognized to produce grapes for appellation wines certified by the Vintners Quality Alliance system (VQA). These appellations of origin are located in southern Ontario and British Columbia and account for 98% of the country’s premium wine production. The majority of these wines come from Ontario’s appellations, where approximately 15,000 acres of wine grape vineyards are planted.

4.6 Chile Chile’s wealth from wine was invested in French style chateaux, vineyards and four main French grape varieties, namely Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Semillon and Sauvignon Blanc. Foreign investment into vineyard planting and modern wineries, oak casks and stainless steel used in Chile have contributed to the quality of its wines. Sales of these fruit flavoured wines have soared in America and Europe.

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Chile is unique in the world of wine as it is the only country, which is Phylloxera free, due to its geography and very strict quarantine conditions. As no grafting is needed, a lot of the vines are very old now. Chile has a unique geographical layout: to the north is the Aatcama desert which only sees rain every few years, to the east the cold Andes Mountains (which stops phylloxera from Argentina), to the west the cold Pacific, to the south the rain never stops. Irrigation: water comes down from the snow capped Andes Mountains though the old Inca canal system (canals and gullies which flood the land). This water creates a true Garden of Eden setting. Vineyards are close to these rivers and the valleys are called after the rivers.

Grape varieties The grape varieties grown in Chile include: „„ Carmenere, the rare Bordeaux grape giving Chile a speciality red wine, with elegant velvet-textured tastes „„ a little bit of Viognier is grown to suit US Californian wine tastes „„ Sauvignon Blanc, which tastes flabby here, as they pick half the grapes early and half later in the season „„ Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot grown for varietal production are sold almost entirely internationally „„ Chardonnay produces wines of great fruit purity „„ Muscat of Alexandria is widely planted in the northerly vineyards beside the Atacama desert, for distillation into the local brandy Pisco „„ Other varieties include Carignan, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Syrah. The popular local Pais red grape variety, although very popular in past years, is declining now.

Wine classification Chile uses a uniquely flexible classification system for its vineyard regions, based on four tiers. A wine may name as its source any of these four tiers. „„ Regions: for example, Aconcagua region „„ Sub-regions: for example, Casablanca valley „„ Areas: for example Santa Cruz „„ Zones: for example Colchagua valley.

Major regions and wines Casablanca, Central Valley (white: Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, reds: Pinot Noir), especially Casablanca Sauvignon Blanc. Maipo, Rapel (reds: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot), especially Rapel Cabernet Sauvignon.

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Figure 4.2: Wine map of Chile (University of Bath Student’s Union Wine Society).

Chilean Carmenere Northern Zone Aconcagua Valley Region: named after the highest peak of the Andres, at 7,000 metres, visible from Santiago, Aconcagua lies just north of Santiago, this is Chile’s real heartland for high-quality grapes. The Casablanca Valley grows the best Chilean reds from Pinot Noir and the good white wines from Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc. Central Zone, Central Valley (Valle Central) Region: known as the real core red wine growing region in Chile, this region produces over 90% of Chile’s wine exports. Maipo Valley with its many old Cabernet Sauvignon vines is the centre for fine red wines. Rapel Valley (sub region), which contains the Colchagua Valley famous for single and blends of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Camenere, these individual wines are expensive.

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Curico (sub region) grows lots of international varieties, Miguel Torres starting here in 1975. Southern Zone ,Southern Valley Region: this area mainly consists of hillside and vineyards closer to the Pacific Ocean, white wine become more important in the south, its main sub regions, Itata and Bio-Bio grow Gewurztraminer and Riesling.

4.7 China China boasts an incredible mix of terroirs and terrains spanning more than three million square miles. Since 1994 China has put an emphasis on developing its wine market. By the end of 1995, there were over 240 wineries in China. The majority of the vineyards are located in the north including Shandong Province and Shanxi Province. Well-known Chinese vineyards include Great Wall, Dynasty, Grace and Dragon Seal. Wine regions: The Ningxia region is now the largest in wine production, winning many awards – in 2011 this region’s wines actually beat the wines of Bordeaux to win the Decanter trophy. Other regions include the North East, Hebei, Bohai Bay and the Shandong wine region, the Yellow River area, Yunnan, Gansu, and Xinjiang regions. The most notable wine-producing regions include Beijing, Yantai, Zhangjiakou in Hebei, Yibin in Sichuan, Tonghua in Jilin, Taiyuan in Shanxi, and Ningxia. The largest producing region is Yantai-Penglai; with over 140 wineries, it produces 40% of China’s wine Grape varieties: The Government of China set up two national grape germplasm repositories at Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute of the China Academy of Agricultural Sciences (located at Zhengzhou, Henan province) and the Institute of Fruit Research of Shanxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences (located at Taigu, Shanxi province). More than 1,300 grape varieties were collected in these two national grape germplasm repositories for possible cultivation. Some of the popular local Chinese varieties which have been cultivated include: Table Grapes: Zaomeigui, Zhengzhuo Zaohong, Fenghuang No 51, Jing Zaojing, Shangdong Zaohong, Jingxiu, Jingya, Zizhenxiang, Shengxiu, Jingyu, Fenghou; Wine grapes: Beichun, Gongliang No 1, Shuangyou, Zuoshan No 1. International varieties include: Chardonnay, Italian Risling, Chenin Blanc, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, Gamay Noir, Gewurztraminer, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, High quality Chinese wines made to match international standards for premium wines are finding greater acceptance. Labels such as Huadong’s Chardonnay and Huaxia Dry Red, Changyu’s Cabernet, and Beijing’s Dragon Seal are a few examples of locally made wines catching on.

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4.8 Czech Republic There are two main wine regions in the Czech Republic – Bohemia and Moravia. They are further divided into sub-regions. The total area of the vineyards is equal to 19 thousand hectares, most of which is situated in Moravia. The top quality Moravian white wines are known worldwide. Wine producers in the Czech Republic are very successful and there is proof of it in, for example, the newly recognised types of red wine, Cabernet Moravia or André, and in white wine, e.g. the Muškát moravský.

Wine regions Moravia: In this region the little villages typically comprise – just of wine cellars without a permanent residential population. The sub-regions are: „„ Znojmo is a region of white aromatic wines. The main grape variety Veltlínské zelené is unrivalled but excellent quality can be seen in Sauvignon, Ryzlink rýnský and Müller Thurgau too. In addition, there are the outstanding varieties, Muškát moravský and Rulandské šedé. As regards red wines, the most common variety is Svatovavřinecké. „„ Velke Pavlovice contains over one thousand registered wine producers. The most frequently found varieties of white wine are Tramín červený, Veltlínské zelené and Ryzlink vlašský. Local heavy soil provides excellent conditions for red wine varieties too. The Velké Pavlovice sub-region is considered the heart of red wines in this country. The most common varieties are Svatovavřinecké and Frankovka. „„ Mikulov is the largest in the Czech Republic. Vineyards spread over more than 2.5 thousand hectares. The centre of the region is the town of Valtice, home of the leading Czech wine producer, Valtice Wine Cellars. „„ Slovacks: The area of vineyards around Uherské Hradiště is the northernmost wine region in Moravia. The main varieties are Ryzlink rýnský, Rulandské bílé and Rulandské šedé. As for dark varieties, the most frequent are Frankovka and Zweigeltrebe. Bohemia: considered one of the northernmost wine regions in Europe. At present, most of the vineyards are located around Mělník, Litoměřice and Most. It is interesting that the vineyards in Bohemia are neither continuous nor extensive, unlike Moravia. They are usually spread over protected southern slopes near rivers – the Vltava, the Elbe, the Ohře and the Berounka. „„ Melnik: At present, most of the vineyards produce Müller Thurgau. „„ Litomerice: this sub-region has always been the most serious rival to Mělník. The best known wine cellars are probably those in Žernoseky, built by the Cistercian order, who founded the vineyards in Žernoseky in 1251. The prevailing varieties are Rulandské bílé and Rulandské šedé, and Ryzlink rýnský.

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4.9 England and Wales The UK is now recognised as a premium wine-producing region, with English and Welsh wines winning many prestigious international awards. There are over 400 vineyards in England and Wales covering some 1,384 hectares and producing top quality sparkling and still wines in their 124 wineries. The number of vineyards in each region is currently: East Anglia 66, South East 145, Central South 96, Midlands 91, North 18, South West 120, Wales 22, Scotland 4, Channel Islands 5.

Grape varieties The most popular grape varieties grown in England are Chardonnay (covering 285 hectares - 20.6%), Pinot Noir (covering 258 hectares - 18.6%), Bacchus (covering 133 - 9.6%). Other varieties grown: White: Auxerrois, Faberrebe, Huxelrebe, Kerner, Madeleine Angevine, Muller Thurgau, Optima, Orion, Ortega, Pheonix, Regner, Reichsteiner, Rwagier, Schonburger, Seyval Blanc, Siegerrebe and Wurzer. Red: Dornfelder, Dunkelfeder, Pinot Meunier, Regent, Rondo and Triomphe.

Labelling and legislation „„ English or Welsh wine is made from fresh grapes grown in England (or Wales) and produced in UK wineries. „„ British wine is is the product of imported grapes or grape concentrate that is made into wine in Britain. These wines are also labelled as ‘United Kingdom wines’ or ‘wine from the UK’. „„ Protected geographical status was introduced for English and Welsh wines in recent years. These wines will be labelled with ‘Protected Designation of Origin’ or ‘Protected Geographic Indication’ – and will have passed certain taste and analytical parameters under wine schemes sponsored by the UKVA, The producers must prove the geographical origins of the grapes - PDO wines have more stringent rules on the origin of their grapes than PGI wines.

4.10 France France: Alsace – The fairytale region Alsace is in Northeast France. Annexed by Germany in 1871, it still has a very Germanic culture. When Alsace was returned to France at the end of the First World War, it chose a path as a producer of quality wines. The first step was the banning of hybrid vines in 1925. Appellation Controlee was finally introduced in 1962. Further steps have included legislation that insists on bottling in the region of production (1972) and the compulsory use of the Alsace flute bottle (except for Pinot Noir and sparkling wines).

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The wine of Alsace reflects the ambivalent situation of a border province. Alsace makes Germanic wine in the French way. The fine, dry white Alsace wines are extremely distinctive with a perfumed, flowery bouquet. They are delicate and subtle yet strong and full of flavour, a proper accompaniment to strong and savoury food. Alsace wines are always named after the grapes from which they are made such as Gewurztraminer, Pinot Blanc, Riesling and Sylvaner. Alsace wines are never cheap because of the labour intensity involved in its production.

France

Champagne Alsace Chablis Anjou et Saumurois

Bourgogne Touraine Sancerre

Muscadet

Jura

Beaujolais

Cognac

Côteaux du Lyonnais

Savoie

Bordelais Cahors Côtes du Rhône Gaillac Languedoc Armagnac

Côtes de Provence

Jurançon Principaux vignobles

Roussillon

Plaine d’Aléria

Eaux-de-vie

Figure 13.1: The major wine regions of France Figure 4.3: The major wine regions of France (Dal Gobbo M: Creative Commons, wikimedia.org)

Key facts regarding Alsace „„ Alsace subdivides into two main areas the Bas-Rhin (around the political capital Strasbourg) and Haut-Rhin (which contains most of the 50 Grand Cru vineyards in Alsace, with the best vineyards located on the east-facing foothills of the Vosges mountains). The wine capital of Alsace is Colmar. „„ The lesser vineyards are located on the plains with the majority of vineyards are small holdings. „„ Noted for small growers, with the highest yield allowance for France at 70 hectolitres per hectare.

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„„ Second most northern AC wine producing region for still white wine. 99% of Alsace wine is white. „„ All Alsace wine is bone dry except Vandage Tardive or Botrytis wines. „„ Extra long corks are used for bottling Alsace wines. „„ A good area for the fruit liqueur Poire Williams. „„ Alsace only got AC in 1962 and has a different system from the rest of France. „„ Alsace was the first area in France to call wines after varietal names, which helped its wines to be noticed. „„ The big co-operatives are located at Eguisheim, Kientzheim, Beblenheim and Westhalten, and play an important role in the Alsace wine business. „„ Alsatians are fanatical about naturalness. They like their wine to stabilise without fining, and add nothing to the wine of any kind except sugar. Climate Alsace’s climate is Northern Continental. There can be problems with spring frost, but it is protected from rain and wind from the west by the Vosges mountains, making Alsace the second driest region in France. Rainfall is as little as 500 mm per year and coupled with over 1800 hours of sunshine, with hot summers and long, dry autumns. The rivers Rhine and Ill, and the Rhine tributaries, help air circulation. A lot of vineyards are situated on hillsides. Alsace contains many microclimates. They all go to create the ideal conditions for making great wine. Appellation: Alsace 1962 AC refinement „„ If a grape variety is displayed on the label – must be 100% of that GV (only 85% in the EU) „„ Wines must almost be bottled in Alsace flute (Green, tall).

Wine growing in Alsace Training system used for the vines: Geneva double curtain – high up training for good air circulation. The vines can survive to –6°C in winter (very cold). In Alsace they used a system called buttage: building up the earth around the vines (protects against frost and the rabbits or any other livestock eating the roots). Soil: Wine growing soil in Alsace is varied with over 2000 different soils; geologists come to study these unique soils. Great geographical complexity, the slopes include granite, limestone, sandstone, clay, and even volcanic soils, whilst on the plains the soil is largely alluvial. The vineyards: The wine villages lie in a narrow band 140 kilometres long, at the foot of the Vosges, across two departments, with the Haut-Rhin to the south and the Bas-Rhin to the North. Grape varieties These are the only permitted varieties, in order of importance. Only the top four are ‘noble’ and allowed for AC. Pinot Noir is the only red grape.

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Riesling: Highly individual, steely acidity, which turns to honey, nutty, lime zest after 10 years. Grown on shingle/sandy/slaty soils. Riesling makes great Cremant (Cremant d’Alsace). Gewurztraminer: The word is German for spice. Soil used is Marl: this grape gives high yield and alcohol. Always dry, low acidity, explosion of flavours. Pinot Gris: Old Tokay Pinot Gris. Alsace’s greatest wines usually called Tokay d’Alsace, 11% of the vineyards. Golden wine, low acidity, ages brilliantly. Muscat: Sandy soil. Sheer heaven, purest essence of fresh grape, and yet dry. Sylvaner: Calcareous soil. Quite good acidity, ripens well in N. Alsace – earth & honey fullness, apple acidity. Pinot Blanc: (Auxerrois, Klevner) plants on fertile soils. Fresh soft, easy drinking style excellent young sometimes capable of ageing. Pinot Noir: Only red grape used: grown in Marl. Rarely achieves much colour or much weight. Chardonnay: Only planted for sparkling wine (Cremant d’Alsace). Chasselas: Does not make varietal wine – like a weed vine being phased out (used for jug wine). Five main Appellations Controlees In 1962 Alsace was granted AC for the whole region; this originally granted on three AC levels. Two more were introduced in 1975. 1 Vin d’Alsace (bottom level): white, rosé, red wine, anywhere in Alsace, blend of many grapes. Must be bottled in ‘Flute d’Alsace’ bottle. AC Edelzwieker: The name Edelwicker is giving way to wines labelled simply Alsace or Vin d’Alsace. Bottom of the heap served in jugs. 2 Vin d’Alsace and Grape Variety (GV): if GV is displayed on label this indicates that 100% of the one of the noble grape variety was used. Yield allowance is 80 HecLtr/Hectare. 3 Vendange Tardive: called Auslese/Beerauslese in German times, special permission must be sought for this late harvest date (strict controls on pH sugar), expensive. Long dry slow ripening, most VT are dry, usually rich and mouthfilling, this wine needs 5 years to show true personality. Selection de Grains Nobles: a sub category of VT, extremely expensive, very late picked grapes affected by Botrytis – noble rot. These make stunning sweet white wines. 4 Alsace Grand Cru (top level): Their vineyards sites were called lieux-dits and were granted Grand Cru status. The name of the vineyard and the (noble) grape variety must appear on the label. The yield allowance is 55 HecLtr/Hectr to help ensure quality. 5 AC Cremant d’Alsace: applies to AC quality sparkling dry white wine blends or varietals. Made in the traditional manner – second fermentation in the bottle, using local grape varieties 6 white and black.

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France: Bordeaux Bordeaux is the only region of France where the wine estates are still the same size and shape as they were before the Revolution – the leaders confiscated them for themselves. The area is still very aristocratic with big chateaux. Bordeaux has probably the finest vineyards in the world, and is famous for its dry and full bodied clarets, the subtlest of all red wines. The best clarets should be allowed to age in the bottle for at least four or five years, and preferable for far longer. Bordeaux also produces distinguished sweet white wines and crisp, dry wines. The Bordeaux threes: There are three rivers, three main areas, three main soil types, three main red grapes, and three main white grapes. Bordeaux is South West France; it lies at 45 degrees latitude (the same as the Côte du Rhone) and therefore is quite northerly in the winemaking context.

Figure 4.4: Bordeaux wine region map (Terrior-France, French Wine Guide)

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Climate Bordeaux’s climate is Temperate Maritime: mild and humid – warm summers and mild winters. Bordeaux is near the sea, threaded with rivers which gives a moderate stable climate. Europe’s biggest forest on the ocean side and south protects it from strong salt winds and reduces rainfall.

Wine types Dry wines: Bordeaux, Entre-deux-Mers, Graves. Medium Dry White: Bordeaux Blanc, Côtes de Blaye. Sweet White: Barsac, Cerons, Loupiac, Premieres Côtes de Bordeaux, Sauternes, Ste-Croix du Mont. Red: Bordeaux, Côtes de Blaye, Côtes de Bourg, Graves, Margaux, Medoc, Pauillac, Pomerol, St. Emilion, St. Estephe, St. Julien.

Wine growing in Bordeaux Soils: Changes from around the river to inland area to hillsides. The coastal area is an alluvial plain created by the silt brought down by the two rivers, Dordogne and Garonne, which join at Bordeaux and form the tidal estuary to the sea, known as the Gironde. The plain is composed of sand, gravel and pockets of clay, which are very poor, but suit the vine very well. The bedrock is rich in minerals. „„ Medoc, Haut-Medoc, Graves – gravel, (pebbles near the river especially at Graves). „„ Saint-Emilion, Pomerol – clay with limestone subsoil. „„ Near river banks – alluvial soil (especially at the mouth of Gironde) Grape growing: High-density planting. Lower yields for higher quality wines. Gentle sloping vineyards suitable for machine harvesting. Red: Varieties are fermented separately and blended after fermentation. Maturation in vat, or in new or used oak barriques (225 litres). White: Stainless steel used to retain the varietal character of dry wines (for example Sauvignon Blanc). Oak often used to ferment and/or mature blends of Semillon / Sauvignon Blanc and sweet wines. Grape varieties A lot of blends are used; most winemakers use 2-3 grape varieties, sometimes up to 5. Cepage is the name for the blend chosen annually by winemakers to make the house style. Black: Merlot (soft plumy juice fruit), Cabernet Sauvignon [CS] (capable of long life), Cabernet Franc [CF] (gives good structure), Malbec and Petit Verdot (used as seasoning, like salt & pepper in small amounts). White, right bank Bordeaux: Semillon (thick skinned, big waxy grape, with little acidity, ideally suited for the noble rot – see page 56), Sauvignon Blanc [SB] (good acidity, youthful grape gives youth), Muscadelle (gives fruitiness).

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1855 Classification of the Medoc The 1855 Classification still stands virtually intact. There are 61 Crus Classes, in the Medoc, divided into five ranks. Premier Crus Bordeaux: 1855 Classification Premiers Crus (first growth) „„ Chateau Lafite Rothschild: Pauillac „„ Chateau Mouton Rothschild: Pauillac „„ Chateau Latour: Pauillac „„ Chateau Haut Brion: Graves „„ Chateau Margaux: Margaux In 1975 Mouton Rothschild was elevated to the first level. Cru Bourgeois: The 1855 Classification accounted for only a very small number of the estates of the Medoc. In 1932, a further classification of Cru Bourgeois was introduced and this was updated in 1978 and again in 2003, with the idea that this should then be revisited every ten years. It includes something over 200 properties and is divided into three levels; „„ Grand Cru Bourgeois Exceptional „„ Grand Cru Bourgeois „„ Cru Bourgeois

Left bank of River Gironde Appellations Haut Medoc the best communes and appellations (grapes used CS, Merlot, CF). St. Estephe AC: (CS, Merlot, CF), most northerly village in the Medoc, whose gentle slopes produce perhaps the driest of the clarets. One of four famous communes known for their Cru Bourgeois. Only five Cru classes and a dozen Cru Bourgeois. Amongst the best: Cos d’Estournel, Ch. Phelan Segur and Ch. De Pez. Pauillac AC: (CS, Merlot, CF), Claret lovers say Pauillac has the quintessential flavour of Bordeaux. Amongst the best are Ch. Lafitte-Rothschild, Ch. Mouton Rothschild, Ch. Latour, Ch. Pontet-Conet, Ch. Duhart Milan and Ch d’Armaillac. Margaux AC: (CS, Merlot, CF) Margaux historically makes Medoc’s polished and fragrant wines, its soil is the thinnest with the highest proportion of rough gravel. Amongst the best are Ch. Margaux, Ch. D’Issan, Ch. La Lagune. St. Julien AC: (CS, Merlot, CF). High proportion of classed growths. Small communes. Great châteaux in two groups: riverside estates (i.e. Leovilles around the villages of St. Julien includes Ch. Leoville: Ch. Leoville-Barton) and the Southern group, (led by Chateau Beychevelle, Ch. Gruaud-Larose, Ch. Talbot) Graves the best communes and appellations: (grapes used - Reds: CB, Merlot, CF, Whites: Semillon, SB. The word ‘graves’ means gravel. The whole region is still known as the Graves, but it has two ACs: „„ Pessac-Leognan for the area closest to Bordeaux. The 16 Crus Classes of the Graves are at present all located in Pessac-Leognan.

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„„ Graves for the rest, primarily to the south down to Langon and encircling the sweet white wine areas of Cerons, Sauternes and Barsac. Cerons AC: (Semillon, SB, Muscadelle), Pessac-Leognan AC: (reds: CS, Merlot, CF, whites: Semillon, SB), Sauternes AC: (Semillon, SB), Barsac AC: (Semillon, SB).

Right bank of River Gironde Appellations Different grape varieties are used due to different weather conditions – Merlot takes charge here and Cabernet Franc plays second. Merlot is first harvested due to its early ripening. The hillsides on the right bank are great for drainage. The classification on the right bank is totally different to the left bank. It changes every 10 years, de-listing or moving up wines. A Grand Classic on the right bank is not as good as Cru Class on the left bank. Saint-Emilion AC: (Merlot, CF). The separate Saint-Emilion Grand Cru AC has two subdivisions: Saint Emilion Grand Cru and Saint Emilion Grand Cru Classé. The Grand Cru Classé not as good as the Bordeaux left bank Cru Classé. Pomerol AC: (Merlot, CF), all red here. „„ Pomerol: Ch. Petrus most expensive in world, made virtually of 100% Merlot, no difficulty in ageing 20-30 years. „„ Pomerol: Ch. Le Pin (Merlot) exorbitantly priced. Côtes de Bourg AC: (Reds: Merlot, CF, CS, Malbec, Whites: Semillon, SB, Muscadelle and others). Côtes de Blaye AC: (Semillon, SB, Colombard and others). Fronsac AC: (reds: CF, CS, Merlot, Malbec). Canon-Fronsac AC: (Merlot, CF, CS, Malbec).

Between Garonne and the Dordogne Appellations Entre-deux-Mers AC : (Semillon, SB) Sainte-Croix-du-Mont AC: Premieres Côtes de Bordeaux AC, Loubens, Tastes, Lousteau-Vieil and neighbouring Loupiac

France: Burgundy Burgundy is second in importance and quality to Bordeaux and the Rhone Valley. Burgundies are fruity and rounded with a powerful bouquet. Both the reds and the whites are big, classic wines that often need lengthy maturing to bring them to their peak.

Location and climate Burgundy is to the northeast of France, and landlocked. Its climate is continental, no sea influence, severe winters, and hot summers – unreliable rain. Frost and hail are major hazards. Frequent summer rains make area prone to grey rot. Burgundy’s famous white wines: Chablis, Macon Blanc, Meursault, Montrachet, Pouilly Fuisse.

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Burgundy’s famous red wines: Beaune, Bourgogne, Gevrey Chambertin, Macon, Nuits Saint Georges, Pommard, Vosne-Romanee. Main soils Chablis: limestone overlaid with Kimmeridgian clay. Core d’Or: limestone mixed with marl. Beaujolais: granite.

Grape varieties North Burgundy: Black - Pinot Noir, White - Chardonnay, Aligote. South Burgundy: Black - Gamay, White - Chardonnay. INAO regulations for the top wines of Burgundy state that the grapes used are: „„ Pinot Noir for red wine „„ Chardonnay for white wine „„ Yield: currently set at 40 hectolitres per hectares for the best, 60 for ordinary. „„ Strength of wine: must achieve 12% for the best, 10% for the ordinary. Grape growing North: high-density planting, Guyot trained. The best vineyards are on the east or southeast facing slopes South (Beaujolais): Gobelet-pruned, freestanding vines. The best vineyards are on the hillsides in the north.

Winemaking Red: Traditional fermentation with very little use of new oak maturation for Pinot Noir. Carbonic maceration for Beaujolais. White: Stainless steel with very little oak for Chablis. Barrel fermentation and new oak for Côte de Beaune Chardonnay.

Classifications for Burgundy wines Generic: for wines that do not quality for higher AC, must have Bourgogne in title. District: used for wines from a single district or group of better villages within a district. Commune: used for wines from single communes (villages) allowed own AC. Premier Cru: village name followed by vineyard name, used for better vineyards. Grand Cru: vineyard name only, highest level for best vineyards. Examples of this classification: 1 Grand Cru vineyard: Le Clos, Le Corton, Le Montrachet (finest Grand Cru vineyard in the world). 2 Premier Cru vineyard: ‘Beaume (commune) Bressandeo (vineyard)’.

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3 Commune Appellation: Gevrey Chambertin, Pommard, Aloxe Corton, Meursault. 4 Village Appellation: Côtes de Nuits (all of region). 5 District Appellation: Côte de Beaume, Macon, Beaujolais.

Burgundy – three major levels Burgundy has mainly small, walled vineyards (clos), for example Clos de Veugeot – 84 owners. 1 Domaines: family dynasty includes all elements from the making to selling the wine, for example Louis Latour. 2 Negociants (shippers) most important players, these usually decide on wines elevation (grade). Negociants will buy the fruit, wine or must from the growers, make or evaluate the wine, allow it to mature and sell on the world market. 3 Co-ops: usually in lower areas, no middleman, they make the wine, sell and share the profits, basic wines. AC is granted to the demarcated area so you really need to know the producers, and with so many growers within a small area the grower is paramount. Bourgogne AC: (reds: PN, Gamay, plus Cesar and Tressot in the Yonne, whites: Chardonnay), the generic appellation for Burgundy stretching 180 miles from Chablis to Beaujolais. 256

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Bourgogne Grand Ordinaire AC: pretty ordinary wine.

The five areas of Burgundy

Chablis

Chablis Soil: Kimmeridgian chalk, like limestone, the deeper the better, various depths, fossilized oyster shells. The soil is the same as the white cliffs of Dover. Local technique to note: Aspersion – spraying vines with water to protect against disease and frost.

Saône

Dijon Gevrey Chambertin

Côte de Nuits Côte de Beaune

Aloxe Corton Pommard Volnay Meursault

Côte Chalonnaise

Vougeot Vosne Romanée Nuits St Georges

Beaune

Chassagne Montrache

Rully Givry

Chalon sur Saône

Mâconnais Pouilly Fuisse

Mâcon

Beaujolais

Figure 4.5: Burgundy wine map (Terroir-France, French Wine Guide)

Rhône

Lyon

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Chablis wine classifications Chablis Grand Cru AC (top level): top level for Chablis: these are high on the slopes above the river, unique. Only 7 vineyards Blanchot, Bougros, Les Clos: reputable producers Latour, Grenovilles, Preuses, Valmur, Vaudesir. It is because of the perfect exposure, the steep elevation and the unique Kimmeridgian limestone that the Chardonnay grapes can fully ripen and gain the fatness and strength, which should mark out a Grand Cru. Expensive, never drink young, needs 5-10 years. Chablis Premier Cru AC: Chablis areas near the river producing good grapes. The best are Le Beauregards: Côtes de Cuissy, Besuroy: Freemes, Côtes de Sevant, Beridot, Chaume de Falcot, Fourchaume, Les Fourneaux, Côtes de Jcuon, Les Londes et Verguts. Almost one-fifth of Chablis (1,846 acres) vineyards are designated Premier Cru or First Growth (one below Grand Cru). In Premier Cru the producer is more important, takes 5-10 years to show its potential. Chablis AC, Petit Chablis AC: the Chablis AC covers 10,880 acres of land around the little town of Chablis between Dijon and Paris but only 8,705 acres are planted with vines. Area demarcated by soil white clay, only the Chardonnay grape to create this refined, expensive and bone dry wine. AC Burgundy Aligote (white grape) AC Burgundy (entry level) Generic Burgundy. Red wine: minimum 85% Pinot Noir, White wine: minimum 85% Chardonnay. But it is usually 100% of these varieties.

Côte d’Or Côte d’Or produces the best reds. Viticulturally it is split into two: Côte de Beaune (best white wines) and Côte de Nuits (much sought after red wine, very challenging to grow). The Côte lies along a geological fault line where the seabed deposits of several different epochs, each rich in calcium from shells, are exposed like a sliced layer cake. Soil: Limestone and marl, more limestone in the Côte de Beaume. Hospices de Beaune The famous auction of red (Pinot Noir) and white (Chardonnay) wines from the hospice’s vineyards is held on the 3rd Sunday in November. You bid by lighting a candle. Côte d’Or grape varieties Chardonnay: for white wines, takes on the style of the wine maker, soil, terrior, loses acidity quickly. World’s best grape variety, travels easily, not prone to disease, marries well with wood – a happy grape. Pinot Noir: for red wines, sullen, difficult, mutates and clones in all varieties, low and difficult cropper, prone to disease every 1 in 7 years, high maintenance grape, doesn’t travel well. Really best in Burgundy, New Zealand and Oregon.

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Lesser varieties: Pinot Gris, Pinot Beurrot, Melon de Bourgogne (Muscadet), Gamay.

Côte de Nuit Its main town is Dijon and its best appellations are: Côte de Nuits Villages AC: (reds: PN, whites: Chardonnay), Marsannay AC: (reds & rosé: PN, whites: Chardonnay), Fixin AC: (Reds: PN, whites: PB), Gevrey-Chambertin AC: (PN), a Grand Cru site at Chambertin AC, Chambertin Clos de Beze AC, Morey St. Denis AC: (reds: PN, whites: Chardonnay, Aligote), Chambolle-Musigny AC: (PN) Clos De Vougeot AC: Grand Cru site for reds with PN Vosne-Romanee AC: (Grand Cru site at Romanee-Conti AC, La Tache AC and La Romanee AC) they call it the greatest village in Burgundy simply because it has an incomparable clutch of six red Grands Crus at its heart. Romanee-Conti AC: is the pinnacle of red Burgundy for many extremely wealthy Burgundy lovers Nuits St. George AC: (red: PN, white: chardonnay), 38 Premier Crus (more than any other AC) many extremely good, Grand Cru site Bourgogne Hautes Côtes de Nuits AC: (PN, Chardonnay).

Côte de Beaune The best appellations are: Côte de Beaune Villages AC, Beaune AC: (PN for Blacks, Aligote, Chardonnay for whites) Pernaud-Vergelesses AC: (reds: PN, Whites: Chardonnay) Ladoix AC: (reds: PN, whites: Chardonnay), Aloxe-Corton AC: Chorey-les-Beaune

(red:

PN,

whites:

Chardonnay),

Savigny-les-Beaune,

Bourgogne-Hautes Côtes de Beaune AC: (PN, Chardonay) Pommard AC: (PN), les Rugiens Bas, les Epenots and les Arvelets (all Premiers Crus) Volnay AC: (PN), Meursault AC: high reputation for white wines Auxey-Duresses AC: (PN, Chardonnay) Monthelie AC: (reds:PN, whites: Chardonnay), St. Romain light sterling red and white wines Puligny-Montrachet AC (white: chardonnay, red: PN and others), exceptional Grand Cru for white wine at Le Montrachet AC

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Chassagne-Montrachet AC: (red: PN, White: Chardonnay) Maranges AC: (PN), Sauternay AC: (reds: PN, whites: Chardonnay).

Côte Chalonnaise In the department of Saone at Loire, this area is a continuation of the vineyards of the Côte d’Or, because these wines carry less prestige than the wines of the Côte d’Or. Prices are generally lower; the best wines come from vineyards near Chagny. The best appellations are Bourgogne Côte Chalonnaise AC, Rully AC, Mercurey AC: (Reds’, whites: Chardonnay), Givry AC, Montagny AC: (Chardonnay), Bouzeron AC: (Aligote),

Côte Maconnais – Macon More bulk wines are produced here its hotter with a more Mediterranean climate, more rivers, and more mountains. Once this was an area of red wines made from the Gamay; now red wines only account for a third on production, a quarter of which is made with the Pinot Noir. Co-operative cellars play a vital role in wine production here. The appellations are: Macon AC can be made from anywhere within the region, from Chardonnay for white wines and Gamay and PN for red wines. Macon Villages or Macon + village name AC may be applied to a white wine from one of 43 different villages. Macon Villages may come from any one, or a combination of villages. Simliar in style to white Macon but they display more ripeness, body and character. Pouilly-Fuisse AC: (Chardonnay) the richest in Burgundy, achieving up to 13.5% ABV. Americans love this wine, made on granite rock, this is a top-level wine from the region. Vire-Clesse AC, Saint-Veran AC, Pouilly-Vinzelles AC have their own appellations.

Côte Beaujolais Beaujolais can be summed up in the three Gs: Granite, Gamay and Gobelet. Soil: Granite. Training style: Gobelet (protects grapes from the sun and facilitates handpicking). Grape variety: The town of Gamay gives its name to Gamay grape, (thick skinned, dark tannins, high sugar – hot climates, lose acidity quickly, maceration carbonic). Gamay gives fragrant wines that are full of raspberry and cherry fruit, and very light in tannins.

Classification of wines for Burgundy south Beaujolais accounts for approximately half the production of greater viticultural Burgundy. It can be split into two distinct parts.

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Beaujolais is easily spotted by its very distinctive nose and bouquet. It is generally light-bodied and ready to drink young or within 1 to 2 years of production. The vineyards lie to the south and east in the alluvial plain of the river Saone, here the soil is sandy and the vines are trained along wires. It is here that plain Beaujolais AC is produced, mainly by carbonic maceration. Beaujolais Nouveaux: The 3rd Thursday in November is the release date of Beaujolais Noveaux. It is to be enjoyed very young – prefereably before the New Year.

Beaujolais classification AC Beaujolais Crus (Brouilly, Chenas, Morgon, Regnie, Fleurie, St. Amour, Moulin a Vent, Julienas, Moulin a Vent, Chiroubles, Côte de Brouilly). AC Beaujolais Villages (39 villages) AC Beaujolais.

France: Champagne The Champagne district lies at the crossroads of Europe. French Kings were crowned at the Cathedral in Reims. The river Marne runs through it. There are 68,000 acres (27,500 hectares) in Champagne, with 19,000 proprietors. It is split up among 8,000 holdings of a hectare or less. Only 10% belongs to the great exporting firms.

Figure 4.6: The Champagne region (Zelas Natural Wines).

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Soils Belemnita (rich in rare fossil): magic chalk on the hills and slopes, Micraster: magic chalk on the plains or flat land. These unique chalky thin sub soils (often only 60cm) are excellent for drainage, they reflect heat and are excellent for storage (cellars are complete cities underground). The chalk also helps the Ph balance. The chalky subsoil absorbs the rain and also helps to reflect the heat of the sun. The topsoil is gravely which helps to aerate the roots.

Main grape varieties Pinot Noir (gives backbone and structure), Pinot Meunier (gives fruit and aroma, its late budding and early ripening makes it better suited to this northern climate), Chardonnay (gives finesse and elegance) are the main grapes with the Arbanne, Petit Meslier, Pinot Blanc (used as salt and pepper). The Pinot Meunier is especially used in bad weather to add fruit and aroma.

Main areas The Law of 1927 fixed the boundaries of the areas whose wines are entitled to the appellation ‘Champagne’. There are three main areas: „„ Montagne de Reims (pronounced Rantz): the mountains of Rheims, facing north: high slopes, Pinot Noir are best planted here. „„ Vallee de la Marne: the Marne valley around Epernay: frost can be a problem here; Pinot Meunier is planted here. „„ Cote de Blancs: the white slopes: the hillside growing white grapes, Chardonnay is planted here. The geographical situation gives the district a similar climate to Paris; the Vosges Mountains to the east give an abundant rainfall. Most of the vineyards face southeast.

Training systems Only two high training systems are allowed under AC regulations, and these are: „„ Cordon de Royat: high training used for the best Champagne, usually used for Pinot Meunier. „„ Taille Chablis: high training to prevent frost damage, usually used for the Pinot Noir. The Guyot (goublet, guyot) single and double systems are only allowed for a lesser Champagne, but usually used for Chardonnay.

Champagne making – the process The methode champenois can only be used with Champagne. For all other sparkling wines using this method they use the term methode traditionale. Although Dom Perignon, a Benedictine monk, is credited with perfecting the secondary special methode champenois, it is claimed that in fact his colleague actually invented it.

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Echelle des Crus (villages rating) Echelle means ladder, and this concealed classification is used within Champagne for vineyards. It is based on the hillside location, exposure to the sun, the grape variety used, depth of the soil and microclimate of the vineyard, like the AC regulations. A grower’s place on this ladder determines the price they will be paid for their grapes. Each vineyard is given a classification rated on a system 80-100%. For example the Grand Cru growers are paid 100% for their grapes because they have the highest rating. The rating is as follows: „„ Villages vineyards (Communes)

80 to 100%

„„ Grand Cru*

100%



„„ Premier Cru „„ AC Champagne

(18 places) (41 places)

90 to 99%

80 to 89%

Below 80% is all Coteaux Champenois and cannot be sold as Champagne. This could be distilled. * Dom Perignon, Krug, Pol Roger, Clicquot ’Le Grand Dame’ have the Grand Cru echelle rating. The Pinot Meunier is not allowed in the Grand Cru or Premier Cru mix, which may have only Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, for quality reasons. The harvest is 100 days after the fruit set, to get the right level of acidity. Rigid AC yields apply and are never exceeded. Grapes from the three varieties are sourced from different villages, and vinified separately. This creates a lot of wines and a lot of vinifications, and the variety is put to full use. For example, to make their house style, a Champagne maker might use 20 to 50 different wines. The pressing Grapes are pressed quickly to prevent oxidation by the basket press method (gives a light pressing), although some are moving to the new Vaslin (rubber bladder) presses (soft pressing). Must extraction is strictly controlled, as follows:

4000 Kg grapes can produce a maximum of approximately 2665 Litres must: 1st pressing (cuvee once only) 2050 litres (used for Champagne) 2nd pressing 410 litres (used for lesser Champagne) 3rd pressing 205 litres (used for lesser wines, spirits) Total 2665 litres

Everything else is used for vin de rebeche (rebase). Fermentation The top producers, for example Krug and Bollinger, use wood vessels but most nowadays use stainless steel. The controlled fermentation takes place at 18 to 20 degrees and lasts for 2 to 4 weeks. This produces the basic tart wine. This wine will rest in the cellar throughout the winter before it is assembled and will be racked twice. Malolactic fermentation is not encouraged, as in malolactic fermentation, the yeasts feed off the acids not the sugar, which would soften the wines.

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Assemblage The chef de cave (winemaker) makes the blend in the house style (cuvée), often using 40 to 50 wines, and knowing the cépage (grape variety) of each. Champagne varies so much in the house style, and can sometimes be too acidic. The top brands here are Dom Perignon, Krug and Cristal. Grand and Premier crus are never mixed. In the case of non-vintage wines, reserve wines are added from previous years. In cold years the wines are affected, and the reserve wine stocks are used to give a boost. No reserve wines are allowed in Vintage Champagne to help it along, therefore sometimes a cuvée can actually taste better than the vintage. Vintage can be a reflection of weather conditions. Once the wine is assembled, the wine is fined again.

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Fining Wines are fined and racked three times. Egg whites are normally used, but wines are sometimes fined with Bentonite. This substance is a type of clay which has been filtered through a machine to rid it of impurities. These wines are now good for base wines after the fining. Liqueur de triage This contains old wine, yeasts and sugars, and stimulates the second fermentation, which can last from 14 days to 3 months. The longer period selected here by the manufacturer the better – gives better bubbles. It it’s a shorter term – the wine is more coarse and less bubbly. The second fermentation increases the alcohol by 1 to 1.5% and the pressure to 5 atmospheres (around 80 psi, or three times the pressure of a car tyre). Crown caps go on now. It’s during this period that the Prise de Mousse is forming. The lees After the second fermentation the bottles are left laying horizontally (sur latte). The time the wine spends on the lees contributes much to its final quality, and is a minimum of 1.5 years for AC Champagne and 5 years for Vintage Champagne. During this period the wines are shaken to integrate the flavours. Remuage: Removing the sediment The riddling method was developed by the Veuve’ (widow) Clicquot and her chef de cave Antoine Muller. Bottle are hung neck down at a 45 degree angle a pupitre, a frame of two hinged boards, with 60 bottles each side. Each bottle is given a shake and twist daily by the remueur (30,000 per day), which helps the sediment to fall to the neck of the bottle. This labour intensive method has been largely replaced by the use of gyropallettes (cages holding 504 bottles on a hydraulic arm controlled by computer).

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Degorgement Now the sediment must be ejected by a process called degorgement. The bottles are dipped in a brine solution (at –20°C) and the sediment is frozen at the neck of the bottle. There are two methods for removing this plug: „„ A la Volée – degorgement by hand (traditional and expensive). A slow moving line brings the bottles to a worker, who takes off the wire, eases out the cork, smells it for cleanliness, removes the ice plug of sediment and puts it back on the line for dosage and re-corking. A la volée is used when the bottles are sealed with cork caps. „„ A la Glace – degorgement by machine, gives a great saving on time and labour costs. After dipping in brine, the machine flicks off the bottle cap, and takes away the icy plug of sediment. A la glace is used for agglomerated or composite cork, with crown cap. Liqueur d’expedition dosage The style or sweetness of the Champagne is determined here. Called the dosage, this is where the level of sweetness is checked and sugar may be added to sweeten if desired. Sometimes, on the very dry styles, they don’t add sugar. For the sweetness levels, see Table 3.1. Corking and dressage The bottle now receives its second and last cork, cut from the best Spanish bark, so as to prevent leakage or cork smell or corky bottles. The Champagne cork takes its origins from Catalonia in Spain. Champagne corks have a mushroom shape and the corks must have the word ‘Champagne’ on them. In vintage Champagne, the year that must appear on the cork. Wines are left to rest and finally are labelled and dressed. If a bottle has been recently disgorged, RD (Récemment dégorgé) will be displayed on it. Once a wine is disgorged, it will not last. A wire or muselet secures the cork, which is compressed and receives the metallic capsule. Both cork and capsule bear the trademark of the firm. The bottle will stay in the cellars a further short period so that wine and liqueur can thoroughly mix together and, after a final examination, it goes up to the packing room where it is carefully and neatly dressed before being laid with its envelope.

Styles of Champagne „„ Blanc de Blancs: Champagne made entirely from white grapes (Chardonnay). „„ Blanc de Noir: Champagne made entirely from black grapes (PN, PM). „„ Pink (rosé) Champagne: two methods are used. Champagne is one of the few ACs in which the blending method of rosé wine is sanctioned, and in practice, rosé Champagne is more often made by blending a bottle of still red AC Coteaux Champenois to achieve the required style. „„ AC Coteaux Champenois: Created in 1974, this AC covers still wines from the Champagne area. The yields, areas of production, methods of training and

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grape variety are the same for Champagne. The white wine is pale gold, but shockingly dry. The best producers are Bora, Bollinger, Laurent Perrier, Joseph Perrier, Ch. De Saron, Moet et Chandon.

Further Champagne points „„ Cuvee Prestige: usually named after someone special in the company (i.e. Louise Pommery). „„ Crémant method: half sparkling, or creaming (crémant), with a minimum of only 9 months in contact with the lees. This is not allowed to be used in the Champagne region. „„ Champagne bottle sizes: quarter bottle, half bottle, bottle, Magnum (= 2 bottles), Jeroboam (= 4 bottles), Rehoboam (= 6 bottles), Methuselah (= 8 bottles), Nebuchadnezzar (= 20 bottles).

Other sparkling wines of France Bottle fermented sparkling wines of France (excluding Champagne) are grouped under the collective name Cremant. Produced under strict quality controls, this group includes Cremant d’Alsace, Cremant de Bourgogne, Cremant de Limoux and Cremant de Loire. The other sparkling wines of France are Saumur and Vouvray from the Loire valley. Charmat (tank method), Petillant/perlant (slightly sparkling) and Vin mousseux sparkling wines are also made. These are of a lesser quality than Cremant.

France: Corsica France’s largest island and the most mountainous in the Mediterranean. All the winegrowing regions lie in the coastal zones. Corsica produces dry strong wines. The rosés and whites are best drunk within a year of production, but the reds age well. Corsica produces both fine AC wines and a large quantity of vin de pays. Best known appellations for white, rosé and red: Calvi, Côteaux d’Ajaccio, Patrimonto, Vin de Corse. Corsica’s best and most characterful wines come from the island’s few indigenous grape varieties, plus muscats and light malmseys (called Vermentino) from the northeast cape.

France: Jura and Savoie The wines of Jura and Savoie can be expensive because they are labour intensive due to their hillside locations on the Alps – some its vineyards are found at 850 metres. In this region they also grow old grape varieties, some stretching back 80 years.

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Savoie The wines of Savoie are delicate, refreshing, and alpine in spirit. Savoie wine is nearly all white; it epitomizes the little local wine of legend. The main grape used is Jacquere: dry and mild like ethereal Muscadet. The best Savoie grapes are Altesse and Roussette. Some claim it is the Furmint of Tokay (best grape). Altesse wines have weight and fragrance, and carry the AC Rousettte de Savoie (i.e. place names like Monteminod, Frangy and (notably) Marestel. Best known appellations are AC Vin de Savoie, Ayse, Apremont, Abimes, Chignin, Seyssel AC, and Crepy.

Jura The Jura is a large and beautiful area of France running south along the Swiss border between Alsace and Lake Geneva. Although many of the Jura wines have a unique character, vineyards are scattered and occupy only a tiny fraction of the region. Its superior appellations, Arbois, Chateau-Chalon and L’Ecoile, all count for something. Its red and whites are soft and easy. Jura is the home of Pernod. During the nineteenth century large quantities of absinthe were made here; Anis is the modern, tamed down version. Louis Pasteur was born at Dole in Jura in 1822 and was the first scientist to turn his mind to wine research; a museum in Dole commemorates his research and life. Côtes Du Jura AC: the regional AC for Jura covers a wide variety of wines: dry whites, reds, rosés, vins jaunes (yellow wine made with Savignin, Ponesard, Chardonnay) and vins de paille (straw wine, named for its colour and aged for 3 years). The southern part of the region is the home of the pink vin gris from the Poulsard grape. The pride of the Jura is its full-bodied Vin Jaune (aged yellow wine) as Chateau Chalon matures into a sort of pale-dry sherry. It is produced from the Savagnin grape, late harvested, given a slow fermentation, left in oak barrels, then transferred to glass top jars and aged for 6 years, before being bottled in 62cl Chavelin bottles. When you taste Jura wines always taste the red before the whites because of the white wine strengths.

France: Loire Valley The Valley of Loire, known as the ‘Garden of France’, contains four main vineyard areas or (sub regions) which stretch across northern France from West to East Nantais, Anjou, Saumur, Touraine, Central Vineyards. The Loire valley is famous for light summery, dry and medium dry white wines, including Muscadet, Sancerre and sparkling Saumur. Anjou is best known for its rosé and its medium dry and sweet white wines. Touraine produces light, crisp white and red wines as well as white Vouvray, which can be still or sparkling.

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4 Figure 4.7: Wine map of Loire valley (J. D. Headrick)

Climate The Loire valley contains France’s longest river. It rises in the mountains of central France in the Ardeche and flows north for almost 400 kilometres, before turning west near Orleans and finally reaching the Atlantic near the city of Nantes. Because of the length of the river, there are considerable climatic differences between the regions. Nantais and Anjou: maritime influenced by the Atlantic Ocean, Touraine and Central Vineyards: increasing continental influence. The Loire valley and its many tributaries play a moderating role. Soils are predominantly flinty clay over limestone, with ‘tuffeau’ (a type of soft limestone) sub-soil in parts of Anjou-Saumur and Touraine.

Loire Valley best known wines Vin de Pays (VDP): is produced generically for the whole area of Loire Valley over 13 departments and is known as Vin de Pays Jardin de France. VDP can also be used within an area (example VDP Anjou). Dry white: Muscadet, Pouilly-Fume, Sancerre, Touraine Sauvignon. Medium dry white: Anjou Blanc, Touraine, Vouvray. Sweet white: Anjou, Côteaux du Layon. Sparkling white: Montlouis, Saumur, Touraine, Vouvray. Rosé: Cabernet d’Anjou, Rosé d’Anjou. Red: Anjou, Bourgueil, Chinon, Touraine. Loire Valley – key wines Nantais: Muscadet, Muscadet de Sevre-et-maine, Sur Lie. Anjou-Saumur: Anjou Rosé, Cabernet Anjou, Côteaux du Layon, Savennieres, Saumur, Saumur-Champigny.

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Touraine: Reds on CF or Gamay: Chinon, Bourgueil, Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil. Whites CB Vouvray. Central Vineyards: Finest white wines on SB: Sancerre, Pouilly-Fume, Menetou-Salon. VDP: VDP du Jardin de la France.

Nantes Brittany’s only vineyards lie on both banks of the River Loire close to its mouth, around the city of Nantes. No great wines except Muscadet; the best is ‘Muscadet Servre sur lie’ which is left on its lees for a biscuity flavour and more character. Soil: Mixture of sand and clay and a little gravel. Good drainage important. Grape varieties Muscadet, called after the town Muscadet. Neutral aromas and flavour, lacks acidity, picked early. (Locally known as Melon de Bourgogne). Gros Plant, either picked early to save acid or picked late to reduce acid. Vineyards: The better vineyards are in the Sevre et Maine sub region south and east of Nantes. All use the Muscadet as the main grape variety. Most Muscadet wines should be drunk young, the traditional accompaniment for seafood particularly shellfish. Muscadet AC: Muscadet de Sevre et Maine AC, Muscadet de Sevre et Maine sur Lie AC. Gros Plant basic wines: Gros Plant du Pays Nantais VDQS.

Anjou-Saumur This is the heartland of the Loire. A warmer climate and more interesting soil. Northern Anjou, Savennieres: north of river Loire is the River Sarthe, with blue volcanic soil. This area produces dry and austere wine. Southern Anjou, Côteaux du Layon: south of the Loire is the river Layon. This area has tuffeau chalk soil, good heat reflection, drier, warmer summers and great caves both for storage and living (local legends of troglodytes!). Chenin Blanc grown here produces good whites, and conditions are right for botrytis (noble rot) wines. Grape varieties White: Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc. Black: Cabernet France, Gamay, Malbec, Grolleau (Groslot) - base of Rosé d’Anjou or sparkling wine. Key wines Saumur AC: (Red) Cabernet Franc, (White) Chenin Blanc, Chardonnay is not allowed.

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Anjou AC: mix of grapes, (White) Chenin Blanc, (Red) CF, (Rosé) Grolleau, CF, Gamay. Côteaux du Layon AC: (White) Chenin Blanc. Savennieres AC: (White) Chenin Blanc. Rosé: Caberenet d’Anjou AC, Rosé d’Anjou AC, Rosé de Loire AC, Saumur Champigny AC: (CF, CS, Pineau d’Aunis). Big Champagne houses have land here. Sparkling wine: Sparkling wine from Saumur is drunk by most French Parisians; they drink this if they cannot afford Champagne. Crement d’Loire AC, Savennieres (white) Côteaux du Layon AC: Sweet whites, usually from grapes conditioned by noble rot. This wine is never cheap but is better value than Sauternes. The two most favoured sites within the area have own appellation and rank among the world’s greatest sweet wines: Chaume Quartre de Chaume AC, and Bonnezeaux AC. The wines age well - Moulin Touchais AC has wines of 100 years or more that are still improving.

Touraine (Chinon to Blois) The vineyards of Touraine fall into two main groups: to the west is the red wine area of Chinon and Bourgeil, to the east the white wine vineyards of Vouvray. Touraine produces more reds (main grape Cabernet Franc, like Bordeaux, plus Gamay), the whites with Sauvignon Blanc, Chenin Blanc are decent. This is the hottest and driest area of the Loire. The concept of pruning is said to have come from the town of Tour, the wine capital of Touraine, when St Martin’s donkey ate the vine, and the vine grew back better (a museum in the town commemorates this event). Soils: Chinon: flinty clay, Bourgueil, St. Nicolas de Bourguell: alluvial sand/clay, Vouvray, Mont Louis: limestone, tuffeau, Touraine: mixed alluvial, flinty. Grapes: Black: Cabernet Franc, White: Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc. Noble rot may affect Chenin Blanc grapes. Viticulture: hand picking essential for botrytis wines. Key wines of Touraine Touraine AC: covers the whole sub region, with the red wines being made largely from Cabernet Franc or Gamay grapes and the dry, white wines from Chenin Blanc or Sauvignon Blanc. These often appear under a varietal label, for example Gamay de Touraine or Sauvignon de Touraine (light crisp, grassy). Cheaper than Sancerre, Pouilly Fume, Vin de Pays de Jardin de la France. Reds: Chinon, Bourguell, St, Nicolas de Bourguell, Bourgueil AC and Saint Nicholas de Bourgeuil AC Whites: Vouvray AC: Chenin Blanc is the grape responsible for the greatest white wines of both Touraine and Anjou-Saumur, dry or sweet, still or sparkling. MontLouis-Sur Loire AC (originally called Montlouis AC), Cheverny AC.

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Central Vineyards (Orleans to Nevers) Soil: chalk/cay mix. Flint and limestone in Pouilly Sur Loire and Sancerre. Chalk in Quincy and Reuilly and Kimmeridgian Clay in Menetou-Salon. Grape varieties Black: Pinot Noir, White: Sauvignon Blanc (known as ‘Fume Blanc’ in California). Best known appellations Pouilly Fume AC: (Sauvignon Blanc) Sancerre AC: (reds & rosé: Pinot Noir, whites: Sauvignon Blanc) Menetou-Salon AC, Pouilly Sur Loire AC, Reuilly AC: (reds: Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, whites: Sauvignon Blanc) Quincy AC: (Sauvignon Blanc).

France: Rhone Valley Location: southeast France. The Rhone Valley is divided naturally into two parts by Montelimar, the ‘nougat city’. Climate: North: southern continental, South: Mediterranean. The real danger here is the Mistral wind a strong, hot wind that comes down the Rhone Valley and can blow for 6-9 days at a time, sometimes causing real damage. Soils: North: granite, decomposing schist soil. South: various (quartz pebbles, clay and alluvial) and ‘pudding-stone’ pebbles in Chateauneuf du Pape. An imbalance in the soil causes colure, yellowing of the leaf from a lack of iron; the prone varieties are Merlot and Grenache.

Grape growing Northern Rhone vineyard areas are on steep narrow gauges, with most of the wine is produced on the right side of river. Vines staked to aid wind protection, and drystone walls are common in the vineyards, built to protect from the Mistral. Southern Rhone vineyards are spread out on both sides of the river. Windbreaks used. Northern Rhone produces the best wines (5% of total Rhone production) and the south produces the most wines (95%. of total Rhone production) Biggest difference between the North and South Rhone is the north uses only single grape variety for their wines whereas the south uses multiple varieties and blends for theirs. The Rhone Valley produces 95% red wine, some Vins Deux Naturals Winemaking: Lighter, using carbonic maceration, or fuller styles using traditional fermentation and oak maturation.

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Principal Wine Regions of the World Côte Rotie Chateau Grilet St Joseph Cornas St Peray Côtes du Rhone Côtes du Vivarais

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Condrieu Condrieu et St Joseph Crozes Hermitage Hermitage Clairette de Die Chatilion en Diois Côteaux du Tricastin Gigondas

Rasteau

Muscat de Beaumes de Venise

Côtes du Rhone Côtes du Rhone Villages

Côtes du Ventoux

Lirac Tavel Chateauneuf du Pape

Côtes du Luberon

Figure 4.8: Rhone Valley wine map (www.imlifestyler.com)

Rhone valley: key wines North: Côte-Rotie, Condrieu, Saint Joseph, Cornas, Hermitage, Crozes-Hermitage. South: Côtes du Rhone, Côtes du Rhône-Villages, Vacqueyras, Gigondas, Chateauneuf-du-Pape, Tavel, Rhône Satellites: Costières de Nîmes.

Northern Rhone The AC system started here, and the best Crus are found here. Baron Le Roy of Chateau Fortia formulated the rules which became the basis of French AC in 1923. Hillside: the best wines are grown on the hillsides in because of good drainage, good sun and a lower yield allowance. Grape variety Red: Syrah is the only red variety allowed. White: Viognier, Roussanne, Marsanne is the only white varieties allowed. Tain: this wonderful town sits on the little hill of Hermitage; the river surrounds the famous hill of Hermitage, which has fantastic growing conditions. Hill of Hermitage: All these plots on the hill are owned by the best names. Hermitage produces the best and most expensive wines of France. Main AC Appellations: Côte Rotie AC (roasted slope), Condrieu AC, Chateau Grillet AC, St. Joseph AC, Cornas AC, St. Peray AC, Clairette de Die AC.

Southern Rhone Well known for Côtes de Rhone AC: although this general AC covers the whole viticultural Rhone Valley, most of the wine comes from the broad southern section between Montelimar and Avignon, the chief red grape is Grenache, followed by Cinsualt, Syrah, Carignan and Mourvedre.

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Modern techniques – temperature control, some carbonic maceration have revolutionised the style, and the wines should be juicy, spicy, strawberry-fruited, very easy to drink within two years of the harvest, single estates can age longer. Different microclimates so different grapes grown. Grape varieties Grenache grape is the most important in the southern Rhone but needs other grapes to bring out its best. Grenache can make 15% ABV, if left to its own devices but people usually don’t want big wines. Black: Grenache Noir, Syrah (for colour), Mourvedre (for fruity taste), Cinsault. White: Grenache Blanc, Clairette (gives acidity), Marsanne, Rousanne, Muscat (grapy, fruits, very ripe grapes), Picpoule (little obscure). 95% of the Southern Rhone wine is Red wine AC Classification for Southern Rhone wines AC Côtes du Rhone, Côtes du Rhone Villages AC AC Districts, e.g. Côtes du Ventoux AC AC Village (e.g. Gigondas AC). If listed, the wine must be from that village only. Main appellations Chateauneuf-du-Pape AC (the first area to get AC), Rasteau VDN, Beaumes-deVenise AC, Côteaux du Tricastin AC, Gigondas AC, Vacqueyras AC , Tavel AC,

France: Provence, Languedoc and Roussillon The vineyards of southern France lie along the Mediterranean coast from Italy in the east to the Spanish border in the west. They are split into three groups; Provence (east of Rhone to Italian border), Languedoc and Roussillon, through the last two are often considered together (west of Rhone to Spanish border). More than a third of all French wine is grown in the area. Roussillon, Corbieres, Minervois and Languedoc are known collectively as the Midi. With over 865,000 acres (350,000 hectares) it is the biggest vineyard region in the world. The areas around Marseilles in this region also produce the famous French Vermouths (see also Chapter 5 under ‘Vermouths’) Climate: Mediterranean.

Provence Provence is home to France’s oldest vineyards, but overall the region is better known for its beaches and arts festivals than for its wines. The area has five small ACs (Bandol, les Baux-de-Provence, Bellet, Cassis and Palette), but most of the wine comes from the much larger areas of the Côtes de Provence, Ctoeaux Varios, Côteaux de Pierrevert and Côteaux d’Aix-en-Provence.

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Provence key wines White, rosé and red: Côtes de Provence, Côteaux d’Aix-en-Provence, Bandol Vin de Pays (VDP) Bouches du Rhone, de Vaucluse. Grape varieties: Black: Mourvedre, Grenache, Cinsault, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon (for red and rosé).

Languedoc-Roussillon This is a huge viticultural area that sweeps around the Mediterranean rim from the foothills of the Pyrenees to the gates of the old Roman town of Nimes. It encompasses the departments of the Pyrenees-Orientales, Aude, Herault and Gard, which together provide one-third of France’s vineyard acreage and an average yearly production of 18 million hectolitres of wine.

Grape varieties AC Black: Carignan, Cinsualt, Grenache, Mourvedre, Syrah (for AC red and rosé). VDP Black: Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Mourvedre (for VDP red and rosé). VDP White: Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Viognier.

Main appellations Languedoc ACs: Clairette de Bellegarde, Costieres de Nimes, Côteaux du Languedoc, Clairette du Languedoc, Faugeres, St. Chinan, Minervois, Cabardes, Côtes de la Malapere VDQS, Limoux, Cremant de Limoux, Blanquette de Limoux, Corbieres, Fitou. Pic St-Loup = Côteaux du Languedoc Cru. Roussillon ACs: Côtes du Roussillon-Villages, Côtes du Roussillon, Collioure. Fortified wines or Vins Doux Naturels: Languedoc: Muscat de Lunel, Muscat de Mireval, Muscat de Frontignan, Muscat de St-Jean de Minervois. Roussillon: Maury, Riversaltes and Muscat de Riversaltes, Banyuls. Key ACs to look for : Fitou, Corbieres, Costieres de Nimes, Côtes du Roussillon, Faugeres, Minervois, St Chinian and Côteaux du Languedoc.

France: South West The wines of the south west don’t fall into any single category. They range from the dry reds and whites of Galliac to sweet Jurancon whites, full red Buzet and the powerful wines of Cahors. The area also produces a large amount of Vin de Pays. Climate: continental, with some maritime influence in the west. Local Technique to note: Micro-oxygenation (called microbullage) developed by Patrick Ducournau of la Chapelle Lenclos, this process introduces O2 (a timbel per litre) which slowly oxygenates and microfuses the wine, and helps to reduce painful tannin levels achieved in this region.

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Grape varieties Black: Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc. White: Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc.

South West – key wines: Dry wine: Vin de Pays, Sweet White: Jurancon Red: AC Cahors, AC Côtes de Buzet, AC Gaillac.

Main appellations AC Bergerac: Red, rosé and white, AC Côtes de Duras, AC Buzet, AC Cahors, AC Madiran, Vin de Pays des Côtes de Gascogne, AC Gaillac.

4.11 Germany German wines are full of character and interest, and unlike most wines were made not for drinking with food, but for social occasions. They were low in alcohol and made with residual sugar. Unfortunately this tradition has lead to many German wines sadly being often misunderstood and under-appreciated. Germany’s vineyards lay along the river Rhine and its tributaries. They are scant in the extreme south and thickest in Rheinland-Pfalz near the French border. German wines are all about sweetness.

Climate and weather Germany has a Northern continental climate, this variable weather, e.g. spring frosts, heavy rains in July and August, gives rise to vintage variations but the long autumns encourage noble rot.

Grape varieties Black: Spatburgunder, Dornfelder White: Riesling (accounts for a quarter of all plantings), Muller Thurgau, Kerner, Scheurebe. Vinification: Chaptalisation allowed except for QmP wines, Sussreserve (sterile grape juice) can be used for sweetening wines at bottling. AP number: all German wines must have an AP number for traceability and quality indication. QmP Level: At this quality level only natural sugar is allowed not Chaptalisation. Oechsle: this is the scale used to indicate the sugar content of grape juice.

German wine classification German wines are divided into two classes: Table Wine and Quality Wine. Within

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these are four basic grades of quality, each with its own set of rules and specifications on the amount and kind of information they can carry on their labels.

Table wines – the two bottom levels Deutscher Tafelwein: (overall 5% total German wine production) at the bottom of the ladder, which needs only to attain 5% natural alcohol (44 Oechsle) before sugaring, must be made from approved grape varieties. Landwein: (overall 5% total German wine production), introduced in 1982 similar to Vin de Pays in France. Landwein must come from one of 17 designated regions of production and the relevant one must be displayed on the label.

Quality wines – the two top levels Qualitatswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete (QbA): wine from one of the 13 designated quality regions called Anbaugebiete. Blending with other regional wines is not allowed, the grape varieties and must weights (which can range from 51- 60 Oechsle) must carry a test number. It can carry a vineyard name if at least 85% of the grapes were grown in that vineyard. ObA wines are generally chaptalised, therefore they are higher in alcohol and similar in sweetness to higher-level quality wines. Qualitatswein mit Pradikat (QmP): the highest level of quality, which may not use sugar for the purpose of increasing the wine’s alcohol content. The wine’s natural must weight must be 67 Oechsle (which is approximately 8.6% abv), the grapes must come from a single Anbaugebiet and Bereich (a district within a Quality region, consisting of several communes). These grapes will be quality tested and carry their identity test number (AP Nr). The highest grade is subdivided into five categories according to the ripeness of the grape according to Oechsle (which can sometimes slightly vary with the area or grape variety). „„ Kabinett: (minimum 73 Oechsle must weight), aperitif style wine, and the most delicate QmP wine. „„ Spatlese: (minimum 80 Oechsle must weight), more body, sweetness and more alcohol than a Kabinett. „„ Auslese: (minimum 90 Oechsle must weight), covers the best range of styles for Riesling, the highest Pradikat category to appear commonly as a dry wine. „„ Beernauslese: (minimum 120 Oechscle must weight), the term means ‘berry sweet’, noble-rotted grapes (Edelfaule) are picked individually from the outside berries for these wines, which are rare and expensive, but of excellent complexity and refreshing acidity. „„ Trockenbeerauslese: (minimum 159 Oechsle must weight which is approximately 21.5% abv but after fermentation will drop to 8% abv approximately), rare, intensely sweet, long lived wines solely from individually picked noble rotted grapes (shrivelled to tiny raisins), these wines are among the most expensive in the world.

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Key areas and wines Mosel-Saar-Ruwer: Bernkastel, Piesport, Saar, Ruwer, Nahe: Schlossbockelheim, Rheingau: Rudesheim, Hochheim, Johannesburg, Rheinhessen: Theinterrace, Nierstein, Pfalz: Forst, Deidesheim, Baden: Kaiserstuhl-Tuniberg. Riesling: Germany’s most famous noble variety was first discovered in the Johannesburg region. Other versions of this famous grape which should not be confused as they are poor imitations. These include the Welsh Riesling (Austrian), Laski Rizling (Slovenia), and the Olaszrizling (Austrian). Liebfraumilch: this famous QbA wine from Germany, got its name in medieval times and is always made from a blend of four grape varieties – Silvaner, Kerner, Muller-Thurgau and a sprinkle of Riesling. Liebfruammilch can come from any of the four areas Rheinhessen, Rheinpflatz, Nahe, or Rheingau. The top producers are single vineyard using more Riesling and Gerwurtztraminer in the mix.

Figure 4.9: Wine map of Germany (University of Bath Student’s Union Wine Society)

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Sekt - Germany’s sparkling wine This is made with the excess of under-ripe grapes and can be fermented in tank or bottle. It may be made from grapes from any region, sometimes even imported wines. The best German Sekt sparkling wines are Deutscher Sekt (100% German grown grapes), Sekt bA (grapes from one of the 11 designated German wine growing regions), or Vintage Sekt (the highest category made from grapes of a single vineyard). Other sparkling wines of Germany Flaschengarung nach dem traditionellen Verfahren (sparkling wine produced by traditional method), Perlwein (slightly sparkling), Schaumwein (sparkling wine of lesser quality than Sekt) and Spritzig (slightly sparkling).

Classification by geographical location (above the QmP level) Einzellage (an individual vineyard): similar to Premier Cru or Grand Cru, this is the most important geographical classification for German wines. But if you have not memorised the hundreds of Einzellage pr Grosslage (group of vineyards) it’s difficult to tell them apart. Some people use price as a indicator, but some good vineyards keep their prices low, so familiarity with the individual vineyards is the best recognition method. Grosslage (a group of adjoining vineyards): an area formed by a number of neighbouring individual vineyards deemed to be of equal quality. These groupings of vineyards are misleading, sometimes for example a Piesporter Michelsberg (Grosslage) may be a cheap, rather bland, sugary wine using the Piesporter name, compared to a Piesporter Goldtropchen (Einzellage) – a wine made from the finest Riesling in Germany which would normally costs four times as much as the Michelberg. Gemeind (a commune): this commune name would normally be attached to the name of the Grosslage or an Einzellage for example (Bernkasteler Badstube). Bereich (a district within a Quality region consisting of several communes): this geographical unit is larger than a Grosslage, for example the whole of the middle Mosel is called Bereich Bernkastel. this can cause problems if you think you are purchasing Bernkasteler, as it could come from a number of other villages, including Wehlen, Graach or Erden. Anbaugebiet (designated quality region): The vineyards of Germany are designated into 13 quality wine regions. They are Ahr, Mittelrheim, Mosel, SarrRuwer, Nahe, Rheinhessen, Pfalz, Rheingau, Hessische Bergstrasse, Franken, Baden, Wurrtemberg, Saale-Unstrut and Sachsen. These regions are divided into Bereiche, which is roughly 150 Grosslagen. Single ownership of a vineyard in Germany is rare therefore standards can vary; the individual grower’s name is crucial in selection.

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Major regions and wines Mosel-Saar-Ruwer Riesling ObA and Qmp wines from Einzellagen of the following Gemeinden: Piesport, Brauneberg, Bernkastel, Wehlen, Graach, Erden. (Various GV) Gross age wines: Pies porter Michel berg, Bernkasteler Badstube. The best wines come from the steep, slate, mineral rich slopes and are made from Riesling, which accounts for just over half of the plantings in the region.

Nahe Riesling ObA and Qmp wines from Einzellagen of the following Gemeinden Schlossbockelheim, (various grapes). Grosslage wines Bad Kreuznacher Kronenberg. Nahe wines are very clean and grapey, with all the intensity of the Riesling.

Rheingau Riesling ObA and QmP wines from Einzellagen of the following Gemeinden: Rudesheim,Geisenheim, Johannisberg, Winkel, Oestrich, Erbach, Eltville, Hochheim. The Rheingau style of wine, at its best, is the noblest in Germany. Many of the best-known estates and finest wines are produced in the villages listed above.

Rheinhessen Riesling QbA and QmP wines from Einzellagen of the following Gemeinden: Oppenheim, Nierstein Grosslage wines (various grape varieties): Niersteiner Gutes Domtal, Oppenheimer Krotenbrunnen. Liebfraumilch Rheinhessen (various GV). Largest vine growing region of Germany, lies in the crook of the Rhine, containing 150 villages, spaced over 30-50 kilometres. Most of Rheinhessen wine is made from Muller-Thurgau or Silvaner, light, soft and sweet with no special qualities.

Pfalz Key wines: (Riesling GV) ObA and QmP wines from Einzellagen of the following Gemeinden: Forst, Deidesheim. Grosslage wines: (various GV) Forster Mariengarten, Liebfraumilch Pfalz (various GV). Germany’s biggest vineyard protected under the lee of the German continuation of the Vosges Mountains – the Haardt because of this protection it is the sunniest and driest part of Germany.

Baden Key wines: (Pinot Noir GV): Kaiserstuhl Spatburgunder. The best of the wine here is excellent and because it is so keenly drunk in this region the outside world rarely hears of it. The cooperatives control 90% of the crops.

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4.12 Greece Local indigenous varieties are blended with international ones to produce some superlative wines in a number of areas. The best appellations to look out for are Naoussa, Nemea and Thira (Santorini).

Greek wine laws The wine laws in Greece follow the EU regime. There are two terms for quality wines: „„ Appellation d’Origine de Qualite Superieure (AOQS): applies to light wines; currently there are 20 classified regions. „„ Appellation d’Origine Controlee (AOC): applies to liqueur wines; eight regions hold this classification. These wines are primarily made from dried Muscat grapes, or the red Mavrodaphne. A vin de pays category covers the international varieties and non-traditional style of wine. The overall majority of Greek is table wine.

Major Greek regions and wines Northern Greece and Macedonia The home of Naoussa appellation red wines (Xinomavro). Vines planted at altitude for the cooler climate here. The Peloponnese Peninsular The major area here is Nemea which produces red wine exclusively from the Agiorgitiko grape from vineyards above 250 metres, because of the region’s mild winters and hot summers. The Islands The Santorini island holds the reputation for strong dry whites made from the Assyrtiko grape, which holds its acidity well and produces wines of Viognier-like flavours. Yields are low. Crete produces the greater volume of wine for Greece. Cephalonia produces good medium bodied, crisp wines with citrus fruit from the Robola variety.

4.13 Hungary Hungary is dominated by Lake Balaton, the largest in Europe. The soil is ideal for cultivation of red variety Kadarka and white Olaz Riesling. Tokaj, with its volcanic soil, river mist and the long dry warm autumn, create excellent conditions for ripening of the strong acidic Furmint and the softer perfumed Harslevelu

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grapes which help to create Tokaj, the famous dessert wine, which should always be served slightly chilled. Many regard it as an excellent tonic.

Hungarian wine laws Hungarian wine laws follow a system called Minosegi Bor, based on the French appellation controlee, which ensures quality through geographical origin and quality status. Hungary’s 22 wine districts were classified under this system and divided into three regions. All Hungarian wines are classified under one of the following three headings: „„ Asztali Bor (Table Wine) „„ Minosegi Bor (Quality Wine) this category is similar to QWPSR „„ Special Quality Wine: applies to noble rot wines, bottles must bear the state wine seal.

Major regions and wines Key wines Tokaji made from Furmint, a powerful white wine grape which gives flavours of apples when young, developing into nuts and honey in maturity, and Harslevelu (linden leaf), a late ripening grape prone to botrytis, aromatic with flavours of orange blossom, great for this dessert wine. Bull’s Blood (red blend mainly Kekfrankos which gives light purple-coloured wine with high acidity) this famous wine grown in the Eger region. Varietal wines (reds and whites with Chardonnay, Irasi Oliver is an Muscat cross, Pinot Gris, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon). Hungary’s 22 wine regions lie within the three board areas: The Great Plain This area in the southeast, which is ideally suited to industrial winemaking. Trans-Danubia The regions surrounding Lake Balaton and protected by a hilly terrain; soils are volcanic to basalt-rich sand, which drains well. Northern Hungary The most famous of its wine region lies in this area at Tokaj-Hegyalja in the foothills of the northern mountains. Tokaji produces Hungary’s most prestigious wines, named after the local town of Tokaj. These wines are generally spilt into two groups, the quality wines, bottled into 75cl bottles, and the special quality wines, bottled into the traditional 50cl dump bottles. Tokaji Furmint is the real star of the quality wines from this region. Tokaji Szamorodni: its name means ‘as it comes’.

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Tokaji Aszu: Aszu means ‘noble rotted grapes’. The Aszu grapes are pounded into a paste (puttonyos) before being added to the dry wine to produce the sweetness, which varies according to the amount of paste used. On a label you can see these wines classified as containing between three to six puttonyos. This tells you the residual sugar contents: 3 puttonyos = 60g/l, 4p = 90g/l, 5p = 120g/l, 6p = 150 g/l). This wine is matured for between three and six years in cask. Tokaji Aszu Essencia: Made in the same method as Aszu, except this unique wine is only produced in the very best years from the best vineyards.

4.14 India Winemaking has existed throughout most of India’s history but was particularly encouraged during the time of the Portuguese and British colonization of the subcontinent.

Wine regions: There are six main wine regions in India of which only those listed below are actively producing wine at the present time. The high heat and humidity of the far eastern half of the country limits viticultural activity. „„ Champai: located in Mizoram, the most southerly of the Seven Sister States of eastern India. This is a mountainous region with a semi-tropical to temperate climate – cooler areas being those with the highest elevation. Grape growing is most prevalent in the eastern part of the state, centered on the towns of Champhai and Hnahlan, less than 10 km from the border with Myanmar. „„ Deccan Plateau: This is the powerhouse for the current production of Indian wines, and can be conveniently divided into three sub-regions. The northern part is centred on the town of Nashik (or Nasik), and is where most of the new wineries have established themselves. This trend has been fostered by the creation of the Nashik Wine Park which offers small producers the ability to share facilities as well as receive a number of tax and duty reliefs. The major producer in the north is Sula Wines. „„ The central sub-region extends from Narayangaon through Pune to Baramati and is home to two important wine producers – Chateau Indage and Four Seasons Wines. The southern sub-region spans parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka with wine production being centred around Sangli and Bijapur. The Krishna Valley Wine Park has been established near Sangli, along similar lines to the Nashik Wine Park, in an effort to assist and encourage smaller producers. „„ Goa: Located west of the Deccan Plateau, Goa is a predominantly low-altitude coastal state, though towards the east it climbs in the western Ghats to a maximum of 1,167m. Ruled by Portuguese settlers from 1510 – 1961, the colonists brought with them a love of wine and they set about growing grapes despite the unpromising climate. They specialised in port-like fortified wines using Vitis labrusca varieties such as Bangalore Blue.

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„„ Nandi Hills:Lies 45 km north of Bangalore, some growers have worked with French varietals to produces some of India’s best wines to date. Grape production: Vines are often trained on bamboo and wire in a pergola to increase canopy cover and to get the grapes off the ground where they would be more prone to fungal diseases. The tropical conditions often promote high yields which requires frequent pruning throughout the year. In the very warm wine regions of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, grapevines can produce a crop twice a year. India is home to several indigenous table grape varieties that can also be used in wine production, with Anabeshahi, Arkavati and Arkashyam being the most common. Popular non-native grapes include the Bangalore Blue (Isabella) and Gulabi (Black Muscat). The Turkish grape Sultana is the most widely planted grape in India, cover more than half of the 148,000 acres (60,000 ha) planted in the country. In addition to the imported French varieties that Chateau Indage planted, Sauvignon Blanc, Zinfandel, Chenin Blanc and Clairette Blanche have started to establish a presence in the Indian wine industry.

4.15 Israel Viticulture has existed in the land of Israel since biblical times. Robinson (2006) contends that in the book of Deuteronomy, the fruit of the vine was listed as one of the seven blessed species of fruit found in the land of Israel. Presently there are 35 commercial wineries in Israel, and over 250 boutique wineries.

Wine regions There are five vine-growing regions: Galil (Galilee, including the Golan Heights), the region most suited for viticulture due to its high elevation, cool breezes, marked day and night temperature changes and rich, well-drained soils; the Judean Hills, surrounding the city of Jerusalem; Shimshon (Samson), located between the Judean Hills and the Coastal Plain; the Negev, a semi-arid desert region, where drip irrigation has made grape growing possible; and the Sharon plain near the Mediterranean coast and just south of Haifa, surrounding the towns of Zichron Ya’akov and Binyamina, which is the largest grape growing area in Israel. As of 2012, Israel has 50,000 dunams of vineyards. 80% of these are located in the Shomron, Samson and Galilee regions.

Grape varieties The most widely planted varieties include Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot and Sauvignon Blanc. Emerging varieties that have recently been increasing in popularity include Cabernet Franc, Gewurztraminer, Muscat Canelli, Riesling and Syrah. Other varieties planted to some significant degree include Emerald Riesling, Muscat of Alexandria and the crossing Argaman. A primary concern in Israeli wine production is maintaining acid levels to balance the naturally high sugars that the warm climate of the region produces.

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4.16 Italy Although Italians do not hold wine in such reverence as the French, they are now the world’s largest producer and consumers of wine. Italians drink wine like water – in some areas it is actually on tap. It was the Romans who recognised the true commercial opportunities and value of wine. They are also attributed to be the first to store wine properly, keeping it in amphorae (pottery jars) with a layer of olive oil, in order to prevent oxidation. Quality levels: North of Italy produces 52% of the quantity and the majority of the DOC and DOCGs quality wines, the south produces 48% of the quantity and the wine lake. Soils: variable, ranging from volcanic soils in the south to moraines in the north.

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Figure 4.10: Wine map of Italy, showing DOC and DOCG regions (University of Bath Student’s Union Wine Society)

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Grape varieties The most widely grown variety throughout Italy is Trebbiano (almost a weed , like Ugni Blanc in France, and mainly used for distilling). The major varieties are: Black: Local varieties Nebbiolo, Sangiovese, Barbera, Dolcetto, Corvina, Montepulciano, Aglianico, Primitivo. International varieties Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Pinot Noir. White: Local varieties Trebbiano, Malvasia, Verdicchio. International varieties Chardonnay, Pinot Grigio (Pinot Gris). Viticulture, training systems: high-trained vines in the north, low-trained, high density planting in the south. Vinification practices: Traditional fermentation and the use of old wood. Modern fermentation with temperature control stainless steel and the use of new oak barriques. Regions: Politically Italy is divided into 20 regions or wine departments, each of which enjoys a certain degree of autonomy. In every region wine is produced at least of DOC quality. Major wine regions are North West, North East, Central and Southern Italy. Regional identification is very important. The areas of Piedmont (north west Italy), Emilia Romagna (central Italy) and Sicily produce the wines used in Italian Vermouths (see Chapter 5 under ‘Vermouths’).

Italian wine laws Italian wine laws set four different quality levels: „„ Denominazoine di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG): introduced 1992, a DOC with a guarantee, the highest level. Mainly in Northern Italy, as southern Italy is too hot to produce DOCG. Listed among these wines are Chianti, Asti and Moscato d’Asti, Barolo, Barbaresco, Brunello di Montalcino. „„ Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC): introduced 1963, demarked region based on soil, viticulture and vinification practices, maximum yields and minimum alcohol levels. Chianti, Orvieto or maybe Valpolicella have their delimited DOC areas extended beyond the original vineyards, but these are usually the best sites and carry the word Classico. „„ Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT): introduced in 1992, and designed to absorb those Vini da Travola allowed to specify their region or district of origin. IGT is similar to France’s Vin de Pays. „„ Vino de Tavola: bottom level these are basic wines but on the decline. The majority of these wines are produced in the south of Italy and Sicily. Italian wine labels Words to look for on Italian wine labels: Quality, DOC, Controllata, E Garanitita, Vino di Tavola (table wine), Superior, Consorzio (producers association), Location, Classico (important word – original centre of region), Vigna/Vigneto (vineyard).

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Sparkling wines of Italy Asti sparkling wine method is a variation of the tank method. Made in Northern Italy, Asti is best consumed young (see ‘Piemonte’ below). Italy’s other major sparkling wine is Prosecco from north-east Italy, a fruit style wine made using the tank method (see ‘Veneto’ below). The other sparkling wines include Spumante (sparkling) and Methodo classico/tradizionale (sparkling wine produced by traditional method).

North West Italy The vineyards here produce red, white and sparkling wines. The area divides into four regions in terms of quality. The wines are always named after the commune or area where the vine grows.

Liguria Vermentino (White) which makes Cinguetem and Malvasia are widely grown. The most Ligurian wine is the red Rossese, which can be fresh, fruity like Bordeaux.

Valle d’Aosta A lot of French and German style varieties and influence. Italy’s smallest wine region, producing Donnaz from the Nebbiolo grape. Another notable red wine is the Enfer d’Arvier from the Petit Rouge, which tastes dark, fresh berry and bracing - altogether an excellent alpine wine. The valley produces some recherché whites including the light Blanc de la sale and de Morgex and Malvoisies.

Lombardia Valtellina and Oltrepo Pavese, wines of great importance, area produces high volumes. With a light fizz in these Colli Piacentini white and red wines, they are called morto; any good wines are called vivace. The area between Brescia and Bergamo has a reputation for good methode traditionelle sparkling Franciacorta. In Lombardia, Trebbiano di Lugano DOC, very different from Trebbino in Toscano. The wines from the south west end of Lake Garda and the hills are Italy’s best and sell at high prices in Milan. They are also used a lot as the base for Spumante.

Piemonte Situated at the foothills of the Alps, most important area of North Italy, biggest region, and commercially the most important 7,500 h/A is under vines, contains an impressive 37 DOCs. This area restricts international grape varieties grown. Nebbiolo reigns here and clones well to suit the climate in this area. Main wine areas: Barolo, Barbaresco, Barbera d’Asti, Dolcetto d’Alba, Gavi. The three most famous wines from Piemonte are Barolo DOCG for red wine from Nebbiolo (king of wines), Barbersco DOCG for red wine from Nebbiolo (queen of wines), and Gattinara DOCG, Barbera: not a patch on Nebbiolo and Dolcetto.

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Valle d’Aosta - Town of Asti – sparkling wine is huge in Northern Italy. Moscato d’Asti and Asti Spumante: these are excellent dessert wines, which are loved and appreciated worldwide. Moscato Spumo is better than Asti Spumante, because Moscato must be 80% Moscato grape whereas Asti Spumante is mixed with Chardonnay and other wines. Cortese (also around Asti), Gavi (or Cortese di Gavi), Erbaluce di Caluso, Arneis.

Grape varieties Nebbiolo (meaning fog) is the finest red grape variety in Italy. The best comes from around the town of Alba (for example Barolo and Barbersco). It is a late ripening grape, with flavours of violets and raspberries, prunes and chocolates, truffles and liquorice, with good acidity and tannin always present. Pinot Grigio is the biggest grape variety in the North West Italy.

North East Italy This region relies less on tradition and embraces modern ideas. It has three zones.

Trentino Alto Adige Italy’s most northerly region is so mountainous that only 15 per cent of the land (in the valley of the river Adige) can be cultivated. Grapes: Schiava, Pinot Grigio, Pinot Bianco, Chardonnay, Sauvignon, La Grein (deep reds), Riesling, Gewurtraminer, Moscato, Muller-Thurgau. A good source of dry white wines from Silvaner, Traminer and Muscata, also sparkling. Key DOC wines Alto Adige (Schiava, Lagrein, Riesling, Gewurtraminer, others) and Trentino (Pinot Grigio, Teroldego).

Veneto This region produces more DOC wine than any other region in Italy, with its climate tempered by the mountains to the north and the sea to the east. Red varieties: Corvina, Rondinella, Molinara. Corvina is the principle grape, together with the other two provides the assemblage for DOCs Bordolino and Valpolicella (plus its Recioto). Key wines Valpolicella DOC (Corvina, Rondinella, Molinara and others), can range in style from light, cherry red to the rich Port like Recioto and Amarone Valpolicellas. Amarone della Valpolicella DOC (Corvina, Corvinone,Rondinella, Molinara and others) made from early picked high quality Valpolicella grapes see below. Recioto della Valpolicella DOC (Corvina, Rondinella, Molinara). Soave DOC, Soave Classico DOC, Soave Superiore DOCG (Garganega, Pinot Blanc (Pinot Bianco), Trebbiano di Soave (Chardonnay). Soave at its best can be

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almond flavoured, nutty and crisp. The good wine comes from the Classico hills, unfortunately 80% of production overall is controlled by co-operatives under different labels or sold in bulk to them. Bardolino DOC (Corvina, Rondinella, Molinara) at its best has a vibrant, ripecherries and slightly bitter almonds character that is usually better when young. Veneto IGT (Corvina, Merlot). Prosecco di Conegliano-Valdobbiadene DOC (Prosecco, Verdiso) sparkling Prosecco wines here because of the hillsides. These wines are soft, floral, appley, milky flavours, with a good taste, made sparkling by a second fermentation in tank. Drink them young. An excellent base for the famous Bellini cocktail. Valpolicella DOC structure Valpolicella is Veneto’s most famous wine. It is made in three distinctly different ways, which you must know to be able to pick the best. Recioto del Cinonne (top level): sweet twist with more concentration. This unique wine will reach over 16% abv naturally. Its big mossy character suits rich meats and game. Valpolicella Amarone della Valpolicella: a world classic wine. The weather conditions determine the picking of the special Valipolicella grapes, which are stored in lofts and left here until January. The resulting shrivelled, concentrated passito bunches are then fermented to dryness. This labour intensive work is worth it. Sweet and sour cherry fruit aromas, chocolaty, its dryness or bitterness is amazing and although the legally required limit to achieve is 14% abv, this normally rises to 16% abv. Valpolicella Amarone Ripasso IGT: the nitrogen-rich soil here helps produce excelent grapes. These grapes are put into lofts with open, netted windows, and placed on trays to dry and concentrate their juices. Good quality wine drink it early, ripasso means they are passed over the Amarone skins on the second fermentation to gain character. Valipolicella Classico: better wine because of the hilly heartland, better concentration, better drainage, lower yields, better quality. Valpolicella DOC: cheapest level, diluted not great, made from the grape varieties.

Fruili-Venezia Giulia: Key wines Fuili Grave DOC: Reds: Refosco, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, white: Tocai Friulano, Pinot Gris, others.

Central Italy Emilia-Romagna Rich gastronomically with Bolognese sauces, Parma ham, Parmesan cheese and balsamic vinegar which demand wines to refresh the palate. The region’s best

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known grape variety is Lambrusco. There are four DOCs for Lambrusco: the best are located Lambrusco di Sorbara DOC, and Lambrusco Grasparossa di Castelvetro DOC. Both are trained on high trellis to maintain acidity, around Modena.

Tuscany (Tosana) At the forefront of developments in viticulture and vinification techniques in Italy. Holds six DOCG areas, home of the famous ‘Super Tuscans’ and Chianti wines, the best of which is grown in the demarcated area between Firenze and Siena. Key wines Chianti Classico, Ruffina, Colli Senesi DOCG (Sangiovese), Chianti: The best wines in Central Italy (Sangiovese) South of Chianti, wine of good quality. To be labelled as Riserva must be aged minimum 3.5 years in wood. Brunello di Montalcino DOCG. Brunello is a different clone of Sangiovese and makes very different wine to Chianti Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG most expensive wine in Tuscany, (Sangiovese – Prugnolo Gentile, Canaiolo and others), the wine must be aged for two years before release, three years for Riserva. Vernaccia di San Gimignano DOCG (white: Vernaccia di San Gimignano, Chardonnay), nowadays these wines can be pale, tight, lean, crisp and restrained but some good producers are obtaining salty, creamy, nutty, tangy wines. Toscana IGT (Sangiovese, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot), allows wines made in non-traditional styles to gain quality status. The blending with international varieties has gained new markets for Italian wines.

Marche (The Marches) On the Adriatic coast, Verdicchio is the famous wine here usually sold in green, amphora, elongated curved bottles. Key wines Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi (white: Verdicchio), light and fresh to full, rich and complex ideal for fish dishes. Rosso Conero (red: Montepulciano and Sangiovese), a good red wine, full bodied, deep coloured and low in tannins.

Umbria Known for its white wines of Orvieto, tuffeau soils. The main grape is the Trebbiano (called Procanio), usually blended with Grechetto, Malvasis and Verdello. Key wines: Orvieto DOC (Trebbiano, Grechetto, Malvasia, Verdello), generally made for drinking young,

Latium (Lazio) Mainly white wines here, Frascati DOC is the best known (Trebbiano Toscano, Malvasis di Candia, Malvasia del Lazio, Greco). This wine built up its reputation

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on tap in the bars (trattorie) of Rome, fresh, clean taste and pale colour appeals to many. Est! Est!! Est!!! di Montefiascone (also known as Est! Est!! Est!!!) is a region centered around the commune of Montefiascone, producing natural light white wine dry or sweet better known for its name rather than its reputation. (‘It is, it is, it is’ in Latin, supposedly written on the doors with chalk indicating a house of good hospitality).

Abruzzo On the east coast behind the knee of Italy, a region of mountains sliding down through hills to the sea. The two major DOC of interest here are Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC for red wines and Trebbiano d’Abruzzo DOC for white wines.

Southern Italy and the Islands Overall Campania, Basilicata, Puglia and Calabria are primarily known for producing vast quantities of higly alcoholic red wine, much of which is exported to strengthen the blended ‘table wines’ of Europe and boost the Vermouths of Turin. In the south of Italy you get more blends because the wines will age quicker.

Campania (Naples) Big volume, few DOCs, a rich tradition here with volcanic soils, but the key wine is Taurasi DOCG, a great red (Aglianico – thick skinned grape retains its acidity, late harvested with complex flavours if allowed to develop).

Puglia Located on the heel of Italy, large wine production and source of blending. Key wines: Salice Salentino DOC (Negroamaro, Malvasia Nera), Copertino DOC (Negroamaro, Malvasia Nera), IGT wines (Primitivo, Negroamaro, others).

Basilicata Located on the instep of Italy, a mountainous region, agricultural economy. The Aglianico grape reigns and one DOC wine stands out Aglianico del Vulture DOC.

Calabria This is similar to Sicily in its agriculture, with a lot of poverty, although tourism is on the increase. Basic vineyards: the best Ciro wine is made from the Greco grape variety.

Sicily The region with the largest area under vines in Italy, with the main production from the western end. Co-operative cellars have benefited from EU assistance with nowadays state of the art wine making facilities. Key wines: Corvo (Duca di Salaparuta), a good red wine made from a blend of varieties and Regaleadi brands are reliable. Good whites come from Alcamo.

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The real quality wines of Sicily are Inzolia and Grillo. Marsala, the dessert wine, is the most important wine of Sicily. Must be fortified with grape spirit and may be sweetened (see also Chapter 5 under ‘Marsala’).

Sardinia Mostly co-operatives here. Grape varieties: white: vermentino, malvasis, vernaccia and moscato, reds: cannonau and monica. Mostly highly alcoholic wines, e.g. Cannonau 13.5%. Overall sales to Italy’s mainland are primarily used for blending.

4.17 Japan Japan has a long history of vine cultivation, wine is made in virtually all of the country’s prefectures, with Yamanashi being the most important. The Yamanashi Prefecture is 100 km west of Tokyo, surrounded by mountains (including Mount Fuji). 40% of Japan’s domestic wine production comes from this region’s 80 wineries (although this may be taking into account wines made from imported musts). The main regions for wine production are Hokkaidō and Yamanashi Prefecture. These regions since the 1960s have fostered strong production with the ‘one village one speciality’ movement.

Grape varieties / wines: Muscat Bailey A is a red wine grape that was developed in Japan by Zenbei Kawakami this variety was created by mixing the Bailey type grape with the Muscat Hamburg type to give birth to a grape variety that is widely used in Japan. Japan also produces a wide range of fine copies of European variety models but this countries signature grape variety is Koshu, which can yield particularly delicate dry white wines. Yamanashi region accounts for 95% of the Koshu plantings in the country, which total 480 hectares. Most of the vineyards are trellised with overhead pergolas. In 2004, DNA analysis showed that while Koshu is not actually a Vitis vinifera (the true winemaking grape vine species) variety, it is most likely an interspecific hybrid with some V. vinifera in the mix.

Quality control The ‘Mark of Origin’ is a system of legal designation for wine produced in Japan, much like France’s Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée (AOC) laws and the United States’ American Viticultural Area (AVA) designations. In Japan there is no nationwide organization of legal designation, regardless of domain of origin or types of grape, anything that is fermented domestically can be labeled as ‘Japanese wine’. Because of this, there are some products labeled as Japanese that are produced using imported grape juice. However, independent self-governing municipal bodies have begun systems of regional appellation. For example, Nagano Prefecture’s ‘Appellation Control System’ and Kōshū’s ‘Wine Domain of Origin Certification Regulation’

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4.18 Macedonia Macedonia, referred to as the Pearl of the Balkans, contains diverse terrain which matches this country’s rich history. While part of the former Yugoslavia, Macedonia was a major producer of wine. In the 1980s, it accounted for around two-thirds of Yugoslav wine production. After the breakup of Yugoslavia, wine production decreased dramatically, from 1.8 million hectoliters in the mid-1990s to 447,000 hl in 2002. Macedonia currently produces wine on some 22,400 hectares of vineyards. There are also some additional 30,000 hectares of vineyards dedicated to table grapes. The production of red wine dominates the Macedonian wine production, with around 80%. In the European Union ‘Macedonian wine’ is a protected geographical indication (PGI) for wine from Macedonia/Greece. Macedonia has three wine-growing regions: „„ Povardarje, around the capital Skopje, centrally located in the country and the most important region. „„ Pcinja-Osogovo, to the east on the border with Bulgaria. „„ Pelagonija-Polog, around Lake Ohrid, to the west on the border with Albania.

Grape varieties The grape varieties common in cultivation includes a large proportion of indigenous varieties and varieties common to Central Europe and the Balkans, as well as some international varieties. Red varieties include Vranec (Vranac) (the most common variety of Macedonia), Kratošija, Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. White varieties include Smederevka, Welschriesling (usually referred to as Laški Rizling), Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Žilavka

4.19 New Zealand New Zealand (NZ) consists of two long narrow islands with the Pacific Ocean to their right and the Tasman Sea to their left. The climate is maritime with the exception of the northern vineyards around Auckland, which is subtropical, Marlborough in the north-east of South Island, which is sunny, and Central Otago, the most southernly vineyard area in world, which has a dry, continental climate. Most vineyards in NZ are located on the eastern seaboard, where heavy rainfall is the biggest challenge.

Grape varieties Sauvignon Blanc is NZ best, with that grown in Marlborough the very best. Chardonnay is widely planted, delivering pure, clean fruit and crisp acidity especially Gisborne (riper, exotic), Marlborough and Central Otago (lean). Pinot Noir in Martinborough (cherry and velvety), Central Otago (storng flavours and complex).

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Winemaking NZ used their extensive experience of the dairy industry (temperature control stainless steel, hygiene) to deliver excellent varietal creations in their wines, most noteably their Sauvignon Blanc. Pioneering canopy management and trellising techniques helped them to deliver great flavours and sugars.

Wine regions of NZ South Island Marlborough: north east corner around the town of Blenheim, sunny climate, excellent vineyards on the Wairau Valley (stony soils). Big Sauvignon Blanc area; Chardonnay and Pinot Noir also planted here used for sparkling wines. Nelson: north west corner of the island, fruit orchards, late harvest wines. Most of the vineyards around Waipara and outside Christchursh. Central Otago: south, continental climate, warm days and cool nights. Irrigation is good. Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Riesling planted.

North Island Auckland region: mainly red wines on heavy clay soils. Poverty Bay – Gisborne: east coast, fertile soils good Chardonnay. Hawkes Bay: south east coast, across towns of Hastings and Napier; Chardonnay and Cabernet Suavignon, Merlot (especially Gimblett Road). Wairarapa: north of Wellington. Good Pinot Noir and small good wineries, e.g. Martinborough.

Figure 4.11: Wine map of New Zealand. (University of Bath Student’s Union Wine Society)

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4.20 Portugal Location and size: south west Europe, in area, Portugal makes up 1/7 of the whole Iberian Peninsula.

Climate Mediterranean in the south, continental inland, and maritime near the coast. As no place in Portugal is further than 150 km from the sea, rain can be a problem. The major rivers Minho, Douro, Mondego, Tejo and Guadiana help temper these various climatic conditions.

Soils Bairrada (limestone and clay), Douro Valley and Dao (granite and schist), the coast (sandy Colores soil).

Grape varieties Black: Baga, Tinta Roriz, Touriga Nacional, Trincadeira, Periquita White: Loureiro, Alvarinho, Encruzado.

Figure 4.12: Wine map of Portugal. (University of Bath Student’s Union Wine Society

Viticulture and vinification The unqiue vine training used is called Ramisco (this involves bending the branch into the sandy soil where it grows up as a vine so there is no need for grafting and no phylloxera). Traditional fermentation and use of old casks; modern fermentation with temperature control, use of stainless steel and new oak.

Portuguese wine laws Portugal revised its wine legislation in 1999 to upgrade a lot of IPR wines. These and DOC wines are identified by a paper sela (selo de origem), which is usually placed on the back label of the bottle. Overall there are four different quality levels: Denominacao de Origem Controlada (DOC): this is the top level, similar to AC. Indicacao de Proveniencia Regulamentada (IPR): similar to VDQS.

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Vinho regional: regional wine, similar to Vin de Pays. Vinho de mesa: bottom level, table wine. Two further terms are used to indicate quality: Reserva when stated on the label, indicates that the wine has come from a single vintage and has passed a tasting panel, plus if it a DOC grade, it must have a higher percentage of natural alcohol than the minimum decreed by law. Garrafeira indicates the wine’s ageing which is traditionally two years in cask and one in bottle for reds and six months equally in cask and bottle for white wines. Espumante: term used for sparkling wines of Portugal

Northern Portugal’s major wines Vinho Verde DOC (white: Loureiro, Paderna, Alvarinho): the vines here grow up trees and on pergolas around the little fields. This height keeps the grapes cool and helps to keep their fresh acidity, and sometimes slightly sparkling appearance. Douro DOC (reds: Tinta Roriz, Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Cao, Tinta Barroca). The white wines are mainly on Port varieties (Donzelinho Branco, Gouveio, Malvasia Fina, Rabigato). Sauvignon and Gewurtztraminer are planted at the labour intensive higher altitudes. The famous sweet fortified wine Port is also made in this the Douro area (see Chapter 5). Dao DOC (reds: Jean, Touriga Nacional, Tinta Roriz): lying south of the Douro and 80 kilometres inland, Dao has long been associated with solid reds; vineyards lie 200 to 400 metres above sea level on a plateau with granite soil. Bairrada DOC (red: Baga, white: Maria Gomes): located in central Portugal. The region’s white grape, Maria Gomes, is fairly neutral, but leavened and made aromatic by the highly acidic excellent Bical grape to give fresh exotic flavours. Most of this wine is made sparkling .

Southern Portugal’s major wines Ribatejo DOC (white: Fernao Pires, reds: Castelao Frances plus international varieties): this new DO includes the majority of the vineyards in the alluvial Tagus river plains. Alemtejo DOC (reds: Trincadeira, Aragonez, white: Roupeiro and Antao Vaz, Arinto): this area is the world’s most important source of cork; soils are loam, mixed with granite and schist. Trincadeira, the quality grape here, makes dark plumy wines with hints of coffee which when aged in oak develop quite well. Aragonez is useful for blending purposes. The white wines made from Roupeiro and Antao Vaz are full-bodied and honeyed with low-acidity, the Arinto grape gives these wines some much needed aromatic flavours.

Madeira Islands These produce the famous Madeira, a fortified wine made from the Sercial, Verdelho, Bual and Malmsey grapes (see Chapter 5 under ‘Madeira’).

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4.21 Romania Like Bulgaria, Romania’s wine production has developed significantly in the last few years, and is starting to show returns on the investment. This country is geographically spilt by the L-shaped Carpathian Mountains, which occupy almost half of its area. One of largest winegrowers in Europe, most of the wine is consumed locally. The best known wines come from the vineyards of Dealul Mare, on the south-facing slopes of the Carpathian foothills. These red wines are made from Pinot Noir, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon and local varieties. The area of Murfatlar, with its limestone soils, also produces quality white wines from Chardonnay and Pinot Gris and soft reds from Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon. Most Romanian wines are sold as varietals. The Romanian wine grading hierarchy is as follows in decreasing order: „„ Vinuri de Calitate Superioara cu Denumire de Origine Controlata (VDOC): indicates superior quality wine from a controlled appellation of origin „„ Vinuri de Calitate Superioara (VS): indicates superior quality wine „„ Vin de Masa: table wine.

4.22 South Africa Winegrowing in South Africa is mainly cooperative-based. Nearly 5,000 grape farmers farm over 250,000 acres (100,000 hectares). All the best grape varieties are grown near the sea, as the inland is too hot. The climate is Mediterranean in character, the cold Benguela ocean cool currents extends inland. The main areas for good wines are Constantia, Durbanville and Stellanbosch. Outside these areas, mainly sherry type wines are grown. Two thirds of the grape varieties planted here are Chenin Blanc, called locally ‘Steen’. „„ South Africa was the first country to use night harvesting

South Africa wine laws The South African Government were eager for international acceptance, when they introduced an elaborate Wines of Origin (WO) scheme in 1973 to control regional labelling of wines, plus the varietal and vintage details on their wine bottles. A Certification of Seal on each bottle is awarded only after tasting by an independent panel; this guarantees the accuracy of the information on the label. The other important label information includes: „„ Vintage year: this indicates that 75% of the wine has come from the this year „„ Cultivar (stated variety of grapes): this indicates that 75% of the total must be of this variety. (Compared to 85% in the EU.)

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The South African wine growing areas are grouped as follows: „„ Regions (5): these are large – the problem with the wine regions of South Africa lies in the fact that boundaries are not rigid enough „„ Districts (16): such as Stellenbosch and Paarl „„ Wards (almost 50): groups of estates, such as Constantia and Franschock „„ Estates: the smallest production areas recognised in the wine laws, they consist of co-operative cellars, estate wineries and small independent merchants.

Figure 4.13: Wine map of South Africa (University of Bath Student’s Union Wine Society).

Grape varieties Cabernet Sauvignon: Stellenbosch Chardonnay: coastal area and Walker Bay Sauvignon Blanc: Constantia, coastal areas Chenin Blanc (Steen): coastal areas Pinotage (Pinot Noir and Cinsault): coastal areas Merlot: mainly grown for varietal wines, creates very dark plumy wines Muscat of Alexandria (Hanepoot)

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Principal regions Coastal and Boberg This area around the towns of Stellenbosch, the home of the Viticultural Research Institute, and Paarl, which contains the cellars and offices of KWV plus other major estates, and is the centre of the sherry and fortified industry of KWV and the successful South African Winefarmers Group Nederburg. Reputed for fine wines, the Coastal Region also grows Cinsault, Shiraz and Merlot successfully, however the main quality red grown is the Cabernet Sauvignon. Chenin Blanc (Steen) is the main white grape, because of its versatility to produce dry, sweet, sherry and sparkling type wines. Constantia contains some quality vineyards (Groot Constantia, Klein Constantia and Buitenverwachting) outside Cape Town. Walker Bay contains good Chardonnays and Pinot Noirs also in this region. Breede River Valley Region Situated over the Bain’s Kloof Pass this region’s vineyards are nearly all irrigated. The Worcester area contains every day drinking mass-producers, with the Nuy cooperative the exception. KWV has its huge brandy headquarters also here. Robertson area produces good cooperative wine. Others regions include: Klein Karoo, Olifantstivier, Lower Orange

4.23 Spain Location and size: southwest Europe, the country is 650 miles across and 500 miles deep, a big land area. Soils: north, granite; south, limestone.

Grape varieties Black: Tempranillo – the local grape and a class act, the best grape variety of Spain, the more Tempranillo used in the wine the better, its strawberry- scented wines are quite low in acidity, and it shows its best when blended with other varieties. Grapes ripen early at the end of September, approximately 2 weeks earlier than Garnacha. Garnacha, the Grenache of southern France, is widely planted in Spain, not a great ager, capable of high alcohol. Monastrell is the Mourvedre of southern France. Bobal, Mazeula and Carinena are the French Carignan. The international varieties, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet Franc and Pinot Noir are also grown. White: Airen (Garnacha Blanca) is Spain’s most planted white grape, at 1 million acres. Viura (Macabeo in France) is the main grape of Rioja. Wines are fresh and fruity, excellent acidity, and can resist oxidation. Malvasia originated in Greece and makes full bodied whites; Parallada suits the altitude of Pendes and is used for fine wine; Xarel-Lo well suited to sparkling wines, Albaria is light, crisp and aromatic, Moscatel. Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Chenin Blanc also grown.

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Figure 4.14: Wine map of Spain (Spainishwine.com). Viticulture Spain contains the largest area under vine in the world, but small yields make it the third by volume. Vines trained on wires in better regions. Low, bush-trained, widely spaced vines in arid areas. Many smallholders selling grapes to merchants or co-operatives. Vinification Traditional fermentation and use of old wood casks. Modern fermentation with temperature control and use of stainless steel and new oak.

The language of the Spanish wine label In 1970 the Spanish government put into place the full-integrated machinery of Denomianciones de Origen (D.Os). In 1978 Spain’s new constitution grouped the country’s 50 provinces into 17 autonomies. The first DOC (Denominaciones de Origen), the top rank, was granted to Rioja in 1991. The Consejo Regulador is the organization which defends, controls and promotes the DO or DOC systems, these wines will carry a numbered back label issued by their local Consejo Regulador, which guarantees to the consumer the classification of the wine, its region of origin and how long the wine has been aged. There are minimum requirements for each of the four major categories, which are detailed below.

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Consejo regulator – ageing for Spanish wines Vino Joven: young wine, may or not have spent time in cask before bottling in the year following vintage, for immediate release. Crianza: red wines: minimum 6 months in cask before release. Reserva: selected from vats of better vintages, the cask and bottle ageing duration periods here depend on the individual producers, red wines: minimum 1 year in cask, 2 years in bottle; white and rosé wines: minimum 6 months in cask. Gran Reserva: produced only in exceptional vintages, red wines: 2 years in cask and 3 years in bottle; white and rosé wines: 6 months in cask. Usually Reservas and Gran Reservas are aged for more than the legal minimum. Overall white and rosé Reservas and Gran reserves are quite rare.

Major regions and wines There are six major DO regions, each containing similarities between their climates and grape varieties. These are the Duero Valley, the north-west (Galicia), Catalunya, Levant, Meseta and the Upper Ebro.

The Upper Ebro Rioja DOC: (reds: Tempranillo, Garnacha, Mazuelo, Graciano, whites: Viura, Malvasia, Garnacha Blanca) produces some of Spain’s finest wines. Rioja has three sub regions with different climates. Rioja Alta: big robust wines, good age; Rioja Alvasia: the softest and richest; Rioja Baja: basic blends – ordinary wines. Navarra DO: (reds: Tempranillo, Garnacha, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, rosé: Granacha) these 18,000 hectares of vineyards lie to the north of the river Ebro and have a cool climate. Nowadays this region is famous for ‘Ocho’ wines. The big research station at Evena at Olite, experimental vineyards and bodegas, have helped to transform the face of Navarra wine making. Somontano DO: (white: Macabeo, Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Gewürztraminer, reds and rosé: local varieties, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir), situated at the foothills of the Pyrenees to the north of Zaragoza, The major producer here is the co-operative of Barbastro.

Catalunya (Catalonia) Location of the world’s biggest cellars for sparkling wines. Catalunya contains at present eight D.Os. Pago indicates wine of a single vineyard, which is very good. Catalunya DO: (whites: various varieties, including Parellada, Chardonnay, reds: various, including Tempranillo, Cabernet Sauvignon), blends of wines from various areas to produce large quantities of wine. Penedes DO: (whites: various, including Parellada, Chardonnay, reds: various, including Tempranillo, Cabernet Sauvignon), white and sparkling wines, the region is made up of three different climatic zones.

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Costers del Segre DO: (reds: Cabernet Sauvignon, Tempranillo, whites: Chardonnay), located in the Lerida region, given a DO in 1988, irrigation is allowed here because these vineyards are classed as experimental. Tarragona DO: (reds: Grenache, Carinena, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Pinot Noir), ancient vineyards producing a broad range from sweet dessert wines to wines for religious use. Priorat DOC (reds: Grenacha Carinena, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Pinot Noir). The modern styles using international varieties with local Garnacha and Carinena have raised Priorat to DOC status. In their youth, great rich flavours of bramble with good oak; the big tannins and fruit give these wines the ability to age well.

The Duero Valley Toro DO: (reds: Tempranillo) lies west of Rueda. Rueda DO: (whites: Verdejo, Sauvignon Blanc - white wines only) demarcated in 1980. D. O for white and Flor wines, less than 50 km from Ribeiro del Duero. The difference in style is radical. Ribera del Duero DO: (reds: Tempranillo), elegant wines from Bacha, Velha, Valbuno, this area lies on the northern banks, contains Spain’s most famous red wines, which need wood ageing.

The North-West (Galicia) Rias Baixas DO: white: Albarino. Ribeiro DO: white: Alabrino, often blended with lesser varieties, not very exciting. Valdeorras DO: bland blends of red and white wines. El Bierzo DO: hilly altitude, wines produced are mainly drunk locally.

The Levant South of Catalunya, these vineyards lie inland from Valencia and Alicante and they have a lot of strength but no significant style.

The Meseta A vast area, central to Spanish life, this high plateau lying south of Madrid produces almost half of Spain’s total wine production, the area contains a lot of co-operatives and numerous small growers. La Mancha DO: (white: Airen - known locally as Garnacha Blanca, Macabeo – Viura, Pardilla, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, red and rosé: Tempranillo – Cencibel, Grenache Noir – Grenache Tinta, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Moravia Buena). Spain’s largest DO, producing 90% white wine, which are limey in colour. Valdepenas DO: (red and rosé: Tempranillo – Cencibel, Grenache Noir, whites: Airen, Macabeo), meaning ‘valley of stones’, this enclave of La Mancha lies high on the central plateau and is famed for its red wine made from Tempranillo to which Airen is sometimes added.

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Andalusia The southern quarter of Spain is dominated by mainly fortified and distilled beverages namely the famous sherries of Jerez, the dessert wines of Montilla and Malaga and wines used for Brandy de Jerez, these areas and their wines are covered in detail in Chapters 5 and 7.

Sparkling wines of Spain Traditional method sparkling wine is known as cava and the main trade centres on the town of Sant Sadurni D’Anoia, with the majority of the wine is produced in the Catalan vineyards of Penedes. Cava is also produced in Rioja, Navarra and Utiel Requena. Other terms also used include Espumosos (sparkling) and Metodo tradicional (sparkling wine produced by traditional method).

4.24 Switzerland The vineyards of Switzerland are all concentrated and divided into tiny holdings around the country’s lakes and rivers and are often steep and terraced – unfortunately the high cost of production makes them expensive in relation to their relative value. Nearly half the wines produced are red. Both reds and whites tend to be delicate and fresh.

Swiss wine classifications Swiss wines are known by regional names relating to grape varieties and qualities as well as to geographical origin. Any Swiss wine, which is not completely dry, must by law carry the words ‘legerement doux’ (lightly sweet) or ‘avec sucre residuel’ (with residual sugar). There are three significant quality categories: „„ Appellation d’Origine Controlee (in local areas winemakers use either canton or village appellation, others recognise Crus within the village, or district such as Chablais (Vaud), the AC also recognises the grape variety used „„ Generic indication of origin (roughly compares to Vins de Pays) „„ Table wines (labelled basically red or white).

Switzerland wine regions and grape varieties Valais (reds: Pinot Noir, Gamay, whites: Chasselas) Vaud (white: Chasselas - Dorin) Geneva (whites: Aligote, Chasselas – Perlan, reds: Gamay) Ticino (Merlot). The areas of Vaud and Valais located around the Lake Gevena are the source for the majority of Swiss wines. Neuchatel and Geneva also contribute substantially, while the Fribourg and Jura vineyards are among Switzerland smallest. The white Chasselas (known as Fendant in Valais, Dorin in Vaud and Perlan in Geneva) is

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the main variety, making light, neutral fresh wines; reds come from Pinot Noir and Gamay. Rosés under the stylistic appellation of Oeil de perdrix (partridge eye) are also made from Pinot Noir. The German-speaking districts of Basel, Bern, Aargau, Graubunden, St Gallen, Schaffhausen, Thurgau and Zurich make reds and whites from the same grapes (sometimes under different names – Pinot Noir is also known as Blauburgunder and Clevner), plus Muller-Thurgau (Riesling x Sylvaner) and others, the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino makes good ripe Merlot.

4.25 United States The US wine market is led by fashion and this unfortunately leads to instant demand problems, for example Merlot’s links to health and well being and more recently the fascination with Rhone style wines.

US classification for wines Wine laws are placed at two levels, the Federal Law and the State Law. Federal Law: In 1978 the AVA (Approved Viticultural Areas) classification was introduced to supplement the existing appellation system. This evolving system only guarantees the source but is not related to quality or production. AVA, when mentioned on the wine label, ensures that at least 85% of the wines grapes must be grown within the area. State Law: These laws vary considerably nationwide, for example in relation to varietal names mentioned on wine labels, they must contain. The minimum is 85% in Washington and California, 95% in Oregon, 75% for all the rest, except in New York State, where the local wine may contain 35% sugar and water added and 25% grapes from other areas.

California California is responsible for 90% of the wine production of the United States. If it were a separate country, it would be the World’s fourth largest wine producer.

Main wine growing areas California can be divided into six regions. It’s amazing what a difference of 10 miles in any direction can have here. „„ North Coast Region: These vineyards lie to the north of San Francisco, they receive the morning mist from the bay which helps to keep the climate here cool. Napa Valley, Sonoma County lies to the west, Carneros (the rams). „„ North Central Coast: This area’s best wines are really produced from the hillside vineyards. Monterey County, Santa Cruz Mountains.

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„„ South Central Coast: the geographical layout here encourages cool ocean breezes (from east to west). Best regions are Santa Barbara County, San Luis Obispo. „„ Central Valley (Lodi AVA): Lies 600 kilometres south from Sacramento, with a hot climate (Zone V), produces 80% of Californian wines (quantity wines). The single biggest factor that now influences the production of good light wine in the Central Valley was refrigeration. Ernest and Julio Gallo have led the developments here; they hold 9,000 acres of vines producing 100 million cases of wine annually. „„ Sierra Foothills AVA: Climate Zones III and IV consisting of hot days and cool nights for these foot of the Rockies vineyards which produce some fine Zinfandels and Italian varieties. Contains four good appellations at North Yuba, El Dorado, Shenandoah Valley and Fiddletown. „„ Southern California: these vineyards lie between Los Angeles and San Diego.

Figure 4.15: Wine map of California (University of Bath Student’s Union Wine Society)

Major wines (and where grown) Chardonnay (Sonoma, Monterey and Carneros - cool areas produce good Chardonnay) Cabernet Sauvignon (Napa, Sonoma) Merlot (Napa, Sonoma, Monterey) Pinot Noir (Carneros, Sonoma)

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Sauvignon Blanc (Napa) White Zinfandel (Central Valley) Zinfandel (Sonoma, Sierra Foothills, Santa Cruz).

The Southwest States Texas: Affectionately referred to as the botanical heart of America, contains more native grape species than any other area in the world. New Mexico: The Rockies make it possible to grow wines here, as the elevation cools the climate. Its three AVAs from north to south:Middle Rio Grande – the state’s biggest and best winery, Mimbres Valley and Mesilla Valley on the Mexican border. Southeast Arizona: Contains one AVA, Sonoita; plantings of Merlot and Sauvignon Blanc are common. Colorado: This trendy state produces Chardonnay, Merlot, Riesling, Viognier and Shiraz in its nine wineries from its vineyards sheltered in the Grand Valley of the Colorado River at an elevation of 1,200 metres.

The Pacific North-West The vineyards here are located in the states of Washington, Oregon and the smaller Idaho.

Major wine varieties Pinot Noir (Oregon): Good quality wines made from good clonal selection, shows fresh juiciness of some of the lighter burgundies. Oregon is also known for its Pinot Gris and Chardonnay. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot (Washington) Chardonnay (Washington)

Washington State Divided into two by the high ever-snowy Cascade Range, the majority of vineyards are based around the fertile valleys of Columbia and its tributary, the Yakima and also at Walla Wallla to the east. Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay and Syrah are the most important grapes grown here.

Oregon All of Oregon has less than one third of Napa’s acreage. This area has concentrated on the Pinot Noir from the Willamette Valley, but if you search hard you will find Oregon Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon, plus the other smaller regions of Umpqua and Rogue valleys.

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New York State Overall there are 120 wineries and 3,350 acres of vinifera vines in the seven New York State AVAs, these are divided between four distinct regions. „„ Lake Erie AVA: located to the west of the state. „„ Finger Lakes AVA: Riesling, Gewutztraminer and Chardonnay are successfully grown here. „„ Cayuga Lake AVA: lower in altitude, deeper lake creating a unique mesoclimate suitable for vinifera grapes (Riesling and Chardonnay). „„ Hudson River Region AVA: 1,000 acres located on steep hillsides along the river’s edge; starts about 40 miles north of New York City (Seyval Blanc, Baco Noir, Pinot Noir and Chardonnay mainly French hybrids); overall these are minor vineryard areas. „„ Long Island AVA: 1,300 acres all vinifera vines, two main AVAs: q North Fork of Long Island AVA q The Hamptons, Long Island AVA: tiny vineyard area runs along the south fork of Long island.

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Fortified, Aromatised and Quinine Wines

Aims and learning outcomes This chapter introduces the fortified (liqueur), aromatised and quinine wines of the world, focusing on the principle regions, production techniques and individual classification which are used to produce these unique wines to the highest standards.On its completion, the learner should be able to: „„

Explain the origins, constituents and styles of fortified (liqueur), aromatised and quinine wines.

„„

Define the unique characteristics, manufacturing processes, suggested service and storage methods of fortified (liqueur), aromatised and quinine wines.

5.1 Fortified wine: Port Fortified (liqueur) wines are still wines to which grape brandy has been added to increase the alcoholic strength. This also stops fermentation midway and the wine tends to retain some of the natural sweetness of the grapes. The eventual alcoholic strength of fortified wines ranges from 16 to 21% alcohol by volume.

Portugal, the home of port Port wine (also known as Vinho do Porto) is a sweet Portuguese fortified wine from the Douro Valley in the northern provinces of Portugal. It is often served as a dessert wine. Under European Union guidelines (and in Canada), only the product from Portugal may be labelled as port. In the United States, Federal law mandates that the Portuguese-made product be labelled Porto. Port is produced from grapes grown and processed in the Douro region; the wine produced is then fortified with the addition of distilled grape spirits in order to boost the alcohol content. The wine is then stored and aged, in barrels in cellars in the town of

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Vila Nova de Gaia, before being bottled. The Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e Porto (IVDP or Port and Douro Wine Institute) regulates the port industry in Portugal.

Figure 5.1: IVDP label, seal of approval (On Reserve.com).

Location Port comes only from vineyards the upper Douro valley in the north of Portugal, centred on the town of Peso da Regua. The vineyards are carved from a titanic canyon through the layered rock upwards. The port wine brought down river from the 85,000 vineyards to Vila Nova de Gaia, and must by Portuguese law be stored here for its maturation. rating for Ports start at A to F, not all grapes qualify to be made into port; a quota is established each year (using the beneficio system). Port prime areas: „„ Baixo Corgo, which is the lower valley and produces mainly the wood ports and inexpensive ruby and tawny ports „„ Cima Corgo, the upper valley, produces the ruby, tawny, white and Late Bottled Vintage ports. Iit is centred around Pinhao, and is the prime port area where many of the famous port houses have their picturesque quintas (estates, farms) clinging on to almost vertical slopes dropping down to the river.

Port production The grapes Grown in the upper Douro, the most improbable vineyards in the World: Soil Schist (slate type soil) is the best, when planting the vines because this soil is so hard (as mentioned) explosives was used to break up the top layer of soil. Grapes varieties Strictly regulated by the Instituto do Vinho do Porto, nine varieties are permitted to be planted but only six are commonly used in the best vintage Ports. The main ones are Tinta Barroca, Tinta Cão, Tinta Roriz (Tempranillo), Touriga Francesa, and Touriga Nacional. White ports are produced the same way as red ports, except that they use white grapes—Esgana-Cão, Folgasão, Malvasia, Rabigato, Verdelho, and Viosinho. Method of picking Picked mainly by barracheiros who carry the 75 kilo loads used in the smaller, up-country quintas, in square woven cane baskets on their shoulders, down the slopes to the trucks on the roads.

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Crushing „„ by foot: the ritual dance method, stamping with hob nail boots. The grapes are pressed to traditional song and dance in open lagares (large stone troughs). „„ by mechanical crusher: mechanical crushing is the alternative, and this is by way of a vertical crusher peculiar to the Douro.

Fermenting and pressing Two types of fermentation vat are used: „„ Lagare: the traditional fermentation vat is the same granite or slate lagare in which the grapes are crushed. The must is broken up by men using wooden implements. „„ Autovinifier: the port autovinifier is a closed system whereby the must is forced up and over the cap due to the pressure created by carbon dioxide build up during fermentation. As it important to extract the maximum colour from the fermenting must as quickly as possible.

Blending, maturing and transport Assessment, blending and classification: the process of tasting commences in the Douro immediately after fermentation is finished, and continues in Vila Nova de Gaia after the wines arrive there the following March. At this point the general style of the wine will be shaped, although its precise destiny may take years to determine. „„ Wood-aging and bottling: Vintage or vintage style port will be bottled young – between 18 months and 6 years, then left to mature in bottle. „„ Stabilization: cold stabilization of young wines destined for any of the bottle-aged categories is extremely important as it removes the excess tartrate crystals, which would otherwise form during maturation. The wine is cooled to –10 degrees. „„ Clarification: wood aged ports may be lightly fined before being bottled and gelatine is the most commonly used fining agent.

The port lodges: Vila Nova de Gaia Port is taken to Vila Nova de Gaia, the port suburb of Oporto. The shipper’s warehouses there are known as lodges. They have much in common with the sherry bodegas. In the lodges the port is kept in pipes, 533 litre barrels, for anything from 2 to 50 years. In perhaps three years out of ten conditions are near perfect for port making. The best wine of these years needs no blending; nothing can be done to improve it except wait.

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Figure 5.2: A professional wine tasting room in France (Source: Atlanta Wine School).

Types and styles of ports Port comes in several styles, divided into three broad categories White, Red, Brown.

White ports White Ports are made from white grapes, drier than red and sold as an aperitif, the range of styles of white ports from dry to very sweet. Service: Port is noticeably more warming and alcoholic than Fino sherry, even when served chilled, therefore in its native Douro, ice and tonic are added, good thirst quencher.

Red ports „„ Ruby ports are the cheapest and most extensively produced type, aged 2 to3 years in wood, darker and fruiter. Best drunk young, they have deep fresh red colour and black fruit flavour, sweet and high in alcohol but not complex, and low tannins. „„ Reserve or Vintage Character ports: premium ruby ports approved by the IVDPs tasting panel, aged in wood for an average of 5 or more years. In 2002, the IVDP prohibited the use of the term ‘vintage character’, for the year’s production, as the wine had neither attribute. „„ Ports with an indication of age: the best ruby ports may also be aged further to 10, 20, 30 or 40 years old. The date of bottling and a statement about the wine being matured in wood will usually appear on the labels of this style of port. „„ Late-Bottled Vintage (LBV) ports: originally wine that had been destined for bottling as vintage port, but due to lack of demand was left in barrel for rather longer than had been planned. Over time it has become two distinct styles of wine, both of them bottled between four and six years after the vintage,

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but one style is fined and filtered prior to bottling while the other is not. The stepping stone to vintage port, the bottle carries vintage date. This benefits from bottle maturation and modern style for immediate consumption, which is the biggest seller. „„ Vintage port: accounting for two percent of production, vintage port is the flagship wine of all Portugal. The wine of a single exceptional vintage year, bottled early for laying down, is incontestably among the world’s very best wines, full, fat and flowery flavours can keep for decades, but needs very delicate handling. Not every year is declared a vintage in the Douro, but only those when conditions are favourable to the production of a fine and lasting wine. The decision on whether to declare a vintage is made in the spring of the second year following the harvest. These ports are blended from wines made from a single harvest. These wines are constantly tasted and assessed and if the wines are found to be of particularly good quality, the producers may choose to declare a vintage. These wines are set aside to be bottled as vintage port and ‘a vintage is declared’. „„ Single Quinta ports: vintage port produced from a particular vineyard, these ports need to be decanted before serving. „„ Garrafeira ports: an intermediate vintage dated style of port made from the grapes of a single harvest that combines both the oxidative maturation of years in wood, with further reductive maturation in large glass demijohns. These are specially selected from several regions but always of one. After blending, the IVDP requires that these wines spend some time in wood, usually between three to six years followed by at least a further eight years in demijohns before bottling. „„ Crusted ports: good but not vintage port, bottled early for laying down, considered poor man’s vintage port. Bottled at about 3 to 4 years and given up to a further 3 years of bottle age. Because they are bottled young, they throw up a crust of sediments like those found in Vintage Ports. The date on a crusted port bottle refers to the bottling date, not the year the grapes were grown.

Brown ports „„ Tawny ports and Colheita: Port kept many years in wood until it fades to a tawny colour. The best ones are 20 years or so, and cost as much as vintage port. Many people prefer their mellowness and moderated sweetness. Tawny ports from a single vintage are called Colheitas (pronounced col-YATE-ah, meaning harvest). Instead of an indication of age (10 to 20) their actual vintage year is mentioned. However, they should not be mistaken with Vintage port. „„ Young Tawny ports: actually blends of young red and white ports these are the cheapest forms of tawny ports with little or no ageing in wood. „„ Tawny Reserva ports: without an indication of age, can age up to 5 years in wood.

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„„ Tawny Ports (with an indication of age): a blend of several vintages, the average years in wood stated on the label. „„ Fine Old Tawny Ports: generally Ruby Ports which have been aged; this average age in wood is stated on the label.

Service and food pairing Ports cannot be decanted like other red wines as the very dark tinted bottles do not allow the person decanting the wine to see the sediments during decanting. For this reason Ports are usually filtered off their sediments using a silver filter funnel with a perforated strainer and its spout curved sideways to make the wine run down the side of the decanter without splashing. A muslin cloth can also be used. In the case where the decanted wine is to be run back into the original bottle rather then served from a decanter, the bottles are rinsed out and the decanted port is poured back into the bottle for service. Serve port with meat, game or strong cheese.

5.2 Fortified wine: Sherry Spain has more land devoted to viticulture than any other country in Europe and is one of the largest wine producers. This is also the home of sherry. 1996: The name of sherry was legally recognized as belonging to Spain in this year. Sherry is a fortified wine, made in and around the town of Jerez, Spain and hence in Spanish it is called Vino de Jerez. According to Spanish law, sherry must come from the triangular area of the province of Cádiz between Jerez, Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and El Puerto de Santa María. However the name ‘sherry’ is used as a semi-generic in the United States where it must be labelled with a region of origin such as American sherry or California sherry. Sherry differs from other wines because of how it is treated after fermentation is complete. It is first fortified with brandy and then if destined to be fino style a yeast called flor is allowed to grow on top. Oloroso style is fortified to a strength where the flor cannot grow. Because the fortification takes place after fermentation, all natural sherries are dry; any sweetness is applied later.

Sherry, soils and grapes Soils: three types in the Jerez district: „„ Albariza (the best): the lightest soil, almost white (reflects the sun brilliantly, helping to ripen the grapes), „„ Barros: dark brown soil, 10% chalk, high clay content, doesn’t produce fine wines. „„ Arenas: yellowish soil, 10% chalk, high sand content, doesn’t produce fine wines. The barros and arenas soil are mostly used for Pedro Ximénez and Moscatel grapes.

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Grapes: there are only three white grapes grown for sherry-making: „„ Palomino Blanco, alias Listan: has little flavour and low acidity; supplies 90% of the grapes grown for sherry, and also produces many fine wines, with a sprinkling of truly great ones. The grape is picked very ripe, because high natural alcohol is essential to its performance. „„ Pedro Ximenes (commonly known as PX): is used as a sweetening and colouring agent in sherry, and is also made into a wine in its own right. When harvested, these grapes are typically dried in the sun for two days to concentrate their sugars. „„ Moscatel Romano: similar to PX, only grown on a small scale in Jerez, and acts as a sweetener.

Vinification process for sherry Pressing When ready, the Palomino grapes are taken to large warehouses called bodegas for pressing. Only the must from the first light pressing, the mosto de yema, is used to produce sherry.

Fermentation After some 12 hours, fermentation starts furiously and runs for three or four days at temperatures that vary from 25 to 30°C. Flor forms naturally as a thin white scum that floats on the wines in only some of the barrels. This film of yeast-like organisms prevents the oxidation of the wine allowing the wines to eventually become drier, lighter styles like Fino or Amontillado. Those wine in barrels that do not develop the flor become darker and richer tasting – destined to become Olorosos. While there is no way to ensure the formation of the flor, it is possible to create conditions that would encourage its growth.

Figure 5.3: Sherry barrel displaying development of flor (alcademics.com) .

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First classification of the casks The catador or taster with the help of the venenciador, who inserts a venencia (a small cup on the end of a long whalebone stick – Figure 5.4) through the bunghole to gather a sample of mosto, the catador tastes, or rather noses, the sample from each barrel and classifies it. Those, which have flor, are classified as Finos and their casks are cut with a Y-shaped mark called a palma. Those, which do not, are classified as Rayas and are marked with a stroke or raya. Figure 5.4: A venenciador using the venencia (Consejo Regulador Vinos de Jerez y Manzanilla).

Ageing and blending This is done in 600-litre casks that are made of North American oak, which is slightly more porous than French or Spanish oak. The casks, or butts, are filled five-sixths full, leaving ‘the space of two fists’ empty at the top to allow flor to develop on the wine. Sherry is then aged by a special method known as the solera system (see figure 5.5). At first only the wine of one year is in each cask, and that remains so for several years, until it is decided whether they are going to become Finos or Olorosos.

Fortification Sherry is fortified using destillado, made by distilling wine, usually from La Mancha. The distilled spirit is mixed with mature sherry in a 50/50 blend known as mitad y mitad so the effects of the strong alcohol does not shock the young sherry and spoil it.

Clarifying and blending All sherries are dry at this stage: sweet sherries are made by adding sweetening wine. Sherry is slightly cloudly when it is drawn from the solera so it requires clarifying. Traditionally it was fined with egg white or ‘Spanish earth’, a very fine crumbly slate.

The Solera system A solera is an aggregation of butts divided into equally sized stages, each stage containing sherry of different (steadily increasing) average age but similar type. The oldest wine will be in Stage 1. A little over 20 percent of the contents of each butt will be taken from Stage 1 twice a year for bottling or blending. The butt is then topped up from the stage above, which is topped up by the next youngest.

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Base wine Base wine on flor yeast in vintage batches for 1-2 years Cask selectiongs made and wines transferred to nursery

Nursery

Wines transferred to Solera to top up top row

Solera Top

Starting wi the 2nd row, wines are transferred down row by row to top up system

3rd 2nd Bottom

Bottom rows are never emptied Wines removed from bottom rows to form bottling product

Figure 5.5: The solera system used for sherry (Wine Australia.com). The solera wines are the shipper’s paint box for blending the house brand. When the sherry shipper receives an order for a particular brand for one customer or another, he will look up his blending book, take the wines he needs from his shipping soleras, and blend them, together with sweetening wine and vino de colour.

Styles of sherry Drier styles „„ Fino: Finos are the best of the sherries; Spain’s finest wine of all. Many sherry houses regard their principal fino as their flagship. Gonzalez Byass – Tio Pepe, Pedro Domecq – La Ina, and Garvey San Patricio are leading examples of finos that have become brands in there right. „„ Manzanilla: This is a fino produced in the sub-region of Sanlucar de Barrameda. It has a salty tang due to the proximity of the bodegas to the Atlantic. Hidalgo la Gitana, Delgado Zuleta La Goya, La Guita, Williams & Hubert, Allegria, and Barbadillo are all successful. „„ Amontillado: Aged first under a cap of flor yeast, and then exposed to oxygen, which produces a result darker than fino but lighter than oloroso. Among the more popular amontillado sherries are Emilio Lustau Fine Dry Amontillado, Gonzalez Byass La Concha, Croft Particular Pale Amontillado, Don Ramos, and Harvey’s Club.

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Sweeter styles „„ Oloroso: a variety of sherry aged oxidatively for a longer time than a fino or amontillado, producing a darker and richer wine. Look for Emilio Lustau Almacenista Dry Oloroso and Emilio Lustau Rich Old Oloroso also remarkable. „„ Palo Cortado: This is a rare variety of sherry that is initially aged under flor like an amontillado, but develops a character similar to oloroso, usually darker than finos and olorosos, has a full bouquet, and a crisp finish. Gonzalez Byass and Emilio Lustau produce distinguished palo cortado sherries. „„ Cream sherries: Sweet sherries based on Olorosos and sweetened with sweetening wines made from Moscatel and Pedro Ximenez, Example: Harvey’s Bristol Cream. „„ Dark or Brown sherries: The colour comes from adding vino de color, a sticky, natural syrup. This is made by taking unfermented grape juice and concentrating it over a slow fire in copper cauldron.

Classifications for age dated sherry The age dated categories were introduced in July 2000. Although it is very difficult to calculate the exact age of a sherry solera, the criterion is that the wine must exhibit the characteristics of a wine of the stated age. „„ VORS (Vinum Optimum Rare Signatum or Very Old Rare Sherry): Signifies that a sherry of at least 30 years of age. „„ VOS ( Vinum Optimum Signatum or Very Old Sherry): A classification stated that the sherry is 20 years old. The 12 and 15 year old categories are the latest classifications to be added.

Vintage dated sherry This refers to sherries which have not been part of the traditional solera blending system but were set aside in butts due to their particular character and sometimes used for blending at a later point.

Sherry service A fino tastes much better if it has been chilled, but don’t freeze them. Sherries with more body need only to be slightly chilled, and the lovely dessert sherries are best served at room temperature. sherry requires a big glass with plenty of room for the full aroma to gather in it. Finos and Manzanillas are light and delicate: drink these soon after bottling. Look for the Lot code on the back labels, which will tell you when the sherry was bottled. Although some Bodegas have their own complicated system of lot codes, the majority will use the standard system. It will appear something like this: L9112. The L stands for lot code. The 9 signifies the year, i.e. 1999, the 112 the day. So a sherry with a lot code of L9112 would have been bottled on the 112th day of 1999. Always go for the earliest bottlings. Light

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amontillados also deteriorate, but at a much slower rate. An unsweetened oloroso remains unharmed for several years. A top-notch amontillado, palo cortado and oloroso can develop in bottle given time. Even a fine dessert oloroso becomes absolutely dry and magnificent after 50 or 60 years! Unlike table wines, you may store sherry in an upright position. The alcohol tends to attack the cork in strong wines, which then crumble and leak and spoilage occurs. However, sherries that can be kept for long periods should be bottled with a long cork and stored horizontally, so the cork doesn’t dry out and cease being airtight. There is a saying in Jerez: there are only two kinds of sherry, the good and the better. Andalusians have a saying about sherry that you should drink a little but often. Tapas bars also serve up inventive local delicacies such as pork chops braised in oloroso, and slithery marinaded artichoke hearts.

5.3 Fortified wine: Madeira Madeira is a fortified wine made in the Madeira Islands of Portugal.

Figure 5.6: Madeira regions (IntoWine.com).

Production of madeira The Madeira Wine Institute or Instituto do Vinho da Madeira is the regulatory body for the making of Madeira wine.

Soil The volcanic rock of this island is of great value in that water accumulates in its crevices, but being porous, drains well. When first discovered, the island was covered in thick forest. The trees were felled and burned – legend says that the fires burned for seven years – and the land was turned over to agriculture. The rich volcanic soil and the brilliant sunlight make this a very fertile place.

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Viticulture Cultivation of vine in Madeira is hard work. Everything has to be carried up or down the precipitous paths by hand. The vines are trained mostly in two ways: either on high wires as in Alsace, or on the traditional trellises where the grapes hang down from the top.

Grapes The four main Madeira grapes are: „„ Sercial, driest variety, makes the driest Madeira, grows on the highest terraces at about 700 metres above sea level and are harvested last „„ Verdelho, medium dry, makes excellent medium sweet wine „„ Bual, rich medium sweet „„ Malmsey, richness & sweetest, grown at about 200 metres above sea level, picked by hand again. Tinta Negra Mole (noble variety) is also grown. This is the most planted vinfera vine on the island, but outside the top four.

Vinification Madeira is unique due to its viticulture and maturation, shading grapes results in very high natural acidity. The method of vinification is similar to that employed in other parts of Portugal, but the method employed for hastening the maturation of the wine is peculiar and characteristic. This consists of subjecting the wine to a high temperature for a period of some months, in buildings called estufas specially designed for this purpose.

Crushing and pressing Foot crushing in largares or mechanical crushing, destemming, pressing before fermentation for Sercial and Verdelho, pressing after fermentation for Bual and Malmsey.

Fermentation and fortification Large concrete vats are normally used for fermentation, though autovinification has also been introduced at some lodges. This allows constant pumping over, which enables increased extraction of colour and flavour from the grapes. Winemakers fortify their highest quality wines at this stage, raising alcohol levels to 17%, lesser quality wines are not fortified at this stage. The first grading of Madeira occurs after the wine has been racked off its fermentation lees. Each style is then classified according to its quality. The wine then undergoes estufagem, the slow heating process by which Madeira’s sugars are caramelised, resulting in its unique flavour. This must last for at least 3 months at 112°F (44°C).

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Gradual cooling is critical for all wines, but particularly for lesser quality Sercials and Verdelhos, which at this stage will be most vulnerable, having not been fortified at all. Both oxidation and acidification are real risks.

Fortification Under EU rules, fortification with the local cane spirit is no longer permitted, and brandy is purchased from the Junta on the mainland. Further fortification occurs after heating, to compensate for loss. The amount of fortification for Sercial and Verdelho will be small (3-4%), but this may be the first time these wines have received any spirit. For fine Bual and Malmsey, this may be the third stage of fortification; initially in the fermentation, adjusted after racking to 17% and now again to compensate for the loss during heating. Old wines may need yet further fortification at blending and bottling

Finishing The wine is either fined with gelatine or benetonite, or filtered, and then allowed to rest for 12 to 18 months before classification. After the rest period, the wine is filtered and given a vigorous aerated racking. Its fate is then determined and it will be stored according to its final destiny. It may spend as little as 18 more months in cask, or over 50 years. Maderisation is a process that involves the heating and oxidisation of a wine. The term is named after the process used in the production of Madeira wine, where it occurs while the wine is still in cask. The resulting wine darkens in colour and acquires a sherry-like character. Outside Madeira wine, it is generally seen as a fault, but is desirable in the case of certain dessert wines where it occurs over the course of long bottle ageing.

Figure 5.7: Madeira Wine Company cellars (Dr. Peter Reutter, www.madeirawineguide.com).

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Classification of Madeira wines Madeira may be sold as a vintage wine with a specific year when aged in casks for more than 15 years, or as a blended wine with a minimum age, such as 3, 5, 10 or 15 years.

The four main varietals „„ Sercial The driest of the Madeira styles. These wines are pale, delicate, with a nutty bouquet and the most of refreshing smooth of all the Madeiras. Darkens with age and softens. Best served as an aperitif; good with clear soups. „„ Verdelho Lighter and sweeter than Sercial. Ideal on its own, this wine is the least known of the four styles. The medium rich wine with a pleasant smoky nutty bouquet resembling hazelnuts and a distinct fruitiness on the palate. Darkens with age until it reaches a deep green-brown. A dry finish, served as an aperitif or with fish appetisers. „„ Bual A fragrant, full-bodied wine that is deep brown and buttery-rich in flavour sweet, smoky complexity, which mellows with age. Serve after dinner, with nuts and cheese. „„ Malmsey This full-bodied, soft, very fragrant style is the sweetest style of Madeira. Enormously fruity, honeyed and luscious. Best served as after-dinner drinks, often served in place of port. Serve after dinner nuts and cheese.

Laws relating to vintage Madeira „„ Finest, choice, selected (3 years): will typically be made from Tinta Negra Mole, the most widely grown grape. The basic Madeira with simply an indication of whether it is dry, medium, sweet etc. No grape variety is specified. „„ Rainwater (3 years): a 3-year-old wine made from Verdelho. It takes its name from an 18th century blend, which accidentally included rainwater. Soft, easy drinking style, usually medium sweet. „„ Reserve (5 years or older): a blended wine of a number of vintages, the youngest of which must be at least 5 years old (after estufagem). If the grape variety is specified, it must contain 85% of that variety. „„ Special reserve, old reserve (10 years or older): the same requirements as for Reserve, except that the youngest components will be 10 years old. Much richer in style and more complex. „„ Extra reserve (15 years or older): as before, but with a minimum of 15 years. „„ Vintage: must be made from the noble varieties, have spent 20 years in cask after estufagem, and an additional 2 years in bottle. Must be 100% of the specified variety. „„ Solera: a dying art in madeira making. Adapted on a unique smaller scale in Madeira because of the terrain. Only 10% can be drawn off and bottled at any one time and must be replaced by wine of similar quality. The date is that on

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which the solera was established and is not a true indication of the average age. Solera is disallowed by the EU for wines older than 10 years in Madeira.

Storage A bottle of Madeira once opened will remain drinkable for weeks or even months. Exposure to extreme temperature and oxygen accounts for its stability; an opened bottle of Madeira will survive unharmed for a considerable time, up to a year. Properly sealed in bottles, Madeira is one of the longest lasting wines; Madeiras have been known to survive over 150 years in excellent condition. It is not uncommon to see Madeiras pushing the century mark for sale at stores that specialize in rare wine. As of January 19, 2007, www.rarewineco.com was offering an 1834 Malvasia.

Service Madeira is useful in the kitchen and can add flavour to sauces and soups. Stewed kidneys and oxtail, particularly, will be heartened by a spoonful of Malmsey.

Top producers Twenty-seven companies formed the Madeira Wine Association in 1913. Blandy’s, and Cossart Gordon are the top labels, Henriques & Henriques (largest independent producer), Leacock’s and Rutherford & Miles are labels for commercial brands.

5.4 Fortified wine: Marsala Marsala is the name for a fortified wine (Vino liquorose – in Italian) with an alcohol content of around 20 percent, produced in the region surrounding the ancient Italian port city of Marsala in Sicily and has had DOC (Denominazione di Origine Controllata) status since 1969. While the city’s natives sometimes drink vintage Marsala, the wine produced for export is universally a fortified wine.

Production Grapes

Marsala is produced using the Grillo, Inzolia, and Catarratto white grapes among others.

Viticulture

The best vineyards are the locations which reach right down to the water’s edge, as the cool, coastal breezes help the grapes retain a good acid balance.

Vinification

Most marsala is made by pressing these two grape varieties Grillo and Cataratto and then blending them with a mistelle (locally called sifone), a mixture neutral

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grape brandy and vino cotto (a heated wine concentrate, cooking must). This fortified wine is then matured using a Solera system and aged for at least 5 years before bottling.

Main types and top producers „„ Fine: aged for a minimum one year. „„ Superiore: aged at least two years. „„ Superiore Riserva: a vintage wine aged in wood for four years. „„ Vergine e/o Soleras: Vergine is aged in wood for a minimum of five years. „„ Vergine e/o Soleras Stravecchio e Vergine e/o Soleras Riserva: aged at least ten years. Top producers: Florio, Pellegrino, Rallo, Vecchio Samperi, De Bartoli, Lombardo, Colombo.

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Figure 5.8: A selection of port, sherries and Madeiras

Marsala in cooking, and with food Marsala wine is frequently used in cooking, and is especially prevalent in Italian restaurants around the world. Marsala wine was traditionally served as an aperitif between the first and second courses of a meal. Contemporary diners will serve it chilled with parmesan (stravecchio), gorgonzola, roquefort, and other spicy cheeses, or at room temperature as a dessert wine.

5.5 Fortified and aromatised wine: vermouth Vermouth is a fortified and aromatised wine, flavored with fifty different aromatic herbs and spices. Vermouth is probably best known for its role in the popular

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cocktail, the martini. The French are usually credited with the invention of dry vermouth, sometime in the early 19th century, and to this day, France is often associated with drier white vermouths, and Italy with sweeter red vermouths, though both nations produce both types in large quantities.

Constituents and styles of vermouth Herbs and flavourings Gentian, camomile, bitter orange, vanilla, rhubarb, mint, marjoram, coriander, hyssop, iris, thyme, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, saffron and ginger, plus caramel, made from saccharose or heated sugar to give its amber coloring.

Styles of vermouth There are four general styles, which are, from driest to sweetest: extra dry, bianco/ white, rose and sweet/red. Sweet red vermouth is drunk as an apéritif, often straight up, as well as in mixed drinks. Red vermouths are sometimes referred to as Italian vermouths and white vermouths as French vermouths, although not all Italian vermouths are red and not all white vermouths are French. Traditional alcohol contents of vermouths: white (dry)18% ABV, white (bianco) 16% ABV, (rosé) 16% ABV, red (rosso, sweet) 16% ABV.

Production The main producing countries include: Italy (Pessione outside Turin H.Q. of Martini), France (Marseilles is the centre for shipping and receiving spices, and Savoie were Chambray is made), Switzerland, Spain, Venezuela and China. Traditionally the best vermouths were produced at the French and Italian sides of the Alps mountain range because the herbs and spices grow there prolifically. The manufacturing process is as follows: 1 Preparation of the liquor base: the spirit is added to the wine base and certain aromatic plants and left for three months. The French white wines come from the Gers and Herault wine growing departments and the Italian wines from Sicily, Piedmont and Emilia-Romagna wine growing departments. 2 Preparation of aromatic extracts: by infusion or maceration of aromatic plants (those used for aromatizing the vermouth have a digestive and medicinal quality), spirits and water to obtain a concentrated and flavoured product. The exact process remains a closely guarded secret in most companies. 3 Blending: the liquor base and aromatic extracts are mixed together. 4 Addition of alcohol: to reach the right alcohol content. 5 Sweetening: the sugar is added to give a certain smoothness, and to bring together the aromas. The exact amounts of sweetening are as follows: White Vermouths (dry) 40 grams of sugar per litre, (Bianco) 100 - 150 grams per litre, Red Vermouth (sweet), 150 grams per litre by caramelisation.

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6 Finishing: Resting for 3 to 5 months, to allow stabilization and amelioration. Preservation, decanting, sterilization (except for rosé), refrigeration and filtering, followed by a further rest in oak casks for 5 to 6 months before bottling.

Best known vermouths The best-selling vermouth brands exported internationally include: „„ Bartissol (Italy): perfect neat, on ice, with a slice of orange or lemon. „„ Cinzano (Italy): brands include Dry, Rosso, Rose and Bianco vermouths. „„ Distillerie Stock (Italy): brands include Dry, Sweet, and Bianco Vermouths: „„ Noilly Prat (France): Produced in Marseillan, France, The vast bulk of Noilly Prat is the world famous dry white vermouth, but two special variants are made: q Red Noilly Prat is made in the same exacting way, but with the addition of 30 flavourings, which produce the rich red colour. It is produced fr the American market and not available in France, except from the Noilly Prat shop. q Amber Noilly Prat is only available for purchase from Noilly Prat in its shop in Marseillan.

Figure 5.9: Selection of famous vermouths „„ Martini (Italy): produced at Pessione outside Turin, brands include Extra Dry, Rosso, Bianco, Rose, Martini D’Oro, Martini Fiero and flavoured Martini. Martini is exported to more than 120 countries around the world. „„ Punt e Mes (Italy): (16% abv) Punt e mes means point and a half in Piedmontese. Has a strong, distinctive flavor, halfway between regular rosso vermouth and Campari. Punt e Mes is made by the Carpano family from Turin.

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„„ Vermut Yzaguirre (Spain): extra dry and sweet vermouths made by E. Yzaguirre in the city of Reus, adapting the tap pouring system to improve service of vermuts to establishments with a high rate of consumption .

Storage These wines degrade quickly once they have been opened, so it is probably best to store it in the refrigerator if you are not expecting to use it within a day’s time. Dry Vermouth if properly refrigerated would keep for about 6 months. Other vermouths (Bianco, Rosso, Rose) generally keep for about 1 year when stored in a cool dry place or refrigerated.

Enjoying Vermouth Vermouth, either sweet or dry, makes a wonderful drink all by itself. Just pour some into an old fashioned glass filled with ice, and add a lemon twist, and it is an extremely refreshing drink. In fact this is how vermouth is traditionally consumed in Europe. Vermouth is also enjoyed in the classic cocktails of the world for example Dry Martini, Sweet Martini, Bronx, Manhattan or the Americano. Give it a try just by itself, on the rocks, with a twist, and for your next Martini, add a healthy dose of it to the glass, either dry, or sweet, which is how the drink was originally intended.

5.6 Quinine wine These are aperitifs based on wines with a slight flavour of quinine and other ingredients (for example, orange peel). Two of the most famous quinine wines in the world today, Dubonnet and St. Raphael, emerged during the early nineteenth century when men died by the thousands from malaria in France’s colonies in North Africa. A bitter-wood bark from the cinchona tree, quinine, was known to protect against malaria, but quinine was extremely unpalatable to swallow. Two men Joseph Dubonnet and Alphonse Juppet responded to a French Government competition, and after successful research both created drinks fortified with brandy, flavoured with aromatic herbs and aged for around two years, these drinks proved so popular in North Africa (sold under the name Quinquina) that they were distributed in mainland France, where they achieved instant success. Initially quinine wines were produced in both white and red varieties and consumed straight up, but over time ice and slices of fresh fruit began to be added. In the twentieth century, it became popular to lengthen the quinine wine with tonic, soda, bitter lemon or lemonade and in the middle 1940s as the popularity of the white variety diminished and the red variety largely took over, the word ‘quinquina’ or ‘quinine’ was removed from the labels.

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Best known quinine wines „„ Dubonnet (France): Blend of herbs and spices including quinine from Peru, cinnamon, bitter-orange peels, green coffee beans, and camomile, based on Roussillon wines, which is lightly fortified with neutral grape alcohol (mistelle). With a spicy aroma and refreshing flavors, Dubonnet embodies the best of the aperitif category. Best served with ice and a slice of lemon, or in a tall glass with ice and bitter lemon or lemonade. Dubonnet is available in both Rouge and Blanc varieties. „„ Saint Rapheal (France): A secret recipe of herbs and spices, wine. Available in ambre and rouge, both drinks are best served chilled or with ice and slice of orange/lemon, or with bitter lemon. „„ Byrrh (France): Produced at Thuir in the foothills of the French Pyrenees, Byrrh has a deep red colour, bouquet of flowers and peels. It’s dry on the palate and is best served with ice and bitter lemon, tonic or soda water. A slim tall glass is recommended to seal the bouquet of flavours to be enjoyed. „„ Ambassadeur (France) available in two styles, blanc and rouge. Ingredients include a secret recipe of herbs and spices, which include bitter and sweet orange peels, vanilla, cocoa, and gentian flowers, a mistelle, white or red wines (depending upon the style) and neutral alcohol. Best served chilled.

Summary These complex beverages range from the very dry (fino sherries) to the very sweet (ruby ports) which also makes them ideal partner within all stages of the meal experience as aperitifs, disgestifs or pick-me-ups. They present a true expression of their place of origin. Although their classification can sometimes be somewhat confusing, with a little study and a healthy interest in tasting these wines at every possible opportunity, you should be able to recommend and deliver these wines to your customers in the appropriate fashion. Fortified, aromatised and quinine wines can play a unique role towards contributing to the overall success of your bar and restaurant.

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Distilling: How Spirits are Made

Aims and learning outcomes This chapter aims to provide the knowledge and skills to understand how distilled spirits are made. On completion the learner should be able to: „„

Outline the base ingredients and production methods of spirits.

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Explain the systems used for determining alcohol strengths and the influence of maturation on spirits.

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Demonstrate the knowledge and techniques involved in the evaluation and tasting of spirits

6.1 Introduction The world of distilled spirits has benefited enormously from the dramatic increase in interest in the past couple of decades, due to the fact that consumers are widely travelled now and have been exposed to an increasing number of delicious, well-made and reasonably priced spirits from around the globe. Specialist drinks magazines carry many articles on distilled spirits and there are spirit columns in several national newspapers. Distilled spirits education is now widely available and is central to the continued success of these alcoholic beverages and their contribution to the overall business success of every bar. Burroughs & Bezzant (1990) define spirits as a ‘liquid of high alcoholic content which is obtained by distillation from such fermentable materials, they must be distilled only to a point where they are purified, yet still retain sufficient byproducts to impart the particular characteristic of the original base material’. The appeal of spirits lies in their delivery of fruit and plant flavours but differently rendered with more complexity and intensity – and alcohol.

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The word distillation comes from the Latin destillare meaning ‘to drip’. It is the extraction of higher alcohols from fermented drinks by using the action of heat to vapourize them. Basically, distillation is the concentration or increasing of alcohol strength. A wine of 8% alcohol by volume condenses into distillate of 20% volume after being boiled off in a pot still; if it is boiled a second time the strength goes up to about 60% vol. If, when vapourizing wine you take the wholesome middle-cut of the run, missing out the poisonous first part and the watery final part, as distillers learned to do, you have grape spirit, eau de vie, or brandy of about 70% ABV (alcohol by volume).

6.2 Raw materials and base ingredients Raw materials Anything that can be fermented can be used as a raw material for spirits – whether fruit, grain or vegetable. Where sugar is present in the primary material, as in molasses or fruit, the fermentation can be started directly. With grain spirits, the initial fermentation can take place only after the starch that is naturally present has been converted into sugar. To do this the grains (barley, etc.) are steeped in water for a period and then exposed to gentle warmth. This simulates the action of rain and sun, and the barley will start to sprout. As it does this, the germ of the grain gives forth an enzyme called diastase, which turns the starch of the gain into a sugar called maltose; this sugar can be fermented by yeast to produce an alcoholic wash.

Fermentation This is the action of yeast upon sugar in solution, which breaks down the sugar into carbon dioxide (CO2) and alcohol. This alcohol is contained within the original liquid which then becomes a fermented beverage. Some spirits can be made from one particular material only, such as whiskey, vodka, genever, some schnapps and akvavit from grain. Other, such as vodka, can be made from a broad range of raw materials, including various grains, potatoes, and even sugar cane and grapes (see Table 6.1).

Base ingredients The availability of the base ingredient and the uniqueness of the land where is it grown play an integral part in the different complexities and qualities found in distilled spirits. Listed below are some of the various base ingredients in which these distillates find their origins.

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Table 6.1: Distilled spirits, base ingredients (adapted from Burroughs & Bezzant, 1990). Base ingredient Grains

Type barley, wheat, rye, corn

Distilled spirits and liqueurs obtained Whiskey, Gin, Vodka, Korn.

Other vegetables

sugar cane sugar beet potato Grapes apples, pears plums dates strawberry, raspberry agave ti-Root cherries cane juice molasses beet juice

Rum, Gin, and Vodka. Vodka Neutral spirit, Vodka, Schnapps Cognac, Armagnac and other Brandies Calvados, Poire, alcohol Blanca. Slivovitz, Mirabelle. Arrack. Framboise, Fraise. Tequila Okolehao Kirsch Rum, Arrack Basi, Pinga, Cachao Neutral spirit Neutral spirit

Fruit, pips Fruits Soft fruits Roots Roots Stone Sugar cane Sugar beet Cellulose or milk sugar

6.3 Methods of alcohol separation Let’s consider a little science for a moment. Ethanol alcohol freezes at -133°C and boils at 78°C, which leads to two distinctively different methods to separate alcohol. The freezing method, commonly referred to as the congelation method or freeze distillation, and the boiling method or heat distillation, which is commonly referred to as the distillation method.

Congelation (cold extraction) Congelation was originally used in the 8th century in Poland before distillation was discovered. It involved the cooling of the fermentable liquid (called the alcoholic wash) below 0°C or 32°F. This is a dangerous method of separation, because the poisonous fusel oils molecules tend to stick more closely together under cold conditions and can be left in. It is for this reason that most countries have made this method of alcohol separation illegal, but some operators use it to avoid paying taxes. It is sometimes used in Canadian homes to make Applejack. Cider is put out to freeze on a winter night. In the morning the ice formed is discarded. This process is repeated for 3 to 4 nights and the resulting residue is increased in strength. Less than 2% of the world’s distilled spirits are made using this method.

Distillation (heat extraction) Distillation is the separation by vaporization of the fermentable liquid to create alcohol. Alcohol has a lower boiling point than water (78.5°C or 172°F compared to 100°C for water), so the alcohol vaporizes into steam some time before the

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water content in the wine, wort or young beer starts to boil. When the alcoholladen steam hits a cool surface, it forms a dripping condensation, and reverts to a liquid of which the alcohol constitutes a much higher proportion than it did in the wine, wort or young beer. The liquid produced is colorless, tasteless. This is scientifically the best separation method and research figures indicate that this method accounts for 98% of the worlds spirits produced. It is the most widely method officially recognized by governments to separate alcohol for creating spirits on which which taxes and duties are levied.

6.4 Principles of distillation There are two basic types of still, the pot still and the continuous still.

Pot still This is sometimes referred to as an alembic or alembic still. It looks like a large copper kettle and is heated by direct heat. The vapours collect in the head and are led off through a narrow tube at the top, called the swan’s neck, from where they go to the condenser. Here they are liquefied. Such a still is not very heatefficient, but it produces spirits with character. Pot still distillation is a small batch process, as the still must be refilled each occasion, and because of the time and labour intensity involved, this method can be much more expensive than using the continuous still.

Figure 6.2: Traditional copper alembic pot still, powered by a coal furnace. © BNIC

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Redistilling, often several times, is necessary to achieve the appropriate alcohol level. Most spirits made with a pot still are double distilled, but sometimes it is done in three or even four stages (e.g. Irish whiskey, distilled three times). Several spirits are produced using the pot still including Cognac, brandy, Scotch malt whisky, Irish whiskey, American Bourbon whiskey and some rums (usually the darker ones). The pot still, with its painstaking thoroughness, produces distillates that retain the character and personality of their source ingredients. The largest pot still in the world is in the Old Midleton Distillery, Co. Cork Ireland. It has a capacity of 31,618 gallons (approximately 140,000 litres). It is no longer in use.

Separating the poisonous heads and tails The first distillation, which is called ’broullis’ in Cognac and ‘low wines’ in Scotland, and which has an alcoholic strength of about 35% ABV, is then redistilled. The first vapours coming off contain a high proportion of volatile poisons, particularly acetaldehyde, which has a boiling-point of 28°C (82°F) and methanol. Passing from the domed head at the top of the boiler, they condense in the worm and are collected in a special receiver. Some of the less volatile substances fall back into the boiler, to be revaporized: the molecules of the different substances shake loose from each other. The volatile poisons are lighter than alcohol, having a lower specific gravity, and can be detected by using a hydrometer (see Figure 6.4). When the hydrometer readings, and the still man’s nose, indicate that purer alcohol is coming over, the still man will switch the stream of water-white liquid coming from the worm into another receiver. This ‘heart’ or potable fraction mainly contains Ethanol (C2H5OH) and some flavour components. As the distillation progresses, a rank smell and a rising hydrometer reading will indicate that the poisonous fusel-oils are starting to come over in greater concentration, so the still man again switches the stream back to the first receiver. The tails, which are milky in colour, contains undesirable higher alcoholic compounds like Propandl and Butanol fusel oils, plus an increasing quantity of water. These parts are separated from the forth part (milky tails) which contains which are heavy. He has, during this second distillation, separated the poisonous ‘heads’ and ‘tails’, called respectively ‘foreshots’ and ‘feints’ in Scotland, from the good ‘heart’. The poisons can be extracted from the hearts by further re-distillation, as in Irish whiskey, or by long maturation in wood as with Cognac.

The continuous still Also referred to as the Patent, Column or Coffey Still, the continuous still was invented by Robert Stein in 1820, a relative of the Scotch whisky Haig. It first went into commercial production in Cameronbridge distillery in Fife, Scotland. An Irish Customs Officer based in Dublin named Aeneas Coffey developed the patent still further and his version eventually caught on worldwide. Ironically Aeneas Coffey never received a single order for his still from distillers in Ireland

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who regarded his still as seriously comprising the craft of whiskey distilling. Basically this still consists of two tall columns, each about sixty feet in height, called the analyzer and the rectifier (see Figure 6.2). The alcoholic wash is broken down into its constituent vapours, or analysed, in the analyzer, and the vapours are selectively condensed, or rectified, in the rectifier (see Figure 6.3).

The analyser and rectifier The still consists of two vertical columns, the analyzer and the rectifier. Steam enters the bottom of the analyzer, rises and meets the alcoholic wash, which has heated in the rectifier, descending the column. The alcohol in the wash is vapourised as it encounters the hot steam. It rises and is passed to the bottom of the rectifier. As the hot vapour rises it is cooled by the pipe carrying the cold wash and condenses. This distillation is a continuous process, with the various vapours being condensed and drawn off the still at different alcoholic strengths, according to where in the still the spirit plate is placed. The spirit can have a high degree of alcohol and purity, so only one distillation is needed. The result of using the continuous still is a more neutral spirit than that obtained from a pot still. If the spirit plate is placed to remove a lower-strength spirit, it will have more flavour and character, but will be much harsher. Up to 100 plates may be used in this still during production, but the fewer plates, the more flavour you obtain. Several spirits are made using the continuous still include vodka, grain scotches, light rums and gin.

Figure 6.2: Large coffey still (Luigi Chiesa, Creative Commons).

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6

A: Analyzer B: Rectifier Condenser

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A

B 4

3

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1. Wash 2. Steam 3. Liquid out 4. Alcohol vapour 5. Less volatile components are recycled 6. Most volatile components 7. Spirit

Figure 6.3: Coffey still diagram (Still Cooker.com).

6.5 Systems for determining alcohol strengths At this point you should keep in mind that pure alcohol is impossible to obtain as alcohol has a great affinity for water. Even the pure alcohol sold for clinical purposes will contain at least five percent water.

Ancient methods, proof, proven spirit The term ‘proof’ or a ‘proven spirit’ as an indicator of alcoholic strength derives from the early use of gunpowder in testing spirits. With no prior knowledge of the possible strength of a given distillate, you would mix the spirit with gunpowder and attempt to light it. If the mixture did not ignite, the spirit was under proof (too weak); if it lit and burned steadily with a blue flame this was proof (proven or proof spirit) of a recognized level of alcoholic strength. However, if it exploded or burned fiercely you (or your next of kin) could report the distillate as over proof and recommend further dilution with water.

Alcometer The alcohol concentration of the distillate can be determined by measuring its density using a special alcohol hydrometer also known as an alcoholmeter, usually calibrated at 20°C with readings in % v/v. The scientific formula to calculate this density is: Density = Weight     Volume Alcohol being less dense than water means that the decrease in density, relative to water, will directly correlate to the volume of alcohol present. If the temperature

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of the alcohol solution is greater or less than 20°C, the density reading will be less or greater than the true value. The true alcohol concentration at temperatures other than 20°C can be read on a correction table chart, using the temperature and alcohol concentration range. The hydrometry method of determining alcohol concentration in distillate is one of the cheapest and simplest to perform with the least chance of errors. The purpose of an alcoholmeter is to measure the alcohol percentage in the distillate. This alcoholmeter with the aid of a copper parrot spout, which is attached to the distillate outlet of the condensing recipient, will provide constant and accurate readings of the exiting distillate.

Sykes hydrometer system (1816-1980), Sykes proof law Invented by an English customs official named Sykes, this hydrometer offered the first accurate method for testing the strength of spirits or beer. The Sykes hydrometer is based on a very simple law – the law of flotation. This states that a floating body displaces its own weight of liquid. Pure alcohol is lighter than water. If we therefore place a floating body in pure alcohol and then in water it will be found that more of the former is displaced. As mentioned earlier, pure alcohol is impossible to obtain, and this presented a problem for Skyes when he first used the hydrometer. Instead of using 100% alcohol as his standard, he took advantage of the difference in the specific gravity of water and alcohol. He fixed his standard weight at twelve thirteenths of the weight of an equal quantity of distilled water. After calculating it out, by an involved process of mathematics, this means that 100 proof is equal to 57% abv or 175 proof is equal to 100% abv.

Figure 6.4: Original Skyes hydrometer system set

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The Gay-Lussac system The French scientist Gay-Lussac applied himself, in 1821-1822, to the study of the relation between liquid density and alcohol concentration. He perfected a new alcoholometer which was easy to use and gave directly, due to its calibration, the alcoholic rate at a given temperature, and began to manufacture them under his name and reputation. The precision of this new system was at the root of a new law about wines and spirits in 1824. The Gay-Lussac (GL) system also expresses percentage volume but measures it by hydrometer at 15°C giving a reading slightly higher than the OIML system (see next).

Percentage of pure alcohol by volume (ABV) On the 1st January 1990, the Sykes hydrometer system was abolished under the EEC directive 76/766 and a new system was adopted under which strengths of alcoholic drinks would be expressed as a percentage by volume of alcohol: The Organisation Internationale de Metrologie Legale (OIML) system measures this by hydrometer at 20°C. The new hydrometers are made of glass, and those to be used by the Customs and Excise bear the EU verification (the letter ‘e’). Thermometers made to the EU requirements are available through trade channels. Strength tables can also be purchased from the Government Publications Sales Office. In America it was decided that ‘proof spirit’ should be half water and half alcohol. ‘Pure’ alcohol, 100 over proof, can be expressed as 200 proof. The following table listed below may be of some help to make comparisons. Table 6.2: Alcoholic strengths of distilled spirits: sample comparison table (OIML) alcohol by volume ABV (%) USA proof degrees Gay Lussac G.L (%) (pure alcohol) 100

200

100

57

114

57

50

100

50

44

90

45

40

80

40

37

74

37

(water) 0

0

0

Conversions between measures of spirit strengths To convert US proof degrees to ABV: US Proof° ÷ 2 = ABV% To convert spirit ABV percentage to US proof: ABV × 2 = proof°

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As mentioned earlier duty and taxes are paid according to ABV strengths on product. These are the current duty bands for the United Kingdom in this regard: „„ below 1.14% ABV : no duty „„ above 1.14% but below 8.5% ABV: beer and cider „„ above 8.5% to maximum 15% ABV: light wines „„ 15-18% ABV: fortified wines (band 1) „„ 18-22% ABV: fortified wines (band 2) „„ above 22% ABV: liqueurs taxed per degree of alcohol, these include spirits.

6.6 Maturing and oxidation All spirits when they come off the still are colourless. The ageing process for spirits originated by mistake when it was noticed that barrels of spirits tasted smoother and more complex after long sea voyages. The barrel is the most common vessel used for maturing spirits, usually 500-litre size. Smaller sizes can also be used, but these restrict the oxygen intake and change the character of the final spirit. A wooden barrel helps the chemical reactions, extraction of taste, extraction of bouquet and extraction of colour. A small amount of the alcohol and some of the lighter fusel oils will evaporate during this time. Note that not all spirits are aged, and of those that are, not all are aged in wooden barrels. Nowdays some manufacturers are using artificial barrel tastes (chemicals can be bought to do this) from example Spain. If you require genuine quality of taste or some sweetness in your spirit you must mature for longer periods and also add some syrup to the barrel, for example dark rums.

Figure 6.5: New American oak barrels (Kentucky Barrels) The new American white oak barrels displayed in Figure 6.5 are made of smooth, clear, premium, slow growing Minnesota white oak. Built by hand and toasted to perfection, they are available in 5, 10, 15, 30 and 59 gallon sizes. The barrels are made out of bent planks of oak (called staves). Only the highest quality of oak is usually used in the manufacture of oak barrels, and the staves are always chosen by hand. The reason these are hand selected, is that the quality of the completed oak barrel lies heavily in these staves. The toasting level is achieved based upon the heating time (around 30 minutes). The flavors of the spirit partially depend on this. When heated longer than 30 minutes the toast level is heavier. When

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heated less than 30 minutes, it is lighter. There are multiple toasting levels, which can be adjusted according to what you need. These levels are heavy, medium, medium plus, and light. The toasting process happens when a caramelization in the wood occurs (during the heating of the staves). Some examples of the aromas this brings, are: a touch of nut, vanilla, fresh bread, or buttered bread. When you taste a wine or a spirit, you will often find these amazing aromas.

The maturation process From the spirit receiver, the spirit passes, at about 70% abv, to the spirit store and into the spirit filling vat. There, the ABV is adjusted to the distillery’s normal cask fill strength by the addition of water, taken from the same pure source that the spirit was made from. From there, the casks are filled. The casks are usually made of oak (by law in some countries) and come in a number of sizes, each size having an important and different effect on the maturing spirits - generally, the larger the cask, the longer is the maturation time. The casks may be newly made or more generally first-fill from sherry (a perfect size 110 gallons) which imparts a rich warm colour to the spirit, or a bourbon cask. Recently, some distilleries have been experimenting with other sources such as Madeira and port but those are generally used only to finish the spirit (for example whisky). Once filled, the barrels are rolled into the bonded warehouse where they are racked on staging up to five rows high and left to mature.

Figure 6.6: Brandy maturing in French oak barrels.

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During storage in the bonded warehouse, various chemical reactions take place within, and in part influenced by, the cask, and the whisky itself changing gradually in nature. The oak wood imparts some chemical components to the whisky and these react to produce subtle changes in the spirit. The very atmosphere of the warehouse can exert an effect as well, for the casks are permeable and evaporation of around 1 to 2% of the contents per year (called the angels’ share) is allowed for by the Customs and Excise.

Wood finishes More and more distilleries are producing whisky with various finishes, achieved by the last 6 months to 2 years of maturation being in ex-sherry, ex-port, exmadeira, etc. casks. Once the casks are transferred to the bonded warehouse, by law they must remain there, under lock and key, for different maturation periods, for example a minimum of 3 years before it can be legally called Irish or Scotch whiskey. Until that point, it can only be called proof or British proof spirit. No duty has been paid on the spirit before it goes into bond. This occurs when the spirits are removed from bond at the end of its maturation period. During its life in bond, usually much longer than the legal minimum - 8 years and upwards is typical - the spirit is gradually changing in character and composition until such time as it is required for bottling for example a single malt whisky is quite often at a variety of ages, for export in bulk form, or for use by the whisky or rum blending industry.

Bottling and cask strength distilled spirits Distilled spirits are diluted to drinking levels by adding distilled water. This level is usually set at about 40% ABV but this figure differs according to local tastes or national liquor regulations. When the term ‘cask strength’ is used on a whiskey label, it does not mean that the product was never diluted, just that it was not diluted during the bottling process. This is usually a good sign, depending upon the age of the spirit which can vary considerably, distillery to distillery or age to age. Some cask strength spirits are as low as 55% ABV or under whilst others can be as high as 65% ABV or more. Once in the bottle, a spirit does not undergo any further changes.

Micro distilleries A new trend has developed in recent years brought about by the interest and desire by customers for craft produced distilled spirits. These small, independent distilleries are normally either farm based or are located in existing micro breweries or small wineries, and are added on to the overall business operations of these small companies.

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6.7 Tasting distilled spirits Remember to keep it fun. The more tasting you do, the more you begin to trust your olfactory senses. The nose is the important sense. It can recognise in the region of 35,000 different smells, and can detect aromas when diluted to one part in a million. Taste is a little easier, you can only taste four things; sweet, salty, sour and bitter. If you can get these two sensory elements working in harmony you have started well. Professional tasters and blenders in the distillation industry use their nosing skills more than their tasting skills. Their taste buds are of secondary importance when it comes to the sensory evaluation of the spirit In order to taste a distilled spirit you will require: „„ a tranquil environment, with no noises „„ no extraneous smells, e.g. wood fires, kitchens with strong smelling food, freshly painted areas „„ a proper glass, preferably a tulip shaped glass, clean and odorless „„ some water, low in salts. If the tasting is about many distilled beverages, the order is crucial. Taste the most delicate one first and then work your way through the samples. Tutored distilled spirits tastings are very popular with customers currently; bars can offer themed spirit and food evenings based on a particular category or country. When you are organizing a tasting session advise everyone to follow these guidelines.

Distilled spirits tasting techniques „„ Taste in the morning (if possible) when the palate is fresh. „„ Don’t wear scent or after-shave. „„ Don’t smoke during tasting, or half an hour before the tasting as it impairs smell and taste sensations. „„ Use glasses that will best bring out the aromas of the spirit, for example a glass with a decent tulip shape and bowl (for swirling the spirit) and a narrow lip (to catch the aromas) made from clear crystal so the colours of the spirit can be considered. „„ Take short sniffs, and pause from time to time to breathe in fresh air and rest your nose. Smelling a substance for a prolonged time has an anesthetizing effect on the olfactory bulb, as our sense organs tend to ignore a smell which was perceived for a very long time. „„ Cover the glass with the palm of the hand and hold it between the middle finger and the annular finger of the other hand, slowly rotate the glass as much as it is necessary to slightly shake the beverage, uncover the glass and smell again. This operation is useful for the perception of other delicate aromas. „„ Pour a small portion of the distilled spirit into the palm of your hand, rub your hands together and breathe in the aromas between both insides of your palms,

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this technique is favoured especially by distillers. „„ Add water: dilute the spirit to around 30% ABV with water in order to allow other aromas to emerge towards the opening of the glass. You will actually see the little oily chains of aroma-bearing compounds swirling in the glass in some spirits like whiskey. Take care with the water as even a half centilitre too much can destroy a good spirit. Dilute to a point when any prickle or burning sensation you might feel on the nose when you sniff is gone. Use bottled water or tap water (if it is completely odorless), and don’t chill it or use ice because this will close down the aromas. „„ Take a little sip of the spirit, hold it for a moment while making sure the tongue is perfectly in contact with the beverage in order to better appreciate the fundamental flavors. The diluted spirit will be well tolerated by taste buds, swallow it slowly while trying to analyze the many gustatory nuances and their persistence in the mouth. This is the time in which flavours can be perceived. Is it smooth, viscous, fresh, acerbic, mouth-drying, full-bodied, thin or creamy? Sip again, but this time notice the primary tastes. There are four of these only: sweetness (picked up by the tip of your tongue); acidity, sourness (registered by the middle and at the sides); saltiness (also at the sides); and dryness, bitterness (reported by the back of your tongue). Not every sample will present all the primary tastes; many will offer a combination, starting sweet and finishing dry, for example, with some fresh acidity in between. „„ Conclude on the spirit’s finish and aftertaste. Finish is the length of time the flavour lingers after you have swallowed, and is rated long, medium and short. Aftertaste, if there is any, should be pleasant and not at variance with the flavour of the spirit, for example the aftertaste of rare whiskies can last for hours. Another favored technique used to enhance the marriage between distilled spirits and food is to pour a small amount of the spirit onto the meat or fish and smear it across the food before consumption. This technique works well especially with smoked salmon. If you decide that you would like to use a systematic approach with sensory indicators or score cards for your tasting, you could advise your guests and customers to make a note of the following criteria: a) Distiller, brand, b) Age, if appropriate, c) strength, d) appearance: colour, texture, clarity, e) aroma 1: nose feel, aromas, f) aroma 2: diluted: primary and secondary aromas, development, g) flavour: mouth-feel, primary taste, overall flavour, finish, h) final comments. You should score elements (c) to (h) equally for your scorecard.

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Remind your guests or customers before they start that they may not find it easy to distinguish aromas and flavors, however with the right practice and training it will be possible to recognize, isolate and distinguish the many organoleptic sensations of distilled spirits. Always encourage your guests and customers to taste together. Tasting is far more fun with other people, and it also allows you to realize when you are imagining scents. There is no surer way of determining whether or not an aroma is present in a spirit sample than receiving the enthusiastic agreement of other people when you come up with a description. But bear in mind too that nosing or tasting is subjective, and your forest floor may be another person’s football boots odours. Total agreement is not necessary. For a good example of this fact, read several critics’ guides to spirits in drinks magazines and books and compare the differences.

Conclusion „„ The varieties of distilled spirits are infinite. There are hundreds of ways in which to make this beverage that is roughly half water and half alcohol. „„ Every base ingredient from the grape to the grain, to the water and yeast can make a difference to its final taste. „„ The choice of the distillation method is crucial to the final product and the aging period and storage conditions produce different characteristics. „„ The type of wooden barrel, charred or uncharred, has a definite effect on flavor. „„ The blending and flavouring processes for each distilled spirit brand contribute significantly to their individual uniqueness. „„ In recent times we have witnessed a new phenomenon of tutored tastings, themed evenings and clever pairing with foods and throughout the meal experience. „„ Sommeliers, mixologists and chefs are rising to the challenge that spirits present and creating new methods and recipes to revive interest in the popular and more obscure spirits of the world. „„ As customers continue to seek new tastes and flavours from their foods and beverages, the challenge for bars with their distilled spirit offerings will include the strategic selection, storage, presentation and appropriate staff education for these fine beverages to meet consumer demand.

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Aims and learning outcomes This chapter explores in some detail the categories of distilled spirits, their background and origins, their ingredients, how they are produced and their different types, styles and grades. We will also explore the regional variations, common misconceptions, quality controls and legal definitions. On its completion, the learner should be able to: „„

Describe the raw materials, producing regions, legal definitions and quality controls for the world’s best known spirits.

„„

Outline the styles, characteristics and leading brands of the world’s major spirits.

„„

Explain the recreational, culinary and medicinal uses for spirits.

7.1 Akvavit This Scandinavian flavoured, distilled liquor, ranges in alcohol content from about 42 to 45% ABV and is spelled differently across these countries. It is clear to pale yellow in colour, distilled from a fermented potato or grain mash, flavoured with caraway seeds or cumin seed, or sometimes with lemon or orange peel, cardamom, aniseed, and fennel. It is served icy cold and drunk in a single gulp.

Origin and traditional variants Akvavit production in Denmark emerged in the 15th century at about the time distillation skills were being established throughout the rest of Europe. In Denmark it is traditionally associated with Christmas lunch. In Norway it is particularly drunk at celebrations, such as Christmas or May 17 (Norwegian Constitution Day). In Sweden it is a staple of the traditional midsummer celebrations dinner, usually drunk while singing one of many drinking songs. It is usually drunk as a snaps during meals, especially during the appetizer course — along with pickled herring, crayfish, lutefisk or smoked fish. It is claimed that the spices and the alcohol helps digest the meal which is very rich in fat.

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Ingredients and how it is made Historically Akvavit, like vodka, is distilled both from either potato or grain, but often the grain could be poor and was stretched and flavoured with pretty well anything botanicals including weeds, herbs such as caraway seeds, anise, dill, fennel, coriander, and grains of paradise. The Danish distillery Aalborg makes an akvavit distilled with amber. The recipe and flavors differ between brands, but typically caraway is the dominating flavour. Akvavit usually has a yellowish hue, but can vary from clear to light brown, depending on how long it has been aged in oak casks. Normally, darker colour suggests higher age or the use of young casks, though artificial colour (caramel E150) is also permitted. Clear akvavits called Taffel akvavits are typically matured in old casks which do not colour the finished product.

Figure 7.1: Selection of popular Akvavits.

Some popular Akvavit brands Akvavit is distilled in several locations by a number of different producers. Norway: Gammel Opland, Gilde, Lysholm Linie Aquavit, Løitens Export Akvavit, Simers, Throndhjems. Denmark: Aalborg Akvavit, Brøndums, Harald Jensen Akvavit, Aalborg Nordguld Akvavit. Sweden: Akvavit is often referred to as Vodka (Brannvin) in Sweden. Gammal Norrlands (Swedish Spiced Vodka), Hallands Fläder, Herrgårds (Swedish Spiced Vodka), Hjärtansfröjd, Nyköpings Brännvin (Swedish Spiced Vodka), O.P. Anderson, Porsbrännvin, Rånäs Brännvin Skåne, Svart Vinbärs Germany: Bommerlunder, Malteser Kreutz Aquavit , Wikinger Feuer Aquavit

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7.2 Anise spirits Anise spirits are defined as aperitifs based on alcohol and aromatized with the aniseed plant (oil of Badiane). Made by distillation of fermented aniseeds and any other botanicals or maceration in neutral spirits, for example Pernod. Figure 7.2: Star anis (Water Codex II).

Categories of anise spirits from France „„ Pastis (aniseed, liquorice): a French flavoured spirit made by maceration with fewer flavour elements than Anise. Examples include Ricard (45% ABV), Pastis 51 (51% ABV), Duval and Casanis. „„ Coloured Aniseed (less liquorice, plenty of aromatic plants): Examples include Pernod (45% ABV). „„ Uncolored aniseed (plenty of aniseed): Example: Cristal, Anis Gras, Berger Blanc. „„ Anisette: A clear very sweet liqueur made with anise seeds and tasting of liquorice, mainly consumed in France and Spain. It is sweeter than most aniseflavoured liqueurs (such as pastis), and also has a lower alcohol content (typically 25% by volume, versus 40%). Made from macerating 16 different seeds and plants, neutral spirit and sugar syrup. Anisette undiluted with water is generally clear, while undiluted pastis is transparent yellow. „„ Absinthe: Reputed to be an aphrodisiac, absinthe is a potent, bitter liqueur distilled from wordwood and flavoured with a variety of herbs. It has a distinct anise flavor and is 68% ABV. When diluted with water the liqueur turns from green to milky white.

Historical background to anise spirits Absinthe, once known as the green fairy, originated in the late 1700s but had its heyday from the late 1800s to the 1920s. The first absinthe factory was opened in Switzerland in 1797 by Henri Dubied, who sold the spirit as an aphrodisiac. Dubied’s son in law, Henri Louis Pernod, followed him into the business starting his production of absinthe, made from a green aniseed spirit, fennel and hyssop in a base of wine spirit, in France in 1805. Its popularity grew and imitations followed. Markets were awash with Pernod absinthe. These spirits were at least 75% alcohol by volume the cause of many health problems. In the French Algerian campaign of 1847, the soldiers were given a daily ration of absinthe, and this habit was continued when they returned home. It was common place to witness the large jug of water and bottle of absinthe on many tables in cafes and bars.

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By 1910 The French were consuming over 20 million litres of absinthe every year and studies suggested that half the 10,000 patients in French asylums were there as a direct result of having overindulged. A dreadful triple murder in Switzerland by a farmer crazed on absinthe caused a total ban there in 1910, and the French eventually banned it in 1915, as did America, Belgium and Italy. In 1920 commercial production began again, although Artemisia, Absinthium or Wormwood remained outlawed. Absinthe has hallucinogenic properties, derived from its key ingredients, thujone, a derivative of the herb wormwood, claimed to have similar chemical properties to those of marijuana, although its hallucinogenic properties seem to be more related to LSD. It was reported that drinking absinthe caused emotions ranging from euphoria to rage to stupefaction.

The absinthe ritual You can see Johnny Depp enjoying absinthe in the 2001 film From Hell. Take a measure of absinthe in a goblet glass, balance a sugar cube on the absinthe strainer spoon perched across the goblet, add a couple of drops of laudanum (a poisonous derivative of opium) to the sugar cube and set this alight. The sugar crystallizes and drops into the absinthe. Sometimes a little water is added. The result is a very strong drug like mixture that brings on hallucinogenic and futuristic visions.

The Anise spirits of Italy Sambuca A colourless, anise flavoured liqueur based on the elderberry. The fruit of the elder, of the genus Sambucus, is the claimed to the origin of the name. Sambuca is distilled and has a very high sugar content at 350g per litre. Essential oil of fennel (green anise), which has been rectified to a lower degree and which retains good natural fragrance, is often blended in to lend aroma to the product. A number of Italian anise drinks were mentioned in early Latin texts, and their medicinal properties were mentioned on board early voyages. The first mentioned was in the 1st century AD. The Moors had anise drinks while invading Sicily.

Tradition of the coffee beans Sambuca is served with coffee beans floating on top, and is ignited as it is presented to the guest. Always use an odd never an even number – if three coffee beans are present, this is known as con mosca (with flies). When the liqueur is ignited, the flames roast the beans and infuse the liqueur with flavour. Sambuca Negra is a dark brown, coffee flavoured version. Best-known brands: Ramazotti, Romana and Vaccari.

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The anise spirits of Greece Ouzo: is a Greek clear dry anise-flavored liqueur with less than 50 grams of sugar per litre that is widely consumed in Greece as an aperitif, with a minimum strength of 37.5% abv (although purists say that good quality Ouzo needs to be a minimum 46%). The name dates back to the late 19th century, but is of uncertain origin. The drink used to be called raki or tsipouro. This raki began to known as Ouzo when consignments of raki bound for Marseille were marked with the Italian phrase Uso Massalia (for commercial use, Marseille). It is similar to French pastis, or Italian anise and Turkish rakı, but a little sweeter and smoother, and can be drunk either straight or, less often, mixed with water (it turns whitish and opaque). A related drink is Tsipouro. The tendency to turn cloudy when ice or water is added is because anethole, the essential oil of anise, is soluble in alcohol but not in water. Diluting the spirit causes it to separate creating an emulsion, whose fine droplets scatter the light. This process is called louching, and is also found while preparing absinthe and can be an indicator of the concentration of anise or fennel and hence of quality. On October 25, 2006, Greece won the right to label ouzo as an exclusively Greek product. The European Union now recognizes ouzo, as well as the Greek drinks tsipouro and tsikoudia, as products with a protected designation of origin, which prohibits makers outside Greece from using the name. Ouzo brands and producers: Boutari, Metaxa, Sans Rival, Varvayiannis, Babatzim (ouzo classic) and Pitsiladis.

The anise spirits of Eastern Mediterranean countries Arak is a fiery, clear, colourless, unsweetened aniseed-flavoured distilled alcoholic drink, produced in the eastern Mediterranean countries. The word comes from Arabic ‘araq’, meaning ‘sweat’, and depending on the country can be made from any of several ingredients including rice, palm sap and dates. It is believed that arak was developed by the Jews, Christians and other nonIslamic minorities of the Middle East, particularly in the Levant. Jabir ibn Hayyan, a Muslim alchemist of the early Islamic era, invented the alembic, which facilitated the distillation of alcoholic spirits; the name used in Lebanon is al karkeh or little more formally al kattara. Arak is usually not drunk straight, but is mixed in approximately 1/3 arak to 2/3 water, and ice is then added. This dilution causes the clear liquor to turn an opaque milky-white colour. Arak is also commonly mixed with teas and juices.

7.3 Armagnac This is one of the world’s two great brandies (the other being Cognac). Armagnac comes from Gascony, near Condom, a town southeast of Bordeaux.

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The best made Armagnacs use the traditional still method, in which it is distilled once at a relatively low temperature. This single distillation leaves more flavouring elements and produces a hearty, full-flavoured spirit that’s silky smooth. Armagnacs are aged in black oak for up to 40 years, which imparts more flavour and allows for faster aging than the Limousin used for cognac. Armagnac production is overseen by a Bureau National Interprofessionel de l’Armagnac (BNIA).

History and background of armagnac Irrefutable traces of Armagnac’s production and consumption go back to the 14th century. The name Armagnac derives from Herreman, a knight who was granted the freedom of Gascogny by Clovis, France’s 5th century king. Armagnac has had its own AC (appellation controllee) since 25th May 1909. The region was organised into 3 delimited vineyard zones, Bas Armagnac, Tenareze and Haut Armagnac, in another decree in 6th August 1936.

The region and its terroir The Armagnac region lies between the Adour and Garonne rivers in the foothills of the Pyrenees. The May 25th 1909 Falliere’s decree describes 3 types of soils, Bas-Armagnac, Armagnac-Ténarèze and Haut-Armagnac make up a vine leafshaped wine area which contains 15,000 hectares of vines planted across three departments: Gers, Landes and Lot-et-Garonne. The climate is temperate and mild. The ocean’s damp influence, attenuated by the Landes forests, is especially prevalent in the West of the Armagnac region. In the East, the Mediterranean climate is characterised by the Autan wind. „„ Bas-Armagnac: to the west, this most famous area of production with its capital city Eauze, extends over the Landes and Gers departments, and represents 57% of the vineyards. This is an undulating area; the vines grow in clay-sand soils which are high in acidity, in some places mixed with iron, hence the name sables fauves (‘tawny sands’). Boulbène topsoil, the characteristic regional sediment, is rich in limestone. This zone produces light, fruity, delicate and very well reputed eaux-de-vie. Tthe best Armagnacs are principally produced here. „„ Armagnac-Ténarèze: around the small town of Condom, this covers the northwest of the Gers and the south of the Lot-et-Garonne area. It represents about 40% of the vineyards planted for distillation. In the centre is a transition zone with rich boulbène topsoil and clay-limestone soil, which produce rich and full-bodied spirits. The eaux-de-vie from this zone are generally full-flavoured, reaching their peak after a long period of ageing. „„ Haut-Armagnac: to the South and East is large and sprawling. Called ‘white’ Armagnac because of the abundance of limestone, this includes the east of Gers and a small part of the Lot-et-Garonne area. Viticulture was developed here in the 19th century to face a high market demand. Today, the vineyards still exist but only represents a small amount of the production. The hills have

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chalky and clay-limestone soils whose valleys are sometimes covered by a rich boulbène topsoil. The vines are found here in a few pockets. Each of these areas is controlled by separate appellation regulations.

Figure 7.3: The Armagnac region (Bureau National Interprofessional de l’Armagnac)

How Armagnac is made Ten different varieties of grape are authorised for use in the production of Armagnac. Of these, four form the principal part: Ugni Blanc, Baco 22A (Baco blanc - a cross of Folle Blanche and Noah grape), Folle Blanche, Baco Blanc (Baco 22 A - a cross of Folle Blanche and the Labrusca riparia X Vitis labrusca hybrid Noah), Baco noir (Baco 1 - a hybrid red wine grape variety), Colombard, the remaining varieties include Jurançon and Picquepoul. The production of Armagnac differs in several ways from that of Cognac and is the oldest eau de vie, dating back to the 12th century. Armagnac is only distilled once and at a lower temperature than Cognac, meaning that the former retains more of the fruit character, whereas Cognac’s second distillation results in a lower balance. Armagnacs are aged for nearly the same period as Cognac, which has a significant impact on the flavour once it has been distilled. Armagnac is aged in French oak casks primarily from the Monlezun forest in Bas Armagnac, giving them a delicate colour, and an intricate flavour more complex than that of cognac. Ageing in the barrel removes a part of the alcohol by evaporation and allows more complex aromatic compounds to appear by oxidation, which further improves the flavour. When the alcohol part reaches around 40%, the Armagnac is transferred to large glass bottles, called Dame Jeanne, for storage. From then on, the Armagnac does not age, and can be bottled for sale from the next year on. As

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any eau de vie, Armagnac is stored vertically to avoid damaging the stopper with alcohol. Once opened, a bottle of Armagnac stays drinkable for years.

Age categories for Armagnac are the same as for Cognac and other French brandies

How to taste an Armagnac Tasting Armagnac is firstly an exercise in the history of pleasure and curiosity. Take a ball shaped glass, which gets nice and warm when you spend long minutes tasting with the glass cupped in your hand; or a tulip shaped glass which concentrates the flavours and allows you to taste more quickly and precisely. Pour some Armagnac into the glass, just 2 or 3 cl is enough, then gentle shake the Armagnac with a circular motion to wet the walls of the glass. Use your eyes, nose and taste savour this unique beverage.

Storing Armagnac Just like scotch and bourbon, Armagnac stops aging once it’s removed from its wood casks and placed in glass bottles. No matter how long you save grandpa’s special bottle of XO, the liquid in the bottle will never improve. This remains true even when you pull the cork -- Armagnac is stable enough that oxygen won’t harm it, so you can open it and leave it in the cellar indefinitely. There’s only one thing you must do when storing Armagnac: Keep the bottle standing up, not lying on its side, since Armagnac will spoil if it comes in prolonged contact with its cork.

Main producers Chateau Laballe, Domaine d’Esperance, Domaine de Lauroux, Château de Briat, Château Lacquy, Domaine de Bordeneuve, Château Laubade, Cerbois, Laberdolive, Gelas, Delord, Samalens, Armagnac Baron de Sigognac, Marquis de Caussade, Domaine de Pellehaut, Janneau, Sempe, Ryst-Dupeyron, Marcel Trépout (Marques & Domaines de Gascogne), Maison Castarede, Chateau du Busca Maniban.

7.4 Brandy Although this is closely related to cognac there is distinct difference between the two; all cognac is brandy but not all brandy is allowed to be called cognac. You can produce brandy anywhere in the world and with various bases, not necessarily grapes though this is the best base. Brandy is short for brandywine it comes from the Dutch brandewijn meaning ‘burnt wine’ and is a general term for distilled wine, usually 40–60% ethyl alcohol by volume. In addition to wine, this spirit can also be made from grape pomace or fermented fruit juice. Unless specified

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otherwise, brandy is made from grape wine. It is normally consumed as an afterdinner drink. Brandy made from wine is generally colored with caramel coloring to imitate the effect of long aging in wooden casks; pomace and fruit brandies are generally drunk unaged, and are not usually colored.

History of brandy Brandy as it is known today first began to appear in the 12th century and became generally popular in the 14th century. Initially wine was distilled as a preservation method and as a way to make the wine easier for merchants to transport. It was also thought that wine was originally distilled to lessen the tax which was assessed by volume. The intent was to add the water removed by distillation back to the brandy shortly before consumption. It was discovered that after having been stored in wooden casks, the resulting product had improved over the original distilled spirit. Also, the distillation process doesn’t just remove water, but leads to the formation and break-up of dozens of aroma compounds fundamentally altering the composition of the distillate. This is why unaged wine spirits (unaged brandy) diluted back to wine alcohol strength tastes nothing like the original wine. Brandy is widely popular worldwide, especially in southern Europe and Latin America. In the Philippines, brandy is so popular it is easily one of the most advertised products locally. The European Union legally enforces Cognac as the exclusive name for brandy produced and distilled in the Cognac area of France, and Armagnac from the Gascony area of France, using traditional techniques.

Types of brandy There are three primary types of brandy. Grape brandy is the type that is meant if the term brandy is used by itself. Grape brandy is produced by the distillation of fermented grape juice. There are four main subtypes of grape brandies. „„ Cognac: comes from the Cognac region in France (CIEDV, 2011), and is double distilled using pot stills. Popular brands include Hine, Martell, Rémy Martin, Hennessy, Ragnaud-Sabourin, Delamain and Courvoisier. „„ Armagnac: is made from grapes of the Armagnac region in Southwest of France (Gers, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne). It is single-continuous distilled in a copper stills and aged in oak casks from Gascony or Limousin. Armagnac was the first distilled spirit in France. Armagnacs have a specificity: they offer vintages qualities. Popular brands are Darroze, Baron de Sigognac, Larressingle, Delord, Laubade, Gélas and Janneau. „„ Grape brandies: are also produced in several other countries, including Portugal where it is called aguardente (burning water), Spain (where Brandy de Jerez, produced from sherry, is the only protected Denomination of Origin), Mexico, Germany, and South Africa. South African grape brandies are, by law, made almost exactly as in Cognac, using a double-distillation process in copper pot stills followed by ageing in oak barrels for a minimum of three years.

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Because of this, South African brandies are of a very high quality and often suffer an unfair disadvantage as a result of being called ‘brandy’. Lourinhã, located in western Portugal’s Estremadura region, is one of the few brandymaking areas to receive appellation status along with Cognac and Armagnac. American grape brandy is almost always from California. (CIDEV, 2011)

Eau de vie de marc These French brands are all identified by origin, which may be department or a wider region: Eau-de-vie marc de France, de marc de Champagne, de marc originaire d’Aquitaine, de marc de Bourgogne, de marc originaire du Centre-Est, de marc originaire de Franche-Comté, de-vie de marc originaire de Bugey, de marc originaire de Savoie, de marc originaire des Coteaux de la Loire, de marc des Côtes du Rhône, de marc originaire de Provence, de marc originaire du Languedoc, marc de Bourgogne, marc de Savoie, marc d’Auvergne, marc d’Alsace Gewürztraminer, marc de Lorraine.

Pomace brandy Pomace brandy is a liquor distilled from pomace wine. Some examples include the French marc (wine), Georgian chacha, German Tresterbrand, Greek tsipouro, Italian grappa, Portuguese aguardente, Spanish oruj, Croatian, Montenegrin, Serbian lozovača (loza), Cypriot zivania(CIDEV, 2011). Pomace is the solid matter left over after pressing grapes. It is either fermented, semi-fermented or unfermented. During red wine vinification, the pomace is left to soak in the must for the entire fermentation period and is thus fermented. Fermented pomace is particularly suitable for the production of pomace brandy, as it is soft and dry, and has high alcohol content. Semi-fermented pomace is produced during rosé wine vinification, where the pomace is removed before the fermentation period is completed, and virgin pomace, which is produced during white wine vinification, is not fermented at all. Both semi-fermented and virgin pomace need to be kept in silos until fermentation is complete. After fermentation is complete the pomace wine is distilled: Alcohol derived from pomace is also used as the traditional base spirit of other liquors from wine-making regions, such as Greek ouzo and other aniseed liquors.

Grappa Grappa is a fragrant grape-based pomace brandy of between 40% and 70% ABV, of Italian origin. Literally ‘grape stalk’, grappa is made by distilling pomace. It was originally made to prevent waste by using leftovers at the end of the wine season. It quickly became commercialised, mass-produced, and sold worldwide. The flavour of grappa, like that of wine, depends on the type and quality of the grape used as well the specifics of the distillation process. In Italy, grappa is primarily served as a digestivo or after dinner drink, to aid in the digestion of the heavy meals. Grappa may also be added to espresso coffee to create a Caffè Corretto.

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Another variation of this is the ammazza caffè (literally, coffee killer): the espresso is drunk first, followed by a few ounces of grappa served in its own glass. Among the most well-known producers of grappa are Nonino, Berta, Sibona, Nardini and Jacopo Poli. While these grappas are produced in significant quantities and exported, there are many thousands of smaller local and regional grappas, all with distinct character. Most grappa is clear, indicating that it is an un-aged distillate, though some may retain very faint pigments from their original fruit pomace. Lately, aged grappas have become more common, and these take on a yellow or red-brown hue from the barrels in which they are stored.

Grappa brands Like eaux-de-vie, these are identified by origin: Grappa di Barolo, Grappa del Piemonte, Grappa di Lombardia, Grappa del Trentino, Grappa del Friuli, Grappa del Veneto, Südtiroler Grappa, Grappa dell’Alto Adige

Tsipouro (Greek: Τσίπουρο): Greece This is a distilled alcoholic beverage, more precisely a pomace brandy, from Greece and in particular Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, and the island of Crete, where the same spirit with a stronger aroma is known as tsikoudia. Tsipouro is a strong distilled spirit containing approximately 45%ABV. In other areas of Greece, the name raki is used from which the term rakizio is derived, used to refer to the drink’s distillation process, often the occasion for a celebration among family and friends. Depending on the time of year, tsipouro is used either as refreshment or as a hot beverage, and depending on the time of day, it replaces the drinking of coffee or wine.

Aguardente Bagaceira This is a kind of Portuguese brandy was developed by Luso Africans and traded with African chieftains to show off their power. Some brands include: Bagaceira do Minho, do Douro, da Beira Interior, da Bairrada, do Oeste, do Ribatejo, do Alentejo, and Bagaceira do Algarve.

Fruit brandy (eau de vie) Fruit brandies are distilled from fruits other than grapes. Apple, plum, peach, cherry, raspberry, blackberry, and apricot are the most commonly used fruit. Unlike their cognac cousins, eaux de vie are not typically aged in wooden casks, hence they remain clear. Instead, the young ripe fruits or berries are fermented, distilled, and bottled rapidly to preserve the freshness and aroma of the parent fruit. Fruit brandy is usually 80 to 90 proof. „„ Calvados is an apple brandy from the French region of Lower Normandy (CIDEV, 2011). Apple is pressed into cider, fermented with yeast and double distilled.

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„„ Cherry brandy, also called Kirschwasser, is a fruit brandy made from cherries (CIDEV, 2011). The most famous brand is the Heering Cherry Liqueur (also known as Peter Heering or Cherry Heering) of Denmark founded in 1818. Cherries are pressed into a must, matured in oak casks and then blended into a liqueur. Heering Cherry Liqueur is the original cherry brandy ingredient in the Singapore Sling drink from Raffles Hotel, Singapore. „„ Eau-de-vie is the general French term for fruit brandy. Eau-de-vie de poire is based on pears, de pomme on apples, de mirabelle on a type of plum, de peche on peaches. „„ Pálinka is a fruit brandy traditional to Hungary (CIDEV, 2011). It can be made from any kind of fruit - most often plum (szilva), apricot (barack), grape (törköly), elderberry (bodza), pear (vilmoskörte) and cherry (cseresznye). Less common pálinka-types include apple, peach and even walnut (dió). Mixed pálinka (vegyes) is also popular. „„ Slivovitz is a fruit brandy made from plums (CIDEV, 2011) traditional to Serbia and Croatia. „„ Slivovice is a strong 70% vol. (and more) fruit brandy made from plums, in Slovakia, the East mountains of the Czech Republic (region Valachia exactly Vizovice) and Southern mountain region of Poland. „„ Tuica is the clear Romanian brandy, made mainly from plums, apples, pears, apricots, mulberries, peaches, quinces or mixes of them. Other regional names as turţ, tura, horinca apply. As wine producers, Romania and Moldova have also a production of cognac-style brandy, named vinars or divin.

Serving eau de vie The exact serving preferences vary by individual, but it is usually served chilled or over ice as a digestif. The typical serving size for an eau de vie is approximately 1 to 2 ounces, owing both to the very high alcohol content of the spirit (greater than 40% abv) and the fact that it is typically drunk following meals that have already been accompanied by wine or other alcohol. Glassware: some connoisseurs recommend a tulip-shaped glass, while others suggest the use of a snifter.

How brandy is made Although the majority of good brandies are made similar to the production process for Cognac, there are many differences due to the individual country, base ingredient and local traditions.

Pot versus tower stills Cognac and South African pot still brandy are examples of brandy produced in batches using pot stills (batch distillation). Many American brandies use fractional distillation in tower stills to perform their distillation. Special pot stills with a fractionation section on top are used for Armagnac. Most brandies will be distilled similar to Cognac – two times.

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Aging A brandy can be aged in one of three main ways. „„ No aging: Many pomace and fruit brandies are not aged after distillation. The resulting product is typically a clear liquid. „„ Single barrel aging: Brandies that have a golden or brown color have been aged in oak casks. „„ Solera process: Some brandies are aged using the solera system. Brandies from Spain are typical of this variation.

Brandy labels Brandy has a rating system to describe its quality and condition; these indicators can usually be found near the brand name on the label. These are the same as for Cognac with an additional categories of: „„ A.C. (Appellation Controlle) for those aged 2 years in wood „„ Vintage: Stored in the cask until the time it is bottled with the label showing the vintage date.

7.5 Brännvin The Swedish word brännvin, the Norwegian word brennevin and the Finnish word viina, are general terms for distilled beverages from potatoes or grain, which may or may not be flavoured. This includes akvavit and vodka. The name brännvin means burnwine, and is linguistically same as the German Branntwein; sometimes the distillation of beverages is called burning. Beverages branded ‘brännvin’/’viina’ are usually unflavoured and with an alcoholic content by volume between 30 and 38%. EU regulations reserve the name vodka for beverages distilled up to at least 95% and a final content of at least 37.5%. Brands: Brännvin Special, Brennivín (Icelandic version), Koskenkorva Viina

7.6 Calvados A dry apple brandy made in Calvados, in the Normandy region of northern France and considered one of the world’s greatest spirits. 48 different types of apples are used in its making. Calvados is double distilled in a pot still, then aged in Limousin oak for a minimum of one year, some are aged for 40 years. The best calvados comes from the Pays d’Auge appellation controlee, a designation that is noted on the label. There are two main calvados appellations, which are strictly regulated by official decree. The brandies are analysed and tested by a panel of professionals under the control of the Institut National des Appellations d’Origine (INAO). Only those brandies that have the genuine characteristics of calvados are permitted to enter the maturing cellars and released on to the market after 2 years’ in oak casks.

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History and background The area called Calvados was created after the French Revolution, but ‘eau de vie de cidre’ was already called ‘calvados’ in common usage. When a phylloxera outbreak devastated vineyards in the nineteenth century, calvados experienced a ‘golden age’. The appellation contrôlée regulations officially gave calvados a protected name in 1942. The calvados appellation system was revised in 1984 and 1996. Pommeau got its recognition in 1991; in 1997 an appellation for Domfront with 30% pears was created.

Figure 7.4: Appellations of calvados (Creative Commons, Wikipedia)

How Calvados is made The fruit is picked and pressed into a juice that is fermented into a dry cider. It is then distilled into eau de vie. After two years aging in oak casks, it can be sold as calvados. The longer it is aged, the smoother the drink becomes. Usually the maturation goes on for several years. A half-bottle of 20-year-old calvados can easily command the same price as a full bottle of 10-year-old calvados. Calvados can be made be double and single distillation, but double distillation in a pot still is required for the AOC Calvados Pays d’Auge. Double distillation is carried out in traditional alembic pot-still (l’alambic à repasse or charentais) which gives complex, delicate and rich fruity aromas with the potential for longer aging. Calvados produced by single continuous distillation in a column still has a fresh and clean apple flavour but is less complex.

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Producing regions, legal definitions and grades As you can see from the map, calvados like most French wines is governed by appellation contrôlée regulations. There are three appellations: „„ AOC Calvados geographical area includes all of the Calvados, Manche, and Orne départements and parts of Eure, Mayenne, Sarthe, and Eure-et-Loir, and makes up for over 70 percent of the total production. The apples and pears to be used are defined cider varieties, the procedures for pressing, fermentation, distillation and ageing are regulated. Usually distilled by single column distillation and has a minimum of two years ageing in oak barrels. „„ The more restrictive AOC calvados Pays d’Auge area is limited to the east end of the département of Calvados and a few adjoining districts. Extensive quality control: the basic rules for AOC calvados, with additional requirements, a minimum of six weeks fermentation of the cider, flavour elements are controlled, double distillation in an alembic pot still. „„ AOC calvados Domfrontais reflects the long tradition of pear orchards in the area, resulting in a unique fruity calvados. The regulation is similar to the AOC calvados and the column still is used. It requires at least 30% pears from the designated areas, a three-year minimum of ageing in oak barrels, the orchards must consist of at least 15% of pear trees (25% from the sixteenth harvest). Some quality minded producers both inside and outside the Pays d’Auge make calvados fermier, which indicates that the calvados is entirely made on the farm in a traditional agricultural way according to high quality demands.

Calvados grades „„ Fine, Trois étoiles, Trois pommes : 2 years old. „„ Vieux, Réserve : 3 years old. „„ V.O. , VO, Vieille Réserve, V.S.O.P, VSOP : 4 years old. Often sold older. „„ Extra, X.O. XO, Napoléon, Hors d’Age, Age Inconnu: 6 years old. Often much older. „„ Millesime (year): Made only from the crop of a single year. As always, the age refers to the youngest part of the blend, and a blend often contains parts of older calvados. Among higher quality calvados the oldest part of the blend is sometimes much older than mentioned.

Tasting calvados Calvados is the basis of the tradition of le trou Normand, or ‘the Norman hole’. This is a small drink of Calvados taken between courses in a very long meal, sometimes with apple sorbet, supposed to re-awaken the appetite. Calvados can be served as aperitif, blended in drinks, between meals, as digestive or with coffee. Well-made calvados should naturally be reminiscent of apples and pears,

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balanced with flavours of ageing. The less aged calvados distinguishes itself with its fresh apple and pear aromas. The longer the calvados is aged, the more the taste resembles that of any other aged brandy. Older calvados gets the colour of gold, darker brown with orange elements and red mahogany. The nose and palate is delicate with concentration of aged apples and dried apricots balanced with butterscotch, nut and chocolate aromas.

Calvados brands Calvados Busnel, Père Magloire, Pommeau, Lecompte, Manoir, Pierre Huet, Charles de Granville, Roger Groult, Château du Breuil, Coquerel, Boulard, Dupont, Ferme du Ponctey.

Figure 7.5: Boulard Calvados, the apple brandy (Palmbay.com) .

7.7

Cognac Named after the town of Cognac in France, this is a brandy produced in the region surrounding the town. In the town of Cognac, along the narrow streets and quays of the Charente River, brandy is aged in chais, or huge warehouses. Cognac must be made from at least 90% Ugni Blanc, Folle Blanche, or Colombard grapes. The rest of the cognac can consist of ten selected grapes. However, most cognac is made from Ugni Blanc (known also as the Trebbiano in Italy and the SaintEmilion in France). It must be distilled twice in copper pot stills. Each Cognac house has a unique process to mix its eaux-de-vie. Distillation began in Cognac in 1530 with their famous Pot Charentais. Cognac has its own AC (appellation controllee) meaning that only six designated areas are allowed to produce the grapes for cognac. The map (see Figure 7.6) of the Cognac region shows these six growth areas, or crus, which are located in the department of Charente-Maritime, a large part of the Charente and a few areas in Deux-Sèvres and the Dordogne. The six crus are, in order of decreasing appreciation of the cognacs coming from them: Grande Champagne, Petite Champagne, Borderies, Fins Bois, Bons Bois, and Bois Ordinaires. A cognac made from just the first two of these crus (with at least 50% from Grande Champagne) is called Fine Champagne cognac, although cognac has nothing to do with the sparkling

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wine, Champagne. (‘Champagne’ coming in both cases from old words alluding to agricultural fields.) Even within the defined region, if a brandy is produced that fails to meet any of the strict criteria set down by the governing body of cognac production, the BNIC (Bureau National Interprofessionel du Cognac), it may not be called cognac, nor sold as such. Brandy produced elsewhere in France, or in other parts of the world, cannot be called cognac. To qualify as cognac: „„ It must be produced within the delimited region, from wine using certain grape varieties „„ It must be obtained through double distillation, in typical copper Charentais stills „„ It must age in French oak barrels, which give it part of its color and its taste. Spirits of the World

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Many of the cognac producers in the town of Cognac and the surrounding area allow visitors to taste their product; the bigger companies have guided tours to show visitors how the cognac is made. The only other place where Cognac can be made is in Uruguay. After World War II, France paid its debts to ANCAP of Uruguay with Ugni Blanc, know-how for making Cognac, and the right to use the denomination. Ile de Ré Bois Ordinaires

Bons Bois

La Rochelle

Fins Bois St Jean d’Angély

Ile d’Oléron Saintes

Grande Champagne

Cognac Segonzac Jonzac

Borderies

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Jarnac Angoulême Petite Champagne

Figure 7.6: Cognac, delimited areas © BNIC

„„ Grande Champagne (13766 hectares total) The most prestigious of the crus. ‘Champagne’ means chalky soil, a characteristic shared with the area around Reims where Champagne wine is produced. Situated in the heart of the cognac region, Grande-Champagne is the most prestigious cognac vintage. It has a very specific type of soil called the campus, where many fossils are to be found. The quality, complexity and longevity of the spirits that start the day on the hillsides just to the south of Segonzac, the capital of the Grande-Champagne

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vintage region, are unequalled anywhere in the world. There, the climatic conditions are the most favourable, protected to the west from the vicissitudes of an oceanic climate and to the east from the continental climate. GrandeChampagne spirits distinguish themselves by the floral dominance of its fragrance, which is reminiscent of the vine’s flower, dried vine shoot or even dried lime tree leaves. Its bouquet is remarkable. After ageing, the aromas grow and mature. Floral scents turn into fruity aromas. „„ Petite Champagne (16171 hectares total) this large semi-circle covers an area whose soil, called santonian (chalk of Saintes) is very rich in limestone. A few regions in the Petite-Champagne produce a cognac that may equal and even surpass the quality of some Grande-Champagne cognacs (especially on the Archiac hillsides). It distinguishes itself by a dominating floral and somewhat fruity scent but the bouquet is much shorter. Petite Champagne eaux de vie have similar characteristics to those from Grande Champagne, but are in general shorter on the palate. „„ Borderies (4160 hectares total) This enclave of vineyards to the north of Cognac produces excellent nutty flavoured spirits on a decalcification soil. Some houses use it as a base for their best cognacs. A collection of suave scents brings to mind the floral fragrance of a bunch of violets or irises. Very finely scented, Borderies spirits have the added ability to age and mature faster than that of Champagne. Borderies is the smallest cru. Eaux de vie from the Borderies are the most distinctive, with nutty aromas and flavour, as well as a distinct violet or iris characteristic. Cognacs made with a high percentage of these eaux de vie, for example, ‘Cordon Bleu’ by Martell, are dominated by these very sought after flavours. „„ Fins Bois or Fine Woods (34265 hectares total) forming a large ring with various types of soil, this region produces cognacs of many different qualities. The best of them see the light on hard limestony soils to the north-east and south-east. Fins Bois spirits are heavier and age rapidly but their fruitiness, roundness and smoothness on the palate are what give them their charm. They are suitable for establishing the base of some cognacs, rounded and fruity, with an agreeable oiliness. „„ Bons Bois and Bois Ordinaires meaning ‘good woods’ and ‘ordinary woods’ (19.979 hectares together). This belt which marks off the Cognac region is made of clay soils that are poor in limestone. The eaux de view from here haveless length in the mouth and age much too rapidly. Further out from the four central growth areas are the Bons Bois and the Bois Ordinaires. With a poorer soil and very much influenced by the maritime climate, this area of 20-thousand hectares produces eaux de vie that are less demonstrative and age more quickly. These lesser crus are excluded from blends by some manufacturers. The growth areas are tightly defined; there exist pockets with soils atypical of the area producing eaux de vie that may have characteristics particular to their location. Hennessy usually uses the unofficial brandy grades for its cognac offerings,

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but has also produced three single distillery cognacs each with very distinctive flavours arising from the different soils and, to a lesser extent climate. Other houses, such as Moyet, exclusively use the crus to describe their different cognacs.

How Cognac is made The main towns of production for cognac are Jarnac, Cognac and Segonzac. The restricted selected grape varieties are the Colombard, Ugni Blanc, Folle Blanche. After the harvesting, the grapes are crushed and fermented for 3 to 5 weeks to obtain a white acid wine with a low alcoholic content (8 to 10 degrees), which must be produced before spring under French law. These wines are very acidic, thin wines not really suitable for drinking but excellent for distillation.

Distillation Distillation takes place in a copper pot still, known as the Charentais, the design and dimensions of which are controlled. This still holds 30 hectolitres of wine and is heated using a naked flame. The first distillation or first chauffe takes 3 hours and gives a liquid called broullis (27 to 30% alcohol by volume). The second distillation or bonne chauffe takes 12 hours. The head and the tail are removed and separated from the heart. The resulting eau-de-vie, is a colorless spirit (68 to 72 % alcohol by volume) is the legal spirit used for producing cognac. These distillations must take place before March 31st or else no French certificate will be issued. Special note: Cognac may not be sold to the public, or indeed called cognac, until it has been aged for at least 30 months (two years), counting from the end of the period of distillation (1st April following the year the grapes were harvested).

Ageing and maturing The spirit is matured in Limousin or Troncais oak casks, named after the Limousin forest near Limoges, from where they came. These casks are manufactured entirely by hand from staves, which have been weathered for 4 years to remove excess tannin. The spirit can stand the impact of strong tannin and draws colors from the wood. There is some loss in this process with evaporation through the porous oak barrels, dampness or dryness amounting to 3 to 4% pure alcohol per year or 15 million barrels a year approximately. This evaporation is poetically termed locally the part des anges, or angels’ share, a phrase also used in Scotch whisky production. A black fungus, Torula compniacensis Richon, thrives on the alcoholic vapours and normally grows on the walls of these aging cellars.

Blending Each cognac house has a cellar master taster (maître de chai) who is responsible for creating this delicate blend of spirits. This cellar master samples the different casks to check on colour, bouquet and flavour to determine which casks should be blended together. His decision ensures that cognac produced by a cognac company today will taste exactly the same as a cognac produced by that same com-

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pany 50 years ago, or in 50 years’ time. In this respect it may be seen to be similar to a blended whisky or non-vintage Champagne, which also rely on blending to achieve a consistent brand flavour. The label age of the cognac is legally that of the youngest cognac introduced to the blend. This blending, or marriage, of different eaux-de-vie is important to obtain a complexity of flavours absent from an eau-de-vie from a single distillery or vineyard. The final product is diluted with soft distilled water to reduce the alcohol content to 40% ABV (80 proof) or the required strength. Large manufacturers add a small proportion of caramel to colour their cognacs (at least the less expensive ones); it is claimed that this does not affect the flavor. Hundreds of vineyards in the Cognac AOC region sell their own cognac. These are likewise blended from the eaux-de-vie of different years, but they are single-vineyard cognacs, varying slightly from year to year and according to the taste of the producer, hence lacking some of the predictability of the better-known commercial products. Depending on their success in marketing, small producers may sell a larger or smaller proportion of their product to individual buyers, wine dealers, bars and restaurants, the remainder being acquired by larger cognac houses for blending. The success of artisanal cognacs (as of single malt whiskies) has impelled some larger producers to market single-vineyard cognacs from vineyards that they own.

Official grades used to market cognac The grades set by the BNIC (Bureau National Interprofessional du Cognac) are used to market cognac, and are usually appear on the label: „„ VS (Very Special) or *** (three stars), designates a blend where the youngest brandy is stored at least two years in cask, though most producers actually mature for 3 years minimum. „„ VO (Very Old), VSOP (Very Superior or Soft Old Pale), or Réserve, designates a blend where the youngest brandy is stored at least four years in cask, but the average age will be much older. „„ Reserve, XO (Extra Old), Napoléon, Vielle Reserve, Grand Cuvee, Hors d’Age, designates a blend where the youngest brandy is stored at least six years but on average for upwards of 20 years. On 1 April 2016, the minimum storage age of the youngest brandy used in an XO blend will be set to ten years. Some of these can be as old as 50 years or more. Maturing is always in cask but after 60 years, luxury cognacs are transferred to glass demijohns. q Napoleon and Vieux are grades equal to XO in terms of minimum age, but generally marketed in between VSOP and XO in the product range. q Extra designates a minimum of 6 years of age; this grade is usually older than a Napoleon or an XO. q Vieille Réserve is a grade beyond XO.

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q Hors d’âge (beyond age) is a designation which BNIC states is equal to XO, but in practice the term is used by producers to market a high quality product beyond the official age scale. Special note: More traditional cognac houses do not use these grades. The crus where the grapes were grown can also be used to define the cognac, and give a guide to some of the flavour characteristics of the cognac.

Figure 7.7: Selection of fine Cognacs.

Premium de-lux cognac brands „„ Henri IV, Cognac Grande Champagne €2 million: an elixir mixed since 1776 by the direct descendants of King Henri IV, each batch of Henri IV Dudognon Heritage is aged in a barrel for more than 100 years and capped inside a 24-karat gold-dipped and 6,500 diamond-bejewelled bottle. „„ Hennessy Beaute du Siecle: cost €200,000 it comes in a crystal decanter with a diamond studded stopper and a case weighting over 180 pounds „„ Richard Hennessy - produced by Hennessy, ‘Richard’ is a blend of over 100 eaux-de-vie aged up to 200 years. It is sold in a Baccarat crystal blackman and is named after the founder of the company. „„ Frapin Cuvee 1888 Rabelais: sells for $7,500 „„ Extra by Camus is their premium cognac beyond XO containing their oldest cognacs from the Borderies, Grande Champagne and Petite Champagne regions in a distinctive decanter style bottle „„ Louis XIII by Rémy Martin is composed of more than 1,200 of the finest eauxde-vie aged between 40 years and a century in very old Limousin oak barrels. At the time of writing, a 70cl bottle on this beauty was selling on-line for £1,850. „„ Courvoisier Succession J.S: sells for €2,000 „„ L’Esprit de Courvoisier - Courvoisier’s leading cognac, presented in a handcut Lalique decanter, blended from eaux-de-vie up to 200 years old, and individually numbered

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„„ Moyet Antiques - Moyet’s Très Vieille Fine Champagne and Très Vieille Grand Champagne cognacs blended from some barrels over 150 years old, individually numbered and signed by the cellar master.

Major cognac brands Cognac is mainly sold by trading houses. Some of them were founded centuries ago, and still dominate the market today. These include Braastad, Brillet, Camus, Courvoisier, Delamain, Gaston de Casteljac, Hennessy named after its founder Irishman (Richard Hennessey – 1724-1800), Hine, Martell, Otard, Rémy Martin.

7.8 Gin and genever Gin is defined as a spirit distilled from a fermented mash of grain (maize, barley, wheat, rye), mainly flavoured with juniper berries and other botanicals (coriander, cassias, calamus, sweet orange peel, orris root, caraway, cardamom, almond, angelica, fennel, and lemon peel). The European Union (EU) define gin as a neutral grain spirit flavoured predominately by juniper, and under EU Law (directive 110/228) all gins must contain juniper.

History and origins of gin Holland was one of the first European countries, through its contact with its colonies, to gain significant access to a wide variety of spices and herbs from Asia, so much so that we see mentions of the earliest versions of genever (gin) as being produced by Lucas Bols (1575), Wenneker (1693), and De Kuyper (1695). Rotterdam in Holland was the center of the spice trade at this time and this was good for obtaining the raw materials for genever. Gin was developed by Franciscus de la Boe (1614-1672), also known as Dr Sylvius, a physician and professor of medicine of some renown at the University of Leyden in the Netherlands. Dr Sylvius’ objective in developing this spirit was strictly medicinal. Knowing about the diuretic properties of the oil extracted from the fruit of Juniperus communis, he believed that by redistilling a pure alcohol with the juniper berry, he could obtain its therapeutic oil in a form that would provide an inexpensive medicine. He named his product genievre after the French word for juniper, but its popularity in Holland led to the name being shortened to genever. This term Dutch courage was used by British troops during the Dutch War of Independence as the Dutch were drinking gin before battle to give them the courage for mass military engagements, where unfortunately for many of them death could arrive in seconds. In 1688 gin spread to England after the revolution which put William of Orange on the British throne. He brought genever over to England, where the locals shortened the name further, to gin, and in the centuries that followed gin became inextricably woven into the fabric of British life. Dutch genever, or jen-

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ever, and English or London gin began to develop in different ways. This jenever is distinctly different drink from English-style gin; it is distilled with barley and sometimes aged in wood, giving it a slight resemblance to whisky. Schiedam, in South Holland, is famous for its jenever. Jenever is produced in a pot still and is typically lower in alcohol and more strongly flavoured than London gin. By the 1720s, in London one in four alehouses produced gin, and around the same time Londoners were consuming 11 million gallons of gin, which equated to 14 gallons per person. Gin was also given as part of wages, which resulted in permanent drunkenness and an unproductive workforce. This also contributed to the death rate running higher than the birth rate for a decade. 18th century gin was particularly popular with poorly paid, working women and this period saw the origin of colorful gin nicknames such as mothers’ ruin (illegal abortions) and ladies’ delight (prostitute’s drink of choice). Gin, though, was blamed for various social and medical problems. Towards the end of the 18th century 15,000 drinking establishments existed in London, of which over half were gin-shops. In the 19th century, controls emerged and bills were introduced to clean up all the back street merchants producing dangerous gins of inferior quality, and this resulted in proper houses developing quality gins. Gin in the 18th century was produced in pot stills, and was somewhat sweeter than the London gin known today. Distillers were forced to sell only to licensed retailers and gin-shops were brought under the jurisdiction of local magistrates. This century also witnessed the appearance of ‘gin palaces’. These ornate Victorian pubs provided a refuge for the new industrial working class, where they could escape their squalid lives in gin-induced oblivion. In tropical English colonies, gin was used to mask the bitter flavour of quinine, a protection against malaria, which was dissolved in carbonated water to form tonic water. This was the origin of today’s popular gin and tonic combination, even though quinine is no longer used against malaria, nor would it be necessary for the majority of today’s consumers of the drink. In the 1920, Prohibition in the U.S. and invention of the Martini Cocktail helped gin to become a World classic spirit and a popular base spirit for many mixed drinks, including the martini. Gin’s transition from As the 20th century progressed, the transformation of gin’s image from the drink of the dissolute urban poor to that of the sophisticated elite was completed.

Production of gin Gin can be produced from fermented wash by three different techniques: distillation, percolation and maceration, and each one of them allow the production of a beverage having different characteristics and qualities.

Mashing The grains are mashed, soaked in hot water (this water is neutral with no organoleptic quality and demineralized) and cooked under pressure. Malted barley is

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added: a mash consisting of about one-third of malted barley and two-thirds rye meal is prepared, and infused at a somewhat high temperature.

Fermentation After cooling, the whole is set to ferment with a small quantity of cultured yeast. After two to three days the attenuation is complete, and the wash is obtained.

Distillation The Patent or Coffey still process is used for the majority of distilled gins made. The first distillation produces liquor with an alcohol by volume of 28-30%. The resulting distillate, the low wines, is redistilled, with the addition of the flavoring matter, primarily juniper berries, and a little salt. The preparation of distilled gin consists in a solution of water, alcohol, juniper berries and other aromatic substances, put in the still, left to settle at a temperature of 40-50° C (104-122° F) for three days, therefore the distillation process is done. Ethyl alcohol, during its evaporation, transports aromatic components of herbs. After the second distillation the alcohol by volume can be as high as 75-85%. Caterhead stills: Bombay Sapphire gin is triple distilled for added purity, in Cheshire, England, using a distinct distillation and infusion process. They start with 100% neutral grain spirit, from Scotland, which is then distilled in unique Caterhead stills, of which there are only four in the world. 1 The percolation process consist in the preparation of a large tank, similar to a giant moka coffee pot, whose bottom is filled with hydro-alcoholic solution and in the center is put a basket filled with botanicals (see below) just over the solution. The process starts by increasing the temperature of the hydroalcoholic solution at 50-60° C (122-140° F). The vapours pass through the herbs, extracting the aromatic substances, then condense, fall down and get mixed to the hydro-alcoholic solution. This process lasts for about two days and at the end the aromatic hydro-alcoholic solution is drawn from the tank. 2 The maceration process is used where a higher quantity of aromatic essences is to be extracted from botanicals, for example herbs or roots. The efficiency of this process depends on the fact that aromatic substances are in direct contact with the solvent solution. The aromatic herbs are put in a tank of hydroalcoholic solution and kept at a temperature of 45-50° C (113-122° F) for about two weeks. Among the many methods used for the production of gin, the most important one is distillation, used for London dry gin and Plymouth gin. Under EU directives, only gin produced this way can be labeled ‘distilled gin’. The other method, less used, is the aromatization of alcohol, technically known as compounding, and gins produced in this way have a predominant aroma of juniper. In this method alcohol has a fundamental importance: it must be neutral and at least 96% ABV.

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Finishing Rectification is the process used to eliminate remaining impurities in alcohol after the distillation. Some manufactures distil, once or many timesl the rectified spirit with the juniper berries and other botanicals. Other distil the botanicals and add the distillate to the rectified spirit: originally the juniper berries were ground with the malt. This practice no longer obtains, but some distillers, it is believed, still mix the juniper berries with the wort and subject the whole to fermentation. In the manufacture of British gin, a highly rectified spirit is redistilled in the presence of the flavoring matter (principally juniper and coriander), and frequently this operation is repeated several times. The product so obtained constitutes the dry gin of commerce. Sweetened or cordialized gin is obtained by adding sugar. Adding Water: soft water is added to reduce the alcoholic content to the required strength. Filtering and bottling: gin is one of the very few distilled spirits that can be consumed on the day of its distillation, straight from the still if you wish.

Types of gin „„ ‘Bath tub’ gin: a flavoured spirit, cheap and tastes very coarse. „„ Distilled gin: gin that has gone through a distillation process resulting in a cleaner, purer, more refined product, the redistilled white grain spirit is flavoured with juniper berries. „„ Compound gin: gin where the juniper flavoring is added to the neutral spirit and there is no re-distillation.

Styles of gin London dry gin The most common style of gin, called because of the type of distillation used, but doesn’t have to be distilled in London. It is a dry colourless gin, usually distilled 3 times. This gin is made by taking a neutral grain spirit (usually produced in a column still) and redistilling after the botanicals are added. In addition to juniper, it is usually made with a small amount of citrus botanicals like lemon and bitter orange peel.

Genever gin A highly flavored and very aromatic gin, distilled from a malted grain mash similar to that used for whisky. There are three main categories. „„ Oude (“old”) Genever is the original style. It is straw-hued, relatively sweet and aromatic. „„ Jonge (“young”) Genever has a drier palate and lighter body and is the 20th century version.

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„„ Korenwyn (corn wine) are De luxe Genever aged 3 years at least in cask under supervision. Genevers tend to be lower proof than English gins (72-80° proof or 36-40% ABV is typical). They are usually served straight up and chilled. The classic accompaniment to a shot of Genever is a dried green herring. Genever is traditionally sold in a cylindrical stoneware crock. Genever-style gins are produced in Holland, Belgium, and Germany.

Plymouth gin A relatively full-bodied gin, when compared to London Dry Gin, distilled twice at Black Friars distillery. It is clear, slightly fruity, and very aromatic, rooty in character. Plymouth Gin is nowadays made only by copyright by one distillery (Coates) in Plymouth and it must be made be using the water of Dartmoor in its distillation process.

Old Tom gin The last remaining example of the original lightly sweetened gins that were so popular in 18th-century England. The name comes from what may be the first example of a beverage vending machine. In the 1700s some pubs in England would have a wooden plaque shaped like a black cat (an “Old Tom”) mounted on the outside wall. Thirsty passersby would deposit a penny in the cat’s mouth and place their lips around a small tube between the cat’s paws. The bartender inside would then pour a shot of Gin through the tube and into the customers waiting mouth. Until fairly recently limited quantities of Old Tom-style Gin were still being made by a few British distillers, but they were, at best, curiosity items.

Sloe gin A ready-sweetened form of gin that is traditionally made by macerating sloe berries (the fruit of the blackthorn) in gin. Sloe Gin isn’t actually a gin, but a liqueur.

Golden gin The only aged gin; it is aged briefly in wooden barrels which give it a golden colour.

Botanicals – what are they? Botanicals are the ingredients which are used to flavor distilled gins. They must be natural or nature identical and there are 120 of these to choose from when making a product. The general rule is that the more quality botanicals used in the gin the higher its overall quality will be, for example inexpensive gins use about 4 to 6 botanicals (juniper, angelica, coriander and lemon being the main ingredients) whereas good premium gins use up to approximately 12-15 different botanicals which include: juniper berries, coriander, angelica, lemon and orange peels, ginger, cardamom, cassias, cinnamon, orrisroot, liquorice, caraway, calamus, culeb, and grains of paradise.

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Figure 7.8: Left to right: Juniper berries, angelica root, lemons, coriander seeds. In the famous Bombay Sapphire they use 10 botanicals which are from all over the world. The master distiller takes great consideration when choosing the botanicals, ensuring that they are of the highest quality – he chooses using three main factors: moisture and oil content, appearance and aroma.

Gin recipe protection Successful gin brand recipes are kept secret and many attempts are made to discover them by watching the buying volumes of botanicals and by analysis of the mixtures. Gordon’s gin for example ‘spike’ all its pomace that they throw out with pomace they bought elsewhere, to deliberately distort the exact ingredients mix. Master Distiller at Gordon’s, Hugh Williams, states that one of only a handful of people the world over actually know the exact recipe for Gordon’s Gin. Learning how to distil was the easy part; the true secret is knowing how to select the botanicals. The flavour of Gordon’s comes from the amount of each botanical that goes into that recipe. Distillery workers might know the total amount of the botanicals put into the recipe, but those are added to the sacks in different ways. The ten botanicals used to make Bombay Sapphire are these: „„ Juniper berries (from Italy): The raw, blueish-purple berries contain essential oil, and aromas of camphor, pine and banana, imparting a bitter-sweet flavour. The Juniper used in BS comes from Northern Italy, which has the reputation for producing the highest quality berries. „„ Coriander (seeds) from Morocco: This is one of the oldest known spices ands is frequently used in Western cuisine. Only Moroccan Coriander is used in BS, chosen for its balanced and delicate sage and ginger. Gordon’s Gin use coriander seeds from Moldavia. „„ Angelica (Root) from Saxony: The angelica root, while smelling musky and even unpleasant to some, is as vital to gin as salt is to cooking. Only Saxonian Angelica is used for BS. Chosen for its delicate subtlety, it imparts a musky, sweet, pine aroma. „„ Lemon peel from Spain: The fourth ingredient, common to many gins, is lemon. The desiccated skins contain the greatest concentration of lemon oils and impart a fresh, juicy, citrus flavour. BS uses only the finest lemons from Andalusia in Southern Spain.

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„„ Orris (Iris Root) from Italy: Orris is the root of the Iris flower and only the pale blue, fragrant Iris from Florence, Italy, is used for BS. It has earthy aroma with highlights of violet and a tea-like flavour. „„ Liquorice from China: white liquorice is grown in most of the warm regions of the world; the liquorice used in BS comes from China. Ground to a powder, it creates a freshness and lightness of flavour. „„ Almonds from Spain: related to the peach, the bitter Almonds from Spain have a spicy edge, which is better suited to gin than sweet almonds used in cooking. The essential almond oil is released by grinding the hard kernel to impart a nutty almond aroma. „„ Cassis bark from Indo-China: this is the aromatic bark of the Cinnamomum Cassia tree from Indo-China. The bark dries into tight quills, which are ground to produce a light powder. The distinctive aroma is stronger that its cousin, cinnamon, but less intense. „„ Cubeb berries from Java: A member of the pepper family, the small, red brown cubebs are grown in Java. They have a spicy, peppery aroma and contribute a flavour of lemon and pine. Grains of Paradise from West Africa: similarly related to the pepper family, these dark brown berries come from West Africa. In addition to a spicy, peppery aroma, there is also a hint of lavender.

Figure 7.9: Gins of the world

Famous brands Cascade Mountain Gin - uses hand-picked wild juniper berries distilled in Oregon Citadelle gin, made with 19 botanicals in small Charentais pot stills, in France Gin Bulag - produced in the Philippines, directly translated as “Blind Gin Hendrick’s Gin distilled in Southern Scotland infused with the essence of cucumber Hoxton – launched in 2011

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Iceberg - made with iceberg water Juniper Green Organic Gin (England) Magellan - a blue coloured gin, from Iris root Martin Miller’s - dry gin, eight botanicals blended with Icelandic spring water Plymouth - first distilled in 1793 Uganda Waragi - triple distilled Ugandan Gin Van Gogh - Dutch gin produced with ten botanicals in small batches

Other leading brands Aristocrat, Beefeater, Barton, Bombay Sapphire, Bols Dutch Jenever, Booth’s, Broker’s, Caballito (Panama), Cork Dry Gin, Damrak (Amsterdam), Gilbey’s London Dry Gin, Llave (Argentina), Ginebra San Miguel (Philippines), Gordon’s, Tanqueray, Victoria (Canadian Premium Gin).

Gin in cocktails Gin and tonic: Developed in India around 1870 to counter the risk of malaria. A measure of quinine with aerated water gave protection against the disease. Known as Indian tonic, this was very bitter in taste so gin was added. This G&T mixture became popular in the Army messes. Gin and lime (Gimlet cocktail): originated in the navy, lime was drunk to ward off scurvy during long voyages. This became mixed with gin and the Gimlet was created (gin and lime juice). Pink gin: straight gin with a couple of dashes of Angostura bitters (great for stomach upset). Other Gin drinks include; Gin Fizz, Dry Martini, Negroni, Orange Blossom, Singapore Sling, Tom Collins, Gin Rickey.

7.9 Rum The (Encyclopædia Britannica on Line, 2012) defines rum as “a distilled liquor made from sugarcane products, usually produced as a by-product of sugar manufacture”. Rum is a spirit obtained by distillation, after fermentation of sugar cane within the agricultural process or molasses within the industrial process. In 1909, a British Royal Commission stated that rum was a spirit distilled direct from sugar cane products in sugar cane growing countries, and in 1917 in the United Kingdom it became illegal to provide rum to anyone under 3 years of age.

History of rum The precursors to rum date back to antiquity. Development of fermented drinks produced from sugarcane juice is believed to have first occurred either in ancient India or China and spread from there (Pacult, 2002). An example of such an early

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drink is brum. Produced by the Malay people, brum dates back thousands of years (Blue, 2004). Marco Polo also recorded a 14th-century account of a ‘very good wine of sugar’ that was offered to him in what is modern-day Iran (Pacult, 2002). The exact origins of the word ‘rum’are unclear, but it is known that this product is said to have originated from the West Indies and was called ‘Kill the devil’ (slave man’s drink) in early times; it was quickly renamed guildive by the French or taifa (antillisk) which now refers to low grade West Indies rums. Up to the 1670s or 1647 to be precise it was called ‘Rumbullion’ and ‘Rumbustion’, meaning ‘big revolts’, ‘a great tumult’ or ‘uproar’ (Pacult, 2002). Another claim is that the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, a drinking glass (Blue, 2004). Other options include contractions of the words saccharum, Latin for sugar, or arôme, French for aroma (Blue, 2004). These early names were abbreviated to rumbo called rumbooze locally, and then from 1860 the English anglicized these names to rum. Some of the many other names for rum are Nelson’s Blood, Demon Water, Pirate’s Drink, Navy Neaters, and Barbados water (Rajiv, 2003). The Caribbean Rum industry was established indirectly by Christopher Columbus in 1493, when he brought sugar cane cuttings from the Canary Islands and planted them in Cuba. Planting spread across the Caribbean quickly. Rum rations (tot) began to be issued by the British Navy from 1655, as a substitute for water and beer, which went bad within weeks on long voyages. The other main reasons why rum was commissioned by the British navy for use on its ships were to warm the sailors and to combat scurvy, usually got through lack of greens and fresh water. One half pint per day at 80% volume was issued, usually mixed with lime and watered in a mixture known as grog. In 1731 it became standard proof and was mixed with water. This practice was abolished after July 31, 1970 (Pack, 1982). The popularity of rum continued into the 18th century after the American Revolution with George Washington insisting on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration (Frost, 2005). In the early days of Australia, rum was used as currency due to the lack of coinage (Clarke, 2002).

The introduction of Caribbean light rum Until the second half of the 19th century all rums were heavy or dark rums that were considered appropriate for the working poor, unlike the refined doubledistilled spirits of Europe. In order to expand the market for rum, the Spanish Royal Development Board offered a prize to anyone who could improve the rum making process. This resulted in many refinements in the process which greatly improved the quality of rum (King, 1983). One of the most important figures in this development process was Don Facundo Bacardi Masso, who moved from

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Spain to Santiago de Cuba in 1843. Don Facundo’s experiments with distillation techniques, charcoal filtering, cultivating of specialized yeast strains, and aging with American oak casks helped to produce a smoother and mellower drink typical of modern light rums. It was with this new rum that Don Facundo founded Bacardí y Compañía in 1862 (Blue, 2004).

Figure 7.10: The Caribbean (World Factbook, 2009).

The real McCoy During the Prohibition period in America, smugglers were described as ‘rum runners’. One by the name of Bill Mc Coy delivered vast quantities of genuine branded spirits, hence the term ‘the real Mc Coy’ which is still used today.

How rum is made Unlike some other spirits, such as Cognac and Scotch, rum has no defined production methods. Instead, rum production is based on traditional styles that vary between locations and distillers.

Harvesting Sugarcane is harvested to make sugarcane juice and molasses. The sugar cane is stripped from its leaves, and crushed in roller mills, the juice runs off into clarifying tanks or (vacuum pans) and is filtered to obtain a yellowish liquid called vesou. When the juice is boiled and processed to extract sugar, the residue from this is molasses. Most rum is made from molasses.

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Figure 7.11: Harvesting the sugarcane (GagaExportsGroupz.com).

Fermentation Dunder, a yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations is normally added to start the process, though distillers that make lighter rums, such as Bacardi, prefer to use faster-working yeasts (Pacult, 2002). Fermentation takes 24 to 48 hours (live wash) for light rums and 4 to 5 and up to 8 to 10 weeks for the powerful heavier styles of rum. The colour in these dark rums comes from ageing and the addition of caramel. Within the Caribbean, much of this molasses is from Brazil (Frost, 2005). A notable exception is the French-speaking islands where sugarcane juice is the preferred base ingredient.

Distillation While some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production is done using column still distillation. Pot still output contains more congeners than the output from column stills and thus produces a fuller-tasting rum. Most agriculture rums producers will initially obtain a spirit (85 to 96°) called ‘Grappe Blanche’ whereas industrial rum producers initially obtain a spirit (62 to 75°). Overall it must be stated that the character and flavour depends on the type of distillation still used.

Aging, blending, and filtering Many countries require that rum be aged for at least one year, but white rums usually age from periods between 3 to 5 years and dark rums between 3 to 15 years. This aging is commonly performed in used bourbon oaks casks, but may also be in stainless steel tanks or other types of wooden casks. Due to the tropical climate common to most rum-producing areas, rum matures at a much faster rate than is typical for Scotch or Cognac. An indication of this faster rate is the amount of product lost to evaporation. While products aged in France or Scotland see about 2% loss each year, rum producers may see as much as 10%. After aging, rum is normally blended to ensure a consistent flavor. As part of this blending

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process, light rums may be filtered to remove any color gained during aging. For darker rums, caramel (burnt sugar cane syrup) may be added to the rum to adjust the color and flavour of the final product, the amount of caramel usually ranges from 4 to 5 litres for every 10 hectolitres of rum. Finally soft water is usually added to reduce the alcoholic content to the required strength of approximately 55% ABV for grappe blanche agricultural rums, or 40 to 44% ABV for molasses industrial rums.

Types of rum The way that run is graded depends upon where it was produced. However, the following terms are frequently used to describe various grades: „„ Light rums, also referred to as light, silver, and white rums. In general, light rum has very little flavour aside from a general sweet or dryness, and serves accordingly as a base for cocktails. Light rums are sometimes filtered after aging to remove any colour. (Puerto Rico, Cuba, Venezuela). Examples: Havana Club Anejo Blanco, Bacardi Silver, Appleton White Rum. „„ Gold rums, also called amber rums, are medium-bodied rums which are generally aged. These gain their dark colour from aging in wooden barrels (usually the charred white oak barrels that are the by-product of bourbon whiskey). These rums are generally heavier and sweeter, (Puerto Rico, Cuba, Venezuela). Some rums are aged up to 8 years and beyond ,for example Lambs 8 year old reserve. Examples: Havana Club Especial, Havana Club Reserva, Bacardi Gold (D’oro), Spiced rum: These obtain their flavour through addition of spices and, sometimes, caramel. Most are darker in colour, and based on gold rums. Some are significantly darker, while many cheaper brands are made from inexpensive white rums and darkened with artificial caramel colour. Examples: Captain Morgan’s, Sailor Jerry, Black Dogg, Oakheart. „„ Dark rum, also known as black rum, classed as a grade darker than gold rum. It is generally aged longer, in heavily charred barrels. Dark rum has a much stronger flavour than either light or gold, and hints of spices can be detected, along with a strong molasses or caramel overtone. It is used to provide substance in rum drinks, as well as colour. In addition to uses in mixed drinks, dark rum is the type of most commonly used in cooking. (Jamaica, Demerara (British Guiana), Martinique, Trinidad, Barbados). Examples: Lamb Navy and Old Sailor. „„ Flavoured rum: Some manufacturers have begun to sell rums infused with flavours of fruits such as mango, orange, citrus and coconut. These serve to flavour similarly themed tropical drinks which generally comprise less than 40% alcohol, and are also often drunk neat or on the rocks. Examples: Bacardi Lime, Koko Kani Coconut rum, Malibu, Limke (a lime rum from Sweden) „„ Over proof rum is much higher than the standard 40% abv. Most of these bear greater than 75%, and preparations of up to 160 proof (80%) occur commonly.

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Examples: Wray & Nephew 68% abv, Bacardi 151or 75.5%abv (typically used in a Zombie Cocktail).

Figure 7.12: Rums of the world „„ Premium rum: As with other sipping spirits, such as Cognac and Scotch, a market exists for premium and super-premium spirits. These are generally boutique brands which sell very aged and carefully produced rums. They have more character and flavour than their mixing counterparts, and are generally consumed without the addition of other ingredients. Examples: Oronoco Ultra premium (launched in 2005), Havana Club 7 Year, Appleton VX, Appleton 21 Year. „„ Highly aromatic rum: Batavia Arak - red rice cakes are mixed with the molasses. This is produced in Java (Indonesia) and shipped to Holland. It is the base for Swedish Punch

Rum in cuisine Rum may also be used as a base in the manufacture of liqueurs, for example the famous Tia Maria and Kahlua Coffee liqueurs. Spiced rum is made by infusing rum with a combination of spices. Another combination is jagertee, a mixture of rum and black tea. Ti Punch is short for petit punch, little punch. This is a very traditional drink in the French-speaking region of the Caribbean. A wider range of rum specialty hot drinks and cool cocktails is covered in the chapters on Cocktails. Rum may also be used in a number of cooked dishes. It may be used as a flavoring agent in items such as rum balls or rum cakes. Rum is commonly used to macerate fruit used in fruitcakes and is also used in marinades for some Caribbean dishes. Rum is also used in the preparation of Bananas Foster and some hard sauces.

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Most popular rums Appleton Estate, Angostura, Bacardi, Barbancourt, Barcelo, Beenleigh (Australia), Bermudez (Dominican Republic), Bounty (St Lucia), Cacique (Venezuela), Captain Morgan, Coruba, Cruzan, Goslings, Havana Club, Lemon Heart, Matusalem, Mount Gay, Myers, Pusser’s, Rom Pampero, Sailor Jerry, Varela 151.

Cachaça Made from fermented sugarcane juice, this is the most popular distilled alcoholic beverage in Brazil, with less than 1% of the production being exported. Typically around 40% ABV. While most rum is made from molasses, cachaça is made from fresh sugarcane juice that is fermented and distilled. As some rums are also made this way, cachaça is also known as Brazilian rum

7.10 Schnapps Schnapps is a catch-all term for the term for the range of white and flavoured spirits produced in the Northern Hemisphere (Germany, Holland, Lithuania and the Scandinavian countries). It can be made from grain, potatoes or molasses and as such could qualify as vodka. In its raw form, it is without fragrance. Most schnapps have flavour added as a part of the production or later. This can come from storing in casks or by adding, for example, herbs ‘Schnapps’ is a small shot of a strong alcoholic beverage taken during the course of a meal, and drinking schnapps (or schnaps) is a tradition in the Northern Hemisphere and Scandinavia. The word comes from the German Schnaps, meaning ‘swallow’. Danes, Swedes and Swedish-speaking Finns have a tradition of singing songs, snapsvisor, before drinking snaps. The snapsvisa is typically an ode to the joys of snaps and praises its flavour, or expresses a craving for the drink. Schnapps Producers: Germany: German Kornbranntwein, Alter Koerner, Doornkat, Kornelius. Lithuania Suktinis, Zalgiris .

7.11 Tequila and mezcal Tequila, originally called tequilana, and mezcal are colourless or pale strawcoloured spirist made by fermenting and distilling the sweet sap of the agave plant. For tequila, only the blue agave from certain areas is used. Tequila was first produced in the 16th century near the location of the city of Tequila, which was officially established in 1656. The Aztec people had made a fermented beverage from the agave plant which they called octli (later, and more popularly called pulque) from around the 3rd century BC, long before the Spanish arrived in 1521. When the Spanish conquistadors ran out of their own brandy,

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they began to distill this agave drink to produce North America’s first indigenous distilled spirit (Chadwick, 2004). Mexico’s name is claimed to derive from Mescal. Some 80 years later, around 1600, Don Pedro Sánchez de Tagle, the Marquis of Altamira, began mass-producing tequila at the first factory in the territory of modern-day Jalisco. By 1608, the colonial governor of Nueva Galicia had begun to tax his products. The tequila that is popular today was first mass-produced in the early 1800s in Guadalajara, Mexico. Through the 18th and 19th centuries there grew the recognition that the best quality mezcal was made around the town of Tequila because of the quality of the agave there. The blue agave fields and ancient distilleries near Tequila are part of the World Heritage List. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the increasing worldwide popularity of tequila drove corporate interest in the drink. Although some tequilas have remained as family owned brands, most well known tequila brands are owned by large multinational corporations. However, there are over 100 distilleries making over six hundred brands of tequila in Mexico and over 2,000 brand names have been registered. Today almost all the mezcal that is consumed outside of Mexico is tequila, and that is what we shall focus on. On January 17, 2006 the United States and Mexico signed an agreement allowing the continued bulk import of Tequila into the United States. Without this agreement all tequila would have had to be bottled in Mexico. However, bulk importing applies to “well Tequila” which must include a minimum of 51% agave. 100% agave Tequilas must be bottled in Mexico. In addition to allowing bulk import, the agreement also created a tequila bottlers registry that identifies approved bottlers of tequila. Recently tequila production has been hit by TMA, a blight that has reduced the agave crops. This has resulted in lower production and higher prices throughout the early 2000s, and due to the long maturation of the plant, will likely continue to affect prices for years to come (Chadwick, 2004). A one-litre bottle of limited-edition premium tequila was sold for $225,000 in July of 2006 in Tequila, Jalisco, by the company Tequila Ley .925. The bottle which contains the tequila is a two-kilo display of platinum and gold. The manufacturer has received the Certificate from Guinness World Records for the most expensive bottle of liquor ever sold (Associated Press, 2006).

How tequila is made The agave plant The main raw material is the agave tequilana weber azul - one of 136 species of agave that grow in Mexico (with 26 sub-species, 29 varieties and 7 types). It has spiny margined leaves and tall spreading flowers. The blue agave was classified by German botanist F. Weber in 1905. This agave is cultivated in orchards called potreros (pastures, also called agave fields) or

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campos de agave (also called huertas, or groves) in the Los Altos region. There can be anywhere from 1000 to 2000 plants in an acre. The agave plant takes at least eight years to reach the stage where it is suitable for fermentation and may be left for up to 12 before harvesting; the more mature, the better its natural sugars (agave sazon means ripened). During this time it is pruned (barbeo), cutting the points of the leaves with machetes to encourage the piña to grow. Some farmers also use a technique called ‘shotgun plowing’ (barbeo de escopeta) to induce premature ripening of plants, but most fields are hand grown and cultivated, using traditional methods passed down from generation to generation. A mature piña usually weighs 80 to more than 300 pounds (although most are less than 200 pounds). The stalk is not allowed to grow on cultivated agaves, because it uses up the nutrients in the plant to produce its seeds, and is cut so the piña grows fatter. The piña is ripe when it starts to shrink and develops a maroon tinge, and red spots appear on the leaves. When ready for harvesting, the carbohydrate-rich piña is cut from its stalk. The skill of harvesting is passed down from father to son and some fields have three generations of jimadors working in them. Methodical, but efficient, a good jimador can harvest more than a ton of piñas in a day. He loads the heavy piña on a truck, for transport to to the factory (fabrica) where the piñas are usually quartered or halved before baking. Harvesting is done year-round because the plants mature at different stages in the fields. Some large distillers pick young agaves, but others, like Herradura, use only plants 10 years or older.

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Figure 7.13: A jimador (agave farmer) at Mundo Cuervo (Secretaria de Turismo de Jalisco) Some distillers will ‘pre-cook’ the piñas to rid them of external waxes and solids that may be retained in the penca. These can make a bitter or unpleasant juice. It takes about 7 kilograms of piña to produce 1 litre of 100% agave tequila. Small distillers may simply purchase agave syrup to ferment, without any of the intervening processes.

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Processing Traditional distillers (tequilleros) let the piñas soften in steam rooms or slow-bake ovens for 50-72 hours. The traditional stone or brick oven is called a horno - hence the name of Sauza’s Hornitos. This bakes the agave to process its natural juices (baking, or roasting, is tatemar) at around 140-185°F (60-85°C). This slow-bake process softens the fibres and helps keep the agave from caramelizing, which adds darker and bitter flavors to the juice and reduces the agave sugars. Baking in ovens also helps retain more of the natural agave flavours. Here’s where mezcal and tequila part ways: mezcal piñas are baked slowly in underground pits, rather than steamed. Many large distillers prefer to cook their piñas faster in efficient steam autoclaves and pressure cookers in as little as a single day (8-14 hours). The baking process turns the complex carbohydrates into fermentable sugars and softens the piña so they can easily release their juice. Fresh from the oven, the piñas taste a bit like a sweet potato or yam, with a mild tequila aftertaste. In traditional distilleries, the piñas are allowed to cool for another 24-36 hours after steaming, then they are mashed to separate the pulp (bagazo or bagasse) from the juice, although some traditional distillers keep them together during the fermenting. Originally, the manufacturers beat the piñas with mallets to break them up once they were soft and cool. Then they moved to the tahona, a giant grinding wheel that can weigh up to two tons, operated by mules, oxen or horses (nowadays more likely by a tractor). Modern distilleries use a mechanical crusher, or shredder, like a giant wood-chipping machine to process out the waste bagazo (usually given away as animal food or fertilizer). Using one of these methods, the piñas are minced and strained to remove the juices (called aquamiel, or ‘honey water’), then mixed with water in large vats. The resulting wort (tepache) is sprinkled with yeast. Traditionally this is a yeast that grows naturally on the leaves of the plant, but today it may be a cultivated form of that wild yeast or even a commercial brewer’s yeast. (Natural fermentation from airborne yeasts is allowed in some traditional mezcals and pulque.) The must (mosto) is left to ferment in wooden or stainless steel tanks. This can naturally take seven to 12 days, but modern plants add chemicals to accelerate yeast growth so fermentation only takes two to three days. Longer fermentation results in a more robust body. Fermented must may also be used as a starter mixture for the next batch. Sometimes the must is fermented with the residual pulp from the piñas left in it to impart the most flavour to the liquid - another traditional practice - but more often the pulp is disposed of. It may be sold to construction firms for adding to bricks or as packing material. Some manufacturers use cane or brown sugar cones (piloncillo) to speed fermentation to be able to use immature and fewer plants. This type of tequila can be sold in bulk for shipping out of the country, and can be bottled anywhere, including other countries where the regulations regarding

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agave content are not necessarily maintained. These tequilas are called mixto, and will not be labelled 100% agave, which purists demand. After fermentation is finished, the must may be left another 12 hours to richen and settle before distillation.

Distillation The result of fermentation is a liquid with about 5-7% alcohol. It is then distilled twice in traditional copper pot stills, or in more modern stainless-steel column stills. The best copper stills are said to come from Tomelloso, in Spain. The first distillation takes 1.5-2 hours. Its product called the ordinario and is about 20% alcohol. The second distillation takes 3-4 hours. Its output has about 55% alcohol. Most Mezcal is only distilled once, in column stills, although some premium brands now offer double distillation.

Maturing All tequila is clear right after distillation. The colour comes later, from aging in wooden barrels (barricas) or from additives like caramel (in mixto only) or wood essence. Before bottling, most tequila is filtered through activated carbon or cellulose filters. One premium blend, Porfidio, offers triple-distillation, a good marketing ploy to the exclusivity of the brand; although some connoisseurs say it comes with a subsequent loss of flavour. Most distillers add de-mineralized water to bring the proof down to 80 (40% alcohol), although some traditional distillers will stop the process at the required proof. Reposado and añejo tequilas will be stored in wooden (oak) casks. These barrels are generally purchased used from American distillers (bourbon barrels are the most prized but some distillers use sherry barrels, whiskey barrels, cognac barrels and even new oak barrels to impart sharper flavours) and older ones may be 50 years or older and still in use. They will be stored in warehouses or bodegas. Blanco will remain in stainless steel tanks until bottling. It may also be bottled immediately after distillation. The passion for premium aged tequilas that look like brandies has led some distillers to age them longer in oak barrels to absorb the maximum colouring. Others simply add colouring to create the impression of age - which may also affect the flavour. Note too that changing barrels (replacing old ones with new) can also darken a tequila and change its flavour until the barrels are ‘broken in.’ The colour of a tequila does not necessarily reflect either age or quality. The final product is usually blended with other barrels of a similar age to create a consistency of taste and aroma. Representatives of the Tequila Regulatory Council oversee the production to ensure the distillers meet the standards and quality controls in place under Mexican legislation. The resulting mix is then bottled or tanked for bulk shipments. A few single barrel tequilas are available in the premium market. All 100% agave tequilas must be bottled in Mexico and marked Hecho en Mexico - made in Mexico. Only mixto tequila is allowed to be sold in bulk and bottled outside the country.

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Quality control standards for tequila In order to guarantee tequila’s quality, the NOM (Noma Official Mexican a de Calidad) was established in 1978 to regulate all of the agricultural, industrial and commercial processes related to tequila. These appellation controls although good are sometimes laxly enforced. The best brands, which strictly adhere to regulations, carry a NOM number on their labels. You will know who is making the product by reading the NOM indicator on the label and looking at a NOM list (see Tequila Regulatory Council for the Tequila Manufacturers Nom Listing). To be classified as tequila, the liquor must be prepared from blue agave plants grown within Mexico’s Jalisco province. Tequila is made in over 100 distilleries in Mexico, which produce 900 brands and over 2,000 brand names. According to Herbst (2001) tequila is usually bottled in one of five main categories. „„ Oro (gold): tequila which is ‘joven y abogado’ (young and adulterated). It doesn’t have to be aged, doesn’t contain 100% blue agave and caramel, fructose, glycerin and wood flavouring are added to resemble aged tequila.

Figure 7.14: Tequilas and mescals. „„ Blanco (white) or plata (silver): usually 100% blue agave, it is clear, not aged but bottled soon after distillation. The white spirit rests in storage for 30 days. Its smooth, fresh flavour has an herbaceous, peppery quality containing true bouquet of the blue agave. „„ Reposado (rested): is Blanco that has been rested minimum 2 months (although some producers age for 4 to 6 months). Aging is always less than a year, and in oak barrels, and may also contain added flavouring and colouring. The wood aging endows Resposados with hints of vanilla and spice and produces a more mellow character than that of tequila blanco. Good for sipping. „„ Añejo (aged or vintage): Blanco aged minimum 1 year but less than 3 years in oak barrels. Amber in colour, the smooth elegant and complex flavour of the best anejos is often compared to that of fine Cognacs.

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„„ Extra añejo (extra or ultra aged): aged minimum 3 years in oak barrels, this is a new category which was established in March 2006. With 100% agave tequila, Blanco or plata is harsher with the bold flavours of the distilled agave up front, while reposado and añejo are smoother, subtler, and more complex. As with other spirits that are aged in casks, tequila takes on the flavours of the wood, while the harshness of the alcohol mellows. The major flavour distinction with 100% agave tequila is the base ingredient, which is more vegetal than grain spirits (and often more complex). Organic Tequila: Launched in 2007 from the La Quemada Distillery. Unlike other organic fruits and vegetables, the Agave plant needs to grow for 8 to 12 years to let the sugars fully mature, making it much harder to stay organic for that duration.

The worm in the bottle It is a common misconception that some tequilas contain a ‘worm’ in the bottle. Only certain mezcals, usually from the state of Oaxaca, are ever sold con gusano, and that only began as a marketing gimmick in the 1940s. The worm is actually the larval form of the moth Hypopta agavis that lives on the agave plant. Finding one in the plant during processing indicates an infestation and, correspondingly, a lower quality product.

7.12 Vodka Vodka is a spirit distilled from a fermented mash of grain (wheat, rye, barley, maize) sometimes for local consumption. We find vodkas made from potatoes or other plant stuffs, for example cane or even grapes. It is traditionally produced in Poland and Russia, but also in Finland, Siberia, Ukraine, France, Estonia, Germany, Sweden, China and the USA.

History and development of vodka Vodka originated in Eastern Europe, the name stemming from the Russian word ‘voda’ or the Polish ‘woda’, meaning water. The first documented production of vodka in Russia was at the end of the 9th century, but the first known distillery at, Khylnovsk, was about two hundred years later as reported in the Vyatka Chronicle of 1174. Poland lays claim to having distilled vodka even earlier in the 8th century. The first identifiable Polish vodkas appeared in the 11th century when they were called ‘gorzalka’, originally used as medicines. The mid 15th century saw the first appearance of pot distillation in Russia, using distillation techniques taken from Italy. Prior to that, seasoning, ageing and freezing were all used to separate the alcohol. In the 1540s Ivan the Terrible set up the first Russian Vodka monopoly, and the state administration and the treasury hold on vodka was further controlled when he established exclusivity for his

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own inns (kabaks) and distillation stills. Vodka was now the principal means of replenishing the state treasury. In 1546 Jan Obracht, Poland’s King, allowed alcohol to be produced and sold by every citizen. Peter the Great (Tsar of all Russia from 1682-1725) used vodka as a means of inflicting humiliating and even deadly punishment. Peter used the penalty cup to punish respected political, military leader noblemen or administrative figures that let him down. This cup was filled with 1.2 litres of vodka, which had to be drunk in front of all to witness in the Tsar’s court. In the 17th century vodka gained respectability and was allowed to be drunk at religious ceremonies and imperial banquets in Russia. In 1780, a professor of chemistry, Theodore Lowitz, in St. Petersburg was commissioned by the Tsar and discovered a method of purifying alcohol using charcoal filtration. This removed excessive by-products from the vodka. Russia also started making different styles of vodka using wheat, potatoes & rye. In the 18th century, the Polish vodka distillation procedures had become seriously more sophisticated than those of Russia & Sweden. Polish vodka distilleries started using triple distillation. In the 19th century the Russian state officially changed the name voda to vodka. Sweden again appeared on the vodka map with the success of Vin & Spirit, who turned their brand Absolut vodka into one of world most popular spirit brands. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, a large number of Russian vodka makers emigrated, taking with them their vodka making skills and unique vodka recipes. The most famous refugee revitalized his brand in Paris, creating the famous brand Smirnoff, today again made in Moscow.

How vodka is made Vodka may be distilled from any starch or sugar-rich matter. Most vodka today is produced from grains such as sorghum, corn, rye or wheat. Among grain vodkas, rye and wheat vodkas are generally considered superior.Some vodka is made from potatoes, molasses, soybeans, grapes and sometimes even by-products of oil refining or wood pulp processing. Some international vodkas produced from different base ingredient include Luksusowa (Poland, potato), Wodka Wyborowa (Poland, rye), Finlandia (Finland, barley), Huzzar (Ireland, pure grain, neutral spirit), Absolut (Sweden, wheat) and Altai (Siberia, wheat).

Mash preparation The grain or vegetables are loaded into an automatic mash tub. Much like a washing machine, the tub is fitted with agitators that break down the grain as the tub rotates. A ground malt meal is added to promote the conversion of starches to sugar.

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Sterilization and inoculation Preventing the growth of bacteria is very important in the manufacture of distilled spirits. First, the mash is sterilized by heating it to the boiling point. Then, it is injected with lactic-acid bacteria to raise the acidity level needed for fermentation. When the desired acidity level is reached, the mash is inoculated once again.

Fermentation The mash is poured into large stainless-steel vats. Cultured yeasts are added and the vats are closed. Over the next two to four days, enzymes in the yeast convert the sugars in the mash to ethyl alcohol.

Distillation and rectification The liquid ethyl alcohol is pumped to stills, stainless steel columns made up of vaporization chambers stacked on top of each other. The alcohol is continuously cycled up and down, and heated with steam, until the vapors are released and condensed. This process also removes impurities. The idea is to remove everything except pure water and pure alcohol from the spirit. As a result the final product is colorless, odourless, tasteless and smooth. Filtration methods overall are the trade secrets of the vodka producers. Other methods using for filtering include „„ Injecting oxygen bubbles into the spirit to catch impurities. „„ Using extractive distillation, boiling the spirit and ‘bathing’ it in water. Impurities attach to the water molecules and are extracted. „„ Spin the liquid in high-speed centrifugal purifiers that separate the congeners from the spirit. „„ Water added The concentrated vapours, or fine spirits, contain 95-100% alcohol. This translates to 190 US proof. In order to make it drinkable, soft water is added to the spirits to decrease the alcohol percentage to 40 and the proof to 80, or to the required alcohol strength, depending on the manufacturer.

Bottling Alcoholic beverages are stored in glass bottles because glass is non-reactive. Other receptacles, such as plastic, would cause a chemical change in the beverage. The bottling procedure is highly mechanized as the bottles are cleaned, filled, capped, sealed, labelled, and loaded into cartons. This can be done at rates as high as 400 bottles per minute.

Quality control Although tasters draw off quantities of vodka for sampling throughout the distilling process, most of the controls on vodka quality come from local, state, and federal governments. Flavoured vodkas must list the predominant flavor (pepper, lemon, peach, etc.) on the label. Vodka is not aged.

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Types and styles of vodka „„ Clear neutral vodkas: colorless, odorless, and tasteless. The Poles make a very pure (95%, 190 proof) rectified spirit (in Polish: spirytus rektyfikowany), which is used in a variety of ways. „„ Flavoured vodkas: while most vodkas are unflavoured, a wide variety of flavoured vodkas has long been produced in traditional vodka-drinking areas, often as homemade or commercial recipes to improve vodka’s taste, or for medicinal purposes. Flavourings include red pepper, ginger, various fruits, vanilla, chocolate (without sweetener), herbs, berries, cinnamon and other spices. „„ Major flavour Categories: White: Classical (original), Yellow: Lemon, Pink: Cherries, Green: bison (Buffalo) grass is used to produce the Polish Zubrowka vodka, Red: Red pepper, Amber: Walnut, Gold: Matured in oak (10 years).

Russian vodka Classic Moscow vodka is a clear rye vodka without added flavour, soft not distilled water from local rivers, and at least 40% alcohol by volume strength. The only vodka, which fully meets these criteria, is Moskovskaya Osobaya. Distilleries: All distilleries are still owned by the Russian state. The best known is Kristall, Saint Petersburg, Samora, Irkutsk, Kaliningrad, Kaluga and Kulsk. Language of the vodka label: krepkaya = strong, pertsovka = pepper vodka. Best-known brands: Ikon, Moskovskaya, Original Cristall (ranked one of the best in World), Staraya Moskya (Cristall Distillery), Stolichnaya (stoli – pure and range of flavours), and Smirnoff, the world’s biggest selling spirit.

Polish vodka The best Polish vodka is always made from rye. Three categories of Polish vodka (as stated on the label are): Standard = Zluykly, Premium = Wyborowy, and De luxe = Luksusowy. Best-known brands: Belvedere, Chopin (made from high-starch stobrawa potatoes), Luksusowa (potato), Wyborowa and Zubrowka (flavoured with bison grass)

Scandinavia Scandinavians usually drink their vodka straight from the freezer, with water not fizzy drinks. Best-known brands: Absolut (Sweden, available in several flavours), Danka (Finland), Fris (Danish, freeze distilled), Level (from the makers of Absolut), Reyka (Iceland).

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Figure 7.15: Selection of premium vodkas.

Other famous brands Blavod (UK, black vodka), Cardinal Sin (US, tripled distilled), Ciroc (France, made from grapes), Citadelle 6C (France, distilled 6 times), Grey Goose (France, claims to be “the World’s best tasting vodka”, original or fruit flavoured), Ketel One (Holland) Mezzaluna (Italy), Monopolowa (Austria, from potato), Pearl (Canada), Perlova (Ukraine), Rain (US), Skyy (US, four column distillation and tripled filtered), Tanqueray Sterling (England), Vox (Netherlands, wheat), Xellent (Switzerland), 42 Below (New Zealand).

Urban myth? The perception that more expensive vodkas often produce less severe hangovers than cheap vodkas is a claim that requires more evidence to support it.

7.13 Whisky Whisky or whisky-like products are produced in most grain-growing areas. They differ in base product, alcoholic content, and quality. In the UK, the term whisky is usually taken to mean Scotch whisky unless otherwise specified, but whisky is also produced in other countries, especially Ireland, the United States, Canada, Japan, India and Wales.

Whisky or whiskey? In the late Victorian era, Irish whisky was the world’s whisky of choice. Of the Irish whiskys, Dublin whiskeys were regarded as the grands crus. In order to differentiate Dublin whisky from others, the Dublin distilleries adopted the spelling ‘whiskey’. The other Irish distilleries eventually followed suit. The last Irish ‘whisky’ was Paddy, which adopted the ‘e’ in 1966. A mnemonic used to remember which spelling is used is that Ireland and United States have at least

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one ‘e’ in their names, while Scotland, Canada and Japan do not. Welsh whisky is an exception to this rule.

History of whisky Lloyd & Mitchinson (2006) contend that the first written record of whisky comes from 1405 in Ireland, where it was distilled by monks. In the Irish Annals of Clonmacnoise is a description of the death of a chieftain at Christmas from ‘taking a surfeit of aqua vitae’. The water of life was a medicine made in monastic laboratories, and markedly different to today’s whiskey. Whisky is a shortened form of usquebaugh, which the English borrowed from Irish Gaelic uisce beatha and Scottish Gaelic uisge beatha. This compound descends from Old Irish uisce ‘ water’ and bethad, ‘of life’. It is also mentioned in Scotland in 1496 in an entry in the Exchequer Rolls where malt is sent ‘To Friar John Corr, by order of the king, to make aquavitae’. Early whiskies were flavoured with heather, honey, roots, herbs and spices – partly to hide off flavors, partly because it was a medicine – this medieval mix was closer to a crude whisky liqueur. Crofter-distillers have always used the main crop of their region as the base for their spirits, and in Scotland and Ireland that meant barley. Making whisky was a means of using up surplus grain: in winter, cattle could be fed on the grains left after mashing and crofters could use their whisky as part-payment of rent. When crofter-distillers from Scotland and Ireland were driven off their land from 1745 onwards, whisky spread to America and Canada. Though rye whisky had been made since 1640, it was this sudden wave of immigrants that established whiskey as North America’s spirit. They too used the local grains – rye, corn and wheat – and by 1783 commercial production had kicked off in Kentucky.

The Coffey still At the start of the 19th century, Irish whiskey had the highest international reputation, with the heavily-peated Scottish malts considered an acquired taste. Then in 1828 Robert Stein patented his column still in Dublin. The design was improved upon by the French born Aeneas Coffey who was then working in a distillery in Dublin, and in 1831 the first Coffrey still was created. The continuous still, not only made distilling less labor-intensive but also produced a lighter, grain based whisky, which could be mass-produced. This continuous still changed distilling forever. It is generally accepted that two major events in the 19th century helped the increase of whisky’s popularity: firstly the new Coffey still process. Secondly, the Phylloxera beetle destroyed wine and cognac production in France in 1880 and opened the door to whiskey.

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Initially distillers in the Scottish Lowlands seized the new invention and by the 1850s grocers and wine merchants such as John Walker, George Ballantine, James Chivas, John Dewar and Matthew Gloag began blending malt with the light grain. John Jameson and John Power, who were already enjoying international prestige with their pot-still whiskies, refused to use the continuous method, dismissing it as an adulteration of ‘real’ whisky. Coffey’s patent still was soon adopted in America and Canada, and along with James Crow’s research into quality control in Kentucky, improved consistency. Prohibition, bootlegging and independence killed Irish whiskey. During the Prohibition period Irish whiskies lost their biggest market and were being badly copied by bootleggers. Irish independence also led to the ban of Irish products in Britain and the Empire. With no markets the Irish industry imploded and blended Scotch took over. In recent years whiskey has received renewed interest and worldwide sales are increasing annually.

How whisky is made Malting The barley is cleaned to remove any foreign matter, then soaked in hot water to cause germination, resulting in green malt. The germination is stopped by drying the green malt in a kiln, or over a peat fire, the smoke of which adds character and flavour to the final whisky (only used for Scotch whisky). It is later cooled and stocked for one month. The malt used for Irish whiskey is not dried over a peat fire and thus there is no smokey character. Today only a handful of distilleries have their own maltings in Scotland; these include Balvenie, Kilchoman, Highland Park, Glenfiddich, Bowmore, Laphroaig, Springbank and Tamdhu. Even those distilleries that malt their own barley produce only a small percentage of the malt required for production. All distilleries order malt from specialised maltsters.

Mashing (8 to 12 days) The dried green malt is ground into a coarse flour called a ‘grist’ and put into a mash tun with boiling water, giving us the a sugary liquid called wort. Note: For grain whisky, the malt is brewed with other unmalted cereals (maize, barley), which have been previously cooked. For sour mash, we add the sour (unalcoholic liquid coming from the preliminary fermentation); the words ‘grain’ or ‘sour’ are often present on American whiskey.

Fermentation The wort is cooled and goes into steel vessels (called wash backs) where it is cooled and fermented with the yeast which attacks the sugar and converts it into crude alcohol known as wash or young beer, which is about 5-7% ABV (similar to a rudimentary beer).

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Distillation The pot still process, with two distillations, is used for making malt whisky and much grain whisky. It typically produces a spirit around 60%ABV. The best pot stills are usually made of copper because this doesn’t affect the taste of the liquid and is a great conductor of heat. The Coffey still process is mainly used by Irish and North American producers. The end result here is a spirit called pure or plain. Nothing is left other than ethyl alcohol, free from all impurities and of all taste.

Figure 7.16: Scottish pot stills (Edinburgh whisky blog).

Maturing and wood finishing The spirit is piped into oak casks which previously contained sherry, bourbon, rum, calvados for (Scotch whisky and Irish Whiskey), or into charred new casks, used only once (for Bourbon, as U.S. law requires this). Charring a barrel reduces the amount of tannic substances contained in whisky. Maturing a whiskey in cask lowers its strength and volume by one-fifth approximately. 0.5–2.0% of the alcohol will also be lost each year through evaporation. Some whiskies will be matured near the coast in open storehouses to allow the salty sea air to pass on its flavour to the spirit. Colour can give a clue to the type of cask (sherry or bourbon) used to age the whisky, although the addition of legal ‘spirit caramel’ is sometimes used to darken an otherwise lightly coloured whisky. Sherried whisky is usually darker or more amber in colour, while whisky aged in ex-bourbon casks is usually a golden-yellow/honey colour. The late 1990s saw a trend towards ‘wood finishes’ in which fully matured whisky is moved from one barrel into another one that had previously aged a different type of alcohol (e.g., port, madeira, rum, wine, etc) to add the ‘finish’.

Blending A blend may be of malt and grain whiskies or of malt whiskies. Soft water is added to reduce the alcohol strength to between 40-50% abv. Occasionally distillers will release a ‘cask Strength’ edition, which is not diluted and will usually have an alcohol content of 50 to 60%.

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Filtering Many whiskies are bottled after being ‘chill-filtered’. This is a process in which the whisky is chilled to near 0°C (32°F) and passed through a fine filter. This removes some of the compounds produced during distillation or extracted from the wood of the cask, and prevents the whisky from becoming hazy when chilled, or when water or ice is added. Chill filtration also removes some of the flavour and body from the whisky, which is why some consider chill-filtered whiskies to be inferior.

Bottling This is the final part of the process. Some distilleries release ‘Single Cask’ editions, which are the product of a single cask which has not been vatted with whisky from any other casks. These bottles will usually have a label which details the date the whisky was distilled, the date it was bottled, the number of bottles produced, the number of the particular bottle, and the number of the cask which produced the bottles. Whisky does not mature once bottled.

Language of the bottle label Whiskey labels combine law, tradition and marketing and in some circumstances can be difficult to understand because of variations in language and national law. However single malt will contain single malt whiskey, vatted, pure, or blended malt indicates a mixture of single malt whiskies, age indicates that the youngest whiskey in the bottle is the age listed, sometimes we will see a ‘12 year old’ which is made from a mixture of 12, 14 and 15 year olds to create a particular.

Scotch whisky ‘Scotch whisky’ is whisky made in Scotland; it is often referred to as Scotch. It is divided into four distinct categories: single malt, vatted malt (also called pure malt), blended and single grain. To be called Scotch whisky the spirit must conform to the standards of the Scotch whisky order of 1990 (UK), which clarified the Scotch Whisky Act of 1988, and mandates that the spirit: „„ must be distilled at a Scottish distillery from water and malted barley, to which only other whole grains may be added, have been processed at that distillery into a mash, converted to a fermentable substrate only by endogenous enzyme systems, and fermented only by the addition of yeast „„ must be distilled to an alcoholic strength of less than 94.8% by volume so that it retains the flavour of the raw materials used in its production „„ must be matured in Scotland in oak casks for no less than three years „„ must not contain any added substance other than water and caramel colouring, and „„ may not be bottled at less than 40% alcohol by volume.

(Scotch Whisky, 2009)

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Types of Scotch whisky There are two major categories, single and blended. Single means that the entire product is from a single distillery, while blended means that the product is composed of whiskies from two or more distilleries. „„ Single malt whisky is a 100% malted barley whisky from one distillery. „„ Single grain whisky is a grain whisky from one distillery (it does not have to be made from a single type of grain). The majority of grain whisky produced in Scotland goes to make blended Scotch whisky. The average blended whisky is 60%-85% grain whisky. Some higher quality grain whisky from a single distillery is bottled as single grain whisky. As of 2006, there are only seven grain whisky distilleries in Scotland. „„ Vatted or blended malt whisky is a malt whisky created by mixing single malt whiskies from more than one distillery. Vatted malt whisky (also called pure malt) is one of the less common types of Scotch: a blend of single malts from more than one distillery and with differing ages. Vatted malts contain only malt whiskies — no grain — and are usually distinguished from other types of whisky by the absence of the word ‘single’ before ‘malt’ on the bottle, and the absence of a distillery name. The age of the youngest whisky in the bottle is that used to describe the age on the label, so a vatted malt marked ‘8 years old’ may include older whiskies. „„ Blended grain whisky is a whisky created by mixing grain whiskies from more than one distillery. „„ Blended Scotch whisky is a mixture of single malt whisky and grain whisky, usually from multiple distilleries. Blended Scotch whisky constitutes over 90% of the whisky produced in Scotland. Blended Scotch whiskies generally contain 10–50% malt whisky, blended with grain whisky, with the higher quality brands having the highest percent malt. They were initially created for the English market, where pure malt whiskies were considered too harshly flavoured (the main two spirits consumed in England at the time being brandy in the upper classes, and gin in the lower ones). Master blenders combine the various malts and grain whiskies to produce a consistent brand style. Blended whiskies frequently use the same name for a range of whiskies at wildly varying prices and (presumably) quality. Notable blended Scotch whisky brands include Dewar’s, Johnnie Walker, Cutty Sark, The Famous Grouse, and Chivas Regal. The finest barley for whisky making is grown in Elgin, Speyside in Scotland.

Malt whisky regions Malt whisky production in Scotland is divided into four geographic zones. Highlands Some highland distilleries: Dalmore, Dalwhinnie, Glenmorangie, Oban, and Aberfeldy. Highland malts from the northern half of the country are mostly

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elegant and well flavoured but this a large category and there are a number of sub groups. The main ones are Speyside malts, which have an extra dimension of rich, sweet complexity, and the smoky, spicy and concentrated Island malts. The Classic Malts Selection considers the Coastal Highlands as a sub-division of Highland Single Malts. This region includes Clynelish and Oban (Scotch Whisky, 2009).

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Figure 7.17: Scotch whisky producing regions (Scotch Whisky Association). „„ Speyside: encompassing the Spey river valley in north-east Scotland, has almost half of the total number of distilleries in Scotland within its boundaries; it is officially recognized as a region unto itself. Speyside distilleries include: Aberlour, Balvenie, Glenfiddich, The Glenlivet and The Macallan.

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„„ The Islands, an unrecognized sub-region, includes all of the whisky producing islands (excluding Islay): Arran, Jura, Mull, Orkney and Skye — with their respective distilleries: Arran, Isle of Jura, Tobermory, Highland Park and Scapa, and Talisker.

Figure 7.18: Selection of blended Scotch whiskies. Lowland Lowland malts produced in the southern part of the mainland are light, soft and sweetish. There are three distilleries in operation: Auchentoshan, Bladnoch, and Glenkinchie. Islay This is an island off the west coast whose traditional style of malt is pungent, smoky, medicinal and intense in flavour. Three of the island’s eight working distilleries, Bunnahabhain, Bruichladdich and Bowmore produce malt in gentle, subtle styles. The other are Ardbeg, Bowmore, Caol Ila, Lagavulin and Laphroaig and the new small distillery, Kilchoman, has recently begun production, but is not yet selling whisky. Campbeltown Campbeltown in the south west was removed as a region several years ago, but was recently re-instated as a recognized production region. Campbeltown, once home to over 30 distilleries, currently has only three operating: Glengyle, Glen Scotia and Springbank.

Grain whiskies Grain whiskies are not divided into zones since their origin has no influence on their character. The principal role of grain spirit (made in continuous stills) is in the making of blended whiskies (over 2000 Scottish blended whiskies are registered) where they smooth off and complement the more vivid malts.

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Scotland’s biggest whiskies Single Malt Scotch Aberlour, Ardbeg, Ardmore, Auchentoshan Aultmore, Balblair 16-year-old, The Balvenie Bowmore (Islands Islay), Cardhu, Cragganmore, The Dalmore 12-yearold, Dalwhinnie, Dufftown, Edradour, Glen Elgin, Glenfarclas, Glenfiddich, Glenkinchie, Glenmorangie 10-year-old, Glen Moray 12-year-old, Highland Park 18-year-old, Lagavulin, Oban, Springbank, Talisker, Tamdhu.

Figure 7.19: Selection of Scotch malt whiskies.

Blended Scotch Ballantine’s, Black & White, Chivas Regal, Cutty Sark, Dewar’s, Dimple, Famous Grouse, Grants, Haig, J&B, Johnnie Walker, Teachers, Vat 69, Whyte & Mackay, White Horse.

Independent bottlers of Scotch whisky Adelphi, Douglas Laing & Co, Duncan Taylor, Gordon & MacPhail, Hart Brothers, James MacArthur, Murray McDavid, Old Malt Cask, Robert Scott.

Irish whiskey Compared to Scotch, Irish is a smoother whiskey because of the third distillation and slightly malty because of the closed kiln. There are several types of whiskey common to Ireland: single malt, single grain, pure pot still and blended whiskey. Irish whiskey is aged for 3 years minimum and contains 50% malted barley, 30% unmalted barley, 10% rye, 10% wheat. 2000 distilleries once existed in Ireland, but now there are only three major ones (Midleton, Bushmills, and Cooley) and new micro distilleries. Bushmills is the oldest distillery in the World, gaining a licence from King James I in 1608. A century ago Irish, not Scotch, was the global whiskey with over 400 brands on sale in the U.S. Irish Distillers Group was formed in 1966. When Bushmills joined in 1972, all the major Irish distilleries were in the same organisation.

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Irish whiskey comes in several forms. Single malt whiskey is made from 100% malted barley distilled in a pot still. Grain whiskey is made from grains distilled in a column still. Grain whiskey is much lighter and more neutral in flavour than single malt and is almost never bottled as a single grain. It is instead used to blend with single malt to produce a lighter blended whiskey. Blends can be very complex, for example Midleton distillery holds 140 spirit receivers of varying sizes, containing different malted, unmalted and grain to allow over 1000 spirit combinations possible. Pure pot still whiskey is unique to Irish whiskey. It is 100% barley, either mixed malted and unmalted, or single malt, distilled in a pot still. The ‘green’ unmalted barley gives the traditional pure pot still whiskey a spicy, uniquely Irish quality. Like single malt, pure pot still is sold as such or blended with grain whiskey. Usually no real distinction is made between whether a blend was made from single malt or grain.

Figure 7.20: Selection of Ireland’s top whiskeys

Ireland’s biggest whiskey brands „„ Blended: Black Bush, Bushmills Original, Clontarf, Crested Ten, Dunphys, Hewitts, Inishowen, Jameson, Jameson 1780, Kilbeggan, Locke’s Blend, Midleton Very Rare (Ireland’s most exclusive Irish whiskey, launched in 1984), Millars, Murphy’s, Paddy, Powers Gold Label, Tullamore Dew, Greenore. „„ Pure Pot Still: Green Spot, Daly’s of Tullamore, Dungourney 1964, Dunville’s Three Crowns, Jameson 15 Year Old Pot Still, Midleton 25, 30 Year Old, Redbreast 12 Year Old, Willie Napier 1945. „„ Single Malt: Bushmills (10, 16, 21, 25 years), Bushmills 1608, Bushmills Triple Wood, Cadenhead’s Peated Single Malt, Connemara Peated Malt (Regular, Cask Strength and 12 years), Jameson, Knappogue Castle, Locke’s Single Malt (8 yr), Michael Collins Single Malt, Tyrconnell, „„ Single Grain: Greenore (8, 10 years)

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American whiskey Distilling in America started in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia by the Scots and Irish. The Government tax of 1791 brought a 3-year whiskey rebellion. The taxation caused families to move to Kentucky for open spaces, and Indian corn formed the base of the USA’s greatest whiskey industry in Kentucky. American whiskey, like Irish whiskey, is spelled with the “e. There are four distinct types.

Bourbon whiskey Bourbon is an American form of whiskey named for Bourbon County, Kentucky. By United States law, it consists of at least 51% corn — typically about 70% — with the remainder being wheat and/or rye, and malted barley. It is distilled to no more than 160 (U.S.) proof, and aged in new charred oak barrels for at least two years. The two years maturation process is not a legal requirement for a whiskey to be called ‘bourbon’, but it is a legal requirement for ‘straight bourbon’. In practice, most bourbon whiskeys are aged for at least four years. The word bourbon wasn’t commercially used until 1840. Once there were 2000 distillers, now 12 produce 95% of all bourbon. Bourbon must be put into the barrels at no more than 125 U.S. proof. After aging it is diluted with water and bottled. Bottling proof for whiskey must be at least 80 proof (40% abv) and most whiskey is sold at 80 proof. Other common proofs are 86, 90, 94, 100 and 107, and whiskeys of up to 142 proof have been sold. Some higher proof bottlings are barrel proof. Most bourbons are distilled in Kentucky and it is widely but mistakenly believed that only Kentucky whiskey can properly be called bourbon. As of today, there are no running distilleries within the current boundaries of Bourbon County due to new counties being formed from Bourbon County since early whiskey making days. Each county in Kentucky tends to name a favourite son as the inventor of bourbon. In fact, there was no single “inventor” of the product, which evolved into its present form only in the late 19th century (Cowdery, 2002). An act of the U.S. Congress in 1964 declared bourbon to be “America’s Native Spirit” and its official distilled spirit. A concurrent resolution of the U.S. Congress restricted bourbon to U.S. production. Bourbon can legally be made anywhere in the United States where it is legal to distil spirits. Legitimate production is not restricted to Kentucky, although currently all but a few brands are made there, and the drink is associated strongly with that commonwealth (www.straightbourbon.com). Illinois once produced nearly as much bourbon whiskey as Kentucky, and bourbon continues to be made in Virginia. In the past bourbon has been made in Pennsylvania, Indiana, Ohio, Tennessee, Missouri and Kansas.

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Sour Mash process As of 2005, all straight bourbons use a sour mash process. Dr. Crow developed this refinement while working at the Old Oscar Pepper Distillery (now the Woodford Reserve Distillery) in Woodford County, Kentucky. Spent mash is also known as distillers spent grain, stillage, and slop or feed mash, so named because it is used as animal feed. Bourbon types „„ Straight: pure maize. „„ Blended straight: a blend of straight. „„ Blended bourbon: blend of bourbon (20% of straight and the rest is silent spirit). „„ Kentucky Bourbon: Generally reckoned to be the best, if the label reads ‘Kentucky Bourbon’ it must have been matured in the Kentucky area for at least 1 year. Kentucky and Tennessee Bourbon is made from Indian corn which gives it a distinctive wood, toffee vanilla style.

Rye whiskey Rye whiskey describes two types of whiskies, theoretically distilled from rye. In the United States, rye whiskey is, by law, made from a mash of at least 51% rye – the other ingredients of the mash are usually corn, maize and malted barley. It is distilled to no more than 160 (U.S.) proof, and aged in oak barrels. The whiskey must be put into the barrels at no more than 125 (U.S.) proof (USA Regulations, 2006). Rye whiskey was prevalent in the north-eastern states, especially Pennsylvania and Maryland, but largely disappeared after Prohibition, with only a few remaining producers. Prominent rye whiskey distillers in the United States include Jim Beam and Austin, Nichols, which markets its product under the Wild Turkey brand at 80 and 101 proof. Other brands include Old Overholt, Sazerac, Van Winkle Family Reserve, Rittenhouse, Michter’s and Pikesville. Specialities “Rock and Rye” is a liqueur made from rye whiskey with fruit flavourings (primarily citrus), with a bit of rock candy (crystallized sucrose) in the bottle. It is also the name of a toddy made with rye whiskey, bitters and rock candy.

Corn whiskey Corn whiskey is an American whiskey made from a mash made up of at least 80 percent corn (maize). The whiskey is distilled to not more than 80%ABV. It does not have to be aged but, if it is aged, it must be in new uncharred oak barrels or used barrels. Aging usually is brief, around six months. During aging, the whiskey picks up color and flavour and its harshness is reduced. Corn whiskey is distinguished from bourbon by the wood used for aging. Bourbon must be aged in new, charred barrels whereas corn whiskey may not have any contact with new, charred wood. Corn whiskey is also frequently called corn liquor or corn squeezin’s.

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Tennessee whiskey Tennessee whiskey is generally similar to bourbon, in that it is composed of a mash of at least 51% corn (maize) and is aged in new, charred oak barrels, typically for four or more years. But unlike bourbon, Tennessee whiskey undergoes a filtering stage called the Lincoln County Process, in which the whiskey is filtered through a thick layer of maple charcoal before it is put into casks for aging. This step gives the whiskey a distinctive flavour. The process itself is named for Lincoln County, Tennessee, which is where the Jack Daniel’s distillery was originally located. In 1871, the Jack Daniel’s distillery, and the surrounding area became part of the newly created Moore County. Presently, there are only two brands of Tennessee whiskey on the market: Jack Daniel’s and George Dickel.

America’s biggest brands „„ Single Malt Whiskies: Charbay, McCarthy’s, Notch, Old Potrero, Peregrine Rock, St. George, Stranahan’s, Templeton Rye, Wasmund’s, Woodstone Creek. „„ American Corn Whiskeys: Catdaddy, Mountain Moonshine, Old Gristmill, Old Oak, Platte Valley, Virginia Lightning. „„ Tennessee Whiskey: Charles Nelson, Gentleman Jack (made at JD distillery), George Dickel No. 12, George Dickel Special Barrel Reserve, Jack Daniel’s Black Label (Tennessee Sour Mash Whiskey). „„ Bourbon Whiskies: Ancient Age 10-year-old made at the Buffalo Trace Distillery, Baker’s 7-year-old (made at Jim Beam distillery), Basil Hayden’s 8-year-old (made at Jim Beam distillery), Benchmark 8-year-old (made at the Buffalo Trace Distillery), Blanton’s Single Barrel, Booker’s 7-year-old, Buffalo Trace, Bulleit Bourbon, Corner Creek, Eagle Rare 10-year-old, Early Times, Elijah Craig 12-year-old (made by Heaven Hill Distillers), Four Roses Yellow Label, Jim Beam, Knob Creek 9-year-old, Maker’s Mark: (Kentucky Straight Bourbon), Old Foreste, Old Rip Van Winkle, Wild Turkey (Kentucky Straight Bourbon), Woodford Reserve (Labrot & Graham).

Figure 7.21: American whiskies

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Canadian whisky Canadian whisky (N.B. no ‘e’) production began at Kingston on Lake Ontario in the 18th century. Canadian whisky can be made from rye, barley or wheat. The Scottish emigrants were responsible for the early efforts to distil. By law it must be aged there at least three years in a wooden barrel of not greater than 700 litre capacity (Canadian Laws, 2010). Most Canadian whiskies are blended multi-grain whiskies and are usually lighter and smoother than other whisky styles. These are also called “rye whisky” in Canada, though the American definition of “Rye Whiskey” prevents them from being so labelled in the USA. Although rye is often a primary component in Canadian whiskies, the use of rye is not dictated by legal standards. Canadian whisky featured prominently in illegal imports (known as bootlegging) into the U.S. during Prohibition in the 1920s. Hiram Walker and Seagram’s have distilleries in Windsor, Ontario, across the Detroit River from Detroit, Michigan that easily served small, fast smuggling boats. The long, undefended U.S.Canadian border made smuggling fairly easy. Two distinctly different Canadian whiskies are: „„ Canadian single malt: Since 1991, Glenora, an independent distillery in Glenville, Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, has been producing unblended malt whisky in the Scottish style. Their product, Glen Breton Rare, was as of 2003, the only single malt whisky produced in Canada, and the oldest of the few produced in the Americas. „„ Quebec maple whisky: In Quebec, Maison des Futailles (owned by the SAQ) produces two so-called maple whiskies. The first one, Fine Sève, is made from the distillation of maple wine (which is then aged in oak barrels, giving it a distinctive taste). The second, Sortilège, is a mix of Canadian whisky and maple syrup. While these two products are not whiskies per se, they have often been described as such.

Canadian whisky brands Canadian single malt: Glenora Distillery, (Glenville, Nova Scotia), Glen Breton Rare. Canadian Blended whisky: Alberta Distillers, Calgary (independent), Alberta Springs Rye Whisky 10 Yr Old, Tangle Ridge Aged 10 Years, Allied Domecq, Black Velvet DeLuxe, Collingwood (Brown-Forman), Century Reserve 8 Year Old, Canadian Club, Canadian Club Reserve 10 Years of Age, Crown Royal, Forty Creek Three Grain, Gibson’s Finest Aged 12, Pike Creek, Royal Reserve, Rich & Rare, Mountain Rock, Seagram’s 83 Canadian Whisky, Seagram’s Five Star Rye Whisky, Windsor Canadian, Wiser’s Deluxe. Canadian Rye: Alberta Premium (100% Rye)

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Japanese whisky Whisky production in Japan began around 1870, but the first commercial production was in 1924, when the country’s first distillery, Yamazaki, opened. Broadly speaking the style of Japanese whisky is more similar to that of Scotch whisky than Bourbon whiskey, and the spelling typically follows the Scotch convention (i.e. omitting the letter ‘e’). There are several companies producing whisky in Japan. Perhaps the two most well known are Suntory and Nikka. Both of these produce blended as well as single malt whiskies. Two of the most influential figures in the history of Japanese whiskey are Masataka Taketsuru, ultimate founder of Nikka, and Shinjiro Toru, founder of Suntory. Masataka Taketsuru studied the art of distilling in Scotland, and brought this knowledge back to Japan in the early 1920s (Brown, 1995). He was instrumental in the creation of Japan’s first two whisky distilleries. Whilst working for Kotobukiya (later to become part of Suntory) he helped to establish the Yamazaki Distillery. Suntory are especially responsible for whisky drinking culture In 1934 he left Kotobukiya to form his own company, Dainipponkaju, which would later change its name to Nikka. In this new venture he established the Yoichi distillery in Hokkaidō. The Japanese use a lot of millet in their whiskey making.

Distilleries in Japan Yamazaki owned by Suntory, located between Osaka/Kyoto on the main island of Honshū. Hakushu - also owned by Suntory, located in Yamanashi on the main island of Honshū. Yoichi owned by Nikka, located on the Northern island of Hokkaidō. Nikka is a part of Asahi Breweries. Sendai Miyagikyo also Nikka, located to the North of the main island, near the city of Sendai. Karuizawa owned by Mercian, located near to the town of Karuizawa in Nagano on the main island of Honshū. Mercian is a part of Kirin. Fuji Gotemba, owned by Kirin, located at the foot of Mt Fuji in Shizuoka. Shinshu, owned by Hombo, located in Nagano on the main island of Honshū. Top brands: Black Nikka, Suntory, Yamazaki.

India whisky Indian whisky is a distilled alcoholic beverage that is labelled as whisky in India. Much Indian whisky is based on spirits that are distilled from fermented molasses, and would not technically be called whisky outside India. All hard spirits in India are officially designated as IMFL – Indian Made Foreign Liquor The drinking of Scotch whisky was introduced into India during the nineteenth century, during the period of the British Raj. Scotch style whisky is the most popular sort of distilled alcoholic beverage in India, though India has traditionally been thought to lack a domestic drinking culture. Whisky, however, has become fashionable for wealthier Indians, and as such the market for whisky among affluent Indians is one of the largest in the world. 90% of the ‘whisky’

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consumed in India is molasses based, although India has begun to distil whisky from malt and other grains. The inspiration behind the Indian whiskies seems to be Scotch whisky, despite these products being chiefly made from molasses, as can be seen in the brand names of Indian whisky, including ‘Bagpiper’, ‘McDowell’s No. 1’, and the partially malt based ‘MaQintosh’. Manufacturers of Indian whisky: United Spirits, a division of United Breweries, Amrut Distilleries.

Wales whisky Welsh whisky (Welsh: wisgi cymreig; alternative forms: wysgi, chwisgi) is a distilled spirit made in Wales since the 4th century. Modern Welsh whisky has been produced by the Penderyn Distillery since 2000 in the village of Penderyn in South Wales, which has revived the tradition of whisky distilling in Wales. The first believed instance of distilled alcohol produced in Wales dates back to the 4th century when a man known as Reaullt Hir of Bardsey Island, off the North Wales coast, produced a spirit known as ‘aqua-vitae’, or gwirod in the Welsh language. This has never been confirmed by any historical data. The last distillery in Wales closed in 1984, and no whisky was distilled until 2001. The modern industry got off to a very bad start. In 2000, Penderyn Distillery started production of the Penderyn single malt welsh whisky in Wales using the same EU funded still secured from the collapse of the former company. The first bottles went on sale on 1 March 2004, Saint David’s Day. It is now sold throughout the world and has won numerous industry awards.

Other whisky producing countries Czech Republic, Isle of Man, New Zealand, Slovenia, South Africa, Tailand and Turkey.

7.14 Bitters Bitters are aperitifs based on alcohol and aromatized with bitter ingredients (coriander, cinnamon and bitter orange peels are just a few examples). Bitters are a preparation of herbs and citrus dissolved in alcohol or glycerine with a bitter or bittersweet flavor. The various brands of bitters, once numerous, were formerly manufactured as patent medicines, often serving as digestifs. The few remaining varieties are principally used as apéritifs or as flavorings in cocktails.

Ingredients Angostura bark, cascarilla, cassia, gentian, orange peel, and quinine. The flavor of both Angostura bitters and Peychaud Bitters derives primarily from gentian, a bitter herb. Bitters are prepared by infusion or distillation, utilizing aromatic herbs,

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bark, roots, and or fruit for their flavor and medicinal properties. Christopher Hobbs, author of Foundations of Health, lists angelica root (A. archangelica), artichoke leaf (Cynara scolymus), bitter orange peel (Citrus aurantium), blessed thistle leaves (Cnicus bendicutus), gentian root (Gentiana lutea), goldenseal rhizome (Hydrastis canadensis), wormwood leaves (Artemisia absinthium) and yarrow flowers (Achillea millefolium) as typical contents of bitters formulas.

Major brands Angostura (Trinidad & Tobago) – the concentrated aromatic bitters which was first compounded and developed in Venezuela in 1824 by a German physician and army surgeon Dr. JGB Siegert Aperol (Italy) orange-based, less bitter than Campari Becherovka (Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic) flavored with anise seeds, cinnamon, and approximately 32 other herbs, first sold in 1807, normally served cold Boker’s (US) developed in New York in 1828, the preferred brand of Professor Jerry Thomas, the first great cocktail master Campari (Italy) World’s best selling bitters, invention of Gaspare Campari, a maitre licoriste (master drink-maker) who after serving his time in the famous Bass bar in Turin, produced a blend of selected herbs, spices, including peels and barks, neutral alcohol, sugar and purified water. This recipe is still in use today. It incorporates over 60 ingredients and is kept a closely guarded secret. Cynar (Italy) named after Cynarina a substance extracted from the artichoke leaves, contains rhubarb, sweet and bitter orange peels, gentian, alcohol base, drunk best as an aperitif or digestive Fee Brothers range of flavours: aromatic, orange, mint, lemon, peach, Rhubarb, Green Tea types. Family business since 1864 in, Rochester, New York. Fernet Branca (Italy) a mix of 40 herbs and spices, including gentian, myrrh, rhubarb, camomile, cardamom, aloe and saffron, made by a combination of hot and cold infusions in a base of grape alcohol and aged in 100-hectolitre vats of Slovenian oak casks for a year Gammel Dansk – Bitter Dram (Denmark) 29 different herbs, spices and flowers Jägermeister (Germany) launched in 1935, 56 botanicals including citrus peel, aniseed, liquorice, poppy seeds, saffron, ginger, juniper berries, angostura bark, southernwood, fennel and ginseng. These macerate in spirit for up to six weeks and then mature for a year in seasoned oak casks before blending, best served ice-cold. Lillet (France) an expensive light apéritif made with wine and brandy. There are two versions: Lillet Blonde (white) and Lillet Rouge (red). Punt e Mes (Italy), 1786 name means one-and-a-half points and stands for the amount of wine balanced against bitters Ramazzotti (Italy) 33 herbs and roots including gentian, orange peel, cinchona

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bark, angelica, zedoary, masterwort, anise and iris, which are all, macerated in alcohol Riga Black Balsam/Melnais Balzams Latvian national drink, 16 ingredients, raspberry, honey, mint, wormwood, lime-tree blossom and many other plants and roots are among the exotic components merged with neutral spirit Suze (France) yellow-coloured with a dry, bitter taste; a Gentian spirit, aperitif, also great for stomach upsets Underberg (Germany), made from many aromatic extracts from 43 countries

Others to note Appenzeller (Switzerland), Araucano (Chile), Averna (Sicily), Beerenburg (Holland), Boonekamp’s (Holland), Dimitri (Costa Rica), Maraschino Bitters, Martini Bitter (Italy), Echt Stonsdorfer (originally Silesia, now Germany), Kuemmerling (Germany), Meyer’s Bitter (from Germany), Peychaud’s Bitters (Louisiana, US), Quinquina (Fance), Picon (Marseille, France), St. Vitus (Germany), Unicum (Hungary)

Summary „„ Spirits markets around the world have experienced significant increase in recent years; these increases have been set against the challenges of increase local taxes, government controls and a downturn in the global economy. „„ CEPS (2011) argue that spirits shoulder the highest levels of excise tax in comparison to other alcoholic beverages in every European member state. „„ Spirit companies have adopted various strategies like premiumization, fashion spirits, cocktails, and spirit consumption within the meal experience to help drive sales for bars. „„ They have redesigned the spirit packaging to give distilled spirits a more distinct identity and have diversified their overall spirits portfolio to meet changing consumer demand. „„ Many spirit brands continued to actively support bars and their respective trade organisations with numerous promotional and educational opportunities. „„ Bars can play a vital role in the promotion and sales of these beverages by ensuring that their staff members are given the knowledge and skills to deliver detailed explanations, make recommendations and serve spirits in the appropriate fashion for their customers. „„ This knowledge and skills is central to the continued success of these alcoholic beverages and their contribution to the overall business success of the bar.

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Liqueurs

Aims and learning outcomes This chapter introduces the world of liqueurs, covering their history, their many varied ingredients, the production processes and the main categories. On completion of this chapter, the learner should be able to: „„

Explain the origins, ingredients involved and production process of liqueurs.

„„

Act on the recreational, culinary and medicinal uses for liqueurs.

8.1 Introduction Presented in distinctively shaped, coloured and sized bottles, liqueurs offer a vast array of flavours, are often steeped in a rich cultural heritage, for some people are a symbol of their national identity and are the basis of some of the world’s most famous mixed drinks and cocktails. Liqueurs antecedents were the apothecaries’ potions and medicines of the middle ages, which were flavoured with herb, plant, seeds, spices, nuts, roots, flowers and fruit essences came to be added to mask the unappealing flavour of the impurities that had not been rectified out of the base spirit and to endow the resulting drink with medicinal value. This chapter introduces the learner to liqueurs, we will focus on their history, and their many varied ingredients, the production process used to make liqueurs and the main categories of liqueurs. We will also explore some of world’s most famous liqueur brands, and examine the tasting and service traditions of these famous beverages.

8.2 History and background Schumann (1995) defines liqueurs as sweetened liquors that are flavoured and scented by the addition of spices, herbs, flowers and so on. Certainly the majority of liqueurs produced fall within this definition but liqueurs produced today are also flavoured with ingredients like fruits, roots, plants, barks, and sometimes cream.

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The word liqueur comes from the Latin word liquifacere which means ‘to dissolve.’ This refers to the dissolving of the flavorings used to make the liqueur. In some parts of the world, especially in the USA, people use the words ‘cordial’ and ‘liqueur’ interchangeably. Though in these places the two expressions both describe liqueurs made by redistilling spirits with aromatic flavorings and are usually highly sweetened, there are some differences. While liqueurs are usually flavored with herbs, cordials are generally prepared with fruit pulp or juices. Nearly all liqueurs are quite sweet, with a highly concentrated, dessert-like flavor. At one time, certain liqueurs were considered for their medicinal purposes and most of their ingredients were chosen for their healing properties. We attribute to the Egyptians the production of liqueurs. It was later that the monks were to improve the techniques, becoming themselves experts in this field. The first documented liqueur utilized the caraway seed to produce the World famous Kummel, which was distilled first in 1575 by Lucas Bols of Amsterdam, Holland. Caraway’s digestive properties had been known for centuries before. Benedictine, the famous French liqueur, is documented as far back as 1510, but unfortunately was not available for sale. Liqueurs date back centuries and are historical descendants of herbal medicines, often those prepared by monks, as Chartreuse or Bénédictine. Liqueurs were made in Italy as early as the 13th century and their consumption was later required at all treaty signings during the Middle Ages. The monks developed liqueurs primarily as medicines (elixirs), for example Benedictine liqueur was used for treating malaria. Access to physicians for most people was impossible and only reserved for the rich, so many people depended on the monks for remedies for their maladies. Some the most famous remedies which the monks developed were: „„ the aperitif: which was given to help aid the appetite, „„ the digestive: which was given to aid digestive problems, for example when surfeited or stuffed by food or for the old, „„ the corrective: which was given out for being unwell, sick or as we commonly know it today, the hangover cure. It’s amazing when you think that we are referring to remedies used hundreds of years ago which are still used today, but on a commercial basis and drunk for leisure rather than necessity.

Keeping the secret Liqueur recipe makers normally protect their secrets by entrusting the recipe to only two or three personnel, and they would usually never travel together.

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8.3 Ingredients and production of liqueurs The main manufactured liqueurs are fruit, plant, grain liqueurs. Some liqueurs are prepared by infusing certain woods, fruits, or flowers, in either water or alcohol, and adding sugar or other items. Others are distilled from aromatic or flavoring agents. The distinction between liqueur and spirits is not simple, especially since many spirits are available in a flavored form today. Flavored spirits, however, are not prepared by infusion. The alcohol content is not a distinctive feature, at 15 to 30%, most liqueurs have a lower alcohol content than spirits, but some liqueurs have an alcohol content as high as 55%. The main producing countries are: France, Italy, Holland, Germany, Hungary, Japan, England, Russia, Ireland, U.S., and Denmark.

Composition of liqueurs „„ The spirit base: neutral spirit, brandy (Cognac, Rum, and whiskey). „„ The sweetener: sugar, sugar syrup or honey, the amount of sugar is used as follows: for liqueur de ... (200 grams per litre), for lrème de ... (400 to 520 grams per litre). „„ The flavouring agent: fruits: lemon, orange, banana and apricot; flowers: violet, lavender, rose, orange and blossom; herbs: peppermint, vervain, lime and blossom; barks: cinnamon, angostura; roots: angelica, liquorice root, and gentian; seeds: coriander, juniper berries, almonds, vanilla, caraway, clove, cocoa and camomile.

Production methods The spirit base can be brandy, rum, whiskey or other spirit and may be flavoured in five ways: „„ Percolation (hot extraction, infusion - short period): the alcohol is dripped through the flavouring agents to extract their essences. „„ Maceration (cold extraction, long period): the flavouring agents are steeped directly in the alcohol base; this process takes a few weeks where all the ingredients are soaked and stirred in alcohol, for a bitter taste (use a low alcohol soak), for a less bitter taste (use a high alcohol soak). These soak strengths depend on personnel preferences. „„ Distillation: alcohol and flavouring agents are blended before being distilled. „„ Infusion: flavourings are steeped in hot water, which is then mixed with the alcohol base. „„ A combination of these procedures. The sweetening or edulcoration is done after maceration, for the fruit liqueurs, and after distillation, for the grain or plant liqueurs.

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8.4 Categories of liqueurs „„ Proprietary liqueurs (i.e. Benedictine, Galliano and Southern Comfort) are made exclusively by specific liqueur houses with secret formulas, some of which have been closely guarded for centuries. „„ Generic liqueurs (i.e. Amaretto, Crème de Cacao) are made by various producers using fairly standard recipes. „„ Quality brands are typically flavored with the finest ingredients, essential oils and extracts; less expensive examples often use artificial flavorings. A cordial is any invigorating and stimulating preparation which evolved into liqueurs, consumed recreationally e.g., peppermint cordial. The term derives from obsolete medicinal usage, as various beverages were concocted which were believed to be beneficial to one’s health, especially for the heart (cordialis, Latin). There are many categories of liqueurs including: „„ fruit liqueurs (which include berry flavoured liqueurs), „„ citrus liqueurs, mixed and single herbal liqueurs (which include aniseed flavoured liqueurs), „„ bean and kernal liqueurs (which include chocolate, coffee, nut and vanilla flavoured liqueurs), „„ cream liqueur and crème liqueurs.

Figure 8.1: Berry liqueurs.

Liqueur brandies Some fruit liqueurs are referred to as fruit brandies. The three main types are cherry, apricot and peach brandy. These drinks are sweetened coloured liqueurs based on simple grape brandy that has been flavoured with the relevant fruits as distinct from being primary distillates of those fruits themselves. Production: the pressed juice and stones of the respective fruits are generally mixed with a neutral

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grape spirit (more rarely a grain spirit), sweetened with sugar and macerated until take-up of flavour is complete. If the fruit juice itself has fairly high natural sweetness, correspondingly less syrup will be added. In some cases, the liqueurs may be treated to a period of cask-ageing, followed by adjustment of the colour with vegetable dyes. Service: Serve with fruit based desserts that use the same fruits, hot soufflés, tarts and charlottes.

Figure 8.2: Liqueurs – some modern favourites

8.5 World famous liqueurs Fruit liqueurs Bajtra: from the island of Malta and made from the prickly pear that grows widely there. The Bajtra brand liqueur is owned and marketed in Malta and other countries by M.DeMajo Wines & Spirits Ltd. and is distilled from a blend of the prickly pear fruit, honey and herbs. The resultant rose colored distillate makes an excellent after dinner drink on its own and also mixes well with orange juice, bitter lemon or champagne. Crème de Banane: a yellow, transparent, sweet, banana flavoured liqueur of 17 to 25% ABV. This liqueur is generally preferred in a cocktail, but is also a pleasant drink on its own when served over shaved ice at the end of a grand meal. It can also be used as syrup on frozen desserts or in some baked dishes to add a massive boost of banana flavour. Many companies such as Marie Brizard, Bols and De Kuyper of Holland make the product. It is based on neutral-tasting, un-aged grape brandy, flavoured by infusion or maceration. Hpnotiq: a 17% ABV French fruit liqueur, launched in 2011, and made from vodka, a touch of cognac, and tropical fruit juices. The drink is blue.

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Kruškovac: a type of rakija (hard liquor) made from the distillation of fermented pears, with an alcohol content of around 25% ABV. It is characterized by its sweet pear aroma and distinctive yellow colour. It is a popular drink in eastern block countries (the kruška means ‘pear’). Lichido: a 18%ABV liqueur made with vodka, cognac, lychee and guava essences and white peach juice. Manzana verde: made of wild apples, origins within the Basque country. Manzana is ‘apple’ in Spanish; verde is Spanish for ‘green’. Manzana contains from 15 to 20% ABV. It is sweet and tastes like green apples, similar to Pucker. Midori: a bright, green-coloured, honeydew cordial, closer in taste and aroma to banana than melon. Made by Suntory, originally in Japan, but now in Mexico. It began life in 1978 at the wrap party for Saturday Night Fever in New York’s legendry Studio 54. Midori is around 20% ABV. The name comes from the Japanese for ‘green’. As it is extremely sweet, Midori is rarely consumed by itself. It is generally used in a mixed drink or cocktail, e.g. a Midori Illusion. Midori is usually mixed with lemonade, fresh lemon juice, lime juice, pineapple juice or orange juice. Sour flavours combine well with Midori and serve to balance its sweetness. Poire William: colourless spirit, eau de vie poire made in Alsace and Switzerland. The Williams pear is a gorgeously aromatic fruit when fully ripe but when cooked, its flavour often all but vanishes, and the pear flavour of this liqueur is mild. Pisang Ambon: a Dutch made fruit and herb liqueur with a dominating banana flavour, based on an old Indonesian recipe. It is bright green in colour andis produced by Lucas Bols B.V. Pucker: a sour apple liqueur similar to Granny Smith apples and green apple flavoured candy in taste. Made by the DeKuyper company, it is just one of many in their line of fruit schnapps. It is 15%ABV. Southern Comfort: a fruit, spice, and whiskey flavoured liqueur, produced since 1874. It is made from a secret blend of whiskey, peach brandy, orange, vanilla, sugar, and cinnamon flavours. Southern Comfort is available as 50%, 38%, 35% & 21% ABV. First produced by Irish bartender M.W. Heron, the son of a boatbuilder, at McCauley’s tavern just off Bourbon Street in New Orleans, Louisiana. New variations include Bold Black Cherry flavour. Southern Comfort Reserve: a blend of Southern Comfort and 6-year-old bourbon and is 40% alcohol. Prunelle: is a dark acid plum-flavoured liqueur produced in Italy and France (30% ABV).

Berry liqueurs Crème de Cassis: a blood-red, sweet, blackcurrant-flavoured liqueur, and an ingredient of kir, an apéritif. It is made from blackcurrants crushed into refined alcohol, with sugar subsequently added.

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Cherry Heering: Peter Heering is a Danish manufacturer of liqueurs. They are most famous for Cherry Heering, a proprietary brandy-based liqueur flavoured with cherries which is often referred to simply as Peter Heering in cocktail recipes. Chambord: Black raspberry liqueur made in the Loire valley in France. It dates back to 1685 when Louis XIV visited Château de Chambord. It is made from raspberries, blackberries (mûre), honey, vanilla, and cognac. It has no preservatives and must be consumed within 6 months, otherwise the ingredients separate. It comes in a spherical bottle with gold plastic lettered belt around the middle. The bottle is modeled after a Globus cruciger (an orb bearing a cross) to reflect Chambord’s royal connection. It is 16.5% ABV. Drinks commonly made from Chambord include Chambord Daiquiri, Chambord Royal Spritzer, and the original Sex on the Beach. Hideous: a berry and citrus flavoured liqueur, produced by Hideous, L.C., a company based in the United States. The liqueur is 35% ABV, magenta in colour, and mildly sweet. The liqueur is made from potato neutral spirit, with added natural flavours derived from berries grown in the state of Washington (including raspberries and others) and citrus fruits. The neutral spirit is produced at Distilled Resources Inc. in Rigby, Idaho. Hideous is one of only four U.S. liqueur manufacturers to produce its own neutral spirit. Lakka or Lakkalikööri: a liqueur produced in Finland which derives its flavour from the cloudberry fruit. The word lakka means ‘cloudberry’ in Finnish. The beverage is produced by soaking the berries in alcohol anywhere between two to six months until sweetened, and is branded by Chymos and Lapponia, both of which are distributed by the Swedish-owned V&S Group. The liqueur can be drunk as it is, but is also often mixed with hot coffee. Maraschino: is a bittersweet, clear liqueur flavoured with Marasca cherries, which are grown in Torreglia (near Padua in Northern Italy), around the Dalmatian city of Zadar in Croatia. It is one of the very few liqueurs in the world produced by distillation. The liqueur’s distinctive flavour comes from the Marasca cherry, and the crushed cherry pits lend an almond-like flavour to Maraschino. Honey is also part of the ancient recipe. The distillate is allowed to mature for two years in Finnish ash vats (this wood does not lend its colour even after many years of maturing), and is then diluted and sugared. It is typically bottled in a straw-coated bottle. Although Maraschino cherries are traditionally preserved in maraschino liqueur, today most maraschino cherries are made using artificial ingredients and are non-alcoholic. Sloe Gin: a red coloured liqueur flavoured with sloe berries, the fruit of the blackthorn, and a relative of the plum. Sloe gin can be from 15 to 30% ABV. The traditional way of making sloe gin is to infuse gin with the berries. Sugar is required to ensure that the sloe juices are extracted from the fruit. Almond flavouring may be added. Most commercial sloe gins today are made by flavouring the less expensive neutral grain spirits and produce a fruit cordial effect. The most popular commercial brands of sloe gin are Plymouth and Gordon’s.

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Citrus liqueurs Although this category of liqueurs is predominantly orange flavoured, we do now see some excellent lemon, grapefruit and lime flavoured liqueurs establishing themselves around the world. Aurum: made in the Abruzzi Mountains on the Adriatic coast of Eastern Italy, a brandy-based liqueur in which a mixture of orange peel and whole oranges is infused, and the lustrous golden intensity of its appearance enhanced by saffron. Aurum was given its Latin name by the celebrated Italian writer Gabriele d’ Annunzio. Cointreau: a brandy-based spirit that has been flavoured with the peel of bitter oranges. Produced in Saint-Barthélemy-d’Anjou, a suburb of Angers, in the Loire Valley France, when it was launched in 1849 by the Cointreau brothers, Edouard and Adolphe, it was sold under the brand name Triple Sec White Curacao, but so many other proprietary Curacaos began to be sold as Triple Sec that the family decided to give it their own name instead. (Triple sec refers to a curacao that is colorless and has a double distillation.) In addition to being drunk as an apéritif, Cointreau is also commonly used as a digestif. Cointreau is considered to be either a premium brand triple sec or a unique category of liqueur. Although usually sold at 40% ABV, there are different strengths including a cream version. Versatile in cocktails and famous dishes, e.g. White Lady, Sidecar, Balalaika, Margarita, duck a l’orange, flamed crepes. Curaçao: a liqueur, invented by the Dutch as a white rum based liqueur, flavoured with the dried peels of larahas, a type of bitter orange grown on the island of Curaçao. To create the liqueur, the peels of the laraha are dried, bringing out their sweetly fragranced oils. After soaking in a still with alcohol and water for several days, the peels are removed and other spices are added. The liqueur has an orange flavour with varying degrees of bitterness. It is produced clear, and can have blue, green, orange or red colouring added. The most common curacao is Blue Curaçao, a sweet blue. It is primarily used as an exotic colouring agent in cocktails and other mixed drinks. Curaçao is also available in Coffee and Chocolate flavours. Grand Marnier: a liqueur created in 1880 by Alexandre Marnier-Lapostolle. It is a kind of triple sec, made from a blend of true cognacs, distilled essence of orange, and other ingredients. Grand Marnier is about 40% ABV. It is produced in several varieties, most of which can be consumed straight up or used in mixed drinks. Limoncello: a lemon liqueur produced in Southern Italy, mainly in around the Gulf of Naples and the coast of Amalfi and Islands of Ischia and Capri, but also in Sicily, Sardinia, Menton in France and the Maltese island of Gozo. It is made from lemon rinds, alcohol, water, and sugar. It is bright yellow in colour, sweet and lemony, but not sour since it contains no lemon juice. Mandarine Napoleon: another type of curacao, made with the skins of tangerines as opposed to bitter Caribbean oranges. Launched in 1892 by Louis Schmidt (Belgium distiller). The tangerines come from Sicily, these skins are steeped in

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cognac and other French brandies. The spirit is then re-distilled, sweetened ,coloured with carotene to a vivid yellowy orange and matured for several months. It is bottled at 38% ABV. Tuaca: a brand of Italian liqueur, it is sweet and viscous, and its ingredients include brandy, vanilla, which gives it its predominant flavour and citrus. Tuaca is produced by the Tuoni family in Livorno, Tuscany. (35% ABV) Sabra: Sabra chocolate orange liqueur is perhaps the most famous liqueur produced in Israel. The primary flavour of Sabra is a rich, bitter sweetish chocolate. The dense chocolate is cut with the sweet and sour taste of Jaffa oranges. This citrus addition gives Sabra an extra kick that chocolate doesn’t have. The Sabra bottle is reminiscent of a genie’s bottle in shape. Slightly chilling Sabra liqueur strengthens the chocolate feel, while slightly warming it brings out the citrus tones. Van Der Hum:South Africa’s answer to orange curacao, made by several producers in the cape including KWV. The peels of tangerine-like oranges are infused in brandy and supplemented with an herb or spice element. Precise formulas vary from one producer to the next. Pale gold in colour and pronounced bitter orange scent adding to its appeal. The bottled strength is generally 25% ABV upwards. Van Der Hum means ‘what’s his name’ in Africaans. X-Rated Fusion Liqueur: a French vodka and fruit based liqueur, made by Daucourt Société of Cognac, France. Flavoured with blood orange, mango and passion fruit, it has a strength of 17% ABV. Yukon Jack: Yukon Jack is a honey based orange flavoured Canadian whiskey liqueur advertised as the ‘Black sheep of Canadian Liqueur’. It is a 50%ABV drink, made in Montreal, Quebec.

Herb liqueurs This category of liqueurs contains some of the oldest and best known liqueur brand names in the world, the greater majority of these famous brands were originally favoured and are still today for their medicinal and well-being qualities. The exact recipes of many herbal liqueurs (which may contain up to 50 or more different herbs) are often closely guarded trade secrets. The primary herbal ingredients are listed where known. Aftershock: a liqueur drink produced in Canada by Jim Beam Brands and distributed by Munson Shaw Co. of Deerfield, Illinois. It has a thick, syrupy consistency and is available in five varieties: Red (Hot & Cool Cinnamon – the most popular), Blue (Deep Cool Citrus), Black (Cranberry), Silver (Apple), Green (Thermal Bite Aniseed). Aftershock was first marketed in 1997, primarily to younger drinkers. All varieties of Aftershock contain 40% ABV. Amaro: a variety of Italian herbal after-dinner digestif liqueur. It is usually sweet, bitter, and syrupy. Dozens of varieties exist, of which Amaro Averna and Amaro Ramazzotti are the most common.

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Bénédictine: a brandy or cognac based herbal liqueur produced in France, claims to be the original elixir or medicine cure against malaria. The manufacture of Benedictine involves several distillations which are then blended with 27 different herbs and peels which are macerated in the alcohol. D.O.M. (Domino, optima maximo) is always printed on the Benedictine bottle and means ‘to god, most good, most great’. B&B cocktail: Brandy and Benedictine was created in the Club 21 bar in Manhattan, New York. It became a bottled brand in 1937, today 40% of Benedictine is sold in U.S and 90% of this is the B&B drink. Beirão: 22% ABV, Licor Beirão is a Portuguese liqueur. Beirão is Portuguese for ‘from Beira’, a former administrative region. Its recipe is a secret. The producer, J. Carranca Redondo, Lda., only states it is made from a double distillation of seeds and herbs from all over the world, including Malaysia, Brazil and Thailand. Chartreuse: a French liqueur composed of distilled alcohol flavoured with 130 herbal extracts. Named after the Grande Chartreuse monastery where it is produced. Two main types of Chartreuse: Green Chartreuse (110 proof or 55%) is a naturally green liqueur flavoured with extracts from 130 plants with its colouring coming from chlorophyll. Yellow Chartreuse (40% or 43%), has a milder and sweeter flavour and aroma. Other kinds of Chartreuse include these: Chartreuse VEP and Elixir Végétal de la Grande-Chartreuse (71% ABV). Crème de Menthe: a sweet, mint-flavoured liqueur, its flavour is primarily derived from Corsican mint. It is available commercially in a clear (called ‘white’) and a green version (which obtains its colour from the mint leaves or from the addition of colouring, if extract and not the leaves are used to make the liqueur). Both varieties have similar flavuors and are interchangeable in recipes, except where the colour is important. Crème de menthe is used as an ingredient in several cocktails, i.e. Grasshopper, Vodka Stinger, Irish Flag and served as an after-dinner drink. Danzig Goldwasser: strong (40% ABV) root and herbal liqueur which has been produced since at least 1598 in Gdańsk, Poland, contains small flakes of 22 karat gold suspended in it (thus ‘gold water’). Gold is said to have many desirable medical properties, the great Catalan physician Arnaldo de Villanova who, in the 13th century, is reputed to have cured the Pope of a dangerous illness by giving him a herbal elixir containing specks of gold. Since the flakes are extremely small and thin, the price is not prohibitive. When used as food additive, Gold is labelled as E175 (List of food additives, Codex Alimentarius). Drambuie: a honey and herb flavoured golden Scotch whisky liqueur made from aged malt whisky, heather honey and a secret blend of herbs and spices. Produced in Broxburn, Scotland, and can be served straight-up, on ice, or used as an ingredient in a mixed drink, such as the Rusty Nail cocktail. Bonnie Prince Charlie gave the Drambuie recipe to Makinnon for shelter after the 1745 rebellion, Makinnon still distils Drambuie.

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Fior D’Alpi: an Italian liqueur, its name means ‘Alpine flowers’, and these along with wild herbs are its main flavourings. It has a delicate primrose hue and comes in a tall narrow bottle with a little tree inside. If left undisturbed for a while, the sugar in the drink will form a crystallized frosting on the twigs that can look touchingly festive. Glayva: a liqueur from Leith, Scotland. It is made from a blend of aged Scotch whiskies, anise, clove, herbs, heather honey, tangerine, other citrus fruits, and almonds. It has a deep gold colour. It is produced by Whyte and Mackay Ltd of Glasgow. The name is derived from a Gaelic language term meaning ‘very good.’ Goldschläger: a Swiss cinnamon schnapps (43.5% ABV), a clear liqueur with very thin, yet visible flakes of gold floating in it. The actual amount of gold is extremely small and serves as a sort of novelty: there is currently less than a tenth of a gram (0.1 g) of gold flakes in a 750 ml bottle of Goldschläger. Enjoyed frequently in North America when mixed in equal portions with Jägermeister (better when shaken on ice) in a concoction known as Liquid Cocaine, Golden Elk or JägerSchläger. Goldschlager shots have a mild (or enjoyable) after taste of cinnamon. Irish Mist: is a liqueur produced in Ireland since 1945. Made from aged Irish whiskey, heather and clover honey, aromatic herbs, and other spirits, blended to an ancient recipe claimed to be 1,000 years old. (35% ABV) Izarra: a sweet liqueur made in Bayonne in France’s Basque country. Two varieties available: yellow Izarra is of 32 herbs with a predominantly almond taste and is 20%ABV; green Izarra with 48 herbs has a peppermint taste and is stronger at 24% ABV. Pyrenean herbs and other flavouring ingredients are used in a 15-month process to produce the liqueur. Four different liquids are produced: alcohol distilled with herbal flavourings; a liquid resulting from the soaking of prunes and walnut shells in Armagnac; syrup of sugar and local acacia honey; and a colouring infusion of saffron for the yellow and several plants for the green variety. The liqueur matures for six months in barrels before it is bottled. The name means ‘star’ in the local dialect. Jaan Paan: is a sweet paan-flavoured liqueur, made with neutral grain spirit, Canadian maple syrup and a blend of herbs and spices, including paan (betel leaf), betel nuts, saffron, cardamom, sandalwood. Produced and bottled in Toronto, Canada. (25% ABV) Krupnik: or Krupnikas as it is known in Lithuanian, is traditional sweet vodka, similar to a liqueur, based on grain spirit and honey, popular in Poland and Lithuania. It consists of 40%-50% ABV, honey and up to 50 different herbs. Kümmel: is a sweet, colourless liqueur flavoured with caraway seed, cumin, and fennel. The oldest documented liqueur in the world, initially produced by Erven Lucas Bols in Holland and favoured for its medicinal qualities. Metaxa: A Greek blend of brandy and wine invented by Spyros Metaxas in 1888. It is made from sun-dried Sabbatiano, Soultanina and Black Corinthian grape varieties, blended with an aged Muscat wine from Samos and Lemnos.

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Qi Black Tea: produced in San Francisco from smoky Lapsang Souchong tea, rare fruits, exotic spices, and barrel-aged brandy. 40% ABV and only semi-sweet -- 2% wildflower honey versus the usual 20-30% sugar of most liqueurs. A sipping spirit, with the rich smoke and complexity of a fine single malt Scotch, or pairs well with citrus flavours in cocktails. The company also produces Qi White based on white tea, flavoured with bergamot, clove and ginger. Can be drunk neat, over ice, or with a splash of soda.  Strega: an Italian herbal liqueur produced since 1860 by the S. A. Distilleria Liquore Strega in Benevento, Campania, Italy. Its yellow colour comes from the presence of saffron in its recipe, and among its approximately 70 herbal ingredients are mint and fennel. Strega is considered a digestif, meant for drinking after meals. The name Strega is the Italian word for ‘witch.’ Good as an accompaniment to freshly cracked nuts at the end of a meal, as a frappe. (40% ABV) Salmiakki Koskenkorva: a pre-mixed vodka cocktail which caused a minor revolution in drinking culture in Finland during the 1990s due to the Flaming Moe cocktail in the Simpsons. Today, Salmiakkikossu is the number one drink amongst locals and tourists in many pubs and nightclubs in Finland. Rumpleminze: made by the Scharlachberg Distillery in Germany. It has a strong peppermint taste, and is quite high in alcohol content, at 50% ABV. The top market for this product is the United States. Vana Tallinn: Made the Estonian company Liviko, available in 40%, 45% and 50% varieties, as well as a 16% cream liqueur, Vana Tallinn Kooreliköör. The liqueur is sweet with a hint of rum, flavoured by various natural spices, including citrus oil, cinnamon and vanilla. Available in all of the Baltic states, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Y Red Chilli: a new liqueur (40% ABV) from Israel, with a powerful blast of chilli, balanced by cinnamon, and other spices. A classic shooter, served frozen, and an aromatic and challenging element of cocktails. Y Green Chilli, is a milder version, with anise flavouring (30% ABV).

Anise flavoured liqueurs Absinthe, Arak, Rakı, and similar anise-flavoured beverages contain no sugar and thus are flavoured liquors rather than liqueurs. Also of this type are: Aguardiente (Colombia), Anis del Toro (Spain), Anisette (France), Arquebuse (Italy), Hierbas de Mallorca (Majorca), Oghi (Armenia), Ouzo (Greece), Pastis (France), Pernod (France), Sambuca (Italy), Vespetrò (Italy). Galliano: made in Livorno, Tuscany since 1896, named after Maggiore (Major) Galliano, the Italian hero that fought in Abyssinia (East Africa). The bottle is tall and slender with many flat sides, that recalls the columns of the ancient Roman temples. Its ingredients include 30 herbs and plants including star anise from China, Mediterranean anise, juniper, lavender and peppermint and vanilla for aroma and cinnamon for its spicy touch.

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Herbsaint: an Anise flavoured liquor, originally made in New Orleans, Louisiana since 1934. It was the creation of J.M. Legendre of New Orleans. It first went on sale following the repeal of Prohibition, and was unique in its category as an absinthe substitute, as opposed to a pastis. Mastica: or mastika, originally a liquor made from the resin of the mastic tree that grows primarily on the Greek island of Chios in the Aegean Sea. Made in Greece, Macedonia and Bulgaria, a sweet, strong (43 to 47% ABV) liqueur and flavoured with anise as well as mastic oil. Patxaran: is a sloe-flavoured liqueur commonly drunk in Navarra, in the Basque Country and in the rest of Spain. It is essentially sloe gin. Xtabentún: A liqueur made in Yucatán, from rum, anise seed, and honey produced by bees from the nectar of xtabentún flowers. It is usually served neat, cold, or with ice and honey. It can also be served with coffee, creating a drink called Mayan coffee.

Figure 8.3: A selection of herb liqueurs.

Bean and kernel liqueurs This category of liqueurs consist of bean and kernel extracts for example cocoa, coffee or vanilla beans to make Crème de cacao liqueurs (infusion of Venezuelan coffee beans). Hazelnuts, almonds and cherry kernels are also used to produce some of the most famous and popular liqueurs.

Chocolate Amadé ChocOrange: a sweet chocolate orange liqueur from the makers of Mozart chocolate liqueurs. Afrikoko: a Zambian liqueur with a blend of coconut and chocolate, served on its own or as an ingredient of cocktails.

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Godiva Dark Chocolate: from the famous Godiva Chocolatiers of Belgium. They also produce White Chocolate and Cappuccino varieties. Mozart Gold: a milk chocolate liqueur from the Mozart distillerie in Salzburg, long established chocolate liqueur producers. They also make Mozart White (white chocolate), Mozart Black (dark chocolate), chocolate spirit and bitters. Royal Mint Chocolate: a subtle blend of mint and chocolate flavours, in a clear pale green liqueur. First made in France in 1966, and well received fromt he start. Vermeer Dutch Chocolate Cream Liqueur: A sweet-tasting liqueur made of Dutch chocolate, cream and vodka, 17% ABV. Created by Maurice Kanbar, the inventor of SKYY vodka. Vermeer can be consumed with ice on the rocks, and it can be mixed in a chocolate martini cocktail or added to coffee or hot chocolate.

Coffee Crème de Cacao: A sweet chocolate liqueur flavoured primarily by the cocoa bean and the vanilla bean, 20-25% ABV. Made as a clear, light syrup; however it is also available in a dark caramel-coloured syrup, known as Dark Crème de cacao. Kahlúa: A heavy sweet coffee flavoured liqueur, 20% ABV, from Mexico. Variations include Kahlúa Especial (36% ABV) made with premium Arabica beans, has lower viscosity and is less sweet than the regular version. Other varieties include Kahlua Hazelnut and Kahlua French Vanilla. Kahlúa is used to make cocktails and as a topping or ingredient in several desserts, including ice cream, cakes, and cheesecakes. A few notable cocktails made with Kahlúa include the B-52, Baby Guinness, Mudslide, and the White Russian and Black Russian. Kamora: a coffee liqueur, slightly less sweet, and less expensive than its main competitor Kahlúa, also from Mexico. It is 26.5% ABV. Tia Maria: a coffee liqueur made in Jamaica using Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee beans, cane spirit (5 year old Jamaican rum), vanilla, and sugar, fermented to 26.5% ABV (but sold at 20% ABV). Consumed pure and with ice, but is also frequently used as an ingredient for cocktails, with coffee, or in desserts (such as the layered liqueur-whipped-cream-and-cookie confection known as Tia Maria torte). It may also be mixed with milk and ice. Sheridan’s: unique bottles, with two sections, separated by glass, but fused together. One section is filled with a black liqueur, consisting of coffee and whiskey flavours, the other with a white liqueur of milk white chocolate. When pouring into a low ball glass, the white liqueur should be gently floated on top of the black liqueur.

Nut-flavoured liqueur The main flavourings are hazelnut, walnut, almond and coconut; they work well with nutty desserts, anything using almond paste or praline, also in chocolate mousse, or served with rich dark fruitcake. Amaretto: often thought to be made of almonds due to the almond flavour, these

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almond extracts, along with the apricot kernels and seeds, are steeped in brandy, and the resulting drink is sweetened with sugar syrup and coloured to a deep brown. Best served as a frappe or in cocktails (Godfather, Godmother). Batida De Coco: coconut flavoured neutral spirit, from Brazil, to be drunk on its own or in long drinks with fruit juices. (16% ABV) Crème de Noisettes: made from hazelnuts. Manufacturers include the Briottet company of France, who produce a wide range of liqueurs, crèmes and spirits. Excellent poured over ice cream. Crème de Noyaux: An almond-flavored liqueur made from fruit pits and pink in color. Crème de Violette: a generic term for a usually French liqueur with natural and or artificial violet flower flavouring and colouring with either a brandy base, a neutral spirit base, or a combination of the two. A noted brand is Benoit Serres Liqueur de Violette, though it remains very difficult to find even in France. The product has a neutral spirit base to which is added a smaller portion of Armagnac. It is often used as a substitute for the no longer available Creme Yvette. Disaronno Originale: (28% ABV) is a brand of fruity amaretto, with a characteristic bittersweet almond taste. Disaronno claims its “originale” amaretto’s “secret formula” is unchanged from when the first was made for da Vinci in 1525. Its production remains in Saronno, and was originally called ‘Amaretto di Saronno’. Disaronno can be served on the rocks, in shots, as part of a cocktail or with a mixer such as Coke or apple and cherry juice Frangelico: A hazelnut and herb-flavored liqueur,colored with caramel, produced in Canale, Italy, 24% ABV. Bottle is designed to look like a monk, complete with a real knotted white cord around the waist. Served chilled with a piece of mature Stilton cheese. Kahana Royale Macadamia Nut Liqueur: made in Hawaii, flavoured with spices as well as the nut. Can be served as part of an alcoholic coffee, in cocktails or on their own over ice. Malibu: based on ultra-refined white rum, the dried pulp and milk of the coconut is used to flavour the spirit, which is then sweetened and filtered. Used in cooking some Cajun or Far Eastern dishes (particularly Thai or Indonesian cuisine), flavouring ice cream and tropical cocktails. Nocello: a sweet rounded walnut- and hazelnut-flavored liqueur similar to Frangelico, from Modena, Italy, 24% ABV. The liqueur is coloured with caramel. Nocino: a sticky dark brown liqueur, made from unripe green walnuts steeped in spirit, from Emilia-Romagna, Italy. It has an aromatic but bittersweet flavour, 40% ABV. It may be homemade, and is also available commercially. Ratafia: Named so because it was often drunk at treaties (ratified treaties). Ratafia is a liqueur or cordial flavoured with peach or cherry kernels, bitter almonds, or other fruits, 28% ABV; many different varieties are made. The same name is given to a flavouring essence resembling bitter almonds, and also to a light biscuit.

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Figure 8.4: A selection of bean and kernel liqueurs.

Cream liqueurs Cream liqueurs are flavoured mixtures that have been homogenized with cream. They have a rich mixture that’s velvety smooth and creamy, and require no refrigeration. The archetypal brand, Baileys from Ireland, created this whole category which only really began in 1974 and is expanding all the time. Its global success has spawned many new cream liqueurs, including flavoured cream liqueurs. Some are now produced by confectionary companies around the world and some famous liqueur manufactures now produce their own version of cream liqueur for example Crème de Grand Marnier. Amarula: a South African cream liqueur made with the fruit of the African Marula tree, locally called the Elephant tree or the Marriage Tree. Taste of slightly fruity caramel. Baileys Irish Cream: (17% ABV) introduced in 1974, the first Irish Cream liqueur on the market. The cream and whiskey are homogenized to with the aid of an emulsifier containing refined vegetable oil. This process prevents separation of the whiskey and cream during storage. The quantity of other ingredients used is not known but they include chocolate, vanilla, caramel and sugar. In 2005 Baileys launched Bailey’s Caramel, Mint and in 2010, Hazelnut. Carolans: (17% ABV) the main components are cream, Irish whiskey, and honey. It is produced in Clonmel, Ireland (the word Clonmel is derived from the Gaelic Cluain Meala which means ‘Vale of Honey’). Dooley’s: a German cream liqueur with toffee and vodka in it. It is marketed in a non-transparent bottle with a colour scheme of mainly red and blue. The liqueur colour is creamish. Kēkē Beach Key Lime (Holland): Cream liqueur, 15% ABV, Netherlands. Unlike most cream liqueurs, Kēkē does not curdle when mixed with acidic mixers. This allows for more versatility when mixing.

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Figure 8.5: Cream liqueurs. Ponche Crema: a Venezuelan cream-based liqueur. Recipes vary by region in the country, but main ingredients typically include milk, eggs, sugar, rum, and flavourings such as vanilla, nutmeg, cinnamon, and lemon rind. A variant is prepared with concentrated liquid coffee or instant coffee powder. Ponche Crema is a beverage traditionally served in Venezuela during Christmas time, much like eggnog is in the United States. Commercially available from Eliodoro González.

Crème liqueurs A complete range of liqueurs use the prefix ‘crème de’, these have nothing to do with cream liqueurs. They always consist of one dominant flavour indicated in the name. Originally, the term crème was used to indicate that these were sweetened liqueurs, as distinct from dry spirits. Before the widespread availability of crème liqueurs, the sweetening element in a cocktail used to be sugar. Crème liqueurs not only add sweetness but also flavour when used in mixed drinks and cocktails. Although a lot of the crème flavours are covered above, other crème liqueur flavours include Crème de Banana, Crème de Cacao, Crème de Fraise (strawberry), Crème de Cassis (blackcurant), Crème de Menthe (mint) and Crème de Framboise (raspberry), Crème de Rose, Crème de Noix (walnut). Advocaat: a blend of egg yolks, aromatic spirits, sugar or honey, brandy, vanilla and sometimes cream (or evaporated milk) with a smooth, somewhat bland taste fairly similar to almonds, 15 – 20% ABV. Famous makers of advocaat include Warners, Bols, Verpoorten, Warninks and De Kuyper. Bärenjäger: a German honey-flavoured liqueur based on vodka. Bärenfang is its more common name, 30 – 45% ABV. Parfait Amour (Perfect Love): made with citrus fruits, usually lemons and a mixture of cloves and other spices. The various aromatising elements are macerated in grape spirit, which may then be re-distilled, and the purple colour is achieved by means of a vegetable dye. Service: with violet creams, chilled or with lemonade.

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Figure 8.6: Modern generic flavoured liqueurs.

Summary „„ Liqueurs were originally used (and some still are) as a digestive. They are now usually served after dinner but also play an important role in many famous cocktails. „„ Liqueurs are also favoured in the kitchen for their natural sweetness, which flavour and enhance the meal experience, for example Grand Marnier is used in duck l’orange and soufflé, and particularly for desserts. „„ Today liqueurs are made worldwide and are served in many ways: poured straight, over cubed or crushed ice (Frappe), with coffee (speciality coffees), mixed with cream or as other mixers to create long drinks . „„ They are often served with or as a dessert. „„ Floating liqueurs is a technique often used by bartenders to create coloured layered shooters and impress their customers. „„ The latest innovation is this category is foam based liqueurs made in Holland and launched in 2011 by Bols. „„ A good ,well sourced, reasonably priced liqueur selection appropriate to your market, actively promoted to your customers, can help your bar distinguish itself. Customers are constantly looking for new social, cultural and recreational experiences in their food and drinks offerings, liqueurs can help your bar introduce or re-introduce them to the flavours of the world, which will satisfy not only their gastronomic expectations but also their medicinal requirements!

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Non-alcoholic DrinksA

Aims and learning outcomes This chapter focuses on non-alcoholic beverages. On completion of this chapter the learner should be able to: „„

Explain the nutritional benefits of juices and vegetable beverages.

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Identify the background, classification, production methods and packaging systems for juices, soft drinks and water beverages.

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Describe the production, service methods and styles for tea, coffee and hot chocolate beverages.

9.1 Introduction Juices, soft drinks and waters because of their diversity of flavours are the world’s most popular drinks. Originally consumed as health and well being beverages, they have crossed over to become the number one social beverage globally. These refreshing thirst quenching beverages have changed so much in recent years. We have witnessed the introduction of low calorie soft drinks, fruit juice and mineral water mixtures and unusual new flavours to meet consumer demands. The worldwide soft drinks market consumes some 392 billion litres and is growing by 5% per year. The United States remains the largest consumer with over 23% of sales in volume despite the market’s maturity, followed by Latin America. China is enjoying the most spectacular growth with an annual increase of over 15% (Datamonitor, Canadean, 2012).

9.2 Juices Fruit juices are available in various forms and in various qualities. Legislation regarding the term ‘fruit juice’ can vary from country to country.

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Nutritious juice and vegetable drinks The consumption of juices carries many nutritional benefits. For example reducing your cholesterol by 1 per cent can lower your risk of heart disease by 2 per cent; and most people can reduce their cholesterol by eating and drinking healthily. Eating a least five portions of fruit and vegetable a day will reduce the risk of heart disease, probably by helping to prevent the oxidation of the bad LDL (Low density lipoprotein) cholesterol, and therefore prevent plaque from building up on the inside walls of the arteries. The food and drink we consume plays a vital role in maintaining a healthy heart and lifestyle. Listed below are some of the best ingredients, which can be used to create nutritious drinks in bars to boost immune systems and promote good health.

Juices and vegetable drinks Juices, whether fruit or vegetable, offer one of the most effective ways of keeping your immune system fighting fit all year round. All juices are great though each one provides a slightly different blend of those essential vitamins. You could consider a juice from the list of fresh fruit and vegetables below, offering these juices individually, in non-alcohol cocktails or as smoothie options prepared fresh at your bar. „„ Apple: 160ml glass, 61 kcal, provides half the recommended nutrient intake of vitamin C. To prepare, peel skin, separate the core and cut into halves. Apples also provide fibre that helps remove cholesterol. „„ Beetroot: helps provide oxygen in the blood; they also contain artery-protective vitamin E. „„ Blueberries: Stops bacteria sticking to the urinary tract, preventing cystitis (as do cranberries). They contain compounds which improve circulation and combat varicose veins, and are an effective traditional remedy for diarrhea. „„ Carrot: 160ml kcal, contains high levels of potassium, significant amounts of magnesium and some calcium, which makes it one of the most beneficial juices you can drink because, apart from iron, these are the three minerals women most likely to be deficient in because of poor diets. It’s an excellent source of beta-carotene (essential for healthy skin) and other carotenoids that the body turns into vitamin A. This vitamin helps to improve night vision – and reduces the risk of cataracts. This health-enhancing juice also contains another powerful antioxidant enzyme called alpha-lipoic acid, which boosts the ability of vitamins A, C and E to get rid of harmful free radicals in the body. Carrots are traditional naturopathic foods for all digestive upsets. „„ Cranberry: 160ml glass, 78 kcal, this antibacterial fruit is high in vitamin C, preventing urinary tract infections suffered by more than 60% of women at some point in their lives. It prevents the E.coli bacterium, which causes the infections, from sticking to the wall of the bladder or the urethra.

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„„ Celery: the alkaline content in a vegetable such as celery balances the acidity in your troubled stomach. Add celery juice to your favorite juicy drink. Acts as an excellent gentle natural and cleansing diuretic that relieves uncomfortable fluid retention. „„ Green and sprouting vegetables, broccoli, asparagus and many herbs contain the vitamin B complex, which is good for helping to recover. God’s gift to hangovers is vitamin B1 (thiamine). It calms your shaky nervous system, helps your weary body break down any alcohol that’s decided to hang around. Good sources are asparagus, herbs, beans, rice, grains, cereals and nuts. Broccoli is high in antioxidant vitamins, rich in iron, which prevents anemia, and a good source of calcium for protecting against osteoporosis. „„ Grapefruit: 160ml, 53 kcal, provides 120% of the amount of vitamins C that those aged between 19 and 50 need a day. Also a good source of beta-carotene, a powerful antioxidant that, if taken in adequate amounts can lower the risk of certain cancers. Pink grapefruit also contains lycopene (powerful antioxidant) which lowers the risk of cancer of the prostate, lung, stomach, pancreas, bowel and breast. Lycopene can also prevent the formation of blood clots and, therefore, lower the risk of heart attacks and strokes. Preparation includes peeling and cutting into segments. „„ Ginger: ginger ale is good for calming an upset stomach, as it contains gingerois, which has stomach-calming effects and can quell nausea. Dry ginger ale has slightly less sugar than the American version but neither may have enough proper ginger to have a really beneficial effect. Ginger beer, especially organic, is better. Ginger also works as a natural anti-inflammatory, helps improve circulation and helps to speed up the elimination of waste products. Helpful for colds as it dislodges phlegm and catarrh. „„ Mango: 160ml, 62kcal, another good source of A, C and E, which work as a powerful unit to fight disease. One small glass also provides one-sixth of the daily iron requirements. Mango provides beta-carotene for healthy lungs (good for asthmatics). A very ripe mango can be peeled like a banana, or cut down either side of its flat stone to get two halves, cut a crisscross pattern in the flesh then invert to make mango hedgehogs. Slice the pieces off to get mango cubes. „„ Orange: 160ml glass, 75 kcal, provides more than 150% of the vitamin C an adult female needs in a day, flavonoids present in the orange juice work with the vitamin C to boost immunity and strengthen blood capillaries, helping to prevent those unsightly broken blood vessels that can appear close to the surface of the skin on the face, fresh orange juice is also a good source of thiamine (produces energy) and folate (promotes healthy blood). Preparation includes peeling and cutting into segments. „„ Olives or olive oil: Contains high levels of mono unsaturated fat, which will improve the ratio of good HDL cholesterol, which removes cholesterol from the circulation and protects against heart disease. (Also found in oily fish, such

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as salmon, trout, fresh tuna, sardines, herring and mackerel). „„ Onion: protects the heart by reducing blood pressure and bad cholesterol; freshly cut onion may also help prevent asthma; also contains flavonoids which may protect against cancer. „„ Pineapple: 160ml, 66 kcal, a great source of vitamin C but also contains the health-enhancing enzyme, bromelain that breaks down blood clots. This is thought to aid digestion, reduce sinusitis and heal minor injuries, particularly sprains, muscle injuries and pain. Bromelain is effective in reducing swelling, bruising and pain in women who must undergo minor surgery after giving birth. Preparation: cut off the top and bottom and remove all the outer rough skin. Cut into halves and cut away the hard center core. „„ Sweet Potatoes: high in vitamin E which boosts fertility, very rich in cancer fighting carotenes and vitamins C and E, high in iron which helps fight off infections. „„ Red, black grape: 160ml, 74 kcal, contain the artery-protective vitamin E and heart protective antioxidants; red grapes excellent anti-ageing properties, containing similar amounts of flavonoids to red wine. This helps to dilate blood vessels and increase blood flow to the skin. The quercetin in the juice also helps to prevent blood clots. Grape juice also contains resveratrol, which has been reported to have anti-cancer activity in test tube and animal research, but there have been no clinical trials. „„ Strawberries: Referred to as the ‘Viagra for girls’ because they are rich in zinc, they boost testosterone levels. „„ Tomato: 160ml glass, 58 kcal, good source of vitamins A and C, both of which help mop up potentially harmful free radicals that can cause cancer, heart diseases and even wrinkles. Also a great source of lycopene, a skin-friendly nutrient. In Europe, researchers have found that a high intake of this extremely powerful antioxidant can lower the risk of heart disease by as much as 48%. „„ Yoghurt: friendly bacteria in live yoghurt protect against thrush and gastroenteritis. Also helps to counter the bacteria that cause food poisoning infections and ulcers.

9.3 Freshly squeezed fruit juices The range available differs from bar to bar, depending very often on the availability of the appropriate fruit and of the price in each country. Freshly squeezed juices may be consumed as such or they can be incorporated into cocktails, for example Strawberry Daiquiris, Peach and Mango Martinis or Bellinis. The taste of freshly squeezed fruit juices can vary depending on the season. The juice should be strained through a coarse strainer to exclude pith and seeds, but a little fine pulp gives authenticity.

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Citrus fruit juices The most popular freshly squeezed fruit juices for bar use are citrus fruit juices, such as lemon, orange, grapefruit and lime. Citrus fruits are usually pressed or squeezed either by using a hand juice extractor or an electric version. When using either method, ensure that the fruit has been washed, and that it is fresh and sound. You can obtain more juice from citrus fruit that is at room temperature or has been slightly warmed, than from fruit that has just been removed from a refrigerator. Citrus fruit juices (especially lemon juice) have the uncanny ability to accentuate the flavours of other fruits.

Soft fruit juices Fresh fruit such as peaches, apricots, bananas, pineapples, can be incorporated into cocktails by ‘blending’, the fruits are peeled (if appropriate) cut into smaller pieces and added to the blender minus the pips. Fruit that has been prepared in this way is not strictly a juice but a ‘pulp’.

Storage and shelf life If the freshly squeezed fruit juices are prepared in advance, the juices should be stored under refrigeration until required. They are best stored in a glass jug, which is lightly covered but not sealed. If they have been stored for some time they should be discreetly tasted before use.

Figure 9.1: Vegetable and fruit drinks.

Prepared fruit juices Most citrus juices can be purchased prepared in bottles, cans, plastic or waxed cardboard containers, with each country having a good range of brands available. Non-citrus juices such as pineapple, tomato, apple, pear and grape juice are available in this style of packaging. These juices are also available as pre-mixed blends of fruit juices, often sold as tropical blends, for example passion fruit, mango and pawpaw blended together.

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Prepared fruit mixes Sweet and sour A sweet-sour mix of fresh lemon juice and sugar can be made ahead of service time. Sweet-sour mixes can also be bought bottled, as frozen concentrate, or in powered form. Some have a foaming agent (called frothee) that simulates egg white. Choosing your sweet and sour mixes involves a little bit of trial and error to find the quality that best suits your bar.

Other mixes, customizing There are many mixes used which include ones for specific drinks, for example Bloody Mary, Daiquiri, Margarita, Mai Tai, Pina Colada, to which the alcohol is just added. The frozen concentrates are likely to be the best. You can also customize these mixes by adding your own lemon, horseradish, olive juice spicy salsa to the mix. These mixes usually keep for 1 to 2 days; some keep longer (for example pineapple, cranberry). You should always transfer them to glass containers when they are opened to retain freshness, because they lose their flavour at room temperature. Never mix together new and old batches of mixes, and mark the date of preparation on the jar if possible.

EU and USA legislation on fruit juices Fruit juices are covered under the European Communities Marketing of Fruit Juices and Certain Similar Products Regulations 2003.

EU definitions of the raw materials used in fruit juices 1 Fruit: all fruits, but tomatoes are not regarded as fruit. 2 Fruit puree: the fermentable but unfermented product obtained by sieving the edible part of whole or peeled fruit without removing the juice. 3 Concentrated fruit puree: the product obtained from fruit puree by the physical removal of a specific proportion of its water content. 4 Sugars: for the production of: (a) fruit nectar; fructose syrup; sugars derived from fruits; (b) fruit juice from concentrate; fructose syrup; (c) fruit juices: the sugars listed in (b) containing less than 2% water. 5 Honey. 6 Pulp or Cells: the products obtained from the edible parts of fruit of the same kind without removing the juice. Furthermore, for citrus fruit, pulp or cells are the juice sacs obtained from the endocarp.

USA legislation In the USA fruit juice can only legally be used to describe a product which is 100% fruit juice. A blend of fruit juice(s) with other ingredients, such as high-fructose corn syrup, is called a juice cocktail or juice drink (FDA, 2012). According to the

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Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the term ‘nectar’ is generally accepted in the U.S. and in international trade for a diluted juice to denote a beverage that contains fruit juice or puree, water, and which may contain artificial sweeteners (FDA, 2012)

9.4 Soft drinks and carbonated beverages Carbonated soft drinks have achieved continued success due to influential branding, salient advertising and a comprehensive distribution network.

Historical background of soft drinks and carbonated beverages The first soft drinks enjoyed centuries ago, were simply the effervescent waters from certain natural springs. The first recorded mention of a lemonade drink, sweetened lemon preserved with alcohol was made by the Moguls at the end of the 13th century. Lemon juice was discovered as a good antidote to scurvy, which is brought on by a lack of vitamin C in the diet.

Spread of soft drinks in Europe The European origins of soft drinks lay four centuries on in seventeenth century colonial France. With the growing availability of sugar from the new plantations in the West Indies a fashion arose for lemon juice sugared and diluted with water. Opportunist tradesmen carrying the drink in metal containers on their backs were soon a familiar sight on the streets of Paris. The French government created the Compagnie de Lemonadiers allowing these tradesmen to gain a monopoly; eventually these tradesmen set up shops and were popularly known as “Lemonadiers”.

Carbonation English scientist Joseph Priestly in 1772 came up with a system for ‘pushing’ carbon dioxide into water by dissolving it under pressure and announced the discovery of soda water. Jacob Schweppe and Nicholas Paul developed the manufacture of their carbonated waters in London in the late 1790s; also in this period in 1799 A.R Thwaites and Company of Dublin developed a single and double strength soda water. In 1886 in Atlanta, Georgia Dr. John Styth Pemberton formulated a syrup, which went on sale at Jacob’s Pharmacy for 5 cents a glass, originally promoted as an ‘Intellectual Beverage and Health Drink’ known today as Coca Cola. Early carbonated beverages were sold in bottles sealed with porcelain stoppers which, when pushed in, released the carbon dioxide with a loud pop. Thus in the 1890’s era of gleaming marble soda fountains the expression ‘soda pop’ was born.

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Soft drinks manufacture process The raw materials Fruit juices used in the manufacture of soft drinks are shipped from all over the world. Orange juices, for example, come from Spain, Israel and America. Other juices imported include lemon, lime, grapefruit, pineapple, tomato and blackcurrant. The fruit is usually processed in factories near the harvesting areas and shipped to the ordering countries in 40 gallon barrels and gallon cans, either as natural strength juice or concentrate. In some cases, the essential oil from the peel, or the crushed whole fruit (known as ‘comminuted’ fruit), may be used. Each consignment of juice is tested against a stringent specification in laboratories. Further quality control tests are carried out at every stage of manufacture to ensure the consistent high quality of the finished products. Some drinks do not contain juice and these flavours are prepared from natural oils and extracts. Orange and lemon oils are found in the fruit-peel, whereas peppermint is extracted from a plant, ginger from a root and cola from a nut. The principle-sweetening agent is sugar, which also gives a drink ‘body’ and carries the flavour on the palate. Specially refined beet sugar is delivered from sugar factories; this sugar is dissolved in water by boiling to produce a heavy syrup. Water is drawn from the mains supply and treated and filtered to remove colour and suspended solid matter. Sterilisation ensures bacteriological purity. Carbon dioxide is a by-product of the brewing and fetiliser industries and is delivered in bulk road tankers under high pressure. The gas is dissolved in the carbonated drinks to give the ‘fizzy’ effect, which enhances the flavour. Other ingredients include acids, colours and preservatives.

Production The sugar syrup is measured into one of the stainless steel vats. The ingredients are then blended into the syrup according to a carefully controlled recipe for each product. These flavoured syrups are diluted further at the bottling machine to produce carbonated drinks, whereas squashes are bottled with dilution. The secret of the ‘fizzy’ drinks is the carbon dioxide dissolved in it. This process is carried out in the carbonator. De-aerated water and syrup are accurately proportioned together, cooled and then carbonated by passing carbon dioxide gas into the liquid under pressure.

Packaging Today’s containers must be made of safe and hygienic materials, and stackability is a desirable attribute. Non-refillable but recyclable packaging now dominates the scene. The returnable and non-returnable glass bottles, P.E.T plastic and cans are passed through a rigorous washing and sterilizing programme in huge washing machines prior to filling.

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Circular filling machines fill at incredible speeds per second, averaging 1000 bottles per minute (bpm), creating totals of about eight million cases of product per annum, with the canning lines operating even faster. The carbonated product is allowed to flow into the bottle under pressure. This pressure is slowly released and transferred to the closing machine, which applies crown corks or screw caps. Can lids are applied with a seaming machine, which fixes the top to the can. After sealing, all products are inspected, then labeled and packed into cases. Cases are stacked on pallets for transfer by forklift trucks to the 213 see Juices, Soft Drinks andwarehouse, Water quality control section below. Chlorine (>10ppm) TREATED CITY WATER pH

CHLORINE INJECTION

REACTION CHAMBER FeSO4 LINE CHLORINE

SETTLING CHAMBER SLUDGE BED

Soft Drink Plant

CLEAR WELL

INCOMING WATER

Chlorine Turbidity Fluoride Conductivity pH

CO2 INJECTION CO2/O2 BRIX FILLER

QC LAB

SAND FILTER

CARBON TOWER

UV CARBOCOOLER

BLENDER

Total Acidity pH Hardness Dissolved O2 Chlorine Conductivity Turbidity Alkalinity CO2 Brix

DEAERATOR

POLISHERS

SYRUP

HIGH FRUCTOSE CORN SYRUP ABSORBIC ACID CITRIC ACID SODIUM BENZOATE CONCENTRATE

Soft Drink Plant PROCESS

Figure 9.2: Basic diagram of soft drinks plant (Hach Company www.Hach.com)

9.5 Draught soft drinks systems These systems are used to dispense draught soft drinks. The advantages include no bottles, cases, no loading onto shelves, no long back door deliveries, no deposits on bottles, no broken bottles and better ecology control. A typical 18 litre tank is equal to 588 split size bottles. Additional benefits are that every soft drink can be served properly chilled and the speed of service is valuable at peak times.

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Post mix dispensing system, Cobra gun Usually located at each station of the bar, Cobra guns dispense carbonated mixes. A gun consists of a head with a nozzle and pushbuttons that deliver plain water or carbonated, mixes for example soda water, white and red lemonade, orange, cola, tonic or sometimes Collins mix. The choice of flavours is sometimes decided by the bar owner. The system consists of lines, which run from each flavour of syrup, located either under the bar or the cellar area. These syrup lines go through an ice-cold plate to quick-chill them. The carbon dioxide lines run to the carbonator (again located under the bar or in the cellar) where it is mixed with filtered water drawn from the main supply. The carbonated water line then runs from this carbonator through a cold plate. The syrup and water lines run through a flexible metal hose to the head of the soda gun. There, the syrup mixes with carbonated water in a 5:1 ratio, and at the touch of a button delivers different flavours, soda and plain filtered water as required. Figure 9.3: Wunderbar soda gun (www.wunderbar.com) Pre-mix systems offer the complete draught soft drink ready-made. The carbonated beverage is supplied in bulk containers that have been mixed at the manufacturing plant. Premix systems are not common now. Electronic automatic dispensing systems are not only used for soft drinks, but also dispense beer, wines, juices, cocktails, and spirits mixed with soft drinks. At the touch of a button, they pour preset amounts and count each drink dispensed. Some systems are electronically linked or interfaced with computerized cash registers. Automatic liquor dispensing systems or soft drinks systems are expensive and not all bartenders or customers react favorably to them. Customers do not like the spirits are being poured and pre-mixed away from the service area. However, it must be pointed out that these systems do provide excellent financial control for your business.

9.6 Famous soft drinks Coca Cola In the late 19th century a French doctor, Angelo Mariani, began prescribing and selling medicines, which included a generous helping of coca leaves. 1886: John Pemberton, a pharmacist in Atlanta, adopted Mariana’s idea and produced a syrup called Pemberton’s French wine coca which contained cocaine and cola nut extract, and sold at 5 cents in Jacobs’s pharmacy as a medical aid. However, it was not until he diluted it with carbonated water that its popularity

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with the general public really grew. Mr. Pemberton’s partner, Frank M. Robinson, named it Coca Cola, as the 2 Cs would be good for advertising. 1888: Asa G. Candler bought out the company for $2300. Within four years it was on sale in every U.S. state. Asa Candler believed Coca Cola should be in reach of everyone and memorabilia ideas. 1904: the cocaine was removed in 1904 and replaced by caffeine because of concerns for public safety. 1919: E. Woodruff, Atlanta banker took over. 1926: Coca-Cola became the first company to sponsor the Olympic Games which were in Amsterdam. 1930s: Coca-Cola invented the modern day Santa Claus and dressed him to match the company livery. Today Coke still maintains a stranglehold on Christmas with its ‘holidays are coming’ ad campaign. 1977: The Coke glass contour bottle was secured by a U.S patent. 1982: Coke launched Diet Coke, the very first brand extension of the company. Within two years it had become the top low-calorie drink in the world. Sales figures for America for 2010 showed that Diet Coke sold 927 million cases (to hold second place in the soft drink league) in comparison to Pepsi at 892 million cases. Coca-Cola also own brands like Tab and Sprite amongst numerous others carbonated drinks companies they have purchased over the years.

Pepsi 1899: Pepsi was first made in North Carolina by Caleb Bradham who sold it from his drugstore and named it Brad’s Drink. It was originally marketed as a digestive aid (it contains pectin) and a energy drink. 1901: It was renamed Pepsi Cola with the advertising catchphrase ‘delicious and healthful’. Today Pepsi own brands like Mountain Dew, Ocean Spray, Aquafine water, Lipton Tea, Gatorade, Walker Crisps, Tropicana juices and Quaker cereals.

7 Up 1929: 7Up was originally used as a hangover cure for hospital and home use titled ‘Bib label Lithanted Lemon Lime soda’. 1930: 7Up joined 600 lemon and lime drinks in the marketplace. 1986: Taken over by the Pepsi Cola Company.

9.7 Waters Water acts as a transport system for nutrients to travel through the body. Water makes up 60% of your body and has a role in almost every metabolic process. It is involved it breaking down big molecules and turning them into small ones

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and turning small molecules (i.e. fatty acids and amino acids) back into big ones. Without water you would be in serious trouble. It is often said if you are thirsty you are already dehydrated, but is this true and how much water does an adult need every day to avoid dehydration? The answer is no. the sensation of thirst begins when the concentration of the blood rises by less than 2%, but to count as dehydrated, the concentration would be at least 5%. The idea that we need to drink 1½ litres of water per day is an urban myth, with no scientific basis. Research shows that most people get most of the water they need from within the food they eat, and that drinking tea and coffee, juices and even beer can contribute towards the necessary water intake. (Dartmouth Medical School, 2012)

Bottled water Water, bottled or not, continues to be very popular with consumers. The interest in bottled in brand bottled water started in the 1970s when the Europeans (especially the French and Italians) advertised heavily around the world and made it socially acceptable to order different types of bottled water in restaurants, bars and hotels. The 1980s and 1990s also brought an increase interest in health and fitness and the water bottle became the necessary accessory. Today, there are many bottled water brands available, and the marketing pitch of purity still appeals to the health concerns of consumers. Currently the strongest growth in the water market is the convenience or single-serving size for fitting in a sports bag, lunchbox or backpack. Bottled water has a great profit potential at the bar it is seen as a healthy alternative to soft drinks.

Service of bottled water in bars Most bars serve two kinds of bottled water, still and sparkling. You can offer litresized bottles for groups, or serving sized bottles for individuals. Either way, they should be kept in the refrigerator and served chilled, in the opened bottle with an empty glass. A wedge of lime or lemon may be added if the customer wishes, but never add ice unless the customer requests it. Most customers are annoyed if they purchase an expensive glass of mineral water and then have diluted with the local tap water of your ice cubes. Use a stemmed glass for bottled water to distinguish it from tap water.

Bottled water - Legislation (European Union EU and Food and Drug Administration FDA) All water supplies for human consumption must meet certain standards, which have been laid down by the EU in for Europe and the FDA in the USA. Every country will have local laws which also govern waters for consumption. Waters must be free from microorganisms, parasites and from any substances

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that may be a danger to public health if they are found in sufficient numbers or concentrations.

EU water regulations Categories of bottled waters are defined in the Natural Mineral Water, Spring Water and Bottled Drinking Water Regulations 1999. Only products which meet the specifications within these regulations may use one of these terms. „„ Bottled water: A general description for bottled water is a ‘a closed container of any kind in which water is sold for human consumption or from which water sold for human consumption is derived’’. Specific definitions apply to Natural Mineral Water and Spring Water under these regulations. „„ Mineral water: Water that emerges from under the ground and then flows over rocks before it is collected. As a result of this, mineral water has a higher content of various minerals, which are picked up as it flows over rock. Unlike spring water, natural mineral water cannot be treated except to remove grit and dirt. Different brands of spring and mineral waters will contain different amounts of minerals, depending on where they have been sourced.

FDA water regulations The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the USA regulates bottled water as a food under the FD&C Act, and is responsible for ensuring that bottled water is safe and truthfully labeled. Specific FDA regulations for water are listed below (Table 9.1). Table 9.1: Various types of bottles water, FDA regulations for the USA. (FDA-1, 2012). Type Artesian water Mineral water

Definition Water from a well tapping a confined aquifer in which the water level stands at some height above the top of the aquifer. Water containing not less than 250 ppm total dissolved solids that originates from a geologically and physically protected underground water source. Mineral water is characterized by constant levels and relative proportions of minerals and trace elements at the source. No minerals may be added to mineral water. Purified water Water that is produced by distillation, deionization, reverse osmosis or other suitable processes and that meets the definition of purified water in the U.S. Pharmacopeia, 23d Revision, Jan. 1, 1995. As appropriate, also may be called demineralised water, deionised water, distilled water, and reverse osmosis water. Sparkling Water that, after treatment and possible replacement of carbon dioxide, contains the bottled water same amount of carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source. Spring water Water derived from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the surface of the earth at an identified location. Spring water may be collected at the spring or through a bore hole tapping the underground formation feeding the spring, but there are additional requirements for use of a bore hole. (For complete regulatory definitions, see 21 CFR 165.110(a)(2).)

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Main types of bottled water Natural mineral water A natural mineral water (NMW) must be officially recognized through a local authority after a qualifying period of two years, during which time it is repeatedly analysed. It must also be registered with the Food Standards Agency. It must come from a specified ground water source, which is protected from all kinds of pollution. The water may not be treated in any way to alter its original chemical and microbiological composition. In addition NMWs must provide certain information on their labels such as the typical mineral analysis.

Spring water Spring water must come from a single non-polluted ground water source. Unlike NMW there is no formal recognition process required, although it must still be registered with the local authority. Many NMWs begin their lives as spring waters trading as such during the two-year testing period. Unlike NMWs, spring waters may undergo permitted treatments but like NMWs must meet microbiological criteria. All spring waters must comply with the Drinking Water Regulations.

Table water This is the trade name applied to other bottled drinking waters. It applies to water, which may come from more than one source and may include the public water supply. Treatment is permitted which results in the water achieving the compositional/microbiological requirements of the regulations. Some companies may also add mineral salts to their waters to replace those minerals lost during treatments or to enhance those, which already exist.

Water with alcohol For centuries water has been actively used as a mixer, to dilute the strength of spirits without altering the character of their basic flavour. Good spring water or mineral water should be used in is preference to heavily chlorinated tap water. Lovers of certain spirits, for example whiskey or vodka, claim that water actually enhances rather than mutes the aromatic personalities of their favoured spirit. Water softens the olfactory impact of the alcohol while allowing the complexities of grain, rye, peat, wheat or wood to announce themselves.

Natural mineral water from spas True mineral water contains many health giving properties that are usually removed from the domestic water supplies because they make the water ‘hard’, therefore making it difficult to form lather or suds for washing. Hard water is healthier to drink because it contains many natural minerals that are needed for a healthy body. Most mineral waters will contain a range of minerals or preponder-

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ance of a certain one or two. In Europe, spa towns or areas where these types of waters were readily available have been popular for many hundreds of years as health resorts, where the local waters were used for drinking and for bathing in. There is good evidence to substantiate some of these traditional ideas and practices as being ‘healthy’. The terminology connected with Natural Mineral waters is complex and varies from country to country all we can do is to read the label carefully.

Important facts about bottled water Q: What’s the difference between different types of bottled water? A: All bottled water is obliged to list its constituents ions on the label, so when you look at the back label explore its ingredients, or typical mineral composition. You want is water that has a high calcium and magnesium content unless you have a medical condition (or you are advised against this intake) and a low sodium content. A high calcium and magnesium content usually indicates that the water is percolated through limestone rock and will therefore probably have lots of HCO3 (bi-carbonates) which tend to make the water alkaline (ideally with a Ph of over 7). This is good water. Avoid high levels of nitrates and chlorides in comparison with the other good minerals mentioned in the water. Q: A bottled water has the following on the label Calcium 140, Magnesium 160, Sodium 15, Potassium 3. Is this a good intake for drinking? A: This water is good. These figures are milligrams per litre, the calcium and magnesium is over 100 is good and the sodium should be low – in the range 10-20 milligrams per litre. Remember you already get a lot of these minerals from food. Q: If a bottled water states that is bottled at source how important is this? A: Very important. Some water is actually just filtered tap water. ‘Bottled at source’ insures this is not the case and ideally it should identify the origin of the source. Q: How important is the sell by date on bottle water? A: It is important. The plasticides from the bottle can get into the water over time, particularly if the bottle water is in direct sunlight. Look for a very long sell by date, then you can guarantee that is was bottled quite recently. Q: What is soft water and what is hard water? A: Hard water is water which contains an appreciable amount of dissolved minerals. When you boil hard water it leaves a residue on elements or the base of kettles, and this can impair the operation of the appliance. You can soften water by adding calcium hydroxide, to precipitate out the minerals, or passing it through an ion exchange column which switches the calcium and the magnesium into sodium, and make the softened water taste salty, but it doesn’t leave a residue.

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Natural mineral waters „„ Abbey Well (UK): established in 1910, from the Abbey Well borehole in Morpeth, Northumberland. The British Geological Survey has determined the age of the water at between 3,000 and 5,000 years old. Low in sodium, magnesium and sulphate (no natural carbonation). Other waters from the Unites Kingdom include Ashbourne, Brecon, Buxton, Harrogate and Highland Spring. „„ Acqua Panna (Italy): established in 1927, sourced in Tuscany, Italy. Premium priced, very smooth and velvety, with very subtle taste so it’s the perfect accompaniment with food (also part of the San Pellegrino Water Codex I-III research and development). „„ Apolloinaris (Germany): established in 1853, source is 200 meters underground. High in sodium, magnesium and sulphur content. It is naturally effervescent. Other waters from Germany are Gerolsteiner Sprudel and Fashingen. „„ Badoit (France): established in Roman times, bottled since 1778, the source is 173 meters underground at St. Galmier, Massif Central. Light in minerals, contains calcium, magnesium and fluoride. Naturally effervescent (sparkling). „„ Ballygown (Ireland): established in 1981, sourced at Newcastle West, Limerick. High in bicarbonate. „„ Evian (France): established in 1878, source is located at Evian-les-Bains, Haute Savoie. A still water, with a moderate mineral content and almost sodium free. It has a full fresh flavour and it has become one of the most popular of all mineral waters through clever advertising. „„ Fiuggi (Italy): sourced at Fuiggi, Italy close to Rome. Available carbonated, lots of minerals at low levels. Can be hard to find supplies. „„ Malvern (UK): established in 1852, Uxbridge. England. Low mineral contents, acknowledged as one the best UK waters. You can drink some for free if you travel to the village of Malvern Wells. „„ Mattoni (Czech Republic): sources at Karlovy Vary/Carlsbad, which is a spa town. Good quality, this company also has a health water named Magnesia that could change the way we think about drinking water for health reasons. „„ Perrier (France): established by the Romans, first bottled in 1863. Enhanced natural effervescence. Known for over 2000 years. It has a light mineral content. Priced at premium levels. „„ Poland Spring (Maine, USA) established in 1854: because it contains little to no minerals it’s more of a spring water. The small plastic bottles it is served in do it no justice. Other USA waters include Caddo and Mountain Valley (Arkansas), Saratoga Vichy (New York). „„ Ramlosa (Sweden): established in 1707, sourced at Ramlösa Halsbronn. Helsingborg. Still water with a medium sodium and low mineral content.

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„„ San Pellegrino (Italy): established in 1899, the source is 390 meters underground at San Pellegrino Terme. High in calcium, magnesium, chlorine and sodium, has added carbonation to make it sparkle. This company has been at the forefront for harmonizing the enjoyment of water with wines, spirits and food through their development of the Water Codex books I-III in association with the International Guild of Sommeliers - ASI. Individual educational institutions like the Dublin Institute of Technology hold regular competitions to recognize excellence in this area under the title ‘San Pellegrino Sommelier Scholarship’ sponsored by Stafford Lynch). „„ Vittel (France): established in 1854, sourced at Vittel, Vosges. A still water drawn from three different springs each with a different mineral content. The list of well known Natural Mineral Waters (NMW) worldwide is long and growing. Why not list those that are available in your country, and if you can, have a look at the label to see the mineral content, and if it is still or sparkling. If it is sparkling, try to find out if it is natural or has it been introduced by man. In your research be careful not to confuse NMW with manufactured mineral waters which are made from demineralised purified water, mixed flavors, sometimes sugar syrup and carbon dioxide. A most excellent source to help you is located at Natural Mineral Waters of the World (http://www.mineralwaters.org). Table 9.2: Growth potential for bottled water. Adapted from Murphy (2012) 100 glasses

(number of glasses of tap water serves daily)

× 10%

  (convert 10% of these to bottles water sales)

= 10 bottles

  (number of bottled water extra sales per day)

€2.50 × 10

  (multiply these extra sales by your approximate sales price)

= €25

  (added daily revenue)

× 7 = €175

  (7 days’ trading)   (weekly revenue from bottled water)

× 52

  (1 year’s trading)

= €9,100

    (growth potential )

The business potential and growth of bottled water sales Bottled water continues to grow. The reasons behind the growth in popularity of bottled water can be put down to a number of factors. „„ Many people state they prefer the taste „„ Many believe that because of environmental pollution, bottled water is a safer choice for drinking than their own household supply „„ An increasingly health conscious consumer „„ Many females concerned with counting calories will avoid sugary soft drinks „„ The continental influence of bottled water consumption „„ The availability of menus with different service sizes and types

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The problem with some businesses is the availability, variety and quality of the bottled waters, which they offer for sale. A simple exercise to carry out in your bar is the growth potential for water, see below.

9.8 Tea Learning to personalise your fresh tea and coffee offerings can bring new customers and increased business. This area of your business is crucial because customers are fascinated with these beverages and they will purchase well made, good tasting tea and coffee at any time of the day. Consider also for one moment how many times have you enjoyed a beautiful meal in a restaurant or bar which was followed by a poor tasting tea or coffee. It is crucial that you deliver high quality well prepared tea and coffee. Tea and coffee have very good digestive action; they induce an increase in gastric juices, favouring digestion. Their caffeine content can also provoke a mild state of exhilaration increasing the speed of reflexes and powers of concentration.

China’s discovery Tea was native to China, where it grew wild. More than 4000 years ago, the Chinese discovered that they could make a pleasant drink by infusing the leaves of Camellia sinensis, or the Chinese tea plant Camellia assamica, in hot water. These leaves helped flavour the flat taste of the water they boiled to prevent getting sick. It was not until the 8th century that outsiders discovered it. Europeans were finally introduced to tea during the 17th century and the British (who become the true tea lovers) spread its use by implementing new growing areas such as India. In fact, the English so enjoy their tea that they developed a meal around it called high tea. Tea was originally drunk for its medicinal benefits but soon began to be consumed on a more regular basis as a social beverage. Tea played an important role in the development of the United States, as its taxation led to the Boston Tea Party, one of the issues that triggered the War of Independence. Americans further influenced tea use both by inventing tea bags and by introducing iced tea at the St. Louis Worlds Fair in 1904.

The modern tea market Tea is produced today in more than 25 countries; more tea is consumed internationally than any other beverages except water. In the U.S.A, unlike most other countries, as much as 80 per cent of tea is consumed as sweet, dilute iced tea. The main tea producing countries are China, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, India, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. The worldwide interest in tea in growing. It is regarded as a healthy beverage which also aids relaxation and stimulates the central nervous system. Speciality tea shops are popping up in every city and teas now have their own page on the after-dinner menus in most restaurants.

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The Chinese tea tree The tea tree is an evergreen and it is ready to yield tea leaves after about 3 years of growth. It then may yield for 25 to 50 years depending on growing conditions. The leaves are hand-plucked from new shoots and about 6000 leaves are needed to make 1lb of manufactured tea. Differences in plant cultivar, climate, soil, and cultivation practices, result in about 1500 kinds of tea leaves, and these can be further modified in processing and contribute to differences in the final brew.

Tea leaves Tea leaves contain three important kinds of constituents that affect brew quality: „„ caffeine, which gives tea its stimulating effect, „„ tannins and related compounds, which contribute colour and strength, often associated with the term of body and astringency, „„ essential oils, which provide flavour and aroma.

Types of tea and methods of processing The three major classes of teas, green, black and oolong, and several minor ones. They can all be made from the same tea leaves, depending on how the leaf is processed. The methods of processing vary widely, depending on the custom of a region or the preference of a specific farm. „„ White tea: the least processed. The best come from leaves picked before the buds have opened, while they are still covered with silky white hairs. White teas are delicate, with sweet, gentle, grassy aromas and fruity notes. „„ Green tea: slightly more processed than white tea. It is dried as soon as it is picked to minimize oxidation (which increases caffeine levels), retain freshness and preserve high levels of polyphenols, powerful antioxidants that boost the immune system and help to reduce the risk of heart disease and certain forms of cancer. As the name implies, green teas have a grassy, vegetal quality. „„ Oolong teas: the most varied and most interesting. After the leaves are picked, they are gently rolled so that they slowly oxidize, which darkens them and adds layers of complexity. Oolongs can range from the lovely aromas of lilac and orange blossom and sweet flavours to dark, nutty aromas and full flavours. „„ Black tea: known as red tea in China, this is the most recognizable tea for most people. Its colour is a result of complete oxidation, which gives it a more robust flavour, typically consumed without accompaniments. „„ Darjeeling: a black tea from northern India, which can be quite ordinary or remarkably complex, depending on where it is grown and when it is harvested. „„ Pu-erh tea: comes from the province of Yunnan in southern China. The tea is usually inoculated with a bacterium and aged, sometimes as long as 50 years. It can cost upward of €1,000 per pound, and is earthy, slightly smoky, strong and tannic (or bitter).

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„„ Infused teas: teas infused with botanicals, fruits and other flavours, everything from mango and raspberry to Moroccan mint.

Figure 9.4: Varieties of tea (Water Codex II)

Brewing, storing and purchasing tea Brewing China tea This involves getting the amount of tea, the water temperature and the steeping time just right. Generally, a light, airy tea such as white tea requires two heaped teaspoons for an 8-ounce cup. For stronger, more densely packed black teas, use a level teaspoon. White and many green teas should be brewed well below the boiling point, 160 to180 degrees Fahrenheit. The stronger and darker the tea, the closer to the boiling point the water should be. Lighter teas steep longer (3 to 5 minutes) than black teas (2 to 3 minutes). Lighter teas may also keep their flavour through multiple steeping. Black teas lose their flavour and much of their caffeine after one or two steeping, although the taste of Pu-erh can last for several.

Brewing other teas Indian or Ceylon Blend: Usually made in either china or metal teapots. Both are offered with milk and sugar. Russian or Lemon tea: Made similar to China tea, but served in heat resistant glasses which stand in a silver holder, with a slice of lemon. Iced tea: made strong, sometimes strained and always chilled. Served in a tumbler glass on a side plate with a teaspoon and lemon slice.

Speciality teas Assam: rich full and malty flavoured tea, suitable for breakfast, served with milk. Darjeeling: the Champagne of teas, delicate tea with a light grape flavour, served in the afternoon or evening with lemon or milk. Earl Grey: blend of Darjeeling and China tea, flavoured with oil of Bergamot. Served with lemon or milk. Jasmine: green (un-oxidised) tea, which is dried with jasmine blossom and produces a tea with a fragrant and scented flavour. Kenya: consistent and refreshing tea, served with milk.

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Lapsang Souchong: a smoky, pungent and perfumed tea, delicate to the palate, which may be said to be an acquired taste. Served with lemon. Sri Lanka: pale golden tea, good flavour. The Ceylon blend is still used as a trade name. Served with lemon or milk. Tisanes: Tisanes are fruit flavoured teas and herbal infusions, which are often used for medicinal purposes.

Storage and service Pre-heat teapots and cups with hot boiling water, which is then discarded, prior to service. Store good tea in an airtight, lightproof container in a cool well ventilated area, away from excess moisture and away from strong odours. Table 9.3: Teas – flavours, aroma and recommended extraction times. (Ronnefeldt) Tea type

Flavour, aroma

Extraction time

Japan Classic (green – organic).

A fresh delicate sweetness with a breath of tartness.

2-3 mins

Mountain Herbs (herbal infusion)

A harmonious blend with a gentle, refreshing note.

5 mins

Camomile (herbal infusion).

A flavoured infusion that is beneficial and soothing.

8 mins

Decaffeinated black tea

Decaffeinated tea with a full bodied, aromatic taste.

4 mins

Caramel Peach (flavoured - black)

Gentle organic tea with peach and caramel flavour

3-4 mins

Rose Hip (fruit infusion – organic) A refreshingly fruity classic.

5 mins

Red Berries (fruit infusion)

Ripe berries round off its delightful fruitiness.

8 mins

Earl Grey (flavoured - black)

A flowery Darjeeling with fresh lemon aroma.

3 mins

Assam (Irish Breakfast - black)

A malty, spicy summer plucking full of aroma.

4 mins

English Breakfast (black)

A typical Ceylon tea with a scintillating flavour.

3 mins

Green Angel (flavoured - green)

Mildly tart Sencha with pear and peach flavour.

2-3 mins

Lemon Sky (fruit infusion)

The sparkling, lemony fresh explosion of fruit.

8 mins

Jasmine Tea (flavoured - green)

Delicate jasmine blossoms with China summer tea.

2-3 mins

Verbena (herbal infusion)

An unusual tea with the delicate note of citrus fruits.

6 mins

Darjeeling (black)

A top quality, highly aromatic summer Himalayan tea

3 mins

Rooibos Vanilla (herbal infusion)

Vanilla adds to its naturally delicious flavour.

8 mins

9.9 Coffee Coffee cultivation began in the area of Caffa in Abyssinia around 1000 years ago. From there it spread through Arabia, Turkey and other Islamic countries. It was brought into Europe by trading companies, and a few centuries later was transported across the oceans into the newly discovered world.

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The coffee bean Growing and harvesting The coffee tree is an evergreen plant which can grow to a height of 12 metres, in the case of the ‘Robust’ variety, or 5-6 metres, in the case of the Arabica variety. However in order to make crops easier to harvest it is normal in plantations to restrict the height to 3-5 metres. Coffee plants start yielding crops around 3-5 years after being planted and can go on giving good beans for around 15 years. Harvesting is carried out by means of automatic pickers consisting of vibrating rods which detach the beans from the trees as they move along the rows of plants.

Quality and production Coffee qualities are largely dependant on the country of production, which are many and widespread. Some of the major ones are Brazil, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Arabia, Kenya, Tanzania and Abyssinia. The Arabica bean is generally considered to be the best; the less valued seed of the Camephora (also known as Robusta) variety gives a lighter, thinner drink, which is said to have a rather wooden taste.

Processing methods The coffee beans are gathered while still green, then undergo a series of processes: „„ Stripping (removing the parchment and pulp from the beans) „„ Fermentation or maceration (24 to 40 hours) „„ Washing „„ Maturing (in the sun) „„ Husking „„ Sifting „„ Weighting and grading „„ Roasting „„ Mixing

Roasting (toasting) Good quality coffee is due also to the right blend of different qualities of beans and to the roasting. Correct roasting should give a uniform colour, the most common levels are: „„ Light or pale: suitable for the mild beans to retain their delicate aroma. „„ Medium: gives a stronger flavour, often used for coffees with a well defined character. „„ Full: in common use in many Latin countries, slightly bitter flavour.

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light roast

medium roast

high roast

full city

french roast

283

cinnamon

city

italy roast

Figure 9.5: Roasting levels of coffee (www.oncoffeemakers.com)

Coffee blends The best coffee blends are those resulting from the combination of different varieties coming from different parts of the world, where each of their characteristics balance and complement each other’s qualities.

Decaffeinated coffee Beans that have not yet been roasted are placed in steel vats and steamed or boiled, this increases their volume and the caffeine is extracted by this safe modern method. The ‘caffeine free’ beans are now rinsed and dried and can be roasted like normal coffee beans. The ‘caffeine free’ beans suffer a weight loss of about 5%. Not all of the caffeine can be extracted, but that left never exceeds 0.05%.

Storage Coffee, if preserved unaltered in a pressurised metal container or in a vacuum, will last for long periods. Coffee should be stored in a well ventilated place away from excess moisture and well clear of any strong smelling substances otherwise their odours will quickly be absorbed by the coffee.

Water influence The taste of coffee is remarkably changed by the qualities of water from different countries or areas, so it may well be that a blend suitable for one area is not so good for another. You would be well advised to experiment a little before deciding on the blend to serve in your bar.

Methods of preparing coffee Every method is based on the principle of using boiling water and ground coffee. The beverage obtained has different characteristics depending on the extraction method.

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The filter method Finely ground coffee is placed in a filter, usually made of paper; boiling water is poured over it passing through the coffee by gravity. The preparation time by this method varies because of the fineness of the coffee, the density of the paper filter and the amount being made, but varies from just several minutes up to about 8 minutes. Filtered coffee may be prepared in advance in large quantities and stored in a thermos container; its quality can depend on the time between preparation and consumption. This method is popular worldwide. The grinding grade for this method is fine to medium.

Automatic drip machines This convenient and simple method is the one most commonly used in the US. The machine, (also referred to as an automatic drip coffeemaker) has a holding tank pre-filled with water. When it is turned on, the water in the tank is brought to near boiling point (200-207 °F or 93-97 °C) using a thermostatically-controlled heating element. When cold water is poured into a top-mounted tray, it descends into a tube which delivers this to the bottom of the boiler. The less-dense hot water is displaced out of the tank and into a tube leading to the spray head, where it drips into a brew basket containing the ground coffee. The brewed coffee then drips down into a serving carafe. This method of coffee making tends to produce brewed coffee at a much faster rate than standard drip and is most efficient when used to brew coffee at or near the machine’s maximum capacity, as typically found in bars, restaurant or hotels during very busy periods. Cheaper models do not heat the water hot enough so extraction occurs at sub-optimal temperatures. Also, if the machine has a warming plate and the carafe is left on it too long, the coffee can become burnt and thus taste bitter. To alleviate this issue, machines with insulated carafes are preferred.

The Moka or Italian method Comprised of three pieces: the lower section or boiler, which incorporates a safety valve that also serves as a water gauge; a funnel shaped filter which contains the ground coffee; and the upper section which contains the prepared beverage. As the water heats in the lower section the steam generates pressure which pushes the water upward through the funnel to the coffee and extraction takes place under light pressure. The resultant beverage carries on up the internal tube into the upper chamber. The water is in contact with the ground coffee for around 30 seconds and the extraction is between 20% and 25%. The grinding grade for this method is medium. Figure 9.6: A Moka pot.

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Turkish or Greek coffee The water is boiled in a tin lined copper pot, very finely ground coffee is added and the mixture is heated until it begins to foam. The coffee is now ready to serve and is poured into small cups. If sugar or sweetener is required it must be added to the water at the start. The coffee grounds have to settle at the bottom of the cup before it can be drunk. Coffee produced by this method is very strong and full flavoured. Approximately 5 grams of ground coffee is used for each cup to produce a final beverage of around 40 ml. to 60 ml. This method is very popular in most Middle Eastern countries. The grinding grade for this method is pulverised.

Figure 9.7: Turkish or Greek method. Source: www.TurkishCoffeeWorld.com

The cafetiere method A cafetiere is a toughened glass container, housed in a metal holder with a handle. It has a metal or plastic lid with a metal filter/plunger fitted through. Medium ground coffee is placed in the container and boiling water is poured on top and the mixture is stirred. The lid is placed on top of the glass and the plunger is pushed slowly but firmly through the liquid, taking the ground coffee to the bottom and holding it there. It is served with the plunger still in place and is usually left at the table for self service. The grinding grade for this method is medium to medium fine.

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The Cona or vacuum infusion method Similar to the filter method. The Cona pot can be heated with gas, electricity or spirit lamp. The method is rarely used for commercial operations nowadays. The grinding grade for this method is medium fine to fine.

Figure 9.8: A Cona pot (CONA Ltd, UK).

Neapolitan coffee machine This consists of two parts: the bottom is filled with water, coarsely ground coffee is put between two central filters and the upper part is screwed down onto the lower part. The machine is now placed on the heat and when the water starts to boil the machine is turned upside down. The water will dribble through the ground coffee into what is now the lower part; this is fitted with a spout inverted when it was the top half. The grinding grade for this method is medium to coarse.

Espresso coffee machine method This uses a special extraction method which results in a highly concentrated, intensely aromatic and flavourful coffee. Most espresso machines are produced in Italy and this has undoubtedly helped to give the reputation of Italian coffee such a boost. This method requires highly pressurised water at a temperature of 90 to 95°C. Contact between the water and the coffee varies from between 25 to 35 seconds. The volume of beverage per cup is around 20cc to 35cc. This method requires that the beverage is prepared individually on demand; it cannot be made in advance. If milk is required, this is heated separately with a high pressure steam injector, usually in a jug. The milk is agitated during heating and this helps to form a foam on the top, which is poured off onto the top of the espresso, plus a sprinkle of chocolate powder or cinnamon. This is called cappuccino; it is served in a larger cup than an espresso. Delivery machines for making espresso and cappuccino coffee have space on the top for keeping the cups warm.

Characteristics of espresso coffee „„ Body: The quality of espresso coffee is due to the presence of tiny drops of oil and very fine particles of ground coffee which are extracted by the water. In addition the extracted substances are very much greater than in other methods, around 25% compared to 17% for filter coffees. „„ Cream or foam: The ‘cream’ which floats on the top of the espresso coffee is fairly dense and is formed by the dispersion of oils contained in the beverage together with minute bubbles of air.

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„„ Aroma: The aroma is created by ultra light volatile substances which are diffused in the air and are detected by the body’s olfactory organs. Espresso is a kind of invigorating elixir with superb digestive properties, best suited for drinking after eating.

Serving coffee For the consumer of coffee, especially for the connoisseur, drinking coffee is almost a ritual.

To serve coffee at the table Place on a tray covered with a service napkin, the coffee cup and saucer together with a spoon and a selection of sugars and, according to the customer’s request, hot or cold milk or cream. It is normal to serve the first cup to the customer and to leave the coffee pot handy for the customer to help themselves to more if they require it. Ensure that small cocktail or service napkins are offered. Espresso coffee: This is usually served very strong, however if a weak or medium espresso is requested, you should prepare it in the normal way and then weaken it with boiled water. Coffee with a dash of milk: This request sometimes means different things in different countries. Always be sure of what the customer requires, especially if they are overseas visitors. American coffee: usually means an espresso in a large cup thinned down with hot water, or a weak filter coffee, again it is best to check if you are unsure of the customer’s requirements. English black coffee: served in a teacup, and originally percolated coffee, with the percolator kept on the stove between pourings. The percolator has been largely replaced by the cafetiere in commercial operations. Cappuccino: This is an espresso with heated milk that has been agitated so as to form a foam, the amount of milk added varies and it is normal in some countries to sprinkle a little chocolate powder, cocoa or cinnamon on top before serving. Coffee with cream and melange: This is an espresso served in a large cup with sugar, cream and a generous spoonful of whipped cream. Coffee with liqueur: This is generally an espresso coffee served with a chosen liqueur on the side. If served at the bar the bartender could pour the liqueur directly into the freshly made coffee, however if it is served at the table it is better to offer the liqueur separately and to let the customer serve himself at will. Sometimes the customer will drink a little of the liqueur and pour the rest into the coffee and sometimes he will simply have a sip of each in turn. It is usually better to ask the customer how they prefer it. This should not be confused with a speciality coffee which is served in a similar way to Irish coffee but with a liqueur instead of the whiskey.

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Iced coffee or cold coffee: Make normal filter coffee and add sugar whilst it is still hot so as to make it dissolve more easily. When cool it may be stored in a refrigerator and, if required, ice added before service. Serve in a flute glass or Paris goblet. Iced coffee in a shaker: Place in the cocktail shaker 4 or 5 cubes of ice, add sugar and a strong espresso. Shake well to quickly cool the coffee and to develop a nice mousse, this is a delicious way of serving fresh iced coffee but it is desirable to keep a shaker exclusively for this service. Instant coffee: For catering use, instant coffee may be obtained in vacuum sealed individual portions. Serve the instant coffee, soluble or freeze dried, in sachets on a plate together with a jug of hot water and hot or cold milk, as requested. Irish coffee (Speciality coffees): Into a special Irish coffee glass or medium goblet which has been warmed, pour the required amount of Irish whiskey, add two bar spoons of brown sugar, add hot strong filter coffee, and stir to dissolve sugar. When the mixture is still pour fresh double cream over the back of a warmed bar spoon so that it floats on top of the coffee. The idea is to drink the hot whiskey flavoured coffee through the cream, so do not offer a spoon as it does not need to be stirred.

Figure 9.9: A double group handle espresso machine – note the coffee grinder on the left.

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The barista - personalizing coffee for your customers Coffee bean grinder – managing freshness Coffee is a perishable product. There is no point in having spotless clean coffee machines and equipment if the coffee beans are stale. The moment you open a bag of coffee, the oils are exposed to air, oxygen gets at the coffee beans, and this affects the oils in the coffee turning it stale and rancid. You will notice if the coffee is stale when the espresso coffee is made, the crema will be of poor texture and will lack consistency.

The bean grinder 1 The hopper is the plastic see-thorough cone shaped storage area where the coffee beans are stored. You should only empty enough beans for the day’s service into the hopper. Anything above this amount is useless. Any beans left in the bag should be well sealed, but should be used within 1 to 2 days as the oils will go off. 2 The blades which grind the coffee can be pre-set to find the right balance between: „„ course grind: the water will travel through this grind quicker, resulting in poor flavour because the oils will not extracted properly, making weak flavoured coffee, and „„ fine grind: the water gets through this grind slower, which effects the crema (see espresso below). Essentially we are looking for a balance between these two levels, remembering that the hot water or steam extracts the essential oils from the mix, so you don’t want the grind to be too fine. When you grind coffee use it within one hour else it will go off. 3 The coffee powder chambers: are where the grind coffee powder sits waiting to be dispensed in each dose into the group handle. These chambers can be adjusted depending on your customer’s expectation of the coffee flavour. The traditional doses are: „„ 1 dose = 7 grams of coffee – the minimum requirement for one single espresso or cup of black coffee, and could be adjusted depending on the strength required: single group handle, fill to the line. „„ 2 dose = 14 grams of coffee – to make one double espresso or two cups of black coffee: double group handle, fill to the line.

Dispensing coffee powder Pull the lever swiftly in one complete action to release the full 7 grams of coffee, Spread the powder out evenly and compress it with the tamper (which can be made of chrome or plastic) to create an even bed, leaving no gaps in the powder or else the water will get through it too easily when filtering.

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Knock (dump) box This stainless steel tray is used to collect the used coffee powder. It is ideally located directly below the coffee bean grinder, but its actual location can depend on the space available on the back or front counters. Take care when you are emptying out the old coffee powder into the waste bin not to lose the dump box bar which runs across the centre of the box. This is used for tapping the group handles when emptying the used coffee powder.

Espresso machine best practice for different types of coffees Getting ready for service: Always turn the machine to the position (1) for 10 seconds, and then turn to position (2) to continue heating the machine (it normally takes 25-30 minutes before use). Always make two espressos each morning and throw them out before you start to make espresso and coffees for customer service. Machine dials: Yellow dial (temperature indicator) starts at 0 and creeps up to ideally 1 bar, White dial (pump pressure indicator) should rise to 8-10 ideally.

Operating group handles and baskets „„ Make sure that the right basket is placed in the right group handle (single or double). „„ Don’t get the basket wet during service because the dry ground coffee will stick, causing problems when the espresso is being made. „„ Ensure that the spring coil is not lost during cleaning and is replaced back into it rightful position in the group handle under the relevant basket. „„ Before you lock in the group handles with coffee powder, pre-flush with the continuous flow button (this crucial action clears any spent coffee before the new coffee is made). „„ Locking in the group handle: twist in from the left and turn to the extreme right, tightly. Ensure that you turn as far as the handle will go. If the handle goes past too far right, the rubber seals could be worn and might need replacing. „„ Always leave the group handles in the machine when it is on. This allows the heat pressure to build up correctly and keeps the group handles warm. „„ After each service when you empty the basket contents into the dump box, wipe clean the basket with a dry serviette to clear any left overs of spent coffee. „„ At the end of service, wash the group handles completely in the sink with warm water with a green pot scrub. Make sure that you don’t lose the coil spring in the sink. Dry carefully and replace into the espresso machine.

Operating steaming arms (wands) „„ Before you use the steam wands, open the pressure valves (steam buttons) anti-clockwise to release the pressure. This prevents air locks which could

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cause you serious problems. You will know when the buttons have to be released when you see a small trickle of steam water. „„ Always handle the steam wand by the rubber grip portion because the wand will be hot. „„ Always wipe the steam wands after each use to remove milk stains, using a coloured coded damp cloth which is only used for this purpose – not a general purpose cloth. „„ Flush the steam wands before each use to ensure that the hot jets are clear of any residue. „„ When steaming milk, always use a stainless steel jug for safety, and point it away from yourself. „„ When steaming milk slightly submerge the steam wand into the milk to create the swirling effect for 15-20 seconds, get rid of any air bubbles.

Storage of cups and glasses Always store your glasses and cups on top of the coffee machine in the upward position. Heating the cups and glasses turned upside down makes the rims too hot and can burn the customers’ lips when consuming their coffee.

Importance of a good espresso Espresso forms the basis for all your coffee offering, so it is crucial that you get it right. The quality of your espresso coffee is an indication of your overall range of coffee offering. If this is poor then consequently all your coffees will be poor quality. The ideal length of time to produce an espresso is 18 to 25 seconds. After 25 seconds you are extracting the soluble ingredients you don’t want ,which will make the coffee taste bitter, burnt or over-cooked and horrible. If it’s taking over 25 seconds, you have a problem – maybe too much coffee in the group handle. Espresso Crema (cream or foam): this will be found on the top of the espresso. This crema is fairly dense and is formed by the dispersion of oils contained in the beverage together with minute bubbles of air. A good crema, which is consistent, thick and evenly spread over the complete espresso, is the characteristic of an excellent espresso (similar to a head on the pint of draught Guinness). „„ single Espresso: 1floz hot water and 7 grams of coffee powder (ideally) „„ double Espresso: 2floz hot water and 14 grams of coffee powder (ideally) Single Espresso is always one mouthful: sometimes people will think that the cup or portion should be bigger, but this is the right amount, however you have to listen to your customers and their expectation). Aroma and enjoyment of espresso coffee: The aroma is created by ultra light volatile substances which are diffused in the air and are detected by the body’s olfactory organs.

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To summarise then, a cup of espresso coffee must be full bodied, have a pleasant, persistent aftertaste, be intensely aromatic and full of flavour with a dense creamy frothy head.

Americano (Caffe Americano) Sometimes referred to as a black coffee. You can make this coffee in strength degrees from Regular (7 grams coffee – usually makes one Americano) to Stronger (14 grams coffee – usually makes two Americanos). The decision on your establishment’s strength depends on your market and your location, but generally anything over 7 grams of coffee will make one good Americano – just don’t your coffee too strong. „„ Use the warm water button to add 1/3 warm water to the pre-heated cup. Never add the hot water last because this will break the crema on the coffee. „„ Continue as for espresso, adding the coffee to the hot water already in the cup.

Cappucchino Timing and sequencing is crucial here. While you are making the espresso you must be heating the milk at the same time. If you heat it before making the coffee, the milk will separate. Cappuccino is ideally 1/3 coffee and 2/3 milk and should have a silky texture. 1 Fill the stainless steel jug 1/3 full with milk/ This will make two Cappucchinos. 2 Flush out the steam wand, first then heat the milk by putting the steam wands into the milk (15 to 20 seconds) to create a silky texture. Wipe the wand after every use. 3 Flush out the group head, lock in the group handle with coffee (7 grams, could be more depending on the size of the cappuccino mug). Make the espresso in a pre-heated Cappuccino ‘conical’ cup. (20 seconds) 4 Swirl the heated milk to get rid of any bubbles 5 Pour the milk over the coffee 6 Add some cinnamon or chocolate dust on top.

Latte coffee: white coffee Served in a pre-heated heat resistant glass. Watch your sequencing and timing so the hot milk and espresso are ready at the same time. 1 Pour one espresso into the glass. 2 Top up the glass with heated milk, pouring from a small height, quickly. 3 Rock in the last portion of heated milk to create a small layered . Latte art: this is a real beverage art with world competitions held annually.

Layered coffee Served in a pre-heated heat resistant glass, and again ensure that the hot milk and espresso coffee are ready at the same time.

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1 Pour in the heated milk first, rocking it towards the end to create a layer between the milk and foam. 2 Pour in the espresso very slowly through the centre of the foam to create three layers: milk, coffee, foam.

Café macchiato A shot of espresso topped off with a small amount of steamed or cold milk. Can be served layered, or with a flavoured syrup (e.g. hazelnut, caramel, mint) added before the other ingredients.

Cleaning the espresso machine Your starter pack will contain cleaning brushes and a couple of cleaning tablets. You must purchase future packets of cleaning tablets for your machine. Your cleaning schedule should be as follows: „„ Weekly clean: Use one tablet per group head. Place the tablet in the cleaning basket, and press the continuous flow button to back flush for approximately 20 seconds. „„ Daily clean: use the cleaning basket group handle (no tablet needed), lock it into the group head and flush a number of times until the group handle is completely clear of any stains or spent coffee etc. Clean both heads on the espresso machine.

The influence of milk Most milk packs a nutritional punch and contains protein, calcium, phosphorus, vitamins A and D, lactose (milk sugar) and riboflavin. On the minus side, milk’s natural sodium content is quite high. „„ Whole milk: is the milk just as it came from the cow and contains about 3.5% milk fat. „„ Low fat milk: comes in two basic types: 2% meaning 98% of the fat has been removed and, 1% which is 99% fat free. „„ Skim milk (non fat): must by law contain less than 0.5% milk fat. Other forms of milk include buttermilk, dry or powdered buttermilk, sweet acidophilus milk, low sodium milk, lactose-reduced low fat milk, ultra pasteurized milk and chocolate milk. The brand of milk is crucial for making milk-based coffees. The fat content is not important, so you can use low fat or full milk as you please. The most important component is the protein in the milk as this helps the foaming. You don’t want air bubbles (they are tasteless), too many air bubbles in the milk can be an indication of low protein. This can be a common problem especially in the winter months when the cattle are feed indoors, which affects the protein in the milk. Milk manufacturers recently released high protein milk products (called

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Cappuccino milk). It is supposed to be good, but is expensive compared to regular milk. The protein in milk can break down if you overheat it, so be careful when steaming milk. The natural sugars in milk, which make coffee taste so good, can be destroyed if you over-heat the milk with the steam wands.

Selecting your house brands Bars usually will hold tasting sessions before selecting the house style. Coffee companies can assist you in this selection based on your clientele and market. You should remember that drinking coffee is a special moment in social life and constitutes an instant of pure gastronomical refinement. Coffee tasting is therefore a particular custom which is bound to increase the pleasure to be experienced at your bar or restaurant.

Coffee culture, coffee appreciation Why not consider holding some coffee training sessions for customers? Your bar could hold coffee appreciation and tasting session,s which include background information on coffee styles, types and a demonstration of the classic coffees for customers to enjoy with a small selection of pastries or biscuits. This customer service could include a small nominal charge to cover costs. This approach would also give your customers an opportunity to witness first hand your bar’s commitment to the high levels of service and quality which you bring to your coffee offering. Sparkling water can be served on the side. When sipped before coffee, water allows the palate to cancel out or tone down the gustative sensations which may alter or undermine the full appreciation of coffee’s gustative-aromatic qualities. The olfactory sensations and in particular the gustatory sensations of this beverage are not well coupled with those of other products. Furthermore, water can be consumed after having sipped coffee, and in this case, one tries to obtain the opposite effect of what happened previously, as well as to dilute the harsh, intense and persistent sensations of the coffee.

9.10 Hot chocolate Hot chocolate in the form of drinking chocolate or cocoa is considered a comfort food and is consumed in many parts of the world. Grivetti & Shapiro (2009) state that hot chocolate (also known as hot cocoa) is a heated beverage typically consisting of shaved chocolate, melted chocolate or cocoa powder, heated milk or water, and sugar. Drinking chocolate is similar to hot chocolate, but is made from melted chocolate shavings or paste, rather than a powdered mix that is soluble in water. Also, drinking chocolate usually is not as sweet as hot chocolate (p. 345). Craddock (2013) maintains that the terms hot chocolate and hot cocoa are used interchangeably in America. In other parts of the world, a distinction is made between hot cocoa, made from powder made by removing most of the

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rich cocoa butter from the ground cacao beans, and hot chocolate, made directly from bar chocolate, which already contains cocoa, sugar, and cocoa butter. Science News (2013) add that the major difference between the two is the cocoa butter, the absence of which makes hot cocoa significantly lower in fat than hot chocolate while still preserving all the antioxidants found in chocolate. Hot chocolate preparation and service: Hot chocolate can be made with dark, semisweet, or bittersweet chocolate chopped into small pieces and stirred into milk with the addition of sugar. American instant hot cocoa powder often includes powdered milk or other dairy ingredients so it can be made without using milk (The Nibble, 2013). In the United Kingdom, hot chocolate is a sweet chocolate drink made with hot milk or water, and powder containing chocolate, sugar, and powdered milk. Cocoa usually refers to a similar drink made with just hot milk and cocoa powder, then sweetened to taste with sugar. Preparing hot chocolate using powder: Select a 12oz cup, scoop 28 grams of powder into the cup, add 15ml of boiling water, and whisk (or fold) to a smooth chocolate paste, exposing the cocoa oils fully to the water. If you fold, don’t be too aggressive with the stirring as this loses the lightness. These techniques bring out the full taste profile of the cocoa. Add finally the freshly steamed milk at around 160°F (70°C) which is a slightly higher temperature than for coffee. If you are using chocolate syrup, it can cool down the water – so you really should experiment. One favourite trick is to sprinkle a very little cocoa powder into the cup just before adding the milk – some people say it gives the milk colour, particularly if you’re using latte art. You could also finish the drink off with a cappuccino-style froth topping. Remember not to skimp on the chocolate powder measure and that you may adapt your flavour and strength by adding cocoa content or other flavours (Liquid Gold, 2010). Characteristics of a good hot chocolate drink: the colour is dark and chocolate coloured, the taste is of a good strong cocoa product and the correct quantity of chocolate was used to make the drink. The mix is perfect, with no residue of solids in suspension. Temperature is correct and the final presentation techniques may include a complementary biscuit, and some unusual latte/chocolate art on the top of the hot chocolate (BSA, 2012). „„ Belgium: when you order a warme chocolade or chocolat chaud you will receive a cup of steamed white milk and a small bowl of bittersweet chocolate chips to dissolve in the milk (The Nibble, 2013). Particularly rich hot chocolate is often served in demitasse cups. „„ France: often served at breakfast time; sometimes sliced bread spread with butter, jam, honey, or Nutella is dunked into the hot chocolate. There are brands of hot chocolate specially formulated for breakfast time, notably Banania. „„ German variations are also known for being very thick and heavy. „„ Holland: known as chocolademelk, it is often served at home or at the cafes. „„ Spain and Italy: sometimes served very thick due to the use of a thickening

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agent such as corn starch, often having the consistency of warm chocolate pudding. Among the multiple thick forms of hot chocolate served in Europe is the Italian cioccolata densa. „„ Mexico: a popular national drink, the traditional style includes semi-sweet chocolate, cinnamon, sugar, and vanilla. Chocolate of this type is commonly sold in circular or hexagonal tablets which can be dissolved into hot milk, water, or cream, and then blended until the mixture develops a creamy froth. Cinnamon hot chocolate is traditionally served alongside a variety of Mexican pastries known as pan dulce or with churros. Hot chocolate and churros is also the traditional working-man’s breakfast in Spain. „„ Instant form: drinking chocolate powder (a packet mix containing mostly cocoa powder, sugar, and dry milk) or chocolate syrups: the thinner of the two major variations, made with hot water or milk, this form is very sweet and is usually topped with marshmallows, whipped cream, or a piece of solid chocolate. Bamunuge et al (2010) contends that different products have varying levels of cocoa solids in them and this can greatly affect how much is needed to make a drink. They suggest that when preparing hot chocolate using proprietary brands of chocolate drink to always follow the manufacturer’s instructions.

Summary „„ Non-alcoholic beverages offer us refreshment, and quench our thirst. „„ Their richness of taste and varieties of flavours have contributed to the reasons why these beverages are universally enjoyed by people of all ages, gender or class. „„ In recent years, bars around the world have noticed an increasing tendency amongst their clientele to opt for non-alcoholic beverages. „„ Bars need to rigorously overhaul their current non-alcoholic beverage offerings in relation to their overall business and re-position them to their best advantage individually, within cocktails or throughout the meal experience. „„ It is time to reclaim some of the business lost to locations like juice bars and cafes who have been very quick to target these beverages with great success. „„ The major brands will continue to introduce new flavours and product extensions, and emphasise healthy and natural origins to maintain market share. „„ The challenge for bars is to work closely with these companies in continuing to meet our customers’ changing demands and tastes. „„ The special flavours of teas, coffees amd hot chocolate depend on the variety, method, and location where the beans or tea were grown, as well as how they were harvested, processed. „„ The three major classes of teas are green, black and oolong. These three types can be made from the same tea leaves, depending on how the leaf is processed.

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„„ The production of good quality coffee also depends on the roasting levels which can range from light or pale to full. „„ Although the methods used to prepare coffee are based on extraction by using boiling water and ground coffee, the beverage obtained will contain different characteristics depending on the extraction methods available. „„ These methods include filter, percolation, Moka or Italian, Cona or Vacuum infusion, cafetiere, Turkish or Greek, Neapolitan and Espresso. „„ For the health conscious, tea and coffee deliver different levels of caffeine, these levels are dependent on the method utilised to prepare these beverages, so we must be careful of our regular intake of these beverages. „„ Tea, coffee and hot chocolate are convivial beverages greatly enjoyed in the bar or at the end of a meal in the restaurant. „„ Their unique taste is what customers will continue to savour even after they have left your bar or restaurant. Therefore, particular care must be given to their preparation and service.

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Aims and learning outcomes This chapter aims to provide a basic introduction to cocktails and mixed drinks. On completion of this chapter the learner should be able to: „„

Outline the history, development and promotion of cocktails and mixed drinks.

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Identify the major old World cocktail categories and seminal cocktail and mixed drink publications.

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Act on the most appropriate methods, glassware, garnish and recipes to suit all occasions.

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Explain the best practice techniques involved in creating recipes, menus and profit margins for cocktails and mixed drinks.

10.1 Introduction The cocktail and mixed drinks elements of the bar have become the most attractive and profitable assets in recent years, offering infinite scope and variety to the bartender and the bar owner. This increasing new demand for alternative and unique premium drink options, which include natural juices and healthier alternatives, have driven many bars and restaurants to expand their drink offerings to include a good range of freshly prepared flavorsome cocktails. The cocktail bar can be the place where the stop-at-home may sample the drink and mixture of a hundred countries, where the traveler may refresh their memory, and where the foreigner may get a glimpse of home. In this department the inventive genius of experts can be given full rein and the beauty of spirits, liqueurs and wines, blended together in countless ways, may be presented in what is known to the modern public as the ‘cocktail’. This element of the bars offerings in recent years has continued to attract the interest of customers, spirit and liqueur manufacturers, the media and the literary world.

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Evolution of cocktails Cocktails were first mentioned as a pre-dinner drink mixture of lemon juice and powdered adders favoured by Emperor Commodus in the 2nd century AD. They have been referred to as punches (1670), grogs (1740) and slings or cobblers in England (1825). The word ‘cocktail’ first appeared in print in the Farmer’s Cabinet, 28th April, 1803 ‘drank a glass of cocktail – excellent for the head’ (Blue, 2004). However in the Morning Post and Gazetteer, a London newspaper on 20th March 1798, recalls debts owed to a bar, one of which is ‘cocktails’ (Brown & Miller, 2009). The earliest definition of ‘cocktail’ in a publication occurs in Hudson, New York, dated 13th May 1806, in the Balance and Columbian Repository, an American periodical magazine which described cocktails as a ‘fortifying drink composed of several spirits any kind, sugar, water and bitters’.

10.2 Old World cocktail and mixed drinks categories It’s crucial for the specialist cocktail maker, educator, demonstrator or brand Ambassador to create new frontiers for cocktails by properly understanding the background to the old world cocktails. The comprehensive list below explores these famous old world drinks to help you to understand the foundation of the classic and contemporary cocktails and mixed drinks in the marketplace today.

Cups These mixed drinks are prepared the same way as punches, the most famous being the stirrup cup served to members of a hunting party about to set off. The phrase’ in his cups’ was a common euphemism meaning under the influence of alcohol. Champagne cup is a special glass that has a long stem and knob instead of a flat base so that the contents had to be consumed before the glass was put on the tray upside down. Champagne Cup: (for 8 to 10 glasses), 1 bottle Champagne, 4 fl oz or 11cl Brandy, 3 fl oz or 8.5cl Orange Curacao, 1 fl oz or 3cl Maraschino. Stir gently together in a large ice filled jug or bowl, garnish with sliced fruit.

Collins These mixed drinks should be served and prepared very tall and very cold. Collins is usually made with 3 to 4oz of spirit, with sugar, lemon or lime juice, and chilled club soda in a 12 or 14oz glass. Traditionally Collins is gin based. Collins originate with a John Collins, the headwaiter at Limmers Hotel & Coffee house of Conduit Street, London around 1790 - 1817. His original recipe uses Dutch style gin, which is aromatic and spicy. It wasn’t until the sweeter Old Tom gin became

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the base that the new Tom Collins became a universal favorite. John Collins drink is mentioned in Drinks for the World published in 1892. Collins drinks are shaken with ice, strained and topped up with soda water. Collins has spawned a large family since the early days among its cousins are the Gin coolers and Gin Rickeys. Tom Collins: 1 teaspoon of powered sugar (or sugar syrup), juice of 1 lemon or 2 limes, 3/4 gill of Old Tom Gin or Plymouth Gin. If you use dry gin add extra sugar syrup. Collins is often referred to as longer Sours without the egg white.

Figure 10.1: Tom Collins.

Crustas Crustas always contain a spirit, lemon juice and sugar (sometimes or syrup or liqueurs), and are garnished with a band of orange or lemon. Created by Joseph Santina at the Jewel of the South or a Joseph Santini at the City Exchange in New Orleans during the 1840-1850s, first appeared as a Brandy Crusta in Jerry Thomas 1862 book. Crusta: Take a small wine glass, moisten the rim and the inside edges with lemon juice, dust with caster sugar to obtain a frosted effect, and fix a long curl of peel into the contour of your wine glass as a lining. Then put 1 teaspoon sugar, 3 dashes of Maraschino, 3 dashes bitters, 1/4 of fresh lemon juice, 60ml brandy into a cocktail shaker and shake vigorously. Pour into the prepared glass.

Figure 10.2: Brandy Crusta.

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Coolers The earliest mention of coolers was in 1825 in England. They are generally referred to as long well-iced summer drinks made with port, claret, sherry, sloe gin or any of the basic liquors mixed with ice, sugar, lemon and club soda, served in a 12 to 14oz glass. Coolers have a lot of similarities with the other major categories namely Collins, Slings, Punches, Sangarees, Fizzes, Cobblers, Juleps, Daisies and Rickey’s. Club Cooler: 1 dash of lemon juice, 7.5ml Grenadine syrup, 15ml Italian Vermouth, 150ml soda water. Stir well, squeeze a little lemon peel juice on top and serve.

Cobblers This category became an established favorite in warm climates in the mid 1800s. It’s simple to make and attractive to both the eye and the palate – a decorative feast, to be served with long straws. Americans claim the origins of this category of mixed drinks. Harry Johnson 1880 referred to sherry cobbler as the most popular drink in America, but they were more likely to have been created in England. The word ‘cobbler’ referred to an inn keeper in England. Charles Dickens’ favourite drink was the sherry cobbler. Cobblers are a group of drinks based on wine or spirits shaken or mixed with usually brandy and curacao, served in goblets with crushed ice and decorated with fruit and a sprig of mint. This drink is regularly cited for heralding in the paper straw, which wasn’t patented until 1888. Prior to that straws were just that, straw, usually rye, or even hollow pasta (macaroni or vermicelli). Cobblers: 45ml Ccognac, 30ml Grand Marnier, 75ml shiraz red wine, shake with ice and fine strain in glass serve with straws, garnish with mint sprig.

Daisies These are usually mixed in a cocktail shaker and shaken vigorously. There are two methods used for service: one is to strain the mixed drink into a wine glass and the other is to strain it a tumbler and fill with soda water, decorate the drink with slices of fresh fruit (optional). Daisy’s origin is unsure, but the first written reference was in the novel Gay Life in New York, or Fast men and Grass Widows by Henry Llewellyn Williams in 1866. Gin Daisy (Jerry Thomas version): 60ml Genever Gin, 15ml Grand Marnier, 20ml lemon juice, 7.5ml sugar syrup, 1 splash soda water. Half fill a cocktail shaker with cracked ice, shake all ingredients (except the soda) and strain into coupette glass, top with soda. Garnish with cherry.

Fixes These are prepared and served in a small tumbler glass. Add all the ingredients, and then half fill (or more) the tumbler with finely broken ice, stir and decorate the top with seasonal fruits and short straws.

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Whiskey fix: 1 teaspoonful of sugar syrup, juice of half a lemon, 35ml brandy, 35ml cherry brandy, a little water to taste. In making fixes be careful to put the lemon skin in the glass.

Fizzes These originated around the mid 19th century, and are made traditionally in a small chilled 24cl glass with no ice, and charged with soda from a siphon. In order to achieve the fizz, shake the mixture for several minutes (with crushed ice), or use a blender. Use a soda siphon with some energy; a bottle of soda doesn’t have the same effect. The fizz is a form of seltzer for your customer who cannot face a drink after the night before. Ideally recommended about 11.30am before lunch. When you’re making silver fizzes, add some egg white into the mix. Silver fizz: 60ml spirit (cin, whiskey or vodka), 30ml lemon or lime juice, 15ml sugar syrup, 15ml egg white, top with soda. Shake all ingredients (except soda), then add ice, shake again and pour into small Collins or Old-Fashioned glass (24cl) glass. Charge with soda while stirring simultaneously, and garnish with a lemon slice. Ideally drunk while it is still fizzing.

Mint juleps Mint julep is a tall, refreshing drink based on brandy, bourbon or rye whiskey, fresh garden mint for flavour, ice, and yet more ice. The term julep derives, curiously, from the Arabic julab meaning ‘rose water’. The julep is thought to have originated in Persia or thereabouts and travelled to the South of France where the rose petals were exchanged for mint. It crossed the Atlantic and the brandy was changed to peach brandy, then to whiskey. Its American origins lie in the southern states, especially around Kentucky. In the American Museum of 1787, the Julep is mentioned as made from rum, sugar and water by a Virginian gentleman. The first mention of mint as an ingredient was in 1803 in the book by John Davis, Travels of four years and a half in the USA. In 1837, Captain Marryat of the Royal Navy, and a famous novelist, introduced the drinks into the British Isles, claiming them to be as irresistible as American ladies. When brandy became scarce after the Phylloxera epidemic reduced French wine production, rye or bourbon whiskey became popular in this mix. The insulation with Russian tea glasses holders or special glasses insured the extra coolness of this drink. The key to this drink is serving it cold and giving the flavours time to mix. Therefore juleps are either ideally prepared hours in advance of serving or they are served with lots of crushed ice in silver mugs, with sometimes a napkin for the coldness of the drink. Brandy julep: Take a tall glass and add with four tender sprigs of fresh mint covered with powered sugar. Add just enough water to dissolve the sugar, crush the mint very gently to extract the flavour. Strain into a tall glass, add broken ice and 35ml brandy, stir well, and serve with long straws.

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Punches The first mention of punches was in 1655, when the English took Jamaica from the Spanish. This mixed drink category is ideal for parties, and these long fruity drinks, for example Planters Punch, are greatly favored by Jamaican planters where rum is good and cheap. The best way to make your own punches is to use fresh fruits, sugar syrup and spirit and keep in a refrigerator a few hours before serving. Cold and hot punches are equally enjoyable. Planters Punch:, 30ml fresh lime juice, 2 teaspoons sugar mix, 120ml Old (Myers dark) Jamaican Rum, 150ml orange juice, shake and serve very cold. Created by Fred L. Myer to celebrate the opening of Myers Rum distillery in 1879 in Jamaica. Figure 10.3: Planters Punch (Achim Schleuning).

Highballs This famous American contribution to mixed drinks, originating in the nineteenth century, is one of the simplest and most satisfying mixed drinks to make. Originally made with scotch, highballs are now medium sized mixed drinks using any spirits of choice, ice and carbonated beverages. This traditional base spirit of scotch has changed to wine, bitters and grenadine could be used, and this was very popular in the 1920s America. Patrick Gavin Duffy created the highball at his little café next to the old Lyceum in New York in 1895, but a claim is also made on the drink by the Adam’s House in Boston. The name apparently originates from the railroad signalman’s practice of raising a ball on a pole to urge a train driver to speed up if they where behind schedule. Highballs are quickly prepared; speed is the essence in this simple drink. Horse’s Neck: 4cl. cognac, 12cl. ginger ale, dash of Angostura bitters (optional). Peel a complete lemon into a spiral shape. Place the end of the spiral over the edge of the glass allowing the remainder to curl inside the glass. Fill with ice. Pour in the brandy and ginger ale. If using bitters add last of all.

Toddys Toddy may get its name from a drink made in the East Indies from palm tree sap, though Allan Ramsey, a Scottish poet, made the claim in 1721 that the word derived from Todd’s well, a source of Edinburgh water. In the Victorian era, a hot alcoholic drink was often taken to soothe the nerves or to cure a chill. A heat resistant glass is imperative. Dissolve a lump of sugar in little hot water in an Old Fashioned glass and add hot water, whiskey, clove, nutmeg, cinnamon and lemon peel.

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Hot Toddy: 1 bar spoon of soft brown sugar or honey, 60ml desired spirit (ideally Irish, Scotch whiskey), 60ml boiling water, pour into a medium sized goblet, stir in the boiling water, add a slice of lemon studded with cloves, a small cinnamon stick and sprinkle with nutmeg.

Sours These are made by shaking a spirit with sugar and lemon juice. The original sour was a brandy sour made commonly around the 1850s. Fresh juices are essential for sourness in the sour mixed drinks. Whiskey Sour: 35ml Bourbon whiskey, 70ml lemon juice, 20ml gomme syrup, 1 dash egg white, 1 dash Angostura Bitters. Dry shake first then add ice, shake again and strain into a double cocktail glass or a special sour glass. Garnish with a slice of lemon. Modern sours are now using spirits like vodka, gin, rum, cognac, pisco or even liqueurs such as Grand Marnier. Figure 10.4: Whiskey Sour

Swizzles The swizzle mixed drinks take their name from the stick used to stir the drink, which originates in the West Indies. A swizzle stick was originally the dried stem of a tropical plant with a few smaller branches left on the end about two feet long. The stick would be inserted into the jug and rubbed vigorously between the palms of the hands, swizzling the ice and liquor to create a frost on the outside of the glass. Gin Swizzle: 1/2 gill gin, 4/10 fresh lime syrup, 1/10 gomme syrup, 1 dash Angostura bitters. Build into a large highball glass filled with crushed ice. Top up with soda water and serve with a swizzle stick.

Rickeys The origins of these mixed drinks go back to a bartender who worked at Shoemakers Restaurant in Washington D.C. in 1893. He squeezed limes into gin and topped the drink up with soda water. The drink was named after American lobbyist Colonel Joe Rickey (whose military title probably was of the honorary Kentucky variety). Shoemakers was known as ‘the third house of Congress’ and Congressional patrons who knew the colonel bestowed his name upon the drink. Spent lime shells are always added to this drink. Rickey went on to become a major importer of limes in the US. Gin Rickey: 60ml gin (could be vodka if you prefer), 15ml lime juice, 7.5ml sugar syrup, top with soda water. Shake with ice (except soda) and strain into small Collins or Old Fashioned (24cl) glass with ice, top with soda, immerse a length of lime peel in the drink. Some recipes recommend dropping a lime shell

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into the drink instead of peel. Modern versions include Cucumber and Elderflower Rickeys.

Slings Sling comes from the German word schlingen meaning to swallow. Slings were popular in the 1800s. Interestingly the earliest known definition of cocktail describes it as a ‘bittered sling’. Sling: 60ml Spirit (gin, vodka, whiskey), 15ml lemon juice, 7.5ml sugar syrup. Shake with ice (except soda), strain into ice filled sling glass, top with soda, garnish with a lemon slice. Most famous sling is, of course, Raffles Singapore Sling. Figure 10.5: Singapore Sling.

Shooters These minuscule drinks are usually not more than 40ml to 60ml capacity. The shooter or shot or tooter has established itself as an important part of every cocktail list World-wide, evolving from the chaser (by a shot of whiskey or schnapps drunk after a beer). We now witness shooters which are served layered, chilled served straight from the fridge. Tequila Shot: 40ml Tequila, 1 lime wedge, 1/4 tsp. Salt. Sprinkle salt along the back of the left hand. Hold the shot glass of tequila in the same hand and the lime in the other. Lick the salt, shoot the tequila then bite into the lime. Modern versions include Brain Tumor, B52, Baby Guinness, Hot Shot.

Nogs These mixed drinks can be served hot or cold. The best-known, the egg nog, is essentially a Christmas American beverage, although loved throughout the world for many years. In Scotland it is known as “auld man’s milk”. The name dates back to the 17th century and an English habit of adding a beaten egg to a noggin (a small mug) of strong beer. Nogs first achieved popularity in the American colonies in 1775. Nogs are basically a combination of eggs, milk and liquor (historically this was rum or brandy). In the western film Wild Bill watch Calamity Jane make an egg nog for Wild Bill in the Number Ten saloon bar. If egg nogs are served cold, prepare them in a cocktail shaker, half filled with broken ice and strain into a tumbler. If egg nogs are served hot: Prepare similar except use boiling water instead of cold milk and ice. Always use rich milk and fresh eggs. Thicken if you wish with more egg yolk or thin by adding milk. Egg nog: 1 egg, 1 tablespoon of gomme syrup, 1 fl oz (3cl) brandy, 1 fl oz (3cl) dark rum, 3fl oz (9cl) milk. Shake all but the milk. Strain into a goblet glass, stir in the milk and sprinkle some nutmeg.

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10.3 Authoritative (seminal) cocktail publications The first cocktail book was the 17th century publication by the Distillers Company of London, which describes many spirituous drinks of singular complexity. These were medicinal in intention. Today we can see many cocktail publications available throughout the world. The majority of these books are sometimes repetitive in their structure and content, and some of them are poorly conceived and written but there are some excellent authoritative books. In this section I highlight a small selection of these publications. I accept that these books in a lot of circumstances are out of print and are only accessed through a good library but they come highly recommended. 1862 Bon Vivants Companion or How to mix drinks by Professor Jerry Thomas, sometimes referred to as the Old Testament of true cocktail making, (USA). Herbert Asbury reprinted it in 1876 (with supplements). 1887 (2 years after Jerry’s death, a through update and revision was put out by a unknown publisher (Wondrich,2007).

Figure 10.6: Jerry Thomas - Bartenders Guide 1872 Bartenders Manual by Harry Johnson, who was also the first U.S. cocktail champion. A later version New and Improved Illustrated Bartender’s Manual, came out in 1888. Contains this famous quote “a bartender who serves the world and his wife in a faithful and modest manner, acquires a lofty and well-balanced conception of life”. 1895 Modern American Drinks: How to Mix and serve All Kinds of Cups and Drinks by George J Kappeler. George was head bartender at the Holland House Bar, one of the three most acclaimed Manhattan hotels in the swellest quarter of New York (Haigh, 2009). This was the first book to mention the Sweet Martini (Van Hagen, 1992). 1913 Lexicon der Getranke by Hans Schonfeldt, (Germany) and John Leybold, (USA). The first European cocktail book, printed in Germany, it was the result of cooperation between these two gentlemen. 1919 Harry’s ABC of Mixing Cocktails by Harry MacElhone, a robust cigar chomping New Yorker, who once helmed the bar at the Plaza Hotel in New York. After America went dry, Harry relocated, first to Ciro’s in London, then to its branch in Deauville, France and finally to Paris with his own place, Harrys New York Bar (Haigh, 2009). 1930 Savoy Cocktail Book by Harry Craddock, (USA). This was the most lavishly illustrated and designed cocktail book of its day. The author was a well-respected New York bartender who bartended at two of the three best Manhattan hotel bars

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before prohibition. The three hotels were the Hoffman, where he was head bartender, the Holland House and the Waldorf Astoria. The Savoy in London and this book made him famous; the book has had many re-prints over the years (Haigh, 2009).

Figure 10.7: Savoy Cocktail Book. 1933 Mis 500 Cocktails published in Madrid by Pedro Chicote, who also created the famous Drink Museum, and represented the Spanish Bartenders Association for many years until his death on the 24th December 1977. 1935 Mr. Boston Bartenders Guide by Leo Cotton, (USA), also future editions. Figure 10.8: Mr. Boston Book. 1947 Bartenders Guide by Trader Vic ,otherwise known as Victor Berigon, (USA), re-printed in 1972 by Doubleday and Co, Tiki Drinks. 1953 U.K.B.G Guide to Drinks by United Kingdom Bartenders Guild, (UK) and future editions, see also W. J Tarling (1937) Café Royal Book the pre-cursor to this book. 1953 The Fine Art of Mixing Drinks by David A. Embury, first published in 1948 by Doubleday Publishing This seminal book created a third species of cocktail writers the aficionado class. Embury was not a bartender, bit a lawyer who wrote about cocktails because he wanted to, and had some definite opinions about something he enjoyed (Haigh, 2009). 1992 The Bols Book of Cocktails by Jan Van Hagen, (Netherlands), Past President of the IBA and avid cocktail historian. 1997 Classic Cocktails by Salvatore ‘Masestro’ Calabrese, (UK), author of many beverage publications. 1997 Bartenders Association of Ireland: A History by James Murphy, (Ireland), preserving Irish cocktail history from 1940s to the late 1990s, published to celebrate the 25th anniversary of BAI and 50th of UKBG Irish Branch. 2004 The Craft of the Cocktail by Dale de Groff, (USA), the American king of cocktails and co-founder of the Museum of the American Cocktail. 2007 Imbibe! From Absinthe Cocktail to Whiskey Smash, a Salute in Stories and Drinks to Professor Jerry Thomas, Pioneer of the American Bar by cocktail historian David Wondrich (USA). 2008 Diffords Guide to Cocktails by Simon Difford, (UK), plus future editions. 2009 Vintage Spirits and Forgotten Cocktails, Quarry Books Massachusetts, by Ted Haigh, stories behind 100 rediscovered recipes from a modern cocktail historian.

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10.4 Development and promotion of cocktails The evolution of cocktails is well recorded in literature and the visual media, as major authors, script writers and film directors have consistently embraced the beauty, complexity and enjoyment of cocktails.

1910 Britain’s first cocktail bar, The Criterion, opened in Piccadilly Circus. Also in this year the first in-flight cocktails are served to passengers on a Zeppelin flying over Germany.

1920 to 1930s In Hollywood, classic cocktails are used as central props, and used throughout the next 80 years. Cocktails begin to appear in films like Casablanca (1942), State of the Union (1948), All About Eve (1950). James Bond immortalised the Martini in Dr. No (1962) the Sazerac in Live and Let Die (1973), the Mojito in Die Another Day (2002), and re-introduced the Vesper, which first appeared in the 1953 book, in the film Casino Royal (2009).

US Prohibition 1920 to 1933 The Prohibition period in the USA was an unexpected stimulant for the popularity of the mixed drink. The Volstead Act made it illegal to sell, manufacture, deliver or trade in alcohol. The very illicitness of drinking in speakeasies (up market underground bars which served the best bootleg spirits and cocktails) and blind pigs (underground bars which normally served poor quality beers and spirits) helped to drive the popularity and enjoyment of cocktails. Americans actually spent 40 billon dollars on alcohol in this period. This period was party time in the US. The most popular nightclubs were The Stork Club, El Morocco, The Knickbocker Grill, Park Avenue Club, Morgan’s and the Cotton Club in Harlem. Figure10.9: Speakeasy inspired cocktail menu.

1940 to 1950s With numerous economic problems after the WW2, there was little money for cocktails. Tiki cocktails created in this period as people seek some escape from the economic misery. The first (IBA) world cocktail competition takes place in 1951.

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Figure 10.10: Mixologists enjoying prohibition style cocktails.

1960s and 1970s In this time of rebellion against traditions cocktail lounges were considered old fashioned. In the age of electrical appliances and the blender, the cocktail shaker was retired. Often referred to as a dark era for cocktails. Tall, bland, sweet drinks were in, to compliment the discotheques. Sweet cocktails also like Coladas become popular. Classic cocktails withered as the old bartenders retired and their young replacements learned only the bare minimum of old recipes and virtually none of the careful techniques of preparation (Haigh, 2009).

1980 to present day A period of consolidation and downsizing was in for the spirit industry, when iconic brands died due to lack of distribution (profit was king) or because taste buds had changed. ‘Punk cocktails’ emerged – young and inexperienced bartenders began to look beyond the usual cocktails, and started selling drinks such as Jelly Shots and Abortions. 1990s: The early 1990s were marked by a lack of sophistication for bartending was often a temp job between other professions. There was a huge development and sales of pre-packaged alcoholic lemonades, and trendy liqueurs, but in the late 1990s the bartender shifted focus to the kitchen, and quality and originality became top priorities. 2000: Knowledge of food and drinks had grown, there was more economic stability, more disposable wealth, and people were well travelled. Cocktails made a strong comeback as the ‘Sex in the City’ effect began to take hold. This is the time of the exotic cocktail experience, with emphasis on freshly prepared cocktails using fresh natural juices, premium spirits and liqueurs, aromatic garnishes in contemporary stylish surroundings. 2004: Museum of the American Cocktail opened in New Orleans. The founders included Robert Hess, Ted Haigh, Anistatia Miller, Chris McMillian, Laura

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McMillian, Jill deGroff, Dale deGroff, Jared Brown and Phil Greene. Old recipes were re-discovered and made again, updated by highly qualified bartenders. 2006 to 2009: A greater number of bars are preparing and serving cocktails. The style of design and layout of these bars differed so much from the original classic cocktail bars of the 1920s to 1950s. Access to wider ranges of bitters and obscure ingredients increasied; smaller niche or specialist outlets began to important unusual or old brands. Since 2010: A move towards value for money and unfortunately the re-introduction of pre-mixed cocktails in a bottle (Bacardi Mojito) or draught cocktails (Smirnoff Mojito on tap).

10.5 Cocktail and mixed drinks making methods Cocktails and mixed drinks may be blended, built, layered, muddled, shaken or stirred. The decision about which of these methods to use depends on several factors: „„ Blending method: If a cocktail or mixed drink contains solid ingredients such as a heavy juice, freshly chopped fruits or coconut cream or ice cream use an electric blender and blend to make a smooth liquid (see Electric blender below). „„ Build method: Some drinks that mix well and which will not benefit from being shaken, stirred or blended, for example single spirits mixed with carbonated or juice beverages, are ideally built over cubed and or crushed ice and lightly stirred with a long spoon. Pour the individual beverages directly into the glass to be used for service and only add ice if specified. „„ Layered method: If the drinks are of different specific gravities and the bartender wishes to keep them separate, the cocktail can be layered by pouring slowly over the back of a small spoon and/or crushed ice to break the fall of the liquids. This technique, popular since the 1840s, is commonly used for layered shooters (pousse cafes, French for ‘after coffee’). These miniature speciality cocktails are the quintessential test of a mixer’s ability. To prepare a layered shooter you need a steady hand and knowledge of specific gravities of liqueurs, syrups and spirits. By adding the ingredients in order of their specific gravities, they remain separate and the result is a colourful rainbow effect. Layered shooters can be prepared for parties in advance they will keep for up to one hour in the refrigerator before the layers start to mix. For the best results allow at least five units difference between each liquid and starting always with the highest specific gravity. Thomas (1862) reminds us to keep ‘a steady hand and careful manipulation’ when making the perfect pousse. „„ Muddling method: If a cocktail requires you to use fresh juices and extracted leaf oils we use the muddling technique (like a pestle in a mixing jug) to make the cocktail or mixed drink. For a further explanation on the blending method for preparing cocktails and mixed drinks (see Muddle on page 312).

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„„ Shaken method: If the cocktail contains a cloudy ingredient such as fresh cream, egg yolk, lemon or orange or a similar opaque item it should be shaken. For a further explanation on the shaker method for preparing cocktails and mixed drinks (see Cocktail shaker and Boston shaker below). „„ Stirred method: If the ingredients are all clear and primarily alcoholic, then the cocktail should be stirred. For a further explanation on the stirred method for preparing cocktails and mixed drinks (see Mixing glass set below). For the purposes of profitability and chemistry, when mixing drinks containing fruit juices or sweetening, always pour the spirits last to ensure correct mixture and balance of the cocktail or mixed drink.

Cocktail shaker (shaker method) The standard three piece stainless steel cocktail shaker is the best. It contains a built in strainer that pours slow. Used for cocktails with fruit juices etc. Never use fizzy drinks in the shaker. Always use fresh cubed ice in the cocktail shaker. Shaking not only mixes a drink, it also chills and dilutes it. Sometimes if you require really cold drinks use either block or crushed ice in the shaker, but take care not to over-dilute. Most cocktails, which are served without ice, also benefit from an additional fine strain to remove small fragments of fruit and/or flecks of ice. A fine strainer, like a tea strainer, held between the shaker and the glass is perfect for this task. Some bartenders refer to this as ‘double straining’. Usage: insert ice, half fill with products, secure all parts together and using both hands place the forefinger of one hand over the top of the shaker and the thumb of the other hand under the bottom. Grasp the shaker fully around the middle, move the wrist and forearm together and in an arc rhythm shake sharply, use of wrists, (10-12 seconds or 20-25 shakes briskly away from the customer).

Boston shaker (shaker method) This is the same as the standard cocktail shaker except its cones are usually one glass, one steel or sometimes both steel. One cone always overlaps the other to lock the shaker. Tap the top cone until you feel the shaker is closed. To open the Boston, place it on the work surface and tap the middle near the overlap until you feel it release, taking care not to pressurize this area too much. Fill the glass half 3/4 full with fresh cubed ice, then pour all the ingredients on top, with the cheapest ingredient first in case of mistakes, then pour the contents of the glass into the steel half, close and shake as above. Lift the glass off and use a hawthorn strainer to strain the cocktail. Referred to as the bartender’s shaker for its practicality, precision and efficiency. Flavoured by professional bartenders.

Mixing glass set (stirring method) The best types usually contain a directional pourer or pouring lip. Used with bar spoon and hawthorn strainer it’s ideal for mixing clear drinks with no juices or

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cream. Always pre-chill with ice and strain before use. Stir with a bar spoon for 10 seconds maximum and strain with a hawthorn strainer. Sometimes the glass half of the Boston shaker will do here.

Figure 10.11: Stirring cocktails (left) and fine straining (right).

Electric blender (blending method) Blenders are best used for preparing cocktails that require fruit to be pureed, for example a strawberry daiquiri. Although most professional electric blenders have specially toughened blades, it is best that crushed ice is used whenever possible; this reduces the stress on the motor therefore reducing its longevity. Pour all the ingredients into the blender, cheapest ingredients (fresh fruits, creams) first and alcohol last. Blend without ice on low speed for 10 seconds, then add crushed ice and blend on high speed for another 5-10 seconds. Adding the crushed ice last allows the fruit to liquidize first without too much dilution. Take care not to over blend as this can spoil the ingredients, for example turning cream sour or fruit juices thick, spoiling the taste of your cocktails. For a thicker cocktail, add another half bar scoop of crushed ice before switching to high speed.

Muddle Muddling is an important part of mixing cocktails when using fresh herbs, such as mint or fresh fruits. A wooden muddler lets you grind the mint in the bottom of the glass without marking the glassware. Wooden muddlers are usually made of lignum vitae, which is the hardest known wood. Muddlers are also currently made of glass, plastic and marble.

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10.6 The basics of good cocktail making The best cocktails are made with simple ingredients, simple equipment and implements. A good cocktail should have the correct glass size, correct proportion, good balance, strength and flavour. If you want to deliver good cocktails to delight your customers it is important that you adopt some best practice procedures for making cocktails in your bar.

Consistency In the hospitality trade, to achieve high quality standards you must have consistency, and making cocktails is no exception. The cocktail must be made the same way by all bartenders, so that if customers order the same drink, they must get it made the way the first drink was made always. Consistency will only happen if all bartenders work as a team. Remember you can build a good reputation for yourselves. Begin by formulating a standardized approach for making your cocktails (i.e. pre-defined amounts and brands to be used, glassware, garnish and method adopted)

Knowledge of drinks A key factor. The only way to gain this knowledge is by making the cocktails and studying different menus and drinks knowledge books. Your aim is to be able to make cocktails without looking at the recipes – make it look natural for you to shake a cocktail. This involves understanding in as much detail the wide range of ingredients available – spirits, juices, liqueurs, soft drinks, flavourings, condiments - and how they are used to balance flavours and deliver a good cocktail.

Cleanliness Without cleanliness you have nothing. You must take pride in your bar, have clean cloths at the ready, bottles and utensils cleaned down, and always put back the equipment where it belongs. ‘Clean as you go’ is the rule. Remember you are the liquid chef (mixologist) of the bar and you must therefore bring ahigh level of cleanliness. This includes personal hygiene and your uniform – a sense of style and elegance that is appropriate to the setting of your bar.

Preparation You must have at least 1.5 hours dedicated to setting up the cocktail bar so that you have everything required to get you through a busy night. Set up your bar thinking that you will be very busy, and always set up the same way every day. You should have a check list and tick off all the tasks as you go along e.g. juices, spirits, liqueurs, cream, speed rail properly organized, garnishes, back up stock, straws, and shakers. I cannot emphasize how important preparation is for a cocktail bar to be successful. It is everything. Remember the impact of glassware on your cocktails so choose appropriately and to catch your customer’s eye.

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Enjoy the art of cocktail making To be a top cocktail bartender you have to enjoy making the cocktail, for this enjoyment relays out to the customers you are serving. You should not make it look like a problem for you to make the cocktail. Proper cocktail training will benefit you and instead of being a regular bartender you could become a ‘chef of the bar’, a ‘mixologist’. This includes understanding the various equipment in detail, and also involves a commitment to performance – showing off your skills in front of your customer, at competitions and for interested individuals.

Customer relations Always make a point of making customers feel important – because they are. No matter how busy you are, always acknowledge them, tell them you will look after them, inform them how much you’ve trained to do these cocktails and recommend your favorite cocktails to them. Without customers we do not have. Friendliness and friendship includes being interested in people and especially your customer, bringing new flavours and sharing experiences of the cocktail world with them (e.g. a special cocktail you encountered or a competition or training day where you gained new recipes).

Communication Management and staff must communicate with each other for a cocktail bar to be successful. Write down notes about the day, e.g. what you ran short of, what you had too much of, busiest time, mistakes. Pass on the information to each other, no matter how irrelevant you might think it is. We all must be able to communicate.

Ice Always use fresh clean ice never re-use it because it retains smoke and odors from the room. Always ice your glasses to pre chill them before use. Almost all mixed drinks taste better when served ice cold, so keep a good supply of ice. Frosted glasses can be achieved by storing them in a refrigerator or buried in the shaved ice. Use crushed ice if you want to chill the shaker quickly.

The shake and serve Try to develop your own shake. Make it short and snappy and hold it above your shoulder. Shake vigorously in an arc rhythm and never shake towards the customer or guest in case of an accident. Remember using a cocktail shaker to prepare your drinks inflates the final result so allow your glass size for this. To avoid the possibility of leakage or the accidental separation of the shaker, wrap a clean napkin around it before shaking. Always serve a cocktail while it is ‘smiling’ – i.e. A.S.A.P. while it’s fresh and before it separates.

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Pouring When pouring your cocktail for more than one, consistency in each glass is important. To achieve this, half filling the glasses equally, then go back to the first and re-fill all the glasses to an even level. Practice making many different types of cocktails to aid experience, learn from mistakes.

Figure 10.12: Pouring cocktails.

The glassware Always carry standard cocktail glasses for short cocktails, fancy cocktail glasses, tumblers or slim jims for long drinks, aperitif or sherry glasses for mild drinks, shot glasses for shooters and New Orleans for long flair cocktails. Glassware should always be clean, not smelling or sticky, and free from lipstick. All glasses should have brilliant clarity, good balance and a fine rim, never use colored glasses. All glassware should always be handled be the stem or base and remember that sudden changes of temperature for a glass can be disastrous. Never fill a glass to the brim; spillage will result in soiling clothes and bar counters.

Garnish techniques You need a variety of fruits, and prepare the garnish beforehand to increase the speed of service. Carry maraschino cherries for manhattans and old fashioned, pitted olives for martinis, limes for daiquiris and Cuba libres and lemons for Collins. Garnish is the crowning glory of a cocktail so never use too much or too little. The ends of lemons, limes and oranges can be used as twists for dry martinis, and margaritas to save waste on fruit. When extracting freshly squeezed juice, pre-warming the fruit will yield more juice. Fruit cut into slices and twists will keep fresh if covered with ice or water and stored in a refrigerator covered by a plastic wrap. Inedible additives (swizzle sticks, cocktails sticks, straws, and parasols) can enhance a drink’s presentation (see also Appendix III, Garnishing techniques).

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10.7 Modern cocktail categories The authentic classic cocktail was composed of at least two or three parts: the base liquor, the modifying agent or aromatiser and the flavouring part. Cocktails can be divided into five classes: 1 The pre-dinner cocktail: usually a short drink (low ball) of aperitif type, so the majority of these would taste dry to medium or sweet and sour. Pre-dinner cocktails are often strong in alcohol. They are usually served in a Martini cocktail or Old-Fashioned glass. 2 The All-day cocktail: usually a long, cold drink (highball) of medium or neutral taste and style, for example the mojito. These contain carbonated drinks, ideal for quenching the thirst, a greater proportion of non-alcoholic constituents than (low ball) cocktails. The main glasses used for long drinks are the highball, sling, hurricane or tumbler. 3 The after-dinner cocktail: usually a short drink (low ball) of digestif type, these would taste medium to rich. Ideally served after lunch or dinner, and either hot or cold, for example specialty coffees. They can contain all manner of syrups, dairy produce, bitters, liqueurs and spirits. Prepared and or served in Martini, Old-Fashioned or heat resistant glasses. 4 The non-alcoholic cocktail: usually a long drink (highball) of medium or neutral taste and style, for example St Clements, containing juices, syrups, lemonades, etc. The main glasses used for alcohol free cocktails are the highball, sling, hurricane, tumbler or slim Jim glasses. 5 The shooter (miniature cocktail): usually a short mini cocktail (shot) served throughout the day and night, usually consisting of straight chilled flavoured spirits or various flavoured liqueurs floated on top of each other in a layered fashioned. These can be served hot, for example the Galliano Hot Shot.

10.8 Creating cocktail recipes A true mixologist understands balance, depth and complexity in their food and beverage skills and knowledge. Creating new cocktail recipes can be one of the most challenging and rewarding components of the bar industry, and with a little study and a basic understanding of flavour integration you can begin to create your own signature cocktails. When you become confident of your cocktail creation abilities, you could consider entering a local or national cocktail competition to gain publicity for your bar and to raise your profile in the industry amongst your colleagues and peers.

Creating a well balanced cocktail A good cocktail is created on a careful balance of ingredients, the correct process method, the appropriate glass and the right type of ice (cubed, crushed, slate,

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large or shaped). A basic cocktail recipe should consist of: „„ Base spirit: 30 to 45 ml (brandy, whiskey, gin, vodka, rum). „„ Modifier: 15 to 25 ml (various liqueurs). „„ Mixers or fillers (i.e. soda): top with 30 ml (short), 120 ml (long cocktail). „„ Flavouring (optional): dashes or drops for q Sweetness (Grenadine syrup or flavoured syrups). q Sourness (citric fresh juice, i.e. lime, lemon). q Special impact (flavoured bitters or orange Curacao). „„ Garnishes and decorations, ice and straws (when appropriate).

General guidelines „„ Taste with your brain as well as your taste buds, with the goal of understanding the interplay of flavours and ingredients. „„ Search out interesting ingredients and use them to develop contemporary classics, this includes new, high-quality spirits, juices, and bar mixes. Don’t neglect garnishes and glassware. „„ Seek a balance of elements within the drink, acidity, sweetness, bitterness, and alcohol. A strong drink is not automatically a better drink, its alcohol content should complement the other ingredients. „„ Involve all the senses. we taste first with our eyes, then with our nose, before we put a glass to our lips. „„ Consider how the drink finishes when first swallowed, clear and icy, the slight heat of the alcohol, a tinge of citrus or mint. In addition to the list of ingredients, you should consider two other factors when creating a cocktail or mixed drink: its taste complexity, which means the overall sophistication (or lack of) of the cocktail, and the degree of difficulty that making the cocktail entails. Evaluate each cocktail according to the following criteria:

Taste complexity categories „„ Commonplace: these drinks are simple, ordered frequently, and well received, although they are rarely remembered as anything exceptional. „„ Tasty but artless: for those who rarely order a cocktail, and generally enjoy wine or beer instead. „„ Inspiring: truly classic cocktails, they are sophisticated and expertly mixed and will prove enticing to most guests. They can be served with pride. „„ Challenging and complex: Tthese might require some explanation before being presented to guests, to prepare their taste buds for the experience.

Mixing difficulty categories „„ Elementary: mixing drinks in this category is about as difficult as preparing a glass of ice water.

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„„ Basic: these drinks are simple enough to be made well by anyone with a genuine interest or a little bartending experience. „„ Moderate: these drinks can be made fairly easily, but require some skill. „„ Difficult: these require extra steps in preparation. „„ Advanced: in addition to being difficult, these require a hard-to-find ingredient or a more challenging step in preparation In most parts of the world, a cocktail recipe could be expressed in fractions, according to the volume of the glass used corresponding to the ingredients. Some recipes are expressed in millilitres, centilitres or ounces. Appendix I, after the recipes in Chapter 16 has a set of conversion tables. Glass styles and sizes can vary from country to country but bar to bar. The recommended total number of ingredients allowed in a mixed drink or cocktail is five; this includes all ‘drops and dashes’. It is normal practice to only have one base spirit in the cocktail and a maximum of 2 ½ oz or 7cl of alcoholic content in the cocktail. Some countries may have a local rule regarding this figure, so check before you begin. When creating a new cocktail or cocktail list, you must work within the context of your business. Your company trading policies will need to be factored in, and you might, for example, have certain sponsoring companies or decide that certain cocktails will only be prepared with premium brands and not the house brands.

10.9 Creating cocktail menus A bar’s cocktail menu is of crucial importance to the promotion and eventual success of the bar’s cocktail offering. The style, layout, content, and perhaps even the character of the cocktail menu will provide the customer with a unique insight into the very heart of the bar. For example, when listing a Mojito cocktail, it might appear as follows:

Classic Mojito

€7.00

This Cuban classic is prepared by muddling sprigs of fresh mint, fine sugar, fresh squeezed lime juice together with genuine Cuban rum and is served over crushed ice, topped with a little soda water and garnished with sprigs of fresh mint. We also offer a range of flavoured Mojitos: Wild Berry Mojito, Vodka Mojito, Basil Blueberry Mojito, Strawberry Mojito, Lavender Cucumber Mojito, Miami Gold Mojito, Apple and Peach mojito, Sunny Mojito. You can see from the description and detail that this bar has taken a lot of time to ensure that this cocktail is presented in an appealing fashion on the menu.

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Figure 10.13 : A good example of an informative cocktail menu There are other factors which you must also consider when completing your cocktail menu. „„ Menu design: you must consider what’s practical, viable and workable. No two locations, events or parties are the same. „„ Research and training: your research should be desk and primary based. Collect and combine authoritative local, national and international knowledge to suit your cocktail menu. This could include attending training courses, trade events and culinary competitions. „„ Promotion activities: promotion of your cocktails and mixed drinks should incorporate regular special theme nights, 007 James Bond, summer local or national festival nights, major national or community sporting events. Sample size portions of cocktails should be offered to your guests a couple of times weekly in shooter glasses, and the servers should use this opportunity to advise guests on recipe choices. Cocktail menus must be backed up with bigger point of sale items which could include electronic cocktail signage, posters, cocktail props and staff uniforms. „„ Cocktail recipes: these recipes should reflect consumers’ current eating habits. It is commonly accepted that they consume far more fresh fruit and are far more knowledgeable about healthier foods, and these changes must be incorporated into cocktail recipe and menu development. „„ The signature cocktail: this can take the form of one cocktail or a line of variations of classic cocktails, for example fresh fruit flavored Margaritas or Cosmopolitans. Signature cocktails act as a point of differentiation, affording your cocktail bar or indeed yourself the opportunity to gain a good reputation. So make sure that you have one on your menu.

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„„ Cocktail menu pricing: always provide transparency in the price structures of the cocktails. These drinks should not only be appealing from their ingredients, but also in that they are reasonably priced. „„ Striking a balance: it is crucial that the menu strikes a balance between the major cocktail categories. This involves selecting the right proportions of predinner and after dinner (low balls), long drinks (highballs), restorative drinks, alcohol free, hot drinks, shooters and Champagne cocktails. Too many cocktails from one category will create an imbalance, which will restrict choice.

Figure 10.14 : Images can add real impact to a menu.

Creating new cocktails for your menu When you are creating new cocktails, this may involve the use of alternative ingredients when the traditional ingredients are not available. You should always seek to understand the flavors and specific gravities of different cocktails, and the combinations which you are likely to achieve when you mix different colored liqueurs, spirits, syrups, juices and lemonades. During your research into creating cocktails collect information from your customers, guests, friends and maybe family. Practice with classic cocktail recipes initially, and deliberately alter the established classic recipe to assess the impact of your alteration on flavour, aroma and taste. This is the refining process which you must apply to your new recipe when you are experimenting. Involve as many individuals as possible during the tasting and development process – it’s amazing the constructive criticisms, helpful advice, and suggestions which you will receive.

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This cocktail must be commercial viable. Remember that these people can be representative of the market where the new cocktail will be offered. You should involve all the hospitality staff members, food and beverage companies, maybe professional bodies and certainly the local culinary and bar management training institutes to identify current trends.

10.10 Calculating profits on cocktails Cocktails contain many varied ingredients, so it is crucial that you understand the complete and final ingredient costs of every cocktail sold in your bar, as this evaluation helps you to understand the individual gross profit and percentage margins of your recipes. This can also help assist you in compiling your final selection of recipes. This worked example is based on the famous after dinner cocktail, the Alexander. Table 10.1: Calculating the cost prices of a cocktails: The Alexander cocktail 1. Start with the standard house recipe from your SOP, standard operating procedure bar manual under the cocktail section.

1. Recipe:      

3.5cl Cognac 3.5cl Crème de Cacao liqueur 3.5cl Fresh Cream Sprinkle of nutmeg.

2. Cognac cost   bottle size   bottle cost    cost per 1cl (divide bottle cost by size)    multiply the cl cost by recipe amount

2. Cognac cost    700 ml = 70 cl (centilitres)   €27   €27 ÷ 70cl = 0.39 per cl    0.39 (cost per cl) × 3.5 cl = €1.37

3. Crème de cacao liqueur cost   bottle size   bottle cost    cost per 1cl (divide bottle cost by size)    multiply the cl cost by recipe amount

3. Crème de Cacao liqueur cost    700 ml (70cl) = 70cl (centilitres)   €22   €22 ÷ 70cl = 0.54 per cl   0.31 (cost per cl) × 3.5 cl = €1.09

4. Fresh cream cost    carton size in cl    cost of carton    cost per 1cl (divide carton cost by size)    multiply the cl cost by recipe amount

4. Fresh cream cost    250 ml (25cl) = 25cl   €2.30    €2.30 ÷ 25cl = 0.09 per cl    0.09 × 3.5 cl = €0.32

5. Nutmeg cost.

5. Nutmeg cost

6. Total the costs: this must be updated regularly

6. Cognac Crème de Cacao Fresh cream Nutmeg

(approx) €0.05   €1.37 €1.09   €0.32   €0.05

Standard recipe cost €1.73

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Calculating gross profit and gross profit % To find the gross profit, subtract the cost of the drink from its selling price. Selling price €7.00 minus cost €1.73 equals €5.27 Gross profit (GP) To find the gross profit margin as a percentage, then divide the gross profit by the selling price.     €5.27 (gross profit) €7.00 (selling price) = 0.75, or 75% gross profit %

Conclusion „„ The cocktail offering of the bar has become the most attractive and profitable asset offering infinite scope and variety to the bartender for their customers. „„ This chapter explored the history, development and promotion of cocktails from their first mentions in the 2nd century AD through to modern culture. „„ In recent years bars have witnessed a revival in freshly made and professionally prepared cocktails. „„ To consistently create good cocktails you must have consistency, a knowledge of drinks, and high levels of cleanliness, preparation and customer relations. „„ The cocktail maker, through dedication, passion and expression of their art, makes these beverages so appealing to customers. „„ Cocktails may be shaken, stirred, blended, muddled or built, depending upon the ingredients, or the texture or flavour required. „„ Cocktails should always suit the context and the type of bar or they will not appeal to your customers. „„ Cocktails recipes today are continuing to evolve as new products, methods, modern technology and cocktail training programs drive the creative process of the 21st century mixologist. „„ The flexibility of these drinks makes them so appealing across all seasons, times of the day and courses of the meal experience. „„ To capitalize on cocktails, it is crucial that bars carry out some proper research and training into the recipes they offer on their cocktail menu. „„ Bars must highlight their signature cocktails, adopt promotional activities, design a good cocktail menu which strikes a balance between the major cocktail categories and finally price their cocktails to project acceptable profit levels and margins.

Appendix I: Cocktail recipes The recipes here have been arranged in five groups: classics, contemporary, modern, old reliables and non-alcoholic. For each recipe, you will find its category, ingredients, glassware, method of preparation and the appropriate garnish (if any). The origins are also given, where they are known. Every bartender or upcoming cocktail maker should memorize these recipes and be able to recall them as needed.

Category abbreviations „„ Aft: after dinner cocktail, sweet type „„ Lng: long drink, thirst quenching cool type, includes all day „„ Pre: pre-dinner cocktail, aperitif type „„ Pmu: pick-me-up, hangover or ailmentcure type.

Glassware sizes Old fashioned glass, also known as low ball or rocks glass (30cl) Cocktail glass, Martini type (12cl size) Highball glass, Collins, slim Jim (30cl) Goblet glass (30cl) Wine goblet glass

(24cl)

Champagne flute (24cl).

Always make the cocktails to the same recipes every time.

Americano (pre) 3cl Red vermouth 3cl Campari Bitter Mix the ingredients directly in an old fashioned glass with ice cubes, top up soda water and garnish with half slice of orange. Invented in Gaspare Campari’s Bar, Milan, Italy in 1861. In some recipes they also add a twist of lemon.

Angel Face (all day) 3cl Gin 3cl Apricot Brandy 3cl Calvados Pour all the ingredients into a cocktail shaker with ice shake and strain into a cocktail glass.

Aviation (all day) 4.5cl Gin 1.5cl Marachino (white) 1.5cl Lemon juice

The Unforgettable Classics

Shake and strain into a cocktail glass. Garnish with a stemmed red cherry.

Alexander (aft)

William Grimes New York Times reporter and famous cocktail author’s favourite cocktail. The original Aviation had both Maraschino and Creme Yvette.

3cl Fresh cream 3cl Crème de cacao brown 3cl Cognac Sprinkle fresh ground nutmeg on top. Shake and strain into a cocktail glass. Originally based on gin, known as the Princess Mary cocktail, created in Feb 1922, London, England to mark the occasion of Princess Mary’s wedding.

Bacardi Cocktail (pre) 4.5cl Bacardi Rum 2cl Lime juice 1cl Grenadine syrup Shake and strain into a cocktail glass. Garnish with a red cherry. According to a famous ruling of the New York Supreme Court in 1936, a genuine Bacardi Cocktail can only be made with this rum.

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Between the Sheets (all day) cocktail 3cl white rum 3cl Cognac 3cl Triple Sec 2cl Fresh lemon juice Shake and strain into a cocktail glass.

Pour all ingredients into a mixing glass with ice. Stir and strain into a cocktail glass. Garnish with a fresh mint leaves in the drink.

Dry Martini (pre) 6cl Gin 1cl Dry Vermouth

1cl Maraschino

Pour all ingredients into mixing glass with ice cubes. Stir well and strain into chilled martini glass. Squeeze oil from lemon peel onto the drink, or garnish with olive.

1cl Orange Bitters

Variations

1cl fresh lemon juice

„„ If shaken it becomes a Bradford cocktail.

Casino (all day) 4cl Old Tom Gin

Shake and strain into a cocktail glass. Garnish with lemon twist and a maraschino cherry.

Clover Club (all day) 4.5cl Gin 1.5cl Raspberry syrup 1.5cl fresh lemon juice A few drops of egg white Shake and strain into a cocktail glass. The poet W. B Yeats loved this cocktail when he first tasted it as the Waldorf Astoria Hotel, New York in 1911.

Daiquiri (pre) 4.5cl White rum 2.5cl fresh lime juice 1.5cl Simple syrup Shake and strain into a cocktail glass. Garnish is optional here. I would recommend a small wedge of lime. This recipe is sometimes made with lemon juice and some mixologists actually use sugar instead of simple syrup. Invented by Jennings Cox (American mining engineer) in the Spanish-American Iron Company, Havana, Cuba in 1896.

Derby (all day) 6cl Gin 2 drops Peach Bitters 2 fresh mint leaves

„„ Sometimes a Premium Martini will be requested, if so use premium base spirits. „„ Vodka Martini – use Vodka instead of Gin, „„ Sweet Martini add red vermouth instead of dry vermouth and garnish with red cherry „„ Perfect Martini – add 1cl Red vermouth to the Dry Martini cocktail , garnish with lemon zest or red cherry.

Gin Fizz (lng) 4cl Gin 3cl Lemon juice 1 cl Sugar syrup 8cl Soda water Shake all but the soda water. Strain into a highball glass. Stir in the soda water slowly. Garnish with a slice of lemon and a red cherry and straws. First mentioned in Jerry Thomas Bartenders Guide in 1862, the recipe used 1 teaspoon of powered white sugar instead of gomme syrup and insisted on Holland Gin as the base of this built cocktail. Note: You can also add egg white to give the drink a froth at the finish this is called a Silver Fizz Cocktail or maybe add one egg yolk to make a Golden Fizz Cocktail.

John Collins (lng) 4.5cl Gin 3cl Lemon juice 1.5cl Sugar syrup 6cl Soda water

Cocktail Recipes

In some countries, a dash of Angostura bitters is added. Shake except the soda into an ice-filled Highball glass stirring in the soda last of all. Garnish with a slice of lemon and a red cherry. Serve with straws. Origins in Limmer’s Hotel and Coffee House, Conduit Street, London, England in 1790- 1817. Another story links this drink to a loud and boisterous man who was know to sit in taverns and talk harshly of nearly everyone he’d met, victims were encouraged to find Collins, this was not easy. Jerry Thomas used this myth so when people looked for Collins he would give the customer this sour long drink instead. Note: a Tom Collins was made to the same recipe using Old Tom gin. However in some countries it is now common practice to make a John Collins with whiskey and a Tom Collins with gin. Other spirits may be substituted for example Vodka Collins, Rum Collins. In the 1955 film The Seven Year Itch observe actor Tom Ewell, alias Richard Sherman, make Marilyn Monroe a Tom Collins classic cocktail.

Manhattan (pre) 5 cl Rye whiskey 2 cl Red vermouth 1 dash Angostura Bitters Pour all ingredients into mixing glass with ice cubes. Stir well and strain into chilled cocktail glass. Garnish with cocktail cherry. Said to have been first created at the Hotel Palo Alto April, 1846, by bartender John Welby Henderson for John A. Hopkins who had been wounded in a duel with Baron Henri de Vrie at Challano, Bladesburg, M.D. Also claimed by the Manhattan Club, New York, US in 1874. First mentioned in Jerry Thomas Bartenders Guide in 1862.

Variations Brandy Manhattan: substitute Brandy for the Rye Whiskey. Dry Manhattan: omit the Bitters add Dry Vermouth and garnish with a slice of lemon (zest).

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Perfect Manhattan: replace Vermouth with 1cl Dry vermouth and 1cl Sweet Red Vermouth, add a cherry. Devil’s Manhattan: add 2cl Southern Comfort to the original mix and garnish with lemon twist.

Mary Pickford (all day) 6 cl White Rum 1 cl Maraschino 6 cl Fresh pineapple juice 1 cl Grenadine syrup Shake and strain into a chilled large cocktail glass.

Monkey Gland (all day) 5 cl Gin 3 cl Orange juice 2 drops Absinth 2 drops Grenadine Shake and strain into a chilled cocktail glass.

Negroni (pre) 3 cl Gin 3 cl Campari 3 cl Sweet red vermouth Pour all ingredients directly into an old-fashioned glass filled with ice. Stir gently. Garnish with half orange slice. Note: in some countries it is normal to offer the option of soda water, and to serve with a stirrer. Created either in Casoni Bar or Hotel Baglioni, Florence, Italy, in honour of Count Camelo Negroni in 1920.

Old Fashioned (pre) 4.5 cl Bourbon or Rye whiskey 2 dashes Angostura Bitters 1 sugar cube A few dashes plain water Place sugar cube in old-fashioned glass and saturate with bitters, add a dash of plain water. Muddle until dissolve. Fill the glass with ice cubes and add whisky. Garnish with orange slice and a cocktail cherry.

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Note: In some countries the whiskey could be Scotch or Irish. Can be garnished with a twist of lemon and served with a stirrer. Created in Pendennis Club, Louisville, U.S around 1900 by Colonel James E. Pepper (Kentucky distiller) & David Embury (bartender).

Paradise (all day) Also known as Mayfair and Paradiso 3.5 cl Gin 2 cl Apricot Brandy 1.5 cl Orange juice Pour all ingredients into shaker filled with ice. Shake and strain into chilled cocktail glass.

Variations Spencer cocktail: add 1 dash Angostura.

Pour all ingredients into cocktail shaker filled with ice. Shake well and strain into a cocktail glass. Sprinkle with fresh ground nutmeg. Eggs provide iron and vitamin B12.

Ramos Fizz (lng) 4.5 cl Gin 1.5 cl Lime juice 1.5 cl Fresh lemon juice 3 cl Sugar syrup 6 cl Cream 1 Egg white 3 dashes Orange flower water 2 drops Vanilla extract Soda water

Apricamp: substitute Campari for gin.

Combine in a chilled cocktail shaker with plenty of cracked ice, then shake viciously for at least one minute and strain into a chilled Collins glass. Top up with club soda.

Planter’s Punch (lng)

Rusty Nail (aft)

Park Lane: add 1 dash grenadine and 1 dash lemon juice.

4.5 cl Dark rum 3.5 cl Fresh orange juice 3.5 cl Fresh pineapple juice 2 cl Fresh lemon juice 1 cl Grenadine 1 cl Sugar syrup 3 to 4 dashes Angostura bitters Pour all ingredients, except the bitters, into shaker filled with ice. Shake well. Pour into large glass, filled with ice. Add Angostura bitters, on top. Garnish with cocktail cherry and pineapple. Created to celebrate the opening of Myer’s Rum distillery, Jamaica in 1879 by Fred L.Myers, especially associated with Kelly’s Bar on Sugar Wharf. In some countries the garnish can be oranges and lemons and the rum can be a larger portion up to 6cl of mixed types. (In the Caribbean there are punch cocktails.)

Porto Flip (aft) 1.5 cl Brandy 4.5 cl red Port 1 cl Egg yolk

4.5cl Scotch whisky 2.5cl Drambuie Liqueur Build over ice into an Old Fashioned glass. Stir gently. Garnish with a twist or ideally a rind of lemon, small dash of Angostura bitters (optional). This cocktail is ideal if you add a little Peychaund bitters to the mix, instead of Angostura, as Peychaund blends better with the whiskey.

Sazerac (aft) 5 cl Cognac 1 cl Absinthe 1 sugar cube 2 dashes Peychaud’s bitters Rinse a chilled old-fashioned glass with the absinthe, add crush ed ice and set aside. Stir the remaining ingredients over ice and set aside. Discard the ice and any excess Absinthe from the prepared glass, and strain the drink into it. Add the Lemon peel for garnish. Note: The original recipe changed after the American Civil War, when rye whiskey was

Cocktail Recipes

substituted for Cognac as it became hard to obtain. The Rye whiskey recipe was used Live and Let Die, recommended as an aphrodisiac. Some recipes will stir and strain all the ingredients. Use Pernod if Absinthe is not available.

Screwdriver (all day) 5 cl Vodka 10 cl Orange juice Pour the ingredients into a highball glass filled with ice. Stir gently. Garnish with an orange slice. An American oilman working in Iran allegedly stirred this combination with a screwdriver in 1950’s.

Variation Orange Blossom: replace Vodka with Gin.

Sidecar (all day) 4cl Cognac 3cl Cointreau Liqueur 2cl Lemon juice Shake and strain into a sugar rimmed cocktail glass. Named after a motorcycle sidecar in which an army captain was chauffeur driven crashed into Harry’s Bar, Paris, France in 1931 while Harry MacElhone was creating new cocktails. Garnish with an orange rind and cocktail cherry. Some recipes like to use half lemon and lime juice.

Stinger (aft) 5 cl Cognac 2 cl Créme de Menthe (white) Pour all ingredients into a mixing glass with ice. Stir. Strain into a cocktail glass. Note: It may also be built straight up over ice into an Old Fashioned glass or shaken. Considered a wholesome and well-concocted recipe by the legendary bartender Patrick Duffy in 1920s and 1930s.

Tuxedo (all day) 3 cl Old Tom Gin 3 cl Dry Vermouth 1/2 bar spoon Maraschino

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1/4 bar spoon Absinthe 3 dashes Orange Bitters Stir all ingredients with ice and strain into cocktail glass. Garnish with a cocktail cherry and a lemon zest twist.

Whiskey Sour (pre) 4.5 cl Bourbon Whiskey 3.0 cl Fresh lemon juice 1.5 cl Sugar syrup Dash egg white (Optional - if used shake little harder to foam it up) Pour all ingredients into cocktail shaker filled with ice. Shake well. Strain into cobbler or cocktail glass. If served on the rocks, strain into old-fashioned glass filled with ice. Garnish with half orange slice and maraschino cherry. Note: other whiskies, spirits and liqueurs may be used as a base for sours. If a liqueur is used the Gomme syrup content is reduced. Originally brandy-based in 1850s. In the 1870s the recipe contained 1 large spoonful of white sugar, dissolved in Seltzer water instead of the gomme syrup. I like to add 2 drops of Angostura Bitters to my Sour style cocktail. In the US they hold National Whiskey Sour day every 25th August.

White Lady (all day) 4cl Gin 3cl Cointreau Liqueur 2cl fresh lemon juice Shake and strain into a cocktail glass. Originally in 1919, at Ciro’s Club, London, England, white Crème de Menthe was used instead of Gin. This was changed to a Gin base in 1929, at Harry’s Bar, Paris, France, and both versions were created by Harry Mac Elhone. Traditionally made with Plymouth Gin, which has a stronger flavour of herbs. I like to add a dash of egg white or frothee before shaking as it gives this cocktail a wonderful smooth head. I would also garnish with a zest of orange and a small wedge of lime.

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Contemporary classics Bellini (sparkling) 10 cl Prosecco 5 cl Fresh peach puree Pour peach puree into chilled flute glass and add sparkling wine. Stir gently. Ideally garnish with a slice of fresh peach. Created in Harry’s Bar, Venice, Italy by Giuseppi Cipriani in 1943, and named after the great Venetian painter Giovanni Bellini. Harry’s Bar always use the local Sparkling Prosecco from Veneto.

Variations Puccini: fresh mandarin juice Rossini: fresh strawberry puree Tintoretto: fresh pomegranate juice

Black Russian (aft) 5 cl Vodka 2 cl Coffee liqueur Pour the ingredients into the old fashionedglass filled with ice cubes. Stir gently. Variation: White Russian - just float fresh lightly whipped cream on top. Created at the Metropole Hotel, Brussels, by Gustave Tops 1949-53 (the silk scarf recipe). Customer’s choice in Ireland is to top up with coke and add a Guinness head on top.

Figure 16.1: White Russian cocktail.

Bloody Mary (lng) 4.5 cl Vodka 9 cl Tomato juice 1.5 cl Lemon juice 2 to 3 dashes of Worcestershire Sauce Tabasco Celery salt Pepper Pour all ingredients into highball glass and stir gently. Garnish with celery and lemon wedge (optional). This cocktail is often referred to as a pick-me-up drink. The flavourings should be used to taste. The cocktail can be shaken if requested. Created in Harry’s Bar, Paris, France by Fernand Pete Petiot in 1921.

Caipirinha (all day) 5 cl Cachaca half fresh lime cut into 4 wedges 2 fine teaspoon sugar Place lime and sugar in old fashion glass and muddle. Fill glass with ice and Cachaca, serve with a stirrer. The Brazilian bartender’s speciality, its name translates literally as peasant’s drink. Many refer to this cocktail as the ideal replacement for the malaria shot, I prefer to use brown sugar in this cocktail.

Figure 16.2 12.9: Caipirinha cocktail.

Cocktail Recipes

Cachaca is meant to be sipped slowly in a small glass, or taken as a shot (some Brazilians who drink it straight, first spill out a few drops for the saints before drinking.

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The short version was popularised during Andy Warhol’s famous New York art exhibitions and, of course, by Carrie Bradshaw in the TV Sitcom Sex in the City.

Variations Caipiroska: use vodka instead of Cachaca. Caipirissima: use white rum instead of Cachaca.

Classic Champagne Cocktail (sparkling) 9 cl Chilled Champagne 1 cl Cognac 2 dashes Angostura Bitters 1 sugar cube Add dash of Angostura bitter onto sugar cube and drop it into champagne flute. Add cognac, then gently pour in chilled champagne. Garnish with an orange slice and a maraschino cherry. Champagne flute or Champagne saucer. John Dougherty (New York bartender) won a cocktail competition in 1889 with this recipe, which he had discovered 25 years previously in the southern states. Although the original recipe included a small amount of spring water, traditionally this cocktail was made with Bollinger Champagne.

Cosmopolitan (all day)

Figure 16.3: Cosmopolitan cocktail Variations include Blue Cosmopolitan: substitute Blue Curacao for Cointreau Razzmopolitan: substitute Raspberry Vodka for Vodka Ginger Cosmo: add ¾ shot Ginger liqueur and dash of gomme Grand Cosmo: add 1 shot Grand Marnier and 2 dashes orange bitters).

4cl Vodka – Citron

Cuba Libre (lng)

1.5cl Cointreau Liqueur

5cl White Rum

1.5cl fresh Lime juice

12cl Cola

3cl Cranberry juice

1cl Lime juice

Shake and strain into a double cocktail glass, garnish with a small wedge of lime. Note: Can be garnished with a twist of orange flamed over the cocktail, or add a dash of orange bitters to the mix. Originally called ‘Harpoon’ and promoted by the Ocean Spray juice company in 1960. Made long with soda, it becomes ‘Ruby Sapphire’. Attributed to Cheryl Cook while Head Bartender at the Strand on Washington Avenue, South Beach, Miami. Known as the Martini Queen of South beach, she created the drink in 1985 inspired by the Kamikaze (Degroff, 2008).

Build over cubed and crushed ice; serve with wedge of lime, straws and stirrer. Created in Cuba in 1893 by an American army lieutenant who mixed Bacardi Rum with Coca-Cola and proclaimed it Cuba Libre, which translates to ‘free Cuba’.

Godfather (aft) 3.5 cl Scotch 3.5 cl DiSaronno Pour all ingredients directly into old fashioned glass filled with ice cubes. Stir gently.

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Godmother: use Vodka instead of Scotch.

Flying Grasshopper: add in some Vodka and drop the cream.

Golden Dream (aft)

French 75 (sparkling)

Variation

2 cl Galliano 2 cl Triple sec 2 cl Fresh orange juice 1 cl Fresh cream Pour all ingredients into shaker filled with ice. Shake briskly for few seconds. Strain into chilled cocktail glass. Originated in Orlando, Florida, U.S in 1960.

Grasshopper (aft)

3 cl Gin 1.5 cl Fresh lemon juice 2 dashes Sugar syrup 6 cl Champagne Pour all the ingredients, except champagne, into a shaker. Shake. Strain into a champagne flute. Top up with champagne. Stir gently.

Harvey Wallbanger (all day) 4.5cl Vodka

3 cl Créme de cacao (white)

1.5cl Galliano liqueur (to float on drink)

3 cl Créme de menthe (green)

9cl Orange juice

3 cl Fresh cream

Build vodka and orange juice into an ice-filled highball glass. Stir gently and top with the Galliano. Garnish with a slice of orange and red cherry. Serve with straws. Created in Pancho’s bar, Manhattan Beach, California, 1968, also claimed to have been created in Hawaii.

Hemingway Special (all day) 6 cl White Rum 4 cl Grapefruit juice 1.5 cl Maraschino 1.5 cl Fresh lime juice

Figure 16.4 : Grasshopper cocktail. Pour all ingredients into shaker filled with ice. Shake briskly for few seconds. Strain into chilled cocktail glass. Garnish with sprinkle chocolate powder. First mention of this cocktail was in Jerry Thomas famous cocktail book. It was also claimed that it originated in Tujague’s bar in the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana in 1950s.

Variations Frozen Grasshopper: add mint ice cream instead of fresh cream (good dessert cocktail).

Pour all ingredients into a shaker with ice. Shake. Strain into a double cocktail glass.

Horse’s Neck (lng) 4cl Cognac 12cl Ginger ale dash of Angostura bitters (optional) Peel a complete lemon into a spiral shape. Place the end of the spiral over the edge of the Old Fashioned glass (or a highball glass) allowing the remainder to curl inside the glass. Fill with ice. Pour in the brandy and ginger ale. If using bitters ,add last of all. This cocktail was originally non-alcoholic but in 1910, Bourbon was added.

Cocktail Recipes

Irish coffee (hot drink) 4 cl Irish whiskey 9 cl hot coffee 3 cl Fresh cream 1 teaspoon of brown sugar Warm the Irish whiskey over a burner. Pour into the glass of hot coffee, add a teaspoon of sugar and stir. Float cream on top.

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should look like iced tea, sweet and sour mix is often used in place of the lemon juice and gomme syrup. Accredited to Robert (Rosebud) Butts bartender at the Oak beach Inn, Babylon, Long Island, New York in the mid 1970s (DeGroff, 2002), also claimed to have been created in Long Island, Kingsport, Tennessee during 1920s prohibition to disguise alcohol as tea.

Note: Do not restir the drink. To enhance presentation serve on a coaster placed on a side plate. Created at Foynes Airport, Limerick, Ireland, 1943 by Joe Sheridan.

Kir (pre) 9cl Dry White Wine 1 cl Créme de Cassis Pour Créme de Cassis into glass, top up with chilled white wine. This cocktail is also known as cassis au vin blanc. Named after Dijon war hero Canon Felix Kir (1876-1968), Burgundy, France. Cassis was added to Bourgogne Aligote wine to make it taste better.

Variation Kir Royale: replace the white wine with 15cl chilled Champagne and serve in a Champagne flute for a more regal version of this classic.

Figure 16.5: Long Island Iced Tea cocktail. Mai Tai - (lng) 4.cl White Rum 3cl Dark rum 1.5cl Orange Curacao 1.5cl Orgeat Syrup (almond) 1cl fresh lime juice 1cl Grenadine syrup.

Kir Imperial: substitute 5ml Grenadine syrup for Crème de Cassis.

Long Island Iced Tea (lng) 1.5cl Vodka 1.5cl Tequila (silver) 1.5cl White Rum 1.5cl Triple Sec 1.5cl Gin 3cl Lemon 3cl Gomme syrup 3cl Cola or 1 dash. Build over cubed and crushed ice into a highball glass. Garnish with lemon spiral, stirrer and straws. Too much cola or spirit kills this long drink, balance is the key. This cocktail

Figure 16.6: Mai Tai cocktail. Shake and strain over ice into a highball or double Old-fashioned or goblet glass. Garnish

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with spear wedge of pineapple, lime shell and mint sprig set on the glass rim. I prefer to make this cocktail to its original recipe, with golden rum instead of white rum. It sometimes contains 1cl Grenadine syrup. This is accredited from 1944 to Victor Bergeron (of Trader Vic’s fame) who used 17-year-old dark Jamaican rum. Two Tahitians claimed after drinking this, “Mai tai – roa ae” meaning “out of this world, the best”. The original recipe contained 15 ingredients and its selling price nearly killed off its future popularity.

Mojito (lng) 4cl White Rum (ideally Cuban) 6 Sprigs of fresh mint 2 teaspoons fine sugar (or sugar syrup) 3cl fresh lime juice top up with soda water

Margarita (all day) 3.5 cl Tequila 2 cl Cointreau 1.5 cl freshly squeezed lime juice Pour all ingredients into shaker with ice. Shake well and strain into cocktail glass rimmed with salt, or a salt and sugar half and half mixture. I would garnish with a wedge of lime. This recipe is sometimes made with lemon and lime juice. Created in Tommy’s bar, Ciudad Juarez, Mexico, by Francisco Pancho Morales in 4th July 1942, also claimed by Margarita Sames, Acapulco, Mexico in 1948.

Variation Fruit Margarita: blend selected fruit with the above recipe.

Mimosa (sparkling) 7.5 cl Champagne 7.5 cl Orange juice, fresh 2cl Grand Marnier Liqueur (optional) Pour orange juice into flute and gently pour Champagne. Stir gently. Garnish with orange twist (optional). Some variations of this cocktail garnish with an orange or lemon twist. Created in Ritz Hotel, Paris, France in 1925.

Variations Lemon Mimosa: use lemon instead of orange juice. Lime Mimosa: use lime instead of Orange juice.

Figure 16.7: Mojito cocktail. Add the fresh mint first (after clapping it between your hands) muddle then add the sugar and lime juice and muddle again in the highball glass, add the rum last with crushed ice, fill up with soda water and stir. Garnish with a small sprig of fresh mint on the stalk, serve with a stirrer or spoon. This classic Cuban cocktail dates back to 1940 when aguerdiente was switched to rum. It is still made famously today at the Bodeguita del Medio Bar in Havana. Using Cuban mint, which has a more delicate flavour, is better. Some older Mojito recipes also contain 2 dashes of Angostura bitters. Claims for the drink’s origin go back to 1568 when Richard Drake came up with a drink called el Draque, which he served to crew members, made with aguerdiente which was eventually switched to rum. It is said that the mojito comes from the African word ‘mojo’ which means to be placed under a little spell.

Cocktail Recipes

Moscow Mule (lng) 4.5 cl Vodka 12 cl Ginger beer 0.5 cl Lime juice Put a fresh slice of lime in a highball glass with cubed and crushed ice, combine vodka and ginger beer, add lime juice and garnish with a lime slice. Some variations add mint leaf to the garnish. Created by Jack Morgan, Cock ‘n’ Bull Restaurant, Los Angeles. A great thirst quenching long drink, with many variations by changing the base spirit from vodka to whiskey, rum, gin or brandy.

Variation Vodka Mule 4cl Vodka 3cl Lime juice 2cl Sour mix 10cl Ginger ale Shake all the ingredients except the ginger ale with ice and strain into a tumbler with cubed and crushed ice, top off with the ginger ale and garnish with lime wedge and mint leaf.

Mint Julep (lng) 6 cl Bourbon whiskey 4 fresh mint sprigs 1 teaspoon powdered sugar 2 teaspoons water In a highball glass gently muddle the mint, sugar and water. Fill the glass with cracked ice, add Bourbon and stir well until the glass is frosted. Garnish with a mint spring.

Pina Colada (lng) 3cl White Rum 3cl Coconut cream 9cl Pineapple juice Blend with crushed ice. Pour unstrained into a Hurricane or large goblet glass. Garnish with a wedge of pineapple and cherries. Serve with straws. The name means ‘strained pineapple’. Created in the Caribe Hilton Beachcomber

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Bar in San Juan, Puerto Rico, in August 16th 1954 by bartender Ramon Monchito Marrero Perez. In 1978 Puerto Rico declared the Pina Colada its national drink. Another story states that Roberto Cofresi served this drink to crew members to boost morale, he died in 1825 and so did the recipe. The most common recipe of rum, pineapple juice, coconut cream and condensed milk is said to be created by Don Ramon Portas Mingot in 1963 at the Barrachina, Puerto Rico (a plaque commemorates this).

Rose (pre) 2 cl Kirsch 4 cl Dry vermouth 3 dashes Strawberry syrup or 3 dashes Cherry Brandy Stir all ingredients with ice and strain into a cocktail glass, add a cherry. Originated in Chatham Hotel Bar, Paris, France in 1919 by Johnny (bartender). Up to the 1960s Rose syrup was used instead of Cherry Brandy.

Sea Breeze (lng) 4cl Vodka 12cl Cranberry juice 3cl Grapefruit juice Build all ingredients in a rock glass filled with ice. Garnish with lime wedge, stirrer and straws. I prefer to shake and strain this cocktail over ice into a highball glass, then stir. This 1930s favorite was originally made of gin, apricot brandy, grenadine and lemon juice.

Sex on the Beach (lng) 4 cl Vodka 2 cl Peach schnapps 4 cl Cranberry juice 4 cl Orange juice Build all ingredients in a highball glass filled with ice. I prefer to shake and strain this cocktail. Garnish with orange slice. Said to capture the emotion and passion in that famous scene in From Here to Eternity with Burt Lancaster

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and Deborah Kerr. Some popular versions of this cocktail include 1.5cl Chambord liqueur, which is wonderful.

Singapore Sling (lng) 3 cl Gin 1.5 cl Cherry liqueur 0.75 cl Cointreau 0.75 cl DOM Bénédictine 12.0 cl Pineapple juice 1.5 cl Lime juice 1 cl Grenadine 1 dash Angostura bitters Pour all ingredients into cocktail shaker filled with ice cubes. Shake well. Strain into highball glass. Garnish with pineapple and cocktail cherry. Created by Ngiam Tong Boon, Long Island Bar, Singapore in 1915.

Tequila Sunrise (lng) 4.5 cl Tequila 9 cl Orange juice 1.5 cl Grenadine Pour tequila and orange juice directly into highball with ice cubes. Add a splash of Grenadine to create chromatic effect (sunrise), do not stir. Garnish with orange slice and cherry. Serve with straws and a stirrer. Claimed to be have been made at the Arizona Baltimore hotel by Gene Sulit in the 1930s, but it is also claimed that it came from Mexico around this time. The original drink contained lemonade and French Cassis but when it crossed the border these two ingredients were changed to orange juice and Grenadine.

New Era cocktails Barracuda (sparkling) 4.5 cl Gold rum 1.5 cl Galliano 6 cl Pineapple juice 1 dash fresh lime juice Top with Prosecco and serve in a Coupe glass.

Bramble (all day) 4 cl Gin 1.5 cl Fresh Lemon juice 1 cl Sugar syrup 1.5 cl Blackberry liqueur Build over crushed ice, in a rock glass. Stir, then pour the blackberry liqueur over the top of the drink in a circular fashion. Garnish with a lemon slice, and two blackberries. Created by Dick Bradsell, Fred’s Club, Soho, London in the mid 1980s.

B52 (aft, shooter) 2 cl Kahlua 2 cl Bailey’s Irish Cream 2 cl Grand Marnier Layer ingredients one at a time starting with Kahlua, followed by Bailey’s Irish Cream and top with Grand Marnier. Flame the Grand Marnier, serve while the flame is still on, accompanied with a straw on side plate.

Dark ‘n’ Stormy (lng) 6 cl Dark Rum 10 cl Ginger Beer In a highball glass filled with ice, add 6cl Dark Rum and top with ginger beer. Garnish with lime wedge.

Dirty Martini (pre) 6 cl Vodka 1 cl Dry vermouth 1 cl Olive juice Pour all ingredients into mixing glass with ice cubes. Stir well. Strain in chilled martini glass. Garnish with green olive.

Espresso Martini (aft) 5 cl Vodka 1 cl Kahlúa Sugar syrup (according to individual preference of sweetness) 1 short strong Espresso Shake and strain into a chilled cocktail glass.

Cocktail Recipes

French Martini (pre)

Spritz Veneziano (sparkling)

4.5 cl Vodka

6 cl Prosecco

1.5 cl Raspberry liqueur

4 cl Aperol

1.5 cl Fresh pineapple juice

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splash of soda water

Pour all ingredients into mixing glass with ice cubes. Stir well. Strain in chilled cocktail glass. Squeeze oil from lemon peel onto the drink.

Build into an old-fashioned glass filled with ice. Top with a splash of soda water. Garnish with half orange slice.

KamiKaze (all day)

Tommy’s Margarita (all day)

3cl Vodka

4.5 cl Tequila

3cl Cointreau Liqueur

1.5 cl freshly squeezed lime juice

3cl fresh lime juice

2 bar spoons of Agave nectar

Shake and strain into a chilled cocktail glass, garnish with a lime wedge and stirrer. Sometimes this cocktail can be served in an old fashioned glass. A modern version of the Balalaika, the change from lemon to lime has popularised this cocktail. This cocktail is served in shot portions in some cocktail bars.

Lemon drop Martini (all day) 2.5 cl Vodka Citron 2 cl Triple Sec 1.5 cl Fresh lemon juice Shake and strain into a chilled cocktail glass rimmed with sugar, garnish with a slice of lemon.

Pisco Sour (all day) 4.5 cl Pisco 3 cl Fresh lemon juice 2 cl Sugar syrup 1 raw egg white (small egg) Shake and strain into a chilled champagne flute. Dash some Angostura bitters on top.

Russian Spring Punch (sparkling) 2.5 cl Vodka 2.5 cl Lemon juice, fresh 1.5 cl Créme de Cassis 1 cl Sugar Syrup Shake the ingredients and pour into highball glass. Top with sparkling wine. Garnish with a lemon slice and a blackberry.

Shake and strain into a chilled cocktail glass.

Vampiro (pmu) 5 cl Tequila (silver) 7 cl Tomato juice 3 cl Orange juice fresh 1 cl Lime juice fresh 1 teaspoon clear honey Half slice onion finely chopped Few slices fresh red hot chili peppers Few drops Worcestershire sauce Salt (to taste) Pour all ingredients into a shaker filled with ice. Shake well, to release the flavour of the chilli. Strain into a highball glass, filled with ice. Garnish with a wedge of lime and a chilli (green or red). This cocktail really tastes great if you prepare the day before and leave it in the fridge overnight. The national drink of Mexico. Onions are powerful antibacterial and decongestant, chillies help stimulate and improve circulation, and also act as an expectorant against bronchitis.

Vesper (pre) 6 cl Gin 1.5 cl Vodka 0.75 cl Lillet Blonde Lemon twist (garnish) Shake and strain into a chilled cocktail glass. Add the garnish.

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Yellow Bird (all day) 3 cl White Rum 1.5 cl Galliano 1.5 cl Triple sec 1.5 cl lime juice

Build into a Champagne flute. Pour orange juice first. Created at Buck’s Club, London, England by Mr McGarry in 1921. Fruitier that the Mimosa.

Variation

Shake and strain into a chilled cocktail glass.

Raspberry Fizz: substitute 25ml Raspberry puree for the orange juice.

Old reliable cocktails

Bullshot (pmu)

Banana Daiquiri (aft)

3.5cl Vodka

4.5 cl White Rum

10cl Condensed Bouillon

2.5 cl Crème de Banana

1 cl lemon juice

1 cl lemon or lime juice

Worcester sauce

A half fresh banana

Tabasco sauce

Blend with crushed ice and pour unstrained into a goblet. Garnish with banana. Serve with short straws. Note: other frozen daiquiris may be prepared using a variety of fruits and an appropriate liqueurs e.g. Strawberry Daiquiri, Peach Daiquiri, Melon Daiquiri.

Brandy Egg Nog (pmu)

consommé

or

Beef

Celery salt and pepper to taste Shake. Serve over ice in a highball glass (in cold weather may be served hot).

French Connection (aft) 3cl Cognac 3cl Amaretto Liqueur

3.5cl Brandy

Build into an ice filled Old Fashioned glass.

10cl milk

Frozen Daiquiri (pre)

1 cl Gomme syrup 1 egg yolk Shake into an ice filled highball glass. Add grated nutmeg.

Bronx (pre) 3cl Gin 1.5cl Sweet Red Vermouth 1cl ms Dry Vermouth 1.5cl Orange juice Shake and serve in a cocktail glass. Created in the Waldorf Astoria, New York by Johnny Solon in 1906.

Bucks Fizz (pre) 15cl Chilled Champagne (or dry sparkling wine) 30cl fresh orange juice

4.5cl White Rum 2cl Maraschino liqueur 2cl fresh lime juice 1 cl Gomme syrup Blend with crushed ice. Pour into a large goblet. Serve with straws. Floridita Bar, Havana, Cuba by Constantino Constante Ribailagua in 1912. Note: fruit based frozen daiquiris may also be made (see Banana Daiquiri).

Garibaldi (pre) 10cl Orange juice 20cl Campari Build into an ice filled Highball or Old Fashioned glass. Garnish with a half slice of orange.

Cocktail Recipes

Gin and French (pre) 4.5cl Gin 2cl Dry Vermouth Pour unchilled or stir and strain into a cocktail glass. Add a zest of lemon.

Gin and It (pre) 4.5cl Gin 2cl Red Vermouth Pour unchilled into a cocktail glass. Add a cherry.

Golden Cadillac (aft) 3cl Galliano 3cl Crème de Cacao white 3cl fresh cream

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Non-alcoholic cocktails Pussyfoot (lng) 3cl lemon juice 15cl orange juice 3cl limejuice dash Grenadine syrup 1 egg yolk Shake. Strain into a goblet or into an ice filled Highball glass. Garnish with orange and lemon slices and a cherry.

Parson’s Special (lng) 12cl orange juice 2cl Grenadine syrup 2cl soda water

Shake and serve in a cocktail glass. Created in Sydney, Australia in 1958. A scoop of vanilla ice cream can be substituted for the 2cl fresh Cream, blend this mixture together, it’s wonderful.

Shake all but the soda water. Strain into an ice filled highball glass, stir in the soda water. Garnish slice of orange and a cherry.

Gibson (pre)

Florida Cocktail (lng)

6cl Gin 1.5cl Dry Vermouth Stir and serve straight up or on the rocks with two silver skin (pearl) onions. Created at Player’s Club, New York, U.S, 1940’s in honour of Charles Gibson showgirls.

Rob Roy (pre) 5cl Scotch whisky 2.5cl Red vermouth 1 dash angostura bitters Stir and serve in a cocktail glass. Add a cherry. Named after Rob Roy, the Scottish hero. Favoured on St Andrews Day at the gathering of the clans.

Stinger (aft) 6cl Brandy 2cl Crème de Menthe white For straight up, shake, and serve in a cocktail glass. May also be built into an ice filled Old Fashioned glass.

2cl egg yolk

10cl Grapefruit juice 4cl orange juice 4cl lemon juice 2cl gomme syrup 6cl soda water Shake all but the soda water. Strain into an ice filled highball glass, stir in the soda water. Garnish with fresh mint and serve with straws.

Shirley Temple (lng) 18cl Ginger ale 1cl Grenadine syrup Build into an ice filled highball glass stirring gently. Garnish with cherries. A virgin Pina Colada or Bloody Mary are prepared without the alcohol.

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Appendix II: Conversion tables Table 10.2: Conversion table for the standard cocktail glass 3oz, 90ml, 9cl

Table 10.3: Conversion table for the long cocktail glass, 10oz or 300ml, 30cl.

Fraction 1/10 2/10 3/10 4/10 5/10 6/10 7/10 8/10 9/10 1

Millitres 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90

Centilitres 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.5 5.4 6.3 7.2 8.1 9.0

Ounces (US) 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0

1/3 2/3

30 60

3.0 6.0

1.0 2.0

1/3 2/3

100 200

10 20

3.33 6.66

1/4 2/4 3/4

22.5 45 67.5

2.25 4.5 6.75

0.75 1.5 2.25

1/4 2/4 3/4

75 150 225

7.5 15 22.5

2.5 5 7.5

1/5 2/5 3/5 4/5

18 36 54 72

1.8 3.6 5.4 7.2

0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4

1/5 2/5 3/5 4/5

60 120 180 240

6 12 18 24

2 4 6 8

Fraction Millilitres Centilitres Ounces (US) 1/10 30 3 1 2/10 60 6 2 3/10 90 9 3 4/10 120 12 4 5/10 150 15 5 6/10 180 18 6 7/10 210 21 7 8/10 240 24 8 9/10 270 27 9 1 300 30 10

Cocktail measurements and equivalent amount Measurement

Equivalent amount

Dash

6 Drops



Splash Shot UK

15ml. or ½ oz

25ml.

Shot US – oz

1 ounce or 29.5 ml.

Shot Ireland

1 ¼ ounce or 35ml.

Teaspoon Tablespoon



5ml. or 1/6 oz.

15ml. or ½ oz.

juice of a lemon

50ml. or 1 5/8 oz (approx).

juice of a lime

30ml. or 1 oz (approx).

Cocktail Recipes

339

Appendix III: Garnishing techniques Banana slices

Floating cream

Choose firm unblemished bananas, peel and slice them into half slices of one half inch, cover with lemon juice to prevent discoloration. You could dust the slices with chocolate or nutmeg - it looks great.

Always use chilled fresh semi-whipped dairy cream, in a small jug. Position a teaspoon fractionally above the drink surface and slowly pour the cream over the spoon and float it evenly across the drink.

Chocolate curls

Melon balls

Hold the chocolate firmly in one hand and peel with an ordinary vegetable peeler, the more pressure you apply the better the chocolate curls.

Cut the melon in half, remove the seeds, and push a melon baller into the melon, twist it around 360 degrees and remove the finished melon ball.

Cucumber wheels

Secret of flaming spirits

Wash and dry the cucumber, use a canulating knife to take out strips of skin slightly apart the length of the cucumber, then cut a full slice to create the wheel, the leftover strips can be used in cocktails later if required (oranges and lemons can also be cut in this fashion).

Warm the glass, add the liqueur. In a spoon ignite a small portion of the liqueur then add it to the glass. Flames can shoot high, so be careful, and always extinguish before you leave the guest.

Coconut slices

Long, short, flexible and fancy coloured straws are all useful.

Pierce two holes in the top of the coconut to drain the milk, then bake it in a moderate oven for 15 minutes. The flesh will shrink away from the shell, making it easier to remove. Cut with a knife into long slices. Ideal in a Pina Colada.

Egg white Egg white powder (albumen) can be used as a good replacement for fresh egg white; half a teaspoonful is equal to half an egg.

Fresh nutmeg Nutmeg is hard. Grate it on a fine grater - tiny nutmeg grates can be brought for the job.

Frothee Liquid artificial egg white, great for gaining head retention on cocktails, especially with glasses that have wide circumference. Add two dashes, before shaking, to create a creamy head.

Straws

Special fruit cuts Kumquat ‘Lily’ flowers or Halloween face, grapefruit and orange segments, citrus peel in heart or star shapes, lime and orange peel knots, triple fresh raspberry or blueberry and lemon twist on cocktail sticks, clusters or pairs of seedless black or green grapes, various coloured melon balls on cocktail sticks, strawberry or apple cut fan design, stemmed fresh cherries, banana slices with the skin on, kiwi wedges or slice, pineapple wedge, slices (half, quarter, or one eighth cut), pineapple leaf, apple chevrons, coconut slices, stuffed olives, tomato skin roses, canulated cucumber slice wheels, papaya slices.

Zest Cut a thin piece of peel and take it between the figures and gently squeeze and twist so that the juice drops over the drink, creating a beautiful aroma.

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Augmented Bibliography Bergeron, V. (1948) Bartender’s Guide by Trader Vic, Garden City, NY: Garden City. (re-printed 1972) Broadbent, M. (2002) Michael Broadbent’s Vintage Wine – fifty years of tasting three centuries of wines, Webster’s Publishers: UK. Cowdery, C, K., (2002) Who Invented Bourbon?, Malt Advocate Magazine, available, www.whiskyadvocateblog.com [accessed 10/02/12]. Canadian Laws. (2010 Canadian Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870), Canadian Whisky, Canadian Rye Whisky or Rye Whisky (B.02.020.): Canada. Field, C. P. (2003) The Cocktails of the Ritz Paris, Simon & Schuster, New York. Food and Drugs. (2010) Food and Drugs Act, Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870). [accessed 9/03/10] FDA (2012) The Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21 Sec. 102.33 Beverages that contain fruit or vegetable juice, available: www.cfsan.fda.gov [accessed 12/5/2012]. Glover, B. (1999). The Beer Companion – An Essential Guide to Classic Beers from Around the World, New York: Lorenz Books. Heawood, J. (2003) London, city of sin and gin, London 1753 Exhibition British Museum, London WC 1, The Observer Review, London. Hua, L, S. (1998) Grape Production in China, available at: http://www.fao.org/ docrep/003/x6897e/x6897e05.htm [accessed 10/3/13] Indian Whiskey. (2006) Battle for the world’s largest whisky market – India, South Africa Mail & Guardian, Mar. 3, [accessed 25/06/12]. Johansen, J. (2006) What is Cider – Reflection on the definition of Cider, Scandinavian Brewers Review, 63 (2), available www.pomona.dk/SBR2006_02_Cider.pdf [accessed 12/6/12]. Kosmos, J & Zaric, D. (2010) Speakeasy: The Employees Only Guide to Classic Cocktails Re-imagined’, Ten Speed Press. (This bar mixes 130,000 cocktails each year, highest grossing cocktail bar per square foot in USA). Mee, P. (2004) Eat to your heart’s content to reduce your cholesterol, Irish Times Newspapers Ltd: Dublin. Regan, G (2003). The Joy of Mixology, Clarkson Potter, NY. Schocker, L. (2009) From perry to pear cider, available news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/ magazine/8225493.stm [accessed 23/3/13]. Schneider, D. (2008). Gregg Smith - Beer: A Different glass for every brew can add to the drinking experience, The San Francisco Chronicle: US. Schreiner, J. (2005) The Wines of Canada, Octopus Publishing Group Ltd: US. Spence, G. (2003) Teach Yourself Wine Tasting, Fortified Wines, Wine & Spirit Education Trust, UK.

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The Development of a Vocabulary and Profile Assessment Method for Evaluating the Flavour Contribution of Cider and Perry Aroma Constituents, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 1975, 26, 567-582. Time Magazine. (2007) The Whisky Rebellion, June 7, [accessed 24/7/08]. Tynan, N. (2007) Rumblings of Success, Licensing World, June Issue, Jemma Publications Ltd: Dublin. Walton, S. (2004) The Ultimate Book of Cocktails, Anness Publishing Ltd: London. Wackerbauer.K and Balzer, U. (1992) Hop Bitter Compounds in Beer, Part I. Changes in the Composition of Bitter Substances during Brewing, available www. brauweltinternational.com/ [accessed 10/3/13] Wine Spectator Magazine. (2005) Wine Tasting Methodologies, October 31st, M. Shanken Communications: New York. Wilson, J (2012) Bitters, Irish Times Newspaper, available www.irishtimes.com.ditlib.dit. ie/newspaper/magazine/2012/0121/1224310483646.html [accessed 21/01/12].

Web resources Brewing and beer The beer institute www.beerinstitute.org/ Brewers association www.brewersassociation.org InBev beer appreciation tasting notes www.inbev.co.uk/Appreciation.htm Beer and calories (comprehensive tables) www.brewery.org/library/AlClbinger.html Siebel Institute and World Brewing Academy www.siebelinstitute.com www.micromatic.com Micromatic company Beer line cleaning equipment www.kegworks.com Fob detectors www.cdnbev.com

Cider Cider making www.chm.bris.ac.uk/cidermaking.htm Cider definitions for the EU www.pomona.dk/SBR2006_02_Cider.pdf London cider tours www.real-cider.co.uk/london-cider-tour/ American cider map www.real-cider.co.uk/north-american-cider-map/ UK cider menu boards www.real-cider.co.uk/the-worlds-best-cider-boards/

Wines Wine and Spirit Education Trust www.wset.co.uk Wine television www.winetelevision.com www.wineenthusiast.com Wine glassware, equipment, specialist wines Sommeliers International www.sommeliers-international.com Learning about wine www.decanter.com

347

Bibliography

Pocket guide books for wine pronunciations www.winepronounce.com Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e Porto www.ivp.pt Sherry official website www.sherry.org/EN Bartissol www.pernod.fr/english/marques/aperitifs_viniques/bartissol.html Distillerie Stock www.stockusaltd.com Martini and Rosso www.martini.com Vermut Yzaguirre www.vermutyzaguirre.com Cinzano www.cinzano.com Wine resources www.winespectator.com Robert Parker. 130,000 tasting notes eRobertParker.com Berry Brothers & Rudd wine school www.bbr.com/wine-events/school Wine resource site www.wine Atlas.net



English and Welsh Wine Producers www.englishwineproducers.com Wines of the Balkans www.winesofbalkans.com Wines of Cyprus

www.winesofcyprus.co.uk

Wines of Canada

www.winesofcanada.com

Wines of The Czech Republic

www.wineofczechrepublic.cz

Wine of Lebanon

www.lebwine.com

Wines of Slovakia

www.winesofslovakia.com



Spirits Bourbon whiskey www.straightbourbon.com [accessed 4/6/10] History and production of gin www.tastings.com/spirits/gin.html Victorian London Gin Palaces www.victorianlondon.org/entertainment/ginpalaces.htm Alcohol and Drugs History Society historyofalcoholanddrugs.typepad.com/ alcohol_and_drugs_history/gin/index.html Gin - The spirit of England allinfoaboutenglishculture.com/gin.html A history of vodka www.russianvodka.ru Gin and vodka association www.ginvodka.org/history/originvodka.html Scottish malt whisky society www.smws.com Bushmills www.bushmills.com Bacardi rum www.bacardilimited.com/bacardi_rum West Indies rum www.in-west-indies.com/martinique/art-culture/rhum.htm Appleton estate (producers of Wray & Nephews) www.appletonrum.com Cruzan www.cruzanrum.com Mount Gay www.mountgay.com Tequila regulatory council (Consejo Regulado de Tequila) www.crt.org.mx/ Tequila afficiondo www.tequilaaficionado.com

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Bureau National Interprofessionel du Cognac www.cognac.fr Bureau National Interprofessional de l’Armagnac (BNIA) www.armagnac.fr/ terroir_armagnac.asp Armagnac information, news and growers directory www.Armagnac.org Calvados Busnel www.distillerie-busnel.com Arcus Produkte (owners of Gammel Opland, Guide, Linne) www.arcusbeverage.com Aalbord Akvavit www.aalborgakvavit.dk Vin & Sprit AB, (many Swedish Akvavit brands) www.vinsprit.se Campari www.camparigroup.com/en/brands/ Fee Brothers: history and products www.feebrothers.com/Page.asp?Script=3 Peychaud’s and the history of sazeracwww.sazerac.com Whisky magazine www.whiskymag.com

Liqeurs Amaretto www.disaronno.com Luxardo Maraschino www.luxardo.it Cointreau www.cointreau.com Grand Marnier www.grand-marnier.com Benedictine www.benedictine.fr Kahlua www.kahlua.com Baileys www.baileys.com

Non-alcoholic drinks Cardinal Company www.cardinalequipment.com Portable Soft drink bars www.portablebarworld.com/889-PIC.jpg Natural Mineral Waters in the EU www.ec.europa.eu/food/food/labellingnutrition/ water/mw_eulist_en.pdf Drip free tea (Dr. Martin Almond’s tea tool) www.teatool.co.uk Turkish Coffeee World www.turkishcoffeeworld.com Specialty coffee association www.scae.com

Cocktails Door 74 menu, Holland www.scribd.com/doc/7427719/ Drinks-Menu-Door-74-Amsterdam Merchant menu, Ireland www.scribd.com/doc/18532922/ Mr-Lamberts-Merchant-Menu-at-Le-Bon-Lion The Lonsdale menu, UK www.scribd.com/doc/98215/The-Lonsdale-British-Menu IBA world cocktail competitions, recipes and details www.iba-world.com Museum of the American cocktail www.MuseumOfTheAmericanCocktail.org Flair style cocktail making www.flairtender.org Flair Bartenders Association (FBA) www.barflair.org

Bibliography

Food and beverage studies Bar Zone - www.barzone.co.uk BBC Food Pages - www.bbc.co.uk/food International Bartenders Association - www.iba-world.com United Kingdom Bartenders Guild - www.ukbg.co.uk Epicurean facts and knowledge www.epicurious.com

Trade magazines Caterer and Hotelkeeper Magazine - www.caterersearch.com Decanter Magazine - www.decanter.com The Publicain - www.morningadvertiser.co.uk Imbibe Magazine - imbibe.com Restaurant Magazine - www.restaurantmagazine.co.uk

Government and regulatory Business Link - www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/home Direct Government UK - www.direct.gov.uk/en/index.htm Food Standards Agency - www.foodstandards.gov.uk Health and Safety Executive - www.hse.gov.uk

Education, training and careers City & Guilds of London Institute - www.city-and-guilds.co.uk Edexcel Foundation - www.edexcel.org.uk People 1st - www.people1st.co.uk Springboard UK Ltd - www.springboarduk.org.uk Wine and Spirit Education Trust (WSET)- www.wset.co.uk

Trade and professional bodies Academy of Food and Wine Service - www.acfws.org British Beer and Pub Association - www.beerandpub.com British Institute of Innkeeping - www.bii.org.uk Court of Masters Sommeliers - www.courtofmastersommeliers.org Federation of Licensed Victuallers Association - www.flva.co.uk Institute of Hospitality - www.instituteofhospitality.org Institute of Masters of Wine - www.masters-of-wine.org National Association of Licensed House Managers - ww.pubunion.org.uk Royal Institute of Public Health - www.riph.org.uk Speciality Coffee Association of Europe UK Chapter - www.scaeuk.com Tea Council Ltd - www.teacouncil.co.uk

The Dairy Council - www.milk.co.uk

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Visual resources Video sharing websites like YouTube also offer short movie clips, training advice and a wide variety of user generated video content which can enhance your understanding of bar and beverage management. Simply type in the topics that interest you. You will be surprised how much material is available.Please be mindful of copyright infringement if you are thinking of using them for public presentations.

I

Index

absinthe 183–185 hallucinogenic properties 184 Absolut vodka 224 Advocaat 259 Affligem 14 Aftershock liqueur 251 agave plant, for tequila 216–219 aguardente 189 aguardente bagaceira 191 akvavit 181–182 popular brands 182 alcohol, measuring strength 172–174 alcohol by volume (ABV) 174 alcoholmeter 172 alcohol separation 168 ale and foods 19 types 13 alembic pot still 169 Alemtejo DOC 134 ale wives 2 Alexander cocktail 323 Amaretto liqueur 256 Amaro liqueur 251 Ambassadeur quinine wine 165 Americano 292 Americano cocktail 323 American whiskey brands 237 Amontillado sherry 154–155 Amstel Lager 16 Angel Face cocktail 323 angels’ share 177 Angostura 241 anise spirits 183–185 categories 183 anisette 183–185 Anjou AC 109 Aperol 241 appellation d’origine controlee (AOC) 64 appellation system in France 64–65 origins 64 arak 185

Argentina 75–76 Armagnac 185–188 production 187–188 region and terroir 186 Asti sparkling wine 125 Australia, wines 76–79 Austria, wines 79–80 Aviation cocktail 323 B52 cocktail 334 Bacardi cocktail 323 Baileys Irish Cream 258 Bairrada DOC 134 Banana Daiquiri cocktail 336 Barbersco DOCG 125 Bardolino DO 127 barista techniques 289 barley, brewing 3–4 barley wine 13 Barolo DOCG 125 Barracuda cocktail 334 Bartissol 163 Bass beers 17 Bath tub gin 205 Bavarian lager 12 Beamish stout 16 Beaujolais Nouveaux 100 Beck’s beer 15 beer 1–35 adjuncts 5–6 bottle conditioned 9 cask conditioned 8 categories 12–14 etymology 1 fermentation 7 glassware 11–12 head 11 in ancient world 2 Industrial Revolution 2 line maintenance 29–30 mash 7 Middle Ages 2 pasteurisation 8

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pouring bottled 25 raw materials 3–6 strengths 9 tasting 10–11 top and bottom fermented 6 World’s best known 14 yeasts 5 Bellini cocktail 328 Bénédictine liqueur 252 Between the Sheets cocktail 324 biere de garde 13 Big Rivers Zone, Australia 78 bitter beer 13 bitters 240–242 Black Russian cocktail 328 Bloody Mary cocktail 328 Bock 12 Boddingtons 17 Bohemia 86 Boker’s bitters 241 Bombay Sapphire gin 207 bonded warehouse 177 Bordeaux wines 91 Premier Crus 93 Bordeaux mix, grape treatment 56 botanicals in gin 206–207 botanicals, in gin 204 Botrytis Cinera 56 bottle conditioned beer 9 Bourbon whiskey 235 brands 237 bown ale 13 Bramble cocktail 334 brandy 188–193 history 189 production 192–193 types of 189 Brandy Egg Nog cocktail 336 brandywine 188 brännvin 193 brewing and invention of refrigeration 2–3 decoction method 8 the process 6 brew pub 3 Bronx cocktail 336 Brussel’s lace 11 Bucks Fizz cocktail 336 Budejovicky Budvar 15 Budweiser Lager 18 Bulgaria, wines 81 Bull’s Blood 120 Bullshot cocktail 336

Burgundy wines areas 96 classifications 95 Byrrh 165 Cabernet Sauvignon grape 55 Caipirinha cocktail 328 California 142–144 calvados 193–196 appellations 194 brands 196 production 194 tasting 195 Campari 241 Canada, wines 81–82 Canon-Fronsac AC 94 cappucchino 292 carbonated soft drinks 267–269 Caribbean light rum 210–211 Carlsberg 15 Carolans liqueur 258 Casino cocktail 324 cask conditioned ale 8 Catalunya DO 139 Chablis 96 Chambord liqueur 249 Champagne 68 making 101–103 region 100 styles 104 Champagne cocktail 329 Chardonnay grape 53 Chartreuse liqueur 252 Chateauneuf-du-Pape AC 112 Chenin Blanc grape 54 cherry brandy 192 Cherry Heering liqueur 249 Chianti 128 Chile, wines 82–85 China, wines 85 chocolate liqueurs 255 cider 36–48 apple varieties 42–43 EU production rules 37–38 France 40 Denmark 41 Germany 40 legislation on production 36–37 production 43–46 tasting 47 UK production rules 38 World’s best 41 Cinzano 163

Index Climate Zone System for wine grapes 52–53 Clover Club cocktail 324 cobblers 301 Coca Cola 270–271 cocktails and mixed drinks 298–322 calculating profits 321–322 creating recipes 316–317 evolution 299 garnishing 315 garnishing techniques 339 glasses 315 history 308–309 making methods 310–313 menus 318–319 modern categories 316 non-alcoholic 337 Old World categories 299–304 publications 306 recipes 323–340 cocktail shaker 311 coffee 281–294 Americano 292 bean grinder 289 beans 282–283 cafetiere 285 cappucchino 292 Espresso machine 286, 290–291 latte 292 preparation 284–287 service 287 Turkish or Greek 285 coffee liqueurs 256 Coffey Still 170–171 and whisky 226 cognac 196–202 brands 202 delimited areas 197 grades 200 premium de-lux brands 201 production 199 Cointreau 250 Cold room refrigeration 33–34 cold stabilisation of wine 62 Collins cocktails 299 column still 170–171 congelation 168 continuous still 170–171 coolers 301 Coors 18 Cosmopolitan cocktail 329 Costers del Segre DO 140 Côteaux du Layon AC 109

Côteaux du Layon AC: 109 Côte Beaujolais 99 Côte Chalonnaise 99 Côte de Beaune 98 Côte de Nuit 98 Côte d’Or 97 Côte Maconnais 99 Côtes de Blaye AC 94 Côtes de Bourg AC 94 Côtes de Rhone AC 111 Courage Best 17 cream ale 13 cream liqueurs 258 Crème de Banane liqueur 247 Crème de Cassis liqueur 248 Crème de Menthe liqueur 252 Crème de Violette liqueur 257 Cristall vodka 224 crusta cocktails 300 Crusted ports 150 Cuba Libre cocktail 329 cups 299 Curaçao liqueur 250 Czech Republic, wines 86 Daiquiri cocktail 324 Daisy cocktails 301 Danzig Goldwasser liqueur 252 Dao DOC 134 Dark ‘n’ Stormy cocktail 334 degorgement in Champagne production 104 Derby cocktail 324 Dirty Martini cocktail 334 Disaronno Originale liqueur 257 distillation 168 first and second 170 heads and tails 170 Distillerie Stock vermouths 163 distilling 166–180 Dooley’s liqueur 258 Dortmunder 12 Double Diamond 17 Douro DOC 134 Drambuie liqueur 252 draught beer 23–34 cooling systems 31–32 dispense management 23–24 dispense problems 34 faultfinding 24 gas dispense systems 26–28 Dry Martini cocktail 324 Dubonnet 165

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The Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

eau de vie (fruit brandies) 191 Echelle des Crus, Champagne classification 102 egg nog 305 El Bierzo DO 140 England and Wales 87 Entre-deux-Mers AC 94 espresso coffee 286 Espresso Martini cocktail 334 Est! Est!! Est!!! 129 Fee Brothers bitters 241 fermentation, beer 7 fining beer 9 wine 62 Fino sherry 154–155 Fior D’Alpi liqueur 253 fix cocktails 301 fizzes cocktails 302 Florida cocktail 337 food pairing port 151 wines 70–71 with beers 19 France, wines 87–113 Alsace 87–90 Bordeaux 91–94 Burgundy 94–100 Champagne 100–105 Corsica 105 Jura and Savoie 105–106 Languedoc-Roussillon 113 Loire Valley 106–110 Provence 112 Rhone Valley 110–111 South West 113–114 Frascati DOC 128 French 75 cocktail 330 French Connection cocktail 336 French Martini cocktail 335 Fronsac AC 94 Frozen Daiquiri cocktail 336 Furmint grape 54 Galliano liqueur 254 Gamay grape 55 Garibaldi cocktail 336 Garnacha 137 garnishing techniques 339 Gattinara DOCG 125 Gay-Lussac system 174 Genever gin 202, 205 Germany, wines 114–118

Gewürztraminer grape 54 Gibson cocktail 337 Gimlet cocktail 209 gin 202–209 cocktails 209 famous brands 208–209 history 202 production 203–205 recipe protection 207 types 205 Gin and French cocktail 337 Gin and It cocktail 337 Gin Fizz cocktail 324 Glayva liqueur 253 Godfather cocktail 329 Golden Cadillac cocktail 337 Golden Dream cocktail 330 Golden gin 206 Goldschläger liqueur 253 grain whisky 230 Grande Champagne Cognac 197 Grand Marnier liqueur 250 grapes producing alcohol from 57 red varieties 55 white varieties 53 grappa 190 Grasshopper cocktail 330 Graves 93 Greece 119 Grenache grape 55 Grey Goose vodka 225 grist 7 Grolsch Pilsner Lager 16 gross lees 60 G&T (gin and tonic) 209–210 Guinness 16 Harvey Wallbanger cocktail 330 Heineken Lager 16 Hemingway Special cocktail 330 Herbsaint liqueur 255 Hermitage, Rhone Valley 111 highballs 303 Holsten Pils 15 hops, for brewing 4–5 Horse’s Neck cocktail 330 Hospices de Beaune auctions 97 hot chocolate 294–296 Hpnotiq liqueur 247 Hungary, wines 119–121 Hunter Valley 78 hydrometer 173

Index ice wine 82–83 India, wines 121 Industrial Revolution 2–3 Irish coffee 331 Irish Mist liqueur 253 Irish whiskey 233–234 Israel, wines 122 Italy, wines 123–130 Izarra liqueur 253 Jaan Paan liqueur 253 Jägermeister 241 Japan, wines 130 Jerry Thomas, Bartenders Guide 306 John Collins cocktail 324 John Smith’s Bitter 17 juices 261–266 EU and USA legislation 266 fresh fruit 264–265 fruit mixes 266–267 health benefits 262–263 Kahlúa liqueur 256 Kamikaze cocktail 335 Kēkē Beach Key Lime liqueur 258 kieve, brewing vessel 7 Kir cocktail 331 Kirschwasser 192 Kristal filtered Weiss 16 Kronenbourg 1664 15 Krupnik liqueur 253 Kümmel liqueur 253 Labatt Ice beer 14 lager 2 and foods 19 types 12 lagering (storage) 8 Lakka liqueur 249 La Mancha DO 140 lambic ale 13 Lambrusco 128 Late-Bottled Vintage (LBV) ports 149 Latte coffee 292 Lemon drop Martini cocktail 335 Lichido liqueur 248 Liebfraumilch 116 Limoncello liqueur 250 Liqueur de triage 103 liqueurs 243–260 anise flavoured 254–255 bean and kernel 255–256 berry 248–249

brandies 246 chocolate 255 citrus 250–251 coffee 256 cream 258 fruit 247–248 herb-based 251–252 ingredients 245 origins 243–244 production 245 types 246 liquor, water for beer 3 London dry gin 205 Long Island Iced Tea 331 Lowenbrau Premium Pils 15 macchiato coffee 293 Macedonia, wines 131 maceration, of grapes 60 Macon AC 99 Madeira 156–160 and food 160 production 156–157 rules on vintages 159–160 styles 159 Mai Tai cocktail 331 Malibu liqueur 257 malo-lactic fermentation 62 malt whisky regions 230 Mandarine Napoleon liqueur 250 Manhattan cocktail 325 Manzanilla sherry 154–155 Maraschino liqueur 249 Margarita cocktail 332 Margaux AC 93 Marsala 130, 160–161 and food 161 Martini 163 Mary Pickford cocktail 325 mash, for beer 7 Mastica liqueur 255 McEwans Export 18 Medoc, 1855 Classification 93 Merlot grape 55 Metaxa liqueur 253 méthode traditionale 68 mezcal, See tequila microbrewery 3, 22 micro distilleries 177 micro-oxygenation in wine making 113 Midori liqueur 248 Miller Lager 18 Mimosa cocktail 332

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The Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

mineral waters 276–277 Mint Julep cocktail 302, 333 Mojito cocktail 332 Monkey Gland cocktail 325 Montepulciano DOCG 128 Moravia, wines 86 Moscow Mule cocktail 333 Murphy’s stout 16 Muscat grape 54 National Association of Cider Makers 38 Navarra DO 139 Nebbiolo grape 55 Nebbiolo grape variety 126 Negroni cocktail 325 Newcastle Brown Ale 18 New Zealand 131–132 noble rot 56 nogs 305 Noilly Prat 163 non-alcoholic drinks 261–297 Nuits St. George AC 98 Old Fashioned cocktail 325 Old Tom gin 206 Oloroso sherry 155 ouzo 185 pale ale 13 pálinka 192 Palo Cortado sherry 155 Paradise cocktail 326 Parson’s Special cocktail 337 pasteurisation, beer 8 pastis 183–185 Pauillac AC 93 Penedes DO 139 Pepsi 271 perry 48–50 Phylloxera, grape pest 56 absence in Chile 83–86 pilsner 12 Pilsner Urquell 15 Pina Colada cocktail 333 pink gin 209 Pinotage grape 55 Pinot Gris grape 54 Pinot Noir grape 55 Pisang Ambo liqueur 248 Pisco Sour cocktail 335 Planter’s Punch cocktail 326 Plymouth gin 206 pomace brandy 190

Pomerol AC 94 port 146–151 production 147–148 styles 149 porter 13 Porto Flip cocktail 326 Portugal, wines 133–134 port 146–151 wine laws 133–134 pot still 169–170 Pouilly-Fuisse AC 99 Pouilly Fume AC 110 Priorat DOC 140 Prohibition and cocktails 308 proof spirit 172 Prosecco 127 Puligny-Montrachet AC 98 punches 303 Punt e Mes 164 Pussyfoot cocktail 337 python refrigeration system 33 quinine wine 164–165 rabbit’s buttage 56 raki 185, 191 Ramos Fizz cocktail 326 Ratafia liqueur 257 refrigeration, invention of 2 Rias Baixas DO 140 Ribatejo DOC 134 Ribeiro DO 140 Ribera del Duero DO 140 Rickey cocktails 304 Riesling 116 Riesling grape 54 Rioja DOC 139 Rob Roy cocktail 337 Romanee-Conti AC 98 Romania, wines 135 Rose cocktail 333 Rosé d’Anjou AC 109 Ruby ports 149 Rueda DO 140 rum 209-215 Caribbean light 210–211 history 209–210 in cooking 214 popular brands 215 production 211–213 types 213–214 Rumpleminze liqueur 254 Russian Spring Punch cocktail 335

Index Rusty Nail cocktail 326 Rye whiskey 236 Sabra liqueur 251 Sainte-Croix-du-Mont AC 94 Saint-Emilion AC 94 Saint Rapheal (quinine wine) 165 sake 20–22 brewing 20 grades and flavours 21 sambuca 184 Sancerre AC 110 Sangiovese grape 55 San Miguel Premium 17 Saumur AC 108 Sauvignon Blanc grape 54 Savoy Cocktail Book 306 Sazerac cocktail 326 schnapps 215 Scotch 229 Scotch whisky brands 233 Screwdriver cocktail 327 Sea Breeze cocktail 333 Sekt (German sparkling wine) 117 Semillon grape 54 Sex on the Beach cocktail 333 sherry 151–156 production 152–153 service 155 styles 154–155 Shiraz grape 55 Shirley Temple cocktail 337 Sidecar cocktail 327 simplex chiller 32–33 Singapore Sling cocktail 334 sling cocktails 305 slivovitz 192 Sloe gin 206, 249 Smirnoff vodka 224 Smithwicks Ale 16 Soave DOC 126 soft drinks brands 270–271 carbonated 267–269 draught systems 269–270 soil for wine grapes 53 solera system brandy 193 sherry 154 Somontano DO 139 sour cocktails 304 South Africa, wines 135–137 Southern Comfort liqueur 248

Spain, wines 137–141 sparkling wines 68–69 Asti 125 Champagne 100 Italy 125 Sekt (Germany) 117 Spain 141 spirits 166–180, 181–242 cask strength 177 maturing 175 raw materials 167 tasting 178–180 Spritz Veneziano cocktail 335 Spumante 125 steam beer 12 Stella Artois 14 St. Estephe AC 93 stills continuous 170–171 pot 169–170 Stinger cocktail 327, 337 St. Julien AC 93 Stolichnaya vodka 224 stout 13 and foods 20 Strega liqueur 254 Suze 242 Switzerland, wines 141–142 swizzle cocktails 304 Sykes hydrometer 173 Syrah grape 55 Tarragona DO 140 Tawny ports 150 tea 278–281 brewing 280 types 279 Tempranillo 137 Tennessee whiskey 237 tequila 215–221 history 215–216 production 216–219 quality standards 220–221 Tequila Sunrise cocktail 334 the real Mc Coy 211–212 Tia Maria liqueur 256 Toddy 303 Tokaji, Hungarian wine 120–121 Tommy’s Margarita cocktail 335 Toro DO: 140 Touraine AC 109 Trappiste Blonde beer 14 tsipouro 191

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The Principles and Practice of Bar and Beverage Management: The Drinks Handbook

Tuborg 15 Tuxedo cocktail 327 United States, wines 142–145 Valdeorras DO 140 Valdepenas DO 140 Valpolicella DOC 126 Valpolicella DOC structure 127 Vampiro cocktail 335 VDQS (Vin Délimité Qualité Supérieure) 65 vermouth 162–164 production 162–163 styles 162 best known 163 Vermut Yzaguirre (vermouth) 164 Vesper cocktail 335 Vin de Pays 65 Vinho Verde DOC 134 Vino de Jerez 151–156 vins de garde 73 vintage, of wines 65 vodka 221–225 brands 224 hangovers 225 history 221–222 production 222–223 types 224 Vosne-Romanee AC 98 VSOP cognac 200 waters 271–273 bottled, 272, 274 business potential 277 EU regulations 273 whiskey, See also whisky American 235–236 Bourbon 235 corn 236 Irish 233–234 pure pot still 234 rye 236 Tennessee 237 Whiskey Sour cocktail 327 whisky 225–240 Canadian 238 history 226 India 239

Japanese 239 malt and grain 230 production 227–229 Scotch 229 Scotch regions 231 spelling 225 types of Scotch 230 Wales 240 White Lady cocktail 327 White Russian cocktail 328 wine 51–74 classification 57–58 components 59 food pairing 70–71 label information 63 maturation and oak ageing 62 production 51–53, 59–63 sparkling 68–69 storage 73–74 tasting 66 wine maps Australia 77 Bordeaux 91 Burgundy 96 California 143 Champagne 100 Chile 84 France 88 Germany 116 Italy 123 Loire valley 107 New Zealand 132 Portugal 133 Rhone Valley 111 South Africa 136 Spain 138 wine production, climate 52 worm in the bottle, tequila 221 worts 7 Xtabentún liqueur 255 yeast, in wine-making 60 Yellow Bird cocktail 336 Zinfandel grape 55 Zubrowka bison grass vodka 224

Principles and Practices of Bar and Beverage Management the drinks handbook The bar and drinks business is hugely competitive. The key to success or failure between the many beverages and services offered in any bar is the employees who make, market, sell and serve them. Customer expectation and demand is constantly increasing and so it’s crucial for all staff to have comprehensive product knowledge and superior specialized service skills. The Principles and Practices of Bar and Beverage Management - The Drinks Handbook is an authoritative resource and comprehensive training guide, essential for all students, bartenders, sommeliers, mixologists, waiters and food and beverage practitioners the world over. Written and configured in an accessible and user-friendly style, packed with facts, explanatory illustrations and case studies it provides an in-depth knowledge of the products, plus the technical skills, practices and latest developments in the bar and beverage area. The chapters are structured with specific learning aims and objectives, comprehensive indicative content, tables, illustrations, models of the significant issues surrounding the topic area and end of chapter summaries. This book features: • Theory and instruction: a complete guide to beers, wines, spirits, liqueurs, teas, coffee, hot chocolate, waters, soft drinks and cocktails - where they’re from, how they’re made, how to serve them and how to achieve maximum profits. • Real world examples that connect the theory and instructions to professional practice. • Reference and resources: detailed compilation of facts, up to date web resources and companion websites which surround the major categories and brands of beers, ciders, fortified and still wines, spirits and liqueurs of the world and an indispensible listing of over 90 classic and contemporary cocktail recipes. Its companion textbook, Principles and Practices of Bar and Beverage Management concentrates on the complexities of managing modern bars. Together the two books create a must-have toolkit which supports the broader study requirements for all students and industry professionals in the fields of food and beverage management. James Murphy is both author and winner of numerous national and international industry awards including World Champion – Bacardi Martini Grand Prix for Elite Bartenders in 1993. Former Education Chairman of the International Bartenders Association (IBA), he has managed in the bar and beverage industry for over 30 years and is author of Europe’s first ever Bachelor of Science (Honours Degree) in Bar Studies – Management & Entrepreneurship. He currently lectures full time in Bar Management at the Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology, Dublin, Ireland.

Goodfellow Publishers Limited Oxford, UK. www.goodfellowpublishers.com