Performance Of Home Textiles 9789385059315, 9789385059810, 9385059319

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Performance of Home Textiles (Second Edition)

Dr. Subrata Das

WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD New Delhi

Published by Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., 303, Vardaan House, 7/28, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com

First published 2018, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. © Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., 2018 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials. Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without ermission in writing from Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. The consent of Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. for such copying. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. ISBN: 978-93-85059-31-5  Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. e-ISBN: 978-93-85059-81-0

Contents

Forewordix Prefacexi 1. Introduction

3

1.1

Concept of home textiles

3

1.2

Use of home textiles in hospitality sector

4

1.3

Consumer’s expectation from home textiles

5

1.4

Home textile market scenario

6

1.5

Use of different fibres in home textiles

6

1.6

Labelling of home textiles

6

1.7

Test methods for home textiles

7

1.8

Quality related issues in home textiles

8

1.9

Need for eco-friendly home textiles

9

References 

9

2. Key home textiles market

11

2.1 Introduction

11

2.2

Home textiles in India

12

2.3

Home textiles in China

15

2.4

Home textiles in Pakistan

16

2.5

Home textiles in Bangladesh

16

2.6

Home textiles in Hong Kong

17

2.7

Home textiles in United States

17

2.8

Home textiles in United Kingdom

18

2.9

Home textiles in European Union

19

2.10 Home textiles in Japan

20

vi Contents 2.11 Home textiles in Turkey

22

References

24

3. Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

25

3.1 Introduction

26

3.2 Application of conventional fibres in home textiles

26

3.3 Application of new and sustainable fibres in home textiles

27

3.4

32

Areas of application of home textiles

3.5 Conclusion

45

References46 4. Performance specifications of different home textiles

49

4.1

Importance of performance specification

49

4.2

Performance requirements of US market

50

4.3

Performance requirements of Canada market

83

4.4

Performance requirements of UK market

89

4.5

Special performance requirements in home textiles

104

References 

107

5. Labelling issues of home textiles

111

5.1 General labelling requirements for home textiles in the US

112

5.2

115

Labelling requirements for home textiles in EU

5.3 Labelling of different home textile products for US

116

5.4 Labelling of different home textile products for Canada

128

5.5

129

Recommended care for home textile products

References 

142

6. Flammability of home textiles

145

6.1 Introduction

146

6.2 Flammability regulations for different home textiles

147

6.3 CATB 117 Section A Part 1 – Resilient cellular material

147

6.4 CATB 117 Section A Part 2 – Shredded resilient cellular material 

148

Contents

6.5

CATB 117 Section A Part 3 – Bean bags

vii 149

6.6 CATB 117 Section B Part 1 – Non-man-made filling materials150 6.7 CATB 117 Section B Part 2 – Shredded and loose fill materials/feathers and down

150

6.8 CATB 117 Section C – Man-made filling material

151

6.9 CATB 117 Section D Part 1 – Cigarette resistance

152

6.10 CATB 117 Section D Part 2 – Smouldering screening test

152

6.11 CATB 117 Section E Part 1 – Upholstery fabrics

154

6.12 Some important regulatory tests for carpets and rugs

154

6.13 Flammability of blankets

158

6.14 Flammability requirements of towels

160

6.15 16 CFR 1632 mattress and mattress pad test

161

6.16 16 CFR 1633 mattress flammability test

164

6.17 CA TB 604 bed clothing flammability test

165

6.18 EN1021-1/2:1994

165

6.19 BS 5852 Ignitability of upholstered seating

166

6.20 Flammability standards for curtains

168

6.21 Conclusion

169

References 

169

7. Evaluation of home textiles

171

7.1 Introduction

172

7.2

Test methods for towels

174

7.3

Test methods for rug

190

7.4

Test method of pot holders and woven mitts

196

7.5

Miscellaneous test methods of home textiles

200

7.6

Restricted substances

208

7.7

Cadmium in coated/plastic items

222

7.8

Evaluation of phthalates

225

7.9

Nickel release test: BS EN 1811& BS EN 12472

230

7.10 Test method for formaldehyde

232

viii Contents 7.11 Test method of azo dyes

233

7.12 Miscellaneous test methods

241

References 

243

8. Finishes used in home textiles

247

8.1 Introduction

247

8.2

Thermal draperies

248

8.3

Protection against unpleasant odour

248

8.4

Temperature-regulated beddings

249

8.5

Endure™ textile finish

250

8.6

Anti-microbial finish

250

8.7

Moisture management finish

251

8.8

Flame retardant finish

252

8.9

Mite free mattresses

252

8.10 Water and oil repellent and soil release finishes

253

8.11 Towel finishing

254

8.12 Moisture cross-linking (MXL) of bed linen

254

8.13 Nano-technology based home textile enhancements

255

8.14 Sensory perception technology

255

References 

256

9. Eco-friendly aspect in home textiles

259

9.1 Introduction

259

9.2 Trademarks and labels used in environment-friendly home textiles261 9.3 Different eco-friendly standards in home textiles

266

9.4

320

Importance of eco-labelling

References 

320

Index323

Foreword

Home textile products play a very important role in any retail company and good quality of home textile products attract consumers to retail. The subject matter of this book has been divided into nine chapters covering the various facets of home textile from concept of home textile, source of home textile products, key performance features and regulatory performance requirements if domestic and/or international retail. We have seen several books on textile products, process and performance; however, this book is unique as it has outlined all important information, which factory/manufacturer, buying agency and buyers need on day-to-day basis. This book is very unique on its topic selection and reflects the practical working knowledge of the author in the performance of home textiles. This book is very informative and will be very useful for the industry to understand quality related issues in home textile, how the quality challenges and reservations can be avoided and how these issues should be addressed to appropriate person at right time to avoid surprise at finishing stage. Author has also outlined important finishes which is very useful to understand in designing new products to meet regulatory and performance requirement of retailers of any country. Testing methods will help in analysing home textile products and help in understanding inherent characteristics of the products to accept and reject. This book will be very useful for home textile manufacturers, product development personals, technologists, textile chemists and educational cluster of textile / fashion. I am very thankful to author to write a book on this subject that will be very beneficial to home textile industry and help in business.

Suresh Chinnaswamy General Manger - Quality Bombay Dyeing and Manufacturing Company Limited, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Preface

Home textile industry is an upcoming sector in consumer forum that takes care of essential requirements of living in a house comfortably. Performance of varieties of home textile items is viewed and valued by customers in terms of class, quality, reliability and consistency. A thorough and comprehensive interaction with the different stakeholders of home textile industry reveal that this particular sector is in need of a digestive document that can be able to communicate majority of the requirements of product performance and quality in-line with the value addition and to maintain the basic concept underlying in green consumerism. Thus, this book arose out of a need-based philosophy that caters to the requirement in providing the service as a technical resource to home textile sector wherein all essential elements of product development, industry standards, regulatory aspects, and evaluation systems are built into it. The book is aimed at industry professionals, domestic and international retailers, factory owners, buying institutions, and students intended to start their career in home textile sector. Thus, the emphasis of the book is how to achieve the commercial success of desired end product through the knowledge of the key markets producing various home textiles, scope of development through sustainable and eco-friendly fibres, various industry specific standards, evaluation systems and above all safety aspects and environmental regulations. It is important to mention that same home textile product can be evaluated against different benchmarks because specification and regulation vary depending upon the country of export. It is always desirable to refer to a latest version of document while applying any tests and regulations, which are difficult to cover in a book of this nature, and more so international standards, and regulations are continuously been updated, owing to the change in expectation of performance and for better consumer interest. Knowledge and compliance of chemical substances that are either banned from use or restricted to a certain limit in the home product by global laws and regulations are important and usually monitored starting at the product adoption stage of development. Identifying “high-risk” products and testing for restricted substances where applicable leads to product compliance. Different test methods pertaining to restricted substances which are applicable for home textile industry are added to the second edition to increase awareness of the industry on this topic.

xii Preface Home textiles products have been diversified over the years in the niche market based on the expectations and need of consumer. Thus, the emphasis on the performance parameters and their evaluation systems cannot be overlooked. Like all other sectors of technology, when we are moving forward positively through 21st century, the use of eco-friendly fibres for product development in home textiles is quite expected. High-performance and value addition are no longer treated as attributes in the consumer world but become essential feature of finished home textiles. We often heard about the fire hazards in home textiles, which is a potential safety concern and must be regulated by standard flammability regulations and interestingly, that are not common for every product. It is also important that home textiles should be properly labelled. This is not only to meet the regulatory requirement but also guide the consumer for its proper care. Above all, the environmental aspect of home textiles has attracted attention in recent years and different eco-labels and standards are in place for its regulatory control. Although topics covered in this book are not uncommon in home textile industry in our general sense of term. I have included those in this book because very little has been available in published literature. Latest updates on various global regulations for the home textile industry have been incorporated in the second edition of this book. I believe that the subject will be of sufficient interest to textile professionals to warrant its inclusion and so provide a wider circulation of information concerning this development in home textiles. Date : 9th January 2017 Place : Sathyamangalam

Dr. Subrata Das Professor Department of Fashion Technology Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam, Erode District, Tamil Nadu – 638401 India

1 Introduction

Abstract: Home textile is an important segment of technical textiles, which covers soft and hard sectors depending on the unique characteristic of the product. New design concept and innovation are the areas to be explored to impart functional features, which may sometimes been derived from apparel technology. The chapter first discusses the world-wide market situation, the possibility of using different fibres, and the importance of labelling home textiles. The chapter then discusses the evaluation of the product for performance towards contractual requirement and some quality related issues thereof. Importance of eco-label to safeguard the environment is also highlighted. Keywords: technical textiles, home textiles, consumer, psychology, performance testing, eco-parameters

Chapter contains (Section headings) 1 Introduction 1.1 Concept of home textiles 1.2 Use of home textiles in hospitality sector 1.3 Consumer’s expectation from home textiles 1.3.1 Features of high-quality home textiles 1.3.2 Properties required for home textiles 1.4 Home textile market scenario 1.5 Use of different fibres in home textiles 1.6 Labelling of home textiles 1.7 Test methods for home textiles 1.8 Quality related issues in home textiles 1.9 Need for eco-friendly home textiles References

1.1

Concept of home textiles

Home – being the expression and reflection of who the owner is, needs to be furnished in a way that makes one feel comfortable, safe and delighted. In general, we spend the highest time in our life at home and has special social, emotional importance attached to it across all cultures. To understand the meaning of home textiles, it is necessary to understand the concept of “technical textiles”. The textiles that are not produced for decorative purposes, but with certain specific intentions are

4

Performance of home textiles

called technical textiles. Technical textiles have been grouped into twelve segments, viz., agrotech (for agricultural purposes), buildtech (for building purposes), clothtech (for clothing purposes), geotech (for civil engineering purposes), hometech (for home purposes), indutech (for industrial purposes), meditech (for medical purposes), packtech (for packaging purposes), protech (for protection purposes), sporttech (for sports purposes), oekotech (environment friendly products), and smart or interactive category (for specialty purposes). Home textile is a rather important part of technical textiles which includes – but not limited to – carpets, rugs, floor coverings, curtains, cushion covers, napkins, towels and towelling fabric, bedspreads, furnishing fabric and upholstery, table linen, bed linen, sheets and pillowcases, blankets, shower curtains, aprons as well as wallpapers. Basically in home textile, there are hard and soft home sectors. Hard home textiles are the heavy items such as rubber floor mats, coir mats, rugs, etc. Soft home textiles cover bath towel, kitchen towel, napkins, aprons, etc. Home textiles have emerged as one of the most dynamic product segments in textile industry. There have been significant developments in home textile over the past few years. The emerging of this market trend is due to the growing demand of comfort and functional performances by customers on fibre combinations, fabrics, designs, textures and colours. As a result, manufacturers are now adopting comparatively matured performance apparel technologies to use in home textile products (1).

1.2

Use of home textiles in hospitality sector

The trend for home textile market can also be observed in hospitality textile field (1). Undoubtedly, people nowadays are desire for better services and facilities in hotels, resorts, restaurants, bars, casinos, spas and sport arenas. It is foreseen that the number of these places of public entertainment will be significantly amplified in recent years. The fabrics used in furniture, bed coverings, mattresses, pillows, curtains, towels, wall covering and even the carpeting on the floor all have to meet demanding performance criteria as well as maintaining a good appearance. Performance requirements can include ease of maintenance and cleaning, flame retardancy and durability. The way the fabrics look can also set up a warm atmosphere to welcome guests and travellers. Although each public venue has different facilities and their own performance requirements, the strategies for maintaining a good look in the furnishings are more or less the same. The typical performance requirements for hospitality textile are abrasion resistance, light fastness, wash fastness, stain resistance, cleanability, flame resistance, odour control, anti-microbial function, and anti-mite property.



1.3

Introduction

5

Consumer’s expectation from home textiles

A customer looks for harmony and balance visual impact of the home and each component thereof. One should look at bed sheet sets, comforters, rugs, cushions, wall hanging, lamp, wall paper that match well with wall colour, furniture, flooring, etc. Fashion designers are expected to understand aesthetic sensibility of target customers and create new design concepts and ideas to satisfy the same. Colour and design define aesthetics of a product for visual impact to create harmonious or co-ordinate look in home or part of home. Even manufacturers in this sector strive hard to cater to the market demand. Sometime even a consumer is not aware of the need. Home textile is under explored area and there is lot of scope for innovations. This can be achieved by understanding consumer psychology, and integrating technology and fashion in order to provide right solution to consumer. Some of the areas of innovations have also been taken from the apparel sector to match with the requirements of home textile consumers. For example, bed sheets are being made from coolmax and thermolite fabrics. Coolmax fabric incorporates a moisture management technology and has traditionally been used in active performance wear. Thermolite is a light-weight insulation material, which was originally designed for outdoor performance apparel.

1.3.1

Features of high-quality home textiles

Towels: Soft but absorbent materials, fashionable colours and designs, good colour-fastness, and easy-care materials available over many years. Table linen: Hard wearing, and long-lasting materials resistant to light easy-care. Bed linen: Bright colours, fashionable designs, good colour-fastness, long service life and easy-care keep their shape (don’t shrink). Blinds/curtains: Brilliant colours, and resistant to light. Decorative materials: Fashionable colours and designs available over many years. Bedding: Very comfortable to sleep in (thermal insulation, breathability) long service life, and hygienic easy-care materials.

1.3.2

Properties required for home textiles

Fabrics used for home textiles must have properties such as, • Good light fastness. • Good resistance to seam slippage. • Good resistance to pilling. • Good resistance to snagging. • Stain repellency.

6

Performance of home textiles

• Good fastness to sponging. • Flame retardency. • Appearance retention.

1.4

Home textile market scenario

Brazil, Russia, India and China (also known as BRIC) are the best growth markets across all product categories e.g., in India, per capita consumption of home textiles is 3 m/annum vis-á-vis 200+ m/annum in matured markets. However, product package of matured market not work in emerging markets (2). The WTO 2005 World Textile Market Report had shown that USA was the biggest importer of home textile products with a share of 34.3%, followed by Germany 11.6%, Japan 10.9%, UK 8.3%, France 6.5%, and Canada 4.2%. On the contrary, the biggest exporter of home textile products was China with the world market share of 33.4%, followed by Pakistan 12.1%, India 9.7%, Turkey 6.6%, Portugal 4.8%, and Mexico 4.5%. At present, it is strongly believed that China will remain the world leader in exports while it is uncertain that USA will be the biggest importer of home textile products due to its current financial crisis (3). The home furnishing industry offers a wide range of products. Style and colours alone are not adequate to attract consumers to the offered product range of a brand. Fashionable products are no longer sufficient to ensure business success. To appeal to today’s increasingly sophisticated consumers, products should have enhanced functional properties and also eco-friendly and meet international regulatory and safety requirements.

1.5

Use of different fibres in home textiles

Home textiles when made out of natural fibres are always been preferred by the consumers. Of late, products made out of synthetics and blends have shown encouraging signs of being significant export items. New and sustainable fibres have recently been tried in home textiles which include coir, jute, water lily fibre, silk, milk fibre, wood fibres, sea weed fibres, soybean fibre, bamboo fibre, and hemp. Though such fibres are environmental-friendly, and welcomed by the eco-conscious consumers but commercial exploitation is still not encouraging. Recently some modern fibres are introduced in the market are being used for the home textiles such as Sendura, Varie, Lintex and Crinkle.

1.6

Labelling of home textiles

Labelling of home textiles involves dimensional measurements, care instructions, country of origin, fibre content and manufacturer’s identification. It is



Introduction

7

a requirement that the consumer need to be informed of their prospective and current purchases. This will protect consumers against misrepresentation in the labelling and advertising of textile fibre products and enable consumers to choose textiles on the basis of fibre content. Depending on the market of export, labelling of home textile products vary due to change in regulations of different countries. Sometimes, law tags and safety tags also become the part of labelling. This gives adequate additional information to the consumers’ prior to purchase to take necessary precautions.

1.7

Test methods for home textiles

The various tests include the ASTM (US), AATCC (US), BS (UK), DIN (Germany), NF (France), JIS (Japan), ISO EN (Europe) as well as comprehensive standard requirements from the home textile industries. The comprehensive range of tests conducted, covers performance, safety and legal criteria for the products. Performance testing is required to establish conformity of fabrics, yarn, components and finished products to contractual requirements. Evaluation of home textiles is also mandatory to test colour-fastness, care labelling recommendations, testing for specialty finishes, and chemical testing for restricted substances, and feather and down tests. Selection of the right protocol of testing for the home textile products are of paramount importance. For instance, confusion often arises while selecting proper test protocol for furniture throws (4). There are two choices i.e., either furniture throws are to be tested under furniture accessories – chair pads / slip covers category or blanket / throws category. Based on the end use, furniture throws should be tested under furniture accessories – chair pads / slip covers category. The reason behind that a furniture throw functions more like a slip cover than a blanket. It is intended to be sat upon and protect the furniture rather than to provide warmth to the user. However, in case of a decorative throw, the protocol for blanket / throws category is to be used in testing. Similarly, debate often arises whether colour-fastness to static wetting on bright colours bath towels are required or not. According to the opinion of experts, static wetting is intended for cold water bleeding. Beach towels are used to lay wet bodies with wet suits down onto or to wrap around wet swimsuits. This can cause slow colour migration that would not normally take place with bath towels. That is why many renowned retailers in US do not require the colour-fastness to static wetting on solid colours bath towels.Fires in the home are a common cause of injury, and so the flammability of home textiles, furniture and upholstery is checked for its resistance and ability to prevent the spread of fire. When household products burn, the fumes and smoke they produce are not only an irritant when inhaled but also some items such as cushions can be extremely toxic when burnt and can cause fatalities.

8

1.8

Performance of home textiles

Quality related issues in home textiles

Quality problems in home textiles are generally similar to those for apparel. As for apparel, quality requirements for home textiles are based on their end use. Some of the common problems faced by buyers and exporters of home textiles are discussed here (5). Curtains and upholstery require high colour-fastness to light due to the nature of their use. Colour fading due to light in such items is a common cause of concern. This needs to be kept in mind by everyone in the manufacturing chain, especially the processor. Selection of proper dyestuffs and the right combination is essential to achieve high light fastness properties. Assistance from dyestuff manufacturers shall help the industry with selection of right dyestuffs to overcome this problem. In different occasions, if dyed and printed floor mats are placed outside a bathroom can stain the carpet on which they are placed. During such event, the colours can bleed through the floor mat onto the carpet mimicking the design on the merchandise. This may happen when the floor mat is having poor colour-fastness to water, which causes the bleeding of colour. To overcome the colour-fastness problem, it is essential for the buyer to add this test to the protocol of evaluation and necessary precautions are to be taken by the processor. The tests of colour-fastness to washing and colour-fastness to rubbing are the most common tests generally specified by buyers to determine the longevity of colourants in regular use by consumers. A sample of a pigment printed floor covering (durries) which may pass all the quality control (QC) tests of the buyer but can still be returned by the customer if it fades significantly during the first washing, which is done as per the prescribed care label instructions. The test for colour-fastness to washing is intended to determine if the specimen loses colour in the washing and if this colour stains other light coloured and white fabrics in the washing process itself. The test that is especially developed to assess the quality of a pigment print is the test for colour-fastness to wet scrubbing, which is regulated by the method ISO 105 C07 (6). Home textiles frequently come into contact with plastics, e.g., the backing on placemats and bathmats, plastic drums in tumble dryers, etc. Substantial mark-off of colour may be observed on plastic tumble dryer drums after a pigment printed bed sheet is washed in and this may cause to customer complaint. The test of assessment of migration of colour into poly vinyl chloride (PVC) coatings could be used for this. Subsequently, suppliers can be asked to conform to the specification. Pigments, which are especially susceptible to migration, can be eliminated from use to solve the problem. Several pigments are not suitable for printing where the article is to be dry-cleaned and the dyestuff manufacturer should be consulted for this



Introduction

9

colour-fastness information. Motif pigment printed curtains with a “dryclean only” label, may cause complete removal of printed design after one dry-cleaning cycle, which is embarrassing to both the retailer and the mill. In such a case, the existing dry-clean label is to be replaced with a suitable wash care label before shipment keeping dimensional stability to washing parameters well within control.

1.9

Need for eco-friendly home textiles

As with apparel, eco-parameters are also applicable to home textiles bound for export. Since many of the home textiles that are being exported are processed in smaller units, these parameters needed to be understood in detail by the processors. Today, even strict eco-parameters can be achieved by the industry. Eco-certification proves that the products comply with the accepted standards to maintain our environment safe and non-polluted. Many certification labels exist for environmentally-friendly textiles. A few of these includes but not limited to Global Organic Textile Standards (GOTS), Oeko-Tex standard 100, and the REACH (registration, evaluation, authorisation and restriction of chemical substances). In order to ensure proper protection to the environment and facilitating additional safety to the consumers, introduction of new harmful substances and tightening of existing performance requirements in different eco-standards are not at all uncommon in varieties of home textile products destined for different export market.

References 1. SGS Hong Kong – SCOOP (2007). Soft lines, ‘The emerging trend for home textile market’, Hong Kong, 1–2. 2. Merchant Rajiv, (2009). Home Textile Industry – An overview, Available from: http:// www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed 12 November 2009]. 3. Sangwatanaroj, USA (2008). The World Market of Home Textiles, Available from: http://www.ttistextiledigest.com [Accessed 13 November’ 2009]. 4. Das Subrata, (2008). Technical notes from CTL, Hong Kong, Unpublished data. 5. Nimkar M. Ullhas, (2005). ‘Apparel and made-ups from India: quality strengths and weaknesses’, IIT Delhi, Conference and Seminar, 11–14. 6. ISO 105 C07 Textiles -- Tests for colour fastness -- Part C07: Colour fastness to wet scrubbing of pigment printed textiles.

2 Key home textiles market

Abstract: Outsourcing of different home textile products has become an important practice for the home textile retailers. Global retailers are looking at reducing their dependence on a single country for supply home textile products, which have been diversified over a period of time. The chapter first discusses the global market of different home textiles and the demand thereof. This chapter deals with export and import status of different developed and developing countries with reference to the niche market of varieties of home textile segments. Keywords: Karur, Zhejiang, European Union, outsourcing, anti-dumping, import, export

Chapter contains (Section headings) 2 Key home textiles market 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Home textiles in India 2.3 Home textiles in China 2.4 Home textiles in Pakistan 2.5 Home textiles in Bangladesh 2.6 Home textiles in Hong Kong 2.7 Home textiles in United States 2.8 Home textiles in United Kingdom 2.9 Home textiles in European Union 2.10 Home textiles in Japan 2.11 Home textiles in Turkey References

2.1 Introduction Home textile products utilised in the interiors of homes, hotels, offices, etc., play an important role in the comfort, protection and decoration purposes. As per the consumption, global home textiles market was estimated at around US $105 billion in 2006 and was expected to grow at 15% per annum (1). According to survey by Mckinsey, the global trade in home textile is projected to grow to the extent of US $ 23 billion in 2010. The USA with a market size of US $ 18 billion in the world’s single biggest market followed by the European Union (EU) at US $ 15 billion. While North America and Europe still take up the bulk of shipments, exports to emerging destinations

12

Performance of home textiles

such as Eastern Europe and the Middle East are gathering pace. Japan, Australia, New Zealand are also large consumers of home textiles. Major home textiles exporting counties are China, Pakistan, India, and Turkey. Worldwide the demand growth in the home textiles sector is accounted for about 6% (2). Home textile capacities in the EU and the US are shrinking due to the lack of competitiveness. This downscaling, and the dismantling of quotas, is likely to create additional markets estimated at US $ 1.3 billion in towels and US $ 1.8 billion in bed linen for the rest of the world. With outsourcing now becoming the norm amongst global textile retailers, and the EU and US imposing export limits on China, Indian home textile industry stands to benefit. Moreover, global retailers are looking at reducing their dependence on a single country for supply. It has been noticed that Indian companies have strong brand equity in the US home textile market. In fact, India is the largest supplier of terry towels (with 21% market share) and the third largest supplier of bed linens (with 19% market share) to the US. India’s thrust on value addition, which was earlier an attempt to differentiate itself from China, which focuses on volumes and lower prices, has stood in good stead. Indian home textile companies have strived to offer better value-added products, such as higher thread count bed linen, innovative varieties in terry towels and a wider product range in decorative bed sets. This approach has yielded them higher realisations and better profit margins compared to that of regional peers. However, of late, countries such as Pakistan, Turkey and Bangladesh are also giving India a tough fight in the lower value home textile segment (3).

2.2

Home textiles in India

The home textiles market in India is estimated to be Rs 17,000 crore and is growing at over 9% annually. India is globally recognised for its variety and designs in home textiles and furnishing fabrics. The growth can be attributed to increase in the number of households and disposable incomes, and growth of the housing, office, hospitality and health-care sectors. The diverse structure of the Indian textile industry coupled with its close linkage with its ancient culture and tradition provides it with the unique capacity to produce with the help of latest technological inputs and design capability a wide variety of home textile products suitable to the varying consumer tastes and preferences both within the country and overseas. Home textiles segment in India is growing by leaps and bounds in India, with a lot of young people buying homes. In addition, they have surplus income to buy stylish, premium products in the market. The future is bright for this section and there is no doubt about it. Indian home textile export industry, in general, is not moving fast enough in terms of product and design leadership. Companies are still doing lot of



Key home textiles market

13

design and product follow-up after coming back from the market visits / trade fair and in the areas that by all the norms could have easily been dealt with much in advance. Despite this and some other ongoing difficulties, a significant fact emerges strongly in comparison with many other competing nations that India’s core strength in this sector could essentially be in design and product development. India has a strong traditional base in textiles that provides a unique vocabulary and resource that beautifully suits the consumer sensibility. In addition to that, India has tremendous flexibility and the capability to adapt to changing environments. The ability to produce and supply small quantities is not only limited to traditional handloom and handicrafts sector but it has now been demonstrated by mills and decentralised power looms as well. Product needs for home textiles is governed by economical, political, historical, cultural, and seasonal factors. For instance, in India, home is very important place for social (joint family system) and family get-together and emotionally very important to customer. In some cases, Indian customers spend more money on certain products than their counterpart in developed markets. The home textile industry is quite widespread in India. There are a number of centres in India wherein the production of home textiles has been undertaken since decades. Karur in South India is especially known for the production of pillow covers, bedspreads as well as kitchen and table linen. In fact, the table mats from Karur are world famous. Karur mainly produces cotton home textiles. The home textile producers of Karur specialise in certain finishes, such as PVA, starch, stain repellent, water-repellent and silicon finish. Some producers have begun the use of organic cotton and the use of different fabrics such as polyester, silk and poly cotton. Panipat in the state of Haryana is a major producer of woollen home textile products. The “Panja” durries produced in Panipat are famous the world over. The easy availability of raw materials and economies of scale leading to low-cost of production are the major factors which have led to the development of Panipat as a major production and export hub for home textiles. It has also developed as a sourcing hub for raw material for home textiles. Producers in Panipat have of late started experimenting with different fabrics such as polyester, silk and poly silk. Some producers have also started the use of natural fabrics such as bamboo and soya. Cannanore, located in South India, is another hub that is well-known for the production of home textiles. Home textile producers in Cannanore are beginning to use fabrics such as cotton, viscose, silk and cotton. Producers here are also adding value with the help of embroidery, bead work and sequin work. Chennai, metropolitan city in India, has emerged as a major production and export hub for home textiles. Home textile producers in Chennai usually source raw materials from Karur, to which value addition is undertaken. These producers are able to deliver better quality products within

14

Performance of home textiles

a shorter period of time with the benefit of technology and the services of experts. Delhi, the capital of India, has emerged as one of the major production and export centres for home textiles. Being a metropolis, it has an efficient infrastructure and easy availability of skilled manpower. Most of the producers in Delhi source their raw material from Panipat, to which value addition is done. Mumbai, the large metropolis and the capital of Maharashtra, is also one of the major production and export centres for home textiles. Like Delhi and Chennai, producers in Mumbai also source raw material from places such as Karur, Salem, Erode and Bengaluru (previously Bangalore) and add value to it. Home textile producers from Mumbai are popular the world over for their unique and innovative products. On account of the high operating costs in Mumbai, several producers have established plants in surrounding areas like Vapi and Sholapur. Those producers who have set-up their plants in Mumbai have huge plants so as to get the benefits of scale. The home textile producers in Mumbai have carved out a niche for themselves, particularly in case of bedspreads, pillow and cushion covers and bathroom textiles. Bengaluru, previously Bangalore, is the capital city of Karnataka has emerged as a manufacturing and export hub for home textiles, especially in silk. Bengaluru is largely engaged in the production of fabric, which is mainly done using power looms. This fabric is then sourced to other parts of India for value addition. On account of the high-price of pure silk, producers in Bengaluru are now experimenting with fabrics such as artificial silk, wool / silk and cotton / silk among other fabrics. Mirzapur and Badhohi are small cities located in Uttar Pradesh, which are major centres for the production of floor coverings and carpets. Jaipur city has also become an important centre for the production of home textiles, especially those using the traditional techniques of tie-and-dye, block printing and appliqué. A few producers in Jaipur have also started undertaking bead work to add more value to the product. (4). Looking to the requirements of the US and UK market of home textiles products, many Indian companies are diversifying or expanding in home textiles and there are enormous investments ensuing in this segment, a number of existed companies are spreading into home textiles. For Indian suppliers there is still need to understand the home textiles market trends with its various segments. There is a lack of understanding and lack of clear strategy for the Indian home textiles manufacturers as they are following. According to the textile experts of India, there is huge scope for home textiles exports from India, but only if they can produce the right products. Many companies are going for the basic home products like bed sheets and terry towels. Other product segments like upholstery, curtains, furnishings, etc., are ignored. Amid, this changing scenario in home textiles in India as well as international market, Indian home textiles manufacturer must have to draw proper segment / sub-segment wise strategy to succeed. In the domestic front, growth of retail



Key home textiles market

15

chains has increased the demand for private labels and many organised industries are tapping this market potential along with own retail chains. Branding in home textiles market is a big exercise, however, all major companies associated in this trade in India are opening up chains of retail outlets in major cities (1).

2.3

Home textiles in China

China obtained a 70% market share for home furnishings products (2). The Chinese home textiles industry has witnessed considerable increment in recent years. The central manufacturing areas are Shandong, Zhejiang and Jiangsu. Shangdong, focused with the outstanding performance of Yantai, Qingdao and Wendeng. The removals of quotas on particular home textiles products in January 2005 made easier to accelerate export growth even further. Segmental share of Chinese home textile products are: bedding 53%, towels 24%, drapery 17%, and table linen 6%. The products of bedding, towels, table linen and drapery dominate home textiles exports of China. Bedding, the largest line, amounted to US $4.3 billion (estimate) in exports in 2007, accounting for 53% of the overall sales in 2007. This figure excludes quilted products (1). The second largest export category, towels, rose to US $2.1 billion, clocking a 20% growth rate. Drapery exports amounted to US $1.6 billion, increasing 40%. Table linen registered US $642 million worth of exports, growing moderately by 21%. Exports from China were projected to exceed US $9.5 billion by the end of 2008, increasing by a robust 15% over 2007. There are more than 3,000 home textiles merchants and producers in China, among of 80% have direct export right. Irrespective of the size, majority of the companies make bedding products, with most offering both quilts and bed linen and some focusing on one or the other. Suppliers that manufacture quilts can also produce bed linen, but those specialising in bed linen do not necessarily offer quilts. This is because quilt production requires specialised machines for cleaning, stuffing and quilting. Makers producing quilts usually also offer similar products such as pillows and cushions. Very few companies focus on drapery, and even fewer specialise in table linen. Most suppliers have one or both of these product categories as their secondary lines and bedding as their primary line. Makers offering towels usually specialise in the line, but some large companies offering multiple types of home textiles have separate factories dedicated to the product. The few small and medium size companies that offer towels as their secondary line usually sub-contract production or dedicate a small portion of their factories to it. However, most of these makers might not be able to provide the expertise that towel specialists can offer. Restrictions on exports to the EU will not significantly affect China’s home textiles export industry, as the region reports for only 14% of

16

Performance of home textiles

total home textiles exports from China. Though, limits on shipments to the US, China’s top export market for home textiles, could sluggish the industry’s growth rate. In order to make a distinction themselves from other makers, many suppliers are thinking to improve their in-house R&D capability, with latest machineries. Besides a large turnover and exports in home textiles, China still does not stand with any famous home textiles brands in the global market. It is due to the lack of fine designers in the home textiles field; lower the aggressive approach of many domestic textile manufacturers especially compared with their overseas regions. But, still they are trying to increase their market share worldwide in the home textiles segment and manufacturers are attempting to set up close co-operative relationships with textile institutes to develop more capable and specialised designers and also Chinese domestic home textiles industry has been undergoing great changes. According to experts in this field, they should make communication stronger and teamwork with textile institutes to build up talented designers. Otherwise, they will not be able to compete with overseas counterparts in the near future.

2.4

Home textiles in Pakistan

Pakistan gained the main advantage of quotas’ removal with a 539% jump in US imports from the country in volume terms (1). US imports of cotton bed sheets increased in the first 7 months of the post-quota period. A significant change in bed linen category has been observed with a raise of 29% in bed linen export. Pakistan manufacturers possess a 25% share of EU’s market. On bed linen, the EU imposed anti-dumping duties of 13.1% imports from Pakistan for five-year period, effective from March 2005. Export of home textiles from Pakistan in the EU market accounts to as high as nearly €1.21 billion in 2005. The Pakistan’s most important home textiles segment, the bed linen, has gained good growth, as more companies are being attracted to this sector. There is opportunity for home textiles exports from Pakistan; many companies were expanding in basic products such as bed linen and terry towels. All existing manufacturers and exporters operating at full capacity and many cotton spinning companies were also moving into home textiles saw opportunities and further growth. Turkey is importing a lot of grey fabric from Pakistan, and then processed it and converting it into furnishings, etc., and exporting them to Europe at high-prices. JC Penny has a plan to double its home products imports from Pakistan in the coming years.

2.5

Home textiles in Bangladesh

Home textiles exporters of Bangladesh have been realising tough time in recent months with their exports to Europe, decreasing since the quota phased



Key home textiles market

17

out from January 1, 2005. Statistics given by the EU, during January–September 2005 Bangladesh’s export of fabrics, towels and bedding decreased by 8.9% in volume and nearly 5% in value. Throughout the period, Bangladesh exporters shipped 47.25 million kg of home textiles and fabric to 28 target places in Europe, earning €32.76 million. Market contribution of Bangladesh that supplies low-cost textiles, covering bedding and towels to European places shrunk to 1.4% in 2005, in opposition to 1.5% in the previous year. Industry experts said European buyers were stepping up to China for sourcing such products, even though Bangladesh exporters provide cheaper rates (1). Bangladesh remained in the category of supplier of cheaper home textile products focusing mainly on low-cost segment. Bangladesh exporters have been confronting strong price competition from Pakistan and Indian bed sheets and more intensely from cheaper Chinese products.

2.6

Home textiles in Hong Kong

In 2003, the US was Hong Kong’s second largest supplier of furnishings, curtains, sun blinds, bedding, and carpets; exporting US $15 million worth of home furnishing products to Hong Kong. The most important categories of textiles that Hong Kong imported from the US in 2003 were carpets and other textile floor coverings (US $ 13 million); bed linens, table linens, kitchen linens (US $ 1.3 million); awnings, sun blind, tarpaulins (US $ 0.4 million); and curtains (US $ 0.3 million). China was the biggest supplier (75%) followed by the US (6%), the EU (5.5%), Thailand (2.5%), and Japan (2.2%). Bed linens, table linens, and kitchen linens were the main category imported textiles (50% or US $129 million) in Hong Kong in 2003. The other important categories of imported textiles were carpets and other textile floor coverings (US $ 66 million); other furnishing products (US $ 23 million); blankets (US $ 20 million), and curtains (US $ 14 million.) Hong Kong’s imports of textiles reduced 8% in 2003 compared with 2002 as both consumers and institutions (hotels and serviced-apartments) reduced their demand. There was a 20% reduction in textile imports from the EU in 2003. Imports of textiles from Japan rose 15% to US $ 5.8 million. This upsurge achieved mainly from curtains, which grew from US $ 66 thousand to US $ 257 thousand. Imports of textiles from Thailand increased 38% to US $ 6.4 million in 2004 (1).

2.7

Home textiles in United States

The US market for home textiles is vast and its sheer size (estimated at about US $16.8 billion in 2007) indicates that enormous cultural variations drive the market demand for more style and design. Normally two trends are common in the home textile market – more value additions and environment-friendly

18

Performance of home textiles

items. Luxury home textiles are made of silk, satin, velvet, silk organza, suede and leather. Rich jewel, metallic or lustrous colour palettes add to their appeal. The natural fibres such as cotton, linen, hemp, flax with associate natural colour palettes use natural dyes. China and India dominate, as suppliers of beaded and embroidered items, particularly in the luxury fabrics like silk. The penetration of imports in the US clearly reflects the structural shift in global production to lower cost regions like India, China, Vietnam and Pakistan. China remains to be top source country and the top 10 source countries accounted for 86% of the total known value of these imports (1). Northeast Asia accounts for nearly 47% of the total imports in 2006. Imports from Southern Asia have also risen, but to a lesser extent. The top import items are sheets, towels and blankets, accounting for 82% of the total home textiles imports of the US. The top 10 source countries of the US home textile imports in 2007 were China, Pakistan, India, Turkey, Brazil, Thailand, Malaysia, Egypt, Korea, and Bangladesh. Top 10 home textiles importers are Target Stores, Wal-Mart Stores, Springs Industries, Coaster Company of America, Standard Fibre, Sunham Home Fashions, Kohl’s Department Stores, PEM America, and Baltic Linen. China continued gaining share of the US import market for home textiles. In the first half of 2007, US imports of cotton bed sheets from China surged 53.65% in volume terms according to preliminary data released by the US Department of Commerce. China’s share in the US import market increased from 26% to 34%, whereas Pakistan lost by 5%. Imports of cotton bed sheets from India rose by 33% and its share in the imports of US went slightly up to 11%. In piles towel category, imports from China increased by 16% in first half of 2007, while from Pakistan rose by 11%. In the market for wool blankets, India faced a sharp decrease as US imports increased from China. India’s share fell from 76% to 59%, while China’s share increased to 23% from 12%.

2.8

Home textiles in United Kingdom

The home textiles market in the UK comprises major segments like bed linen, filled products, bath textiles and table linen. In 2006, these four segments were estimated to be worth US $1.3 billion, growing 2% over the previous year. The UK market has experienced lower growth in the past and indication for 2007 revealed growth of 3% (1). It is estimated that home textiles market in the UK will reach US $1.4 billion by 2010. It has been observed that home textile products are purchased by people when they are moving into a new home. There is always a direct impact of housing demand on home textiles. In the past few years, bed linen has dominated the market with 43% share in value terms, followed by filled products and bath textiles having market share of 29% and 23% and rest occupied by table linen. Bed linen segment



Key home textiles market

19

is estimated to grow by 5% in value terms in 2007. Low-end product segment in the market has grown in volume over the years but bed linen has a significant place in fashion trends in the middle and upper market segments. Filled products are the second largest segment in the home textiles market and garden furniture market remains a key driver for filled products. The pillows market continues to grow steadily due to relatively short replacement cycle and it was expected to show a moderate growth in 2007. Bath textiles are composed of towels, bath and pedestal mat sets. Towels clearly dominate this segment. This segment holds an important place in the US as well. There is an increased tendency for usage of quality fibres e.g., modal and silk. Current market trend may lead to merger 1%–3% annual value growth and the market is expected to be US $310 million by 2010. Table linen is the smallest segment in the home textiles and is dominated by contract sector, with hotels and restaurants being the important end users. The market has seen sourcing products from India and China.

2.9

Home textiles in European Union

The European household and furnishing textiles industry is in a state of continuous restructuring and modernisation due to consumer developments, technological advances, changes in production costs, growth in retailers’ purchasing power and environmental issues. The European home textile sector is regarded as being technologically well-advanced. Manufacturers in the EU focus on high-value products with a high design content; they export on a global scale by supplying to the higher segments of the market and they source basic products in lower cost countries. Their strategies have led to an increase in efficiency and broadening of assortment. Although the level of imports of textiles has always been high, more and more retailers are sourcing products overseas. Manufacturers are increasingly looking to move facilities to countries where production costs are lower. Faced with fierce competition from outside the EU, specialised household and furnishing manufacturers in the EU have taken numerous steps to increase sales and develop positions in the market’s high value-added segments. They will continue to pursue delocalisation and/or outsourcing strategies, whilst placing greater emphasis on their distribution and marketing functions (5). Some trends that influence the demand for household and furnishing textiles in the EU are – Continuing interest in more fashionable textiles, growing demand for natural fibres, increasing price consciousness, more critical about design, green consumers on the increase, developments in technical household and furnishing textiles, and sustainability (6). The value of EU production of household textiles annually decreased by 7.5% in the period 2003–2007 to an output of €2.9 billion in 2007. Production of household

20

Performance of home textiles

textiles in the EU is dominated by Italy, accounting for 20% of total production output of household textiles in the EU. The top four production countries – consisting of Italy, Portugal, Germany and France – accounted for more than 55% of total EU production. Most Western European countries saw a decrease in production or only a slight increase. This is mainly the result in the shift of demand and production, also due to Western European companies outsourcing to low-cost countries. The value of EU production of furnishing textiles annually increased by 5.9% in the period 2003–2007, to an output of €3.5 billion in 2007. The production of furnishing textiles in the EU is dominated by the UK, accounting for almost 30% of total production output. The top four production countries – consisting of the UK, Slovenia, Italy and Spain – accounted for more than 60% of total EU production. Most Central and Eastern European countries saw a larger increase in production output than Western European countries, caused by a growth in outsourcing by Western European companies to these countries (7). Most product groups show a decrease in production from 2003–2007 in household textiles category as shown in Table 2.1. It can also be seen from Table 2.2, that most product groups show a decrease in production between 2003–2007 with only curtains and other furnishing articles showing an increase in production in furnishing textile group. Table 2.1 EU production of household textiles, by product group, 2003–2007, in € million Product

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Blankets and travelling rugs

488

454

416

422

350

Bed linen

2,119

1,949

1,853

1,697

1,539

Table linen

435

423

420

370

341

Bathroom and kitchen linen

901

838

758

782

653

Table 2.2 EU production of furnishing textiles, by product group, 2003–2007, in € million Product

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Curtains

1,615

1,673

1,875

1,682

2,010

178

139

130

124

131

1,003

905

1,301

1,261

1,382

Bed spreads Other furnishing articles

2.10

Home textiles in Japan

The market for home textiles has been affected by overall weak personal consumption in Japan. As a result, demand for home textiles has been very weak. Reflecting growing interest in interiors among consumers, demand for home



Key home textiles market

21

textile products with casual designs that can meet new consumer lifestyles remain very strong, either imported or domestic products. Home textile imports was grown steadily in 2002 to 109.89 million dozen worth US $ 79.8 billion. The bulk of these imports i.e., 84.9% consist of towels, numbering 93.34 million worth US $ 3.9 billion (55.0% of import total). Japanese towel makers and their sub-contractor have been moving production to China and other Asian nations that offer lower production costs. Many imports from these countries are made with capital participation and technical assistance from Japan. The leading exporters of towels to Japan are China (71.5%) and Vietnam (26.5%), with virtually all imports coming from just these two countries. Low-priced imports from China skyrocketed in 1999 and 2000 and the competition dealt a serious blow to the Japanese towel industry (8). According to the Japan Towel Industry Association, import’s share of the towel market soared from 46.7% to 64.0% between 1996 and 2000. Earlier, most imported sheets, pillow covers and other types of bed linens were sold to hotels and other commercial users. Recently, many products for home-use have been imported. The table linen market is split between luxury grade products from Western countries and low-priced products from elsewhere in Asia. Japanese made table linens fall in the middle in terms of sales patterns, with some apparent degree of differentiation from imports. The most commonly used type of toilet linen and kitchen linen is towels. Inexpensive imports from China, Vietnam and other Asian countries are often used as “oshibori” towels, the heated towels often given to restaurant customers for refreshment before dining. Japanese-made toilet and kitchen linens are mainly sold to ordinary consumers. Overall, imported home textiles mostly come from China and other Asian countries, and their main appeal lies not in their design or styling but rather in their price. In addition, some Japanese manufacturing wholesalers have been shifting production to Asian countries to take advantage of lower wage costs. In the process these companies have obtained capital holdings in offshore enterprises, provided technical guidance to business partners, and worked to cut production costs. Manufacturer wholesalers are companies that do not own their own production facilities but rather outsource production and handle the distribution and marketing functions themselves. Sheets and pillow covers from Asian countries are sold mainly to linen supply companies in Japan, while bath towels and “oshibori” towels are used as corporate gifts or by linen supply companies. Countries such as China and India, which are also major cotton producers, are especially well-positioned to export lowpriced merchandise to Japan. On the other hand, Germany, France and other European nations remain the leading suppliers of popular high-fashion merchandise. In Japan the very term “home textiles” is still somewhat unfamiliar. Towels and sheets are still more often purchased as gifts than for personal use. This is particularly the case with towels, where traditional year-end and

22

Performance of home textiles

mid-summer gift giving accounts for about 90% of all sales. Chronic recession has dramatically reduced corporate gift giving while imports selling for half the price have seen a wave of bankruptcies among small Japanese towel makers. Corporate membership in the Japan Towel Industry Association dropped from 925 firms in 1990 to just 457 in 2000. Japanese-made sheets, pillow covers and other types of bed linens, especially those without high-fashion appeal, are distributed mainly to hotels, hospitals and other institutional users increasingly use imports. These products are mostly imported by general trading companies or specialty trading companies and sold directly to linen service companies. Other types of imported covers are distributed from trading companies to manufacturer wholesalers (brand owners) or department stores. Japanese made table cloths, napkins and other types of table linens, which mainly consist of practical use items without high-fashion appeal, are mostly distributed from manufacturer wholesaler to fabric wholesaler and finally to department stores and mass merchandisers. Imports are usually handled by general trading companies or specialty trading companies before being distributed to manufacturer wholesalers, department stores, etc. Towels and other types of toilet linen and kitchen linen are sold through department stores and mass merchandisers, although specialty stores and bedding stores also account for a fairly large share of sales.

2.11

Home textiles in Turkey

The Turkish home textile industry as a sub-sector of the huge Turkish textile industry, which has a dominant role in the world, has experienced significant progress in the last decade and met the high-standards of the EU (9). The power of Turkish home textile industry results from huge textile industry in Turkey. In recent years the production of home textiles has shown a steady increase due to the rise in both domestic and external demand for home textiles. Almost all kinds of home textiles are produced in Turkey. These may be listed by export value as follows: Table linens, towels, voiles, curtains, laces, blankets, cushions, pillows, quilts, eiderdowns. The Turkish home textile industry is well on the way to becoming one of the world leaders by its wide range of products and superior quality in home textile production, especially in the production of net curtains, embroidery, guipure, towels, and quilt covers. Turkey has the largest machine park for the production of both embroidery and guipure in the world. In Europe, the largest factory producing quilt covers is in Turkey. The Turkish home textile industry has also acquired the latest technology with a high-production capacity and a highly skilled labour pool. In addition, the industry has managed to reduce the cost of production below the world average while it has increased its quality of products. So, with a huge



Key home textiles market

23

production capacity, high-quality and strong competitiveness, Turkey is among the top three suppliers of curtains and embroidery in Europe and among the top three suppliers of towels in the world. In Turkey, the towel sector has traditional roots and its towels are known as “Turkish Towels” worldwide. Today, the Turkish towel sector has competitiveness in international markets in terms of jacquard and embroidery technologies. In addition, lace, which is commonly used in many textile applications, especially in home textiles, is originally a Turkish handicraft. It is an embroidery art reaching back to the mid-1500s and crowned by the labour of Turkish women. It is an outstanding handicraft with its traditional taste and motifs in different colours and lines, which are now reflected, in modern home decoration. Today, the Turkish home textile industry is aware of the trend in international markets towards the increasing demand for healthier and more environmentally-friendly products and tries to adapt itself to developments within legal and technical regulations. Many manufacturers in the sector managed to produce in the environmental management systems and in the quality management systems, e.g., ISO 9000 series. About 150 companies in the textile sector have ISO 9001 or 9002 certificates, 30 of which are in the home textile field. Additionally, some companies in the home textile sector have private eco-labels. Turkish home textile producers are mainly located in Istanbul, Denizli, Bursa, Izmir, Gaziantep, Kayseri and Ushak. Denizli is the manufacturing centre of towelling sector not only in Turkey but also in the world. In Denizli, towels and bathrobes are manufactured from Aegean cotton, which is the finest cotton in the world. These towels and bathrobes are wellknown throughout the world for their extraordinary softness, absorbency and warmth. Their extraordinary pile thickness and density gives towels and bathrobes these superior features. In addition, the more these towels and bathrobes are washed the softer and more absorbent they become, contrary to the ordinary products. That’s why Denizli alone has a major share of world’s cotton towel and bathrobe exports. About 90% of these products are exported to all over the world. “Turkish Towels and Bathrobes”, the ones especially from Denizli, are not used only at homes but also presented by 5 or 4 star hotels in all over the world as a quality service sign (10). Towel and bathrobe producers are there in Ushak. Bursa is one of the most important manufacturing centres in textile field in the world and it is mostly concentrated on the manufacture of curtains, curtaining and upholstery fabrics, decoration fabrics, bedding products, towels and bathrobes as well as other textiles. Many of the producers in these cities have integrated their production process from yarn and fabric production to product design, dyeing, finishing and sewing in order to obtain the best quality in any step of the production. Turkish home textile manufacturers are very conscious about fashion creation and design which enables them to gain a special place in international markets. Creative and modern designs and unique motifs, all created by Turkish designers keep the pulse of world home decoration fashion and

24

Performance of home textiles

meet all tastes and preferences. Besides meeting domestic demand in Turkey, the Turkish home textile sector with its high-potential in the export market and its wide range of products and superior quality, is an important export earner for the country. The home textile sector with an export value of 810 million dollars and a 3% share in Turkey’s total exports in 1998 has been an important sub-sector for the Turkish economy. In 1998, the sector exported about 57% of production. With its high-grade products, the technology of production and quality of workmanship, Turkey has started to increase her share in the main markets, especially in the European market. Therefore, prominent world suppliers have started to co-operate with Turkish manufacturers in joint production in the home textile field. Now, Turkey’s main targets in the world home textile market are to exceed a share of 15% and to increase the existing number of Turkish brands. The European countries are the most important markets for Turkey’s home textile exports. A large quantity of home textiles is exported to Germany. The other main markets are the USA, the UK, France and the Netherlands. New markets such as Poland, Hungary, Romania, the Russian Federation and the other Commonwealth of Independent States are emerging.

References 1. Chakraborty Koushik, (2008). Home Textiles, Global vs Indian market, Available from: www.fibre2fashion.com, [Accessed on 13 November 2009]. 2. Anon, (2008). Home Textile Market in Asia, Available from: www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed on 13 November 2009]. 3. Anon, (2006). Textiles: Growth at ‘home’!, Available from: www.equitymaster.com, [Accessed on 13 November 2009]. 4. Anon, (2008). The Home Textile Industry in India, Available from: www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed on 13 November 2009]. 5. CBI Market Survey, (2008). The household and Furnishing Textiles Market in the EU, General discussion household and furnishing textiles, Available from: www.cbi. eu,16–17 [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. 6. CBI Market Survey, (2008). The household and Furnishing Textiles Market in the EU, Trends, Available from: www.cbi.eu, 13 [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. 7. CBI Market Survey, (2008). The household and Furnishing Textiles Market in the EU, Size of production, Available from: www.cbi.eu, 15–16 [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. 8. Anon, (2005). ‘Japan: A major destination for home textiles’, Express Textiles, 6. 9. Anon, (2008). Home textile Industry in Turkey, Available from: http://www.turkeyhometextile.com/hometextileinturkey.htm [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. 10. Anon, (2008). Home textiles in Turkey, Available from: http://www.igeme.gov.tr [Accessed on 14 November 2009].

3 Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

Abstract: Home textile products have been diversified over a period of time. The fabrics used in home textiles control interior environment of home. Natural fibres, synthetic fibres and their blends have been successfully used to enhance the performance of fabrics for home textiles in a variety of combinations. This chapter first discusses on the possibility of using different eco-friendly and sustainable fibres for home textiles. The chapter then deals with the areas application of different home textile items and fibres and fabrics used in them to derive better performance for their intended end use. Keywords: Sustainable, bio-degradable, natural fibres, synthetic fibres, mittens, coasters

Chapter contains (Section headings) 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3

Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles Introduction Application of conventional fibres in home textiles Application of new and sustainable fibres in home textiles Use of Solar protection fibre in home textiles Use of golden natural fibres – coir and jute in home textiles Use of water lily fibre for home furnishings

3.3.4 3.3.5

Use of silk in home textiles Application of milk fibre in home textile

3.3.6 3.3.7

Application of wood fibres in home textiles Application of seaweed fibres in home textiles

3.3.8 3.3.9

Application of soybean fibre in home textiles Application of bamboo fibre in home textiles

3.3.10 3.3.11 3.3.12 3.3.13 3.4

Application of hemp fibre in home textiles Application of cork fibre in home textiles Application of other fibres in home textiles Selection of fibres for home textiles Areas of application of home textiles

3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3

Textile for seating Window textiles Bed textiles

26

Performance of home textiles

3.4.4 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.4.6 3.5

Wall covering textiles Bathroom textiles Accessories Kitchen furnishings Table textiles Conclusion References

3.1 Introduction Fabrics play an important role in controlling the interior environment of a home. The fabrics being the prime contributors provide the texture, colour, character and scale, and anything that is missing in the architecture. Fabric is the interior designer’s pharmacy, rich with cures for every complaint. Fabric protects interior colour from fading and furnishing from deterioration from sunlight. It protects from sun glare and it lends protection from night blackness at evening and from too early sun in the morning. Fabrics lend privacy to any degree that is needed. It shields people from draughts or heat and reduces heat loss in winter. It can make summer room cooler and reduce an air conditioning load in the summer. Fabric increases liveability and work ability of a small place, reduce noise, make music and even speech richer and more resonant of all acoustic materials, and sound engineers find no material that is equal. Fabrics used for home textiles must have properties such as, good light fastness, good resistance to seam slippage, good resistance to pilling, good resistance to snagging, stain repellency, good fastness to sponging, flame retardency, and appearance retention.

3.2

 pplication of conventional fibres in home A textiles

Natural fibres, like cotton, wool, linen, etc., are being dominant in the home textiles sector. In recent days, some of the man-made fibres are also being used that includes polyester, rayon, nylon, polypropylene, teflon, recron, acrylic, etc. Due to its qualities like strength, warmth, abrasion resistance and resistance to moths and mildew, polyester dominates the carpet and curtain segments. The share of cotton and man-made fibres in the total fibre consumed in production of home textiles account for around 38% and 37%, respectively (1). About 6% of home textiles are made of wool and animal hairs. Flax accounted for only 0.1 % of all fibres consumed in producing home textiles. Information of around 20% of the fibre usage was unidentifiable as their normal fibre use was either



Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

27

not classified or remained unspecified in the fibre categories. Blends of natural and synthetic fibres have also been attracted attention of home textile manufacturers to enhance the fabric performance.

3.3

 pplication of new and sustainable fibres in A home textiles

Environmental threats like global warming and climate change are accelerating the cause and awareness of new eco-friendly fibres. Even though such fibres have not attained the commercial success despite its existence in the market for some time, they have contributed immensely to the concept of sustainability and unique ornamentation. The possibility of application of some environment-friendly fibres such as solar protection fibre, coir, jute, water lily fibre, silk, milk fibre, wood fibres, seaweed fibres, soybean fibre, bamboo fibre, and hemp in different home textile products is of interest to the consumers.

3.3.1

Use of solar protection fibre in home textiles

The fibre is of botanic origin, made from the natural raw material wood and is, therefore, fully bio-degradable. The fibre company Lenzing has developed the new fibre with solar protection on a TENCEL basis. The new fibre is effective due to permanent pigment integration. It provides home textile items a longterm protection from solar radiation. A sunscreen level of up to 110 SPF can be reached in this fibre (2). The fibre is the perfect eco-friendly alternative to polyester fibres and conventionally finished fabrics with solar protection.

3.3.2

 se of golden natural fibres – coir and jute in U home textiles

Coir is a versatile natural fibre extracted from mesocarp tissue, or husk of the coconut fruit. It is traditionally been used in doormats, mattresses and other upholstery products. Pads of curled down coir fibre, made by needle-felting are shaped and cut to fill mattresses. A major proportion of brown coir pads are sprayed with rubber latex, which bonds the fibres together to make rubberised coir, which is used as upholstery padding. Coir, being an organic product, is bio-degradable and eco-friendly. This is major factor in its favour, when compared to its modern competitors like poly vinyl chloride (PVC|)| and U-foam and synthetic products used in the home textile industry. Jute is the cheapest and strongest amongst all natural fibres with many inherent properties like lustre, high-tensile strength, low-extensibility, high-breathability, moderate heat and fire resistance. It is bio-degradable

28

Performance of home textiles

and eco-friendly and the expired fibres can be recycled more than once. Advantages of jute include good insulating and anti-static properties, as well as having low-thermal conductivity and moderate moisture regain. Jute is been extensively used in the manufacture of carpet backing and mats (3)

3.3.3

Use of water lily fibre for home furnishings

Studies undertaken by the Philippine R&D sector have shown that water lily fibres are favourable towards use in curtains, upholstery, table runners, and table napkins (4). Not much work has been reported about characterisation of this natural fibre and its application is not been explored on commercial scale in home textiles. However, such fibre holds promise as a future eco-friendly fibre to be used in home textile products.

3.3.4

Use of silk in home textiles

Mulberry filature silk is not the immediate choice for home textiles. Dupions and matka silks in mulberry variety are the chief preferences for furnishings. While matka is a hand spun variety produced from silk waste but using such yarn in both warp and weft a thicker variety of fabric is produced. Dupion is the silk yarn that is produced by the reeling of double cocoons. Although the yarn has many defects, they are made use in the construction of novelty fabrics (5). An array of non-mulberry silks is also left unexplored in home textile sector. Tasar and eri are the two major varieties of non-mulberry silks most suited for home furnishings. Tasar is a wild variety of silk and different types of yarn such as thigh reeled, machine reeled, tram, and organzine are produced out of this non-mulberry silk (6). However, the filament of the cocoons in eri silk is neither continuing like mulberry silk nor it is even or uniform in nature. It is available in white and brick red colour.

3.3.5

Application of milk fibre in home textile

Milk fibre from cow’s milk has attracted attention in recent years. Milk is first dewatered and then skimmed. New bio-engineering technique is then applied to make a protein spinning fluid. This fluid is suitable for wet spinning process through which the final high-grade textile fibre is made. Milk fibre regulates air quality and when mixed with cotton or silk. It also provides comfort, durability and elegance making it perfect for home furnishings (7). Milk fibres are soft, brilliant, anti-bacterial, absorbent and humectant. The milk protein contains a natural lubricant that keeps the skin moisturised and smooth and the absorbing power of the fibre takes dampness away from the body, stabilising its temperature. The fibre has great potential for household and spa towels, bathrobes, bed linen and bedspreads.



3.3.6

Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

29

Application of wood fibres in home textiles

Wood fibres from cultivated timber are harvested according to ecological criteria and the yarn produced is not only extremely smooth but also wears well in hot or cool climates. It has the coziness of silk, the feel of cashmere and the freshness of linen. The fact that it absorbs water so readily and then releases the dampness into the air makes it useful as light, silken towelling.

3.3.7

Application of seaweed fibres in home textiles

SeaCell is a sustainable technical fibre made from cellulose consisting of renewable raw materials like seaweed and releases vitamins and minerals to the skin, especially when in contact with wet skin. So, it is used as a wellness bathrobe with additional advantages. Besides, the fibre has an anti-bacterial effect (because of silver), ideal for bed, table/kitchen and bath linen.

3.3.8

Application of soybean fibre in home textiles

The new soybean protein fibre was invented recently and is soft, smooth and light. It has cashmere feel but is smoother. The moisture absorption of soybean fibre is similar to that of cotton, but its ventilation is superior. It also has a silky lustre with perfect drape and elegance. The anti-ultraviolet property of soybean fibre is better than cotton, viscose and silk. The amino acid in the fibre can activate the collagen protein in the skin and resist tickling and evaporation from the skin. It is ideal for use in beds and baths sector.

3.3.9

Application of bamboo fibre in home textiles

Bamboo fibre is a regenerated cellulosic fibre produced from bamboo. Starchy pulp is produced from bamboo stems and leaves through a process of alkaline hydrolysis and multi-phase bleaching. Further chemical processes produce bamboo fibre. It is softer than cotton, with a texture similar to a blend of cashmere and silk (8). Because the cross-section of the fibre is filled with various micro-gaps and micro-holes, it has much better moisture absorption and ventilation. Moisture absorbency is twice than that of cotton with extraordinary soil release. A characteristic of bamboo fibre is such that it absorbs moisture due to micro-gaps and static electricity is hard to be generated. Bamboo fibre does not contain free electron and thus it is anti-static, so it fits very well next to the human skin but not clinging it. It flows lightly over the body. Bamboo fibre towel has excellent natural functions. It is both anti-bacterial and deodorising in nature. Bamboo can thrive naturally without the use of pesticides as it is seldom eaten by pests or infected by pathogen.

30

Performance of home textiles

Scientists have found that bamboo contains a unique anti-bacteria and bacteriostatic bio-agent named “bamboo kun”. This substance is maintained in the finished bamboo fabric as it is bound tightly to the bamboo cellulose molecule. Bacteria will propagate rapidly in cotton and other fibres obtained from wood pulp, forming bad smell and even cause early degradation of the fibre in some cases. But it will be killed 75% after 24 hours later in bamboo fibre. Product of bamboo fibre is eco-friendly and bio-degradable (9). Due to its anti-bacterial property, the bamboo fibre has wide prospects in the field of hygiene home textile items such as mattresses, sanitary towel and table napkins. It is also most preferred fibre for decorating products like curtain, television cover, sofa slipcover and also for bathroom products like towels and bathrobes used in spas and hotels, as well as among the household consumers.

3.3.10

Application of hemp fibre in home textiles

The hemp is a best fibre obtained from the plant Cannabis sativa. The fibre conducts heat, dyes well, resists mildew, blocks ultraviolet light and has inherent anti-bacterial properties. The fibre is coarse like coir and mainly used for table and floor products. It has not become the choice of conventional manufacturers of home textiles. Hemp fibre can be used to produce home textile items like coasters, table mats, runners, floor mats and other furnishings.

3.3.11

Application of cork fibre in home textiles

The precious and versatile vegetable tissue known as cork is the outer bark of the cork oak tree. It is a unique biological material with superior qualities. Cork fibre is very light, yet impermeable to liquids and gases, elastic and compressible, an excellent insulator, fireproof, and resistant to abrasion. Above all, it is completely natural, renewable, and recyclable. Villani Leonello, Italy is a pioneer company in using cork as a fabric. Cork fabric is made of laminated natural cork coupled on textile. This laminated cork may be coupled on viscose/polyester fabric for furnishing and upholstery applications. Some of the unique features of natural cork laminated products are innovative texture, eco-friendly, wear resistance, low degradation to acid attacks, almost immune to micro-organisms and shows a slow fire combustion process. Cork fibre is also used for wall covering by the use of a laminated natural cork coupled on non-woven fabric (10).

3.3.12

Application of other fibres in home textiles

Sendura – Sendura is a polyester filament specialty yarn for drapery fabrics. It’s striking fabric surface and dull, silky lustre is enhanced by the harmony of



Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

31

colours and attractive printed designs, mostly in floral motifs. The handle of sendura fabric resembles that of washable silk and the drape, depending on the fabric construction, is light to compact, but still supple-like heavy high-grade silk. Varie – The varie yarn family comes in counts of between 150 and 405 dtex. Heavier types of drapery fabrics are made from varie 405 dtex, while 240 dtex is used is used in lighter drapery fabrics, including transparent styles, in weight classes around 110 g/m2. Lintex – The yarns of the lintex family have a natural character with a pronounced linen and a fine texture. Fabrics made of or with lintex have a fine, rustic, somewhat straw-like texture with a grainy and dry handle. Owing to its structure, lintex is ideally suited to bringing vitality to the background of printed drapery fabrics. Crinkle – A combination of texture and lustre in curtain nets and drapery can be obtained with Diolen crinkle, its special yarn structure creating a lively fabrics surface. Crinkle is still mainly used for raschal curtain nets as patterning thread in fall-plate curtains. Against a dull, textured background, the crinkles produce a finely dispersed, structuring lustre.

3.3.13

Selection of fibres for home textiles

End use, cost factor, durability, comfort and aesthetic properties are some of key factors to be considered while selecting the fibres for making home textiles. In order to achieve the above, the following measurable properties of fibres are to be balanced. • Tensile strength – tenacity at break, modulus and elasticity. • Moisture absorption / content properties. • Optical behaviours like reflection / absorption of light and shape of fibre. • Eco-friendliness. • Electrical and thermal characteristics such as fibre ability to dissipate static charge. Fibre type Cotton / Linen Wool Viscose / Polynosic/ Modal

Advantages Comfort

Moisture and thermal character

Aesthetic

Low lustre and surface irregularity

Comfort

Warmth

Cost

Lower than cotton

Comfort

High-moisture absorption / retention capacity

Cost Polyester / Acrylic Polyamide / Polypropylene Comfort

Longer durability, high-strength and tough Low-moisture absorption capacity, lowthermo plasticity

32

3.4

Performance of home textiles

Areas of application of home textiles

Home textiles includes following applications such as textiles for seating, window textiles, bed textiles, textiles for wall coverings, bathroom textiles, accessories, kitchen furnishings, and table textiles.

3.4.1

Textile for seating

In upholstery fabrics for domestic applications, there is a recognised division of specification between fixed upholstery and loose covers. The term fixed upholstery refers to any upholstery fabric that is stapled, tacked, glued or other frame and covers a reliant or hard substrate. Acrylic fibre velvets are used because of excellent brightness and appearance. An important fashion trend in fixed domestic upholstery fabrics has been that of heavily textured fabrics. Texture is usually achieved by the use of fancy boucle type yarn, which is used as weft across non-textured warp. Boucle yarn is a specialised type of yarn that is usually made of three plies. Among the three plies used to create boucle yarn, one thread is usually looser than the others. The looser thread within the boucle yarn causes the yarn to have a rough feeling and a bulky look. The fact that boucle yarn has one loose thread within it also makes it more likely to unravel than some other types of yarn. Therefore, care must be taken when working with boucle yarn in order to ensure a proper look and high-quality of the final product. Since combining several plies of thread together creates boucle yarn, it is generally a colourful yarn. Often, two or more colours are mixed together in a unique pattern. Initially, boucle yarn of rayon and nylon was been used. Recently polypropylene is being popular. Loose covers are used to protect costly upholstery from wear and tear. As quite often with trends, loose covers are now more popular than ever. Old furniture can often be transformed with quality fabrics upholstered or loose. The choices of the fabric are often essential to create a quality and stylish look. Whether it is a contemporary or traditional workplace or home the choice of linen can bring a hint of class to both the traditional and contemporary interiors. Linen has this touch of quality for both the traditional and contemporary interiors; linen seems now the ideal choice for both (11). Plain or striped linen and cotton, linen-cotton union, and cotton-hemp union are also been used in loose covers.

3.4.2

Window textiles

Sun filters – It is woven voiles made up for polyester and flax, and consists of curtains, nets and pelmets. The types of sheers curtains which have become



Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

33

popular include voiles, woven nets – air textured continuous filament PET, warp knitted nets, burn out and broches developed with core spun PET fibre and cotton yarn, raschel nets, monarch safety net made-up from terylene yarns. Semi sheers – It is composed of coarser yarn, often textures or fancy yarns, woven construction, combination of leno and plain weave with weft wise or warp bands of solid areas or check. Reflective textiles – With a view to reduce solar gain, prevent sun glare, and maintaining lower temperature in summer and higher ones in winter verosol window treatments with PET fibre fabric, with an aluminium film on one side can be used. Curtain fabrics and drapes – This is probably of the wide area of fabric development in home textiles. It includes solid colour plain weave materials in cotton, flax, wool, silk, acrylic, viscose, PET, etc., textured synthetics yarn, jacquard and dobby weaves including damask style, checks styles and bordered styles, pile, woven and knitted fabrics. Modacrylic fibre, viscose, PVC fabric self-lining curtains made from crushed acrylic foam coating is also used for flame retardant curtain. Curtains and draperies are made from all types of fibres and fabric constructions; however, most curtains are made of synthetic fabrics. This is because cotton curtains require ironing after washing; they are heavy and thus inconvenient in handling. There is also a market for expensive fibres such as silks, but it is fairly limited because of pricing and handling restrictions. There is still a market for curtain fabrics for home sewing besides curtains sewn and fitted by professional curtain makers. The latter are often employed by home furnishing retailers or interior decorating firms. Blinds – A type of window textiles, which is opaque. There are two types of blinds; one, which allows transmission of some light and the other, is made usually cotton fabric known as black out material, which gives 100% opacity. Various styles available are i.e., venetian, vertical, and roller blind. A roller blind is made up from glass fibre fabric. Vertical blind acts as an efficient light filter.

3.4.3

Bed textiles

Sheets and pillowcases – This is a major “soft goods” category. Sheet print designs have seen much variation, including small and large floral patterns co-ordinating themes connecting sheet, pillowcase, and duvet cover with bordered designs, patch work inspired points, strong diagonals, geometrics, and candy stripes. A special design for children’s sheets has been one of the modern easy care sheets e.g., “peanuts”, Disney cartoon sets etc. Materials normally used is 100% carded cotton, ring-spun yarn or open-end yarn. Polyester / cotton is used to a much lesser degree than cotton, though its advantage is its shrink resistance and durable qualities. Other textile fabrics, such

34

Performance of home textiles

as silk, account for a minor percentage of the market. Yarn specifications are part of the contract. Cloth construction criteria include the weight, the yarn count and the type of weave. The specifications on sheet dimensions cover not only the selvedge but also the weight. Bed sheet Cloth

Raw material

Weave

Cambric

Cotton or wool

Plain

Dimity

Cotton

Plain with cross / length wise and cross bar effect

Dotted Swiss

Cotton

Plain (Ground with Swivel, Lappet)

Gingham

Cotton

Plain (Stripe, check plaids)

Corduroy

Cotton, rayon

Filling pile with plain or twill back

Crettone

Cotton, linen, rayon

Plain or twill

Denim

Cotton

Twill, right-handed 2/1, 3/1

Organdy

Cotton

Plain, Swivel, lappet or flocked design

Plisse

Cotton, rayon

Plain

Sateen

Cotton, rayon

Sateen

Seersucker

Cotton, rayon

Plain with slack tension

Pillow Cloth

Raw material

Weave

Crettone

Cotton, Linen,

Plain, twill weaves

Tiking

Cotton, Rayon

Twill, Satin, Dobby and Jacquard

Quilted textiles – PET fibre is mainly used. Several alternative filling became available for this product. Blankets – Blankets are normally made of raised wool, acrylic fibre, and acrylic polyester fibre blends in solid colours. Cotton terry blankets are also in existence. Thermal blankets are produced from wool, acrylic, polyester and polyester acrylic blends. Point designs using large-scale single motif with borders are some of the aspects in blankets. Raschel knit, needle punched non-woven (finished by napping) and flocked blankets are also available. Small blankets (also indicated as throws) with typical sizes of (50 × 60) inch or (130 × 160) cm used for both decorative and functional purposes. Popular fleece blankets of these sizes are offered in non-printed, printed, and embroidered (12) category.



Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

35

Blankets and quilts Cloth

Raw material

Weave

Calico

Cotton

Plain

Chinchilla

Cotton, Wool

Sateen, Twill with extra filling

Flannelette

Cotton

Plain, Twill

Bedspreads – Bedspread is one of the most important items of interior furnishings. It includes styles such as plain styles, embroidered styles, lace styles, Chadwick, velour printed and Jacquard, chenille types, terry wear types, and jacquard and dobby wears. Normally, wool, cotton, acrylic, viscose and blends are used in bedspreads. Mattress covers – The traditional Jacquard patterns with viscose filament warp and spun weft of viscose or cotton are used. One of the most significant developments is the introduction of colourful, stylish and modern broad stripes. Bed skirts – With a view to hide the box spring of the bed, bed skirts are used. These are also called petticoats, dust ruffle and dusters. Tailored and gathered or ruffled bed skirts are available for bed furnishings. Manufacturing of these two can be done either by panelled or platform way. Linen bed skirts because of the flow are very popular. Bed comforters – A comforter is a type of blanket. Comforters are intended to keep the user warm, especially during sleep, although they can also be used as mattress pads. Comforters are generally large and rectangular in shape, filled with natural or synthetic insulative material and encased in a shell/covering. Like quilts, comforters are generally used with a set of sheets. Comforter sizes correspond with bed sizes – twin, full, queen, king, and calking. Comforter sizes run slightly larger than actual bed sizes to allow for draping over the sides of the bed. Typical sizes in the US for comforters are: • Twin = 64” width × 87” length • Queen / Full = 87” width × 87” length • King = 101” width × 90” length. A comforter is sometimes covered with a duvet (comforter) cover for protection and prolonged use. Duvet in French is “Down”. Comforter covers are similar in principle to pillowcases, usually closed with zippers or buttons. In the United Kingdom, they are only known as special types of padding duvets. Comforters are typically packaged in a set that also includes a bed skirt, pillow shams, and sometimes pillows. Filling – Comforters are filled with layers of material such as polyester batting, down feathers, wool, or silk. Comforters also can be made out of fur, usually with a backing of satin or silk. The loft of the filling determines the

36

Performance of home textiles

weight as well as the level of insulation. The comforter is stitched or quilted to secure the filling and keep it evenly distributed. Shell / Covering – The outer shells of comforters are typically constructed using cotton, silk, or polyester fabrics or blends, of varying thread counts. Comforter shells vary in design and colour, often designed to co-ordinate with other bedding. Washing a comforter should not be done with a top loader; minimum capacity to wash a comforter is 3.7 m³. High thread comforters are very soft, luxurious and have higher quality. Filling in comforter is done by polyester and wool to provide warmth. Duvet – A duvet is a fluffy comforter that is slipped into a duvet cover. A duvet cover, also known as a comforter cover, normally have an opening at one end with button closures and is highly recommended to protect the comforter investment. The duvet covers are like a big pillow case that covers the duvet while it protects and holds it delicately so that it does not slip during one’s sleep. Duvet covers can be colour co-ordinated with the decoration of the bedroom and can serve as a bedspread, blanket and also as a top sheet. Buyers have a large variety of duvet covers to choose from that are the result of a careful choice between design and fabrics in line with fashion dictates. Print or plain colour, in cotton, satin, linen, jacquard, allow to personalise the duvet in harmony with the home furnishings. The colour combinations and the patterns used to fabricate duvet covers almost fit any decoration, any style (13). Design and style is the component of duvet and but more importantly duvet covers. Plain colour, printed, satin, linen, silk, cotton duvet covers are available that can be chosen as per the decoration needs and pattern of bed and bedding furnishings. Bed throws – Bed throws are made for afternoon naps and sleepy trips. Lush bed throws are perfect as a beautiful decorative accent and a cosy wrap for the bed. Soft and luxurious, bed throws are specifically designed to provide exceptional warmth and comfort. Great ranges of bed throws are available in all the colours, for instant transformation of the bedroom. Apart from giving warmth to the bed, these are also used for the outdoor picnic, sporting event or vacation travel aid. Ultra-soft to the touch, bed throws are usually made of cotton, silks and other richer fabrics with decorative ornate designs and patterns. Intricate embroidery, patchwork and other ornamentation techniques are used to highlight the beauty of the products. Bed throws come in various colours, shapes, fabrics and sizes that can be custom made in different styles to fit different beds (14).

3.4.4

Wall covering textiles

Wall fabrics are fast taking over from paints. Also, wall paper plays an important role. Wall fabrics are available in various convenient widths to be



Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

37

used from room height to avoid seams. Jute was the original material choice for wall fabrics and although its use has declined in favour of various other materials especially flax. Non-woven warp systems in a great variety of fibre and texture are also used. This fibre can be easily removed for cleaning and replacement (Velcro type band with self-adhesive backing). It is well-known that wall fabric suspended system absorb sound. Absorption is the property of absorbing sound waves with in a material, which is achieved by mineral and glass wools. Tapestries – It involves the formation of repp weave where warp is completely hidden by the weft, which is firmly beaten by a heavy comb. Cotton is used as a warp and worsted yarn is used as a weft. In wall covering textiles yarns are normally dyed with metal complex dye in hank dyeing machine. Mothproofed yarns are used in this combination. Wall decorators – A wall decoration throw or throw rug can give living area a great new look. The colour combinations and the patterns used in wall decoration throws almost fit any decoration, any style. Wool, cotton, polyester and chenille are the primary material used to make wall decoration throws and throw rugs. The popularity of wool wall decoration throws is due to its inherent qualities. There are certain breeds of sheep, like the merino, whose fleece is especially unique for its special lustre and length of fibre. Wall hangings (embroidery) – Embroidery is sometimes used to mark the borders between the patterned areas of the ground clothe and most varied types of stitches are used to obtain decorative effect with the aid of the carded, dyed, non-spun woven fibres. Super imposing a web on a backing material can create a tapestry or wall hanging. Wall hanging (hand tufted) – It includes both hand operated tufting needle and mechanical tufting gun. Wall hangings in batik and woven and knotted varieties are not very uncommon.

3.4.5

Bathroom textiles

Shower curtains – Shower curtains are to be waterproof materials. Plastic coated textiles (woven and non-woven fabrics) are firmly established in this area. Plastics membranes have not become popular because of the propensity to splitting and tearing. Printed shower curtains were occasionally designed to co-ordinate with bathroom vinyl wall coverings and occasionally with towel designs, as well as, tufted bathroom textiles. Terry towelling – Terry fabrics became an important sector of household textiles. The terry towel has become available in a wide variety of designs piece dyed fabrics, jacquard floral designs as well as prints and is sculpted as well as velvet or “shorn” versions. Traditionally cotton is a natural choice for terry towel production. With the change in lifestyle and demand of various

38

Performance of home textiles

functional aspects, towel manufacturers are in search for unique, innovative and different products. To fabricate such merchandise, other fibres have been preferred. New fibres include modal, bamboo, seaweed, lyocel, and now soybean, corn (15); tri-blend of bamboo, silk and cotton (16), and micro-fibre (17). Towels made of bamboo and cotton are around 25% softer than towels made entirely of cotton after laundering. By adding soy fibres to cotton in its Soycot® towels, Welspun USA has improved the feel and absorbency. A combination of 10% porcelain fibre, 20% bamboo, and 70% low-twist cotton are reported to provide a soft hand with the feel of cashmere (18). The most important innovation in yarn fabrication for towels has been the introduction of low twist yarns. These special yarns are spun with longer staple cotton fibres with a very low twist. MicroCotton® is the best-known one of the branded low twist yarns (17, 19). Another novel yarn fabrication is HygroCotton® which is a trademark spinning technology of Welspun USA. The spinning technology makes the towel absorbent by giving each cotton strand a hollow core that wicks moisture and if combined with long staple cotton, also gives the soft hand (20).

Towels Cloth

Raw material

Weave used

Gingham

Cotton

Plain (Stripes, Checks, Plaids)

Terry

Cotton, Linen

Terry (3 pick, 4 pick, 5 pick)

Bath mats – Once stepped out of bath tub, slippery bathroom syndrome makes one uncomfortable. Thus, there is a need to place a suitable bath mat in front of bath tub, sink and door with a view to prevent any danger of slipping. At the same time it will add comfort and elegance and also metamorphose of dull looking bathroom to the voguish one. Bath mat is selected after considering the colour and pattern theme of other bathroom furnishings that will include shower curtains, bath robes, bath towels, bath rugs, face towels and hand towels. The embroidered bath mats, printed mats and plain mats add elegance. Cotton and jute based bath mats are normally in use. Cotton has the super absorbent quality and at the same time looks good. Wherein jute mats are anti-slippery. In both varieties hand-made bath mats are available. This gives luxury and elegant look to the bathroom. Durability, wash ability and anti-slip quality are some of the important features of bath mat. Bamboo bath mats and the mats that have rubber at their base are the perfect examples of anti-slip bath mats (21). Bathrobe – A bathrobe is a robe typically worn after bathing in the privacy of one’s home where the wearer is typically otherwise nude to keep warm and/ or preserve modesty at times when there is no immediate need to fully dress



Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

39

(22). It is a loose open-fronted gown closed with a fabric belt that is put on over nightwear on rising from bed, or, less commonly today, worn over some day clothes when partially dressed or undressed in the morning or evening (e.g., over a man’s shirt and trousers without jacket and tie). Bathrobes are generally made of four different fabrics. Cotton – Due to the polarity of cellulose, cotton bathrobes absorb water easily and are frequently used by the beach, pool, or following a shower. Cotton bathrobes are especially suited to use in hot climates because cotton tends to absorb perspiration. Silk – Another common fabric used in bathrobes is silk. These kinds of bathrobes can be relatively expensive due to the cost of producing silk. Such bathrobes are very thin and lightweight. These bathrobes are not particularly suited to wet environments because they lack the surface area and polarity necessary to absorb water. Microfibre – Microfibre is an extremely fine synthetic fibre, typically made of polyester that can be woven into textiles to mimic natural fibre cloth. Modern microfibres are developed to maximise breathability and water absorption and can be thinner than the width of human hair. Much like silk, robes made out of microfibre are light in weight and are very soft to the touch. Wool – Wool is common in colder climates. Bathrobes are also categorised by their shape of weave. Flannel – Flannel is a soft woven fabric, made from loosely spun yarn, usually cotton or wool. Terry – Terry is a pile fabric, usually woven of cotton, with uncut loops on both sides, used for bath towels and robes. The longer and denser the loops are, more absorbent the bathrobes are. Velour – Velour is a fabric with cut loops. Velour bathrobes are typically made with terry inside, as terrycloth absorbs water better than velour. Velour gives the bathrobe luxury, coziness, and makes the garment softer to the touch. Waffle – Waffle fabric is loose and has a distinctive “grid like” appearance. For most part, these bathrobes are designed for their light weight. “Pique” is a type of waffle weave that can be applied to cotton, velour, silk, and other fabrics. Bath rugs – A bathroom rug is not only decorative, but also functional when stepping out of the shower or tub. Stepping out of a shower or tub with wet feet is not only dangerous and exposes us to the chances of slipping or falling, but eventually the water can damage the flooring in the bathroom. They are popular for a lot of reasons but the main one is safety – their original purpose was to stop people from slipping on a wet or damp floor after bathing or showering. The bath rug eliminates this fear because it gives the bather a stable and comfortable surface to dry them on. Bath rugs are especially useful in a busy

40

Performance of home textiles

house with kids where the shower is in use for hours at a time (23). Bath rugs are small, decorative soft flooring that are usually tufted or have pile knit constructions. Tufted fabric pile yarns are much less dense than in carpeting, but are much longer, usually ranging from 1” to 3”. Bathroom rugs serve many purposes, style and utility being the most prevalent. They provide a touch of softness for the feet and also add colour and texture to the bathroom, while giving it life. These are typically very plain rugs, and made of either cotton, or chenille. This is due to the fact that these are less susceptible to damage from water than perhaps wool is (24). Cotton is a durable material, but these rugs can wear out over time if they are dried out properly. More durable bathroom rugs are typically made out of rayon, acrylic or polypropylene.

3.4.6 Accessories Carpets – The fitness of a carpet is judged by the number of knots per unit area in combination of the design, colours and quality of yarn. The firmness, thickness and appearance of the back of the carpet, are important considerations. The type of fibre used to make a carpet determines its visual appearance, overall durability, feel, resistance to stains – and the cost. Synthetic materials adaptable into a variety of styles and applications are the most popular of the fibres used in today’s carpets and also accounting for about 97% of all fibre used. Common fibres used in carpet (25) are as follows: Nylon – Nylon is an excellent choice for all levels of tariff and applications. It is extremely durable, stain and mildew resistant, static free, and maintains its fibre height allowing it to withstand the weight of heavy furniture and people. Nylon accounts for approximately 90% of all residential carpeting. Polypropylene – A very strong fibre, which is resistant to moisture and mildew and is easy to clean and maintain while controlling the commercial market with an 80% share. It is an indoor and outdoor fibre and is the common fibre used for artificial turf. Polyester – Polyester fibre creates a very attractive carpet and is less expensive than nylon or wool. It is commonly used in soft loop or berber loop carpets. Polyester fibres have a lot of advantages i.e., crush resistant, available in a vast array of dynamic colours and its resistance to fading. It is also easy to clean and are resistant to water based stains. Acrylic – Acrylic fibre offers the appearance and feel of wool at a much lower cost and has the advantage over wool of being moisture and mildew resistant. Because of its wool like attributes, it is used extensively in velvet and plush level loop carpets. Though acrylic fibre resists crushing, stains and will not fade from sunlight but is not suitable for high-traffic areas, such as hallways, family rooms, and stairs. Hence, this fibre provides a perfect carpet in master and guest bedrooms.



Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

41

Wool – Wool carpets maintain their height and they are ultra-soft with a feel that is incomparable. Wool fibres are usually used in cut pile and textured carpets. When it comes to luxury and performance, no other fibre compares to wool. They are very easy to clean and have an exceptionally long life. Wool carpets are also less resistant to moisture than synthetic fibre carpets. It is one of the most expensive of the natural fibres and much more than synthetic fibre carpets. Blends – The aforementioned fibre types are often combined in a many variations to produce carpets that take the best qualities of each fibre type to produce a group of exceptional finished products. One can consider a wool/ nylon blend to obtain the luxurious look and comfort of wool with the durability of nylon. Other common blends include acrylic/polypropylene and nylon/polypropylene. Although less expensive, these blends are usually subject to staining. PET – Recycled plastics, primarily soda containers, are the basis for polyethylene terephthalate or as it is more commonly known in the industry as PET. Fibres made from PET are not as plush or soft to the feel as other synthetic fibres but they are very durable, water and static resistant and offers extremely good value while maintaining a “green” environment. Rugs – Face fibre of rug can be natural or synthetic. Synthetic fibres are used by far most often, in particular nylon, followed by olefin (polypropylene), propylene and acrylic. Main reason for it is in their generally good physical properties, combined with their lower cost and availability. Among natural face fibres used in area rug construction, wool is the preferred choice, followed by sisal, jute, hemp, seagrass and bamboo. Main reason for the wool not being used more often is in its higher price. The rest of natural fibres have limitations related either to some of their physical properties, or availability (26). Rug backing doesn’t need to meet as high-quality demands as its face fibres. Still, quality of its structure and materials, including the latex layer, determines how long a rug, will stay flexible and functional, with its shape, face fibre count and uniformity. Finally, rug pad of optimum material and thickness is needed to protect area rug from the consequences of its use, as well as from interactions with flooring and the micro-environment it is exposed to. Padding materials include felt, rubberised felt, foam rubber, sponge rubber and urethane, prime or bonded. Felt padding made 100% from hair has good wear resistance and resiliency. However, it sheds, may cause sensitivity / allergy problems, absorbs moisture and stretches out of shape. Its physical properties worsen if mixed with jute. On the other hand, felt pad coated with latex or rubber has better dimensional and floor stability, lower moisture absorption and allergenic potential. Mats – The floor coverings have evolved with a great deal of imagination and aesthetic sense. Mats are made of wheat or rice straw, weeds and fine

42

Performance of home textiles

sliced bamboo. The mats have a fine upper layer and a coarse bottom one, and are stitched at the edges.

3.4.7

Kitchen furnishings

Kitchen is one of the most important parts of a home. After all, it satisfies the basic need of human for food. However, kitchen is also the most risky area of any home due to the availability of kitchen tools as knife, scissors, etc., apart from fire in the form of gas stoves. Also, there are other electrical appliances, which can get dangerous due to the constant use of water in kitchen. All these do not rule out the use of in kitchen. Clothes are present in kitchen in the form of aprons, napkins, mitten, dish clothes, etc. The only way to ensure safety along with functionality in a kitchen is to buy and use kitchen furnishings cautiously. It is, therefore, always advisable to use kitchen furnishings that are made of linen or cotton fabric. They are washable and durable apart from being lesser prone to fire (27). The abundance and properties of cotton makes it the most popular material used to manufacture these products. Of late, linen is becoming the new preferred fabric for most of these products, especially in the quality part of the market. The main worth of linen is its environmental production attribute, because it uses 5–20 times less energy and water than all other natural and synthetic material production. Silk is not especially used for fabric bases for kitchen products, because of its susceptibility to burn easily, and it is a lot more expensive than other fabrics. And although cotton is still very popular and has a very steady demand, many buyers still prefer polyester fabrics; cotton blends with linen, organza, and poly-tissue have been deemed appropriate fabrics for kitchen furnishing. The customer’s preferences for the total designs of kitchen alter with the changing seasons or approaching festivals. Whereas red, blue, orange and pastels are ideal for summer, the darker colours such as black, brown, and grey are ideal for winters. White is rarely used as a complete colour scheme for kitchen accessories, because it becomes dirty and soiled easily, but instead, it is used as the base or is blended with various colours for interesting motifs. Mittens – They are known for their lightweight, warmth and breathability. Mittens are usually made of pure flax and cotton fabric that depicts the excellence of the craftsmen and at the same time ensures day-to-day, unhurdled usage. Decorative mittens are also made-up of fur and leather, wool, alpaca, and mohair or blends of these fibres all coming in a variety of colours. Mittens can be hand-woven, hand painted, embroidered and also in machine printed patterns (28). Coasters – The purpose of it is to prevent table finishes from heat and cold damage from wares. Coasters can come in a multitude of designs;



Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

43

hand-woven, embroidered, hand-painted, and machine printed coasters. And they are also available in many varied shapes, such as; square, triangular, rectangular, circular and oblong, which are very much in demand within the international market. Kitchen wear aprons – Kitchen apron is a garment, usually fastened in the back and worn over all or part of the front of the body to protect clothing. Kitchen aprons are skilfully crafted out of linen, cotton, denim, polyester and other fabrics. Aprons for kitchen mostly have very large and decorative pockets and a waist band. Kitchen wear aprons are mostly flame-retardants. Lots of variety in cotton apron designs and cotton kitchen apron pattern are available. Printed aprons, dotted, beautifully decorated with laces and ribbons are not difficult to find in the market. Kitchen towels – Kitchen towels of different sizes are available which are handy for drying dishes and just-washed hands. Kitchen towels should be easily washable, quickly drying, highly absorbent, and durable. They are made-up of fabrics such as cotton, linen, terrycloth, or microfibre. Placemats / Tablemats – Linen and cotton mats with decorative weaves or embellished with embroidery appliqué or laces with unique colour combinations attracts many buyers. Variations can be seen in the weave, texture, material and shapes of placemats. Jute, straw, flax or even plastic mats are seen with many exporters. Jute tablemats have a good market, being user-friendly and buyers find the natural golden colour of jute quite attractive. Mats highlighted with coloured threads are quite popular. Straw mats are where craftsmen play with different thickness of straw to give different textural rhythms. Threads and straws of different colours are used to beautify and add elegance to mats. They have a host of interesting patterns that include paisley, floral, geometric and abstract prints. Solid colours, patchwork and light embroideries in place mats are also visible at many export houses. Napkins – Linen and cotton are the preferred material for napkins, as they are durable and absorbent and can be boiled for the purpose of cleaning, and ensuring hygiene. They also can accept great amounts of heat e.g., ironing, and bearing sunlight. Napkins can be embroidered, printed and painted to give a tailored look and a handicraft charm. Floral, animal and geometric designs are the common motifs, as the printing/painting is situated in various places on napkins to assist in different ways of folding, as to accentuate the pattern (29). Napkin rings – Traditional designs are used in many pleasing colours to make beautiful napkin rings with a less formal look. Designers keep experimenting with the many appearances of napkin rings, as to attract new customers to the market. The buyers’ desire more of cleaner lines and visually attracting styles in napkin rings with subtle elements of conventional Indian appeal. Napkin rings are used to embellish the style and presence of the napkin on the table,

44

Performance of home textiles

and the most commonly used materials for the manufacture of napkin rings are glass, ceramic, stone, wood, poly resin, brass, bone and aluminium (29).

3.4.8

Table textiles

Table cloths/covers – Several types of table cloths are available. Out of which, linen table cloths are bit expensive than cotton or other type of fabric. Europe is famous for quality linen and linen products. Fine look and sheen makes it popular and it is not difficult to find luxury linen table cloths nowadays. Woven printed types of linen cotton material, crocheted linen, jacquard type that includes damask and embroidered types are some of the popular items. Table cloth Cloth

Raw material

Weave

Brocade

Cotton (Ground), Viscose (Pattern)

Jacquard, Dobby

Monk’s Cloth

Wool, Cotton, Linen, Silk, Rayon

4 × 4 Basket Weave

Chenille

Cotton

Plain

Non-woven table cloths, which include spun bonded nylon and spun laced polyester fibre are also in use. If one wishes to use tablecloth for not more than one time then the disposable linen table cloths are available. These are also called paper linen table cloths. Although these look like linen but made-up from a dense paper material that looks similar to linen. Along with this Irish linen table cloth from Ireland are also very popular (30). Table covers are usually adorned with modest amounts of beadwork, hand/machine embroidery, and appliqué work. Linens take to embroidery well, which are more utilised for occasions, and the linens can both be easily dyed and does not fade out when washed. They are manufactured using contemporary and conventional designs, as hand-made table cloths are quite established among long time buyers. Table runners – These are used in decorating the tables. These are normally run over the table to add to the look. However, in India table covers are more predominant than table runners. Table covers are mostly used to protect the furnisher from stain and for the attractive look of the dining table. Table runner is the piece of fabric that is made according to the table shape. So it can be rectangular table runner, round table runner, square and oblong table runner. But there is no hard and fast rule of using table runner according to the shape of the table. On square table one can use the round or vice-versa. Different varieties of table runner patterns are available. Out of which, patchwork table



Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

45

runner, crochet table runner, embroidered table runner, jacquard table runner, printed table runner and knitted table runner are commonly in use. In a patchwork table runner pattern, there is one long fabric having patches of designs and patterns that are made from other fabric either having a different print or colour. Crochet is a technique of making a runner with the help of thread and crochet tool. Crochet can be done on the edges of any kind of table runner that gives very different look. Embroidered table runners are very popular. It can be both hand-made and machine made. Hand-made table runners are more expensive than their counterpart. Knitted table runners are made from wool and printed ones will have prints on them. Now based on the way one wants to decorate table, patterns and designs are selected. Apart from these laces, beautiful ribbons and other embellishments on the table runner are available in the market to further beautify it. There are numerous fabrics from which table runner can be made. Table runners made from cotton, polyester, silk, bamboo, and linen are available. Vinyl, plastic and satin-based materials are also not uncommon. The organic consciousness has given an edge to cotton and other eco-friendly fabrics such as bamboo, linen and silk. Paper table runners are also getting popular as these can be used once and there is no need of cleaning and maintaining them. Quilted table runners can also change the whole room’s decor. So table runners are very important part of drawing and dining furnishings. Table mats – Woven printed, Jacquard types and embroidered styles are common items. Table skirting – Table skirting fabric must not be stiff and hard. It should have a proper flow to solve the decorative purpose. The cloth must be completely opaque to have more royal impact. The first choice of many consumers and manufacturers is the polyester fabric as it has that flow with great appeal and needs less care. For affluent look of the table, linen skirts and silk table skirting is also done but less expensive is satin or poly-satin. These are the best alternatives to the traditional rayon. In some of the weddings cotton table skirting is also used but these have less impact than the cloth that has shine in it. Thus, the fabrics that can be picked to make table skirts are linen, satin, cotton, polyester poplin, poly silk and poly linen. In addition to this plastic table skirting is also used. Plastic table skirting is easy to maintain but has life less than cloth table skirting. Moreover plastic table skirting does not look as good as cloth table skirting.

3.5

Conclusion

Consumers worldwide are becoming aware of natural fibres and slowly but steadily the trend is again shifting to better natural products. Product development with the new eco-friendly fibres can pave the way to stay ahead in

46

Performance of home textiles

the competition wherein the demand for organic and natural fibre products may even surpass that of conventional fibres. Having seen extensively about the use of home textiles, and the glamour they add to our living environment, the production of various patterns using different colours and creative ideas should cause through in this field. There is rapid improvement in the west, in the field of interior decoration and home textiles. Thus, the innovative ideas and quality finishing would help the growth of home textiles. Apart from wide use of textiles for clothing, home textiles are rapidly capturing the market. Indian home textiles find a rating amongst the top five in world according to a study conducted by the US Department of Commerce. The studied data reveals that Indian home textiles rank second to China in certain categories, which includes bags, table linens, napkins curtains, and rank third in products like cotton bed sheets, quilts.

References 1. Anon, (2009). Home Furnishing Industry Overview, An Introduction, Available from: http://www.teonline.com/home-furnishings/industry-overview.html [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. 2. Anon, (2009). ‘New Solar Protection Fibre’, Home Fashion India. 9, 12. 3. Anon, (2009). ‘Coir and Jute, Under-explored golden natural fibers’, Home Fashion India. 9, 58–61. 4. Anon, (2009). ‘Water Lily Fibre for Home furnishing’, Home Fashion India. 8, 12. 5. Pramod RK, Itagi MR and Sivakumar M, (2007). ‘An alternative approach for dupion silk twisting’, Man-Made Textiles in India. 50, 337. 6. Das Subrata and Ghosh Anindya, ‘An Investigation of Yarn Imperfections of Indian Tasar silk’, Journal of Natural Fibres. 5, 396–403. 7. Anon, (2009). ‘Fibre: Process and Application’, Home Fashion India. 8, 67–76. 8. Das Subrata, (2007). ‘Properties of bamboo fibre’, Available from: www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 9. Das Subrata, ‘Application of bamboo fibre in apparel and towel sector’, Apparel Views. 8, 56–57. 10. Leonello Villani, (2009). ‘Cork as ecologic vegetable leather’, Home Fashion. Oct– Dec, 64–67. 11. Anon, (2009). Fabric For Loose Covers – Upholstered Fabrics Can Be Used For Loose Covers, Ada and Ina Natural Fabrics, Available from: http://www.linenfabrics. co.uk/Fabric-for-loose- covers.html [Accessed on 12 November 2009]. 12. CBI Market Survey, (2008). Product characteristics, The household and Furnishing Textiles Market in the EU, Available from: www.cbi.eu, 41 [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. 13. Anon, (2009). Duvet covers, Available from: http://www.textilefurnishings.com/duvet-covers.html [Accessed on 15 November 2009].



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14. Anon, (2009). Bed Throws, Available from: http://www.textilefurnishings.com/bedthrows.html [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 15. Sanfilippo M, (2005). ‘Surface interest key in bath towels’, Home Textiles Today. 26, 4–4. 16. Corral CB, (2005). ‘Product innovations drove strong bath market’, Home Textiles Today. 26, 10. 17. Lazaro M, (2003). ‘Searhing for the Softest Towel’, Home Textiles Today. 24, 8. 18. Sanfilippo M, (2005). ‘Speciality fibres, weaves and finishes rev up towels’, Home Textiles Today. 27, 1–23. 19. Leizens L, (2004). ‘Buying towels - A touchy situation’, The Weekly Newspaper for Home Furnishing Network. 78, 12. 20. Leizens L, (2005). ‘Market getting softer for towel suppliers’, The Weekly Newspaper for Home Furnishing Network. 79, 18. 21. Anon, (2008). Handy buying information on bath mats, Available from: http://www. textilefurnishings.com/articles/handy-buying-information-bath-mats.html [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 22. Anon, (2008). Bathrobe, Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathrobe [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 23. Anon, (2008). Bathroom rugs – For safety and style, Available from: http://www. bathroomrugsandmore.com/bathroom-rugs [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 24. Anon, (2008). Bathroom Rugs, Available from: http://www.hintsandthings.co.uk/ bathroom/bathroom-rugs.htm [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 25. Prudehome Bill, (2008). Understanding the different types of carpet fibers, Available from: www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 26. Anon, (2008). Rug and carpet fiber properties, Available from: http://www.rug-carpet-guide.com/carpet_materials.htm [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 27. Anon, (2008). Tips for buying kitchen furnishings, Available from: http://www.textilefurnishings.com/articles/buying-kitchen-furnishings.html [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 28. Anon, (2008). Mittens, Available from:http://www.textilefurnishings.com/mitt ens. html [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 29. Doshi Gaurav, Demand for kitchen linen items, Available from: http://EzineArticles. com [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 30. Anon, (2008). Linen Table cloths: A True Decoration for a Party, Available from: http://www.textilefurnishings.com/articles/linen-tablecloths.html [Accessed on 15 November 2009].

4 Performance specifications of different home textiles

Abstract: Home textile items are designed and developed depending on the areas of application. Each class of such product has its quality specification based on the unique and inherent characteristics. This chapter first discusses the minimum constructional requirements of fabrics used in home textiles along with its physical performance and colour fastness properties for export market of USA and Canada. The chapter then discusses about the performance requirements for UK market. Special product performance requirements of value added export oriented home textiles for USA are also mentioned. Keywords: Quality, batting durability, skid resistance, loft, absorbency, stain resistance

Chapter contains (Section headings)

4    Performance specifications of different home textiles 4.1  Importance of performance specification 4.2  Performance requirements of US market 4.3  Performance requirements of Canada market 4.4  Performance requirements of UK market 4.5  Special performance requirements in home textiles 4.6  Recommended care for home textile product    References

4.1

Importance of performance specification

Home textiles are recognised as the products, which make people comfortable at home, whether it is in bedroom, bathroom or kitchen, by virtue of their unique characteristics. Expectations from furnishings for home decoration are enormous and creating privacy is always been regarded as an important feature. So, for all practical purposes, the performance requirements of various items used as home textiles is essential that provides indication of the quality of the product, desired for intended use. Any deviation from the benchmark established for a particular home textile product might either lead to rejection in export or result in customer dissatisfaction for the preferred application area. Performances requirement of home textiles products destined for export market to USA, Canada, and UK have been determined by the major buyers based on their experience on customer expectations and are described in this chapter.

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Performance of home textiles

4.2

Performance requirements of US market

Export oriented home textiles for US market is evaluated in pre-production and production stages. Pre-production is defined as a product constructed in the same manner as production and out of production quality fabric. Pre-production items are evaluated and approved as early as possible in order to correct potential quality problems before starting production. Production is defined as products that are taken from actual production lots and such products are drawn after approximately 10% of production has been completed. Normally, home textile products of pre-production and production are pulled by experts of quality assurance departments and authorised by a seal or chop as a mark of verification. In case of product performance failure, pre-production and production products are allowed to re-test twice by reputed buyers (1) for the desired improvement in quality, if necessary. Apart for pre-production and production testing, many reputed buyers check certain home textile merchandise at the retail store itself and such type of testing is called as instore testing. Home textiles are evaluated to check whether the performance expected from the product is achieved or not. Such an evaluation is not possible to apply on the whole consignment but to depend upon true representative merchandise. However, there is no universal sampling method to evaluate a home textile product. It varies from one product to another depending upon the product characteristics. While it is always preferred more number of samples for achieving accuracy in quality evaluation, but due to economical reason buyers often opt for random sampling which may represent the entire commercial lot. A typical comprehensive home textile testing plan for effective evaluation of product performance is described below: Sampling plans Products

Pre-production sample size

Production sample size

Bath towel

5 of one colour, 2 of every other colour

5 of one colour, 2 of every other colour

Hand towel

2 of each colour with a minimum of 6 submitted

2 of each colour with a minimum of 6 submitted

Finger towel

2 of each colour with a minimum of 12 submitted

2 of each colour with a minimum of 12 submitted

Wash cloth

2 of each colour with a minimum of 12 submitted

2 of each colour with a minimum of 12 submitted

Kitchen towel / Bar mop

2 of each colour with a minimum of 6 submitted

2 of each colour with a minimum of 6 submitted

Dishcloth / Scrubber

2 of each colour with a minimum of 12 submitted

2 of each colour with a minimum of 12 submitted



Performance specifications of different home textile

51

Sheets (sold separately)

Flat/fitted – 2 queen of each colour Pillowcase – 3 of each colour

2 of each colour, with each size represented

Sheet sets

2 sets per colour

2 sets per colour with each size represented

Comforters / Bedspreads (down alternative)

2 queen of one colour, 2 samples of each of the remaining colours

2 of each colour, with each size represented

Bed accessories

2 queen size pillow shams and dust ruffles in 1 colour, 1 yard of fabric or 2 samples in each of the remaining colours

2 of each colour, with each size represented

Rugs

3 rugs of each colour, with each size represented (may vary depending on size, due to flam specimen requirements)

3 rugs of each colour, with each size represented (may vary depending on size, due to flam specimen requirements)

Blankets

2 queen size blankets of 1 colour, 1 yard of fabric or 2 samples in each of the remaining colours

2 of each colour, with each size represented

Throws

2 of each colour

2 of each colour, with each size represented

Mattress pads

2 queen size

1 of each size

Decorative pillows

4 of one size/pattern/colour, 3 of each remaining colour/pattern

4 of one size/pattern/ colour, 3 of each remaining colour/pattern

Bed pillows

2 of each size

3 of each size

Down comforters

3 of 1 colour and size, 1 yard of fabric or 2 samples in each of the remaining colours

3 of each colour, with all sizes represented

Kitchen products

4 of each colour (this category includes oven mitts, pot holders, aprons, etc.)

4 of each colour

Chair pads

2 per colour, all colours/patterns

2 per colour, all colours/ patterns

Table tops (runners, placemats, etc.)

3 of one size and colour, 1 yard of fabric 3 per colour, with all sizes or 2 samples in each of the remaining represented colours

Draperies (canopies)

2 of one size, 1 yard of fabric or 2 samples in each of the remaining colours

2 of each colour, with all sizes represented

Home textiles, which are manufactured for export to US market, consist of diversified product range. Home textiles such as bath rugs / area rugs (scatter) / bath sets (tank covers, lid covers, contour rug), bedding – bedspreads / comforters / quilts / dust ruffles / duvet covers / pillows shams / crib bumper

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Performance of home textiles

pads, bed pillows, blanket / throws, decorative pillows / floor pillows / bed rest, down products, furniture accessories – chair pads / slip covers, ironing board covers and pads, kitchen accessories – pot holders / oven mitts / aprons, mattress pads, sheets / pillow cases / protective pillow covers, shower curtains, sleeping bags, table top – napkins / placemats / table runners / tablecloths, towels – bath / hand / washcloth / kitchen / hooded / beach, window treatments, are evaluated for fabric qualities / construction, physical performance, and colour fastness properties and discussed from Table. 4.1 to 4.16. Zippers are also used in home textiles and performance specifications of zippers are tabulated in Table 4.17. Table 4.1 Bath rugs / area rugs (scatter) / bath sets (tank covers, lid covers, contour rug) Test description

Test method

Performance requirements

Fabric defects

ASTM D3990 (2)

No major defects, such as stains, holes, slub yarns, mis-stitches, etc.

Evenness of colour

Visual

Uniform and even colour within a sample and between samples

Fabric weight (oz./sq. yd.) (gms./ sq. m)

ASTM D3776 (3)

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Thread count (woven)

ASTM D3775 (4)

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Construction / Workmanship

Visual

Surging and binding should be straight, uniform and consistent. Loose thread should be properly trimmed

AATCC 135 (5) / Commercial dry cleaning

Woven reversible: 5.0 × 5.0 Single sided tufted: 3.0 × 3.0

Fabric qualities / Construction

Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum)

Washing / Dry cleaning *Shrinkage will be evaluated after three launderings Differential shrinkage

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

All components that make-up the product must be compatible

Durability pile / Latex surging and binding

Visual after AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No cuts in latex, no yarn showing through on back, binding or surging is intact without significant gaps



Performance specifications of different home textile General appearance

Visual after AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No holes, unravelled seams, excessive pilling, etc.

Shape distortion

Visual after AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No evidence of twisting

Pilling resistance

AATCC 135/150 Minimum of class 3.0 (6) (3 washings / dryings)

Skid resistance

CTL test method Co-efficient of friction 0.8 or (7) greater

Measurements

NIST handbook 130 (8)

Fit properties Flammability (Rugs only)

Must conform to the labelled dimensions Lid covers must fit labelled size

CFR Title 16, Part 1630 (9) CFR Title 16, Part 1631 (10)

As defined by standard As defined by standard

Colour fastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Washing

Spot cleaning AATCC 135/150 (Home laundering) AATCC 61 (11) (Accelerated) (fabric swatches)

Shade change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 4.0 Shade change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 3.0

Dry cleaning

Commercial dry cleaning

Shade change: Class 4.0

Dry crocking

AATCC 8 (12)

Minimum of: Class 4.0

Wet crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 3.0

Vinyl tile staining

AATCC 137 (13)

Class 4.0

Stain resistance (if claim is made)

AATCC 175 (14)

Minimum of grade 9.0

Bleaching Chlorine Non-chlorine

AATCC 135/150 (Home laundering) AATCC 172 (15)

Shade change: Class 4.0 Shade change: Class 4.0

53

54

Performance of home textiles

Light fastness

AATCC 16 (Option 3 – formerly 16E) (16)

Class 3.0 @20 AFU

Water (static wetting)

AATCC 107 (17)

Shade Change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 3.0

Table 4.2 Bedding – bedspreads / comforters / quilts / dust ruffles / duvet covers / pillows shams / crib bumper pads Test description

Test method

Performance requirements

Fabric qualities / Construction Fabric defects

ASTM D3990

No major defects, such as stains, holes, slub yarns, mis-stitches, etc.

Evenness of colour

Visual

Uniform and even colour within a sample and between samples

Fabric weight (oz./sq. yd.) (gms./sq. m)

ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Batting

ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Thread count (Woven)

ASTM D3775

As specified in product specification or previous testing (± 5%)

Thickness (vinyl only)

ASTM D 1777 (18)

6 gauge (0.006 in) or as specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Construction / Workmanship

Visual

Seams should be neat with no open seams or needle damage. Hems should be straight, uniform and consistent. Loose thread should be properly trimmed

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

Woven: 3.5 × 3.5 Flannel: 5 × 5 Knit: 5 × 5 Non-woven: 3 × 3

Differential shrinkage

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

All components that make-up the product must be compatible

Durability seam / hem

Visual after AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No open seam or broken stitches

Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum) Washing / Dry cleaning *Shrinkage will be evaluated after three launderings



Performance specifications of different home textile Batting durability

Visual after AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No disintegration or noticeable migration (lumpiness)

General appearance

Visual after AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No holes, unravelled seams, excessive pilling, etc.

Shape distortion

Visual after AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No evidence of twisting

Pilling resistance

AATCC 135/150 (3 washings / dryings)

Minimum of class 3.0

Loft

CTL test method (19)

±3/8″

Fit properties

Lid covers must fit labelled size

Tensile strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D5034 (20)

Warp 40.0 Fill 30.0

Bursting strength for knits (in-lb)

ASTM D3786 (21)

20.0

Tear strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D1424 (22)

Warp 1.5 Fill 1.5

Zipper strength

ASTM D2061 (23)

See Table 4.17

Seam strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D 1683 (24) (across seam)

15.0

Colour fastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Washing (No stain requirement if labelled as wash separately)

Machine wash AATCC61-2A Hand wash AATCC61-1A

Shade change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 4.0

Dry cleaning

Commercial dry cleaning

Shade change: Class 4.0

Dry crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 4.0

Wet crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 3.0

Bleaching Chlorine Non-chlorine

AATCC 135/150 (Home laundering)

Shade change: Class 4.0

AATCC 172

Shade change: Class 4.0

Light fastness

AATCC 16 (Option 3 – formerly 16E)

Class 3.0 @20 AFU

55

56

Performance of home textiles

Table 4.3 Bed pillows Test description

Test method

Performance requirements

Fabric defects

ASTM D3990

No major defects, such as stains, holes, slub yarns, mis-stitches, etc.

Evenness of colour

Visual

Uniform and even colour within a sample and between samples

Fabric weight (oz./sq. yd.) (gms./ sq. m)

ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Batting

ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Thread count (woven)

ASTM D3775

As specified in product specification or previous testing (± 5%)

Thickness (vinyl only)

ASTM D 1777

6 gauge (0.006 in) or as specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Construction / Workmanship

Visual

Seams should be neat with no open seams or needle damage. Hems should be straight, uniform and consistent. Loose thread should be properly trimmed

Fabric qualities / Construction

Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum)

AATCC 135 / Woven: 3.0 × 3.0 Commercial dry cleaning

Washing / Dry cleaning *Shrinkage will be evaluated after three launderings Differential shrinkage

AATCC 135 / All components that makeCommercial dry cleaning up the product must be compatible

Durability seam / hem

Visual after AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No open seam or broken stitches

Batting durability

Visual after AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No disintegration or noticeable migration (lumpiness)

General appearance

Visual after AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No holes, unravelled seams, excessive pilling, etc.



Performance specifications of different home textile Shape distortion

Visual after AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No evidence of twisting

Pilling resistance

AATCC 135/150 (3 washings / dryings)

Minimum of class 3.0

Tensile strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D5034

Warp 35.0 Fill 25.0

Bursting strength for knits (in-lb)

ASTM D3786 20

4.5–5.9 Oz / Sq. yd

57

> 6.0 Oz / Sq. yd

35 Tear strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D1424

Warp 1.5 Fill 1.5

Zipper strength

ASTM D2061

*See Table 4.17

Seam strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D 1683 (across seam)

15.0

Colour fastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Washing (No stain requirement if labelled as wash separately)

Machine wash AATCC61-2A Hand wash AATCC611A

Shade change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 3.0

Dry cleaning

Commercial dry cleaning Shade change: Class 4.0

Dry crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 4.0

Wet crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 3.0

Bleaching Chlorine Non-chlorine

AATCC 135/150 (Home laundering)

Shade change: Class 4.0

AATCC 172

Shade change: Class 4.0

Light fastness

AATCC 16 (Option 3 – formerly 16E)

Class 3.0 @20 AFU

Table 4.4 Blanket / Throws Test description

Test method

Performance requirements

Fabric defects

ASTM D3990

No major defects, such as stains, holes, slub yarns, mis-stitches, etc.

Evenness of colour

Visual

Uniform and even colour within a sample and between samples

Fabric weight (oz./sq. yd.) (gms./sq. m)

ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previous testing (± 5%)

Batting

ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Fabric Qualities / Construction

58

Performance of home textiles

Thread count (woven)

ASTM D3775

As specified in product specification or previous testing (± 5%)

Construction / Workmanship

Visual

Seams should be neat with no open seams or needle damage. Hems should be straight, uniform and consistent. Loose thread should be properly trimmed

Shrinkage performance (% maximum) – Shrinkage will be evaluated after three launderings

AATCC 135

Woven: 3.0 × 3.0

Washing

“Standardisation of hand laundering for fabrics and apparel” 2007 – AATCC Committee RA88

Physical performance

Dry cleaning Hand laundering –

Commercial dry cleaning

Flannel: 5.0 × 5.0

Knit: 5.0 × 5.0

Differential shrinkage

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning / hand laundering

All components that make-up the product must be compatible

Durability seam / hem

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning / hand laundering

No open seam or broken stitches

Batting / stuffing durability

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning / hand laundering

No disintegration or noticeable migration (lumpiness)

General appearance

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning / hand laundering

No holes, unravelled seams, excessive pilling, etc.

Shape distortion

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning/hand laundering

No evidence of twisting

Pilling resistance

AATCC 135 / 150 (3 washings / dryings)

Minimum of grade 3.0

Tensile strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D5034

7.0 oz/sq yd

Warp 25.0 Fill 15.0

Warp 30.0 Fill 25.0



Performance specifications of different home textile Bursting strength for knits (in-lb)

ASTM D3786

59

4.5–5.9 Oz / Sq. yd

>6.0 Oz / Sq. yd

20

35

3.0 oz/sq yd

Warp 25.0 Fill 15.0

Warp 25.0 Fill 25.0

3.0 – 5.9 oz/ sq yd

> 6.0 oz/sq yd

15.0

20.0

< 3.0 oz/sq yd

> 3.0 oz/sq yd

Warp 1.0 Fill 1.0

Warp 1.5 Fill 1.5

Bursting strength for knits (in-lb)

ASTM D3786

Tear strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D1424

Zipper strength

ASTM D2061

*See Table 4.17

Seam strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D 1683 (across seam)

< 3.0 oz/sq yd

>3.0 oz/sq yd

10.0

15.0

Knits

CTL test method (Along seam)

5–7 lbs Or 30%–50% elongation

Heat resistance

CTL test method (36)

6.0 oz/ sq yd

Warp 25.0 Fill 15.0

Warp 35.0 Fill 25.0

Warp 40.0 Fill 30.0

Warp 60.0 Fill 50.0

3.0–5.9 oz/sq yd 20.0

> 6.0 oz/sq yd 35.0

1.5–2.9 oz/sq yd

3.0–4.4 oz/sq yd

4.5–5.9 oz/sq yd

>6.0 oz/ sq yd

Warp 1.5 Fill 1.5

Warp 2.0 Fill 2.0

Warp 3.5 Fill 3.0

Warp 4.5 Fill 4.0

Zipper strength

ASTM D2061

*See Table 4.17

Seam strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D 1683 (across seam)

1.5–2.9 oz/sq yd

3.0–4.4 oz/sq yd

4.5–5.9 oz/sq yd

>6.0 oz/ sq yd

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

76

Performance of home textiles

Knits

CTL test method (Along seam)

5–7 lbs Or 30%–50% elongation

Flammability

CFR Title 16, Part 1632

As defined by standard

Colour fastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Washing (No stain requirement if labelled as wash separately)

Machine wash AATCC61-2A Hand wash AATCC61-1A

Shade change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 3.0

Dry cleaning

Commercial dry cleaning

Shade change: Class 4.0

Dry crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 4.0

Wet crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 3.0

Bleaching Chlorine Non-chlorine

AATCC 135/150 (Home laundering)

Shade change: Class 4.0

AATCC 172

Shade change: Class 4.0

Light fastness

AATCC 16 (Option 3 – formerly 16E)

Class 3.0 @20 AFU

Table 4.14 Table top – napkins / placemats / table runners / tablecloths Test description

Test method

Performance requirements

Fabric qualities / Construction Fabric defects

ASTM D3990

No major defects, such as stains, holes, slub yarns, mis-stitches, etc.

Evenness of colour

Visual

Uniform and even colour within a sample and between samples

Fabric weight (oz./sq. yd.) (gms./sq. m)

ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Batting

ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Thread count (woven)

ASTM D3775

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Thickness (vinyl only)

ASTM D 1777

6 gauge (0.006 in) or as specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Construction / Workmanship

Visual

Seams should be neat with no open seams or needle damage. Hems should be straight, uniform and consistent. Loose thread should be properly trimmed



Performance specifications of different home textile

77

Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum) (Shrinkage will be evaluated after three launderings per labelled care instructions) Washing - AATCC 135 Dry cleaning – Commercial dry cleaning Hand laundering – “Standardisation of hand laundering for fabrics and apparel” 2007 – AATCC Committee RA88

Woven synthetics: 3.5 × 3.5 Woven cotton: 7.0 × 7.0 Flannel: 5.0 × 5.0 Knit: 5.0 × 5.0

Differential shrinkage

AATCC 135 / All components that make-up the product Commercial dry must be compatible cleaning / Hand laundering

Durability seam / hem

AATCC 135 / No open seam or broken stitches Commercial dry cleaning / Hand laundering

Batting durability

AATCC 135 / No disintegration or noticeable migration Commercial dry (lumpiness) cleaning / Hand laundering

General appearance

AATCC 135 / No holes, unravelled seams, excessive Commercial dry pilling, etc. cleaning / Hand laundering

Shape distortion

AATCC 135 / No evidence of twisting Commercial dry cleaning / Hand laundering

Pilling resistance

AATCC 135 / Minimum of grade 3.0 150 (3 washings / dryings)

Fit properties (aprons)

Must fit labelled size

Tensile strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D5034

Warp 30.0 Fill 25.0

Bursting strength for knits (in-lb)

ASTM D3786

20.0

Tear strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D1424

Warp 1.0 Fill 1.0

Seam strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D 1683 (across seam)

15.0

Knits

CTL test method (Along seam)

5–7 lbs Or 30%–50% elongation

78

Performance of home textiles

Colour fastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Washing (No stain requirement if labelled as wash separately)

Machine wash AATCC61-2A Hand wash AATCC61-1A

Dry cleaning

Commercial dry Shade change: Class 4.0 cleaning

Dry crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 4.0

Wet crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 3.0

Bleaching Chlorine Non-chlorine

AATCC 135 / 150 (Home laundering)

Shade change: Class 4.0

AATCC 172

Shade change: Class 4.0

AATCC 16 (Option 3 – formerly 16E)

Class 3.0 @20 AFU

Light fastness

Shade change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 3.0

Table 4.15 Towels – bath / hand / washcloth / kitchen / hooded / beach Test description

Test method

Performance requirements

Fabric qualities / Construction Fabric defects

ASTM D3990

No major defects, such as stains, holes, slub yarns, mis-stitches, etc.

Evenness of colour

Visual

Uniform and even colour within a sample and between samples

Fabric weight (oz./ sq. yd.) (gms./ sq. m)

ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previ ous testing (±5%)

Thread count (Woven)

ASTM D3775

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Yarn size

ASTM D1059 (41)

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Terry to base ratio

Calculated from thread count

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Loops per square inch

Calculated from thread count

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Total (lbs/doz.)

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)



Performance specifications of different home textile Construction / Workmanship

Visual

79

Seams should be neat with no open seams or needle damage. Hems should be straight, uniform and consistent. Loose thread should be properly trimmed

Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum)

AATCC 135

Washing (Shrinkage will be evaluated after three launderings per labelled care instructions)

Towels: 8 × 5

Loose novelty weave dish towels: 15 × 12

Differential shrinkage

CTL test method

The widest point in the width-wise direction cannot exceed the narrowest point in the width-wise direction by: Bath sheets / Beach towels 1½” Bath towels 1” Hand towel ¾” Finger towel / Wash cloth ½”

Durability seam / hem

Visual after AATCC 135

No open seam or broken stitches

General appearance

Visual after AATCC 135

No holes, unravelled seams, excessive pilling, etc.

Shape distortion

Visual after AATCC 135

No evidence of twisting

Pilling resistance

AATCC 135 / 150 (3 washings / dryings)

Minimum of grade 3.0

Linting

CTL test method (42)

0.9% or less

Absorbency

ASTM D4772 (43)

50% Bath towels 30% Baby bath towels / Kitchen towels 50% Beach towels > 10 oz. /sq. yd 30% Beach towels < 10 oz. /sq. yd

Tensile strength (lb) ASTM D5034 Woven

Bath and beach

Kitchen

Hand and wash

Warp 40.0 Fill 30.0

Warp 30.0 Fill 30.0

Warp 30.0 Fill 25.0

80

Performance of home textiles

Tear strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D1424 Warp 1.5 Fill 1.5

Colour fastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Washing (No stain requirement if labelled as wash separately)

Spot clean or Hand wash AATCC61-1A

Shade change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 3.0

Dry crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 4.0

Wet crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 3.0

Bleaching Chlorine Non-chlorine

AATCC 135 / 150 (Home laundering)

Shade change: Class 4.0

AATCC 172

Shade change: Class 4.0

Water (Static wetting)

AATCC 107

Shade change: Grade 4.0 Staining: Grade 3.0

Applies to beach towels

Sea water

AATCC 106 (44)

Shade change: Grade 4.0 Staining: Grade 3.0

Applies to beach towels

Chlorinated water

CTL-12 (45)

Shade change: Grade 4.0 Staining: Grade 3.0

Applies to beach towels

Light fastness

AATCC 16 (Option 3 – formerly 16E)

Class 3.0 @20 AFU

Table 4.16 Window treatments Test description

Test method

Performance requirements

Fabric defects

ASTM D3990

No major defects, such as stains, holes, slub yarns, mis-stitches, etc.

Evenness of colour

Visual

Uniform and even colour within a sample and between samples

Fabric weight (oz./sq. yd.) (gms./sq. m)

ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Fabric qualities / Construction



Performance specifications of different home textile

81

Thread count (woven)

ASTM D3775

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Construction / Workmanship

Visual

Seams should be neat with no open seams or needle damage. Hems should be straight, uniform and consistent. Loose thread should be properly trimmed

Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum) (Shrinkage will be evaluated after three launderings per labelled care instructions)

Woven: 3.5 × 3.5

Washing - AATCC 135 Dry cleaning – Commercial dry cleaning Hand laundering – “Standardisation of hand laundering for fabrics and apparel” 2007 – AATCC Committee RA88 Flannel: 5.0 × 5.0 Knit: 5.0 × 5.0 Differential shrinkage

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

All components that make-up the product must be compatible

Durability seam / hem

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No open seam or broken stitches

Batting / stuffing durability

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No disintegration or noticeable migration (lumpiness)

General appearance

AATCC 135 / Commercial dry cleaning

No holes, unravelled seams, excessive pilling, etc.

Shape distortion

AATCC 135 / Commercial Dry Cleaning

No evidence of twisting

Pilling resistance

AATCC 135 / 150 (3 washings / dryings)

Minimum of grade 3.0

Tensile strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D5034

Warp 40.0 Fill 30.0

Bursting strength for knits (in-lb)

ASTM D3786

20.0

Tear strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D1424

Length 1.5 Width 1.5

Seam strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D 1683 (across seam)

15.0

82

Performance of home textiles

Colour fastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Washing (No stain requirement if labelled as wash separately)

Machine wash AATCC61-2A Hand wash AATCC61-1A

Shade change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 3.0

Dry cleaning

Commercial dry cleaning

Shade change: Class 4.0

Dry crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 4.0

Wet crocking

AATCC 8

Minimum of: Class 3.0

Bleaching Chlorine Non-chlorine

AATCC 135/150 (Home laundering)

Shade change: Class 4.0

AATCC 172 Light fastness

AATCC 16 (Option 3 – formerly 16E)

Shade change: Class 4.0 Grade 4.0 @ 40 AFU Polyester, Nylon or combination of both Grade 4.0 @ 20 AFU Cotton, rayon, wool, silk or blends of these fibres with polyester

Table 4.17 Zipper performance specifications (USA market) Fastener class

1–2

3–4

5–6–7

8–9

10

Chain crosswise strength (lbs) Metal

75

120

120

140

175

Aluminum

55

65

85

85

95

Molded plastic

30

55

85

110

130

Coil

75

85

140

175

200

Separating unit crosswise strength (lbs) Metal

20

20

25

30

30

Aluminum

20

20

25

30

30

Molded plastic

20

20

25

35

45

Coil

10

13

25

40

45

Slider pull pull-off strength (lbs) Metal

30

35

40

50

60

Aluminum

30

30

35

50

60

Molded plastic

20

25

35

40

50



83

Performance specifications of different home textile Coil

20

20

45

50

50

Slider pull twist-off strength (lbs per sq. in) Metal

2.5

3.5

4.0

5.0

5.0

Aluminum

2.5

2.5

4.0

5.0

5.0

Molded plastic

1.5

2.5

4.0

5.0

5.0

Coil

1.0

1.5

4.0

5.0

6.0

Metal

15

17

20

30

35

Aluminum

15

17

20

30

35

Molded plastic

15

17

20

30

30

Coil

15

17

20

30

30

Metal

15

15

20

25

30

Aluminum

15

15

20

25

30

Molded plastic

15

15

20

25

30

Coil

15

15

20

25

30

Top stop strength (lbs)

Bottom stop strength (lbs)

4.3

Performance requirements of Canada market

Prior to going into production, suppliers must arrange pre-production lots to be checked for conformity to the standard set by the buyer. Pre-production products must be evaluated far ahead of production as possible to enable quality problems to be corrected before production begins. Normally representative products are submitted no later than 60 days before the shipping date. When evaluating production lot for testing, all sizes and colour ways are taken into consideration. For example, if one produces a particular style in four sizes (twin, full, queen, and king) and four colour ways or prints (flowers, stripes, paisley, solid), submission of one size in flowers, another size in stripes, another size in paisley and the final size in solid is required. These products must include all required labelling such as care instructions, fibre content, and country of origin and size specifications. When any pre-production or production product fails testing, due to any technical reason of failure, it is the responsibility of the manufacturer to ensure that required improvements are made and a retest product is evaluated for approval prior to shipment. The maximum number of two retests is allowed for pre-production and one for production lot, where the initial product fails testing. In addition to the pre-production and production testing, some of the well-renowned buyers insist upon in-store testing to protect the interest of consumers. In such cases, depending upon the importance and priority,

84

Performance of home textiles

products are required to be evaluated with an interval of 6 months to 1 year. Any deviation or product failure at the in-store product evaluation stage goes against the credibility of the manufacturers who had supplied the product to the buyer. Performance requirements of various home textile products, which are to be exported for Canadian market, are indicated in Table 4.18. Zipper performance specifications are tabulated in Table 4.19. Table 4.18 Performance requirements of home textiles for Canada market Test description

Test method

Performance requirements

Fabric qualities / Construction Fabric defects (For all home textile items)

ASTM D3990

No major defects, such as stains, holes, slub yarns, mis-stitches, etc.

Evenness of colour (For all Visual home textile items)

Uniform and even colour within a sample and between samples

Fabric weight (oz./sq. yd.) CAN/CGSB-4.2 #5.1 (gms./sq. meter) (46) (For all home textile items)

As specified in purchase order (±5%)

Batting (bedspread, comforters, mattress pads, quilted items)

Canadian care and As specified in purchase order (±5%) textile labelling act and regulation

Thread count (For all home textile items)

ASTM D3775 (woven) As specified in purchase order (±5%) ASTM D3887 (knit)

Total (lbs/doz) (bath items)

As specified in purchase order (±5%)

Thickness (vinyl only) (shower curtains)

ASTM D 1777

6 gauge (0.006 in) or as specified in purchase order (±5%)

Construction / Workmanship (for all home textile items)

Visual

Seams should be neat with no open seams or needle damage, hems should be straight, uniform and consistent, loose thread should be properly trimmed, etc.

Shrinkage performance Shrinkage will be evaluated after three wash and dry cycles for sheets, pillowcases, mattress pads, towels and washcloths. Home products under normal circumstances are not laundered on a regular basis (i.e., Rugs, drapes, comforters, etc.) will be evaluated after one wash and dry cycle.



Performance specifications of different home textile Washing (bedspreads, blankets, comforters, curtains, drapes, slipcovers, mattress pads, pillows, sheets, pillow covers, shower curtains)

85

CAN/CGSB4.2 #58 (47)

Woven: Cotton: 5 × 5 Flannel: 5 × 5 Other: 3 × 3 Knit: Thermal: 10 × 10 Cotton: 7 × 7 Other: 5 × 5 Non-woven: 3 × 3 Length: 9% (Max.) Width: 6% (Max.) Length: 15% (Max.) Width: 12% (Max.)

Durability seam/hem/ differential shrinkage (For all home textile items)

Visual after CAN/ CGSB- 4.2 #58 or commercial dry cleaning

No open seams or broken stitches

Batting durability (bedspreads, comforters, mattress pads, pillows, quilted items)

Visual after CAN/ CGSB-4.2 #58 or commercial dry cleaning

No disintegration or noticeable migration (lumpiness)

General appearance (For all home textile items)

Visual after CAN/ CGSB-4.2 #58 or commercial dry cleaning

No holes, unravelled seams, excessive pilling, etc.

Shape distortion (For all home textile items)

Visual after CAN/ CGSB-4.2 #58 or commercial dry cleaning

No evidence of twisting

Pilling resistance (sheets, pillow covers)

AATCC 135 / 150 (3 washings / dryings)

Minimum of class 3.0

Skid resistance (rugs)

CTL test method

Co-efficient of friction 0.8 or greater

Measurements (For all home textile items)

NIST handbook 130

Must conform to the labelled dimensions

Bath and hand towels, washcloth, bath sheets, kitchen towels, dish cloth (terry and non-terry) Loose novelty weave/ dishtowels and dishcloth (non-terry)

Fit properties (sheets)

Must fit labelled mattress size/depth

Flammability (mattresses Only)

CGSB/CAN2-4.2 #27.7 - M-77 (48)

As defined by standard

Flammability (blankets, sheets, pillow cases, mattress covers)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #27.5-94 (49) ASTM-D1230-45° (50)

As defined by standard

Flammability (rugs)

CAN 2-4.2-M77 (51)

As defined by standard

Absorbency (bath towels)

ASTM D4772

50%

86

Performance of home textiles

Colour fastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Washing All items *Only items that include both light and dark coloured sections (i.e., colourblocked products)

Hand washing Or CAN/CGSB-4.2 #58 (Home laundering)

Shade change: Class 4.0 (Pigment 3.5) Staining: Class 4.0 *

Fabric swatches

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #19.1 (52) (Accelerated)

Shade Change: Class 4.0 (Pigment 3.5) Staining: Class 3.0

Dry cleaning (Dry cleanable Items)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #29.1 (53)

Shade change: Class 4.0

Dry crocking All items (except as follows) Yarn dyed flannel

CAN/CGSB 4.2 #22 (54)

Minimum of: Class 4.0 Class 3.5

Pigment, printed flannel, velvet and dark colour corduroy and all raised fibre surfaces. All dark denim colours, sulphur dyes Wet crocking All items (except as follows)

Class 3.0

CAN/CGSB 4.2 #22

Yarn dyed flannel, pigment, leather, printed flannel, velvet & dark colour corduroy and all raised fibre surfaces. All dark denim colours, sulphur dyes

Minimum of: Class 3.0

Class 2.0

Water (static wetting) (beach towels)

CAN/CGSB – 4.2 #20 (55)

Shade change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 3.0

Sea water (beach towels)

CAN/CGSB-21 (56)

Shade change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 3.0

Chlorinated water (beach towels)

CAN/CGSB-52.2 (57)

Shade change: Class 4.0 Staining: Class 3.0

Vinyl tile staining (rugs)

AATCC 137

Class 4.0



Performance specifications of different home textile Bleaching Chlorine (All items for care labelling) Non-chlorine (All items for care labelling)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #58 (Home laundering)

Shade change: Class 4.0

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #58

Shade change: Class 4.0

Light fastness (drapes, curtains)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #18.3 (58)

Class 4.0 After 40 hours

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #9.2 (59)

Warp/Filling lbs min. Heavy wt. 60.0/50.0 Medium wt. 40.0/30.0 Lt.-med. wt. 35.0/25.0 Light wt. 25.0/15.0 Sheer wt. 15.0/15.0

Strength properties Fabric strength woven 6.0 oz./sq. yd. 4.5–5.9 oz./sq. yd. 3.0–4.4 oz./sq. yd. 1.5–2.9 oz./sq. yd. Less than 1.5 oz./sq. yd.

Cotton twills/Denim stonewashed

Knits 6.0 oz./sq. yd. 4.5-5.9 oz./sq. yd.

Minimum 130 lbs Minimum 100 lbs

ASTM D3787 (60)

Bursting strength Heavy-med. wt 35.0 lbs Lt.-med. wt. 20.0 lbs

Tear strength woven CAN/CGSB-4.2 #12.1 Items with fabric weight of (61) above 6.0 oz./sq. yd.

Warp/Filling lbs min. Heavy wt. 4.5/4.0

4.5–5.9 oz./sq. yd. 3.0–4.4 oz./sq. yd. 1.5–2.9 oz./sq. yd. Less than 1.5oz./sq. yd.

Medium wt. 3.5/3.0 Lt.-med. wt. 2.5/2.0 Light wt. 2.0/1.5 Sheer wt. 1.0/1.0

Cotton twills/Denim stonewashed

12 lbs minimum 9 lbs minimum

Seam strength woven (all woven items)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #32.2 (62) (Across seam)

Fabric

Knits (all knit items)

CTL test method (Along seam)

5–7 lbs. Or 30%–50% elongation

Button (all items)

CTL test method

15 lbs

lbs min. Heavy wt. 25.0 Medium wt. 20.0 Lt.-med. wt. 15.0 Light wt. 10.0

87

88

Performance of home textiles

Decoration (all items)

CTL test method

10 lbs

Yarn slippage (all woven items)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #32.1 (63) (Across seam)

Fabric wt. min. @ ¼” Seam separation Heavy wt. 25.0 Medium wt. 20.0 Lt.-med. wt. 15.0 Light wt. 10.0

Zipper strength Covers all items that include a zipper Heavy/Light duty definition is: * heavy duty size 5–6 * light duty size 3–4

ASTM D2061

Refer Table 4.19

Table 4.19 Zipper performance specification sheet (Canada) Fastener class

1–2

3–4

5–6–7

8–9

10

Chain crosswise strength (lbs) Brass / Nickel

60

80

100

120

140

Aluminum

40

50

60

80

100

Plastic

30

40

50

80

100

Separating unit crosswise strength (lbs) Brass / Nickel

15

15

20

25

30

Aluminum

15

15

20

25

30

Plastic

15

15

20

25

30

Slider pull pull-off strength (lbs) Brass / Nickel

20

20

25

25

25

Aluminum

20

20

25

25

25

Plastic

20

20

25

25

25

Slider pull twist-off strength (lbs per sq. in) Brass / Nickel

1.5

1.5

4.0

4.0

7.5

Aluminum

1.5

1.5

4.0

4.0

7.5

Plastic

1.5

1.5

4.0

4.0

7.5

Brass / Nickel

15

15

20

20

20

Aluminum

15

15

20

20

20

Plastic

15

15

20

20

20

Top stop strength (lbs)



89

Performance specifications of different home textile Bottom stop strength (lbs) Brass / Nickel

15

15

20

20

20

Aluminum

15

15

20

20

20

Plastic

15

15

20

20

20

4.4

Performance requirements of UK market

There is no official quality standard for household and furnishing textiles in the European Union (EU). Despite EU harmonisation, which enables free trade between EU member states, individual markets have different requirements regarding quality, types of fabric, sizes and colours. Most importers (manufacturers, wholesalers, retail organisations, etc.) work with certain minimum requirements. In this respect, they have formulated and stipulated minimum quality requirements, relating to both materials and make. In general, a distinction can be made between: • Characteristics of fabrics, which are detectable, by an experienced person, with or without the aid of instruments in general use. It is considered to be a fault if an irregularity is evident in the fabrics of the final product; • Characteristics of fabrics, which can only be noted with the aid of suitable equipment. Each characteristic described comprises: definition, method of testing and minimum quality standards and, as far as it occurs: possible allowable tolerances compared with the values of the sample and eventual commercial implications. Methods of testing fabrics and/or ready-made products are mainly based on ISO standards and otherwise on European norms (EN) or national standards (DIN, NEN or BS, for Germany, the Netherlands and the UK, respectively), such as: • Care labelling (ISO 3758); • Dimensional stability aspects, such as washing/tumbling (ISO 3759, 5077 and 6330), dry cleaning (ISO 3175); • Mechanical and physical properties such as tensile strength strip (ISO 5081), tensile strength grab (ISO 5082), tear strength (ISO 9290), abrasion resistance (EN 22313), crease tendency/recovery (ISO 9867), pilling tendency (BS 5811) and fibre penetration (SIS 650047); and • Colour fastness to several aspects, such as washing, light and water (ISO 105).

90

Performance of home textiles

Performance requirements of UK market for colour fastness, physical and regulatory parameters of home textile products such as curtains, drapes, curtain linings and voiles, sheets, pillow cases and duvet covers, blankets, throws and spreads, mattress protectors, duvets and pillows rugs and anti-slip mats, bath mats, textile and plastic shower curtains, cushions and bean bags, towels, beach and sports towels, flannels and tea towels, oven gloves, table linen, napkins, place mats (fabric), lampshades – fabric, lampshades – plastic and paper backed / card / laminated, and aprons are depicted from Table 4.20 to 4.36. Table 4.20 Curtains, drapes, curtain linings and voiles Test description

Notes

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Requirement

Washing (64)

All colours not white test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry cleaning (65)

All colours + white

Colour change 4

Water (66)

All colours not white

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry rub (67)

All colours not white

Staining 4

Wet rub (67)

All colours not white

Staining 3

Light (68)

All colours + white

Grade 5–6

Appearance after cleansing (69)

Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white

No significant change

Motif/Print durability

All colours of motif/print

No significant change shade change ¾

Phenolic yellowing

White and light cream

Grade 5

White cotton: 2A 60°C tumble dry flat finish woven brushed and flannelette

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0% L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Coloured cotton and polyester/cotton 4A 50°C tumble dry flat finish brushed and flannelette

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0% L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

All other fabrics 6A 40°C tumble dry

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing (70, 71)



Performance specifications of different home textile Dimensional stability to dry cleaning (commercial dry clean)

Required only if dry clean on care label (commercial)

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Tear strength (72)

1000 cN

Tensile strength (73)

160 N

Seam slippage (74) Rigid (75) Stretch

Min of 80 N @ seam opening 6 mm

Seam strength (woven) (76)

100 N

Bursting strength (77, 78)

Knitted fabrics only

300 kPa

Popper/Stud attach. Fibre analysis (79)

91

90 N Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Required

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre-strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims etc.): grade 4–5. Table 4.21 Sheets, pillow cases and duvet covers Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Washing

All colours not white Test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4; Staining 4

Water

All colours not white

Colour change 4; Staining 4

Dry rub

All colours not white

Staining 4

Wet rub

All colours not white

Staining 3–4

Light

All colours + white

5

Appearance after washing

Whole article taken from bulk production; All colours + white Easy care and non-iron only

3–4 min iron 4 non-iron

Motif / Print durability

All colours of motif / print

No significant change Shade change 3–4

92

Performance of home textiles

Phenolic yellowing

White and light cream

Grade 4

White cotton: 2A 60°C Tumble dry Flat finish woven:

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Brushed and flannelette

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Coloured cotton and polyester/cotton 4A 50°C Tumble dry Flat finish:

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Knitted, brushed and flannelette

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

All other fabrics 6A 40°C Tumble dry

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Pilling (80)

Report at 4,000 revs

3–4

Abrasion

Report at 5,000 and 15,000 rubs

Shade change grade 4 at 5,000 rubs, prints 3–4; breakdown at 15,000

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing

Tear strength

1000 cN

Tensile strength

180 N

Seam slippage

Fitted sheets only

Min of 80 N @ seam opening 6 mm

Seam strength (woven)

Fitted sheets only

120 N

Bursting strength

Knitted fabrics Fitted sheets only

300 kPa

Popper/Stud/ Button attach. Fibre analysis

90 N Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts & bindings) + each colour of merchandise.

Required

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g. panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5. Table 4.22 Blankets Test description

Notes

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Requirement

Washing

All colours not white test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry cleaning

All colours +white

Colour change 4

Water

All colours not white

Colour change 4: Staining 4



Performance specifications of different home textile Dry rub

All colours not white

Staining 4

Wet rub

All colours not white

Staining 3–4

Light

All colours + white

5

Appearance after cleansing

Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white

No significant change

Motif/Print durability

All colours of motif/print

No significant change

Phenolic yellowing

Whitey& light cream

Grade 4

Dimensional stability to washing

Test 10° above temp on care label Tumble dry or not (as care label)

Woven L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0% Knits L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Dimensional stability to dry cleaning

Dry clean only

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Pilling

Report at 4000 revs

3

93

Physical tests

Tensile strength

120 N

Tear strength

1000 cN

Burst strength

Knits only

300 kPa

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Required

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5. Table 4.23 Throws and spreads Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Washing

All colours not white test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry cleaning

Dry clean only

4

Water

All colours not white

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry rub

All colours not white

Staining 4

94

Performance of home textiles

Wet Rub

All colours not white

Staining 3–4

Light

All colours + white

5

Appearance after washing /dry cleaning

Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white Report weight loss

No significant change Weight check before and after wash/dry clean – % loss

Motif/Print durability

All colours of motif/print

No significant change

Phenolic yellowing

White and light cream

Grade 4

Coloured cotton and polyester/ cotton 4A, 50°C tumble dry Flat finish:

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Knitted, brushed and flannelette

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

All other fabrics 6A, 40°C tumble dry

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing

Dimensional stability to dry cleaning

Dry clean only

Pilling

Report at 4000 revs

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0% 4

Tear strength

1000 cN

Tensile strength

140 N

Bursting strength

Knitted fabrics

300 kPA

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Required

All throws* flammability

One of each colour + white

Must conform to UK furniture and furnishing regulations

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5.



Performance specifications of different home textile

95

Notes: Wadding: No evidence of percolation of fibre through outer fabric after washing. *Bed throws/Spreads do not have to comply with UK Furniture and Furnishing Regulations. Throws intended for use on chairs and sofas must comply. Table 4.24 Mattress protectors Test description

Notes

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts & bindings

Requirement

Phenolic yellowing

White and light cream

Grade 4

Woven 2A, 60°C tumble dry Flat finish woven:

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Knitted

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing Tensile strength

180 N

Tear strength

1000 cN

Seam slippage

100 N

Seam strength (woven)

120 N

Bursting strength

Knitted only

Spray rating (81)

300 kPa 4

Hydrostatic head (82, 83)

Test if labelled water resistant / waterproof

160 mb (160 cm) waterproof 100 mb (100 cm) water resistant

Fibre analysis

Test main, skirt, backing Required and filler separately

Anti-bacterial and anti-allergy claims. Anti-bacterial and anti-allergy claims and statements must be supported by independent challenge testing in line with LACOTS guidelines in order that Tesco trading law department can approve the use of such claims. Table 4.25 Duvets and pillows Test description

Notes

Requirement

Appearance after washing

Whole article taken from bulk production

No significant change

Tear strength

Fabric only

1000 cN

Tensile strength

Fabric only

180 N

96

Performance of home textiles

Seam slippage

Fabric only

Min of 100 N @ seam opening 6 mm

Seam strength

Fabric only

120 N

Thermal efficiency

Required for duvets only, whole article

Tog rating required, tolerance –0 +3 to declared tog value

Flammability

Required for pillow filling only

Must comply with UK furniture and furnishing regulations

Cleanliness of fillings (84)

Synthetic fillings, only new fillings to be used

Fibre analysis

Feather and down only

As standard

Test one colour of each fabric type

Required

Anti-bacterial and anti-allergy claims. Anti-bacterial and anti-allergy claims and statements must be supported by independent challenge testing in line with LACOTS guidelines in order that Tesco trading law department can approve the use of such claims. Table 4.26 Rugs and anti-slip mats Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Washing

All colours not white test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry cleaning

Dry clean only

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Water

All colours not white

Staining 4

Dry rub

All colours not white

Staining 4

Wet rub

All colours not white

3-4

Light

All colours + white

4

Shampoo (85)

All colours not white

Colour change 4 Staining 4

Migration of colour to PVC coating (86)

All colours not white

Grade 4

Appearance after Whole article taken from cleansing bulk production All colours + white Report weight loss

No significant change

Motif/Print durability

Grade 4

All colours of motif/print

Weight of product before and after washing – % loss



Performance specifications of different home textile

97

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing

Test at 10°C above temperature on care label

L: ±7.00% W: ±7.00%

Dimensional stability to dry cleaning

Dry clean only

L: ±3.00% W: ±3.00%

Abrasion

Required if textile

Report at 5,000 rubs, appearance at 15,000

Anti-slip (87)

Test on vinyl, clay and wood surface

Report findings

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Required

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5. Table 4.27 Bath mats Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Washing

All colours not white Test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Water

All colours not white

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry rub

All colours not white

Staining 4

Wet rub

All colours not white

Staining 3–4

Light

All colours + white

5

Migration of colour to PVC coating

All colours not white

4

Appearance after washing

Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white Report weight loss Report dimensional stability

No significant change

Motif/Print durability

All colours of motif/print

No significant change

Phenolic yellowing

White and light cream

Grade 4

Test at 10°C above temperature on care label

L: ±7.00% W: ±7.00%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing Absorbency (88)

10 seconds maximum

98

Performance of home textiles

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Required

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5. Table 4.28 Textile and plastic shower curtains Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Washing

All colours not white, textile product only Test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Water

All colours not white, textile product only

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry rub

All colours not white

Staining 4

Wet rub

All colours not white

Staining 3–4

Light

All colours + white, textile product only

5

Motif/Print durability

All colours of motif/ print

No significant change

Phenolic Yellowing

White and light cream

Grade 4

Dimensional stability to washing

Textile product only 6A, 40°C tumble dry test 10°C above temp on care label Tumble dry or not (as care label)

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Water repellency

Spray rating, textile product only

4 before and after cleansing

Tear strength

Textile product only

1000 cN

Tensile strength

Textile product only

120 N

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Only required if textile fibre

Physical tests



Performance specifications of different home textile

99

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5. Table 4.29 Cushions and bean bags Test description

Notes

Requirement

Covers Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Washing

All colours not white test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry cleaning

Dry clean only

Colour change 4

Water

All colours not white

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry rub

All colours not white

Staining 4

Wet rub

All colours not white

Staining 3-4

Light

All colours + white

5

Appearance after cleansing

Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white

No significant change

Motif/Print durability

All colours of motif/print

No significant change

Phenolic yellowing

White and light cream

Grade 4

Test at 10°C above temperature on care label. Woven

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing

Knitted

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Dimensional stability to dry cleaning

Dry clean only

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Pilling

Report at 4000 revs

3–4

Abrasion

15,000

Tear strength

1000 cN

Tensile strength

180 N

Seam slippage

Min of 100 N @ seam opening 6 mm

Seam strength Bursting strength

120 N Knitted fabrics

450 kPa

Zips (89) Popper/Stud/ Button attach. Fibre analysis

90 N Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise

As per standard

100

Performance of home textiles

Flammability

Test complete item

Must comply with UK furniture and furnishing regulations

Cleanliness of fillings

Synthetic fillings, only new fillings to be used Feather and down only

As standard

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5. Notes: Wadding: No evidence of percolation of fibre through outer fabric after washing. Table 4.30 Towels, beach and sports towels, flannels and tea towels Test description

Notes

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Requirement

Washing

All colours not white test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Water

All colours not white

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry rub

All colours not white

Staining 4

Wet rub

All colours not white

Staining 3–4

Chlorinated water (90)

Beach / sports towels only. 20 mg/l

Colour change 3

Light

All colours + white

5

Appearance after cleansing

Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white

No significant change

Motif/Print durability All colours of motif/print

No significant change

Phenolic yellowing

White and light cream

Grade 4

Report main and border: 2A, 60°C tumble dry

L: ±6.0% W: ±6.0%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing Absorbency

10 seconds maximum

Tensile strength

140 N

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Required



Performance specifications of different home textile

101

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5. Table 4.31 Oven gloves Test description

Notes

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Requirement

Washing

All colours not white test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Water

All colours not white

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry rub

All colours not white

Staining 4

Wet rub

All colours not white

Staining 3-4

Light

All colours + white

4

Appearance after washing

Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white

No significant change

Motif/Print durability

All colours of motif/print

No significant change

2A, 60°C tumble dry

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing Domestic oven gloves (91)

As per standard

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5. Table 4.32 Table linen, napkins, place mats (fabric) Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Washing

All colours not white test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Water

All colours not white

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry rub

All colours not white

Staining 4

Wet rub

All colours not white

Staining 3

Light

All colours + white

5

Appearance after washing

Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white

No significant change

Motif/Print durability

All colours of motif/print

No significant change

102

Performance of home textiles

Phenolic yellowing

White & light cream

Grade 4

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing

L and W: ±3.0% to ±5.0% Dependant on product, discuss with Technical Manager

Tear strength

1000 cN

Tensile strength

180 N

Bursting strength

Knitted fabrics

300 kPa

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Table 4.33 Mats of natural grasses or natural non-textile material Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Water

Only required if dyed

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry rub

Only required if dyed

Staining 4

Wet rub

Only required if dyed

Staining 3

Light

Only required if dyed

4

Physical tests Fumigation

Certification

Independent report of appropriate crop management when farming natural grasses or non-textile materials required. Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5.

Table 4.34 Lampshades – fabric Test description

Notes

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Requirement

Light

All colours + white

5–6

Phenolic yellowing

White and light cream

Grade 4

Physical tests Tensile strength

140 N

Seam slippage

Min of 80 N @ seam opening 6 mm

Seam strength

120 N



Performance specifications of different home textile Bursting strength

Knitted fabrics

450 kPa

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Required

Table 4.35 Lampshades – plastic and paper backed/card/laminated Test description

Notes

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Requirement

Light

All colours + white

5–6

Phenolic yellowing

White and light cream

Grade 4

Table 4.36 Aprons Test description

Notes

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Requirement

Washing

All colours not white Test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Water

All colours not white

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Dry rub

All colours not white

Staining 4

Wet rub

All colours not white

Staining 3–4

Light

All colours + white

4

Appearance after washing

Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white

No significant change

Motif/Print durability

All colours of motif/ print

No significant change

White cotton: 2A, 60°C tumble dry

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Coloured cotton and polyester/cotton 4A, 50°C tumble dry

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

All other fabrics 6A, 40°C tumble dry

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing

Tensile strength

150 N

Popper/Stud attach.

90 N

103

104

Performance of home textiles

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of Required each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5.

4.5 Special performance requirements in home textiles Value addition in home textiles can be achieved by imparting properties like wrinkle resistance, stain repellency, stain resistance, stain release, anti-allergen, moisture wicking, water repellency, and water resistance. Special product performance claims (US) must be tested using the appropriate test methods. Test methods are to be decided in consultation with supplier and home technical team of a particular buyer. A list of some of the special product performance, test methods, and minimum requirement applicable for home textile products are mentioned table below. Test description

Test method

Performance requirements

AATCC 124

Fabric smoothness grade 3.0 minimum (avg.) Seams grade 3.0 minimum (avg.) Tested after three home launderings

Wrinkle resistance Wrinkle resistance

AATCC 88b (92)

Stain repellency Stain repellency Stain resistant

AATCC 118 (93)

Must repel #4 Oil tetradecane Original – Grade 4 Must repel #3 Oil n-hexadecane After Wash – Grade 3 Tested after 5 home launderings

AATCC 175

Minimum of: Grade 9.0

AATCC 130 (94)

Minimum of: Class 4.0 Tested after five home launderings

Stain resistance – rugs Stain repellency Stain resistant Stain release Stain release Releases spills Stains easily wash-out



Performance specifications of different home textile

105

Anti-allergen Allergen blocker (Hypoallergenic not included)

Capillary flow porometer

Pore size of 10 µ or smaller

CTL FW-106 (95)

Must wick 6.0 cm in 30 minutes Tested after five home launderings

AATCC 22

Minimum spray rating 80 original Minimum spray rating 70 after wash Tested after three home launderings

AATCC 35 (96)

No more than 1 g penetration – original

Moisture wicking Moisture wicking Wicks moisture away Water repellency Water repellent repels water Water resistance Water resistant

No more than 1 g penetration – after wash Tested after three home launderings

References 1. Wal-Mart Stores, (2008). Testing Program for Home Textiles, Departments 20, 21, 22, 26 (Textile Home line Products only), USA. 2. ASTM D3990 Standard Terminology Relating to Fabric Defects. 3. ASTM D3776 Standard Test Methods for Mass Per Unit Area (Weight) of Fabric. 4. ASTM D3775 Standard Test Method for Warp (End) and Filling (Pick) Count of Woven Fabrics. 5. AATCC 135 Dimensional changes of fabrics after home laundering. 6. AATCC 150 Dimensional changes of garments after home laundering. 7. CTL ST 116 Softlines, (2005). Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Rubber Backed Carpet Skid Resistance Test. 8. NIST handbook 130 Uniform Laws and Regulations. 9. CFR Title 16, Part 1630 Standard for the Surface Flammability for Carpets and Rugs (FF 1-70). 10. CFR Title 16, Part 1631 Standard for the Surface Flammability for Small Carpets and Rugs (FF 2-70). 11. AATCC 61 Colorfastness to laundering: accelerated. 12. AATCC 8 Colorfastness to crocking. 13. AATCC 137 Rug Back Staining on Vinyl Tile. 14. AATCC 175 Stain Resistance: Pile Floor Coverings.

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15. AATCC 172 Colorfastness to powdered non-chlorine bleach in home laundering. 16. AATCC 16 (Option 3 – formerly 16E) Colorfastness to light. 17. AATCC 107 Colorfastness to water. 18. ASTM D 1777 Standard Test Method for Thickness of Textile Materials. 19. CTL DC 103 Softlines, (2005). Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for PreWash and After-Wash Comforter Loft. 20. ASTM D5034 Standard test method for breaking strength and elongation of textile fabrics (Grab Test). 21. ASTM D3786 Standard test method for bursting strength of textile fabrics – Diaphragm bursting strength tester method. 22. ASTM D1424 Standard test method for tearing strength of fabrics by falling pendulum (Elmendorf-type) apparatus. 23. ASTM D2061 Standard test methods for strength tests for zippers. 24. ASTM D 1683 Standard test method for failure in sewn seams of woven apparel fabrics. 25. ASTM D4151 Standard Test Method for Flammability of Blankets. 26. CTL Softlines, (2005). Consumer Testing Laboratories In House Test Method for Knit Tensile Strength. 27. CTL Softlines, (2005). Consumer Testing Laboratories In house Test Method for Pull strength. 28. IDFL method (air permeability) International Down and Feather Testing Laboratory News (1997), 10, 2. 29. IDFL method (down content) Brief Explanation of Down & Feather Tests, IDFL (2008), 1–2. 30. IDFL method (specie cleanliness) IDFL News (1997), 11, 1–3. 31. IDFL method (turbidity) IDFL News (2002), 20, 1–3. 32. IDFL method (Species type) Quality Assurance Guidelines, Finished Down & Feather Products, IDFL (2008), 2. 33. CTL Softlines, (2007). Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Fill Weight. 34. IDFL tumble dry method (Fill power (Lorch instrument) IDFL News (1997), 10, 1–3. 35. ASTM D434 Standard test method for resistance to slippage of yarns in woven fabrics using a standard seam. 36. CTL HR 100 Softlines, (2007). Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Measurement of Heat Transferof Potholders and Oven Mitts. 37. CFR Title 16, Part 1632 Standard for the Flammability of Mattresses And Mattress Pads (FF 4-72). 38. ASTM D4970 Standard Test Method for Pilling Resistance and Other Related Surface Changes of Textile Fabrics: Martindale Tester. 39. AATCC 124 Appearance of fabrics after repeated home laundering.



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40. AATCC 22 Water repellency: Spray test. 41. ASTM D1059 Standard Test Method for Yarn Number Based on Short Length Specimens. 42. CTL WW 104 Softlines, (2005). Consumer Testing Laboratories Towel Linting Test Method. 43. ASTM D4772 (absorbency) Standard Test Method for Surface Water Absorption of Terry Fabrics (Water Flow). 44. AATCC 106 Colorfastness to Water: Sea. 45. CTL 12 Softlines, (2005). Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method of Colorfastness to chlorinated water. 46. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #5.1 Textile Test Methods Unit Mass of Fabrics. 47. CAN/CGSB4.2 #58 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness and Dimensional Change in Domestic Laundering of Textiles. 48. CGSB/CAN 2-4.2 #27.7 - M-77 Textile Test Methods – Combustion Resistance of Mattresses – Cigarette Test. 49. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #27.5-94 Textile Test Methods Flame Resistance - 45 Degree Angle Test - One Second Flame Impingement. 50. ASTM-D1230-45° Standard test method for flammability of apparel textiles. 51. CAN 2-4.2-M77 Textile Test methods. 52. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #19.1 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness to Washing Accelerated Test Launder-O-meter. 53. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #29.1 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness to Dry Cleaning Solvent. 54. CAN/CGSB 4.2 #22 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness to Rubbing (Crocking). 55. CAN/CGSB – 4.2 #20 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness to Water. 56. CAN/CGSB-21 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness to Sea Water. 57. CAN/CGSB-52.2 Textile Test Methods Textiles - Tests for Colourfastness - Part E03: Colourfastness to Chlorinated Water (Swimming-Pool Water)-ISO 105- E03:1994. 58. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #18.3 Textile Test Methods - Textiles - Tests for Colourfastness Part B02: Colourfastness to Artificial Light: Xenon Arc Fading Lamp Test. 59. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #9.2 Breaking Strength and Elongation of Textile Fabrics (Grab Test). 60. ASTM D3787 Standard Test Method for Bursting Strength of Textiles – ConstantRate-of-Traverse (CRT) Ball Burst Test. 61. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #12.1 Textile Test Methods — Tearing Strength — Single-Rip Method.  62. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #32.2 Textile Test Methods Breaking Strength of Seams in Woven Fabrics. 63. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #32.1 Textile Test Methods Resistance of Woven Fabrics to Seam Slippage.

108

Performance of home textiles

64. BS EN ISO 105 C06: 1997 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Colour fastness to domestic and commercial laundering. 65. BS EN ISO 105 DO1: 1995 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Colour fastness to dry cleaning. 66. BS EN ISO 105 E01: 1996 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Colour fastness to water. 67. BS EN ISO 105 X12: 2002 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Colour fastness to rubbing. 68. BS EN ISO 105 BO2: 1999 Colour fastness to artificial light: Xenon arc fading lamp test. 69. AATCC143-2001 Appearance of apparel and other textile end products after repeated home laundering. 70. BS EN 25077: 1994 Textiles. Determination of dimensional change in washing and drying. 71. BS EN 26330: 1994 Textiles. Domestic washing and drying procedures for textile testing. 72. BS EN ISO 13937-1: 2000 Textiles. Tear properties of fabrics. Determination of tear force using ballistic pendulum method (Elmendorf). 73. BS EN ISO 13934-2: 1999 Textiles. Tensile properties of fabrics. Determination of maximum force using the grab method. 74. BS EN ISO 13936-1: 2004 Textiles. Determination of the slippage resistance of yarns at a seam in woven fabrics. Fixed seam opening method. 75. BS EN ISO 13936-2: 2004 Textiles. Determination of the slippage resistance of yarns at a seam in woven fabrics. Fixed load method. 76. BS EN ISO 13935-2: 1999 Textiles. Seam tensile properties of fabrics and made-up textile articles. Determination of maximum force to seam rupture using the grab method. 77. BS EN ISO 13938-1: 1999 Textiles. Bursting properties of fabrics. Hydraulic method for determination of bursting strength and bursting distension. 78. BS EN ISO 13938-2: 1999 Textiles. Bursting properties of fabrics. Pneumatic method for determination of bursting strength and bursting distension. 79. BS 4407: 1988 (1985) Methods for quantitative analysis of fibre mixtures. 80. BS EN ISO 12945-2: 2000 Textiles. Determination of fabric propensity to surface fuzzing and to pilling. Modified Martindale method. 81. BS EN 24920: 1992 Textiles. Determination of resistance to surface wetting (spray test) of fabrics. 82. BS EN 20811: 1992 Textiles. Determination of resistance to water penetration. Hydrostatic pressure test. 83. ISO 811:1981 Textile fabrics. Determination of resistance to water penetration. Hydrostatic pressure test. 84. BS EN 12935: 2001 Feather and down. Hygiene and cleanliness requirements.



Performance specifications of different home textile

109

85. BS 1006 UK-TB Colour Fastness to Shampooing of Textile Floor Coverings. 86. BS EN ISO 105 X10: 1996 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Assessment of migration of textile colours into polyvinyl chloride coatings. 87. SATRA In house TM144 Slip resistance testing. 88. BS 4554:1970 Method of test for wettability of textile fabrics. 89. BS 3084:1992 Specification for slide fasteners. 90. BS EN ISO 105 EO3: 1997 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Colour fastness to chlorinated water. 91. BS 6526: 1998 Domestic oven gloves. Requirements and test methods. 92. AATCC 88b Smoothness of Seams in Fabrics after Repeated Home Laundering. 93. AATCC 118 Oil Repellency: Hydrocarbon Resistance Test. 94. AATCC 130 Soil Release: Oily Stain Release Method. 95. CTL FW 106 Softlines (2005) Consumer Testing Laboratories Test method for Vertical Wicking. 96. AATCC 35 Water resistance: Rain test.

5 Labelling issues of home textiles

Abstract: Labelling of home textiles is an important aspect to provide required information to the distributors, buyers, and consumers about the product. However, labelling requirements do not apply until the products are ready for sale to the consumers. This chapter first discusses the general labelling requirements for home textiles in the US and EU. Labelling of home textiles normally include the measurements, fibre content, care instructions, country of origin and manufacturer’s identification. Different law labels and flammability tags are also attached depending upon the product. The chapter then discusses about the labelling of different home textile products for US and Canada market. Keywords: Labelling, law tag, flammability tag, IABFLO, ornamentation, FTC Chapter contains (Section headings)

5 Labelling issues of home textiles 5.1 General labelling requirements for home textiles in the US 5.1.1 Mechanics of writing law labels for home textile products 5.2 Labelling requirements for home textiles in EU 5.3  Labelling of different home textile products for US 5.3.1 Bath rugs / Area rugs (scatter) / Bath sets (tank covers, lid covers, contour rug) 5.3.2 Bedding –Bedspreads / Comforters / Quilts / Dust ruffles / Duvet covers / Pillows shams / Crib bumper pads 5.3.3 Blankets / Throws 5.3.4 Decorative pillows / Floor pillows / Bed rest 5.3.5 Down products 5.3.6 Furniture accessories – Chair pads / Slip covers 5.3.7 Ironing board covers andpads 5.3.8 Kitchen accessories – Pot holders / Oven mitts / Aprons 5.3.9 Mattress pads 5.3.10 Sheets / Pillow cases / Protective pillow covers 5.3.11 Shower curtains 5.3.12 Sleeping bags 5.3.13 Table top – Napkins / Placemats / Table runners / Tablecloths 5.3.14 Towels – Bath / Hand / Washcloth / Kitchen / Hooded / Beach 5.3.15 Window treatments 5.4 Labelling of different home textile products for Canada 5.5 Recommended care for home textile products References

112

Performance of home textiles

5.1 General labelling requirements for home textiles in the US All textile fibre products imported into the United States (US) shall be stamped, tagged, labelled, or otherwise marked with the following information as required by the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act, unless exempted from marking under Section 12 of the Act. The product must be labelled to show the fibre content. The generic fibre names and percentages by weight of each constituent fibre must be listed in descending order of predominance (1). If the product is made from one fibre, one can use the word “All” instead of “100%”,e.g., “100% Wool” or “All Wool”. The disclosure requirement applies only to fibres contained in yarns, fabrics, clothing, and other household items. If a part of the product is made from a non-fibrous material such as plastic, glass, wood, paint, metal or leather then that is not included on that label. There is no need to disclose the contents of zippers, buttons, beads, sequins, leather patches, painted designs, or any other parts that are not made from fibre, yarn, or fabric. In general, only the fibres that comprise 5% or more of the fibre weight are included in the label. Fibres of less than 5% should be disclosed as “other fibre” or “other fibres”, as the case may be, and not by their generic name or fibre trademark (2). However, ornamentation is exempt from fibre content disclosure when it does not exceed 5% of the product’s fibre weight. “Ornamentation” refers to “any fibres or yarns imparting a visibly discernible pattern or design to a yarn or fabric”(3). In such cases, the other fibre is disclosed in the product, without regard to the ornamentation, and include the statement: “Exclusive of Ornamentation”. If the ornamentation exceeds 5% of the fibre weight, its fibre must be disclosed as a separate section. If the ornamentation, decorative trim, or decorative pattern or design exceeds (1) 15% of the surface area of the product, and (2) 5% of the fibre weight of the fabric, its fibre content has to be disclosed. If it is either (1) less than 15% of the surface area, or (2) less than 5% of the fibre weight, its content does not have to be disclosed, if the label says “exclusive of decoration” or “exclusive of ornamentation”. If linings, interlinings, fillings, or paddings are used only for structural purposes, disclosure of their fibre is not required. However, voluntarily one can mention about their fibre content. If linings, interlinings, fillings, or paddings are incorporated for warmth (including metallic-coated textile linings and linings or fillings that contain any amount of wool), their fibre must be disclosed as a sectional disclosure. There is a 3% tolerance for fibre content claims on labels in case of blends (4). Deviations larger than 3% constitute mislabelling, unless the company can prove that it was the result of unavoidable variations in manufacturing, despite the exercise of due care. No tolerance is allowed if the label states that a product contains one fibre. Practical care instruction based on the nature of the home textile product is



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required in labelling. Some of such care instructions are listed from Tables 5.1 to 5.13 (5) which has covered the products such as various types of curtains, cushions, chair pads, floor rugs, throws, blankets, quilts, pillows, pillow protectors, mattress protectors, magnetic ranges, various types of tablecloths, tea towels, kitchen accessories, bed linen, comforter/coverlets, different types of towels, shower curtains and bathmats. The name of the manufacturer or the name or registered identification number issued by the Federal Trade Commission of one or more persons marketing or handling the textile fibre product is a mandatory requirement on the label. A word trademark, used as a house mark, registered in the United States Patent Office, may be on labels in lieu of the name otherwise required if the owner of such trademark furnishes a copy of the registration to the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) prior to use. The name of the country of origin where processed or manufactured must appear on the label in English. Abbreviations (such as, U.S.A. or Great Britain) and other spellings close to the English version (Italie for Italy, or Brasil for Brazil) can be used if they clearly and unmistakably identify the country. Use of the abbreviations “CAN” and “MEX”, for “Canada” and “Mexico”, are acceptable under FTC rules, but may not be under customs requirements. If more than one country is named on the label, phrases or words describing the specific processing in each country are usually necessary to convey the required information to the consumer (6). Other points to note in labelling requirements are: A label should show the identity of the commodity, name and place of business or the manufacturer packer or distributor, and net quantity of contents, which include weight in pounds, linear measure in yards or feet, and measure of area in square yards or square feet. The net quantity label should appear conspicuously and easily legible in distinct contrast with other matter on the package. Labels should be uniform in all other similar packages (7). The labelling requirements do not apply until the products are ready for sale to consumers. Items shipped or delivered in an intermediate stage of production, and not labelled with the required information, must include an invoice disclosing the fibre, country of origin, manufacturer or dealer identity, and the name and address of the person or company issuing the invoice (8). If the manufacturing or processing of the products is substantially complete, they are considered to be ready for sale to consumers. Even if small details have not been finished such as hemming, the products must be labelled. Among home textile items, products which are covered by the labelling requirements (9) include bedding — sheets, covers, blankets, comforters, pillows, pillowcases, quilts, bedspreads, pads (but not outer coverings for mattresses or box springs), curtains and casements, draperies, tablecloths, napkins, and doilies, floor coverings — rugs, carpets, mats, furniture slip

114

Performance of home textiles

covers and other furniture covers, afghans and throws, sleeping bags, towels, washcloths, dishcloths, ironing board covers and pads. However, some of the home textiles are not covered by the labelling requirements (10). Such items are upholstery or mattress stuffing (unless it’s reused — then the label must say that it contains reused stuffing), outer coverings of upholstered furniture, mattresses, and box springs, backings of carpets or rugs and padding or cushions to be used under carpets, rugs, or other floor coverings (11). A label might be the smallest, least expensive component of a company’s product, but it can turn out to be critical to the success of that product. An incorrect label can result in suspension of sale or even recall.

5.1.1 Mechanics of writing law labels for home textile products Content for law labels is directed by the appropriate federal or state regulation. The following information explains the mechanics of the law labels (12). • The kinds, types, and percentage of filling materials used in upholstered furniture and bedding, concealed or not concealed, shall be stated on the law label. • Percentages are to be computed on the basis of avoirdupois weight of the filling material and listed in order of largest to smallest. • Labels shall be securely fastened and easy to see. Labels are not be concealed or obstructed from view in any manner. • Law labels are to be made of materials that are not easily torn. • Labels of products made of all new materials are to be white with black letters. • Labels for products containing used materials are to be red with black letters. • At the top of the label the following statement must appear “UNDER PENALTY OF LAW THIS TAG NOT TO BE REMOVED EXCEPT BY THE CONSUMER”. • When all new material is used in the product, the heading “All New Material” must be stated on the label. • When used material is used in the product, the heading “Second-hand (Used) Material” must be stated on the label. • The registry number must be shown. • The following guaranty statement must be shown “Certification is made by the manufacturer that the materials in this article are described in accordance with law”.



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• The finished size of articles of bedding such as sleeping bags, mattresses, comforters, mattress pads, pads, box springs, pillows and similar articles must be shown. Width and length dimensions are to be expressed in inches. Decorative pillows are excluded from the size requirement. • The net weight of filling materials of bedding such as sleeping bags, mattresses, box springs, pads and similar items must be stated in pounds and ounces. • The minimum size of law labels is to be 2”× 3”. Labels may be larger when the required type size and statements make it necessary. • The minimum size of type shall be 1/8” in capital letters. • All printing must be in English. • Printing is to be on only one side of the label. • Labels shall not contain any advertising or anything that detracts from the required statements. • No mark, tag or sticker may cover the required statements.

5.2

Labelling requirements for home textiles in EU

Labelling has the main purpose to convey a message to distributors, buyers and consumers. Regarding the household and furnishing textiles labelling may include information on fabric texture, sizing, ironing and washing. There are three kinds of European Union (EU) labelling requirements (13): a. Legislative labelling requirements Fibre content –the indication 100% or pure can be used within a margin of 2% of the weight of the final product. Other fibres with a weight of less than 10% of the weight of the final products can be mentioned. In that case all (eventual) other fibres have to be mentioned. The official language of the country has to be used on the labels. b. Market labelling requirements Size–note that size marking can differ between countries Care labelling/washing instructions–An international care labelling programme is used in many countries including countries outside the EU. The programme makes use of five basic symbols related to the properties of colour fastness, dimensional stability, effect of retained chlorine (bleach), maximum safe ironing temperatures and certain other properties. c. Voluntary labelling requirements These include origin marking, brand, name and other consumer information. In some countries country of origin marking is obligatory.

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Performance of home textiles

5.3 Labelling of different home textile products for US 5.3.1 Bath rugs / Area rugs (scatter) / Bath sets (tank covers, lid covers, contour rug) Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136 (14). Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 (15) if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629 (16), AATCC 20A (17), CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information.

5.3.2 Bedding –Bedspreads / Comforters / Quilts / Dust ruffles / Duvet covers / Pillows shams / Crib bumper pads Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions.



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Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information. Bedding law tag (items with filling) • There are various State laws for bedding and upholstered furniture. • Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO) uniform law label.

5.3.3

Blankets / Throws

Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported.

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• Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information.

5.3.4

Decorative pillows / Floor pillows / Bed rest

Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number.



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• Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information. Bedding law tag (items with filling) • Various State laws are there for bedding and upholstered furniture. • Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO) uniform law label. California flammability tag (Items with filling that can also be used as upholstered furniture) (N/A to Bed Rest) • California TB117 (18) Items that are advertised, intended, or commonly used as upholstered furniture must meet the flammability requirements and be appropriately labelled in accordance with California Code of Regulations, Title 4, • Division 3, Article 13 Flammability Regulations.

5.3.5

Down products

Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number.

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• Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information. Bedding law tag (items with filling) • Various State laws are there for bedding and upholstered furniture. • Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO) uniform law label. California flammability tag (Items with filling that can also be used as upholstered furniture) (N/A to Bed Rest) • California TB117 Items that are advertised, intended, or commonly used as upholstered furniture must meet the flammability requirements and be appropriately labelled in accordance with California Code of Regulations, Title 4, • Division 3, Article 13 Flammability Regulations.

5.3.6

Furniture accessories – Chair pads / Slip covers

Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number.



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• Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information. Bedding law tag (items with filling) • Various State laws are there for bedding and upholstered furniture. • Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO) uniform law label. California flammability tag (Items with filling that can also be used as upholstered furniture) (N/A to Bed Rest) • California TB117 Items that are advertised, intended, or commonly used as upholstered furniture must meet the flammability requirements and be appropriately labelled in accordance with California Code of Regulations, Title 4, Division 3, Article 13 Flammability Regulations.

5.3.7

Ironing board covers and pads

Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number.

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• Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information.

5.3.8 Kitchen accessories – Pot holders / Oven mitts / Aprons Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information.

5.3.9

Mattress pads

Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136.



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Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information. Bedding law tag (items with filling) • Various State laws are there for bedding and upholstered furniture. • Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO) uniform law label.

5.3.10

Sheets / Pillow cases / Protective pillow covers

Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303.

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• Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information. Special claims Special claims (e.g., anti-stain, anti-soil, anti-microbial, anti-allergen) must be tested using the appropriate test methods. Test methods to be determined in consultation with supplier and home technical team.

5.3.11

Shower curtains

Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information.



5.3.12

Labelling issues of home textiles

125

Sleeping bags

Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information. Bedding law tag (items with filling) • Various State laws are there for bedding and upholstered furniture. • Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO).

5.3.13 Table top – Napkins / Placemats / Table runners / Tablecloths Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions.

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Performance of home textiles

Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s Identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information.

5.3.14 Towels – Bath / Hand / Washcloth / Kitchen / Hooded / Beach Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred.



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Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information.

5.3.15

Window treatments

Labelling Measurements • Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. • Must conform to the labelled dimensions. Care • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred. Fibre content • ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303. • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate. Manufacturer’s identification • CFR Title 16, Part 303. • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. • Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information.

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Performance of home textiles

5.4 Labelling of different home textile products for Canada Labelling Care • CAN/CGSB-4.2 #86.1 (19). • Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product. Note:Bleaching instruction is to be determined by above referenced colourfastness tests. • Applicable to all home textile items. Country of origin • Must be labelled according to Canadian Care and Textile Labelling Act and Regulation. • Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. • Applicable to all home textile items. Fibre content • CAN/CGSB-4.2 #14 to #14.8 (20). • Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act. • Applicable to all home textile items. Manufacturer’s identification • Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. • Canadian Care and Textile Labelling Act and Regulation may be referred. • Applicable to all textile items. Bedding law tag (Items without filling) • Must be labelled according to Canadian Care and Textile Labelling Act and Regulation. • Applicable to bedspreads, blankets, comforters, mattress pads. • Bedding law tag • (Items with filling) • Must be labelled according to Canadian Upholstered and Stuffed Articles Act. Applicable to bedspreads, comforters, mattress pads, pillows, quilted Items.



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5.5

129

Recommended care for home textile products

Fibre content, fabric construction, colour, product construction, finish applications and end use are all considered when determining recommended care. Following are recommended care instructions, however, products must be tested to confirm that the care label is suitable. Care instructions of different home textile products are given in Tables 5.1–5.13. Table 5.1 Care instruction of various types of curtains Products

Care instructions

Indian product

Cold hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Velveteen/Velvet All non-washable curtains

Do not allow dust to accumulate Regular gentle vacuuming with appropriate attachment Before cleaning remove all hooks, rings and trims Do not iron Dryclean only

Cotton – Pigment print

Warm machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean

Cotton – other

Warm machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Drycleanable

Coated curtains – guaranteed Drycleanable by the supplier

Do not allow dust to accumulate Regular gentle vacuuming with appropriate attachment Before cleaning remove all hooks, rings and trims Warm hand wash Fully dissolve mild liquid detergent Do not leave soaking or rub Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm rinse well Do not wring Drip dry Hang curtain with fabric side down over line Avoid wet coated sides touching each other Do not use pegs on coating Warm iron on fabric side only Drycleanable

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Performance of home textiles

Polyester/Cotton(unlined)

Warm machine wash Do not bleach May be tumble dried – warm Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Sheers, lace

Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Lined curtains

Warm hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Coated curtains: nondrycleanable

Do not allow dust to accumulate Regular gentle vacuuming with appropriate attachment Before cleaning remove all hooks, rings and trims Warm hand wash Fully dissolve mild liquid detergent Do not leave soaking or rub Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm rinse well Do not wring Drip dry Hang curtain with fabric side down over line Avoid wet sides touching each other Do not use pegs on coating Warm iron on fabric side only Do not dryclean

Polyester(unlined)

Regularly vacuum with appropriate attachment Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Table 5.2 Care instruction of cushions and chair pads Products

Care instructions

Removable covers withpolyester/ cotton,polyester

Cold hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Removable covers with notrim – cotton

Warm machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Drycleanable



Labelling issues of home textiles Removable covers silk/viscose/wool blends, trims other than sequins

Warm hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron if required Drycleanable

Non-removable covers, chair pads

Warm hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

Indian product

Cold hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean

Removable covers withsequins/ embroidery (“Decorative use” label may berequired)

Warm hand wash separately Wash inside out Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron on reverse if required Do not dryclean

Inserts

Hand wash Squeeze gently Drip dry

Silk (no sequins) cushions withtassels/ fringe

Dryclean only Cool iron on reverse if required

PVC, leather

Wipe with a damp cloth Do not iron Do not dryclean

Non-washable or drycleanable sequins / embroidery

Spot clean only

131

Table 5.3 Care instruction of floor rugs Products

Care instructions

Jute rugs, sea grass mats

To remove loose dirt – sweep or vacuum regularly

Decorative rugs – all fibre

Shake regularly to restore pile Vacuum regularly

Extra label for dark colours

A heavy dye concentration is used to obtain a good depth of colour. These colours sometimes have a tendency to stain articles in direct contact. It is important that the rug/throw rug should not be placed directly on pale coloured carpet or furniture or where it will become wet.

Extra label for decorative rugs

This is a decorative item and not suitable for heavy traffic areas.

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Performance of home textiles

Table 5.4 Care instruction of throws Products

Care instructions

Wool, cotton, acrylic, knitted throws

Warm hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Pull to shape while wet Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Polar fleece throws

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach May be tumble dried – Warm Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Quilted, woven throws

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable

All throws with fringes or tassels

Dryclean only

Faux fur throws

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable

Wool, cotton, acrylic woven throws

Warm hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Printed items

“Decorative use” or “Handle with care” label may be required

Table 5.5 Care instruction of blankets Products

Care instructions

Machine washable wool

Warm hand or machine wash separately on wool cycle only Use an approved wool detergent Rinse well Dry out of direct sunlight Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Acrylic pile/fur

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach May be tumble dried – warm Do not iron Drycleanable



Labelling issues of home textiles Cotton

Warm gentle machine wash separately Pull to shape while wet Do not wring or soak Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Dry cleanable

Polyester coral fleece, polar fleece

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Line dry in shade Do not wring or soak Dry thoroughly before re-use Do not iron Do not dryclean

Silk/cotton blend

Warm hand or machine wash separately on wool cycle only Rinse well Dry out of direct sunlight Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Non-machine washable wool

Hand wash only Use an approved wool detergent Rinse well Dry out of direct sunlight Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean

Polyurethane core Nylon coating

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach May be tumble dried Drycleanable

Table 5.6 Care instruction of various types of quilts

133

All quilts and mattress protectors must have the following statement: “Commercial laundering recommended” in care instructions on art and packaging Products

Care instructions

Polyester filled quilts, cotton or polyester cover

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Rinse well Line dry in shade Dry thoroughly before re-use Reduced spin Do not iron Drycleanable

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Performance of home textiles

Non-washable wool/wool blend quilts

Air regularly Dry clean only Do not iron Air before re-use

Silk cover/silk fill/ polyester cover/silk fill quilt

Dryclean only

Washable wool fill quilts / cotton cover

Warm hand or machine wash separately on wool cycle – using an approved wool detergent Reduce spin Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable Air before re-use

Feather/Down quilts

Warm hand or machine wash separately on wool cycle Fluff and air frequently Reduced spin Dry thoroughly before re-use Line dry in shade Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable

Cotton fill/Cotton cover Cotton velour

Warm gentle machine wash separately Rinse well Reduced spin Line dry in shade Dry thoroughly before re-use Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable

Silicon coated/Dacron/Micro denier filled polyester quilts

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Rinse well Line dry in shade Dry thoroughly before re-use Reduced spin Do not iron Do not dryclean

Bamboo cover

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Rinse well Line dry in shade Dry thoroughly before re-use Reduce spin Do not iron Drycleanable



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All seasons double layer wool quilts Cover: cotton Fill: wool

Before wash separate layers and wash individually Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle using an approved wool detergent Reduce spin Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable Air before re-use

All seasons double layer polyester Cover: cotton Fill: polyester

Before wash separate layers and wash individually Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Rinse well Line dry in shade Dry thoroughly before re-use Reduced spin Do not iron Drycleanable

All seasons double layer feather anddown quilts

Before wash separate layers and wash individually Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle Fluff and air frequently Reduced spin Dry thoroughly before re-use Line dry in shade Do not tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable

Table 5.7 Care instruction of various types of pillows

ALL pillows must have the following statement: “Ensure washing machine remains balanced when laundering” Products

Care instructions

Wool/wool blend pillows

Spot clean only Air regularly Do not dryclean

Latex, polyurethane foam, memory foam, viscoelastic polyurethane, pillows with foam core

Air before use (memory foam pillows) Spot clean with damp cloth Do not use detergent Lay flat to dry Ensure completely dry before re-use Dry out of direct sunlight Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not dryclean

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Performance of home textiles

Polyester fill, cotton, polypropylene,polyester/cotton cover

Warm hand wash Rinse well Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

Feather/Down pillows

Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle Reduced spin Dry thoroughly before re-use Do not bleach or tumble dry Drycleanable Air and fluff regularly

Table 5.8 Care instruction of various types of pillow protectors Products

Care instructions

Polyester

Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean

Cotton

Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean

Polypropylene

Warm machine wash Rinse well May be tumble dried on low setting Do not bleach or iron Do not dryclean

Towelling/velour(for memory foam viscoelastic)

Warm machine wash Warm tumble dry Cool iron Do not bleach Do not dryclean

Micro-denier silicon coated dacron

Warm gentle machine or hand wash Rinse well Reduce spin Dry flat in shade Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Dry thoroughly before re-use Do not dryclean

Dacron – Allerban

Machine washable up to 60°C Dry flat in shade May be warm tumble dried Do not bleach Do not iron Do not dryclean



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137

Table 5.9 Care instruction of various types of mattress protectors / underlays Products

Care instructions

Mattress protectors Polyester cover/polyester fill

Warm machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Rinse well Do not dryclean

Mattress protectors Cotton cover/polyester fill Cotton cover/cotton fill

Warm gentle machine wash or hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Rinse well Hot iron if required (for cotton cover/ cotton fill) Warm iron if required (for polyestercover/polyester fill) Do not dryclean

Wool underblankets,strapped or fitted

Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle only separately Use an approved wool detergent Rinse well Reduced spin Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable

Feather/Down underlays

Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle separately, minimum 12kg capacity machine Reduced spin Dry thoroughly before re-use Do not bleach or tumble dry Shake regularly Drycleanable

Water-resistant Water proof-underlay

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

Mattress protector water proof – vinyl top and sides

Sponge clean with a damp cloth May be warm hand washed Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

Foam underlays(egg shell)

Do not machine wash Do not bleach, soak or wring Do not iron Do not dryclean

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Performance of home textiles

Table 5.10 Care instruction of various types of magnetic ranges Products

Care instructions

Magnetic: wool blend pillow

Spot clean with a damp cloth Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

Magnetic: quilted pillowcotton cover / polyester fill

Warm gentle hand or machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

Magnetic: pillow pad Cotton cover/polyester fill

Warm machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

Magnetic: underlay Cotton cover/cotton fill/polyester fill

Warm machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Line dry and air thoroughly Make sure completely dry before re-use Do not dryclean

Magnetic: quilt Cotton cover/wool fill

Spot clean with a damp cloth and dryimmediately Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron For general cleaning: drycleaning

Magnetic: wool pile underlay

Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle only Use an approved wool detergent Rinse well Reduced spin Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable

Table 5.11 Care instruction of various types of tablecloths, tea towels and kitchen accessories Products

Care instructions

Abaca Placemats and coasters,PVC placemats and tablecloths,flannel backed PVC tablecloths

If soiled, sponge immediately with a damp cloth Do not iron Do not dryclean

Polyester lace tablecloths

Warm hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron if required Drycleanable



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139

Tablecloths except lace, PVC and Indian product

Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean

Cotton – excluding Indian product

Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean

Indian Product: cotton

Cold machine wash separately before use Do not bleach Do not tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean

Indian Product: fibre (other than cotton)

Cold hand wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean

Linen, linen blend tea towel – excluding Indian product

Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean

Linen table cloths, Ramie

Cold hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean

Polyester/metallic thread in weave

Warm gentle machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron if required Do not dryclean

Table 5.12 Care instruction of various types of bed linen and comforter/coverlets Products

Care instructions

Quilt cover sets with appliqué/trim Embroidery jacquard weave

Warm gentle machine wash separately before use Wash inside out Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron on reverse if required Do not dryclean

Polyester/Cotton sheets,pillowcases, quilt covers – notrims, valances

Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach May be tumble dried Warm iron if required Do not dryclean

140

Performance of home textiles

Cotton/polyester: sheets,pillowcases, quilt covers, valances

Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean

Plain/yarn dyed/quilted comforters/ coverlets/ bedspreads/ polyesterfill/ cotton fill

Cold delicate/wool machine wash Do not bleach or soak Line dry in shade Warm iron on reverse if required Drycleanable

Quilt cover sets with metallic prints, threads, sequins and glitter

Cold gentle machine wash separately before use Wash inside out Do not bleach or tumble dry Line dry inside out Warm iron inside out if required Do not dryclean

Printed quilted comforters/coverlets/bed spreads polyester fill, cotton fill

Cold delicate/wool machine wash Do not soak or bleach Line dry in shade Warm iron on reverse if required Do not dryclean

Polyester/cottonsheets, pillowcases with trim

Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean

Canopies

Warm hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

Accessories–Cushions embroidered/ appliqué

Warm hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron on reverse if required Do not dryclean

Accessories –Cushions sequins/metallic

Cold hand wash separately inside out Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron on reverse if required Do not dryclean

Padded/quilted valances

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron if required Do not dryclean



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Table 5.13 Care instruction of various types of towels, shower curtains and bath mats Products

Care instructions

Shower curtains –polyester, nylon

Warm gentle machine wash regularly Rinse well, drip dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

Shower curtains –PVC

Wipe regularly with warm soapy water Rinse well, drip dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

Towels, bath mats, face washers

Warm machine wash separately before use – maximum temperature 40°C Wash dark colours separately Do not use oxidising/chlorine based bleaching agents Avoid excessive use of fabric softeners and detergents containing optical brighteners May be tumble dried warm Do not iron Do not dryclean

Beach towels

Warm machine wash separately before use Wash immediately after use in pools Do not bleach May be tumble dried warm Do not iron Do not dryclean

Latex backed bath mats

Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

Cotton chenille bath mats

Cold gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean Shedding may occur during initial wash

142

Performance of home textiles

References 1. 15 U.S.C. § 70b(b)(1)-(2) and § 68b(a)(2)(A); 16 C.F.R. § 303.16(a)(1) and §300.3(a) (1) Misbranded and Falsely Advertised Textile Fibre Products, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition and Misbranded Wool Products, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition; US Yarn Labelling Requirements Under The Textile And Wool Acts; Arrangement and disclosure of information on labels, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act and The Wool Products Labelling Act of 1939. 2. 15 U.S.C. § 70b(b)(2) and § 68b(a)(2)(A); 16 C.F.R. § 303.3 and § 300.3(a)(1) Misbranded and Falsely Advertised Textile Fibre Products, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition and Misbranded Wool Products, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition; Fibres present in amounts of less than 5 percent, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act and The Wool Products Labelling Act of 1939. 3. 16 C.F.R. § 303.1(q) and § 300.1(c) Terms Defined, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act and The Wool products Labelling Act of 1939. 4. 15 U.S.C. § 70b(b)(2); 16 C.F.R. § 303.43) Misbranded and Falsely Advertised Textile Fibre Products, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition; Fibre content tolerances, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act. 5. Soft Home Wares Manual, (2007). Chapter 14 – Care Instructions, Version 1, 14–22, Target, Australia. 6. Threading Your Way Through the Labeling Requirements Under the Textile and Wool Acts, Federal Trade Commission, 2009. 7. Ndungo Jane, (2008). Apparel, Garments, Home decoration textiles, Market Study Report, United States. 8. 15 U.S.C. § 70a(d)(5); 16 C.F.R.§303.31 Violations of Federal trade Commission Act, Textile Fibre Products Identification, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition; Invoice in lieu of label, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act. 9. 16 C.F.R. § 303.45(a)(1) Exclusions from the act, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act. 10. 15 U.S.C. § 70j(a) Exemptions, Textile Fibre Products Identification, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition. 11. 16 C.F.R. § 303.1(m) Terms Defined, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act. 12. IntertekLabtest, (2006). Regulations for Home Textile Products, Apparel and Soft Home Furnishing Textile Products, Buyer’s Guide, 52–53.



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13. CBI Market Information Database, (2008).European buyer requirements: packaging, size marking and labelling for home textiles, Available from: www.cbi.eu, 1-4 [Accessed on 17 November 2009]. 14. ASTM D3136 Standard Terminology Relating to Care Labeling for Apparel, Textile, Home Furnishing, and Leather Products. 15. CFR Title 19, Part 134 Country of Origin Marking. 16. ASTM D629 Standard Test Methods for Quantitative Analysis of Textiles. 17. AATCC 20A Fibre Analysis: Quantitative. 18. Technical Bulletin 117, (2000). Requirements, Test Procedure, and Apparatus For Testing the Flame Retardance of Resilient Filling Materials Used in Upholstered Furniture, State of California, Department of Consumer Affairs, Bureau of Home Furnishings and Thermal Insulation. 19. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #86.1 Care Labelling of Textiles. 20. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #14 to #14.8 Textile Test Methods Quantitative Analysis of Fibre Mixtures.

6 Flammability of home textiles

Abstract: Flammability testing is arguably one of the most important testing procedures within the textile industry because it has crucial safety implications in the event of a fire. This chapter first discusses the importance of flammability test methods depending on the use for different applications. There is no single flammability standard, which can be applicable for all the different varieties of home textiles and can be adopted as the norm throughout the world. So, different flammability standards that are in force internationally reflect the different ways of approaching the whole flammability issue. This chapter discusses about the application of various flammability test methods to different home textile merchandises. Keywords: Flammability, ignition, smouldering, char length, ticking, crib

Chapter contains (Section headings) 6 Flammability of home textiles 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Flammability regulations for different home textiles 6.3 CATB 117 Section A Part 1 – Resilient cellular material 6.4 CATB 117 Section A Part 2– Shredded resilient cellular material 6.5 CATB 117 Section A Part 3 – Bean bags 6.6 CATB 117 Section B Part 1 – Non-man-made filling materials 6.7 CATB 117 Section B Part 2 – Shredded and loose fill materials/ feathers and down 6.8 CATB 117 Section C – Man-made filling material 6.9 CATB 117 Section D Part 1 – Cigarette resistance 6.10 CATB 117 Section D Part 2 – Smouldering screening test 6.11 CATB 117 Section E Part 1 – Upholstery fabrics 6.12 Some important regulatory tests for carpets and rugs 6.12.1 16 CFR 1631 – Small rugs (less than 24 sq ft) 6.12.2 16 CFR 1630 – Large rugs (over 24 sq ft or over 6 ft long) 6.13 Flammability of blankets – ASTM D 4151 6.14 Flammability requirements of towel 6.15 16 CFR 1632 mattress and mattress pad test 6.16 16 CFR 1633 mattress flammability test 6.17 CA TB 604 bed clothing flammability test 6.18 EN1021-1/2:1994 6.19 BS 5852 Ignitability of upholstered seating 6.20 Flammability standards for curtains 6.21 Conclusion References

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6.1 Introduction The home is where the majority of personal accidents take place. Although the look and feel of textiles in home decoration is important, their safety should be the primary consideration especially where the danger of fire is concerned. Fire in the home is a common cause of injury and death and so the flammability of home textiles, furniture and upholstery is checked for its resistance and its ability to prevent the spread of fire. Consumer beliefs about and attitudes toward various aspects of flammability in household textiles and regulations have been investigated (1). Generally, all flammability arises from a build-up of heat and the transfer of this heat from one material to other adjacent materials. When textile products burn the fumes and smoke that they emit are not only irritating to breathe in, but as they are often extremely toxic, they are often the real cause of fatalities rather than the flames that accompany them. Flammability testing is arguably one of the most important testing procedures within the textile industry because it has crucial safety implications in the event of a fire. The major cause of fatalities in fire can be directly attributed to the accidental ignition of upholstery and textiles, so it is only sensible that proper flammability standards should be in place. The fabric manufacturer can improve flammability performance at the design stage to ensure a safer interior environment. The flammability of textiles depends upon a range of different parameters including fibre content, product construction, size and intensity of the ignition source, and so on. Heavier the fabric and tighter the construction, it will burn slower than loose weave and light fabrics from the same material. Surface texture of the fabric also affects its flammability. Fabrics having long, loose, fluffy pile or brushed nap ignites more readily than fabrics with a hard and tight surface. In some cases, high, loose pile results in flames flashing across the fabric surface. Different materials react differently to the same situation. However, when flame retardant chemicals are applied to textile substrates, the combustion process gets inhibited or suppressed. Due to application of such chemicals, there is interference with combustion at various stages of the process e.g., during heating, decomposition, ignition of flame spread. Mattresses, futons, mattress pads, bed pillows, comforters, quilts, bumper pads, carpets and rugs, upholstered furniture, bean bag chairs and cushion seats are all required by international laws to comply with specific flammability regulations. Other products such as blankets, draperies, table linens, should be tested on a voluntary basis to ensure safety against flammability. As per regulations in various countries, it is mandatory to label home textile products correctly and thus warn the consumer against the potential hazards from normal use or reasonably foreseeable misuse of the product. Flammability testing requires high-level instrumentation and expertise.



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6.2 Flammability regulations for different home textiles Unfortunately, there is no single flammability standard for upholstery or vertical surface fabrics, which have been adopted as the norm throughout the world, and the plethora of different standards in force internationally reflects the different ways of approaching the whole flammability issue. Some of the important flammability test standards and related legal regulations are: CATB 117 Section A Part 1 – Resilient cellular material, CATB 117 Section A Part 2 – Shredded resilient cellular material, CATB 117 Section A Part 3 – Bean bags, CATB 117 Section B Part 1 – Non-man-made filling materials, CATB 117 Section B Part 2 – Shredded and loose fill materials/feathers and down, CATB 117 Section C – Man made filling material, CATB 117 Section D Part 1 – Cigarette resistance, CATB 117 Section D Part 2 – Smouldering screening test, CATB 117 Section E Part 1 – Upholstery fabrics, 16 CFR 1631 – Small rugs (less than 24 sq ft), 16 CFR 1630 – Large rugs (over 24 sq ft or over 6 ft long), Flammability of blankets – ASTM D 4151, flammability of towel CAN/CGSB 4.2, No.27.5-94, 16 CFR 1632 mattress and mattress pad test, 16 CFR 1633 mattress flammability test, CA TB 604 bed clothing flammability test, EN1021-1/2:1994, BS 5852 Ignitability of upholstered seating, and flammability standards for curtains such as BS 5438, ISO 6940/41, CAN/CGSB 4.2 no.27.3 and 27.4, and AS 2755.

6.3 CATB 117 Section A Part 1 – Resilient cellular material Scope: This procedure is intended for use in determining the resistance of resilient cellular materials to flame and glow propagation and tendency to char. Requirement: 1. The average char length of all specimens shall not exceed 6 inch. 2. The maximum char length of any individual specimen shall not exceed 8 inch. 3. The average after flame, including after flame of molten material or other fragments dropping from specimens, shall not exceed 5 seconds. 4. The maximum after flame of any individual specimen, including after flame of molten material or other fragments dropping from the specimen, shall not exceed 10 seconds.

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5. The average afterglow, including afterglow of molten material or other fragments dropping from the specimen, shall not exceed 15 seconds. 6. Resilient cellular materials shall meet the above requirements both before and after aging for 24 hours in a forced air circulating oven at 220°F (104°C). 7. A minimum of 10 test specimens shall be tested; 5 specimens before aging and 5 specimens after aging. Procedure: All specimens shall be tested, and conditioned for a minimum of 24 hours, at 70 ± 5°F and less than 55% relative humidity. The specimen in its holder shall be suspended vertically in the cabinet in such a manner that the lower end of the specimen is 0.75 inch above the top of the burner. The burner flame shall be adjusted by means of a needle valve in the base of the burner to give a flame height of 1.5 inch with air supply to the burner permanently shut off. After inserting the specimen, the burner flame shall be applied vertically at the middle of the lower edge of the specimens for 12 seconds. The cabinet door shall remain shut during testing. Test results: The char length of each specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1 inch and the after flame time and afterglow time to the nearest 0.1 seconds. Maximum and average char length, afterglow and after flame, shall be determined for each resilient cellular material.

6.4 CATB 117 Section A Part 2 – Shredded resilient cellular material Shredded resilient cellular materials shall meet the following requirements. 1. The resilient cellular material used for shredding shall meet the requirements of Section A and D of the Technical Bulletin 117 prior to shredding, or a post flame treated shredded foam may be used. 2. All resilient cellular material shall be encased in a fabric/ticking, and the requirements of the following test procedure shall be met. 3. A 13 inch x 13 inch (finished size) pillow/cushion fabricated from the fabric/ticking and filled with flame retardant foam, shall be used for testing. 4. The packing density of the shredded foam shall approximate that of intended use. 5. The pillow/cushion shall not lose more than 5% in weight when subjected to a 1.5 inch flame from a Bunsen burner for 12 seconds. 6. The burner shall be positioned 0.75 inch below the centre of the bottom lateral surface of the horizontally positioned pillow/cushion.



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7. The pillow/cushion shall be supported in such a manner that a minimum 10 inch diameter circular portion of the lower fabric surface be directly exposed to the burner flame. 8. The pillow/cushion shall meet the test requirements both before and after aging for 24 hours at 220°F (104°C). 9. The test gas shall be Matheson Gas B or a flame test gas specified in Federal Test Method Standard 191, method 5903.2. This gas is formulated as a blend of four pure gas components to provide specific heat content. Blend composition includes 55% (±1%) hydrogen, 24% (±1%) methane, 18% (±1%) carbon monoxide, and 3% (±1%) ethane. All pillow/cushions shall be conditioned for a minimum of 24 hours at 70 ± °5F and less than %55 relative humidity. 10. The burner flame shall be adjusted by means of a needle valve in the base of the burner to give a flame height of 1.5 inch with air supply to the burner permanently shut off. 11. The fabric/ticking used to encase the shredded resilient cellular material shall meet the requirements of Technical Bulletin No. 117, Section A, Requirements 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, when tested in accordance with Federal Test Method Standard No. 191 Method 5903.2. The burner flame shall be applied vertically at the middle of the lower edge of the specimens for both 3 seconds and 12 seconds. 12. A total of 20 fabric specimens shall be tested as follows:

6.5

Test flame (in seconds)

Yarns vertical

Specimens

3

Warp

5

3

Fill

5

12

Warp

5

12

Warp

5

CATB 117 Section A Part 3 – Bean bags

Requirements: Weight loss shall not exceed 5% in any of five consecutive tests. Materials shall meet the above requirement after aging for 48 hours in an air circulating mechanical convection oven at 150 ± °5F. Test procedure: All test material shall be aged for a minimum of 48 hours at 150 ± 5°F, and conditioned for a minimum of 24 hours at 70 ± 5°F and less than 55% relative humidity before testing. A pre-weighed wire basket shall be filled to the 3 inch level with the aged material, and the weight of the test material determined. Place the test basket on a sheet of aluminium foil in a fume hood. The hood fan should remain off during the test. Hold a methenamine tablet with tongs and ignite with a match. Place the burning tablet

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gently on the top centre of the test material. Continue the test until all flames are completely extinguished. After cooling, re-weigh the basket and record percentage weight loss. Molten material, which remains in the basket or on the aluminium foil are not considered as weight loss.

6.6 CATB 117 Section B Part 1 – Non-man-made filling materials Non-man-made filling materials shall meet all the requirements under Section A of CATB 117 with the following modifications: Specimens shall not be mounted in a specimen holder, but shall be vertically suspended into the flame. The upper 1/2 inch of the specimen may be used for suspension. Specimens’ size shall be 12 inch x 3 inch and in the thickness in which the batting is to be used up to 1 inch. If the filler is to be used in thickness of greater than one inch, specimens shall be cut to one inch thickness prior to testing. Non-man-made products shall not be aged for 24 hours at 220°F (104°C). The afterglow test requirement as stated in Section A, Part 1 is not applicable for non-man-made filling materials.

6.7 CATB 117 Section B Part 2 – Shredded and loose fill materials/feathers and down Feathers and down may be used in articles of upholstered furniture provided that the following requirements are met: The feathers and down shall be encased in a flame retardant fabric/ ticking. The fabric/ticking shall meet the requirements of Technical Bulletin 117, Section A, Requirements 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, when tested in accordance with Federal Test Method Standard No. 191 Method 5903.2. The burner flame shall be applied vertically at the middle of the lower edge of the specimens for both 3 seconds and 12 seconds. Specimen size shall be 12 × 2-3/4 inch. Twenty specimens shall be tested as follows: Test flame (in seconds)

Yarns vertical

Specimens

3

Warp

5

3

Fill

5

12

Warp

5

12

Warp

5



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6.8 CATB 117 Section C – Man-made filling material Scope: This procedure is intended for use in determining the resistance of resilient man-made fibre filling materials to flame spread, when tested using a modified version of Commercial Standard 191-53. Requirements: 1. The average flame spread of all specimens shall not be less than 10 seconds. 2. The minimum flame spread of any individual specimens shall not be less than 7 seconds. 3. Man-made fibre fillers shall meet these requirements when tested both with and without any attached woven or non-woven materials such as scrims, cheese cloth, etc. 4. Man-made fibre fillers shall meet these requirements when tested in both machine (or linear) and transverse directions. Test procedure: Test specimens shall be rectangles of fillers 6 inch x 3 inch and in the thickness in which the fillers are to be used. A minimum of 5 specimens shall be tested. All specimens shall be tested, and conditioned for a minimum of 24 hours, at 70 ± 5°F and less than 55% relative humidity. The specimen in its holder shall be supported at an angle of 45°. The burner flame, adjusted to a length of 5/8 inch, shall be applied to the specimen near the lower edge for 5 seconds. The time required for the flame to proceed up the batting a distance of 5 inch shall be recorded. The cabinet door shall remain shut during testing. Test results: 1. The time of flame spread of individual specimens shall be noted. Average flame spread shall be determined. 2. If a specimen burn does not reach the specified end point, the self-extinguishing time shall be noted. Note: Mixed fibre fillers 1. Fillers consisting of 60% or greater of non-man-made fibres (e.g., cottons, kapok, hair, etc.) must meet the requirements of Section B, Part I. 2. Fillers consisting of 60% or greater of man-made fibres must meet the requirements of Section C. 3. Fillers not classified above must meet the requirements of Section B, Part I and Section C.

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6.9 CATB 117 Section D Part 1 – Cigarette resistance Requirements: 1. All resilient filling materials other than cellular materials (such as foams), shall meet the requirements of this procedure. 2. The maximum char length of any specimen shall not exceed 2 inch in any direction from the cigarette. 3. Resilient cellular materials shall meet the requirements of Section D, Part 2. Test procedure: 1. Specimens no less than 12 inch x 12 inch and in the thickness of intended use shall be tested. 2. Cigarettes, meeting the cigarette specification of DOC FF 4-72, shall be burned on the surface, at the centre of the specimen. 3. Specimens shall be tested with cigarettes both uncovered, and covered with one layer of sheeting material. 4. Sheeting materials shall meet the sheet specifications of Section D, Part II, 2.2.4. 5. A minimum of 3 specimens both covered and uncovered shall be tested. 6. All test materials shall be conditioned for at least 24 hours prior to testing at 70 ± °5F and less than %55 relative humidity. Test results: The char dimensions of each specimen shall be measured to the nearest 0.1 inch.

6.10 CATB 117 Section D Part 2 – Smouldering screening test Procedure: Weigh foam test panels correct to the nearest 0.1 g. Assemble the foam test panels, standard fabric, cigarette and cover fabric as shown in Figure 6.1. Straight pins may be used to support the cover fabric. The cigarette shall be placed at the crevice created by the abutment of the vertical and horizontal panels, such that the cigarette contacts both horizontal and vertical panels, and shall be equal distance from the edges of the test panels. Light the cigarette (but no more than 4 mm burn), attach cover sheeting material and cover cigarette. (Note: A finger shall be run along the length of the covered cigarette to ensure good cover fabric-to cigarette contact.) Continue test until all evidence



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Figure 6.1 Test assembly of smouldering screening test

of combustion has ceased for at least 5 minutes. If a test is inadvertently interrupted it must be repeated from the beginning. After all combustion has ceased remove cover fabric and remains of standard test fabric. Carefully remove foam test panels, clean all carbonaceous char from panels by scraping with a spatula and weigh the non-burned portions of the test panels to the nearest 0.1 g. Test measurements: The following weight measurements of the foam test panels shall be made: (a) Pre-test weight = A (b) Post-test weight of non-smouldered foam = B Calculate the percent non-smouldered foam = 100 (B / A) Tests on each foam formulation shall be conducted in triplicate. Notes: Conditioning – All test foams, standard fabric, cover sheeting and cigarettes shall be maintained at 70°F ± 5°F (21.1°C ± 2.8°C) and less than 55% relative humidity for at least 24 hours prior to test. Standard fabric – The standard upholstery test fabric shall have the following specifications: Fabric: pattern 8500; Colour: beige; Fibre content: 100% cotton velvet; Weight / linear yd.: 14.5 oz. (54 inch); Black coating: none.

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6.11

CATB 117 Section E Part 1 – Upholstery fabrics

1. Fabrics, which do not meet the Class 1 requirements of U.S. Department of Commerce Commercial Standard 191-53, shall not be used on articles of upholstered furniture. 2. Both surfaces of the fabric shall be tested to determine conformance with C.S. 191-53. 3. Specimens shall not be laundered or dry cleaned prior to testing. 4. Test a minimum of 5 specimens with the warp yarns in the long direction of test and 5 specimens with the fill yarns in the long direction of test.

6.12 Some important regulatory tests for carpets and rugs 16 CFR 1631 and 1630 are the regulatory standards of US Consumer Product Safety Commission. These standards reduce the risks of death, personal injury and property damage associated with fires that result from the ignition of carpets and rugs and provide a test to determine flammability of carpets and rugs when exposed to small ignition source.

6.12.1

16 CFR 1631 – Small rugs (less than 24 sq ft)

Scope and application: (a) This Standard provides a test method to determine the surface flammability of small carpets and rugs when exposed to a standard small source of ignition under carefully prescribed draft-protected conditions (2). It is applicable to all types of small carpets and rugs used as floor covering materials regardless of their method of fabrication or whether they are made of natural or synthetic fibres or films, or combinations of, or substitutes for these. (b) One of a kind small carpet or rug, such as an antique, an oriental or a hide, may be excluded from testing under this standard pursuant to conditions established by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. General requirements: (a) Summary of test method: This method involves the exposure of each of eight conditioned, replicate specimens of a small carpet or rug to a standard igniting source in a draft-protected environment and measurement of the proximity of the charred portion to the edge of the hole in the prescribed flattening frame.



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(b) Test criterion: A specimen passes the test if the charred portion does not extend to within 2.54 cm. (1.0 inch) of the edge of the hole in the flattening frame at any point. (c) Acceptance criterion: At least seven of the eight specimens shall meet the test criterion in order to conform to this standard. Test procedure: (a) Apparatus (1) Test chamber: The test chamber shall consist of an open top hollow cube made of non-combustible material with inside dimensions (30.48 × 30.48 × 30.48) cm i.e., (12 × 12 × 12) inch and a minimum of 6.35 mm (1/4 inch) wall-thickness. The flat bottom of the box shall be made of the same material as the sides and shall be easily removable. The sides shall be fastened together with screws or brackets and taped to prevent air leakage into the box during use. Cement asbestos board of 6.35 mm (1/4 inch) is a suitable material. Note: A minimum of two chambers and two extra bottoms is suggested for efficient operation. (2) Flattening frame: A steel plate, (22.86 × 22.86) cm i.e., (9 × 9) inch, with 6.35 mm (1/4 inch) thickness and a 20.32 cm (8 inch) diameter hole in its centre is required to hold the specimen flat during the course of the test. It is recommended that one is to be provided for each test chamber. (3) Standard igniting source: A methenamine tablet, flat, with a nominal heat of combustion value of 7180 calories/gram, a mass of 150 mg ± 5 mg and a nominal diameter of 6 mm. These tablets shall be stored in a desiccator over a desiccant for 24 hours prior to use. (Small quantities of absorbed water may cause the tablets to fracture when first ignited. If a major fracture occurs, any results from that test shall be ignored, and it shall be repeated.) (4) Test specimens: Each test specimen shall be a (22.86 × 22.86) cm i.e. (9 × 9) inch section of the small carpet or rug to be tested. Eight specimens are required. (5) Circulating air oven: A forced circulation drying oven capable of removing the moisture from the specimens when maintained at 105°C (221°F) for 2 hours (3) describes a satisfactory oven (1969 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 24). (6) Desiccating cabinet: An airtight and moisture tight cabinet capable of holding the floor covering specimens horizontally without contacting each other during the cooling period following drying, and containing silica gel desiccant. (7) Gloves:

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Non-hygroscopic gloves (such as rubber or polyethylene) for handling the sample after drying and raising the pile on specimens prior to testing. (8) Hood: A hood capable of being closed and having its draft turned off during each test and capable of rapidly removing the products of combustion following each test. The front or sides of the hood should be transparent to permit observation of the tests in progress. (9) Mirror: A small mirror mounted above each test chamber at an angle to permit observation of the specimen from outside the hood. (10) Vacuum cleaner: A vacuum cleaner to remove all loose material from each specimen prior to conditioning. All surfaces of the vacuum cleaner contacting the specimen shall be flat and smooth. (b) Sampling: (1) Selection of samples: (i) a sample can be selected which is of the material representative of the lot and large enough to permit cutting eight test specimens (22.86 × 22.86) cm i.e., (9 × 9) inch free from creases, fold marks, delamination or other distortions. The representative sample of material may require the use of more than one small carpet or rug. The test specimens should contain the most flammable parts of the traffic surface at their centres. The most flammable area may be determined on the basis of experience or through pre-testing. (ii) If the carpet or rug has had a fire retardant treatment, or is made of fibres which have had a fire retardant treatment, the selected sample or oversized specimens thereof shall be washed, prior to cutting of test specimens after they have been washed and dried either 10 times in accordance with the standard (4) or such number of times by another washing and drying procedure which the Consumer Product Safety Commission has determined to be equivalent of standard. Alternatively, the selected sample or oversized specimens thereof may be washed, dry cleaned, or shampooed 10 times, prior to cutting of test specimens, in such manner as the manufacturer or other interested party shall previously have established to the satisfaction of the Consumer Product Safety Commission is normally used for that type of carpet or rug in service. (2) Cutting: Cut eight (22.86 ± 0.64) cm i.e., (9 ± 1/4) inch square specimens of each small carpet or rug to be tested. (c) Conditioning: (1) Clean each specimen with the vacuum cleaner until it is free of all loose ends left during the manufacturing process and from any material that may have been worked into the pile during handling. Care must be exercised to avoid “fuzzing” of the pile yarn.



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(2) Place the specimens in a drying oven in a manner that will permit free circulation of the air at 105°C (221°F) around them for 2 hours. (d) Testing: (1) Place the test chamber in the draft-protected environment (hood with draft off) with its bottom in place. Wearing gloves, remove a test specimen from the desiccator and brush its traffic surface with a gloved hand in such a manner as to raise its pile. Place the specimen on the centre of the floor of the test chamber, traffic surface up, exercising care that the specimen is horizontal and flat. Place the flattening frame on the specimen and position a methenamine tablet on one of its flat sides in the centre of the 20.32 cm (8 inch) hole. (2) Ignite the tablet by touching a lighted match or an equivalent igniting source carefully to its top. If more than 2 minutes elapse between the removal of the specimen from the desiccator and the ignition of the tablet, the conditioning must be repeated. (3) Continue each test until one of the following conditions occurs: (i) The last vestige of flame or glow disappears. (This is frequently accompanied by a final puff of smoke.) (ii) The flaming or smouldering has approached within 2.54 cm (1.0 inch) of the edge of the hole in the flattening frame at any point. (4) When all combustion has ceased, ventilate the hood and measure the shortest distance between the edge of the hole in the flattening frame and the charred area. Record the distance measured for each specimen. (5) Remove the specimen from the chamber and remove any burn residue from the floor of the chamber. Before proceeding to the next test, the floor must be cooled to normal room temperature or replaced with one that is at normal room temperature. (e) Report: The number of specimens of the eight tested in which the charred area does not extend to within 2.54 cm (1.0 inch) of the edge of the hole in the flattening frame shall be reported. (f) Interpretation of results: If the charred area does not extend to within 2.54 cm (1.0 inch) of the edge of the hole in the flattening frame at any point for at least seven of the eight specimens, the small carpet or rug meets the acceptance criterion. Labelling requirements: (a) If a small carpet or rug does not meet the acceptance criterion, it shall, prior to its introduction into commerce, be permanently labelled, pursuant to rules and regulations established by the Consumer Product Safety Commission with the following statement: FLAMMABLE (FAILS U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE STANDARD FF 2–70): SHOULD NOT BE USED NEAR SOURCES OF IGNITION.

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(b) If a small carpet or rug has had a fire retardant treatment or is made of fibres, which have had a fire retardant treatment, it shall be labelled with the letter “T” pursuant to rules and regulations established by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. (c) There is a separate labelling requirement exists for Canadian market which is regulated by the Canadian regulation of HPA (Hazardous Products Act) (5). According to this regulation, a carpet that has a surface area smaller than 24 sq ft or the linear dimension of the carpet is shorter than 6 ft for small indoor use, and it does not comply with the HPA flammability requirement, the following label should be stated clearly and prominently on the product. The information on the label should be clearly visible to the prospective purchaser. “Caution – Flammable – Do not use in locations exposed to open flame or sources of intense heat”.

6.12.2 16 CFR 1630 – Large rugs (over 24 sq ft or over 6 ft long) Scope and application: (a) This Standard provides a test method to determine the surface flammability of carpets and rugs when exposed to a standard small source of ignition under carefully prescribed draft protected conditions. It is applicable to all types of carpets and rugs used as floor covering materials regardless of their method of fabrication or whether they are made of natural or synthetic fibres or films, or combinations of or substitutes for these (6). (b) One of a kind, carpet or rug, such as an antique, an Oriental, or a hide, may be excluded from testing under this standard pursuant to conditions established by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). All other aspects are similar to the standard as described in 16 CFR 1631 except that the laundry requirement for large carpets and rugs that use alumina tri hydrate, a fire retardant, in adhesives, foams and latexes in carpet backings or elsewhere in the backings is currently suspended.

6.13

Flammability of blankets

All fabrics made of natural or regenerated cellulose, as well as many made from other natural or synthetic fibres, is combustible. Some combustible fabrics when used for blankets are potentially dangerous to the user because of the ease of ignition, rapidity, and intensity of burning. This test method for the determination of the flammability of blankets is considered satisfactory for acceptance testing of commercial shipments of blankets since this test



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method has been used extensively in the trade for acceptance testing (7). This may be used to evaluate electric blanket fabric, but tests should be performed on the fabric itself without the resistance heating wires inserted. This test method should be used to measure and describe the properties of materials, products, or assemblies in response to heat and flame under controlled laboratory conditions and should not be used to describe or appraise the fire hazard or fire risk of materials, products, or assemblies under actual fire conditions. However, results of this test may be used as elements of a fire risk assessment of blanket, which takes into, account all of the factors that are pertinent to an assessment of the fire hazard of a particular end use. Scope: This method provides a means to identify blanket fabrics, which ignite easily and propagate flame across the surface. This test method specifies the procedures described in the “Voluntary Blanket Flammability Standard” which has been used by the blanket industry in the United States since 1972. Principle: Specimens cut from the blanket fabric are prepared by brushing, if they have a raised fibre surface and by drying. The dried specimen is held in a flammability tester for burning, charring or discolouration of monitor is noted. Two classes of flammability are described. A burn of sufficient intensity to discolour a paper monitor in specified contact with the surface of the test specimen indicates ignition of the blanket surface. Apparatus: Flammability tester, electronic counter, specimen holder and base, burner CP grade methane gas, paper monitor: conforming to federal specification, NNN-P-40b, type II, as lens paper. Sample preparation: Cut 5 specimens for face and back in size 70 mm x 70 mm. For raised surface fabric, brush once against the lay. Conditioning of samples: Dry the mounted specimens in oven at 105 ± 3°C for 30 minutes. Then, cool down the dried specimens inside desiccator for 30 minutes but not more than 60 minutes.

Testing procedure: Flame length adjustment: Measure the flame length as 16 mm. Burning: Place the prepared specimens in the tester as shown in Figure 6.2. Apply the igniting flame for (1 ± 0.05) seconds only and the arrangement is indicated in Figure 6.3. Examination of the paper monitor: Test classification: Class  1: If none of ten paper monitors burn, char or become discoloured. Class  2: If one or more of ten paper monitors burn, char or become discoloured.

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Figure 6.2 Placement of the specimen in the tester

Figure 6.3 Applying the igniting flame to the specimen

There is no Class 3 rating in ASTM D 4151 test standard. In commercial acceptance testing, fabric classified as a Class 1 material is considered suitable for use in blanket manufacturing.

6.14

Flammability requirements of towels

There is no requirement or regulation for flammability testing of towels for the US market. Therefore, world renowned retailers in US such as Wal-Mart, Target, etc., do not verify towels for flammability. However, flammability requirements and regulations are different in Canada. General textiles require flammability testing in Canada. Towels that are made in whole or in part of textile fibres are considered general textiles product under item 4, Part 1, and Schedule 1 of the Hazardous Products Act / Regulation. As a result towels are required to be tested in accordance with the Canadian General Standard, CAN/CGSB 4.2, No.27.5-94 Textile test Methods – Flame Resistance – 45 degree angle test, one second flame impingement as amended from time to time. According to the test method a towel is unacceptable if the time of the flame spread is 3.5 seconds or less where the towel does not have the raised



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surface or 4 seconds or less where the towel has a raised fibre surface and exhibit ignition or fusion of the base fibres.

6.15

16 CFR 1632 mattress and mattress pad test

Under this test regulation mattress means a ticking (the outermost layer of fabric or related material that encloses the core and upholstery materials of a mattress. A mattress ticking may consist of several layers of fabric or related materials quilted together) filled with a resilient material used alone or in combination with other products intended or promoted for sleeping upon. The main support system that may be present in a mattress, such as springs, foam, hair block, water bladder, air bladder, or resilient filling is called as core. This definition includes, (but is not limited to) adult mattresses, youth mattresses, crib mattresses including portable crib mattresses, bunk bed mattresses, futons, water beds and air mattresses which contain upholstery material between the ticking and the mattress core, and any detachable mattresses used in any item of upholstered furniture such as convertible sofa bed mattresses, corner group mattresses, day bed mattresses, roll-a-way bed mattresses, high risers, and trundle bed mattresses. This definition excludes sleeping bags, pillows, mattress foundations, liquid and gaseous filled ticking such as water beds and air mattresses which do not contain upholstery material between the ticking and the mattress core, upholstered furniture which does not contain a detachable mattress such as chaise lounges, drop-arm love seats, press-back lounges, push-back sofas, sleep lounges, sofa beds (including jack-knife sofa beds), sofa lounges (including glide-outs), studio couches and studio divans (including twin studio divans and studio beds), and juvenile product pads such as car bed pads, carriage pads, basket pads, infant carrier and lounge pads, dressing table pads, stroller pads, crib bumpers, and playpen pads. Mattress pad means a thin, flat mat or cushion, and/or ticking filled with resilient material for use on top of a mattress. This definition includes, (but is not limited to) absorbent mattress pads, flat decubitus pads, and convoluted foam pads, which are totally enclosed in ticking. This definition excludes convoluted foam pads, which are not totally encased in ticking. Purpose: (1) T  his standard prescribes requirements for testing of prototype designs of mattresses and mattress pads before the sale in commerce or the introduction in commerce of any mattress or mattress pad, which is subject to the standard. The standard prescribes a test to determine the ignition resistance of a mattress or a mattress pad when exposed to a lighted cigarette.

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(2) The standard sets forth a test that may be used to classify ticking materials for resistance to cigarette ignition. (3) The standard sets forth a test that may be used to demonstrate that the substitution of tape edge materials will not reduce the ignition resistance of a mattress prototype or a mattress pad prototype. General requirements: The method measures the ignition resistance of a mattress or mattress pad by exposing the surface to lighted cigarettes in a draft-protected environment. The surfaces to be tested include smooth, tape edge, and quilted or tufted locations, if they exist on the mattress or mattress pad surface. A two-sheet test is also conducted on similar surface locations. In the latter test, the burning cigarettes are placed between the sheets. When testing the mattress or mattress pad surface, individual cigarette test locations pass the test if the char length is not more than 2 inch (5.1 cm) in any direction from the nearest point of the cigarette. In the interest of safety, the test operator should discontinue the test and record a failure before reaching the 2 inch char length if an obvious ignition has occurred. Each manufacturer required to perform prototype testing by the standard shall construct or select enough units of each proposed mattress prototype or proposed mattress pad prototype to provide six surfaces for testing. If one or more of the cigarette test locations on any of the six surfaces fail to meet the test criterion, reject the mattress prototype or the mattress pad prototype. Rejected prototype mattresses or prototype mattress pads shall not be retested, offered for sale, sold, or promoted for use as a mattress or for use as a mattress pad except after reworking to improve the resistance to ignition by cigarettes, and subsequent retesting and acceptance of the mattress prototype or the mattress pad prototype (8). Mattress test procedure Mattress specimens shall be tested in a test room with atmospheric conditions of a temperature greater than 18°C (65°F) and a relative humidity less than %55. If the test is not performed in the conditioning room, at least one lit cigarette shall be placed on the mattress surface within 10 minutes of removal from the conditioning room. The other side of the mattress shall be tested immediately after completion of the first side. (i) At least 18 cigarettes shall be burned on each mattress test surface, 9 in the bare mattress tests and 9 in the 2 sheet tests. If three or more mattress surface locations (smooth surface, tape edge, quilted, or tufted areas) exist in the particular mattress surface under test, three cigarettes shall be burned on each different surface location. If only two mattress surface locations exist in the particular mattress surface under test (tape edge and smooth surface), four cigarettes shall be burned on the smooth surface and five cigarettes shall be burned on the tape edge.



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(ii) Light and place one cigarette at a time on the mattress surface. The cigarettes must be positioned no less than 6 inch apart on the mattress surface. Each cigarette used as an ignition source shall be well lighted but not burned more than 4 mm (0.16 inch) when placed on the mattress. (Fire extinguishing equipment must be readily available at all times.) (iii) If a cigarette extinguishes before burning its full length on any mattress surface location, pops out of position when tested on a tuft, or rolls off a test location, the test must be repeated with a freshly lit cigarette on a different portion of the same type of location on the mattress surface until either: the number of cigarettes have burned their full lengths; the number of cigarettes have extinguished before burning their full lengths; or failure has occurred according test criterion.

Mattress pad test procedure (a) Testing: All mattress pads shall be tested, in the condition in which they are intended to be sold, mattress test procedure, using the glass fibreboard substrate. (b) Flame resistant mattress pads: The following additional requirements shall be applicable to mattress pads that contain a chemical fire retardant. (1) These mattress pads shall be tested in accordance mattress test procedure after they have been washed and dried 10 times. (i) Such laundering is not required of mattress pads, which are intended for one time use and/or are not intended to be laundered, as determined by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. (ii) Mattress pads which are not susceptible to being laundered and are labelled “dry clean only” shall be dry cleaned by a procedure which has previously been found acceptable by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. (2) Laundering procedure (i) Washing shall be performed in accordance with AATCC Test Method 124–1996, using wash temperature 60° ± 3°C, 140° ± 5°F, and the water level, agitator speed, washing time, spin speed and final spin cycle specified for “Normal/Cotton Sturdy”. (ii) Drying shall be performed in accordance with AATCC Test Method 124–1996 “Appearance of Fabrics after Repeated Home Laundering”, Tumble Dry, using the exhaust temperature (66° ± 5°C, 150° ± 10°F) and cool down time of 10 minutes specified in the “Durable Press” conditions. A different number of wash and dry cycles using another procedure may be specified and used, if that procedure has previously been found to be equivalent by the Consumer Product Safety Commission.

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16 CFR 1633 mattress flammability test

This new federal standard is largely based on California’s Technical Bulletin (CATB) 603, and will apply to all mattresses manufactured, renovated, or imported to any state in the US. CATB 603 applied only to mattresses made in or imported to the state of California. 16 CFR 1633, which differs from the current federal cigarette resistance standard, addresses open flame resistance. The standard was developed with the intention of reducing the number of deaths and injuries resulting from mattress fires. According to the CPSC, this new standard is anticipated to save nearly 300 lives per year by reducing the flashover potential of a bedroom. Flashover is the point at which everything in a room is on fire as a result of elevated ceiling gas temperature and radiant heat generation. In order for a room to achieve flashover, there must be enough combustibles in the room for the ceiling to reach a temperature of approximately 1,200°F in a typical room setting. This standard rests upon the theory of removing the largest source of fuel in the bedroom, in this case, the mattress and foundation, thus significantly reducing the number of catastrophic fires in that room by reducing the flashover potential. The test procedure for 16 CFR 1633 requires placing a NIST designed dual burner on the mattress impinging flames on the side and top of the mattress collectively for a total of 70 seconds, at which point the burner is withdrawn. The products of combustion from the mattress are then analysed for various parameters, including heat release rate and total heat released. Heat release rate [expressed in kilo Watts (kW)] is the rate at which energy is released from the mattress as a result of being involved in the combustion process. Total heat, measured at the 10 minute mark, is the amount of heat released, expressed in MJ. The performance criteria of the test requires that the specimen not exceed 200 kW at any point during the 30 minute test and cannot exceed 15 MJ within the first 10 minutes (9). The major difference between 16 CFR 1633 and CATB 603 is the total heat released requirement drops to 15 from 25 MJ. A very important aspect of this test is that it must be performed on each model produced, or “prototype” in triplicate. Each of the three mattresses of a particular model must pass in order to achieve compliance. This standard also imposes a strong record keeping requirement. The intent is the ability to trace a mattress from a particular residence back to the manufacturing facility, the date and time it was manufactured, and the particular materials used in construction. It is also a very important component of a successful quality program.



6.17

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CA TB 604 bed clothing flammability test

The term “bedclothes” can include a variety of products, such as sheets, blankets, mattress pads, pillows, comforters, and similar products that are used as covering on a bed. Products that contain fibrous or other materials are called “filled” bedding. Because of their greater mass or fuel load, filled products are likely to contribute more significantly to a mattress fire than unfilled products, such as sheets and blankets. Mattresses generally are not used alone, but are covered by bedding or bedclothes, whose presence significantly affects the character of the fire. In most incidents a small open flame initially ignites the bedding, and these materials serve as a larger ignition source for the mattress. Thus, bedclothes contribute substantially to the complexity and magnitude of the mattress fire hazard. TB 604 is bed clothes open flame law. TB 604 test applies to filling material used in bed clothing items such as comforters, quilted duvet covers, quilted bed pads, bed spreads, bed pillows, bed rest cushions, mattress pads, quilted bed shams, quilted pillow cases, padded head board, foam topper pads (covered and bare). The tests do not apply to non-filled items such as blankets, sheets and pillowcases. TB 604 contains three sections i.e., section 1: comforters and bedspreads, section 2: pillows and bed cushions, and section 3: mattress pads.

6.18

EN1021-1/2:1994

This standard is valid throughout the EU and examines a fabric’s reaction to a burning cigarette and butane flame (simulated match). It replaces a number of tests, including DIN 54342: 1/2 in Germany and BS 5852: 1990 in the UK (Figure 6.4). Test methods: A standard test rig is constructed from fabric and foam to form a simulated chair with the back at a right angle to the base. This enables the ignition source to be kept in permanent contact with both back and seat throughout the test. Water soak prior to testing is compulsory. EN1021 – Part 1: In Part 1 of the test a lighted cigarette is placed in the angle of the test rig and left to smoulder along its entire length. After 60 minutes no smouldering or flaming of the fabric should be observed. EN1021 – Part 2: Here a butane flame 35 mm in height is used to represent a burning match and is applied for 15 seconds, again in the angle between the test rig base and back. After the flame is removed, no burning of the fabric should occur after 2 minutes have elapsed.

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Figure 6.4 Test arrangement of EN 1021:1994

Figure 6.5 BS 5852 Source 0: smouldering cigarette

6.19

BS 5852 Ignitability of upholstered seating

Principle: Different ignition sources are applied to a constructed test rig to examine the burning behaviour of a test material. Test method: A test rig is constructed in order to simulate a chair with the fabric to be tested. This rig is subjected to different ignition sources. There are 8 types of ignition sources, each with different heat intensity. They are classified from 1 to 8, the intensity doubling compared to the preceding source. The most frequently used are ignition source 0, 1 and 5. Ignition source 0 – Smouldering cigarette (Figure 6.5): A cigarette is put along the crevice of the test rig and allowed to burn over its entire length. The following test parameters are used. Length: ± 68 mm; diameter: ±8 mm; mass: 1 g nominal; igniting not more than 8 mm and not less than 5 mm; smouldering rate: 12 ± 3 minutes / 50 mm. The material will pass if 1) there is not more than 50 mm damage; and 2) within 60 minutes – no flaming, smoke, heat and glowing. If no flaming or progressive smouldering is observed on both cover and interior material, the test is recorded as no ignition and the material passes



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the test. Ignition source 1 – Flame (simulated match) (Figure 6.6): A burner is lighted, held along the crevice of the test rig for 20 seconds and then removed. If no flaming or progressive smouldering is observed on both cover and interior material, the test is recorded as no ignition and the material passes the test. In this test flame length of 35 mm (vertical) is used. The material will pass if: Flaming: Maximum 2 minutes after removal of the burner; Smoke, heat and glowing: maximum 15 minutes after removal; and maximum 100 mm damage. Ignition source 5 – Wooden crib 5 (Figure 6.7): A crib is composed of wooden planks, glued together. Lint is attached to the bottom. After adding propane-diol the crib is placed on the test rig and ignited with a match. If no flaming or progressive smouldering is observed on both cover and interior material, the test is recorded as no ignition and the material passes the test. Igniting wooden crib with 1.4 ml isopropyl alcohol pass if: Smoke, heat and glowing: maximum 60 minutes; Flaming: maximum 10 minutes; Damage flaming: maximum 400 mm; Damage smouldering: maximum 100 mm.

Figure 6.6 BS 5852 Source 1: flame (simulated match)

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Figure 6.7 BS 5852 Source 5: wooden crib

6.20

Flammability standards for curtains

Flammability of vertically oriented textile fabric and fabric assemblies subjected to small igniting flame is measured by following the procedure laid down in BS 5438 (10). Fabrics are subjected to a small igniting flame applied to the face bottom edge of vertically hung specimens. These tests are designed to find out: how easily the material catches light how far the flames spread and how quickly the flames spread. Measurement of flame spread properties of vertical oriented specimen can also be assessed by following test methods described in ISO 6940/41, CAN/CGSB 4.2 no.27.3 and 27.4, and AS 2755. CAN/CGSB 4.2 NO. 27.3-94/ISO 6941: 1984 (11): This International Standard specifies a method for the measurement of flame spread properties of vertically oriented textile fabrics intended for apparel, curtains and draperies in the form of single or multi-component (coated, quilted, multi layered, sandwich construction and similar combinations) fabrics. The method should be used solely to assess the properties of materials or systems in response to heat flame under controlled laboratory conditions. The results may not apply to situations where there is restricted air supply or prolonged exposure to heat as in a conflagration.



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AS 2755.2-1985 (12): Part 2 of this standard describes a procedure in which the textile material is held vertically in a frame. A small flame is used to ignite the specimen and the time is measured for the flame to spread up the specimen past a number of trip threads, which record the time interval.

6.21 Conclusion With several innovations in the existing fibres and invention of new fibres and fibre blends; rapidly changing lifestyle and consumer demands; today the manufacturers need to be fully aware of the latest fire safety regulations, along with products and processes that will help them offer products which meet such norms. Adoption of latest technology has always have the edge in delivering superior home textiles and furnishing products for niche consumers, but meeting the acceptable performance standards in terms of fire safety cannot be ignored while offering high aesthetic value and economical prices to stay ahead of the competitors.

References 1. Brown SA, (1985). ‘Consumer attitudes to flammability in household textiles’, Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal. 13, 373–382. 2. Title 16: Commercial Practices, Part 1631—Standard For The Surface Flammability Of Small Carpets And Rugs (FF 2–70), Available from: e-CFR Data [Accessed on 2 April, 2009]. 3. ASTM D 2654–67T, Option 1 Methods of Test for Amount of Moisture in Textile Materials. 4. AATCC Test Method 124–1996 Appearance of Fabrics after Repeated Home Laundering. 5. Hazardous Products Act (2009), Regulations Amending Certain Regulations Made under the Hazardous Products Act (Miscellaneous Program), Available from: Canada Gazette, www.gazette.gc.ca [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. 6. Title 16: Commercial Practices, Part 1631—Standard For The Surface Flammability Of Carpets And Rugs (FF 1–70), Available from: e-CFR Data [Accessed on 2 April, 2009]. 7. ASTM D 4151 – 92 (2001) Standard Test Method for Flammability of Blankets. 8. Title 16: Commercial Practices, Part 1632—Standard For The Flammability Of Mattresses And Mattress Pads (FF 4–72, Amended), Available from: e-CFR Data [Accessed 2 April, 2009]. 9. SGS Consumer Testing Services (2006), Safe Guards, Softlines, 022/066. 10. BS 5438:1989 Methods of test for flammability of textile fabrics when subjected to a small igniting flame applied to the face or bottom edge of vertically oriented specimens.

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11. CAN/CGSB 4.2 NO. 27.3-94/ISO 6941: 1984 -Textile Test Methods - Textile Fabrics - Burning Behaviour - Measurement of Flame Spread Properties of Vertically Oriented Specimens. 12. AS 2755.2-1985 Textile fabrics - Burning behaviour - Measurement of flame spread properties of vertically oriented specimens.

7 Evaluation of home textiles

Abstract: It is well-perceived that comfort and appearance play a critical role in material selection in apparel. However, functionality is the most important criteria for home textiles; aesthetics, beauty, colour, etc., are of secondary importance. Home textiles are evaluated to predict the performance at projected application area for which they are designed. This chapter first discusses the importance of various test methods, which are specific to different home textiles items and customised as per the requirement of the international retailers. The chapter then discusses the details of applying such test methods to different home textile merchandises. Test methods applicable for special performance claims are also highlighted. Presence of restricted substances in home textile products is a major cause of concern from consumer health, safety and environmental hazard point of view. Thus, some of the important test methods of restricted substances are also discussed. Keywords: Quality, testing protocol, dry cleaning, performance, safety,Azo, lead, cadmium, phthalate, nickel, formaldehyde, organotin, chromium VI, allergenic disperse dyes, carcinogenic dyes, alkylphenolethoxylates, polyfluorinated chemicals

Chapter contains (Section headings) 7 Evaluation of home textiles 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Test methods for towel 7.2.1 Test method for terry towel construction 7.2.2 Test method for differential shrinkage in towels and wash cloths 7.2.3 Surface water absorption in towel(Adapted from ASTM D 4772-97) 7.2.4 Super absorbency in towel 7.2.5 Towel linting 7.3 Test methods of rug 7.3.1 Rug back staining on vinyl tile 7.3.2 Rubber backed carpet skid resistance 7.4 Test method of pot holders and woven mitts 7.4.1 Measurement of heat transfer of pot holders and woven mitts 7.5 Miscellaneous test methods of home textiles 7.5.1 Comforter loft property 7.5.2 Oil repellency: hydrocarbon resistance test 7.5.3 Soil release: oil stain release method 7.5.4 Vertical wicking 7.5.5 Motif / print durability

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7.5.6 Phenolic yellowing 7.6 Restricted substances 7.6.1 Lead content in surface coating 7.6.2 Lead content in substrate (metal) 7.6.3 Lead content in substrate (non-metal) 7.7 Cadmium in coated/plastic items 7.8 Evaluation of phthalates 7.9 Nickel release test: BS EN 1811 & BS EN 12472 7.10 Test method for formaldehyde 7.11 Test method of azo dyes 7.12 Miscellaneous test methods 7.12.1 Chlorinated organic carriers 7.12.2 Chlorophenols 7.12.3 Chromium VI 7.12.4 Organotin compounds 7.12.5 Allergenic disperse dyes and carcinogenic dyes 7.12.6 Alkylphenolethoxylates (APEO) 7.12.7 Perfluorinated and Polyfluorinated Chemicals (PFCs) References

7.1 Introduction Shopping pattern for home textile products has been changed over a period of time. To maintain a share of this continually changing market, retailers need to understand what factors influence customers (1). While the prime factors consumers consider in purchasing home textiles remained unchanged over the past years, shoppers’ preferred retail channels, amounts spent, purchase drivers, and above all perceptions of quality have been shifted. Households today are replacing their items for different reasons such as more consumers are ready for a change, and fewer are replacing worn-out materials. Fading is still the top reason for replacing worn-out home textiles. However, significantly more consumers reported replacing sheets because of holes, frayed ends, and stains. The top three factors shoppers consider in buying sheets, besides size and fit, have not changed over the years—softness, durability, and price remain the most important. But the factors gaining the most are “bacteria resistant” as value added product and “100% cotton” because it is softer and breathing better. Consumers are also becoming more aware of thread count in sheeting. The past few years seen changes in the way consumers purchase towels i.e., frequency of purchases, and factors influencing purchases. However, fewer consumers bought new towels to replace worn-out ones, and more because they wanted a change. Consumers are gravitating toward towels



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with added benefits. Although the top three purchase factors remained absorbency, softness, and durability, the importance of bacteria resistance grew rapidly (1). Quality awareness on textiles in particular on home textiles among the consumers as well as retailers in the developed nations is quite high. This quality awareness is spreading to markets of developing countries. Realising the need to educate the manufacturers about the quality parameters for home textiles, and in order to bridge the information gap on home textiles, evaluation of quality of home textile is important. To present the quality parameters of home textiles in a concise fashion, quality evaluation is essential. Since the end usages and specifications vary from region to region, the quality parameters mentioned will serve only as a guideline for the industry to arrive at manufacturing as well as end use performance parameters. Depending on the application areas, home textiles are designed to perform for demanding application. Failure of a home textile during use may cause some embarrassment for the user. The consequences of failure of a home textile ear-marked for export can be devastating. For example, failure of a woven mitt/pot holder during kitchen use of handling hot items or abnormal shrinkage/excessive linting of towels may be frustrating. Materials with good durability and resistance to various effects give the home textiles the necessary strength and performance characteristics. It is well perceived that comfort and appearance play a critical role in material selection in apparel. However, functionality is the most important criteria for home textiles; aesthetics, beauty, colour, etc., are of secondary importance. Testing of home textiles also presents another challenge. Quite often, when in use, home textiles cannot be changed or replaced easily. For example, the filling material stitched inside a woven mitt cannot be replaced without complete rejection of the whole item. Many times it is impossible to simulate of actual user’s condition at the laboratory. Therefore, empirical methods are either difficult to achieve or not reliable. As a result of these, the quality engineer of an application involving home textiles quite often has to rely on laboratory test results. This increases the need for accuracy and reliability of the test results for home textiles. Sometimes popular textile test methods are not suitable for home textiles. Therefore, in certain cases, customised test methods and procedure have been developed by renowned retailers for evaluating home textiles based on their accumulated experience gathered over the years in dealing various performance related issues faced by the consumers. In addition to physical properties, the performance or quality of clothing textiles depend on other variables such as consumer perception and taste. Therefore, evaluation and specification of clothing textiles is rather subjective and ambiguous. In comparison to that, performance and evaluation of home textiles are well-defined based on the planned end use.

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A home textile product is safe when there is no unacceptable risk for the consumers, safety and health associated with normal or foreseeable use within the expected lifetime of the products. In addition to the basic requirement to place only safe products on the market, producers must inform consumers of the risks associated with the products they supply. They must take appropriate measures to prevent such risks and be able to trace dangerous products. Many governments, industry associations and buyers create Restricted Substances Lists (RSL) in response to increasing public concern about product safety and environmental protection. These lists restrict the use or existence of certain carcinogenic, mutagenic, reproductive toxic, endocrine disruptive and non-biodegradable chemicals and substances in finished home textiles. It is important to test the home textiles regularly for the presence of restricted chemicals. As it is not relevant or possible to test for the whole substance content, it would be a good idea to make a test for substances that are in the high-risk group. The purpose is to avoid those products contain restricted substances and to protect the environment and the customers from these types of substances.

7.2

Test methods for towels

A terry towel is described as a textile product which is made with a loop pile on one or both sides, generally covering the entire surface or forming stripes, checks or other patterns with end hems or fringes and side hems or selvages (2). Market requirements for terry towels include performance, fashion, style, colour, pattern, and hand (3). According to a survey of home furnishing news (1999), consumers take style, absorbency, price, softness, fibre type, quick drying, and brand name into consideration in bathroom towel purchases. According to this report, absorbency is the most important factor in consumers’ choices of bath towels, softness is the second, and the fibre type is the third most important factor. The towel’s brand name is of relative unimportance (4). According to the Cotton Incorporated Lifestyle MonitorTM Home Fabrics Study 2003, 91% of the female consumers polled said they prefer thicker towels, 94% said they like their towels as soft as possible. The two most important factors they cite when purchasing a bath towel are absorbency (82%) and softness (83%). However, consumer preferences about fibre type were not mentioned in this study. As towel retailers are in search for unique, innovative and differentiated towel products, a trend is seen to be moving toward a loftier, fuller towel with a soft hand produced either by using different fibre types, yarn fabrication or by finishing and still maintaining all necessary quality specifications (5). Among various quality evaluation system in towel, terry construction, differential shrinkage, super absorbency, towel linting, and water absorption



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are accepted as some of the priority areas, which have been described in this chapter.

7.2.1

Test method for terry towel construction

This test method is designed to determine construction of a terry towel and its constituent yarns. Principle: A 2”× 2” die cut is made from the terry sample to be dissected. The constituent yarns: terry loop, terry base warp and terry base fill picks are unravelled from the swatch, sorted and individually counted. These counts are used to determine terry warp count, base warp count, and base fill count. Ten (10) yarns of each type are then measured for length and weighed to determine yarn size and terry loop to base ratio. Yarns are examined visually to determine number of plies and microscopically to determine spinning method. An unwashed terry sample when folded reveals the fabric base and rows of pile loops. A ruler of 1/100 increment is inserted and the height of the pile is measured (6). Terminology: Those are important to understand and are described here. Terry–A fabric with yarns that stand vertically from a woven ground, the raised surface formed by the terry warp yarns. Loop end –Yarns raised above the surface of a terry fabric, forming the pile; these may be in loop form or may be sheared on one side to form a velour finish. Base warp end –Warp ends of a terry fabric lying flat in the plane of the fabric and not part of the pile. Base fill pick –Yarns of a terry fabric lying flat in the plane of the fabric and running at right angles to the direction of the terry loops. Die cut –A sample cut using a press and shaped blade or die. Single ply yarn –A yarn having only one strand. Multiple ply yarn –A yarn composed of two or more strands of yarn twisted together. Ring spun –A method of yarn spinning in which fibres are twisted to impart strength and cohesion to the yarn. Open end spun –A method of yarn spinning in which wrapper yarns are used to impart strength and cohesion to the fibres. Dobby band –Patterned, non-looped, decorative band near end or ends of towel. Yarn number in cotton count –A description of yarn size as length per unit mass. The yarn number is the number of 840-yard skeins that would comprise a pound of yarn. Pile height – The measurement of pile loops in 1/100, of unwashed terry.

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Safety precautions: These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. One should wear safety glasses in all laboratory areas. Manufacturer’s safety recommendations should be followed when operating laboratory, testing equipment. All safety precautions are to be followed when handling dies and using die cutter. Sharp objects used for unravelling samples are to be kept in safe container or cover point when not in use to avoid accidental puncture wounds. Apparatus: Die cutter and 2”× 2” die, seam ripper or sharp dissection needle for unrav�elling, pick glass (optional), microscope, and digital scale capable of reading to 0.0001 g. Permanent marking pen or laundry marker, petri dishes or other small containers for holding yarns, ruler marked in 1/100 increment. Test specimen: Cut each specimen 2” x 2”, using die cutter. Handle samples with care to avoid loss of ends after cutting. Cut specimen from a representative sample of the unwashed towel, avoiding the dobby band, selvedge and hem areas. Procedures: pile height Fold a terry sample so the base fabric is visible. This is shown in Figure 7.1. Insert a 100th incremental measure ruler between the pile rows, until it rests on the base fabric as indicated in Figure 7.2. Measure the height of the pile loops against the ruler as per Figure 7.3. Dissection: Beginning near the centre of the sample, use the seam ripper or dissection needle to pull rows of loop yarns from the sample. All loop ends removed are to be placed in a petri dish or other small container. When approximately 1/4” of loops has been removed, use a pen or laundry marker to draw a line in the direction of the loop pull (down the middle of the bare strip). This is the warp direction of the towel. Continue pulling loops from both sides of the towel until all have been removed. Set these aside in a petri dish or other small container labelled “loop ends”. Take care that none are lost. If the fabric has been sheared on one side, only half of the loop ends will be recoverable. Discard the “fuzz” from the sheared side. Unravel the base ends parallel to the line drawn on the cloth. Set these aside in a petri dish or other small container labelled “base warp ends”. Take care that no ends are lost. Unravel the base fill picks that are at right angles to the line drawn on the



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Figure 7.1 Terry sample

Figure 7.2 Position of the ruler

Figure 7.3 Measurement of the height of the pile loops

cloth. Set these aside in a petri dish or other small container labelled “base fill picks”. Take care that no ends are lost. Thread counting procedure: Count all loop ends removed from the terry sample. Record the count and return ends to the petri dish for further use. If the fabric was sheared on one side, only half the loop ends can be recovered.

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In this case, double the actual count to reflect the ends lost in shearing. Count all base warp ends removed from terry sample. Record the count and return ends to the petri dish for further use. Count all base fill picks removed from the terry sample. Record the count and return picks to the petri dish for further use. Yarn measurement: Select 10 yarns of average appearance and length from the petri dish labelled “loop ends”. Check all ends selected, to determine if the yarns are single ply or multiple ply. If the loop ends contain both single and multiple ply yarns, then 10 ends of each type must be measured and weighed as separate groups. Measure each end to the nearest 1/100”. Record that length and sum the lengths of the 10 samples. After all ends have been measured, weigh the 10 ends in one mass. Record that value. Repeat the process above for all base warp ends. Repeat the process above for all base fill picks. Yarn spinning description: Microscopically examine three samples from each yarn group to determine if the yarns are open end or ring spun. Record this determination for each yarn group. Determination of spinning process may be made by comparing microscopic appearance to the photographs shown in Figures 7.4a,b for ring spun and open end yarn, respectively.

Figure 7.4 a Type of yarn (ring spun)

Figure 7.4 b Type of yarn (open end)



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Calculation: i) Terry loop ends per inch, base warp ends and base filling picks per inch = Counted yarns / 2 ii) Terry loops per square inch = (Terry loop ends per inch × base fill picks per inch) / 3 iii) Terry to base ratio = Length of 10 terry loop ends / Length of 10 base warp ends iv) Yarn number for the loop, warp and fill yarns = Length of 10 yarns × 0.015 × number of plies / Weight of 10 yarns If there are two types of loop yarn ends as illustrated in Figure 7.5a (single ply) and 7.5b (two ply), calculate and record each type separately. Report: Include determinations for yarn spinning descriptions. Report calculations for base and loop warp ends per inch, base picks per inch, terry loops per square inch, terry to base ratio and yarn number and ply as cotton count. Include pile height in 100ths.

7.2.2 Test method for differential shrinkage in towels and wash cloths Purpose and scope: This test method determines the evenness of shrinkage across the width of a towel or wash cloth after repeated home launderings. A towel or wash cloth is measured after being subjected to repeated home laundering procedures, according to labelled care instructions and colourfastness to washing, comparing centre portions of specimen, hem, cuff, dobby border and 2” above dobby border (7).

Figure 7.5 a Type of loop yarn ends (single ply)

Figure 7.5 b Type of loop yarn ends (two ply)

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Performance of home textiles

Principle: A change in width measurements of a sample, resulting from procedures typical of home laundering practices, taken after fivehome launderings; calculation of results will determine the uneven shrinkage along the width of the specimen. Terminology used in test method:

Sample –A terry constructed towel or wash cloth. Laundering –A process intended to remove soils and/or stains from textile materials by treatment (washing) with an aqueous detergent solution and normally including rinsing, extraction and drying. Differential shrinkage –The uneven shrinkage in towels and wash cloths, after repeated launderings. Safety precautions: These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. Wear safety glasses in all laboratory areas. Manufacturer’s safety recommendations should be followed when operating laboratory, testing equipment. The standard detergent may cause irritation. Care should be taken to prevent exposure to skin and eyes. Apparatus and materials: Permanent marking pen, tape or ruler marked in increments of 16ths of an inch or smaller, conditioning/drying racks with pull out screens or perforated shelves, automatic washing machine, automatic tumble dryer, tide detergent, scale with at least 5 kg (10 lb) capacity, ballast of (920 × 920) mm or (26 × 36) inch hemmed pieces of bleached cotton sheeting (wash load ballast type 2) or 50/50 polyester/cotton, bleached, mercerized, plain weave (wash load ballast type 3). Test specimen: Select clean, original towel or wash cloth. Different positions are described in Figure 7.6. Test multiple specimens to increase precision. Label to maintain specimen identity. Procedure: Laundering: Prepare to launder specimens, adding ballast, to complete a 4 lb load. Wash and dry specimens fivetimes according to labelled care instructions. Conditioning: Condition thoroughly dry sample for 4 hours according to ASTM D1776 – Standard Practice for Conditioning and Testing Textiles. After conditioning, place each test specimen, without tension, on a flat, smooth, horizontal surface. The wrinkles in most fabrics flatten sufficiently



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Figure 7.6 Different positions of towel

under pressure of a measuring instrument, at the time of measurement, not to cause measurement error. Measurement: Measure the length of the specimen by finding the centre of the sample and mark using a permanent marking pen. Determine specimen width. Measure the width of the towel or wash cloth at centre mark and record finding. Measure the width of the specimen (both ends) approximately 2” above dobby border. Measure the width of the specimen on the narrowest portion of the dobby border (both ends) and record. Measure the width of the specimen at the hem (both ends) and record measurement. Measure the width of the towel at the cuff (both ends,) halfway between hem and border, and record measurement. Compare width measurements from centre, cuff and 2” above dobby border. Step 1 Select the wider of the measurements stated above. Example: Centre width – 30” Select widest of the areas Cuff width 1 –29.5” Cuff width 2 – 28” Width 2” above dobby border 1 – 29.75” Width 2” above dobby border 2 – 29.75” Compare width measurements of the two dobby borders and two end hems.

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Performance of home textiles

Step 2 Select the narrowest of the fourmeasurements. In the example below, this would be Dobby 1 at 28.5”. Example: Dobby border 1 –28.5” Select the narrowest of the fourmeasurements. Dobby border 2 –28.75” End hem 1 –29.25” End hem 2 –29.75” Calculation: Subtract the narrowest measurement in Step 2 from the widest measurement in Step 1. This is the differential shrinkage. In the example given, the narrowest measurement is dobby border 1 at 28.5”. The widest measurement is the centre width of 30.0”. This towel would have a differential shrinkage of 1.5”. Example: 30.00”– 28.50” = 1.5” (Differential shrinkage) Centre width 0.00” Cuff width 1 0.00” Cuff width 2 0.00” Widest measurement 2” above dobby border 1 0.00” 2” above dobby border 2 0.00” Dobby border 1 0.00” Dobby border 2 0.00” Narrowest measurement End Hem 1 0.00” End Hem 2 0.00”

} }

Widest measurement –Narrowest measurement = Differential shrinkage Examples of towels with poor and good differential shrinkage are shown in Figures 7.7 a, b, respectively. Report: Report for each sample tested. Washing procedure, temperature, load size and amount of detergent. Drying procedure: temperature, load size, cycle type, i.e., normal, permanent press or delicate. Number of completed washing and drying cycles. Differential shrinkage, in inch.



Evaluation of home textiles

Figure 7.7 a Example of differential shrinkage (poor)

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Figure 7.7 b Example of differential shrinkage (good)

7.2.3 Surface water absorption in towel (Adapted from ASTM D 4772-97) Scope: This test method determines the ability of a terry fabric to rapidly absorb and retain liquid water from surfaces such as human skin, dishes, and furniture. Summary of test method: A terry fabric product with hems or with both hems and selvages (such as a bath towel) or a terry fabric without hems or without both hems and selvages (such as terry fabric cut from a roll) is prepared for testing by pre-conditioning and conditioning. Specimens are placed one at a time in an embroidery hoop and then the hoop/specimen assembly is placed at an angle on the base of the apparatus. After water flows down the surface of each specimen, the amount of water retained by each specimen is measured. Such a set-up is shown in Figure 7.8. Four specimens are tested, one on each end of the face and back of the fabric. The fourobservations are averaged to determine the surface water absorption of the fabric. Terminology used in the test:

Absorption – a process in which one material (the absorbent) takes in or absorbs another (the absorbate) as the absorption of moisture by fibres. Pile – in pile fabric, the raised loops or tufts (cut loops) that form all or part of the surface. Surface water absorption – by a fabric, the process of removing liquid water from a surface such as human skin, dishes or furniture. Terry fabric – a material with a woven warp pile or on both sides and which is used for such products as towelling, beachwear and bathrobes.

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Performance of home textiles

Figure 7.8 Set up of apparatus for surface water absorption

Apparatus and materials:

Water flow tester – This tester is not commercially available, but it is not difficult or expensive to build. There are many acceptable ways to build the tester. However, the following indicates the critical factors, which must be incorporated into the design of the tester as indicated in Figure 7.9. The hoop/ specimen assembly must be at 1.1 rad (63°) to the table top. The 50 ml gradu�ate mounted on the apparatus must be parallel to the table top. The pour spout on this graduate must be 3.0 ± 0.2 cm down from where the adjustment screw bracket joints the outer hoop and 0.6 ± 0.4 cm away from the hoop/specimen assembly. The funnel, valve, fittings, tubing, and graduate mounted on the apparatus must not restrict the flow of water. The time between the opening of the valve and the time the water has exited the graduate (except for a few drops) must be less than 8.0 seconds. The hoop/specimen assembly must be mounted on the base in a manner to direct all water not absorbed by the specimen toward the pan.

Figure 7.9 Water flow tester



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Test specimen: The preparation of the laboratory specimen uses five cycles of washing and drying according to label care instructions. This pre-conditions the laboratory specimen, raises the pile so it is not matted down, and removes some chemicals. This procedure uses the equipment and supplies described in AATCC Test Method 135, which covers dimensional changes of fabrics after home laundering. Procedure: Place the apparatus on a flat surface where spilled water will not cause a problem. With no laboratory specimen on the base, pre-wet the graduate attached to the apparatus by using the following procedure. While the valve is in a closed position, pour 50 ± 1 ml of distilled or deionised water at 21 ± 1oC (70 + 2oF) in the graduate which is not attached to the apparatus and then pour this water into the funnel as shown in Figure 7.10. Open the valve and allow the water to run through the apparatus and into the pan. Thoroughly dry the base, the hoop, and the pan before starting the actual test. Place the hoop on the laboratory specimen so that no more than 1.0 cm of the specimen extends past the bottom of the hoop. Mount the hoop/specimen assembly on the base. Excess specimen must be allowed to drape over the sides and the back of the base as indicated in Figure 7.11. Position the hoop/specimen assembly so that the bottom of the pour spout is 0.6 ± 0.4 cm away from the specimen, 3.0 ± 0.2 cm down from where the adjustment screw bracket joins the outer hoop, and centred between the sides of the hoop as shown in Figure 7.12. Push the pan against the base so all the water will go into the pan. While the valve is in a closed position, pour 50 ± 1 ml of distilled or deionised water at 21 ± 1oC (70 ± 2oF) into the graduate not attached to the apparatus and then pour this water into the funnel as depicted in Figure 7.13. Open the valve and allow the water to run down the surface of the specimen held in the hoop (the time between

Figure 7.10 Position of the apparatus

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Performance of home textiles

Figure 7.11 Placement of hoop on the specimen

Figure 7.12 Position of the apparatus

Figure 7.13 Measurement of deionised water



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the opening of the valve and the time the water exited the graduate must be less than 8.0 seconds). Allow 25 ± 5 seconds to elapse between the time the water stops coming out of the graduate attached to the apparatus and the removal of the pan. Do not tap on or tilt the graduate attached to the apparatus to try to get all the drops of water out. Pour the runoff water, which is now in the pan, into the 50-ml graduate not attached to the apparatus and record the number of millilitres of runoff water to the nearest 1.0 ml. Subtract the number of millilitres of runoff water from 50 and record this value as the observation. Discard the water now in the graduate not attached to the apparatus. Do not reuse this water. Remove the laboratory specimen from the hoop. Do not allow the tested wet area of the laboratory specimen to contact untested dry areas. Thoroughly dry the hoop, the base, and the pan. If any water has missed the pan and is now on the surface below the apparatus, this observation is not valid and the procedure will have to be repeated on a dry area of the laboratory specimen or a new laboratory specimen. Repeat the above procedures threemore times for a total of four (4) tests per towel (8). Test site selection: Opposite corners on one side of towel and opposite (dry) corners on back side of towel as shown in Figure 7.14. Exclude borders in testing. Specimens such as bar towels, kitchen towels and baby towels, which are not large enough to provide the above four (4) test sites, must be submitted in ample amounts for testing. Note: Wash cloths are exempt from absorbency testing. Evaluation: Calculation: To represent the percentage rate per test, subtract the amount of water recaptured from the original amount used (50 ml). Divide that difference by the original amount and multiply by 100. This shows the percentage of absorbency. Calculate the percentage on the three remaining tests. To figure the average rate of absorbency, add the percent for each test and divide by 4. This step is then repeated for each colour included in the report. Absorbency requirements:

Figure 7.14 Test site selection

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Performance of home textiles

50% Bath towels 30% Baby bath towels/Kitchen towels and bar towels 50% Beach towels > 10 oz/sq yd 30% Beach towels ≤ 10 oz/sq yd Report: Record evaluation findings.

7.2.4

Super absorbency in towel

Scope: This test method determines the ability of a towel, claiming to have super absorbency capabilities, to rapidly absorb and retain liquid water from surfaces(9). Summary of test method: A super absorbent towel is prepared for testing without pre-conditioning or conditioning. Specimens are then weighed. After being immersed in distilled water for a specified period of time, the specimens are removed from the water and for a specified period, allowed to drip from the surface of each specimen. Specimens are then weighed and the amount of water retained by each specimen is measured. The results are calculated as multiple of initial weight and reported as percentage of absorbency. Terminology: Absorption – Aprocess in which one material (the absorbent) takes in or absorbs another (the absorbate) as the absorption of moisture by fibres. Surface water absorption – by a fabric, the process of removing liquid water from a surfaces such as automobiles. Super absorbent towel – A towel purported to have a higher degree of absorbency than commonly expected. Apparatus and materials: Distilled water, petri dish, or 250 ml beaker, timer, balance scale, 2”× 2” die, or scissors. Test specimen: Cut specimens 2” x 2” using dies or by hand, using scissors. Precise dimensions are not necessary for this test method. This test method does not require pre-conditioning or conditioning. Procedure: Label each specimen. Weigh dry, non-conditioned specimen on a balance scale. Record result as “original weight”. Fill petri dish with enough distilled water to submerge 2”× 2” specimen. This test method also allows for the use of a 250 ml beaker. Pour 150 ml ± 25 ml distilled water into the beaker. Set timer for 2 minutes. Immerse specimen in distilled water for 2 minutes ± 15 seconds. Remove specimen from water and by holding one corner, allows the specimen to drip for 20 ± 5 seconds. Immediately weigh wet specimen. Record result as “saturated weight”. Evaluation: Calculation: To figure the amount of absorbency, calculate test result as follows.



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Example: Original weight = 0.75 g Saturated weight = 3.00 g Towel absorbency = (3.0/0.75) × 100 = 400% Requirements: Test results must reach product claim ±5%. Report: Report number of tests conducted. Report findings as percentage of absorbency.

7.2.5

Towel linting

Purpose and scope: This test method is designed to measure the amount of dryer lint generated by three uncut bath/beach towels of the same style during the first fivelaundry cycles. Examples of towels and lint generated out of it are shown in Figures 7.15a, b, respectively. The towels laundered for this test method may also be used for evaluation of shrinkage and pilling and used to perform absorbency testing (10). Principle: Three uncut bath/beach/beach towels of the same style are weighed and laundered through five cycles of wash and dry according to labelled care instructions. Before each drying cycle, the lint filter of the dryer is cleaned. After each drying cycle all lint generated by the towels is collected and put into a labelled, re-sealable plastic bag. The lint from each cycle is weighed and this weight is totalled and calculated as a percentage of the original load weight. Terminology: Laundering – of textile materials, a process intended to remove soils and / or stains by treatment (washing) with an aqueous detergent solution and normally including subsequent rinsing, extracting and drying. Lint – fibre material released from an item during the drying process. Safety precautions: These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are

Figure 7.15a Examples of towels

Figure 7.15b Example of lint

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Performance of home textiles

not intended to be all-inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. Detergents may cause irritation. Care should be taken to prevent exposure to skin and eyes. Apparatus: Re-sealable plastic bags, digital scale capable of weighing to the nearest 0.0001 g, automatic washer, automatic tumble dryer. Test specimen: Three bath/beach towels of the style are to be tested. These towels must not be cut. They may be marked for shrinkage testing, if desired. Weighing: Weigh the three towels to the nearest 0.01 lbs and record weight. Laundering procedure: If weight of the towels is 3 pounds or less, washes on “small load” setting. If the weight of the three towels is above 3 pounds, wash on “large load” setting. Fill washer to the load setting determined above with water at the temperature designated on the care label. Verify water temperature with a thermometer or a water temperature controller. Add 1/8 cup of Tide powder detergent (without bleach). Set dial for a 14 minutes washing cycle. The rinse cycle temperature should always be cold. Start the wash cycle to agitate detergent. Add test specimen(s) to the washer. At the end of the final spin cycle, place the entire load of test specimens into the dryer. Clean dryer lint filter prior to starting the drying cycle. Dry the load for 30 minutes or until completely dry, using the temperature designated on the care label. Specimens should not be left damp. Remove specimens from the dryer on completion of the cycle. Collect lint from dryer lint filter. Place lint into one (1) re-sealable plastic bag and mark at addition of each linting. Repeat steps until the load has been washed and dried through fivelaundry cycles, collecting and labelling the lint from each cycle. Evaluation: Weigh, record and total the lint from all laundry cycles. Calculate the linting result as a % of the total initial weight of the three towels. (Weight of lint/weight of three towels) × 100 = % linting.

7.3

Test methods for rug

To maintain industrial repute, the quality of the rugs is to be maintained at the highest level. A complete stage wise separation and the graduation of a product from one stage to another is done in production division. For this, the operations of various departments, viz., hand weaving, stitching, tuft work, bleaching and dyeing, antique washing and other related activities



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are monitored carefully. The raw material used, viz., cotton, wool, hemp, coir and other fibres are procured from reputed suppliers and manufacturers to maintain quality that conforms to the buyer’s specifications. Some of the important features of rugs are derived from exquisite contemporary styling, floral and geometric designs, pastels, neutral and monochromatic colours and smoothness in texture. Woven rugs have one thing in common a warp and a weft (the backing), the warp is the strings that run the length of the rug and the weft is the stings that the run across the width of the rug holding the rug together while providing an anchorage for the pile or rug surface. Hand tufting is by far the quickest method of producing a rug by hand and is commonly used for modern and contemporary styles including many popular shaggy rugs. The method doesn’t use a conventional warp and weft; instead a hand held gun that shoots yarn into the primary backing of the rug to create various designs and textures. Once the design is complete the rug will have secondary jute backing attached by adhesive. Finally the rug will then be hand carved to give an added dimension. Hand knotted rugs are the most time taking method of manufacture and therefore the most expensive. They are normally produced from wool, silk and have a cotton warp and weft. The fibres are hand dyed with vegetable dyes and the designs and styles are normally indigenous to the region where they were produced. Hand knotted rugs are made in Middle East and Asia. Many variations on hand knotted rugs are produced in textures such as shaggy pile rugs. Shaggy leather rugs have long and short stands of leather hooked into the cotton warp and weft. Viscose (art silk) shaggy rugs are also often produced as knotted rug to give the rug better tuft anchorage (11). Nearly, all of materials used for rug are in their face-fibre and backing. It is usually the face fibre material that gets most of attention and consideration. This is because the rug fibre forming its face is most exposed, both, visually and physically. Hence it is the main determinant of appearance quality and retention. However, quality of backing materials, including the latex layer –if present –directly influences how long and well a rug will serve. The same goes for area rug padding–not an inherent part of a rug, but definitely a highly recommended one. Finally, rug pad of optimum material and thickness is needed to protect area rug from the consequences of its use, as well as from interactions with flooring and the micro-environment it is exposed to. Padding materials include felt, rubberised felt, foam rubber, sponge rubber and urethane, prime or bonded (12). Appropriate rug pad acts as a shock absorber (cushion), and will significantly prolong its life. It also adds softness, and improves thermal and acoustical insulation (13).

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7.3.1

Performance of home textiles

Rug back staining on vinyl tile

Purpose and scope: This test method determines the degree of colour transferred from the back or face of coloured rugs to vinyl tile. The wet testing in this method is a means of acceleration and has been found to correlate with both dry and wet in service use (14). Principle: A rug specimen is wet out and placed between two pieces of tile and subjected to a weighted load for 24 hours at room temperature. Colour transferred to the tile is assessed by comparison with the AATCC chromatic transference scale. Terminology:

Colourant staining – the unintended pickup of colourant by a substrate due to (1) exposure to a coloured or contaminated liquid medium, or (2) direct contact with dyed or pigmented material, from which colourant transfers by sublimation or mechanical action (as in crocking). Rug – a textile floor covering of limited area, which is complete in it and is intended for use as a partial covering of a floor or another floor covering. Rug back– (1) that part of a rug normally in contact with the floor; (2) the underside of a rug as opposed to the use surface. Safety precautions: These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. Wear safety glasses in all laboratory areas. Manufacturer’s safety recommendations should be followed when operating laboratory testing equipment. Apparatus and materials: Two (76 × 76) mm or (3 × 3) inch vinyl tiles, solid white and smooth surfaced, a 2.0 lb weight (0.91kg), distilled water, AATCC blotter paper, AATCC chromatic transference scale, AATCC standard reference detergent #171 (dilution: 3.0–4.5 g/l). Test specimen: Cut one (51 × 51) mm (2 × 2) inch specimen from a rep�resentative sample of the rug. Additional test specimens must be cut for rugs with multiple colours or fibres, so that all colours or fibres are represented. Additional test specimens must be cut for rugs with bindings or yarns along the edges. Procedure: Pre-wash tile using distilled water and diluted AATCC detergent #171. Dry with towelling. Weigh dry specimen on balance scale and record weight. Completely wet out test specimen with distilled water. Squeeze



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excess water from specimen using the AATCC blotter paper. Weigh damp specimen, such that a pickup of 40–60% is obtained. Use the following formula to determine percent moisture content. Percent moisture change = [(Wet weight – Dry weight) / Dry weight] × 100 If necessary, repeat above steps, until the correct moisture content is obtained. Place the damp rug specimen back side down on the face side of one of the tiles. Cover the test specimen with a second tile face side down. Place a 2.0 lb weight on top of the sandwiched test assembly. Make sure the weight is distributed evenly. Allow test assembly to remain fixed for a minimum of 20 hours and not to exceed 24 hours at room temperature. Do not permit movement of rug specimen. Remove weight, top tile and rug specimen. Allow tiles to condition face up at room temperature for 30 minutes. Tiles that exhibit no colour transfer may be washed immediately without waiting for 30 minutes. Wash tiles with diluted AATCC detergent 171 and distilled water. Dry with towel. Evaluation:Evaluate the degree of colour transferred from the rug backing or face fibre onto the face of the vinyl tile by means of AATCC 9 step chromatic transference scale. Where fringe or binding tape is a factor, colour transference to the vinyl tile can also be evaluated from the tile that was face down on the top of the assembly. Evaluate the colour transfer at the most severe area on the tile(s). Rate the amount of staining on vinyl tile(s), based on the numerical grades determined by comparison with the numbered rows on the chromatic transference scale. Staining Grading No staining 5 Staining equal to row 4.5 4.5 Staining equal to row 4 4 Staining equal to row 3.5 3.5 Staining equal to row 3 3 Staining equal to row 2.5 2.5 Staining equal to row 2 2 Staining equal to row 1.5 1.5 Staining equal to row 1 1 ____________________________________ Report: Report the numerical grade for each specimen evaluated. Report the numerical grade for colour transference of fringe and/or binding tape, if applicable. Report whether colour transference was determined from the face, back, binding or fringe.

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7.3.2

Performance of home textiles

Rubber backed carpet skid resistance

Scope: This test method covers the determination of rubber backed carpet skid resistance, measured as coefficient of friction by pulling specimen across a specified surface. The complete assembly of rubber backed carpet skid resistance test is shown in Figure 7.16. Summary of test method: A hand held pull gauge is used to measure the peak coefficient of friction while slowly pulling a weight loaded, rubber backed, carpet specimen across a tile test surface. Significance and use: Resistance to skid: This test method is used to determine skid resistance, which measures the resistance of the rubber backed carpet specimen, to stress applied through slowly pulling, under various weighted conditions, across a specified tile surface. Safety precautions: These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all-inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. Wear safety glasses in all laboratory areas. Apparatus: Hand pull gauge, vise grip, modified vise grip [modification – (A) Weld washer (approximately 1.0” diameter,) face down, to teeth of vise grip jaws. Finish surfaces until smooth, so that specimens will not be snagged. (B) Weld washer (approximately 5/8” diameter,) vertically, to end

Figure 7.16 Complete assembly of rubber backed carpet skid resistance test



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of adjusting screw on handle], one 12”× 12” no-wax textured floor tile, five, 5lb canvas bag weights. Test specimen: The test specimen shall consist of one, 4”× 6” die cut specimen. Procedure: Place a 4” end of the specimen into the opening of the modified vise grip as shown in Figure 7.17. Check to see the two circular jaws are completely over the specimen. Squeeze handles until vise grips are securely locked into place. Place specimen/vise grip on no wax floor tile with rubber backing on tile and pile facing up. Position one, 5 lb canvas bag weight, over the carpet specimen. The long side of the weight must be perpendicular to the specimen/vise grip assembly. Distribute weight evenly. Using the hook end of the hand pull gauge, attach gauge to handle of vise grip. With complete assembly begin testing. Set gauge dial to zero. Push “on” to engage instrument. Begin slowly pulling complete assembly across no wax floor tile. Gauge dial will indicate peak force, for an example: 5.00 lb. Record peak force on skid resistance work sheet. Complete testing to include weights of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 lb load. To increase weight load in 5 lb increments, layer canvass bag weights. Alternate bag direction in stacking, so that the first 5 lb weight is perpendicular to assembly, the next 5 lb weight is parallel (total of 10 lb). Continue alternating direction of bags for each additional 5 lb weight and test at each addition (15). Calculation: Record peak force on skid resistance work sheet. Divide peak force by lb load. Result will be the coefficient of friction as expressed by the formula below: Peak force/ lb load = Coefficient of friction; 5 / 5 = 1.00

Figure 7.17 Specimen with modified vise grip

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Total the column of individual results. To get the average, total is to be divided by the number of tests completed i.e., 5. The result will be the average coefficient of friction. Evaluation: Evaluate specimen’s average coefficient of friction against stated requirements. Report: Include worksheet data, calculations and evaluation. Skid resistance work sheet sample

Lab report number_____________________ Peak force

Load

Result

__________

÷

5 lbs.

= ________

__________

÷ 10 lbs.

= ________

__________

÷ 15 lbs.

= ________

__________

÷ 20 lbs.

= ________

__________ ÷ 25 lbs.

= ________

7.4

Total ________ ÷ 5 = ____ Average coefficient of friction

Test method of pot holders and woven mitts

A pot holder is a small fabric pad, which is used to handle hot cooking utensils. The pot holders or the pads made of fabrics for handling hot cooking utensils should be heat and moisture resistant. Cotton potholders are widely in use because these pot holders are highly durable and can withstand multiple washes and ironing at the highest temperatures. The colours also stay sharp and they are capable of rapidly absorbing and yielding moisture while providing plenty of insulation that helps in heat resistance.



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An oven mitt, is aninsulatedmitten usually worn in the kitchen to protect the wearer’s hand from hot objects like ovens, stoves, cookware, etc. It consists of heat insulation surrounded by cotton fabric, usually consisting of decorative patterns. Newer oven mitts are often made from silicone instead of fabric, which makes them resistant to water and stains (16). The new fabric gloves are made of Kevlar and Nomex. Thick and insulated mittens that are made of linen or cotton fabrics are good at resisting heat. However, one should not go for very thick mittens as they can hamper easy operation. It is always preferred to buy mittens that are made of flame resistant fabrics (17). Mittens are a sort of gloves that covers the hand, encasing the thumb separately and the four fingers together. Mittens are crafted out of fabrics that helps them to act as insulators so that they can be used to grasp and move kitchen items, which are too hot to touch with the bare hands. These also help make a decorative statement for kitchens and are functional for a variety of purposes. Mittens are perfect gift for sporting events, Valentine’s day, anniversaries, newlyweds, engagements and more (18).

7.4.1 Measurement of heat transfer of pot holders and oven mitts Purpose and scope: This test method is applicable to pot holders and oven mitts. It measures the temperature of a sample (on the hand surface) when heat is applied at a prescribed temperature and for a specific amount of time using a hot iron skillet. The test method can be used to predict the protection a potholder or oven mitt provides the user when removing hot items from an oven or stovetop as shown in Figure 7.18. This test method is not applicable to towels and other items not primarily designed to protect a user while handling hot cookware.

Figure 7.18 Application of pot holders and oven mitt

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Performance of home textiles

Principle: A test specimen, backed by a heat-resistant fabric blanket, is placed beneath a 425ºF (218ºC) iron skillet for 10 seconds. A thermo label strip is attached to the underside of the specimen and is used to determine the temperature reached at the end of the 10 seconds period. Terminology: Thermo label– a multi temperature label formulated to react within a few seconds when the rated temperature is reached. As each section of the label reaches the rated temperature, that section responds with a sharply defined colour change from white to black leaving the printed temperature clearly visible. Hand surface –the side of the heat protective item most likely to be in contact with the user’s hand. Heat surface–the side of the heat protective item most likely to be in contact with the hot object to be handled. Safety precautions: These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. Protective gloves, mitts or pads should be used to protect hands from the heated skillet. Manufacturer’s safety recommendations should be followed when operating laboratory testing equipment. Apparatus and materials: Oven capable of reaching at least 425ºF (218ºC), Thermo label 8-Temperature sensitive labels capable of temperature measurement increments of 100ºF (38ºC), 105ºF (41ºC), 110ºF (43ºC), 120ºF (49ºC), 130ºF (54ºC), 140ºF (60ºC), 150ºF (66ºC), and 160ºF (71ºC), thermocouple with a digital display, capable of reaching 1000ºF (538ºC) and displaying temperatures to the nearest 0.1ºF, Nomex fire blanket, cylindrical, flat bottomed, steel weight having a diameter of 2.75 ± 0.1” and weighing 454.0 ± 5.0 g (1.0 ± 0.1 lb), stopwatch, cast iron skillet with inside diameter of approximately 10” and weighing 4.9 ± 0.2 lb. Test specimen: Cut three, 3”× 3” test specimens, one each from three samples, cut specimens from the middle portion of samples, cut specimen from the side of the sample that is intended to be between the user’s hand and the hot object, specimens intended to be heat protective from either side are to be tested on both sides, specimens intended to be used as either a left hand or right hand glove are to be tested on both surfaces, cut edge of specimen so that both sides will fold open, allowing access to centre areas of both heat protective sides, using a permanent marking pen label each specimen.



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Procedure: Affix one thermo label strip to the specimen side most likely, in normal use, to contact wearer’s hand. This would be on the inside of a mitt or both insides of a right/left mitt. Centre the tip of thermocouple wire on the inside bottom of cast iron skillet. Centre steel weight on top of thermocouple wire tip. Check to ensure contact is made with iron skillet, thermocouple wire and steel weight. Place skillet in an oven at 425 ± 1.0ºF (218ºC). Fold Nomex blanket, forming four layers of material. Place folded blanket on a flat, level, unheated surface near oven. Monitor thermocouple temperature until it reaches 425º ± 1ºF (218ºC). Adjust oven temperature if needed, to attain stated temperature at thermocouple. Place test specimen, thermo label facedown and heat surface face up, on blanket. Remove skillet heated to 425º ± 1ºF (218ºC) from oven and place it directly on specimen. Using a stopwatch to determine elapsed time, allow specimen to remain in contact with skillet for 10 seconds. Remove skillet from specimen. Return skillet to oven. Turn specimen over so that the thermo label faces up. Set tested specimen aside. Allow skillet to reach stated temperature prior to testing any remaining specimens. Repeat previous steps for any remaining specimens (19). Evaluation: Note the number of highest blackened square on each strip. Record findings on worksheet. Record the findings for both sides of double sided pot holders or oven mitts. Record both findings for oven mitts that can be right or left handed. Calculate the average for the 3 tested specimens. For the illustration at the right the temperature was heated up to the150ºF mark (represented by the dark sections on the thermo label). For averaging purposes, calculate the average based on the starting temperature of the range. starting temperature of the range. For this example, use 150ºF. If the colour on the next higher temperature range has started to change colour, then use the higher temperature for that reading. A result must be lower than 130ºF (54ºC) to beconsidered a “passing” sample.

8-temp Thermo label 100ºF (38ºC) 105ºF (41ºC) 110ºF (43ºC) 120ºF (49ºC) 130ºF (54ºC) 140ºF (60ºC) 150ºF (66ºC) 160ºF (71ºC)

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Report: Record the highest blackened square for each strip. Record the side tested for double sided or right/left products. Report the average for the three tested specimens. Report a pass or fail for each potholder or oven mitt.

7.5

Miscellaneous test methods of home textiles

Apart from the evaluation procedures described in previous sub-sections, there are other test methods, which are, used in the home textile industry e.g., comforter loft, oil repellency, soil release, vertical wicking, print/motif durability and phenolic yellowing. Out of these, tests for oil repellency, soil release, and vertical wicking are normally applied for special product performance claims. Print/motif durability and phenolic yellowing test are applied for home textile products related with UK market.

7.5.1

Comforter loft property

A comforter is a type of blanket intended to keep the user warm, especially during sleep, although they can also be used as mattress pads. Comforters are generally large and rectangular in shape, filled with natural or synthetic insulative material and encased in a shell/covering. Like quilts, comforters are generally used with a set of sheets. Comforter sizes correspond with bed sizes: twin, full, queen, king, and cal-king. Comforter sizes run slightly larger than actual bed sizes to allow for draping over the sides of the bed. Typical sizes in the United States for comforters are: • Twin = 64” width × 87” length • Queen / Full = 87” width × 87” length • King = 101” width × 90” length. Comforters are filled with layers of material such as polyester batting, down feathers, wool, or silk. Comforters also can be made out of fur, usually with a backing of satin or silk. The loft of the filling determines the weight as well as the level of insulation. The comforter is stitched or quilted to secure the filling and keep it evenly distributed. Purpose and scope of test: This test method is designed to measure the loft of a comforter in pre-wash and after-wash conditions. Principle: A comforter is taken from its packaging, shaken, laid flat on a hard surface and allowed to condition for a minimum of 15 minutes. A rigid, lightweight item such as a wooden yardstick or a piece of foam-core board is set on top of the comforter so at least 28” is on top of the comforter and at least 1.5” overlaps the edge of the comforter. Using a metal ruler, the technician measures the distance from the tabletop to the bottom of the rigid item at the edge of the comforter. This measurement is performed on



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the comforter’s edge at the mid-point between two corners. The point of measure is clearly marked. This procedure is then repeated on the remaining three sides of the comforter. The four measurements are averaged and reported as pre-wash loft. The comforter is laundered according to labelled care instructions and measuring process is repeated at the same points previously marked. The averaged measurement, taken after washing, is reported as after wash loft (20). Terminology: Comforter–a bed covering consisting of two outer fabric layers, with a layer of insulation between them. Safety precautions: These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all-inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Follow good bending and lifting practices when handling bulky objects. Apparatus: Metal ruler with markings of 1/32”, flat, lightweight rigid object. Suitable items include rigid wooden yardsticks or pieces of foam core board measuring at least 30” in length. Test specimen: Pre-wash measurement: Remove comforter from packaging. Shake comforter and lay flat in single layer on tabletop. The edge of the comforter being measured must be no closer than 3” from the edge of the table. Remaining edges may hang over tabletop if size requires. Allow comforter to condition for a minimum of 15 minutes. Test specimen: Post-wash measurement: Remove comforter from dryer. If comforter is to be stored for a period of time after washing and before measuring, loosely fold; do not compress. Repeat steps as above. Loft measurement procedure: Loft measurement is determined by placing the rigid, lightweight object onto the comforter surface so that approximately 28” is on the comforter and the remainder protrudes over the edge. Measure, to the nearest 1/32”, the distance from the bottom of the lightweight rigid object to the top of the table. Mark the spot on the comforter from which the measurement was taken. Record this measurement. The comforter is measured at the mid-point between two corners, using the method described above. This arrangement is shown in Figure 7.19. The measuring process is repeated on remaining sides; resulting in a total of four measurements. These four measurements are recorded and averaged. The average is reported as comforter loft. Wash measurement steps are repeated after the comforter has been laundered. Measurements are to be taken at the same midpoints marked as above. This average is reported as after-wash comforter loft.

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Figure 7.19 Measuring comforter loft at center edge, between two corners

7.5.2

Oil repellency: hydrocarbon resistance test

Sometimes special product performance claims for home textiles are secured through value addition by applying functional finishes such as oil repellency and soil release finishes. Scope: This is a procedure for the determination of the resistance of a fabric to wetting by oily and aqueous based liquid. The procedures specified in AATCC 118 – 2007 should be followed. Procedure: A few clarifications of the test method are given here. Although the test method is designed for unwashed samples, five times washed samples are also tested to determine the effect of washing has on fabric finishes. Lay the specimen flat on a blotting paper. Use two layers of fabric if the sample is thin. While wearing clean laboratory gloves, brush the sample to lay down the pile, if necessary. For each oil, place five approximately 0.05 ml drops along the fill (width) direction of the sample. They should be about 1.5” apart. Make sure that the dropper does not touch the fabric. Observe the drops for 30 ± 2 seconds from a 45 degree angle. The drops of oil solution are rated. The sample passes when three or more drops are clear and well-rounded. The sample fails when three or more drops show complete wetting (21). Grading: A–Pass: Clear well rounded drop B–Borderline pass: Round drop with partial darkening C–Fail: Wicking apparent and/or complete wetting D–Fail: Complete wetting



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The grade should be measured on two separate specimens. If the two grades agree, report the value. If they do not agree then a third sample should be tested. If the third sample is the same as either of the other two, report that grade. If the third grade differs from the others, report the median of all three samples.

7.5.3

Soil release: oil stain release method

Scope: This method is for the determination of a fabric’s ability to release oily stains during home laundering. The procedure specified in AATCC 1302000 should be followed. Procedure: A few clarifications of the test method are given here. Although the test method is designed for un-washed samples, five times washed samples are also tested to determine the effect of washing has on fabric finishes. Place the original and five time wash specimens on separate AATCC white textile blotting papers. Be sure that the work area used is a smooth and horizontal surface. Using the medicine dropper, place fivedrops (approx. 0.2 ml) of Mazola corn oil in the approximate centre of each specimen. Place a 3”× 3” square of glassine paper over the stained area. Place a 2.5” diameter, 0.5 lb ± 0.1 lb stainless steel weigh on the glassine paper directly over the stained area. Allow the weight sit undisturbed for 60 ± 5 seconds. Remove the weight and discard the glassine paper. Do not allow stained test specimens to contact each other in a manner allowing transfer of stains. Wash within 20 ± 5 minutes after staining. Wash and dry the specimens in one laundry cycle. Remove specimens from the dryer immediately and lay flat to prevent formation of wrinkles or creases, which can affect the rating. To evaluate staining, mount the stain release replica on the mounting board in the lighting and evaluation area of the conditioning room. Place the specimen flat and face side up in the centre of the non-glare black topped table with one edge of the table touching the mounting board. Rotate the fabric to be viewed from the direction producing the lowest rating. At least two ratters should independently compare the residual stain on the test specimen with the stains on the stain release replica and rate each test specimen to the nearest 0.5 grade (22).

7.5.4

Vertical wicking

Scope: This test method is for the determination of how much water the cut edge of a fabric will wick-up in a specified amount of time. The procedures specified in AATCC technical supplement 017 should be followed.

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Performance of home textiles

Procedure: A few clarification of the test procedure is given here. Although the test method is designed for unwashed samples, five times washed samples are also tested to determine the effect of washing has on fabric finishes. Wash the specimens five times using the provided care instructions or ones suitable for the fabric type and construction. Follow the procedures as specified in AATCC 135 Dimensional changes of fabric after home laundering. Cut one 1”× 10” specimen in the length direction from the sample. Condition the samples for 4 hours following the procedures specified in ASTM 1776 Standard Practice for Conditioning and Testing Textiles. Perform testing in a conditioned environment. Mark each specimen 0.5 cm up from the bottom of the length with a permanent marking pen. Line the 0.5 cm mark-up with the end of the holder then attach the top of the specimen to the holder with tape. Fasten a safety pin to the specimen just under the line to prevent the specimen from moving during testing. Clamp the holder and specimen on to the stand. Place a petri dish under the holder. Leave the specimen outside of the dish. Prepare a gallon jug of distilled water with 10 drops of food colouring as needed for testing. Fill the petri dish with enough of the tinted distilled water to reach the 0.5 cm mark on the specimen (approximately 100 ml). Lower the specimen into the petri dish. The water should not go above the mark on the specimen. Set a timer for 30 minutes and start it as soon as the specimen goes into the water. After 30 minutes, read and record the wicking distance (how high the water travelled up the specimen). Discard the tinted water used to perform the test. Do not re-use the water (23). Report: Report the wicking distance in centimetres for the 30 minutes period.

7.5.5

Motif/print durability

Scope: This method of test is used to assess the durability to washing of applied motifs and print. It may also be used to assess the durability of washing of products and components. Principle: The print attached to the fabric base is subjected to a 15 minute wash in a twin tub washing machine or Roaches Dura wash. Reagents / equipment: Reagents, water, Persil biological washing powder. If Persil is not available an alternative automatic biological detergent may be used. This must be stated on the report. Equipment: Twin tub washing machine, polyester make weights, domestic tumble dryer –4kg load, non-rusting drying trays, pan balance capable of weighing up to 2kg, chemical balance accurate to +0.0/g, scissors, calibrated timer.



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Sample preparation: This test does not require that the samples are to be pre-conditioned in a standard atmosphere. Method / procedure: Examine test sample and cut from the test sample where necessary any small areas that are representative of all the colours etc., present. These will be used as reference samples for comparison with the washed sample. Fill the machine with water to the full mark (approximately 40 l). Heat water. The temperature used must relate to the wash-care label. Products and components labelled: 50°C Wash at 60°C 40°C Wash at 50°C Hand wash Wash at 40°C Weigh test sample and make load up to 1kg with the addition of polyester makeweights. Weigh 30g of detergent and add to the water. Run the machine for approximately 1 minute to dissolve the washing powder. Add any makeweights to the machine. Add the test specimen and run the machine at the required temperature for 15 minutes. Remove the test sample(s) and any makeweights. Examine any coated accessories such as buttons and enamelled metal zips, etc., (this is because the coatings will still be in a softened state). Rinse the test sample(s) and makeweights separately, twice in the spinner using cold water. Tumble dry all samples as per care label, unless given alternative instructions. The load should be made up to 1kg adding makeweights if required. The tumble dryer should be tumbled until dry in accordance with HLCC / BS (Home Laundering Consultative Council / British Standard) guidelines (24). Calculation / Assessment:Assess the effect of washing by comparison with the examination made prior to washing. Report:Report the appearance, noting position in the test sample where applicable. Where there is no noticeable change in the appearance of the test sample state ‘No significant change’ on the report. When there are some minor changes in the appearance state ‘borderline / slight change’ and give details. When there are changes in the appearance, which are not considered satisfactory, state ‘Significant change’ and give specific details. Where a sample has been identified as ‘Borderline / Slight change’ or where ‘Significant change’ has occurred, the sample must be submitted to the relevant Technical Manager for examination. Notes: Motifs must not be ironed. In some instances where appearance is being reported, it may be necessary to iron and press the test sample. Where this occurs this must be clearly identified and reported. Guidelines for the assessment of appearance after print / motif durability: The following is not intended to be an exhaustive list, but rather should be used as a guide only. Items to note may include the following:

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1. Differential shrinkage between components i.e., dropped or tight linings, seam pucker, distortion of components. 2. Seam breakdown i.e., inadequate seams, partial or non-inclusion, faulty thread or stitching, fabric slippage, fraying from seam turnings, stitching damage, etc. 3. Puckering and roping of seams. 4. Detachment of interlinings / fused components that may have delaminated, quantified as: • No delamination • Negligible delamination • Fairly distinct delamination • Complete delamination. 5. Change in handle or appearance. 6. Effect on accessories such as buttons, zips, etc. 7. Wet edge abrasion. 8. Excessive creasing. 9. Spiralling. 10. Cross staining of interlining. 11. Optical Brightening Agents (OBA’s), which occur on certain substrates as a result of the whitening agent presence in washing powders. A fluorescent suppressor should be placed over the washed specimen to assess any pick-up of the whitening agent. 12. Fraying of ribbons / trims. 13. Percolation of wadding. 14. Detachment of trims. 15. Distortion of shape. 16. Matting of fabric surface. 17. Brushing of fabric surface. 18. Pilling of fabric surface. 19. Breakdown of fabric surface. 20. Loss of elasticity (stretch and recovery) of ribbing. 21. Localised wear. 22. Colourfastness: Shade change, cross staining between components. Apply standard values as relevant performance test standard. 23. Loss of print. Apply print durability standards as required.



7.5.6

Evaluation of home textiles

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Phenolic yellowing

Scope: This method is used for assessing the potential to yellowing of textiles due to contamination from packaging, car exhaust fumes, heating, etc. It is applicable for white or pastel coloured home textiles to transit or storage yellowing. The test is specific to phenolic yellowing, which is the discolouration of textiles caused by the action of oxides of nitrogen on yellowable phenols. Reagents / equipment: Reagents: not applicable Equipment: Courtaulds phenolic yellowing kit consisting of test papers, control fabric, glass plates 100mm × 40mm × 3mm, B.H.T. free polythene film, perspirometer, oven set 50°C ± 3°C, cellotape, and grey scales BS 1006: 1990 AO3 (staining). Sample preparation: Cut test samples approximately 100 mm × 30 mm in size. Method / procedure: Fold the 100 mm × 75 mm pre-cut test paper in half along its longest axis. Insert the test sample between the folded test paper. Place this sandwich between two of the glass plates. Repeat earlier steps for the number of samples that are to be tested. Fold a further pre-cut test paper along its longest axis. Insert a control fabric between the folded test paper. Place this sandwich between two of the glass plates. A standard test package should ideally contain fivetest samples and one control sample. Each being separated from its neighbour by a glass plate such that seven glass plates are used in total. If less than five fabric samples are available from test, the number of glass plates should still be made up to seven. If more than fivesamples are being tested, a second package should be prepared. Wrap the package in at least threelayers of the B.H.T. free polythene film and seal with cellotape. Place the package on perspirometer. Place the two plates on top. Onto these place the weight and secure the plates by locking screws. Remove weight. It is important that there are no gaps left in the polythene film, which will give the outside atmosphere access to the samples under test. Place the perspirometer on its side in an oven set at 50°C ± 3°C for 16 hours, preferably overnight. Remove from the oven after this period of time and allow the whole assembly to cool. Unwrap the test package (25). Calculation / Assessment: Grade the colour change (intensity of yellow) against the original for each individual test sample using the grey scale. Note: This test is valid only if the control fabric has turned yellow. Grading must be completed as soon as the samples have cooled as the colour may fade under certain conditions.

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7.6

Performance of home textiles

Restricted substances

Knowledge and compliance of chemical substances that are either banned from use or restricted to a certain limit in the home product by global laws and regulations are important and usually monitored starting at the product adoption stage of development. Identifying “high-risk” products and testing for restricted substances where applicable leads to product compliance. Product compliance verification is authenticated by designated third party certified testing laboratories in the form of requested test reports. The results of these test reports are maintained by the brand for a reasonable period of years from the date of product shipment to the consumer. Suppliers also retain this information for the similar period of time for any future reference. Further random testing verification of “high-risk” products may be conducted by the respective brands, or in select cases, by the corporate quality assurance department.

7.6.1

Lead content in surface coating

In this test, CPSC-CH-E1003-09.1 test methodology is used to determine the total lead content of paint, or a painted surface, on a dry paint basis as defined in 16 C.F.R Part 1303, with a regulatory limit of 0.009% by weight. Adjustments may be necessary to achieve total digestion for certain paints, and should be based on sound chemistry knowledge and appropriate acids for the sample material being analysed. Screening tests by X-ray fluorescence may sometimes be employed to determine samples in need of such testing. Note on composite testing:

Composite testing-like parts (combining like paints from several like parts or products to obtain sufficient sample size for analysis when there is insufficient quantity of paint on one item to perform testing) are appropriate and may be necessary to obtain valid analytical results. Composite testing-different parts (combining different paints e.g., multiple colours from one or more samples to reduce the number tested) must be done with adequate care, planning, and understanding of the limitations and propagations of error in measurements or the test may fail to detect excessive lead in one individual paint because of dilution. If composite testing– different parts are used, great care must be taken to accurately weigh each component paint and account for the propagation of errors due to weighing and measuring, and the analyst must ensure that the compositing will not result in lead(Pb) measurement being below the detection limit for a paint component that would exceed 0.009% Pb. Each individual paint must be



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weighed individually with sufficient precision and sufficient safety factors to assure that no false negatives are reported. Sufficient paint must be used for each of the paints giving proper consideration for the weighing capabilities of the balance used and the detection limits and necessary dilution for the subsequent instrumental analysis. The combined paints could then be digested according to the procedure given below for a single paint, before analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) spectroscopy. Appropriate weights for each of the individual paints that are composited depend on final dilution volumes, weighing accuracy, and detection limits. All of the lead found in digestive for the combined composite could be attributed to the weight of each of the individual paints as though all of the lead could possibly come from any one of the individual paints. The measured lead should be treated in calculations as if it originated solely from one part of the composite; the lead concentration calculation should be carried out for each part unless identical weights of each sample were used in the analysis. It is imperative that a sufficient “safety factor” be applied to account for weighing inaccuracy and propagation of errors from each step in the analytical procedure to ensure no violative paints are misrepresented as non-violative. It has been suggested, for example, for a composite of three samples, that any sample possibly having greater than 80% of the limit for lead in paint in any of the composited paints should be retested (26, 27) Example of composite testing –lead in surface coating material

Method: CPSC test Method: CPSC-CH-E1003-09.1 – Standard Operating procedure for Determining Lead (Pb) in Paint and Other Similar Surface Coatings. Case 1 Test item

Component 1+2

Lead (Pb) [ppm] Conclusion

Permissible limit 3+4+5

78

500

90

Interim fail#

Fail*

-

Case 2 Test item

Component 1

Permissible limit 2

Lead (Pb) [ppm]

ND

150

90

Conclusion

Pass

Fail

-

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Case 3 Test item

Component

Permissible limit

1

2

3

Lead (Pb) [ppm]

ND

ND

ND

90

Conclusion

Pass

Pass

Pass

-

Note: 1. ND = Not detected 2. Method detection limit = 20 ppm 3.#= The test result is over the action limit as suggested by test method CPSC-CH-E1003-09.1, February 25, 2011. As the test result is based on the composite sample and fails into an uncertain range, where “Pass” or “Fail” cannot be truly defined, an “Interim Fail” is assigned since the composite sample may possibly fail as per the regulatory limit. It is highly recommended to conduct individual tests for the exact content of Pb in each individual component. 4. *= Conclusion is based on the composite sample. Individual testing is recommended as to understand the exact content of Pb in each individual component. For 2-in-1 composite: Result range (ppm)

Conclusion

Less than 72

Pass

More than 72 but less than 180

Interim fail with remark

More than 180

Fail with remark

For 3-in-1 composite: Result range (ppm)

Conclusion

Less than 72

Pass

More than 72 but less than 270

Interim fail with remark

More than 270

Fail with remark

Acid digestion Method: The digestion method is based on the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) standard AOAC 974.02 (28). Alternate microwave digestion based on ASTM E1645 (29)may be used as well. Analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) spectroscopy is based on ASTM E1613 (30). 1. For testing of wet paint, applied a thin coating to a glass slide, and dried completely prior to testing by heating in an oven at nominally 105°C (105°C ± 2°C) until the weight was stable for at least two successive readings; the readings should be separated by 30 minutes of heating in the oven. 2. For products coated with paint or a similar surface coating, removed and digested the coating, separately from the substrate material. Care should be taken to remove as little of the substrate as possible. It



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4.

5.

6.

7.

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might be necessary to add a few drops of solvent, such as methylene chloride, to soften the paint and aid in its removal from the substrate. If used, such solvent must be evaporated fully prior to analysis. The scraped paint should be finely divided to help in digesting. Scraped approximately 5–100 mg of paint from the product. If it is not possible to collect this much paint, it may be necessary to combine more than one unit of such product to collect sufficient paint. Prepared a reagent blank sample and digested and tested a standard reference paint material, such as National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) SRM 2581 – Powdered Paint Nominal 0.5% Lead or NIST SRM 2582 –Powdered Paint Nominal 0.02% Lead, with each batch of samples tested. Digested appropriately according to AOAC 974.02 or ASTM E1645 in either a disposable glass test tube with a heating block, a disposable plastic digestion vessel in a hot block digester, or in a suitable digestion vessel and digestion microwave oven system. Diluted samples so that Pb results were within the calibration range of the instrument. One must be careful not to dilute a sample that could have 0.009% Pb to a level below the method detection limit. Analysed diluted samples for Pb concentration using an Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) spectrometer or Atomic Absorption spectrometer (AAS). Analysis procedures for ICP-OES, flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FLAA), and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAA) are based on the methodology in ASTM E1613-04. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) may also be employed with appropriate procedures, such as EPA 6020A (31).

Analysis of ICP operating procedures and quality control measures 1. Ignite plasma. Performed wavelength calibration or torch alignments per instrument manufacturer recommendations. 2. Allowed the instrument to become thermally stable before continuing. 3. Ensured the following element and wavelength were selected in analytical method: a. Pb 220.353 b. One other Pb line such as Pb 217.00 was used to ensure spectral interferences were not occurring during analysis. 4. An internal standard such as 2 μg/ml yttrium should be used.

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5. Performed calibration using calibration blank and at least three standards. Calibration should be performed a minimum of once a day when used for analysis, or each time the instrument was set up. Results for each standard should be within 5% of the true value. If the values do not fall within this range, recalibration is necessary. 6. Analysed the Quality Control Sample (QCS) immediately after the calibration. The analysed value of Pb should be within ±10% of the expected value. If the Pb value is outside the ±10% limit, recalibration is required. a. At least one LRB (Laboratory Reagent Blank– an aliquot of the digestion reagents that is treated exactly as a sample including exposure to glassware, digestion media, apparatus, and conditions used for a particular Pb test, but with no added sample. LRB data are used to assess contamination from the laboratory environment) must be analysed with each sample set. If the Pb value exceeds three times the MDL [(Method Detection Limit – reagent blank fortified with 2–3 times the IDL (Instrument Detection Limit (IDL) – 3 times the standard deviation of 10 replicate measurements of reagent blank. Seven replicate measurements are made. Calculate the MDL as follows: MDL = t × S, t = 3.14 (99% confidence level for 7 replicates), SD = standard deviation)], laboratory or reagent contamination should be expected. The source of the contamination should be identified and resolved before continuing analyses. The LRBs should be at the same acid concentration as that of the sample and should be taken through the same digestion procedure as that of a sample. 7. At least one certified reference material (CRM) should be analysed with each batch of samples. The CRM should have a known amount of Pb and be of a material similar to a test specimen. Analyte recoveries should be within ±15% of expected values. If recoveries are outside this limit, the source of the problem should be identified and resolved before continuing analyses. 8. Diluted any samples that have Pb values exceeding 1.5 times the high calibration standard, and re-analysed.

Calculations and results reported Results for the Pb test methods are calculated and reported as follows: 1. Total Pb concentration: %Pb (wt./wt.) = 0.10 cd / w



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The factor 0.10 in this formula is the mathematical conversion of the units used for concentration (μg/ml), and weight of paint (mg) into percent, and represents 100% × 1 mg / 1000 μg. a. c = concentration of Pb detected (μg/ml) b. d = dilution volume (ml) c. w = weight of aliquot digested (mg) Adjustments may be necessary to achieve total digestion for certain paints and should be based on sound chemistry knowledge and appropriate acids for the sample material being analysed.

7.6.2

Lead content in substrate (metal)

In this test, CPSC-CH-E1001-8.1 test methodology is used by the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission’s testing laboratory (LSC) in the analysis of children’s metal products for lead (Pb) content. The set of methods described were used to determine the total lead content of metal items such as but not limited to children’s metal jewellery. These test methods are used to determine lead content in most metal consumer products. Adjustments may be necessary for products made from certain alloys, and should be based on sound chemistry knowledge and appropriate acids for the matrix. The general approach was to grind any accessible component part of a sample to a powder, digested completely in a combination of hot concentrated nitric and hydrochloric acids and analyse by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Other analytical methods such as Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) and Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (FLAA) and Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (GFAA) may be used under appropriate conditions as an alternative to ICP-OES using applicable, recognised analytical techniques for the alternative method.

Total Pb in metals digestion When preparing a sample, the laboratory shall make every effort to assure that the aliquot removed from a component part of a sample is representative of the component to be tested, and is free of contamination. Each unique, accessible component part from a sample was analysed for total Pb content. CPSC laboratory use either of two methods for determining lead content in metal items. One method used by CPSC laboratory was a hot block digestion, based on methodology found in Canada (32). This method is equivalent to the procedure referred to as I. Screening Test for total Pb analysis given in the CPSC

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Standard Operating Procedure for Determining Lead (Pb) and its availability in children’s metal jewellery 2/3/2005 (33). However, the second part of the reference procedure for determining acid extractability is not applicable for the determination of total lead content. The other method used by CPSC is a microwave digestion method (34) with certain modifications. Modifications of these methods may be necessary for certain alloys taking into account appropriate acids for digestion. Certified reference materials that closely match the alloy of the tested product should be used to verify accuracy of digestion and analysis methods.

Sample preparation methods Either of two methods outlined below have been found to be suitable for preparation of metal samples within the scope of this document for subsequent elemental analysis.

A. Hot block method 1. If the item is coated with paint or a similar surface coating (it may contain Pb), the coating should be removed and analysed, separately from the base metal, for lead content as described in the CPSC procedure (35). Care should be taken to remove as little of the substrate metal as possible. 2. Weighed out 30–100 mg of a component part in labelled 50ml digestion vessel. Component parts of children’s products including metal jewellery items generally weighed several grams or more, and an aliquot (with no paint or similar surface coating, but including any electroplated coating which is considered to be part of the substrate) would have to be obtained. Samples should be cut or ground into many small pieces to increase the rate of dissolution. If used, grinding apparatus (such as a rotary grinding tool with disposable grinding bits) must be thoroughly cleaned to prevent cross-contamination. Recorded actual weight to the nearest 0.1 mg. 3. In a chemical fume hood, added 8 ml of concentrated nitric acid to each beaker and evaporate to approximately 3 ml on a hot block digester at 105±3°C. 4. After cooling, added 2 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid and stir. 5. Diluted with distilled water, washing side of beaker, to 20ml.



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6. Warmed up solution to at least 60°C and gently agitated on orbital shaker or with stirrer or shaker bath for a minimum of 4 hours. 7. Transferred quantitatively into a 50ml volumetric flask or disposable volumetric digestion cups and diluted to 50ml with distilled water. 8. Diluted samples so that Pb results were within calibration range of instrument. Generally a 1:50 dilution is sufficient.

B. Microwave method 1. If the item is coated with paint or a similar surface coating (it may contain Pb), the coating should be removed and analysed, separately from the base metal, for lead content as described in the CPSC Standard Operating Procedure for Determining Lead (Pb) in Paint (http:// www.cpsc.gov/businfo/leadsop.pdf). Care should be taken to remove as little of the substrate metal as possible. 2. Weighed out a 30–100 mg piece of metal item into appropriate microwave vessel equipped with a controlled pressure relief mechanism. Component parts of children’s products including metal jewellery items generally weighed several grams or more, and an aliquot (with no paint or similar surface coating) would have to be obtained. Samples should be cut or ground into many small pieces to increase the rate of dissolution. If used, grinding apparatus (such as a rotary grinding tool with disposable grinding bits) must be thoroughly cleaned to prevent cross-contamination. Recorded actual weight to the nearest 0.1 mg. 3. Added 4.5 ml of concentrated nitric acid, and 1.5 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid to each vessel. Waited for initial reaction of acid and sample at room temperature to be complete (to the point of no obvious fuming or bubbling) before sealing vessels. Sealed vessels in accordance with manufacturer’s directions. 4. The microwave method should involve increasing temperature of each sample to at least 175°C in approximately 5.5 minutes, and holding at 175°C for 4.5 minutes 5. Allowed the samples to cool for a minimum of 5 minutes before removal form microwave. Vented the microwave vessels in fume hood before uncapping. 6. Quantitatively transferred the sample to 50 ml volumetric flask or disposable volumetric digestion cups. Diluted to 50 ml with deionised water.

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Performance of home textiles

Total lead in metals analysis Analyse diluted samples for Pb concentration using ICP spectrometer (or Atomic Absorption spectrometer). Analysis procedures for ICP-OES and FLAA and GFAA are based on methodology found in ASTM (36). ICP-MS may also be employed with appropriate procedures (37) (Note: Method C-02.4 describes alternate procedure for analysis by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy.) Calculated total lead concentration in the component part from that of the diluted sample, accounting for all dilution and reported as percent by weight of the component part itself.

Analysis of ICP operating procedures and quality control measures 1. Ignited plasma. Performed wavelength calibration or torched alignments per instrument manufacturer recommendations 2. Allowed the instrument to become thermally stable before beginning. 3. Ensured the following element and wavelength were selected in analytical method: a. Pb 220.353 b. One other Pb line such as Pb 217.00 was used to ensure spectral interferences were not occurring during analysis. 4. An internal standard such as 2 μg/ml yttrium was used. 5. Performed calibration using calibration blank and at least threestandards. Calibration should be performed a minimum of once a day when used for analysis, or each time the instrument was set up. Results for each standard should be within 5% of the true value. If the values do not fall within this range, recalibration is necessary. 6. Analysed the QCS immediately after the calibration. The analysed value of Pb should be within ±10% of the expected value. If Pb value is outside the ±10% limit recalibration is required. a. At least one LRB must be analysed with each sample set. If the Pb value exceeded threetimes the MDL, the laboratory or reagent contamination should be expected. The source of the contamination should be identified and resolved before continuing analyses. The LRBs should be the same acid concentrations as added to the sample and should be taken through the same digestion procedure. 7. At least one certified reference material (CR) would be analysed with each batch of samples. The CR should be similar material as test specimen with a known amount of Pb. Analyte recoveries should be



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within ±15% of expected values. If recoveries were outside this limit, the source of the problem should be identified and resolved before continuing analyses. 8. Diluted any samples that had Pb values exceeding 1.5 times the high calibration standard, and re-analysed.

Calculations and reported results Results for the Pb test methods were calculated and reported as follows: Total percentage Pb: %Pb (wt./wt.) = C × D / W × 100% / 1000 μg/mg a. C= concentration of Pb detected (in units of μg/ml) b. D= dilution factor (in ml units) c. W= weight of aliquot digested (in mg units)

7.6.3

Lead content in substrate (non-metal)

In this test, CPSC-CH-E1002-8.1 test methodology is used by the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission’s testing laboratory (LSC) in the analysis of children’s non-metal products for lead (Pb) content. This method is divided into three sections. The first section describes how to digest samples to determine the total lead content in crystal, ceramic, and other siliceous materials. The second section describes how to digest samples to determine the total lead content in polymeric (including natural and synthetic polymers) or plastic materials, and contains a subsection on the use of X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) for determination of lead in such polymeric materials. The third section describes how to analyse the digested samples from the first two sections. The general approach was to grind or cut any accessible component part of a sample into small pieces or a powder; digested an aliquot completely in nitric acid or – for siliceous products – in a combination of hot, concentrated nitric and hydrofluoric acids; and analyse by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Other analytical methods such as Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (FLAA), and Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (GFAA) may be used under appropriate conditions as an alternative to ICP-OES using applicable, recognised analytical techniques for the alternative analytical method. Polymeric materials may also be analysed using XRF following the standard test method (38).

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Total lead in ceramics, glass and crystal and other siliceous materials – digestion When preparing a sample, the laboratory should make every effort to assure that the aliquot removed from a component part of a sample is representative of the component to be tested and is free of contamination. Each unique component type from a subsample was analysed for total Pb content. CPSC uses a method (39) for determining lead content in ceramic or crystal materials. Certified reference materials, such as NIST SRM 89 and 610, that closely match the material of the tested product should be used to verify accuracy of digestion and analysis methods. After digesting the sample according to this procedure, it should be tested by ICP. 1. Weighed out a 30–100 mg piece of crystal, glass or ceramic item into an appropriate microwave vessel equipped with a controlled pressure relief mechanism. Ceramic items generally weigh several grams or more, and consist of the base ceramic with a glaze and decoration fired on. The lead in ceramics is generally in the glaze or decoration. When analysing ceramics or glass, the entire item including the glaze, decoration, and ceramic base material should be grounded in a cryogenic mill and 30–100 mg of the ground ceramic/glass powder weighed in an appropriate microwave vessel. If used, the grinding apparatus must be thoroughly cleaned to prevent cross-contamination. Recorded actual weight to the nearest 0.1 mg. 2. At room temperature, added 3 ml of concentrated nitric acid and 1 ml of concentrated hydrofluoric acid to each vessel. Waited for completion of the initial reaction of the acid and the sample before sealing vessels. Sealed vessels in accordance with the manufacturer’s directions. 3. The microwave method should involve increasing the temperature of each sample to at least 180°C in approximately 5.5 minutes, and holding at 180°C for 9.5 minutes. 4. Allowed the samples to cool for a minimum of 5 minutes before removal from microwave. Vented the microwave vessels in fume hood before uncapping. 5. Added 30 ml of 4% (w/w) boric acid to each vessel to permit the complexation of fluoride to protect the ICP quartz plasma torch. Quantitatively transferred the sample to a 50 ml plastic volumetric flask or disposable volumetric digestion cup. Diluted to 50 ml with deionised water.



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Total lead in plastics, polymers and other non-siliceous materials Acid digestion When preparing a sample, the laboratory should make every effort to assure that the aliquot removed from a component part of a sample is representative of the component to be tested and is free of contamination. Each unique component type from a subsample is analysed for total Pb content. CPSC uses a method based on methodology found in Canada Product Safety Bureau Method (40). EPA Method (41) with modifications in sample weight, temperature, time, and acid volumes to match those given below is also acceptable. Certified reference materials that closely match the material of the tested product, such as ERM®-EC680k (42) and EC681k should be used to verify accuracy of digestion and analysis methods. After digesting the sample according to this procedure, it should be tested by ICP. 1. Cut the test specimen into small pieces. Hard to digest plastics may need to be cryomilled to get finer powder. Weighed out 150 mg of the milled or cut plastic into an appropriate microwave vessel equipped with a controlled pressure relief mechanism. Ensured the milling apparatus is thoroughly clean between test specimens to avoid cross contamination. Recorded actual weight to the nearest 0.1 mg. 2. At room temperature, added 5 ml of concentrated nitric acid to each vessel. Waited for completion of the initial reaction of the acid and the sample before sealing vessels. Sealed vessels in accordance with manufacturer’s directions. 3. The microwave method should involve increasing temperature of each sample to a least 200°C in approximately 20 minutes, and holding for 10 minutes. 4. Allowed the samples to cool for a minimum of 5 minutes before removal from microwave. Vented the microwave vessels in a fume hood before uncapping. 5. Quantitatively transferred the sample to a 50 ml volumetric flask or disposable volumetric digestion cup. Diluted to 50 ml with deionised water.

Identification and quantification of Pb in polymeric materials using XRF Alternately, Energy Dispersive XRF can be used with limitations to quantitatively determine the amount of Pb in polymeric materials by following

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ASTM test method (43). This standard is applicable only for homogeneous polymeric materials, and for XRF instruments meeting the requirements given in the ASTM method. Components could be analysed intact without any modification if they have suitable surface characteristics, geometry and homogeneity. Destructive sample preparation techniques may be required for certain components to create a uniform sample for testing. Excessive curvature, rough surface texture, or specimen thickness less than 2 mmmay require sample preparation techniques such as compression moulding as outlined in ASTM test method (44). Based on the inter-laboratory study of reference materials reported in this standard and the fact that actual consumer products to be tested are likely to be less homogeneous than the reference materials, CSPC has concluded that analysis using wet chemical procedures should be done on any samples with Pb results determined using XRF to be greater than 70% of the Pb requirements of the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA) before certifying the item meets CPSIA.

Total Pb in acid digests of polymeric or siliceous materials – analysis of sample using ICP method Analysed diluted samples for Pb concentration using an ICP spectrometer (or Atomic Absorption spectrometer). Analysis procedures for ICP-OES and FLAA and GFAA are based on the methodology in ASTM E1613-04 (11) ICP-MS may also be employed with appropriate procedures, such as EPA 6020A (12). Calculated total lead concentration in the component part from that of the diluted sample, accounting for all dilution. Reported as percent by weight of the component part itself.

Analysis of ICP operating procedures and quality control measures 1. Ignited plasma. Performed wavelength calibration or torched alignments per instrument manufacturer recommendations. 2. Allowed the instrument to become thermally stable before beginning. 3. Ensured the following element and wavelength are selected in analytical method: a. Pb 220.353 b. One other Pb line such as Pb 217.00 was used to ensure spectral interferences were not occurring during analysis. 4. An internal standard such as 2 μg/ml yttrium was used.



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5. Performed calibration using calibration blank and at least threestandards. Calibration should be performed a minimum of once a day when used for analysis, or each time the instrument is set up. Results for each standard should be within 5% of the true value. If the values do not fall within this range, recalibration is necessary. 6. Analyse the QCS immediately after the calibration. The analysed value of Pb should be within ±10% of the expected value. If Pb value is outside the ±10% limit recalibration is required. a. At least one LRB must be analysed with each sample set. If the Pb value exceeds threetimes the MDL, laboratory or reagent contamination should be expected. The source of the contamination should be identified and resolved before continuing analyses. The LRBs should be the same acid concentrations as added to the sample and should be taken through the same digestion procedure. 7. At least one certified reference material (CRM) should be analysed with each batch of samples. The CRM should be a similar material as the test specimen with a known amount of Pb. Analyte recoveries should be within ±20% of expected values. If recoveries are outside this limit, the source of the problem should be identified and resolved before continuing analyses. 8. Diluted any samples that have Pb values exceeding 1.5 times the high calibration standard, and reanalyse.

Calculations and reported results Results for the Pb test methods are calculated and reported as follows: 1. Total Pb –% Pb (wt/wt) = 0.10 cd / w a. c= concentration of Pb detected (in units of ppm) b. d= dilution factor (in ml units) c. w= weight of aliquot digested (in mg units) The factor 0.10 in this formula is the mathematical conversion of the units used for concentration (μg/ml), and weight of material into percent, and represents 100% × 1 mg / 1000 μg. Composite testing –lead in accessible substrate materials Method for non-metallic materials: CPSC Test Method: CPSC-CH-E1002-08.1 Standard Operation Procedure for Determining Total Lead (Pb) in Non-Metal Children Product. Method (metal materials): CPSC test Method: CPSC-CH-E1001-08.1 Standard Operating Procedure for Determining Total Lead (Pb) in Children’s Metal Products (Including Children’s Metal Jewellery).

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Test item

Component (ppm) 1

2

Permissible limit (ppm)

3+4

Lead (Pb)

ND

500

90

100

Conclusion

Pass

Fail

Interim-Fail#

-

Note: 1. ND = Not detected. 2. Method detection limit = 20 ppm. 3.#= The test result is over the recommended action limit (i.e., 80% of the regulatory limit). As the test result is based on the composite sample and fails into an uncertain range, where “Pass” or “Fail” cannot be truly defined, an “Interim Fail” is assigned since the composite sample may possibly fail as per the regulatory limit. It is highly recommended to conduct individual tests for the exact content of Pb in each individual component. 4. Conclusion is based on the composite sample. Individual testing is recommended as to understand the exact content of Pb in each individual component. 5. Composite test has been performed and the result is calculated using the minimum sample weight. For 2-in-1 composite: Result range (ppm)

Conclusion

Less than 80

Pass

More than 80 but less than 200

Interim fail with remark

More than 200

Fail with remark

For 3-in-1 composite: Result range (ppm)

Conclusion

Less than 80

Pass

More than 80 but less than 300

Interim fail with remark

More than 300

Fail with remark

7.7

Cadmium in coated/plastic items

Cadmium (Cd) in coated / plastics items is determined by using the method EN 1122 / BS EN1122 (45). Test procedure summary Sample preparation: 1. Used a homogeneous sample of at least 2 g for the analysis. Cut the sample in smaller pieces with scissor preferable in pieces less than 0.1 g. 2. Weighed approximately 0.5 g of the test samples to the nearest 1 mg into a 100 ml beaker / conical flask. Carried out the analysis in duplicate.



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Sample treatment: 1. Placed the beaker / conical flask and its contents on the hot plate. Carried out the decomposition in a fume cupboard. 2. Added 10 ml of the concentrated sulphuric acid into the beaker / conical flask by using measuring cylinder. 3. Covered the beaker / conical flask with a watch glass / inverted glass funnel and heated at a higher temperature to decompose and carbonise the organic substances. When white fumes were evolved continue heating for about 15 minutes until all white fumes subsided. 4. Took the beaker / conical flask from the hot plate and allowed to cool for about 10 minutes. 5. Added slowly, from a 5 ml pipette, four 5 ml portions of hydrogen peroxide solution, allowing the reaction to subside after each addition. 6. Note: because of the danger from splattering, the beaker should be kept coveredbetween additions of the hydrogen peroxide solution. 7. Heated again for about 10 minutes until solution became clear and allowed to cool for about 5 minutes. 8. Added further 5 ml portions of the hydrogen peroxide solution and heated again. Stopped this procedure if no organic matter remained. Allowed to cool to room temperature and diluted with water taking precaution. 9. Rinsed the beaker / conical flask and the watch glass / inverted glass funnel with water, and filtered through Whatman 41 filter paper or equivalence into a 100 ml volumetric flask. 10. Made-up to the mark with water. 11. Prepared a reagent blank solution in the same way without using a test sample.

Determination: Determined the Cd content in the sample solution and blank using the calibration curve set-up by running Cd standard solution by atomic absorption spectrophotometer or inductively coupled argon plasma by using 228 nm wavelength.

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Calculation:

(C –C0) Cd content, ppm = mg/kg = ----------- x V x (F) W When C = Cd concentration in the sample solution (mg/l) C0 = Cd concentration in the blank solution (mg/l) W = Sample weight (g) V = Sample volume (ml) (F) = Dilution factor if necessary If the two results do not differ more than 20% based on the average (results between 10 and 50 mg Cd/kg) or 10% (results between 50 and 3000 mg Cd/ kg), then take the mean. Otherwise repeat the analysis.

Composite testing – total cadmium in substrate and coating Test method (plastic): With reference to EN 1122:2001 – Analysis was performed with Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS). Test method (non-plastic): In-house method – Sample was digested with concentrated acid. Analysis was performed with Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) or Inductively Coupled Argon Plasma – Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP – AES). Test item

Component (ppm)

Permissible limit (ppm)

1

3+4

Cadmium (Cd)

ND

120

5+6+7

Conclusion

Pass

Interim-Fail

#

250

75

Fail

-

Note: 1. ND = Not detected. 2. Method detection limit = 5 ppm. 3.#= The test result is over the recommended action limit (i.e. 80% of the regulatory limit). As the test result is based on the composite sample and fails into an uncertain range, where “Pass” or “Fail” cannot be truly defined, an “Interim Fail” is assigned since the composite sample may possibly fail as per the regulatory limit. It is highly recommended to conduct individual tests for the exact content of Cd in each individual component. 4. Conclusion is based on the composite sample. Individual testing is recommended as to understand the exact content of Cd in each individual component. 5. Composite test has been performed and the result is calculated using the minimum sample weight. For 2-in-1 composite: Cadmium (Coating) (ppm)

Cadmium (Substrate) (ppm)

Conclusion

Less than 60

Less than 60

Pass



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More than 60 but less than 150

More than 60 but less than 150

Interim-fail with remark

More than 150

More than 150

Fail

Cadmium (Coating) (ppm)

Cadmium (Substrate) (ppm)

Conclusion

Less than 60

Less than 60

Pass

More than 60 but less than 225

More than 60 but less than 225

Interim-fail with remark

More than 225

More than 225

Fail

For 3-in-1 composite:

7.8

Evaluation of phthalates

In this test, CPSC-CH-C1001-09.3test methodology will be used by the Consumer Product Safety Commission’s testing laboratory for the analysis of phthalate content i.e., determination of the concentration of the six regulated phthalates in children’s toys and child care articles covered by the standard set forth in the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act Section 108 and also in most consumer products. In order to protect children from the hazard the Act intended to address, that “concentrations of more than 0.1%” must apply per plasticised component part of a children’s toy or child care article (46). The general approach is to dissolve the sample completely in tetrahydrofuran, precipitate any PVC polymer with hexane, filter and then dilute the solution with cyclohexane, and analyse by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS).

Measurement of phthalate concentration The procedure to be used consists of three sections: sample preparation, extraction, and analysis.

Sample preparation Prior to analysis, each plasticised component part should be cut into small pieces (no dimension larger than 2 mm), or milled/ground into a representative powder. Each cut/milled plasticised component part would be considered a sample for testing as described below. At minimum, prepared the amount required to constitute a sufficient sample size.

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Phthalate extraction method Testing laboratory shall determine how many replicate samples are necessary to meet their quality assurance requirements. Prepared LRB concurrently with samples. 1. Weighed out a minimum of 0.05±0.005 g of sample into a sealable glass vial (weighed to an accuracy of ±0.5% relative); if sample was not uniform, collected more to reduce sample variance. 2. Added 5 ml of tetrahydrofuran (THF) to the sample. For samples larger than 0.05 g, added 10 ml of THF for every 0.1 g of sample (or a reasonable amount to dissolve sample). Shook, stirred, or otherwise mixed sample for at least 30 minutes to allow dissolution. Sample may be sonicated and/or gently heated to expedite dissolution. Some materials may not dissolve completely. In this case, added an additional 2 hours to mixing time and then proceed. 3. Precipitated any PVC polymer with 10 ml of hexane for every 5 ml of THF used in Step 2. Shook and allowed at least 5 minutes for polymer to settle (longer times may be necessary to minimise clogging of filters in subsequent step). 4. (Optional) Filtered THF/hexane solution through a 0.45 μm PTFE filter. Collected a few ml of filtered solution in separate vial. This step is optional, but recommended. 5. Combined 0.3 ml* of the THF/hexane solution with 0.2 ml of internal standard (BB, 150 μg/ml) in a GC vial, and dilute to 1.5 ml with cyclohexane. 6. *Note: Depending on the phthalate concentration, a different dilution ratio may be necessary to produce results in the calibration range. (e.g., if the sample is known to contain ~5% phthalate, increase the amount of filtered THF/hexane solution from 0.3 to 1.0 ml). For very low concentrations (~0.1%), use 1.3 ml of filtered solution. A prescreen of the sample by IR spectroscopy can provide a broad estimate of phthalate concentration.

GC-MS operating procedures and quality control measures A GC-MS system with an auto-sampler was suggested for the sample analysis. The GC conditions used are given in Table 7.1.The 20:1 split mode injection should be used when the phthalate concentration was expected to be ≥5%. All other samples were run in split less mode. A pre-screen of the sample by IR spectroscopy can provide a broad estimate of phthalate concentration.



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Samples were analysed using both full scan mode and the Selective Ion Monitoring (SIM) program listed in Table 7.2. Monitor for corresponding ions of each compound listed in a time segment (e.g., set Group 3 to monitor for 149, 167, 261, 279, 293, and 307 m/z). The retention times listed are based on CPSC data, and must be confirmed by analysing stock standards. The last column indicates the identification (ID) ion, and the relative abundance of this ion to 149 m/z. If the instrument to be used has limited SIM abilities, monitor for only those ions in bold. Table 7.1 GC conditions GC Conditions Column

DB-5MS; 30 m x 0.25 mm ID x 0.25 μm

Flow Mode

1 ml/min, constant flow (He gas)

Inlet Mode

20:1 Split or Splitless

Injection Amount

1 μl

Inlet Temperature

290°C

Solvent Delay

5 minutes

Initial Oven Temp, Hold Time

50°C, 1 minute

Ramp 1

30°C/min, 280°C

Ramp 2

15°C/min, 310°C

Final Hold Time

4 min or longer

Table 7.2 SIM settings Parameter

SIM group 1

Estimated retention time (min)

Corresponding ions Published relative (m/z) abundance of ID ion to 149 m/z

5–9.5

BB (internal standard)

7.9

91.1, 105, 194, 212

DBP

8.5

149, 167, 205, 223

223:4

SIM group 2

9.5–10.8

BBP

9.8

91.1, 149, 206

206:27

DEHP

10.4

149, 167, 279

279:10

11.2

149, 167, 261, 279

279:12

DINP

11.6

149, 167, 293

293:26

DIDP

12.1

149, 167, 307

307:27

SIM group 3 DnOP

10.8–end

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Analysis 1. Prepared at least four calibration standards for each of the six phthalates of interest along with one calibration blank (cyclohexane). Each calibration standard should have an internal standard concentration of 20 μg/ml (for 20:1 split mode samples) or 1 μg/ml (for splitless mode samples). 2. Analyse standards and blank with the GC-MS in both full-scan mode and SIM. Qualitatively analysed the results to ensure proper retention times and no contamination. 3. Integrated the peak area from valley to valley (approximate retention times are listed in Table 7.2) for each standard. Compounds monitored in SIM Groups 1 and 2 can be quantified by extracted ion chromatograph (EIC) or the ion chromatograph (suggested quantitative ions are in bold). The phthalates monitored in SIM Group 3 overlap and mustbe quantified using their quantitative ions (again, in bold). 4. Constructed a calibration curve using normalised phthalate responses. The normalised phthalate response (Phtn) is calculated by: Phtn = Pht / ISTD, where Pht is the phthalate response and ISTDis the internal standard response. 5. Analyse a CRM to ensure a proper calibration. The analysed value should be within ±15% of the expected value. If not, it is advised to prepare new standards and re-run calibration. 6. Analyse the LRB and all samples. 7. Qualitatively evaluated full-scan results. Phthalates of interest should be identified by matching with retention times and mass spectra of standards. Potential non-regulated chemicals which may have mass ions of interest and/or similar retention times and must be qualitatively eliminated from consideration based on their spectra and chromatograms include, but are not limited to, linear C9 and C10 phthalates, and terephthalates. 8. Quantitated SIM results. If the results were out of the calibration range, returned to step 5 of the phthalate extraction method (performed another dilution to get results in calibration range). If signal was near or below the limit of detection, changed the inlet mode to splitless injection (when using splitless injection, samples and calibration curves should contain an internal standard concentration of 1 μg/ml). If signal was still below quantitation limits when using a splitless injection, the injection amount could be doubled from 1 μl to 2 μl (calculations must be adjusted accordingly).



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Calculations and results Results can be reported as follows: Percentage [Phthalate] = % Phthalate (w/w) = [(C x V x D) / (W x 1000)] x 100 Where, C = Concentration of phthalate in GC-MS sample (in μg/ml) V = Total volume of THF and hexanes added from steps 2 and 3 of phthalate extraction method D = Dilution factor from step 5 of phthalate extraction method W = Weight of sample collected (in mg) Repeated calculation for each phthalate present in sample Composite testing – phthalate Method: With reference to CPSC-CH-C1001-09.3, analysis was performed by GC-MS. Component (%) 1+2+3

4+5+6

7

Permissible limit per component (%)

Dibutyl Phthalate (DBP)

ND

ND

ND

0.1

Benzyl butyl Phthalate (BBP)

ND

0.05

ND

0.1

Bis-(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate [DEHP]

ND

ND

0.25

0.1

Diisononyl Phthalate (DINP)

ND

ND

ND

0.1

Di-n-octyl Phthalate (DNOP)

ND

ND

ND

0.1

Diisodecyl Phthalate (DIDP)

ND

ND

ND

0.1

PASS

InterimFail

FAIL

Test item

Conclusion

Note: 1. % = percentage by weight. 2. ND = not detected. 3. Method detection limit for each of DBP, BBP, DEHP and DNOP = 0.003% (0.015% by CPSC method). 4. Method detection limit for each of DINP and DIDP = 0.01% (0.015% by CPSC method). 5. Resulted presented in this table are the calculated results based on the above tested components. The calculation is based on the worst case estimation and the result is calculated by consideration of the weight contribution of the tested components to the whole product. 6. Composite test has been performed.

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For 2-in-1 composite: Each specified phthalate (%)

Conclusion

Less than 0.04

Pass

More than 0.04 but less than 0.1

Interim fail with remark

More than 0.1

Fail with remark

For 3-in-1 composite: Each specified phthalate (%)

Conclusion

Less than 0.0264

Pass

More than 0.0264 but less than 0.1

Interim fail with remark

More than 0.1

Fail with remark

7.9

Nickel release test: BS EN 1811& BS EN 12472

Test procedure summary: Sample area determination: 1. The sample area is the entire surface area of the metal component that comes into direct and prolonged contact with the skin(47). 2. For regular shape samples, measured the dimension with a calliper or ruler and calculate the sample area(48). 3. A minimum sample area of 0.2 cm2 shall be tested. Identical items may be treated together to obtain the minimum area. 4. For articles appear to be made from uniform materials, consideration should be given to testing the whole surface. 5. For articles made from round wire (diameter 3 mm) can be assumed to depress the skin around the article to a depth of 2 mm. Equally, if the surface of the part of the article in contact with the skin contains indentations or depressions 2,000 mg/kg2)

Aquatic Toxicity3)

LC50, EC50, IC50 >1 mg/l

Relation of biodegradability / eliminability4) to aquatic toxicity3)

Only allowed, if: 100 mg/l >70% and >10 mg/l >95% and >1 mg/l

1) Performing new animal tests to determine unknown LD50 values in the course of the GOTS assessment procedure for inputs (compare chapter 2.3.3) is prohibited. Instead, alternative methods (e.g., Acute Toxicity Estimates (ATE), conclusions on analogy from similar products, validated structure-activity relationships, calculation from available data of substances contained, expert judgment, in vitro tests) must be used to determine unknown values. 2) Substances and preparations, such as alkaline and acids, that fail to meet this requirement because of their pH value only, are exempt from this requirement. 3) Accepted testing methods [duration]: Performing new fish and daphnia tests to determine unknown LC50 / EC50 values in the course of the GOTS assessment procedure for inputs is prohibited. Instead alternative methods to OECD 203 [96 hour] and EC50 daphnia, OECD 202 [48 hour] (e.g., Acute Toxicity Estimates (ATE), validated structure-activity relationships, conclusion on analogy from similar products, calculation from available data of substances contained, fish egg test (embryo toxicity test (FET)), in vitro test) must be used to determine unknown values; IC50 algae, OECD 201 [72 hour]. 4) Testing methods: OECD 301 A, OECD 301, E, ISO 7827, OECD 302 A, ISO 9887, OECD 302 B, ISO 9888 or OECD 303A; alternatively to meet the 70% level a preparation tested with one of the methods OECD 303A or ISO 11733 a percentage degradation of at least 80% must

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be shown – or if tested with one of the methods OECD 301 B, ISO 9439, OECD 301 C, OECD 302 C, OECD 301 D, ISO 10707, OECD 301 F, ISO 9408, ISO 10708 or ISO 14593 a percentage degradation of at least 60% must be shown. To meet the 95% level, if tested with any of the mentioned methods a percentage degradation of 95% must be shown. Testing duration with each method is 28 days.

Basic requirements for GOTS Certification (9) 1. Scope – GOTS covers production, processing, manufacturing, packaging, labelling, exportation, importation and distribution of natural fibres only. The aim of these standards is to define requirements to ensure organic status of textiles, from harvesting of the raw materials, through environmentally and socially responsible manufacturing up to labelling in order to provide a credible assurance to the end consumer. 2. Labelling requirements – GOTS have basically two types of label grades. One is Organic / Organic – in conversion and second is Made with X% of organic / Made with X% of Organic – in conversion material. The only difference is the minimum percentage of organic material used. 3. Requirements of organic fibres: - Organic certified natural fibres required only. Fibres form conversion period certified according to recognised international or national standards and certified by any International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) accredited or internationally recognised (according to ISO 65) certifier. 4. Requirements of chemicals / inputs – All the chemical, dyes, auxiliaries and input used in the processing of the organic textile product should be approved from the GOTS. If not then MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) is required for all the input used by suitably mentioning the toxicity information of the substances. 5. Identification and separation – Identification of the organic product should be proper and it should be stored separately so as to ensure that organic and conventional fibres are not commingled and that organic fibres are contaminated by contact with conventional or prohibited material. 6. Requirements processing stages of organic textile – At every stage in processing of the organic textile allowed are substances derived from natural raw materials only. The PVA and PVC used in the sizing should not contain more than 25% of total sizing combination. Oils used in weaving and knitting must not contain heavy metals. Non-woven manufacturing should be according to the GOTS only. All the inputs used in the processing of the organic textile should be according to the GOTS. All the accessories used in the organic product should follow GOTS criteria. 7. Environmental management – Operator must have written environmental policy. Depending on the processing stages performed, the policy should include.



Eco-friendly aspect in home textiles

275

• Person responsible • Procedures to monitoring and minimising waste discharge • Procedures to follow in case waste and pollution incidents • Documentation of staff training 8. Wastewater treatment – Operator should treat the wastewater coming from all wet processing sites before discharge it to the surface water. Wet water units must measure and monitor sediment quantities, wastewater temp. and wastewater pH. Wastewater discharges to the environment must not exceed 20 g COD/kg of processed textile (output). For scouring greasy wool an exceptional limit of 45 g COD/kg applies. Treatment of wastewater from water retting of bast fibres must achieve a reduction of COD (or TOC) of at least 95% for hemp fibres and 75% for all other bast fibres. Wastewater discharges to surface waters further must have a pH between 6 and 9 (unless the pH of the receiving water is outside this range) and a temperature of less than 35°C (unless the temperature of the receiving water is above this value). Wastewater analyses must be performed and documented periodically at normal operating capacity. 9. Storage, packaging and transport – Organic textile products must be stored and transported in such a manner as to prevent contamination by prohibited substances and commingling with conventional products. Packaging material must not contain PVC. Transportation routes must be documented. 10. Record keeping – The applicant must keep the records of all his activities. The records must reveal all the activities and transactions in details so as to be readily understood and audited. Records must provide origin, nature, quantities, product storage, dispatch, transportation, sales, label profile, lot coding system retail packaging, cleaning inventory report, etc. 11. Technical quality parameters – Final product approved by GOTS must comply technical quality parameters. Test report of the technical quality parameters of finished product required as per GOTS. 12. Residue testing – Any final product labelled according to these standards should comply with the chemical quality parameters. Test report of residue testing of organic textile product and accessories required as per GOTS. 13. Risk assessment analysis – All GOTS Goods and the components of these products should be included in this risk assessment and therefore potentially subject to testing. The testing frequency and the number of samples should be established according to this risk assessment. Samples for residue testing may also be taken by the inspector during the required on-site inspection, either as back-up to the inspection process or in case of suspicion of contamination or non-compliance. Additional samples of goods may be taken from the supply chain at any time without advance notice. Laboratories that are accredited according to ISO/IEC 17025 and that

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have appropriate experience in textile residue testing are approved to perform residue testing under this standard. 14. Minimum social criteria – The social criteria apply to the textile processing level only. These criteria must contain following points. • Employment chosen employment • Freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining are respected • Working conditions are safe and hygienic • Child labour must not be used • Living wages must meet national legal standards • Working hours should not be excessive • No discrimination on the basis of caste, national origin, religion, age disability, marital status, sexual orientation and political affiliation. • Regular employment is provided • Harsh or inhumane treatment is prohibited. Toxicity A large number of chemicals, dyes and auxiliaries are used by the textile industry. The hazardous property in terms of toxicity is not sufficiently known or established for majority of them. It is therefore necessary to check toxicity for each of these chemicals to the following species in aquatic environment. In addition, it may also be required to assess for oral toxicity. Aquatic toxicity Aquatic toxicity can be classified in three categories (10) such as acute fish toxicity (LC50), acute daphnia toxicity (EC50), and acute toxicity to algae (IC50). The toxicity is assesses relative to the degradability / eliminability of the respective substance. The basic idea is that a higher toxicity can be tolerated when the substance is easily eliminable / degradable. In the same way, a substance of low eliminability / degradability may only have a low toxicity. It must be taken into account here that the toxicity is low when the stated value for the toxicity in mg /l or mg / kg is high. A value of 100 mg / l means a lower toxicity than a value of 10 mg / l. This means that only higher concentrations of this chemical have a toxic effect on organisms. Bio-degradability and toxicity of chemicals are generally assessed against the criteria as described in Table 9.3. A chemical is not permitted for use if the substance has 50–300

Category 3

>300–2,000

Category 4

>2,000–5,000

Category 5

>5,000

Unclassified

LD 50>2,000 mg / kg is considered a non-toxic. In addition to this, any final product labelled according to GOTS standards should comply with the technical quality parameters which are given in Table 9.4. Information pertaining to any potential non-compliance must be indicated by the licensee of the final product in the product declaration. Even if produced in compliance with this standard textiles may still carry traces of residues (due to unavoidable contamination). Limiting values of such residues in GOTS goods are listed in Table 9.5. Limiting values of residues associated with additional materials and accessories used for GOTS goods are tabulated in Table 9.6. Table 9.4 Technical quality parameters Parameter

Criteria

Test method

Rubbing fastness, dry for fibre blends

3–4 3

ISO 105x121

Rubbing fastness, wet

2

ISO 105x121

Perspiration fastness, alkaline and acid for fibre blends

3–4 3

ISO 105 E042

Light fastness

3–4

ISO 105 B023

Dimensional changes after washing at 40°C resp. at 30°C for animal fibre material and blends thereof. This criterion is only valid for the garment sector. Knitted/hosiery: Woven

ISO 63304 max. 8% max. 3%

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Performance of home textiles

Saliva fastness

“FAST” for baby and children’s clothing

LMBG B 82.10-15

Washing fastness when washed at 60°C

3–4

ISO 105 C06 C1M6

Washing fastness of animal fibre material and blends thereof when washed at 30°C

3–4

ISO 105 C06 A1S7 without use of steel balls

ISO 105x12 Textiles – Test for colour fastness – Part X12: Colourfastness to rubbing. ISO 105 E04 Textiles – Test for colour fastness – Part E04: Colourfastness to perspiration. 3 ISO 105 B02 Textiles – Test for colour fastness – Part E04: Colour fastness to artificial light: Xenon arc fading lamp test. 4 ISO 6330 Textiles – Domestic washing and drying procedures for textile testing. 5 LMBG B 82.10-1 Examination of coloured toys against saliva and perspiration fastness. 6 ISO 105 C06 C1M Colourfastness to domestic and commercial laundering. 7 ISO 105 C06 A1S Colourfastness to domestic and commercial laundering. 1 2

Table 9.5 Limiting values of residues in GOTS goods Parameters

Criteria

Test method

Alkylphenol (ethoxylates) NP, OP, NPEO, OPEO sum parameter