Textiles of the Indonesian Archipelago 9780824886233

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TEXTILES OF THE INDONESIAN ARCHIPELAGO

ASIAN STUDIES AT HAWAII The Publications Committee of the Asian Studies Program will consider all manuscripts for inclusion in the series, but primary consideration will be given to the research results of graduate students and faculty at the University of Hawaii.

The series

includes monographs, occasional papers, translations with commentaries, and research aids. Orders for Asian Studies at Hawaii publications should be directed to the University Press of Hawaii, 535 Ward Avenue, Honolulu, Hawaii 96814.

Present

standing orders will continue to be filled without special notification. PREVIOUSLY PUBLISHED (No. 1)

Bibliography of English Language Souraes on Human Ecology, Eastern Malaysia and Brunei. Compiled by Conrad P. Cotter with the assistance of Shiro Saito. September 1965. Two parts.

(No. 2)

Eoonomio Factors in Southeast Asian Social Change. May 1968. Robert Van Niel, editor.

No. 3

East Asian Occasional Papers (I). J. Lamley, editor. May 1969.

Harry

No. 4

East Asian Occasional Papers (2). J. Lamley, editor. July 19 70.

Harry

No. 5

A Survey of Historical Source Materials Java and Manila. Robert Van Niel. February 19 71.

No. 6

Educational Theory in the People 's Republic of China: The Report of Ch'ien Chung-Jui. Translation by John N. Hawkins. May 1971.

No. 7

Hai Jui Dismissed from Office. Wu Han. Translation by C. C. Huang. June 1972.

No. 8

Aspects of Vietnamese History. Walter F. Vella. March 1973.

No. 9

Southeast Asian Literatures A Preliminary Bibliography. Jenner. March 19 73.

in

in

Edited by Translation: Philip N.

Asian Studies at Hawaii, No. 10

TEXTILES OF THE INDONESIAN ARCHIPELAGO

Garrett and Bronwen Solyom

Asian Studies Program University of Hawaii The University Press of Hawaii

The A s i a n S t u d i e s Program of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Hawaii o f f e r s raultidisciplinary c o u r s e work l e a d i n g t o t h e b a c h e l o r ' s and m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e s i n E a s t A s i a n , S o u t h e a s t A s i a n , and South A s i a n Studies. In a d d i t i o n , i t e n c o u r a g e s r e s e a r c h and s c h o l a r l y p r o j e c t s r e l a t e d t o A s i a . Many d e p a r t m e n t s of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Hawaii award advanced degrees f o r s t u d i e s d e a l i n g w i t h A s i a .

L i b r a r y of Congress C a t a l o g Card Number ISBN 0 - 8 2 4 8 - 0 2 6 8 - 3 Lithographed in Japan

All r i g h t s

reserved

72-97100

CONTENTS Preface

vii

Map

xii

Some Notes on Textiles in the Indonesian Archipelago Uses

1

Materials and techniques

6

Relationship between women and textiles

.

8

Magical and religious significance . . . .

10

Styles and motifs

12

Foreign influences

15

Bibliography

18

Description of Textiles Bali

23

Borneo

26

Celebes

30

Flores

32

Roti

33

Sawu

34

Sumatra

35

Sumba

41

Timor

45

Glossary

47

Acknowledgments for textiles loaned

51

Plates

PREFACE This volume is intended to provide an enduring record of an exhibition of Indonesian textiles held at Spalding House, Honolulu Academy of Arts, from January 15 to April 15, 1973.

Both exhibition and

book grew out of the desire to illustrate some of the less well-known arts of Indonesia.

Indonesian

textiles have a great richness and variety, to be appreciated on both artistic and technical grounds. They are of great cultural significance, still playing prominent roles in magic and ritual as well as day-to-day living, although some are not made any more and the traditions from which they arose are being forgotten. The selection of pieces was determined primarily by what was available for loan in Honolulu.

Some

important items have been borrowed from mainland collections and museums.

Particular emphasis has

been given to handwoven textiles in which a weaving or dyeing technique is instrumental in creating the design. applique. inclusive.

There are also examples of embroidery and The representation is broad, but not allFor every textile shown, there is yet

another area or technique not represented.

Java,

Kisar, Lomblen, Lombok, and Sumbawa, for example, are not covered.

Bark cloths and fabrics with

shell-, bead-, glue-, and stencil-work have been omitted for lack of good examples.

Javanese batik

is not discussed because it has already received considerable attention elsewhere. Most of the textiles described come from within the territory of the Republic of Indonesia, but political boundaries have been overstepped to include textiles from Portuguese Timor and the Malaysian

states of Sarawak and Sabah because these areas belong to the same geographic and cultural sphere. Because the exact provenance of all the pieces is not known, it has not been possible to be consistent in identifying their origins--in some cases a piece is identified with an ethnic or tribal group, in others with a geographic area, an island, a district, or even a city.

Most textiles were obtained by

their present owners after World War II and have been made in the twentieth century. In an effort to show the complexity of the weaving and dyeing techniques exhibited without embarking on a detailed analysis, we have tried to describe first the basic structure of each fabric and then the means by which the design or ornament is created. The text is followed by a short glossary of weaving and decorating terms. fringes.

All measurements include

References are numbered in the biblio-

graphy, and citations in the text appear in parentheses giving only the number in the bibliography and appropriate pages. Neither the exhibition nor the book could have been produced without the participation of many organizations and individuals.

The Honolulu Academy

of Arts provided exhibit space at Spalding House and through its resources took care of loan arrangements, insurance, and other exhibition details.

We thank

their staff, particularly Leslie B. Nerio, for their generous assistance.

The Asian Studies Program at

the University of Hawaii gave financial support for publication.

The Hawaii-Indonesia Association con-

tributed funds to defray other expenses.

We are

most grateful to the Southeast Asian Studies Committee of the Asian Studies Program, without whose viii

financial support and good advicè this volume would not have been possible. We wish to thank especially Professors Alice Dewey, Prithwish Neogy, Walter F. Vella, Betty Sullivan, and Oma Umbel for their continued encouragement and efforts to find assistance for our project; Professor Hester Robinson and Reiko Brandon for their help with weaving terminology; Eric Vella for his patience and care with the camera; Jeannette Bennington, who drew the map; and the many people, particularly Indonesian students and residents here, who were our informants on all manner of details. Most of all we are grateful to those who stripped their houses, trusted their textiles to us, and shared their knowledge about them.

Making a selec-

tion was very difficult, and we regret that we did not have room to exhibit or to describe and illustrate them all.

ix

TEXTILES OF THE INDONESIAN ARCHIPELAGO

SOME NOTES ON TEXTILES IN THE INDONESIAN ARCHIPELAGO "May I work You (the loom) so swiftly that my seat does not have time to get warm or the rice pot to boil over. Such is the blessing of Allah." Weaver's prayer, Celebes

(8, p. 506)

USES In Indonesia, a kain (piece of cloth) may serve many functions, from simple clothing to currency for payment of a fine, all intimately related to the life of the people. At the market in Maumere, Flores, hung out for sale inches away from the dusty road, are new handwoven cotton textiles, patterned with flowers and intended for everyday use as sarong selendang

(skirts),

(shoulder scarves), and selimut

purpose blankets).

(multi-

In neighboring Timor you may

not see them for sale, but they are proudly worn to the market, exhibiting the fine work of women of the family and identifying by their colors and designs the district where they were made.

Thus, in some

parts of Indonesia, handwoven textiles are still used daily--as baby carriers, headcloths, sashes, belts, bags, and the popular sarong and

selendang.

Some of the more elaborate textiles retain their significance for ceremonies and rituals even when changes in fashion and the increasing availability of ready-made cloth have eliminated the simpler ones as everyday wear.

They may be seen in the

rich dance costumes of almost every region, and are worn for weddings, circumcisions, tooth filings, funerals, and other rites of passage.

They may be

present but not worn at many religious and social 1

occasions.

For example, in Borneo, hangings known

as pua decorate the inside walls of the longhouse and drape over verandas at feasts

(20, p. 144).

the Balinese new year festival, galungan, woven version of the lamak

For

a rare

(a striking ornament us-

ually made from strips of young palm leaves) may be hung from the offertory altars of the inner temple (39, p. 257; 46, pp. 200, 214).

Valuable cloths

are draped over the dead in Timor and Bali, while in parts of Flores, ikat* cloths cover the boxes containing ancestor bones which are kept in the rafters of grave bone shrines

(29, p. 24).

Sumban-

ese ruling families save many of their very finest textiles for funeral rites.

The corpse is dressed

in them, and draped until it becomes a huge mound. Relatives and other guests bring textiles as funeral gifts which are displayed by the hundreds.

Some go

into the grave to accompany the dead to the hereafter. The quantity of textiles displayed, along with other gifts, serves both as a sacrifice to the deceased and as a demonstration of the continuing power and wealth of the ruling class

(5, pp. 62-68).

Cloths are important in affirming family and lineage relationships. a selendang

At an East Javanese wedding,

is draped around both the married couple

and the wife's mother, symbolizing the adoption of the groom into the bride's family (19, p. 58).

Part

of the bride-portion in Central Celebes may include the kolokompo,

a small piece of weaving of no prac-

tical use, given to signify the transfer of the groom from the hearth of his parents to that of his parents^Weaving and dyeing terms are defined in the Glossary. 2

in-law.

The cloth is saved for subsequent marriages

in that family and thus moves from one kin group to another (7, vol. 2, p. 316).

Batak parents present

their pregnant daughter with an ulos ni tondi (cloth of her soul); they put it around her shoulders symbolizing the transfer of their strength to her (27, p. 83).

In South Sumatra, the square "ship cloth"

known as tampan is involved in symbolic exchange between members with corresponding positions in lineages related by marriage.

Although the tampan

are now returned after being received as a wrapping for ceremonial food at marriage negotiations, they symbolically serve to establish and strengthen interlineage relationships (21, abstract). Both locally made and imported cloths may achieve heirloom status. divine origins.

Old cloths may be accorded

Patola silks (double ikat cloths

from Gujarat, India) and cotton imitations made in Europe and Asia were imported by the Dutch East India Company. Toradja as maa

Both were known to the Sa'dan 1

and were believed to have been

woven by an ancestor who sat on one mountain with her loom resting on another.

They are worn by her

descendants today for certain feasts (37, p. 186). The palepai , the rectangular form of the ship cloth, was the prerogative of the eldest representatives of founding lineages and served as the backdrop for the principal figure in a ritual ceremony.

These

were traditionally inherited by the eldest son, although others within the family now feel they have the right to borrow the cloth from him (21, abstract). Among the Iban (Sea Dayaks) of Borneo, the right to make and wear certain patterns was inherited,

al-

though the patterns could be sold later (20, p. 165; 3

23, p. 123). Possession of textiles is sometimes a sign of wealth or social status, especially where certain kinds of textiles or designs were limited to the nobility.

The brilliant patterns of the Sumba kain

and the decorated lau (skirt), for example, were for members of the highest social class, the Maramba and their retainers, or for prominent members of the free class, the Kabihu.

Motifs such as

patola ratu

(named for its close relationship to the Indian patola) were for Maramba alone, although the wider distribution of these patterns today suggests that this situation is changing.

Techniques of dyeing

and weaving which produce the restricted designs and colors are kept secret and jealously guarded-one East Sumbanese man of wealth built a wall around the area where cloths made in his family were dyed (5, p. 75).

Only the wealthy nobility had the time

and could afford the slaves to help with the weaving after the noblewomen had completed the secret, complex dye processes.

Only they possessed enough

cloths to participate in mandatory ritual exchanges on occasions such as visits, funerals, and marriages, and to sustain the loss when they were the givers (5, p. 57). Textiles also became items for export and a source of income.

In the Sumba port of Waingapu an

export trade in Sumba kain developed around the regular arrival of Dutch ships bearing tourists and officials who could be predicted to buy kain.

This

ready market led to expanded production, and profits accrued to both the ruling households and the villagers.

Some debasement of design and dyeing quality

occurred in these "market kain" but not in the cloths 4

produced for traditional needs (5, pp. 96-97). A striking example of the role of cloths as exchange and wealth items is found among the Mejprat and other tribes in the Vogelkop area of West Irian. Since they made only bark cloth, woven textiles became a

popular trade item starting in the seven-

teenth century, when foreigners began arriving with the monsoons to obtain massoi bark (sold later by the spice traders as "clove bark") , bird of paradise feathers, and other treasures found there.

The Mej-

prat thereby obtained cloths of all kinds-- Indian patola silk and cotton imitations, both popular throughout the archipelago, and the coarser cotton ikats from the Lesser Sundas, the Moluccas, and the Celebes--collectively known as kain Timur.

An

elaborate system of classification and values was built around these cloths and related to the Mejprat's own embroidered bark cloth.

New symbolic interpreta-

tions (mostly sexual) were placed on the kain Timur designs, and the cloths became the center of a complex cycle of delayed exchanges.

Particular kinds of

cloths were required for particular occasions and were obtained through borrowing and later repayment with added interest. paid in cloth.

Fines and obligations were

Some cloths that had seen many cycles

were "retired" as heirlooms and were no longer available for general circulation.

The gradual emphasis

on keeping cloths and building up a stock to lend resulted in the development of a type of entrepreneur, the popot (literally, cloth grabber), who achieved power through loan, receipt, and display of cloths. The preoccupation with obtaining cloths was found to be so detrimental to the total functioning of the

5

society that in 1954, efforts were made by the Dutch government to ban their use.

Many were confiscated,

but today it is not clear whether the situation has been resolved MATERIALS

AND

(17, pp. 125-197; 28, pp. 134-141). TECHNIQUES

In some areas of Indonesia where weaving is not done, such as West Irian, parts of the Celebes, and parts of Borneo, the manufacture and ornament of bark cloth reached a high standard.

Where weaving has been a-

dopted, it may sometimes be related to the motifs and techniques of matting, basketry, and netting done in the same areas.

Some fabrics illustrate a transition

between plaiting and weaving by combining cotton with one of the shorter vegetable fibers usually used for plaiting.

Koffo,

once made in the Sangi and Talaud

islands, was a quite fine, flexible fabric combining a cotton weft and a fiber warp

(8, pp. 517-518).

The textiles in this exhibition may be characterized as falling into two broad groups.

Relatively

coarse cloths of local, homespun cotton, colored mostly with vegetable dyes and using the warp ikat technique, are found in the Lesser Sundas and among the Iban, Toradja, and Batak.

Finer cloths, often

silk and now synthetics such as rayon, are woven with the supplementary weft technique and/or richly ornamented with gold or silver metallic thread. are found in Sumatra, Bali, and Sumbawa.

They

Some of

the finest silks, especially those of Macassar, exhibit the weft ikat technique. Beyond these two broad groups, every region or island has its distinctive and unique features of design or technique.

For example, only in the 6

village of Tenganan Pegeringsingan in Bali is the rare and difficult technique of double ikat found-in the celebrated kain gevingsing, a sacred cloth used in many adat ceremonies (prescribed by customary law).

The pilih technique, unique to the Iban, is a

variation of the supplementary weft method in which the supplementary weft threads form the background for the design rather than the design itself.

The

uncommon supplementary warp technique is found in the remarkable skirts from Sumba while those from Lampung exhibit very distinctive embroidery and appliqué. Various combinations of techniques may be found.

The

Atjehnese combine warp ikat and supplementary weft to produce typical geometric patterns.

The Batak may

mix plain, twill and tapestry weaves in a cloth further ornamented with embroidery, beading or twined end bands. According to Roth, "one birthplace of weaving was in this part of the world" (41, p. 82).

At

least, primitive backstrap looms at all stages of evolution may be found throughout the islands. The simplest form, as used by the Iban, is usually set up with open loop continuous warping around the warp beam, which is fixed to a tree or house pole, for example, and a breast beam which is attached to a harness that goes behind the weaver's back (23, pp. 11-12).

As the cloth is woven, the warp is shifted

around to keep the working area in reach of the weaver.

The backstrap is best adapted to handling

narrow fabrics up to about two feet wide.

Many of

the textiles shown and discussed here were woven this way, the larger ones having two or more panels sewn together.

More sophisticated are the looms

which allow the warp threads to unwind from the warp 7

beam as the weaving progresses while the finished cloth is wound up on the breast beam.

This is the

case with the introduced Malay-type frame looms also used in the archipelago, though some backstrap looms appear to illustrate a transition stage (41, pp. 8286).

Use of a more sophisticated loom does not im-

ply that more sophisticated weaving patterns can be produced, but rather that they can be achieved with greater speed and ease.

For example, any number of

heddles can be introduced in either the backstrap or the Malay loom, but in the latter they are more conveniently controlled by pedals.

The card type of

heddle, for weaving narrow bands, is found in Java, Timor, and Celebes (11, pp. 168-187). Dyes and thread are obtained from many sources. More and more the locally produced item is being replaced by ready-made substitutes from outside the area.

Less cotton is planted (40, p. 234), and

thread is imported.

Local dyes made from plants

and occasionally mineral sources such as mud are being replaced by modern chemical dyes.

Frequently

the new elements are seen in the same cloth with the traditional ones. RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN

WOMEN AND

TEXTILES

Weaving in Southeast Asia is universally woman's work. In Sumba during the nineteenth century, women even planted and harvested the cotton for spinning 2).

(5, p.

In Nias, women do all the work connected with

pottery and weaving; the men do all the work in which cutting and hammering plays a role (35, p. 136). Similarly, Iban men assist only in making the loom, as woodcarving is their realm 8

(20, p. 141).

Their

women once did the rest, from the setting of the cotton seed to finishing the cloth (23, p. 5).

Now

imported thread is purchased from traders (20, p. 154). While some women dye or weave for income, most supply only their family needs by working between their other household duties.

Great patience and skill is re-

quired: completing the detailed work of ikating, dyeing, and weaving the thread may take from eighteen months for a Sumba k win (5, p. 80) to eight years for a Balinese geringsing

(40, p. 227).

It is the woman's work alone that has preserved the traditional methods and designs in some areas: women have also continued to wear regional dress where their men have given it up.

Now changing

social and economic conditions are slowly reducing the amount of handweaving done.

A very large com-

mercial textile industry has developed in Indonesia since World War II which has altered the former cottage-industry character of weaving (38, p. 3). Nevertheless, women can still make special cloths when the need arises (40, p. 236) and have carefully preserved others no longer made.

The Mejprat women

have stored and cared for their kain Timur well enough to preserve examples of the kain Bentenan,

a

long ikat cloth from North Celebes not manufactured since 1880 (17, p. 151). However, more than a simple division of labor between men and women is involved.

For a woman,

knowing how to weave was often regarded as an essential skill, even as the most noble occupation she could practice (40, p. 237).

The Balinese woman

who did not know how to weave would have her sarong torn down by dogs in the hereafter to shame her (8, p. 507), while the young Iban girl had to be 9

s k i l l e d in weaving ment o f

and d y e i n g t o match t h e

the young man who c o u l d seek h e r

a f t e r taking It

an enemy head

is not surprising

to represent

269-272).

Salampandai, from c l a y ,

64).

then t h a t

textiles

are

seen

the woman, or t h e f e m a l e e l e m e n t o f

cosmos, whereas t h e kris ( 3 9 , pp.

(25, p.

accomplish-

affections

(sword)

represents

An Iban l e g e n d t e l l s

the c r e a t o r

each i s

god,

the

the male

that

"when

f a s h i o n s human b e i n g s

asked t o d e c i d e between a sword

and a s p i n n i n g w h e e l .

Those who choose t h e

sword

become men, and t h o s e who choose the s p i n n i n g are c r e a t e d women"

(20, p.

141).

Sometimes

wheel this

s y m b o l i c d i s t i n c t i o n between male and f e m a l e may be taken q u i t e

literally:

i n Pasemah, South Sumatra,

the husband cuts the t h r e a d s may d i v o r c e him ( 2 2 , pp.

MAGICAL

AND RELIGIOUS

Threads,

looms,

or r e l i g i o u s

181,

and c l o t h s

t o the

A number o f

p r a y , burn i n c e n s e ,

( 8 , pp.

a t an

mind; present.

and make o f f e r i n g s

so t h a t the t h r e a d s

506-507).

Similar b e l i e f s

a t t e n d the d y e i n g .

In R o t i ,

will

and

for

ex-

as many as f i f t e e n d i f f e r e n t p l a n t s may be

used i n the dye p r e p a r a t i o n , only.

It

some f o r r i t u a l

is b e l i e v e d that e v i l

c o l o r t h e i r hands and b r e a s t s weakening or d e s t r o y i n g off

rituals

o r men may n o t be

loom and t h e s p i r i t s

prescriptions ample,

f r e q u e n t l y have a m a g i c a l

time and work i n a good frame o f

She may f a s t ,

if she

185).

she has t o b e g i n a p i e c e

sometimes she may n o t t a l k

not break

loom,

SIGNIFICANCE

significance.

surround the w e a v e r : auspicious

on h i s w i f e ' s

like

in the dyebaths,

the d y e ' s p o t e n c y .

t h e s e demons, a k i n d o f

feathers

spirits

t h a t c h made o f

i s hung o v e r the dye p o t s 10

reasons

(12, p.

to thus

To ward hen's 1602).

In Sarawak, some of the old women skilled at making a particularly difficult red dye say that they learned it from "fairy goddesses" to whom they make offerings asking for help in the dye process.

The dyer first

bites a piece of steel to strengthen her soul, then lays out the thread in an operation called the "warpath of the women" (25, p. 64).

In parts of western

Flores around Ruteng, there is an extraordinary taboo on weaving, due not to lack of knowledge of how to weave but to fear that doing so would cause crops to fail and illness to spread through the land (29, pp. 117, 351, 356). In the Javanese religious ritual

selamantan

tinkeban, celebrated in the seventh month of pregnancy in preparation for the birth of a first child, a weaving shuttle and some traditionally woven, presumably handspun, thread are part of the offering and serve a symbolic function.

The thread is put around

the mother's waist and is severed by the husband with his kris , thus "cutting a way for the baby to emerge." The shuttle is then dropped inside the woman's sarong and caught at the bottom by her mother-in-law, who carries it in a baby shawl as if it were a real child (19, pp. 42-43). A finished cloth may act as a receptacle for "magic power."

Certain cloths from Lombok and

Timor are believed to endow the wearer with invulnerability in time of battle, as may a

kris--depend-

ing on the strength attributed to it and the wearer's belief in that strength.

In Nias, gold was the

major material for ornamentation and was reserved for the chiefly class.

It was believed to possess

such great magic power that when embroidered on a special jacket made for ceremonies promoting a 11

chief to a higher rank, the jacket was first worn by a slave who "absorbed" its evil powers and was immediately beheaded. (42, p. 147).

It was then safe for the chief

The Balinese geringsing is said to

protect against illness.

One translation of its name

is "free from sickness."

Some of its power may be

attributed to the divine origins of its motifs: Batara Indra is said to have created shadows in the sky so that they could be copied as patterns in the cloths (33, p. 315). healing power.

Other cloths are endowed with

Some of the Iban kalambi

(jackets)

woven with a sacred bird motif are believed to cure the sickness of whoever wears them (23, p. 23). The Iban prize good-omen birds,

and

kalambi

with these motifs are also worn for the first planting of paddy (23, p. 23).

There is thus a link between

textiles and agriculture.

Dewi Sri, the Balinese

rice goddess, has also been identified as the goddess of weaving.

She is supposed to have given man cotton

and the first loom (39, p. 270).

The connection is

seen also in Celebes, where among the Toradja various imported cloths known as bana are passed down in the family for use in ceremonies at planting time.

If

a man captured bana as booty, he would use it in his field, apparently as a symbolic offering of clothing for the rice spirit, supposing that his enemy had also served her with it, and that now her presence would follow her clothes, thus granting blessings on the new field (7, p. 416). STYLES

AND

MOTIFS

Textiles from each region have their own style: traditional combinations of motifs, techniques, and colors that are preserved and repeated in new textiles 12

when the old ones wear out.

Within each tradition,

there is considerable range of individual skill and expression.

Some women have greater ability to

achieve desired dye tones, precise ikatting, and an even weave.

Usually, the weaver has some freedom to

choose the combination of colors and designs, to decide the form she will give to typical motifs, to integrate traditional and imported elements, and to experiment with what is new.

Within the traditional

limits, the success of the finished textile depends on her artistic sensitivity. Sometimes the designs are affected by how the textile will be worn.

The kepala

(ornamented panel)

worn at the front of a sarong is an appropriate width and direction for that purpose.

More important,

dyeing and weaving techniques may limit the designs. It is not clear how much of the stylization of images is due to the mediation of these techniques. Sawu selendang

As the

with the rose motif and the postwar

Sumba kain indicate, motifs can be represented relatively naturalistically.

However, since this

is not frequently done, it appears that a certain stylization is preferred and that naturalistic representation is not the purpose. It is possible to identify many geometric, floral, and figural motifs in the textiles.

These

include elaborate stripes and checks, zigzags, lozenges, and key designs.

The tumpal

(a repeated

triangular design usually found on borders or

kepala)

and the eight-pointed star, also called "witch's foot" or kembang manggis universal.

(mangosteen flower), are almost

Floral meanders are frequent.

A variety

of buffalo, deer, lions, horses, snakes, fish, insects, and birds appear beside stylized trees, 13

ships, horns, and masks.

The many representations of

the human form range from men on horseback and warriors to wajang (the conventionalized figures of the Indonesian shadow theatre) and couples in erotic poses.

Scenes are not usually depicted.

It is more difficult to determine what, if anything, these motifs may mean and to identify their derivation or symbolic significance for the people who use the cloths.

They should be studied

in relation to the motifs found on other objects of the culture.

Informants, not always able to explain

them, may invent an interpretation to please the researcher, who in turn may add labels to fit his particular system of analysis, especially in identifying a motif as representing something which is not easily recognizable.

A few recent systematic

studies of the textiles of a particular region or type are available (5, 20, and 21), but in other places, connections between the uses or beliefs associated with a textile and the designs found on it are difficult to verify. Even so, it seems that while some designs are purely ornamental--like those on the Flores selimut-others are a close reflection of the local environment and bear a complex relationship to the society.

Some

may appear to be familiar plants, food items, and beasts of burden, but even these may operate at a number of different levels.

The Iban give the

crocodile--which is carved on war boats and longhouse posts and represented in the decorative hangings called pua--a protective role in rituals associated with rice culture, and sometimes regard it as a relative or as an incarnation of the river god (23, p. 129).

Its presence on pua displayed at feasts 14

where young couples meet suggests its as a fertility symbol

interpretation

(20, pp. 177-178).

However,

the motifs that are widely spread throughout the archipelago do not necessarily have the same significance in each place.

In Sumba, the crocodile on

a textile may serve at death rites as a symbol of the passage to the other world, although other animals may serve the same function

(5, p. 167).

A motif may not always represent what it is popularly called.

The ship-of-the-dead motif is usually seen

as a symbol of conveyance for the soul to the hereafter at death rites, but the ship symbolism may be extended, as it is in the palepai,

to provide

conveyance when the transition is more

abstract.

At the marriage ceremonies in South Sumatra where the palepai

was hung, only the bride used to sit

before it at specific periods.

Originally, this

was the period of transition of the girl to the boy's lineage.

Today, after adopting customs from Java,

both bride and groom sit before it personal

communication).

FOREIGN

INFLUENCES

(Gittinger,

The textiles themselves are a kind of visual record of the foreign influences that have been felt in the archipelago over the centuries.

Motifs are sometimes

interpreted in terms of their supposed origin.

Thus,

designs with a certain metrical quality using the double spiral, swastika, or meander are attributed to the influence of Dong Son, the central archaeological site of the Southeast Asian Bronze Age, while more rhythmic, asymmetric designs are said to be related to the Late Chou style of southern China (24, p. 13; 34, p. 13). 15

Given some general similarities of design between Indonesian textiles and these two ancient cultures, other design elements that are not attributable to Neolithic sources may be related to more recent events. For example, Indian influence is seen in the widespread occurrence of designs related to patola.

This

material, sometimes called tjinde in the archipelago, was imported and used in the Javanese courts for dancers' costumes and even the sultans' trousers; together with imitations, it became valued for ceremonial purposes in Sumba, Celebes, and West Irian. Its effect on locally woven cloths may be seen in its similarity to some of the designs in the Bali geringsing, Sumba cloths with the patola ratu motif, and in other ikats from Roti, Timor, and the Minahassa (15; 17, pp. 144-146).

Other possible Indian influ-

ence may be seen, for example, in the very close correlation between a concentric, eight-petaled flower motif in the reliefs of Prambanan temple and the pattern on a Palembang cloth of today (24, pp. 87, 91). Other sources of influence are also apparent-dragons on one Sumba kain appear to be taken from those on trade porcelain brought into the archipelago; pairs of confronting lions on other kain have been adapted from the Dutch coat of arms, flags, and seals introduced to Sumba after 1749 (5, p. 137).

In

textiles from the Sangi and Talaud islands, designs occur that have been taken from German booklets on European embroidery (24, p. 8).

Today there are

close connections between Sumatra and the handloom industry of West Malaysia.

Designs and materials,

especially for kain songket, are almost interchangeable, and kain trengganu may be purchased in 16

Sumatran markets. Foreign influence is also seen in technological changes.

Ready-made thread and chemical dyes, as

they become available, are taking the place of locally grown cotton and vegetable dyes.

The weaver's

taste and her ability to select from the foreign elements those which will blend with the local materials and designs will determine whether the unique quality of Indonesian textiles will remain.

17

BIBLIOGRAPHY Much of the older material written about Indonesian textiles is in Dutch or German and may be found in the bibliographies of the works cited below.

An effort has been made here to gather

together more recent materials, especially those in English. 1.

Adams, M.

Classic and eccentric elements in East

Sumba textiles.

Needle and Bobbin Club

bulletin, 1972, 55, 3-40. 2.

Adams, M.

Designs in Sumba textiles, local

meanings and foreign influences.

Textile

Museum journal, 1971, 3(2), 28-37. 3.

Adams, M. Museum.

Indonesian textiles at the Textile Textile Museum journal, 1970, 3(1),

41-44. 4.

Adams, M.

Life and death on Sumba: exhibition,

fall 1965 to summer 1966.

Rotterdam, Museum

voor Land- en Volkenkunde, 1965.

Dutch and

English text. 5.

Adams, M.

System and meaning in East Sumba

textile design: a study in traditional Indonesian art. 1969.

New Haven, Yale University,

Southeast Asia Studies Cultural

Report Series no. 16. 6.

Adams, M. Sumba.

Tiedyeing, an art on the Island of Handweaver and Craftsman, 1971, 22(1),

9-11, 37. 7.

Adriani, N. § A.C. Kruyt.

De Bare'e Sprekende

Toradjas van Midden-Celebes,

(de Oost Toradjas).

The Bare'e speaking Toradja of Central Celebes, (the East Toradja).

2nd ed. Amsterdam, 18

Maatschappij, 1951, v. 2 5 3.

Koninklijke

Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Verhandelingen, Afdeling Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks, vols. 55 § 56(1).

Translated for

Human Relations Area Files by J.K. Moulton. 8. Alkema, B. § T.J. Bezemer. der Volkenkunde

van

Beknopt

Eandboek

Nederlandsch-Indie.

Concise handbook of the ethnology of the Netherlands East Indies.

Harleem, H.D. Translated

Tjeenk Willink and Zoon, 192 7.

for Human Relations Area Files by R. Neuse. 9. Alman, J.H. journal,

Bajau weaving.

Sarawak

Museum

1960, 9(15-16, new series), 603-618.

10. Bodrogi, Tibor.

Art of Indonesia.

New York,

Graphic Society, 1972. 11. Bolland, Rita. Tropical

Three looms for tablet weaving.

man, 1970, 3, 160-189.

12. Biihler, A. threads. 13. Biihler, A.

Dyes and dyeing methods for ikat Ciba review,

1942, no. 44, 1597-1603.

The ikat technique.

Ciba

review,

1942, no. 44, 1586-1596. 14. Biihler, A.

The origin and extent of the ikat

technique.

Ciba review,

1942, no. 44, 1604-

1611. 15. Biihler, A. Asia.

The patola influence in Southeast

Journal

of Indian

textile

history,

1959, 4, 1-43. 16. Corvarrubias, Miguel.

The island

of Bali.

New

York, Knopf, 1965. 17. Elmberg, J.O. of tradition Irian Barat. 1968.

Balance

and circulation:

aspects

and change among the Mejprat

of

Stockholm, Ethnografiska Museet,

Monograph series, publication no. 12.

19

18. Fisk, E.H.

The economics of the handloom

industry of the east coast of Malaya. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1959 , 32 (pt. 4, no. 188), 1-72. 19. Geertz, C.

The religion of Java.

Glencoe,

Free Press, 1964. 20. Gill, S.

Selected aspects of Sarawak art.

Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1968. 21. Gittinger, M.S.

A study of the ship cloths of

South Sumatra: their design and usage.

Ph.D.

dissertation, Columbia University, 1972. 22. Haar, B. te.

Adat law in Indonesia.

New York,

Institute of Pacific Relations, 1948. 23. Haddon, A.C. § L.E. Start.

Iban or Sea Dayak

fabrics and their patterns: a descriptive catalogue of the Iban fabrics in the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, 1936. 24. Hoop, A.N.J.Th. a Th. van der. siermotiven.

Indonesische

Bandung, Koninklijk Bataviaasch

Genootschnap van Künsten en Wetenschappen, 1949. Dutch, Indonesian and English text. 25. Howell, W.

The Sea Dayak method of making and

dyeing thread from their home-grown cotton. Sarawak Museum journal3

1912, 1(2), 62-66.

26. Indonesian art: a loan exhibition from the Royal Indies Institute, Amsterdam.

Chicago, Art

Institute, 1948. 27. Jager Gerlings, J.H.

Sprekende Weefsels.

Amsterdam, Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, 1952.

Mededelingen no. 99, Afdeling Culturele

en Physische Anthropologie no. 42. English summary.

28. Kamma, F.C.

A spontaneous "capitalist" revolu-

tion in the Western Vogelkop area of West Irian. In Anniversary contributions to anthropology; twelve essays.

Published on the occasion of

the 40th anniversary of the Leiden Ethnological Society W.D.O.

Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1970,

pp. 132-142. 29. Kennedy, R.

Field notes on Indonesia, Flores,

1949-50.

New Haven, Human Relations Area Files.

Unpublished manuscript. 30. Kennedy, R. Celebes.

Field notes on Indonesia, South New Haven, Human Relations Area Files,

1953. 31. Kooijman, S.

Ornamented bark cloth in Indonesia.

Leiden, Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, 1963. Mededelingen no. 16. 32. Kooijman, S.

Some ritual clothing from Borneo

in Dutch museums.

Sarawak Museum

journal}

1958, 8(11, new series), 357-362. 33. Korn, V.E.

The village republic of Tenganan

Pegeringsingan.

In Bali: studies in life3

thought and ritual.

The Hague, van Hoeve,

1960, pp. 301-368. 34. Langewis, L. § F.A. Wagner. Indonesian textiles.

Decorative art in

Amsterdam, C.P.J, van

der Peet, 1964. 35. Loeb, E.M. § R. Heine-Geldern.

Sumatra, its

history and people; the archaeology and art of Sumatra.

Weiner Beiträge zur Kulturge-

schichte und Linguistik des Institutes für Volkerkunde der Universität Wien, Vienna, 1935, v.3. 36. Nooteboom, C.

Quelques techniques de tissage

des petites fies de la Sonde. 21

Leiden, E.J.

Brill, 1948.

Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum

voor Volkenkunde no. 3. 37. Nooy-Palm, H.

Dress and adornment of the Sa'dan

Toradja (Celebes, Indonesia).

Tropical man,

1969, 2, 162-194. 38. Palmer, I.

Textiles in Indonesia: problems of

import substitution. 39. Pelras, C.

New York, Praeger, 1972.

Lamak et tissus sacrés de Bali.

Objets et Mondes, 1967, 7(4), 255-278. 40. Pelras, C.

Tissage balinais.

Objets et mondes,

1962, 2(4), 215-240. 41. Roth, H.L.

Studies in primitive looms.

3rd ed.

Halifax, England, Bankfield Museum, 1950. 42. Schnitger, F.M.

Forgotten kingdoms in Sumatra.

Leiden, E.H. Brill, 1964. 43. Spiegel, H.

Soul-boats in Melanesia: a study

in diffusion.

Archaeology and physical

anthropology of Oceania, 1971, 6(1), 34-43. 44. Steinmann, A.

The patterning of ikats.

Ciba

review, 1942, no. 44, 1612-1618. 45. Steinmann, A.

The ship of the dead in the tex-

tile art of Indonesia.

Ciba review, 1946,

no. 52, 1885-1896. 46. Wagner, F.A. group. 47.

Indonesia, the art of an island

New York, McGraw-Hill, 1959.

Weibel, A.C.

The ship of the dead.

Bulletin

of the Detroit Institute of Arts, 1941, 21, 4-5.

22

DESCRIPTION OF TEXTILES* BALI Although the adat prescribing certain textiles for certain purposes is less strict today,

and

the

Balinese tend to adapt what they have to meet the occasion, a kind of textile hierarchy remains.

While

weft-ikatted sarong or wraparounds of cotton, rayon, or silk known as kamben endek

are worn every day or

for festive occasions, songket

(cloths with discon-

tinuous supplementary weft decoration in gold or silver thread) are mainly for adat ceremonies. Geringsing,

also used for adat ceremonies, are the

most respected.

Balinese weaving shows many tech-

niques and effects: the silk weft ikats strike a subtle balance between bright and soft colors compared to the bold contrasts of the songket

and

the involved designs of the geringsing. The latter, made only within the walls of Tenganan Pegeringsingan, are the only example of double ikat found in the archipelago.

They are

heirlooms in the village and in the rest of Bali. They have several patterns, some of which reflect the patola influence, and have been woven over the years with very little change.

In Tenganan, the

cloths with wajang motifs are used on the occasion of a child's first haircut, at feasts honoring the *Owing to limitations of space, the following textiles are described but not pictured: 2, 4, 7, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 43, 47, and 54. in of ed of

In order to include as many fabrics as possible an aesthetically pleasing format, the arrangement plates does not strictly follow either the numberor geographical sequence found in the description textiles. 23

ancestors, and to cover the pillow at tooth filings. Others are used to wrap the sick.

Since they are

woven with a continuous warp, they come off the loom still joined and are used uncut.

Cutting the unwoven

part of the warp threads is part of the marriage ceremony.

Geringsing are valued so highly that even when

very worn, they are patched with care and still used. They may be worn as shoulder or breast cloths or waist sashes, and are also hung, for example, from the rafters of the tooth-filing pavilion for the ceremony, or from the top of the bade (cremation tower) of a high-caste person.

Geringsing are very difficult

and time-consuming to make, more so because of rigid rituals surrounding both dyeing and weaving.

It is

said that once human blood was used in the dyes, and now that this is no longer true, the cloths have less power.

The Tengananese always claimed that the dyes

came from Nusa Penida. 1.

Kain Geringsing Wajang Cotton double ikat with wide end bands of silver supplementary wrap.

Pattern is natural cotton

on dark-maroon/black ground.

Four sets of wajang

figures are separated by a large center pattern and a floral motif called "mangosteen stigma." Within each set, two identical scenes, like wajang kulit djedger, are divided by a stylized lotus.

Three seated or kneeling figures make

up each scene.

One of the most elaborate kinds

of geringsing. 208 x 5 2 cm. 2.

Plate 1

Tenganan Pegeringsingan

Kain Geringsing Wajang Cotton double ikat.

Similar to no. 1, without

the silver supplementary warp ornamenting the 24

end bands. 210 x 52 cm. 3.

Tenganan Pegeringsingan

Kain Geringsing Cotton double ikat with stylized human figures (tjilih? ) and geometric motifs in natural cotton color on maroon/black ground. 19 7 x 42 cm.

4.

Plate 2

Tenganan Pegeringsingan

Skirt Cloth Plain weave

Silk weft ikat called kamben endek.

with white floral motifs on dark red ground, framed by tumpal borders.

Edged with blue.

221 x 102 cm. 5.

Cloth for Sarong Cotton weft ikat called kamben endek.

Con-

fronting peacocks and geometric motif in green on maroon ground.

Blue border.

This cloth

has come directly from the loom.

When cut and

sewn, it could be worn by men or women, both for everyday dress and for festive occasions.

(The

accompanying bundles of thread show one stage in the ikat process by which the patterns are dyed into the threads before weaving.

The bound

parts of the thread did not absorb the green dye. Beneath the fiber the orange color, which was either the first dyeing or the color of the yarn when purchased, has been protected.

When the

bindings are cut and the threads are woven into a monochrome warp, the design will appear in orange on a green ground.) 398 x 53 cm. 6.

Plate 25

Songket Skirt cloth.

Plain weave, magenta silk base.

Pattern of stylized human heads and floral motifs 25

created by silver supplementary weft. have geometric meanders. sewn together.

Borders

Two identical panels

Part .of girl's dance costume;

also worn at adat ceremonies by men, who fold it as a waist cloth, and women, who use it as a skirt. 172 x 103 cm. 7.

Plate 3

Songket Skirt cloth.

Plain weave, black cotton base.

Design of stylized garuda bird heads,

tumpal

borders and geometric motifs created by gold supplementary weft.

Two panels sewn together.

158 x 102 cm. 8.

Sarong Cotton.

Warp faced plain weave in dark green.

Pattern of interlocking squares and circles created by light green supplementary weft. Bright orange borders. 186 x 107 cm.

Plate 25

BORNEO Warp ikats of the Iban are predominantly red--a vital natural color, some shades of which require considerable skill to prepare.

Only the side bor-

der stripes are predyed, store-bought thread.

The

cloths are strong pliable cotton, woven with both paired warps and wefts.

Warp dominant or warp-faced

plain weave is used so that the ikat patterns are clearly visible.

Ikatting may be very precise, as

few as three warp threads being tied in one bundle for dyeing.

Unlike the warp ikats of the Toradja

or from the Lesser Sundas, the warp threads are not folded in half horizontally before tying, so that 26

the upper and lower halves of Iban cloths are not mirror images. every space.

Usually, figures of some kind fill While human figures and lizards or

crocodiles stand out clearly, the other patterns are abstracted and geometric, and while they may be named after various animals, birds, insects, or plant forms, what is named may not always be represented naturalistically.

Once human figures could be woven

only by women of certain families; now such restrictions are no longer rigorously adhered to.

Of the

various Iban cloths, pua are the most important. They constitute the third class of wealth items after bronze gongs and ceramic jars.

Their display is a

show of wealth. Except for the Bajau and Iban, other Borneo peoples are not represented. 9.

Destar Cotton headcloth with plain weave red-orange base. Patterns of eight-pointed stars, crosses and flowers (?) created by discontinuous supplementary wefts.

Narrow band woven of thread wrapped with

gold paper is attached as a border.

Made by the

Bajau Darat (coastal lowlands people) and usually traded to the Dusun (interior peoples), whose headmen or village chiefs wear them as a sign of authority only on ceremonial occasions. 99 x 99 cm.

Plate 4

Sabah

10. Ceremonial Cloth Iban.

Example of ipilih technique where figures

are outlined in the plain weave white cotton base by supplementary "floating" wefts in red and black stripes which form the background to the design. Stylized snâkes, interspersed with human figures 27

(warriors ?), lizards Tumpal

(?), and plant forms.

end borders.

179 x 57 cm.

Plate

6

Sarawak

11. Pua Made in 1968 by lam, 65.

This unusual "sport"

deviates considerably from traditional Iban hangings in its use of polychrome chain stitch embroidery

(the yellow, green, red, blue and

white colored threads, and the black cotton fabric, were purchased from Chinese traders). design,

The

which includes two British helicopters

as observed during the presence of British troops during the "war" of confrontasi

between

Indonesia

and Malaysia

(1963-65), is said to illustrate an

Iban story.

The Iban in the lower right-hand

corner is a spirit

(hantu) named Enteriadi, shown

with a three-headed dog called Sebayan who guards the entrance to the afterworld.

The large human

figure on the left might be identified as a Caucasian because of his white face and the absence of a neck tattoo, although lam herself said that both large figures were Iban.

The motif between

the helicopters was said to be "man in the moon," orang

bulan.

Other human, animal, and geometric

forms are scattered between the main figures. This textile reflects the impact of political changes and foreign influence.

Despite machine-

made cloth, store-bought thread, and a Europeanlike stitching technique used to depict a chaotic mixture of war paraphernalia and traditional motifs, the finished cloth remains 144 x 88 cm.

Plate

7

28

Iban.

Third Division, Sarawak

12. Pua Iban.

Warp ikat hanging.

Intricate white

and

dark brown pattern on red ground with yellow, white, red, and black side stripes.

Stylized

human figures, geometric and floral motifs.

Two

identical panels stitched together. 209 x 103 cm.

Sarawak

13. Pua Iban.

Warp ikat hanging.

Bold white and black

pattern on dark red ground with blue, red, and white side stripes.

Two rows of human figures:

females above, males below.

Two identical

panels sewn together. 208 x 116 cm. 14. Pua Iban.

Warp ikat hanging.

White and dark brown

pattern on dark red ground with blue, red, and white side stripes.

Horizontal rows of men and

women, some probably copulating.

Some males

wear "penis bones," said to increase the woman's pleasure during intercourse.

Surrounding

filled with animal figures and tumpal ders.

spaces

type bor-

Two identical panels sewn together.

252 x 123 cm.

Plate

8

Third Division, Sarawak

15. Pua Iban, warp ikat hanging.

Precisely ikatted white,

blue, and black design on faded red ground with blue, red, and white side stripes. Composite human figures in geometric with tumpal

borders.

Finely woven. arrangement

Two identical panels

sewn

together. 239 x 109 cm.

Plate

26

Rajang River, Third Division, Sarawak

29

16. Pua Iban.

Warp ikat hanging.

Intricate blue, white,

and black pattern on red ground with yellow, black, white and red side stripes. and floral forms.

Tree shapes

Using Haddon and Start's analy-

sis of motifs, the motif of the upper half consists of trees with their branches outlined by the light of fireflies.

Could also be worn for special oc-

casion such as marriage. 208 x 84 cm.

Well preserved color.

Plate 5

Niah River, Fourth Division, Sarawak

17. Small Pua (?) Iban.

Warp ikat hanging.

black design on red ground.

Bold blue, white, and Blue dye for the

eyes applied after weaving was completed.

Row

of four male figures, possibly warriors.

Tumpal

borders. 135 x 60 cm.

Plate 8

Sarawak

18. Bidang Iban.

Warp ikat woman's skirt cloth.

Bands of

warp ikat interspersed with polychrome stripes. White and brown design on red ground. side bands.

Black

Geometric and animal figures.

Usually worn by younger women for ceremonial or festive occasions. 103 x 50 cm.

Sarawak

CELEBES The warp ikat technique is found in areas of Celebes less affected by Hindu influence.

The bold geome-

tric forms of the Toradja of Central Celebes have much in common with Iban and Timorese textiles in which socalled Dong Son influences are seen in lozenge 30

and

key designs, and similar metrical forms.

Weaving

in North Celebes was repressed by missionaries, who discouraged the manufacture of anything of magical importance, hence the kain Bentenan are no longer made.

In complete contrast to the northern and

central areas, textile design in South Celebes is limited to colorful silks patterned with squares and stripes, varied by bands of weft ikatting. 19. Cloth for Sarong Striped effect produced by bands of green and other colored warp and weft threads.

Occasional

bands of weft ikat flanked by stripes of white supplementary weft.

A modern piece, using syn-

thetic fibres and chemical dyes, the sarong made from it could be worn by men or women.

For fes-

tive occasions men would wear it over trousers, folded so that the pant leg and shoes show below. 391 x 55 cm.

Macassar, South Celebes

20. Cloth for Sarong Silk.

Weft ikat in purple, green, and magenta

on a pale orange ground.

The rectangles of the

kepala contrast with the simple floral pattern of the remaining area. 374 x 59 cm.

Macassar, South Celebes

21. Cloth for Sarong Silk.

Simple pattern of colored stripes varied

by narrow bands of weft ikat. 362 x 59 cm.

Macassar, South Celebes

22. Sarong Magenta and white silk.

Kepala decorated by

weft ikat, with double spirals and a simplified floral design over stripes. 185 x 112 cm.

Plate 3

Macassar, South Celebes

23. Ceremonial Cloth (possibly shroud) Toradja.

Thick heavy cotton warp ikat.

Bold

geometric motifs in black and white on a red ground.

The patterns in the rectangles are said

to be ancestor figures, recognition.

simplified almost beyond

A thin strip of bamboo, used as a

laze rod to prevent the threads from becoming entangled during weaving, remains threaded through the warp at one end. 341 x 62 cm.

Plate 4

Galumpang, Central Celebes

24. Ceremonial Cloth (possibly shroud) Toradja.

Cotton.

Red, white, and dark brown

stripes of varying width, some with yellow or white geometric designs in warp ikat. 369 x 69 cm.

Central Celebes

FLO RES Except in western Flores where it has been taboo, weaving is still widely done.

It is now encouraged

by the missions, where it may sometimes be taught in school.

Woven altar cloths were even commissioned

by the Catholic church in Endeh. Flores is one of the few islands where women regularly sell their weaving at the markets and presumably make a small income from it.

Flores weaving

is often overlooked, perhaps because of its homely character and indistinct designs.

Its texture and

earth colors display a simple strength. 25. Selimut Cotton warp ikat.

Geometric motifs and tumpal

in white on dark blue bands, between plain brown bands.

Predominant warp, plain weave.

To em-

phasize the contrast of the blue and white the 32

weaver has doubled the warp in the patterned blue bands.

Three panels stitched together.

205 x 138 cm.

Plate 9

Endeh

ROTI The combination of the ikat technique and vegetable dyes produces very subtle effects in Rotinese textiles.

Intricate patterns are achieved by tying

as few as six threads in each

bundle

to

be

dyed.

Typically, a dark ground is preferred, either rich blue-black produced by saturation dyeing in indigo, or brown produced from an overlay of red and blue. The warm red is made from tree roots.

The bleeding

effect, caused by dye seeping under the edges of the bindings, gives the impression of a greater variety of colors than is actually used.

There is little

use of store-bought thread or chemical dyes.

To

achieve maximum clarity of design, the dyed warp threads are woven in pairs into a firm warp-faced plain weave.

According to recent visitors, weaving

is less frequently done now, and some of the dyeing techniques are being forgotten. The designs are arranged in horizontal bands completely filled with geometric and floral motifs in which some patola influence is apparent.

Usually,

the center band is left blank where the warp threads were folded for tying before dyeing

(unlike

the

Sumbanese technique, in which the center is tied). In everyday and festival dress of Rotinese men and women, these textiles may be worn as skirts, folded into waist sashes or breast cloths, or placed over the shoulders as selendang or selimut.

Often

they

are worn in combination with textiles from their close neighbors, Sawu and Timor. 33

26. Selendang Cotton warp ikat.

Patterns in white and several

shades of red, arranged in horizontal bands on lustrous black ground.

Contains pairs of con-

fronting birds (at edges of third band), floral forms, and geometric motifs.

Ikatted fringes.

Second band similar to end band of

geringsing

(nos. 1 and 2). 143 x 40 cm.

Plate 18

27. Selimut Cotton warp ikat.

Red, blue, and white patterns

on brown ground include crosses, geometric and plant forms, and tumpal end borders.

Center

area reminiscent of Sumba patola ratu designs. Two panels sewn together. 196 x 85 cm.

Plate 27

28. Selimut Cotton warp ikat.

Black ground with unusual

geometric motifs and stylized flowers. end borders.

Tumpal

Two panels sewn together, weft

carefully finished with twining.

Ikatted fringe

neatly twisted. 197 x 77 cm.

Plate 27

SAWU Like Rotinese textiles, those from Sawu exhibit warp-faced weave, with the warmth and subtlety of ikat technique combined with vegetable dyes.

They also

display dark grounds and blank center bands.

However,

they are distinguished by a commonly occurring rose meander arranged between more simply decorated stripes, and by the basic division of the cloths into longitudinal rather than horizontal bands. 34

As in Roti,

they are worn i n v a r i o u s ways, sometimes i n t i o n with cloths 29.

from nearby

combina-

islands.

Skirt Cotton warp i k a t . ders w i t h tumpal

White f l o w e r s and rose meanon brown bands, s e p a r a t e d by

bands o f blue and p u r p l e . threads.

Includes

Less t y p i c a l c o l o r s .

store-bought

Two p a n e l s sewn

together. 122 x 105 cm. 30.

Plate

Selimut Cotton warp i k a t .

Black ground w i t h bands

brown and y e l l o w g e o m e t r i c m o t i f s

including

f l a n k e d by narrow s t r i p e s

o f brown,

tumpal,

Ikatted

low, and b l u e . 182 x 65 cm. 31.

9

Plate

of yel-

fringe.

10

Selimut Cotton warp i k a t .

Rose meander i n w h i t e

somber red-brown, w i t h tumpal

on b l a c k

and

ground

between b l a c k , b l u e , and red s t r i p e d bands. Ikatted

fringe.

182 x 62 cm. 32.

Plate

10

Selendang Warp i k a t .

Naturalistic

e x e c u t e d in b l u e , r e d ,

rose meander

and w h i t e on b l a c k ,

tween bands o f blue and r e d , some

be-

displaying

i k a t t e d g e o m e t r i c m o t i f s and d o t t e d Ikatted

skillfully

lines.

fringe.

133 x 48 cm.

Plate

11

SUMATRA Sumatran t e x t i l e s base c l o t h ,

usually s t a r t

from a muted

o f t e n f i n e l y woven, a g a i n s t which the 35

ornamental weave or applied elements stand out in varying degrees of richness and complexity.

Among

the well-known materials used for this purpose are intensely colored silk, bright metallic threads, and cotton yarn in saturated tones.

The supplementary

weft weaving technique is widespread and its intricacies are well mastered. While each region has its own characteristic weaving, there is continuous interchange of the finished pieces.

For example,

the Minangkabau may use Lampung textiles as wall decoration at their weddings, or Batak cloths as bed covers.

Some of these kain are not easily

purchased in the cities but may be commissioned from the villages. 33. Palepai Rectangular ship cloth.

Cotton.

Plain weave

base with design in blue, yellow, and red discontinuous supplementary wefts.

Applied metal

ribbon (tin?) now mostly gone.

Stylized ship

with human figures and animals on its deck; motif in center possibly "tree of life" or "tree of heaven."

End borders of continuous

supplementary weft include small geometric motifs.

Represents "blue ship style."

Manu-

factured textile sewn to upper edge, hung during ceremonies with photographs, gifts, and garlands of paper flowers. 272 x 55 cm. Plates 16, 27 Lampung

South coast area, South Sumatra

34. Palepai Ship cloth, cotton.

Plain weave base.

Design

in red, green, and pale yellow supplementary wefts.

Top row of human figures stand under 36

umbrellas which may signify high rank and prestige (Javanese influence?); confronting animals under roof on center deck are stylized bovines. Tree of heaven on far right marks center of cloth which, before being cut in half, must have depicted two ships. 122 x 46 cm.

Plate 16 Lampung

South coast area, South Sumatra

35. Skirt Cloth Predominant warp, plain weave cotton base, with bands of couched gold thread.

Borders of tumpal

and plant forms, with sequins.

The couching

stitches attaching the gold threads to the base cloth also form geometric patterns.

Usually

sewn to form a woman's skirt for ceremonial or festive occasions. 126 x 112 cm.

Lampung area,

South Sumatra

36. Skirt Cloth Warp-faced, plain weave, cotton base in bands of red and orange.

Design of couched white thread

with sequins, dots of polychrome yarn, and bits of mica.

Geometric motifs, possibly stylized

flowers or stars. 119 x 104 cm.

Lampung area,

South Sumatra

37. Skirt Warp-faced, plain weave, blue and brown cotton base.

Gold thread and patches of multicolored

cotton yarn couched in wide bands, interspersed with floral meanders, plant forms, and geometric motifs. 129 x 113 cm.

Plates IS, 30 Lampung area, 37

South Sumatra

38. Skirt Cloth Warp-faced, plain weave cotton base with black, red, brown, and yellow bands.

Gold and silver

threads couched to form animal, fish, geometric, and floral motifs. 123 x 120 cm.

Lampung area, South Sumatra

39. Skirt Cloth Plain weave half-silk base in red.

Designs pro-

duced by a combination of continuous and discontinuous supplementary wefts in gold and purple. Geometric motifs combined with kembang manggis. Gold thread is actually benang air emas, thread wrapped with gold paper.

Worn for adat cere-

monies as part of a woman's formal dress. 178 x 83 cm.

Palembang, South Sumatra

40. Cloth for Sarong Plain weave, blue-green and red cotton base. Tumpalj geometric motifs, and plant forms created in gold thread by discontinuous supplementary weft.

Worn by women for festive occasions.

De-

signs show Malay influence. 192 x 96 cm. 41. Cloth for Sarong with Selendang Minangkabau.

Two examples with red, warp-faced,

plain weave base and white supplementary weft forming geometric and plant designs with tumpal end borders.

Rayon.

Traditionally, such a

skirt-selendang combination is appropriate for festive occasions. 2 30 x 96 cm. 166 x 42 cm.

Silungkang, West Sumatra

38

42. Balapak Minangkabau.

Plain weave, red cotton base.

Fine metallic thread used as supplementary weft, one gold thread alternating with two silver threads, produces a subtle color blending. Geometric motifs include meanders, tumpal, and diamonds.

Worn as a woman's shoulder scarf or

shaped into a headpiece with two hornlike projections. skirt.

Often worn with identically patterned

For adat ceremonies.

160 x 37 cm. Plate IS

Pandai Sikat, West Sumatra

43. Balapak Minangkabau.

Warp-faced, plain weave, magenta

cotton base.

Gold thread supplementary weft used

to create both central motif of kembang manggis and borders with tumpal, floral and geometric motifs. 160 x 43 cm.

Pandai Sikat, West Sumatra

44. Selendang Batak (?).

Plain weave cotton base in red and

black stripes.

Supplementary weft of silver

thread used to create geometric motifs.

Worn

over the shoulder or possibly held in the hands and used for gesturing in dancing. 148 x 59 cm.

Plate 29

North Sumatra (?)

45. Parompa Batak.

Cotton base, black with maroon side bands.

Weaver created designs using continuous and discontinuous supplementary weft.

Bands of thick

polychrome yarn across either end are weft-faced, slit tapestry weave.

End borders twined.

Pat-

terns include geometric and floral meanders, pairs of birds confronting trees, linked human figures, 39

and geometric motifs.

Used as a shawl to carry

babies on the back. 19 8 x 65 cm.

Plate 12

Tapanuli, North Sumatra

46. Ragidup Batak.

Warp-faced, plain weave, cotton base

very finely woven. together.

Three dark panels stitched

White inset at each end of center

panel contains small geometric patterns created with supplementary wefts of brown and red. Supplementary warp is used in narrow strips on side panels to produce other geometric designs. Motifs include distinctly Dong Son type rhombs, key designs, and eight-pointed stars.

Folded

twice lengthwise and worn over the shoulder for dancing.

The dark brown, red, and white of the

inset panels reflect the traditional colors of Batak house facades. 226 x 100 cm.

Plate 28

North Sumatra

47. Shoulder Cloth Batak.

Cotton base.

Bands of twill weave and

warp-faced plain weave. center panel.

Red-purple with blue

Geometric designs in supplemen-

tary weft, accented with beads, are found in the bands of plain weave.

Diamond-patterned orange

bands of thick yarn are weft-faced plain weave, and patterned beading finishes the ends. panels sewn together.

Two

Made as a gift for a for-

eign visitor, the salutation selamat pake (good wearing) was woven into the centerfield.

Person-

al message from the givers embroidered on one s ide. 227 x 87 cm.

Tapanuli, North Sumatra

40

48. Shoulder Cloth Toba Batak.

Cotton.

Combination of warp ikat

and supplementary weft.

Warp-faced, plain weave

maroon base with narrow ikatted bands in purple and pink.

The arrowhead motif was created by

pulling the ikatted warp threads slightly out of alignment.

White supplementary weft is used to

create rhomb, key, eight-pointed star, and other geometric designs. twining.

Ends are secured by two-color

Worn by women as a breast cloth, and

less frequently by men as a head cloth, for adat ceremonies. 19 8 x 59 cm.

Plate IZ

Lake Toba, North Sumatra

SUMBA Ordinary Sumbanese dress includes plain-colored hinggi worn by men as waist or shoulder cloths, and the lauy a cylinder skirt for women.

The textiles

with bold decorations are the prerogative of the elite classes and appear only on special occasions. They are made by the women on the northern and eastern coasts of East Sumba, and are not only worn but also serve as elements in the ritual gift exchange system that is part of the social, economic and religious life of East Sumba. Hinggi kombu, named for the red dye, kombu3

are

usually two-color ikats in red and blue, with red predominating.

Variety of color is produced by dip-

ping the threads in the dyes for different periods to produce different tones, or by overdyeing the red and blue to obtain brown or black.

Unlike other

warp ikats from the Lesser Sundas, the center fields are not left blank but are filled with important 41

geometric motifs.

Characteristics of a fine hinggi

include kabak.il (narrow end bands of complementary warp woven on a small loom that incorporate the cloth's warp fringe as an invisible weft), twisted and ikatted fringes, tan staining, precise ikatting, strong tones, firm weave, and Z-shaped stitches joining the two panels. from the bottom.

Bands are numbered reading up Those not described contain motifs

previously identified or not known. The supplementary warp technique is used for the decorated lau.

Although no skirts are shown here,

the same technique appears on the panel described as number 57. 49. Hinggi Kombu Cotton warp ikat in white, red, blue, and black. Naturalistic representation characterizes many postwar hinggi.

Band 1: mounted riders.

Band

2: young chickens, eight-pointed stars, roosters, snakes.

Band 4: Karihu, a former royal motif.

Band 5: patola ratu design, probably derived from Indian patola, adapted from double ikat to single ikat, then made regular and symmetrical to fit the center field.

The addition of black

areas further disguises the similarities of line structure (compare with fragment of Indian patola silk popular in Java).

Two panels, Z-

stitched. 254 x 104 cm. Plates 20, 32

Mangili, East Sumba

50. Hinggi Kombu Cotton warp ikat in red, white, dark and light blue.

Band 1: roosters' heads and stylized

fish.

Band 2: fish, river shrimp, snakes,

young chickens, and skull trees or andung (rack 42

once used f o r hanging heads captured i n w a r f a r e , still

found i n some Sumbanese v i l l a g e s ) .

panels,

266 x 129 cm. 51. Hinggi

Kombu

Plates

18,

East Sumba

19

Pair

Cotton warp i k a t i n r e d , b l u e , b l a c k , Band 1: young c h i c k e n s . s t y l i z e d shrimp. habaku m o t i f

Band 2: h o r s e s ,

o f two p a n e l s ,

258 x 120 cm. 52. Hinggi

snakes,

Band 4: o f the

ruler

This p a i r e x e m p l i f i e s the p r a c -

of making two i d e n t i c a l

Each c o n s i s t s

and w h i t e .

Band 3: c o c k a t o o s .

(once the p r i v a t e m o t i f

o f Kanatang). tice

Two

Z-stitched.

Plate

hinggi

at one d y e i n g .

Z-stitched. East Sumba

21

Kombu

Cotton warp i k a t i n b l u e , w h i t e , r e d , and b l a c k . Band 2: c o n f r o n t i n g s t a g s . 261 x 61 cm. 53. Hinggi

Plate

One panel

only. East Sumba

Si

Kombu

Cotton warp i k a t i n w h i t e , brown, r e d ,

and b l u e .

Band 1: c o n f r o n t i n g l i o n s , p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d from Dutch coat o f arms as found on the heads o f s e n t a t i o n canes, Band 2:

flight.

Band 6: e i g h t - p o i n t e d s t a r s . Plate

Two

East Sumba

21

Kombu

Cotton warp i k a t i n w h i t e , b l a c k , Band 1: w i l d c h i c k e n s . motif

flags.

Z-stitched.

265 x 99 cm. 54. Hinggi

and ship

predatory b i r d s , probably in

Band 4: apes. panels,

coins, seals,

pre-

of " r a d i a t i n g

ends of h o r i z o n t a l

red,

Center f i e l d :

and b l u e . geometric

c o r e " t y p e , w i t h mamuli axis.

Mamuli,

a type

dress ornament o f t e n o f f i g u r e d g o l d , 43

are

at

of also

important in ritual exchange. finished with kabakil.

End borders

One panel only.

249 x 51 cm.

East Sumba

55. E-inggi Kombu Cotton warp ikat in red, blue, black, and white. Band 1: confronting centipedes.

Patola ratu

center field is unusually wide.

Two panels,

Z-stitched.

One fringe ikatted.

263 x 137 cm.

Plate 19

East Sumba

56. Hinggi Kawuru Cotton warp ikat in white, dark and light blue. Band 3: possibly fighting, wild chickens.

Blue

colored hinggi have relatively special status, but this one also exhibits some characteristics of a "market kain": narrow panels, simplified onecolor dyeing, irregular ikatting, and thin thread (machine made, imported?). 248 x 101 cm.

Plate 31

East Sumba

57. Panel Cotton.

Bands of white, twill weave supplemen-

tary warp on plain weave base of red or black, with stripes of store-bought, polychrome threads between.

Motifs include birds, flowers, and

trees; confronting roosters and squirrels; stags, buffalo, and men on horseback, arranged in "scenes."

Very carefully finished, with long,

corded, and knotted fringes.

Although obtained

from Moro in Portuguese Timor, neither the shapes of the figures nor the technique is particularly Timorese.

Textile has more in common with

Sumbanese lau. 233 x 72 cm.

Plates 22, 30 44

TIMOR Timorese textile designs show distinct variation from region to region, and a greater range in weaving techniques (including card weaving) than neighboring Roti or Sawu.

They frequently and successfully

blend vegetable dyed threads with more brightly colored, store-bought threads.

Very little cotton is

grown in Timor today, although what remains is gathered and saved for spinning.

One characteristic

decoration is the sotis, a small badge of discontinuous, supplementary weft, identical on each side, that looks like tapestry weave.

Although the textiles

worn every day by both men and women are bright and colorful, most splendid of all are those of the warriors in full ceremonial dress, who wear several woven sarongs, shoulder cloths, and head cloths at once. 58. Selimut Cotton.

Multicolored stripes, including bands

of warp ikat with a floral design in red on black. Ornamented by rows of sotis.

Double-faced end

bands with geometric design in red and white created by complementary wefts . 234 x 69 cm. Plate 23, 24 Eastern Portuguese Timor 59. Selimut Cotton warp ikat.

Predominantly blue

with touches of red.

and white

Fish, roosters, and plant

forms. 220 x 108 cm. Plate 24

Indonesian Timor (?)

60. Selimut Cotton.

Plain weave stripes in orange, yellow,

white, pink, green, and blue, interspersed with 45

bands of rhomb and key designs in orange and black, or white and black.

These bands are

created by complementary warp floats.

Three

panels stitched together. 199 x 97 cm. Plates

2Z, 32

Kefamenanu, Indonesian Timor

46

GLOSSARY card

heddles: V a r i e t y of heddle f o r a small loom. Used to weave narrow bands.

complementary

warp: Two sets of warp threads that are coequal in the f a b r i c s t r u c t u r e . They are complementary to each other rather than one forming part of the base weave and the other being supplementary to i t .

complementary

weft: Two sets of w e f t threads that are coequal in the f a b r i c s t r u c t u r e . They are complementary to each o t h e r , rather than one forming part of the base weave and the other being supplementary to i t .

couching

: Process of t y i n g down accessory elements (ordinary or m e t a l l i c thread, sequins, c o l o r e d yarn, or other b i t s of ornament) to the surface of the base c l o t h with a s e r i e s of short s t i t c h e s . The couching s t i t c h e s themselves may be d e c o r a t i v e , or by t h e i r arrangement create a p a t t e r n . Sometimes c l a s s i f i e d as appliqué.

discontinuous

supplementary weft: Where supplementary w e f t element i s worked back and f o r t h in l i m i t e d areas t o shape p a t t e r n u n i t s .

double-faced:

Cloth or part of a c l o t h whose two sides have i d e n t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , i . e . , the structure on one side i s duplicated on the other.

double

Rare and d i f f i c u l t technique r e q u i r i n g great p r e c i s i o n , where binding and dyeing of both warp and w e f t occur b e f o r e weaving. In the weaving s t r u c t u r e , p l a i n weave i s e s s e n t i a l t o show the colors of both warp and w e f t ; l i k e - c o l o r e d threads of the warp and w e f t must coincide e x a c t l y f o r the design to emerge with c l e a r edge d e f i n i t i o n . This requires a laborious checking of every s i n g l e thread and r e s u l t s in a loose f i l m y weave. See ikat below.

float

ikat:

weave: In p l a i n weave, the numerical order of warp-weft sequencing i s 1 - o v e r - l - u n d e r without v a r i a t i o n . Any a l t e r a t i o n o f t h i s 47

order automatically produces f l o a t s where threads r i d e over two or more cross threads. May occur in simple or compound weaves. heddle:

Device on a loom enabling part of the warp threads to be separated (usually upward) so the spool of the w e f t thread may pass between the r a i s e d warps and those s t i l l in their i n i t i a l position.

ikat:

A r e s i s t dyeing technique applied to the threads b e f o r e they are woven. They are s t r e t c h e d on a frame and bound, usually with plant f i b e r s , in a preconceived pattern in bundles of as few as three threads. The bindings prevent the dyes from penet r a t i n g the areas thus covered when the threads are immersed in dye. Overlay of c o l o r s , such as dyeing blue over red to produce brown, occurs where threads are l e f t unbound f o r two or more dyeings. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , colors tend to b l e e d or merge s l i g h t l y where the dye penetrates under the edges of the r e s i s t b i n d i n g s . Weaving must be c a r e f u l l y done to keep the patterned threads in place or the design w i l l be d i s l o c a t e d .

plain weave: Where each w e f t thread passes a l t e r n a t i v e l y over and under successive warp threads, and each reverses the procedure of the one b e f o r e i t . predominant warp: Warps outnumber w e f t s but do not e n t i r e l y conceal them. slit

tapestry weave: D i f f e r e n t c o l o r e d w e f t threads are worked over adjacent areas of the warp. Small gaps occur where the d i f f e r e n t c o l o r ed areas meet because each w e f t thread turns around the marginal warp of i t s own area and does not i n t e r l o c k with the next color. Sometimes c a l l e d kelim.

songket:

Type of discontinuous supplementary w e f t where unit m o t i f s are created during the weaving process by introducing the supplementary thread with the f i n g e r , a n e e d l e , or a p i c k . The thread s t a r t s at one end, doubles back and f o r t h u n t i l the motif i s formed, and i s then cut o f f . Often employs 48

gold or s i l v e r m e t a l l i c thread. Kain c l o t h e x h i b i t i n g t h i s technique.

songet:

supplementary

warp:

Decorative weaving

technique

supplementary

weft:

Decorative weaving

technique

where c e r t a i n warp threads are s t r u c t u r a l l y a d d i t i o n a l to but woven at the same time as the base.

where c e r t a i n w e f t threads are s t r u c t u r a l l y a d d i t i o n a l to but woven at the same time as the base.

twining:

Often done to stop ends from u n r a v e l i n g . Produced by t w i s t i n g w e f t threads around the warps and around each other by hand, usually while t e x t i l e i s s t i l l on the loom.

warp :

Threads which are placed f i r s t on the loom. The strand runs the long way of the woven cloth.

warp-faced:

Warp threads hide w e f t threads completely so w e f t w i l l a f f e c t the f a b r i c only by i t s presence, not i t s appearance.

warp

Color design applied to warp threads only. The warp thread i s wound around a bamboo frame, then bound and dyed. See ikat above. Various ways of f o l d i n g the warp threads b e f o r e binding allow f o r the product i o n of mirror image s e c t i o n s and the r e p e t i t i o n of i d e n t i c a l m o t i f s . When the warp threads are set up on the loom, they are usually woven with a monochrome w e f t . The c l a r i t y of the i k a t t e d c o l o r p a t t e r n depends on how l i t t l e the monochrome w e f t shows in the weave (and how w e l l the i k a t t i n g was done). I f the weave i s warpf a c e d , the design w i l l appear the most clearly.

ikat:

weft:

Threads which are a c t i v e l y woven across the warp.

we ft-faced:

Wefts are s u f f i c i e n t l y numerous and compacted t o completely conceal warps.

we ft-ikat:

Color design applied t o w e f t threads only. They are wound on a frame allowing f o r the 49

breadth of the cloth to be woven, then bound, and dyed. See ikat above. Usually woven into monochrome warp.

Further information may be found in: Spier, Robert F.G. From the Hand of Man: Primitive and Preindustrial Technologies. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1970, pp. 82-100. Emery, Irene. The Primary Structures of Fabrics: An Illustrated Classification. Washington, D.C., The Textile Museum, 1966.

50

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

FOR TEXTILES LOANED

Jeannette Bennington-: 23, 43. Dan and Gloria Boylan: 10. De Young Memorial Museum: 1, 3. Detroit Institute of Arts, Gift of Mrs. Hanns Schaeffer: 34. Alice Dewey: 4. Fashions Pacifica: 40. Joseph Fischer: 22, 24, 35, 36, 37, 50, 59. Sarah Gill: 11, 14. Duane Gingerich: 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 48, 49, 52. Mattiebelle S. Gittinger: 2, 33. Peter Goethals: 32, 55. Robert and Diane Harrison: 9. Guy and Judy Kirkendall: 8, 56. Kem and Junko Lowry: 12. Richard Mason: 54. Jean Ohai: 20, 21. Emily Oost: 41, 44. Robert and Eti Rice: 45, 47. Hester Robinson: 19. Joan Seeler: 15. Pam Slutz: 7. Wilhelm and Susan Solheim: 16. Garrett and Bronwen Solyom: 25, 38, 51, 57, 58, 60. Nancy Tanner: 39, 42. Oma Umbel: 5, 6, 13, 17, 18, 53. Robert and Elinor Wolff: 46.

PHOTOGRAPHS Photographs were taken by Eric Vella except for the following: Plates I3 2 -

Sarah Gill (1, 3)

Plate 16

-

Detroit Institute of Arts (34)

Plate 17

-

Garrett Solyom (33)

Garrett Solyom (33)

51

Plate 1

Plate 2

Plate 3

22

Plate 4

opposite page: Plate 7

10

Plate 6

Plate 10

opposite page: Plate 11

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