Peoples and Crafts in Period IVB at Hasanlu, Iran 9781934536384

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Peoples and Crafts in Period IVB at Hasanlu, Iran

Looking west across the Period IVB Lower Court of Hasanlu. BB V is in the lower left of this image, BB II is center left, BB IE center top with BB IW behind it, and BB IV is to the right. BB IV-V, lower right, is being excavated. UPM neg. no. 96751:70

Hasanlu Special Studies Winter, Irene J. 1980. A Decorated Breastplate from Hasanlu, Iran. Hasanlu Special Studies, Volume 1. University Museum Monograph 39. Philadelphia: The University Museum. Muscarella, Oscar White 1980. The Catalogue of Ivories from Hasanlu, Iran. Hasanlu Special Studies, Volume 2. University Museum Monograph 40. Philadelphia: The University Museum. Marcus, Michelle I. 1996. Emblems of Identity and Prestige: The Seals and Sealings from Hasanlu, Iran. Hasanlu Special Studies, Volume 3. University Museum Monograph 84. Philadelphia: The University Museum.

museum monograph 132

Hasanlu Special Studies IV Robert H. Dyson, Jr., General Editor

Peoples and Crafts in Period IVB at Hasanlu, Iran

Maude de Schauensee Volume Editor

university of pennsylvania museum of archaeology and anthropology philadelphia

Illustration on title page: copper/bronze plaque (HAS 62-1056, UPM 63-5-177). Kimberly Leaman Insua from object and Object Card

library of congress cataloging-in-publication data Peoples and crafts in period IVB at Hasanlu, Iran / Maude de Schauensee, volume editor. p. cm. – (Hasanlu special studies ; IV) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-934536-17-9 (hardcover with disk : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-934536-17-2 (hardcover with disk : alk. paper) 1. Hasanlu Site (Iran) 2. Iron Age–Iran–Hasanlu Site. 3. Textile fabrics, Ancient–Iran–Hasanlu Site. 4. Glassware, Ancient–Iran–Hasanlu Site. 5. Furniture, Ancient–Iran–Hasanlu Site. 6. Weapons, Ancient–Iran–Hasanlu Site. 7. Metallurgy in archaeology–Iran–Hasanlu Site. 8. Excavations (Archaeology)–Iran–Hasanlu Site. 9. Iran–Antiquities. I. Schauensee, Maude de. II. University of Pennsylvania. Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. DS262.H37P46 2011 935–dc22 2011010292

© 2011 by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology Philadelphia, PA All rights reserved. Published 2011 Published for the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology by the University of Pennsylvania Press. Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper.

This volume is dedicated to The Kevorkian Foundation and Ralph Minasian in recognition of their longstanding support of The Hasanlu Project and the Near East Section of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology

BLACK SEA GEORGIA Ankara Gordion

Amasya Horoztepe Alaca Hoyuk Bogazkoy Alishar

ARMENIA Horom Karmir Blur Altintepe

Kultepe/Kanis

Korucutepe Malatya

Metsamor

Maras Hakkari Karatepe Chagar Kordlar Zincirli Carchemish Bazar Tell Brak Khorsabad Til Barsip Gawra Alalakh Tell Mohammed Arab Nineveh (Kuyunjik) Tell al Rimah Nimrud Ras Shamra (Ugarit) Nuzi

Ulu Burun shipwreck

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

GILAN Hasanlu Dinkha

Damascus

LURISTAN Tell Asmar Baghdad Sippar Kish

AFGHANISTAN Sialk

Susa Haft Tepe Choga Zanbil

Ur

Amarna

SEA

300

400

Persepolis

PE R RED

200

Godin Giyan

Bad Hora

Timna

EGYPT

100

Hissar Herat

Nippur Qantir

TALESH Deylaman Kaluraz Khurvin Tehran

Nahal Mishmar

Cairo

Marlik

Ziwiyeh

Bit-Sorgh

Megiddo

0

CASPIAN SEA

SYUNIK

Adilcevaz Ayanis

500

SIA

N

GU

LF OMAN

Km

MAPin OFthe THE text. NEAR AND MIDDLE Map of sites mentioned Prepared by EAST Kimberly Leaman Insua 2009

Contents List of Illustrations ix List of Tables xxi Notes on Terminology xxiii Acknowledgments xxv Foreword xxix

1 Furniture Remains and Furniture Ornaments from the Period IVB Buildings at Hasanlu, Maude de Schauensee

1

2 The Analysis and Conservation of the Hasanlu Period IVB Textiles, Nancy Love

43

3 Contexts of Textiles from the Hasanlu IVB Destruction Level, Maude de Schauensee

57

4 Glass and Glaze Analysis and Technology from Hasanlu, Period IVB, Colleen P. Stapleton

87

5 The Archaeometallurgy of Period IVB Bronzes at Hasanlu, Stuart J. Fleming, Samuel K. Nash, and Charles P. Swann

103

6 Blade-type Weaponry of Hasanlu Period IVB, Christopher P. Thornton and Vincent C. Pigott

135

7 A Life of Violence: When Warfare and Interpersonal Violence Intertwine at Hasanlu, Period IVB, Janet Monge and Colleen McCarthy

183

8 Hasanlu IVB: An Ancient DNA Pilot Project, Matthew C. Dulik, Joseph G. Lorenz, Theodore G. Schurr

195

Author Biographies 201 Index 205

dvd contents (see also Illustrations list for plates on the DVD)*

Appendix 1.1 Furniture and Furniture Ornaments by Field Number, Object, Material, Location, Building, Maude de Schauensee Appendix 2.1 Catalogue of the Hasanlu IVB Textiles, Nancy Love Appendix 3.1 Hasanlu IVB Textiles by Location, Building, Level, Skeleton Number, Description, Maude de Schauensee Appendix 5.1 Illustrated Catalogue of Analyzed Bronzes, Stuart Fleming Appendix 6.1 Database of Arrowheads from Hasanlu IVB by Field Number, Type, Material, Context, Christopher Thornton Appendix 6.2 Database of Spearheads from Hasanlu IVB by Field Number, Type, Material, Context, Christopher Thornton Appendix 6.3 Database of Swords/Daggers from Hasanlu IVB by Field Number, Hilt Type, Context, Christopher Thornton Appendix 6.4 Concordance of Artifacts by Field Number, Location, Christopher Thornton Appendix 7.1 Database of the Skeletal Material from Hasanlu IVB Showing Interpersonal Violence, Colleen McCarthy

*dVd contents may now be found online at http://core.tdar.org/project/375174/peoples-andcrafts-in-period-ivb-at-hasanlu-iran

Illustrations Looking west across the Period IVB Lower Court of Hasanlu Map of sites mentioned in the text

Frontispiece vi

Aerial view of Hasanlu looking north

xxvi

Topographic plan of the Hasanlu Mound

xxvii

Plan of the High Mound with Period IVB buildings and excavation grid

xxviii

figures

1.1a 1.1b 1.2

Plan showing the distribution of furniture remains in the lower collapse of the Period IVB buildings

2

Plan showing the distribution of furniture remains in the upper collapse of the Period IVB buildings

4

Plan of the wood furniture groups in Burned Building II, Room 5

6

1.3a-c Schematized reconstruction drawings of Stools A and B (HAS 64-852; HAS 64-28, UPM 65-31-611) 1.4

Line drawing of the iron saw blade with chevron decoration (HAS 62-975, UPM 63-5-172)

8 10

1.5a-d Representations of chairs on small ivory and bone objects (HAS 64-775, UPM 65-31-360; HAS 62-436, T; HAS 64-997, UPM 65-31-326; HAS 64-1068, MMA 65.163.14)

11

1.6a-b Representations of stools on small fragmentary ivory plaques and objects (HAS 64-996, T; HAS 60-950, T)

11

1.7 Schematic drawing of the large inlaid board (HAS 64-852, UPM 65-31-310)

12

1.8 Schematic drawing of the wooden furniture back (HAS 62-852)

14

1.9 Reconstruction drawing of the bone inlaid drum/table (HAS 62-595, T)

16

1.10 Small wooden box with copper/bronze tacks (HAS 62-435, T)

19

1.11 Fragments from the same parts of two carved wood furniture legs (HAS 64-461a)

20

1.12 Field drawing of three furniture legs (HAS 60-1013)

22

1.13 Drawing of copper/bronze and iron sheathing for furniture legs (HAS 62-968, MMA 63.109.2)

23

1.14a,b Large copper/bronze tetrapod stand (HAS 58-237a, UPM 59-4-116)

24

1.15a

25

Copper/bronze and iron-rod tripod stand following conservation (HAS 72-62, UPM 73-5-36)

x

illustrations

1.15b Reconstruction drawing of the copper/bronze and iron-rod stand (HAS 72-62, UPM 73-5-36)

25

1.16

27

Egyptian Blue bar plaque (HAS 64-534a, T)

1.17 Silver sheet overlay probably for a small plaque (HAS 64-475, T)

28

1.18 Set of three alternating copper/bronze and iron plaques (HAS 62-1059, T; HAS 62-1060, MMA 63.109.3; HAS 62-1061, UPM 63-5-180)

32

1.19 Set of five alternating copper/bronze and iron plaques (HAS 62-1054, T; HAS 62-1055, T; HAS 62-1056 thru HAS 62-1058, UPM 63-5-177 thru UPM 63-5-179)

34

1.20a-c Fragments of copper/bronze sheeting probably from furniture (HAS 64-465a, UPM 65-31-179; HAS 64-465b; HAS 64-468, T)

35

1.21 Drawing of one of two white stone finials with gold-covered knobs from BB II, Room 5 (HAS 64-321, T)

36

1.22 Octagonal glass tube with copper/bronze rods (HAS 64-677, T)

36

1.23

37

Heavy copper/bronze tube HAS 64-1057, T)

3.1 Field sketch of a patterned, multi-layer textile fragment (HAS 72-S65, UPM 71-5-703)

59

3.2a

Plan showing textile locations in lower collapse in the Period IVB buildings

61

3.2b

Plan showing textile locations in upper collapse in the Period IVB buildings

63

3.3

Copper/bronze plaque with figures wearing clothing with patterned borders and fringe (HAS 62-1056, UPM 63-5-177)

64

3.4

Copper/bronze plaque with figures wearing short patterned skirts (HAS 62-1054, T)

64

3.5

Line drawing of the Gold Bowl (HAS 58-469, T 10712)

66

3.6 Drawing of the silver and electrum beaker (HAS 580-425, T 19770)

67

4.1

White opaque glaze and glasses (UPM 60-20-348)

96

4.2

Blue glasses and glazes

97

4.3

Low and high iron black glasses 99

5.1

Comparison of arsenic distribution in bronzes, by type

105

5.2

Comparison of tin distribution in bronzes, by type

107

5.3 Distribution of individual tin contents in bronzes

107

5.4

Plot of the melting point of bronzes in relation to the amount of tin or antimony alloy

109

5.5

Comparison of iron distribution in bronzes, by type

110

5.6

Comparison of lead distribution in bronzes, by type

115

5.7

Comparison of silver distribution in bronzes, by type

117

5.8

Comparison of nickel distribution in bronzes, by type

119

5.9

Comparison of antimony distribution in bronzes, by type

123

6.1 Diagram identifying the terminology for arrowheads

139

6.2 Type IA iron arrowheads

141 & DVD p. 66

6.3 Type IB iron arrowheads

142 & DVD p. 67



illustrations

xi

6.4 Type IC iron arrowheads and Type III iron spearheads

143 & DVD p. 68

6.5 Type IIA and IIB iron arrowheads

144 & DVD p. 69

6.6 Type IIIA and IIIB iron arrowheads and different types of copper/bronze arrowheads

145 & DVD p. 70

6.7

Bone and lithic arrowhead types

146 & DVD p. 71

6.8 Diplanar Type IIB2 barbed arrowhead (HAS 72-170, UPM 73-5-109)

147

6.9 Diagram identifying the terminology for spearheads

147

6.10 Type IA and Type IB iron spearheads

148 & DVD p. 72

6.11 Two copper/bronze pikes (HAS 72-51, UPM 73-5-446; HAS 72-52, T)

149 & DVD p. 73

6.12 Type IC iron spearheads

150 & DVD p. 74

6.13

Proposed reconstruction of the hafting for Type IC spearheads

6.14

Copper/bronze spearheads

152 & DVD p. 75

6.15

Bimetallic spearheads

153 & DVD p. 76

151

6.16 Type IIA1 iron spearheads

154 & DVD p. 77

6.17 Type IIA2 iron spearheads

156 & DVD p. 78

6.18 Type IIB1 and IIB2 iron spearheads

157 & DVD p. 79

6.19 Type IIC1 and IIC2 iron spearheads

158 & DVD p. 80

6.20 Diagram identifying the terminology for swords

159

6.21 The unique Hittite-style copper/bronze sword (HAS 58-241, T 10591)

159

6.22 Type IA1 sword/dagger hilts

160 & DVD p. 81

6.23 Type IA2 sword/dagger hilts

161 & DVD p. 82

6.24 Type IB1 sword/dagger hilts

161 & DVD p. 83

6.25 Type 1A2 multi-material dagger hilt (HAS 58-446, UPM 59-4-114)

161

6.26 Type IIA1a sword/dagger hilts

163 & DVD p. 84

6.27 Type IIA1b and IIA1c sword/dagger hilts

164 & DVD p. 85

6.28 Type IIA2 sword/dagger hilts

164 & DVD p. 86

6.29 Type IIB sword/dagger hilts; stamp seal (HAS 62-606, T)

165 & DVD p. 87

6.30

Blade type weapons published by Hakemi and Rad (1950)

166

6.31

Blade type weapons from periods other than Hasanlu Period IVB

6.32

Plan showing distribution of arrowheads in the Period IVB buildings

171

6.33

Plan showing distribution of spearheads in the Period IVB buildings

173

6.34

Plan showing distribution of sword and dagger hilts in the Period IVB buildings

175

168 & DVD p. 88

plates

1.1 Stool B and part of Group 1 in situ (HAS 64-852)

7

1.2 Field photograph of Leg 2 from Stool B (HAS 64-852, T)

9

xii

illustrations

1.3 Section of the inlaid wood board in Group 1 in situ (HAS 58-852, UPM 65-31-310)

13

1.4 The wood furniture back in situ (HAS 64-852)

15

1.5 The bone plaques that had edged a round tripod drum (or table) in situ (HAS 62-595, T)

17

1.6

Bone inlay pieces found with three copper/bronze lion paw terminal covers (HAS 58-425, -426, -429, UPM 59-4-68, -69, -70)

18

1.7 Field photograph of fragments of two carved, facetted wood furniture legs (HAS 64-461a,b)

20

1.8a Fragment of a small wood object decorated with a shallow incised linear pattern (HAS 74-47, T)

21

1.8b Fragment of a small ivory object decorated with incised geometric designs and a crenellated edge (HAS 74-N536, UPM 75-29-380)

21

1.8c Fragments of a small wood box with tab handles and borders of filled incised lozenge designs (HAS 72-70, T)

21

1.9

Iron and copper/bronze sheathing for a furniture support in the form of a human leg (HAS61-968, MMA 63.109.2)

23

1.10 Field photograph of the copper/bronze and iron-rod stand (HAS 72-62, UPM 73-5-36)

25

1.11a,b Two small copper/bronze tripod stands (HAS 58-216, T 10624; HAS 62-755, T)

26

1.11c Small Egyptian Blue compartmented stand (HAS 64-660, MMA 65.163.38)

26

1.12 Silver sheet overlay for a small plaque (HAS 64-475, T)

28

1.13 Set of three alternating copper/bronze and iron plaques with ivory chevron borders in situ (HAS 62-1059, T; HAS 62-1060, MMA 63.109.3; HAS 62-1061, UPM 63-5-180)

32

1.14 Two copper/bronze and one iron plaque (HAS 62-1123 thru HAS 62-1125, T)

33

1.15 Fragments of copper/bronze sheet overlay, possibly for furniture (HAS 64-465a, UPM 65-31-179)

35

2.1 Textile and tassel in situ (HAS 74-S37a, UPM 75-29-809)

44

2.2 Small single-layer textile fragment (UPM 93-4-172a)

45

2.3

Multi-layer textile fragment (HAS 72-S65, UPM 73-5-787a,b)

45

2.4 Uncharred textile fragment (HAS 62-S127, UPM 63-5-2074)

46

2.5a,b Original field storage box for a textile sample (HAS 74-S64, UPM 75-29-803a-c)

47

2.6 Textile fragment of interlooping weave structure (HAS 72-S69, UPM 73-5-804e)

48

2.7 Textile fragment with supplementary-weft loop pile (HAS 74-S69, UPM 75-29-816b)

48

2.8 Fragment of a multi-layer, multi-weave textile (HAS 72-S65, UPM 73-5-703)

48

2.9 Fragment of an uncharred textile (HAS 74-S46a, UPM 75-29-803b)

49

2.10 Fragment of textile associated with wooden furniture (HAS 64-S2a, UPM 65-31-99)

49

2.11

Example of selvedge cord (HAS 74-S33a, UPM 75-29-816a)

49

2.12a

Example of a simple selvedge (HAS 72-S69, UPM 73-5-804g)

50

2.12b

Example of a possible warp end finished with knotted self-fringe (HAS 72-S69, UPM 73-5-804g)

50



2.13

illustrations

Example of a butt seam (HAS 72-561a, UPM 75-29-806a)

2.14 Groups of detached fringe (HAS 72-S54a, UPM 73-5-797) 2.15

Mass of fringe (HAS 72-S69, UPM 73-5-804n)

xiii

50 51 51

2.16 Detail showing small tassels (HAS 74-S65, UPM 75-5-787a)

52

2.17 Detail of a tassel (HAS 74-S37a, UPM 75-29-809)

52

2.18a,b Balls of yarn (HAS 62-S143, UPM 63-5-2073a)

53

2.19

Bundles of processed aligned wool fibers, possibly for spinning (HAS 72-S62, UPM 73-5 790)

54

2.20 Sample of rope made from plant fiber (HAS 72-S32, UPM 73-5-791)

55

2.21 Fragment of a plant fiber basket base (HAS 74-S91a, UPM 75-29-806)

55

2.22 Textile fragments in new storage container (HAS 74-S64a, UPM 75-29-803a-c)

56

2.23 Fragment of textile in many parallel layers (HAS 74-S47a, UPM 75-29-807a)

56

3.1

Example of the fragmentary preservation of the textiles

3.2 Fragment of a textile with a pile multiple lozenge design (HAS 72-S65, UPM 71-5-703)

58 59

3.3

Copper/bronze plaque showing archers wearing short patterned skirts (HAS 62-1054, T)

64

3.4

Copper/bronze buttons from a leather “gauntlet” and a copper/bronze quiver in situ (HAS 58-455, UPM 59-4-94, T 10707; UPM 59-4-226)

70

3.5 The silver and electrum beaker with textile pseudomorphs (HAS 58-425, T 19770)

71

3.6 Detail of textile pseudomorphs covering the iron pin of a copper/bronze and iron lion pin (HAS 62-525, UPM 63-5-181)

72

3.7 A copper/bronze helmet crest with vegetal remains at the lower edge (HAS 62-581, UPM 63-5-247)

73

3.8 Skeleton (SK 263) in situ 74 3.9

Leather bag (HAS 62-S408, UPM 63-5-2084)

75

3.10

Copper/bronze plaque with textile pseudomorphs (HAS 60-1016, T)

75

3.11 SK 344 in situ surrounded by black ashy soil and fragmentary textile remains

77

3.12

78

Base of a basket made of plant material in situ (HAS 74-S91A, UPM 75-29-806)

3.13 The sherd layer sealing the second story collapse of BB IV-V from below

79

3.14 Fragment of textile in loose folds (HAS 74-S48a, UPM 75-29-804)

80

3.15a-d Fragments of a sewn textile with decorative border and stitched selvedge (HAS 74-S45A, UPM 75-29-805a)

82

3.16 Unburned textile in situ inside a copper/bronze basin (HAS 74-S52A, UPM 75-29-810a; HAS 74-265, T)

83

5.1

Lion pin (HAS 60-954, UPM 61-5-180)

104

5.2 left Bridle plaque (HAS 59-838b, a, UPM 60-20-261b,a)

104

5.2 right Bridle button (HAS 59-838d, UPM 60-20-261b,d)

104

xiv

illustrations

5.3

Lion pin (HAS 60-565, UPM 61-5-223)

108

5.4

Plough ring (WA136168, BM)

109

5.5

Micrograph of bracelet (HAS 59-843a, UPM 60-20-161)

110

5.6

Pin with knob head (HAS 60-878, UPM 61-5-115)

116

5.7

Cage bell (HAS 72-132, UPM 73-5-549)

117

5.8

Lion pin (HAS 60-539, UPM 61-5-203)

117

5.9–10a Stone mold for bar ingots and flat axes (HAS 57-64, UPM 58-4-81) 5.10b

121

Plain button (HAS 74-N337a, UPM 75-29-593) of a type which could have been cast in mold HAS 57-64 (UPM 58-4-81)

121

5.11a

Plate ingot (WA136110, BM 1947-5-1, 540)

122

5.11b

Micrograph of ingot (WA136110, BM 1947-5-1, 540)

122

5.12a Fragment of a knobbed bracelet (HAS 62-679, UPM 63-5-214)

124

5.12b

Micrograph of knobbed bracelet (HAS 62-679, UPM 63-5-214)

124

5.13

Micrograph of knobbed bracelet (HAS 60-616, UPM 61-5-215)

124

5.14a Fragment of an undecorated bracelet (HAS 59-545, UPM 60-20-262)

126

5.14b

Micrograph of bracelet (HAS 59-545, UPM 60-20-262) 126

5.15

Micrograph of a button (HAS 58-445a, UPM 59-4-121)

128

5.16

Lion pin (HAS 60-554, UPM 61-5-207)

128

6.1 A selection of the arrowheads found in the Hasanlu Period IVB destruction level (HAS 62-1086a, UPM 93-4-119; HAS 74-269, unk.; HAS 62-991, UPM 63-5-154; HAS 74-40, T; HAS 62-842, T; HAS 72-60, UPM 73-5-210) 6.2

Iron arrowheads found in and around BB IE, BB IW, and BB II (HAS 59-705a–c, UPM 60-20-195, T); HAS 59-503a,b, T; HAS 59-624a, UPM 60-20-196; HAS 59-960, UPM 60-20-193; HAS 59-536, UPM 60-20-197)

138

138

6.3 Top: Cluster of iron arrowheads (HAS 72-N290, UPM 73-5-90). Bottom: Cluster of iron arrowheads, separated (HAS 72-N116, UPM 73-5-92)

140

6.4 Type IB iron spearhead (HAS 74-N127, UPM 75-29-41)

148

6.5 Type IC iron spearhead (HAS 74-283, unk.)

150

6.6 Unique Type IC iron spearhead (HAS 74-150, T)

151

6.7

Copper/bronze Type IIA1 spearhead (HAS 60-882, UPM 61-5-332)

152

6.8a-f

Examples of iron Type II spearhead sub-types (HAS 70-276, T; HAS 74-291, T; HAS 74-292, T; HAS 74-297, T; HAS 74-349, unk.; HAS 74-355, unk.)

155

6.9 Type IIA2 copper/bronze sword HAS 58-241 (T 10591)

159

6.10 Unique grooved Type IV sword/dagger blade with multi-material Type IIB hilt (HAS 74-461, T)

160

6.11a,b Two Type IA iron sword blades with iron Type IA1 hilts (HAS 74-346, T; HAS 72-61, UPM 73-5-557)

162

6.12 Type IA sword blade with iron Type IA2 hilt (HAS 74-367, T)

162



illustrations

xv

6.13 Type IIA2 dagger with Type III iron blade (HAS 62-887, UPM 63-5-164)

164

6.14 Three Type IIA1a iron hilts (HAS 59-878, UPM 60-20-296; HAS 59-655, T; HAS 59-696, T)

165

6.15a,b Type II iron sword blade with Type IIB copper/bronze hilt (HAS 59-482, T)

167

6.16 Group of iron spearheads and sickles in situ in BB V, Room 4a

169

6.17 SK 263 with personal ornaments and a Type IIB sword (HAS 62-517, T)

176

Perimortem fractures of the cranial vault in two male specimens (left, 75-29-533; right, 75-29-542)

185

7.2 Detail of healed antemortem fracture of the right nasal and maxilla of a female (66-23-387)

186

7.3 Asymmetry of the nasal aperture of a female (63-5-316)

186

7.4

190

7.1

Pattern and placement of trauma sustained by females

7.5 Antemortem fractures sustained by females

190

7.6 Antemortem fractures sustained by males

191

7.7

191

Perimortem fractures sustained by males

color plates on the dvd

dvd page

0.1 Aerial view of Hasanlu Tepe, June 1976

2

1.1

Iron saw blade (HAS 62-975, UPM 63-5-172)

5

1.2

Iron lamp bowl (HAS 64-459, UPM 65-31-459)

5

1.3 Two of three copper/bronze lion-paw terminal covers (HAS 58-403, UPM 59-4-172a,b, UPM 59-4-172a,b)

6

1.4 Small wood box decorated with copper/bronze tacks (HAS 58-435, UPM 59-4-T)

6

1.5

7

Large copper/bronze tetrapod stand (HAS 58-237a, UPM 59-4-116)

1.6 The copper/bronze and iron stand following conservation (HAS 72-62, UPM 73-5-36)

7

1.7a-c Three Egyptian Blue terminals in the shape of bovine lower legs (HAS 64-536, T; HAS 64-493, T; HAS 64-702 + HAS 64-794, UPM 354)

8

1.8a,b Two Egyptian Blue tubes (HAS 64-628, UPM 65-31-289; HAS 64-629, T)

8

1.9 Fragment of an Egyptian Blue palmette applique (HAS 64-665, UPM 65-31-296b)

9

1.10 A spade-shaped Egyptian Blue object (HAS 64-537, UPM 65-31-297)

9

1.11a,b Fragments of silver sheet overlay for two plaques (HAS 64-862, UPM 65-31-388) 1.12

Egyptian Blue inlay piece in the shape of a double-headed snarling lion (HAS 64-604, UPM 65-31-295)

10 10

1.13 A copper/bronze plaque from the set of five alternating copper/bronze and iron plaques (HAS 62-1056, UPM 63-5-177)

10

1.14

11

White stone finial with gold sheet–overlaid knob (HAS 64-321, T)

1.15a A fragmentary square blue glass tube (HAS 64-84, UPM 65-31-280)

11

1.15b A fragmentary square blue glass tube with copper/bronze sheet inserts (HAS 64-680, UPM 65-31-283)

11

xvi

illustrations

3.1

Inlaid gold knife handle (HAS 60-1005, T) 12

3.2

Man in a threshing field near Hasanlu wearing a wide leather belt 12

4.1

Black glass bead with white opaque swirl (HAS 64-267, UPM 65-31-247a) 13

4.2

Blue-green glass bead with yellow opaque, white opaque, and black stripes (HAS 62-52, UPM 63-5-280a) 13

4.3

Comparison of SiO2 and Al2O3 in Hasanlu glasses and other Near Eastern and Egyptian sites 13

4.4

Backscattered electron image of yellow glaze on an Assyrian-style vessel (UPM 60-20-348) (black and white image)

14

Backscattered electron image of a sample from a glass tube showing aggregate of Ca2Sb2O crystals with associated sodium-potassium-sulfur inclusions (HAS 64-680, UPM 65-31-283) (black and white image)

14

Backscattered electron image of yellow opaque glass from a bead (HAS 61-5-95a, UPM 60-900) (black and white image)

14

4.5

4.6 5.1

Lion pin (HAS 56-1, UPM 56-20-1) 16

5.2

Lion pin (HAS 57-1, UPM 58-4-1) 16

5.3

Lion pin (HAS 58-497, UPM 59-4-223) 17

5.4

Lion pin (HAS 60-537, MMA 61.100.12) 17

5.5

Lion pin (HAS 60-538, UPM 61-5-201) 17

5.6

Lion pin (HAS 60-539, UPM 61-5-203) 18

5.7

Lion pin (HAS 60-547, UPM 61-5-220) 18

5.8

Lion pin (HAS 60-554, UPM 61-5-207) 18

5.9

Lion pin (HAS 60-557, UPM 61-5-214) 19

5.10

Lion pin (HAS 60-560, MMA 61.100.15) 19

5.11

Lion pin (HAS 60-563, MMA 61.100.14) 19

5.12

Lion pin (HAS 60-565, UPM 61-5-223) 20

5.13

Lion pin (HAS 60-567, UPM 61-5-239) 20

5.14

Lion pin (HAS 60-572, UPM 61-5-242) 20

5.15

Lion pin (HAS 60-953, UPM 61-5-191) 21

5.16

Lion pin (HAS 60-954, UPM 61-5-180) 21

5.17

Lion pin (HAS 60-957, UPM 61-5-181) 22

5.18

Lion pin (HAS 60-974, UPM 61-5-182) 22

5.19

Lion pin (HAS 60-980, MMA 61.100.11) 22

5.20

Lion pin (HAS 60-986, UPM 61-5-184) 23

5.21

Lion pin (HAS 62-289, MMA 63.109.6) 23

5.22

Lion pin (HAS 62-415, MMA 63.109.5) 23



illustrations

xvii

5.23

Lion pin (HAS 62-525, UPM 63-5-181) 24

5.24

Lion pin (HAS 62-584, UPM 63-5-183) 24

5.25

Lion pin (HAS 72-160, UPM 73-5-47) 24

5.26

Lion pin (HAS 72-163, UPM 73-5-540) 25

5.27

Lion pin (HAS 72-164, UPM 73-5-541) 25

5.28

Bracelet (HAS 57-119, UPM 58-4-45) 26

5.29

Bracelet (HAS 57-164, UPM 58-4-56) 26

5.30

Bracelet (HAS 58-152, UPM 59-4-130) 26

5.31

Bracelet (HAS 58-214, UPM 59-4-126) 27

5.32

Bracelet (HAS 59-218, UPM 60-20-145) 27

5.33

Bracelet (HAS 59-239, UPM 60-20-138) 27

5.34

Bracelet (HAS 59-545, UPM 60-20-262) 28

5.35

Bracelet (HAS 59-802, MMA 60-20-52) 28

5.36

Bracelet (HAS 59-843a, UPM 60-20-161) 28

5.37

Bracelet (HAS 59-956, UPM 60-20-163) 29

5.38

Bracelet (HAS 60-342, MMA 61.100.32) 29

5.39

Bracelet (HAS 60-581a, UPM 61-5-230) 29

5.40

Bracelet (HAS 60-581b, MMA 61.100.25) 29

5.41

Bracelet (HAS 60-582, MMA 61.100.29) 30

5.42

Bracelet (HAS 60-585, UPM 61-5-234) 30

5.43

Bracelet (HAS 60-585a, UPM 61-5-234a) 30

5.44

Bracelet (HAS 60-585b, MMA 61.100.31) 31

5.45

Bracelet (HAS 60-594, UPM 61-5-226b) 31

5.46

Bracelet (HAS 60-596, UPM 61-5-236) 31

5.47

Bracelet (HAS 60-597c, MMA 61.100.26) 32

5.48

Bracelet (HAS 60-597d, MMA 61.100.27) 32

5.49

Bracelet (HAS 60-607, UPM 61-5-228) 32

5.50

Bracelet (HAS 60-610, UPM 61-5-227) 33

5.51

Bracelet (HAS 60-616, UPM 61-5-215) 33

5.52

Bracelet (HAS 60-617, UPM 61-5-222) 33

5.53

Bracelet (HAS 60-619a, UPM 61-5-244) 34

5.54

Bracelet (HAS 60-619b, MMA 61.100.28) 34

5.55

Bracelet (HAS 60-960a, UPM 61-5-192a) 34

5.56

Bracelet (HAS 60-960b, UPM 61-5-192b) 35

5.57

Bracelet (HAS 60-1036a, UPM 61-5-135a) 35

xviii

illustrations

5.58

Bracelet (HAS 60-1036b, UPM 61-5-135b) 35

5.59

Bracelet (HAS 60-1036c, UPM 61-5-135c) 36

5.60

Bracelet (HAS 60-1068, UPM 61-5-136) 36

5.61

Bracelet (HAS 62-287, UPM 63-5-218) 36

5.62

Bracelet (HAS 62-418, UPM 63-5-212) 36

5.63

Bracelet (HAS 62-679, UPM 63-5-214) 37

5.64

Bracelet (HAS 62-1031, UPM 63-5-217) 37

5.65

Bracelet (HAS 72-20, MMA 76.233.39b) 37

5.66 Anklet (HAS 62-443, UPM 63-5-211) 37 5.67

Pin (HAS 59-152, MMA 60-20-14) 38

5.68

Pin (HAS 60-844a, UPM 61-5-114a) 38

5.69

Pin (HAS 60-878b, UPM 61-5-115a) 38

5.70

Pin (HAS 70-296, UPM 71-23-247) 38

5.71

Horse bit (half of) (HAS 59-772, UPM 60-20-171) 39

5.72

Button (HAS 59-797, UPM 60-20-176) 39

5.73

Headstall strap decoration (HAS 59-838b, a-d, UPM 60-20-261b, a-d) 39

5.74

Headstall strap decoration (HAS 59-838d, UPM 60-20-261d) 40

5.75

Horse-bit (HAS 60-741, UPM 61-5-188,i-iii) 40

5.76

Horse-bit mouthpiece (HAS 64-381, UPM 65-31-186) 40

5.77

Horse-bit bar cheekpiece (HAS 64-391, UPM 65-31-184) 40

5.78

Bell (HAS 72-126a, UPM 71-23-291) 41

5.79

Bell (HAS 72-132, UPM 73-5-549) 41

5.80 Suspension loop for pectoral (HAS 72-N381b, UPM 73-5-448) 41 5.81

Bell (HAS 74-N261a, UPM 75-29-543a) 41

5.82 Stud cap (HAS 74-N261c, UPM 75-29-543c) 42 5.83

[No image; very like Color Pl. 5.82] Stud cap (of two fused together) (HAS 74-N261e, UPM 75-29-543e) 42

5.84 Stud cap (with its shank missing) (HAS 74-N303c, UPM 75-29-569c) 42 5.85 Stud caps (one of three) (HAS 74-N333a, UPM 75-29-589a) 42 5.86 Stud cap (one of six, various sizes) (HAS 74-N337a, UPM 75-29-593) 43 5.87

Plaque or pendant (HAS none given, UPM 61-5-138) 43

5.88 Stud (from a large cluster) (HAS 58-228b, UPM 59-4-166) 44 5.89

Button (HAS 58-445a-d, UPM 59-4-121a-d) 44

5.90

Button (HAS 58-487, UPM 59-4-125) 44

5.91 Tweezers (HAS 59-377, UPM 60-20-210) 45 5.92 Disc-shaped pendant (HAS 59-938, UPM 60-20-180) 45



5.93

illustrations

xix

Pin (nail-like) (HAS 60-844b, UPM 61-5-114b) 45

5.94 Needle (HAS 60-878a, MMA 61.100.46) 46 5.95

Pin (with eyelet) (HAS 60-896b, MMA 61.100.45) 46

5.96

Pin (HAS 64-296, UPM 65-31-117) 46

5.97

Button (HAS 70-076, UPM 71-23-291) 46

5.98

Pendants (HAS 72-111a, b, UPM 73-5-429) 46

5.99

Plough ring (WA 136167, BM 1947-5-1, 597) 47

5.100

Plough ring (WA 136168, BM 1947-5-1, 598) 47

5.101

Bun ingot (WA136126, BM 1947-5-1, 556) 48

5.102

Plate ingot (in a cluster of eleven) (WA136110, BM 1947-5-1, 540) 48

5.103

Plate ingot (in a bundle of four) (WA129984, BM 1947-5-1, 377) 48

5.104

Bar ingot (WA136122, BM 1947-5-1, 552) 48

5.105

Bar ingot (WA136116, BM 1947-5-1, 547) 48

5.106

Bar ingot (HAS 70-118, UPM 71-23-230) 49

5.107

Casting mold (HAS 57-64, UPM 58-4-81) 49

5.108

Casting mold (HAS 62-85, UPM 63-5-16) 49

5.109

Micrograph (magnification, 100x) for lion pin HAS 60-539, UPM 61-5-203 50

5.110

Micrograph (magnification, 100x) for bracelet HAS 59-545, UPM 60-20-262 50

5.111

Micrograph (magnification, 400x) for bracelet HAS 59-843a, UPM 60-20-161 51

5.112

Micrograph (magnification, 100x) for bracelet HAS 60-616, UPM 61-5-215 51

5.113

Micrograph (magnification, 55x) for bracelet HAS 60-617, UPM 61-5-222 52

5.114

Micrograph (magnification, 55x) for bracelet HAS 60-619a, UPM 61-5-244 52

5.115

Micrograph (magnification, 100x) for bracelet HAS 60-1036a, UPM 61-5-135a 53

5.116

Micrograph (magnification, 55x) for bracelet HAS 62-679, UPM 63-5-214 53

5.117

Micrograph (magnification, 100x) for horse-bit HAS 59-772, UPM 60-20-171 54

5.118

Micrograph (magnification, 100x) for stud HAS 58-228a, UPM 59-4-166 54

5.119

Micrograph (magnification, 400x) for button HAS 58-445a, UPM 59-4-121a 55

5.120

Micrograph (magnification, 400x) for plate ingot WA136110, BM 1947-5-1, 540 55

6.1 Selected arrowhead types of different materials (HAS 62-1086a, UPM 93-4-119C; HAS 74-269, unk.; HAS 62-991, UPM 63-5-154; HAS 74-40, T; HAS 62-842, T) 56 6.2 Two copper/bronze trilobate arrowheads (HAS 74-N9, UPM 75-29-446; HAS 74-26, T) 56 6.3 Five barbed Type IIA1 and Type IIB Period III iron arrowheads (HAS 72-171, unk.) and a Type IIB2 diplanar iron arrowhead (HAS 72-170, UPM 74-5-109) 57 6.4 One Type IIB2 diplanar iron arrowhead (HAS 72-170, UPM 73-5-109) and several simple barbed Type IIA1 arrowheads 57

xx

illustrations

6.5a,b Two diplanar copper/bronze Type I* spearheads (HAS 72-52, T; HAS 72-51, UPM 73-5-446) 58 6.6 The two types of bimetallic spearheads (left, HAS 72-113, T; right, HAS 64-402, UPM 65-31-196) 58 6.7 Detail of a Type IA2 hilt on an iron sword (HAS 70-659, unk.) 59 6.8

Bimetallic shortsword with Type IB iron blade and cast-on Type Ib1 copper/bronze hilt (HAS 60-681, T) 59

6.9 Sword with Type IA iron blade and Type IB1 hilt (HAS 59-428, UPM 60-20-186) 60 6.10 Type IA2 dagger with multi-material hilt (HAS 58-446, UPM 59-4-114) 60 6.11

Iron sword with unique Type IIA1c hilt (HAS 70-658, UPM 71-23-544) 61

6.12

Copper/bronze Period V Type IIA1b dagger (HAS 57-149, UPM 58-4-11) 61

6.13 Type IIA1b iron dagger hilt partially overlaid with gold sheet (HAS 58-471, T 10669) 62 6.14

Bimetallic shortsword with Type III iron blade and Type IIB copper/bronze hilt (HAS 62-565, MMA 63.109.4) 62

6.15 Selection of bone arrowheads and iron arrowheads in a hoard of iron spearheads and swords (HAS 60-38, UPM 61-5-57; HAS 60-77 thru HAS 60-80, T, UPM 61-5-69) 63 6.16 Type IA2 sword (HAS 74-367, T) visible on top of a group of spears and swords 63 6.17 Type IA2 iron sword (HAS 72-48, T) in situ with SK 344 64 6.18 Type IIB sword (HAS 62-517, T) in situ near SK 263 65 Pages 66–88 of the DVD have figures of blade-type weaponry also shown in Chapter 6 in the book

Tables 4.1

Microprobe Analyses of Hasanlu Glasses

90

4.2

Microprobe Analyses of Hasanlu Glazes

92

4.3

LA-ICP-MS Analyses of Glasses and Glazes

94

4.4

Microprobe Analyses of Alkali Sulfate Inclusions in Hasanlu Glasses

95

5.1

Compositional Data for Main Types of Bronzes

106

5.2

Compositional Data for Lion Pins

108

5.3

Concordance of Field Numbers and Museum Inventory Numbers for Lion Pins

111

5.4

Compositional Data for Bracelets and Pins

112

5.5

Concordance of Field Numbers and Museum Inventory Numbers for Bracelets and Pins

113

5.6

Compositional Data for Horse Gear

114

5.7

Concordance of Field Numbers and Museum Inventory Numbers for Horse Gear

116

5.8

Compositional Data for “Other” Items

118

5.9

Concordance of Field Numbers and Museum Inventory Numbers for “Other” Items

120

5.10 Silver Content among Antimony-rich Bronzes

120

5.11 Nickel Content among Antimony-rich Bronzes

123

5.12 Antimony-bearing Copper-based Minerals and Their Arsenical Variants

125

5.13

Compositional Analysis of Antimony Artifacts

125

5.14

Compositional Data for Ingots

125

5.15

Concordance of Field Numbers and Inventory Numbers for Ingots

126

5.16

Concordance of Field (HAS) Number to DVD Image Number

127

6.1 Key to Typology of Blade-type Weapons

136

7.1 Distribution of Specimens by Sex

187

7.2 Total Number of Antemortem versus Perimortem Fractures

188

7.3 Number of Cranial Vault Fractures versus Number of Facial Fractures

189

7.4 Distribution of Antemortem Fractures by Specific Bone (% of total fractures by gender)

189

7.5 Distribution of Antemortem and Perimortem Fractures in Males and Females by Age Category

191

8.1 Sequence Results for Hasanlu Ancient DNA Samples

198

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Notes on Terminology abbreviations

BM = British Museum, London, UK MMA = Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY ROM = Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Canada UPM = University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, PA T = Mūzih-i Millī-i Īrān, Tehran, Iran Tabriz = Tabriz Museum, Tabriz, Iran BB = Burned Building Rm = Room HAS = Field number designation followed by year of excavation and sequential object number for that year (e.g. HAS 56-1) SK = Skeleton disc. = discarded unk. = unknown definitions

Button: The Hasanlu Project identifies a button as a cap with a fastening suitable for sewing. Stud: The Hasanlu Project identifies a stud as a cap with a shank suitable for piercing a backing. The cap of a button and a stud can be identical. Copper/bronze (Cu/br): The Hasanlu Project uses this designation for copper-based metals which have not been analyzed. Field Notebook (NBK): The Field Notebooks are numbered sequentially through the seasons of excavation (1956: NBK 1; 1957: NBK 2; 1958: NBK 3–NBK 7; 1959: NBK 8–NBK 12; 1960: NBK 13–NBK 15; 1962: NBK 16– NBK 32, NBK 34–NBK 39; 1964: NBK 33, NBK 40–NBK 41; 1970: NBK 44–NBK 55; 1972: NBK 56–NBK 68; 1974: NBK 69–NBK 78). All references to Field Notebooks are to the photocopied, paginated, and annotated Notebooks, not to the original Notebooks made in field. Object Card: The card made in the field for each object at the time of excavation.

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Acknowledgments

T

he Hasanlu Project thanks all those who have supported the Project through the years with their gifts—financial, intellectual, and temporal. In particular the Project would like to thank The Metropolitan Museum of Art and The Kevorkian Foundation for their longstanding support of The Hasanlu Project, most recently The Kevorkian Foundation’s support of the conservation and technical analysis of the textile fragments and preparation of their illustrations presented in this volume. The Project would also like to thank the University of Pennsylvania Museum for its support of The Hasanlu Project Archives and this research publication. Without the support of loyal and committed people and institutions such as those just mentioned, a publication such as this one could not have been accomplished. We would also like to thank Stephan Kroll, Robert H. Dyson, Jr., Fellow for the years 2007–2011, for his help and encouragement; Kimberly Leaman Insua for her careful and painstaking research through the field records which has resulted in the new Period IVB

plan and the new topographic map, both of which she prepared and are published for the first time in this volume, and for her excellent preparation of images for this volume; Holly Pittman for her support and assistance to the Hasanlu Project as we prepared this volume; Mary Voigt for her editorial support during the preparation of this volume; Alessandro Pezzati and the Museum Archives for their assistance with images; Gabriel Pizzorno, Graduate Assistant to the Deputy Director, for his help with scans and things digital concerning Hasanlu slides and negatives; Jennifer Quick, Senior Editor for Publications, for her excellent work toward the final editing and preparation of this volume; Walda Metcalf and the Museum’s Publications Department for their assistance in the early days of the preparation of this volume; Jennifer Swerida for her invaluable assistance with final checking of details, numbers, and other tedia to insure accuracy in this publication; Karen Vellucci who prepared the index; and the many others who contributed to the preparation of this volume in so many ways.

Aerial view of Hasanlu looking north. Burned Building II is at the bottom of the image; the North Cemetery is at the top and the East Cemetery is at the right. UPM neg. no. 78137:6



Topographic plan of Hasanlu Mound generated from the original 1970 field survey data. Kimberly Leaman Insua 2009



18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

VII 8 9

Wall L

NORTH, ACCORDING TO DYSON

7

Wall M

10 Wall B1

WALL E

PitPit 77

WALL C Wall C

6

C.

wall H

2 phases to with bench, wall H and paveing goes and Jube

L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

5

11

Wall h

Slopes upward! B?? Built over pavement

W18

W18

W19

X18

11

4 Y31

12

3

AA PIT

BB CC DD EE FF

13

2

TEPE HASANLU

PERIOD IVB DESTRUCTION LEVEL with PERIOD III CITADEL WALL

1

50 meters

Plan of the High Mound with the Period IVB buildings and excavation grid generated from the original excavation plans, field notes, field photographs, and the 1964, 1970, and 1972 survey plans. Kimberly Leaman Insua 2009

Foreword Mary M. Voigt (for Robert H. Dyson, Jr.)

T

he University of Pennsylvania Museum has had a long-standing interest in the archaeology of Iran which began with Eric Schmidt’s excavations at Tepe Hissar in 1931 and continued with Carleton Coon’s research on the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods which began in 1949. When Robert Dyson joined the staff of the Museum on July 1st, 1954, he brought with him an interest in the definition of regional archaeological sequences based on stratigraphy. This strategy had been advocated by Lauristan Ward, Dyson’s teacher and mentor while he was a student at Harvard; the emphasis on stratigraphy was reinforced by Kathleen Kenyon, under whom Dyson worked at Jericho in 1954. After his field training at Jericho, Dyson spent two months working under Roman Ghirshman, director of the French Mission at Susa. While at Susa Dyson made the first stratigraphic excavation on the Acropolis Mound as part of the research for his Harvard PhD (Dyson 1966). His own field project in Iran began when Museum Director Froelich Rainey asked him to go to that country to begin a new longterm program of archaeological research focused on prehistoric periods. In 1956 Dyson traveled across the northern part of the Iranian Plateau, from Damghan in the northeast (where Hissar is located) to the Lake Urmia Basin in the northwest (Dyson 1956, 1957, 1983:xxvi–xxvii). Just south of Lake Urmia lay the large mounded site of Hasanlu, which both the Director of the Iranian Archaeological Service, M. T. Mostafavi, and Roman Ghirshman urged Dyson to consider for excava-

tion. The presence of Iron Age burials at the site had been shown first by commercial excavations in 1934 (Stein 1940:388). In 1936 a stratigraphic sounding by Sir Aurel Stein placed these burials in context and documented deposits dated to the Iron Age and earlier (Stein 1940:390–404). In 1947 and 1949 further test excavations in the cemetery area of the lower mound were made by A. Hakemi and M. Rad for the Iranian Archaeological Service (Hakemi and Rad 1950). Convinced that Hasanlu Tepe would be an excellent place to begin a new long-term archaeological project, Dyson cut test trenches on the high central mound in 1956. These initial soundings established that the site had a deep stratified sequence that would provide a basis for the definition of chronological units based on architecture and associated artifact types. This sequence could be used as a tool in regional survey, a means by which surface remains could be used to identify periods of occupation and to estimate the size of the settlement by period. When supplemented by limited excavation the sequence would allow the construction of the culture history of the surrounding Solduz valley (Dyson 1989a:3, Fig. 1). The program of excavation and regional survey continued through 21 summers to the last year of field work in 1977; ten occupation periods were defined, ranging from the settlement of Solduz by early farmers (Hasanlu X) to the Islamic Il Khanid period (Hasanlu I) (Dyson 1983:xxvii with references; see also Voigt 1983 and Danti 2005). The project’s focus, however, had in its early years turned to an extremely well preserved and immensely rich

xxx

foreword

Iron Age level on Hasanlu Tepe, designated as Period IVB in the regional sequence. The Hasanlu IVB occupation, which covered the entire top of the High Mound, was destroyed by fire during a battle. Radiocarbon dates indicate that the fire occurred ca. 800 BC (Dyson and Muscarella 1989),1 a date that has generally been accepted, although Medvedskaya prefers a date near the end of the 8th century based on historical and stylistic arguments (Medvedskaya 1982, 1988, 1989, 1991). Dyson and I would argue that the radiocarbon evidence is conclusive, especially given that most of the evidence cited by Medvedskaya does not come from good excavated contexts (as opposed to wall reliefs and artifacts without provenience).2 Moreover, in our view the evidence for exchange and gift-giving between the people of Hasanlu and Assyria make the latter unlikely enemies, a situation postulated by those who favor a later date for the IVB fire. Even if we temporarily accept some degree of uncertainty as to whether Hasanlu IVB dates to the end of the 9th or the early 8th century, the primary significance of the site remains the same: it serves as a well-documented example of an elite settlement on the borders between two major states—Assyria to the west and Urartu to the north. Within the excavated area for Period IVB on the top of the High Mound, a lightly built wall enclosed large buildings that can be reconstructed in detail because of the preservation of wooden as well as brick and stone construction elements (Dyson 1989a, 1989b). These structures provide a context for a range of artifact types that runs from cooking pots to a large golden bowl, from iron pikes to a gold-hilted dagger, and from textiles and tassels to the remains of a wooden chariot. The contents of rooms on both the ground floor and upper stories were preserved (e.g., Dyson 1989b: Figs. 18, 19, 23; Marcus 1989: Figs. 10–11), providing an indication of the ways in which interior spaces and whole buildings were used (e.g., de Schauensee 1989: Fig. 4). Because a relatively large area has been excavated, buildings with a variety of functions are represented within the sample, including a temple (BB II) with associated kitchen and stables (Dyson and Voigt 2003) and an elite residence (BB I) (Dyson 1989b). The only site of similar date with a comparable range of structures and artifacts is Gordion (Turkey), another University of Pennsylvania project. Gordion too was burned and the Early Phrygian

Destruction Level/YHSS 6A is contemporary with Hasanlu IVB, dated ca. 800 BC by radiocarbon (De Vries et al. 2003; Kealhofer 2005). A comparison of the two burned settlements is useful, since it serves to highlight differences in the circumstances under which they were destroyed, and highlights unique aspects of the Hasanlu IVB remains. At Gordion, the excavated area of the Early Phrygian/ YHSS 6A elite quarter again included buildings with different functions, but much of this area was undergoing renovation at the time of its fire, and buildings (Megarons 1 and 2) that could have served as palace and/or temple had already been emptied out and abandoned (Voigt, forthcoming). A great deal of pottery and metal objects and a few ivories were found in a single large structure (Megaron 3) and in rows of service buildings (TB and CC Buildings), but very few high-value items (e.g., gold and silver) were recovered. At Gordion, all of the evidence suggests that the fire was accidental, and the only victims were a pair of young cows. Hasanlu IVB, on the other hand, provides buildings with most or all of their contents intact, and presents a vivid picture of Iron Age warfare (Muscarella 1989). Many other Iron Age sites have been destroyed as a result of conflict, especially within the borders of Urartu, but the course of battle and its results are rarely so evident. The movement of archers can be traced across the paved court in the center of the excavated area, documented by arrows stuck in mudbrick walls and discarded quivers; spears that seem to have missed their mark lie on the courtyard surface. The bodies of people who were part of the battle, from soldiers to young women to small children, are also preserved. Some of these people were trapped inside burning buildings (e.g., in BB II), while others fled into open areas where they were slaughtered. A few survived the fire only to be rounded up, stripped, and dispatched by mace-bearing victors (e.g., in BB IV and near the chariot gate). Animals kept within the citadel suffered the same fate: horses were trapped within Burned Building V, and a bovid was killed when the facade of Burned Building IV collapsed upon it. The results of the excavation of Hasanlu IVB have been described in preliminary reports, articles, and book chapters that present interpretations of specific bodies of evidence, and an overview was published as a special issue of Expedition magazine (Dyson and



foreword

Voigt 1989; for an extensive list of publications, see Muscarella 2006). Because of the quantity and range of materials recovered, more detailed publication of this phase of the occupation will take two forms: one or more final excavation reports that will present the stratigraphy and architecture, as well as the location of artifacts by type; and a series of monographs (Hasanlu Special Studies) which describe and analyze specific aspects of technology, style, or iconography (Marcus 1996; Muscarella 1980; Winter 1977). The present volume continues the latter series, describing a series of ongoing research projects, most of which provide new information on Iron Age technology. A theme that runs through these studies is the degree to which the ancient workers varied the composition of their products to produce desirable colors and textures. Quite different is a chapter on the skeletal population of Hasanlu IVB which presents a startling and vivid picture of the hazards encountered during daily life in the Iron Age citadel. In Chapter 1 Maude de Schauensee describes the results of her study of wooden furniture fragments, along with fittings and decorative elements for furniture. Looting, the smashing of fragile artifacts when the heavy brick buildings collapsed, and uneven preservation of perishable materials limit direct identification of furniture fragments, parts, and embellishments at Hasanlu. Instead, function is often inferred through comparisons with better preserved pieces from sites such as Nimrud, as well as with representations found on Assyrian and Urartian reliefs. A few of the furniture pieces appear unique to Hasanlu, for example bovine furniture feet made of Egyptian Blue, which thus far do not have parallels at other sites. Styles and stylistic derivations for the Hasanlu IVB furniture are identified where possible. Most of the remains appeared to be “in the style of” rather than direct copies of a “high style” found in large centers. The few furniture elements that do represent a “high style” were probably imports, notably from North Syria/Syria, but also perhaps from Assyria. The Hasanlu IVB pieces assigned to a “Local Style” show affinities with furniture and decoration found at sites in Assyria, North Syria, and the Urartian area (for example, Altıntepe and Adilçevaz). There appears to have been uniformity in scale in which furniture in the local style is smaller and squatter than that in “high style.” This consistency of scale suggests a local manufacturing

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center, but the only evidence of manufacturing activities within the excavated area at Hasanlu comes from a single building which was used for bronze working (Dyson 1966b; de Schauensee 1988:46). Chapter 2 by Nancy Love presents the first detailed description of the charred textiles found in Hasanlu IVB. All of the 75 samples in the Penn Museum collection were very fragmentary and fragile due to the burning that had preserved most of them. Love performed a complete rehousing and analysis of the samples, each of which consisted of from one to one hundred fragments. The fragments identified included loom-woven textiles, balls of yarn, rope, basketry, string, and unprocessed plant materials. The loom-woven textiles included both simple weaves and compound weaves made of wool, goat hair, bast fiber, animal fiber, and unidentified material. Tassels and fringe were also represented as were a few fragments with selvedges and seams. In Chapter 3, de Schauensee places the textiles identified by Love in their archaeological contexts, suggesting the roles that textiles may have played in the daily life of the inhabitants of Hasanlu IVB. Based on archaeological association, textile use included clothing, wall hangings, furniture coverings, and perhaps horse gear. Compound-weave textiles and those with accessories such as tassels or fringe were found in abundance in the collapsed second story of the burned buildings. In some cases, the textiles seem to have lain on top of one another in layers, suggesting that these luxury fabrics were in storage at the time of the fire. Such contexts may indicate that compoundweave textiles had a special value, representing tribute or booty or trade goods. Both compound weaves and simple weaves were found in association with skeletons, but the distribution of the textile types differs: the compound weave textiles appear to have been carried rather than worn, suggesting looted goods; textile fragments identified from context as clothing are simple weaves without accessories. Although the identification of balls of yarn might suggest the manufacture of textiles in the burned buildings, no tools associated with spinning and weaving were recovered, and balls of yarn are listed as booty in Assyrian texts contemporary with Hasanlu IVB. Given the importance of textile production in the economies of ancient kingdoms in the Middle East (and the abundant evidence for textile production in Early Phrygian Gor-

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dion), it seems most likely that the absence of weaving equipment at Hasanlu is a sampling problem, and that workshops still lie in the unexcavated area. In Chapter 4 Colleen P. Stapleton assesses the significance of Hasanlu in the history of glassmaking. With the exception of Hasanlu IVB, little is known about glass production in Northwest Iran during any period; taking a broader geographical perspective, the glasses and glazes from Hasanlu are important because they fall within a period after the end of the Bronze Age for which there is little excavated data. The Hasanlu IVB glasses fill this “gap” or hiatus in our knowledge of glassmaking. Stapleton undertook a study of the chemical composition of both the glass matrix and the colorants used to produce the Hasanlu IVB sample. Her results indicate that these glasses document a regional technology in which knowledgeable glassmakers incorporated a varied series of steps that, unique among ancient glasses, yielded glasses with features that show physical evidence of those steps. This technology is not matched at either earlier or later data sets in the Middle East and Egypt. We still do not know exactly where the glasses excavated at Hasanlu IVB were manufactured, but the observed chemical differences from other glass industries suggest either a location near Hasanlu, or an as yet unknown and more distant location. In Chapter 5, scholars from the former Museum Applied Science Center for Archaeology (MASCA) describe the archaeometallurgy of the Hasanlu IVB bronzes. Stuart J. Fleming, Samuel K. Nash, and Charles P. Swann analyzed 106 examples from the corpus of more than 2000 copper and copper alloy artifacts recovered, identifying their main alloying components and minor impurities. The items selected for analysis included a wide range of decorative artifacts, from buttons to the distinctive bimetallic lion pins found at the site. In addition, copper ingots and molds were examined to enhance the metallographic data. Most commonly the alloying component was tin, but in 17 of the samples antimony was also found, at levels which Fleming considered unusual (above 0.5%). Seven of the 17 had more than 5% antimony, a level that potentially influenced the physical properties of the copper or bronze stock with which it was alloyed. The artifacts made with this high antimony bronze (lion pins, cage bells, and the head of a pin) would have had a silvery surface. In the case of the lion pins, the percentage of antimony could have af-

fected (positively) the patterning on the bodies, as the metal expands when solidifying during casting, thereby filling pattern lines and rendering them sharper than those with lower antimony content. Fleming argues that manipulation of surface color through the addition of antimony was a conscious decision on the part of the Hasanlu bronze smiths, at least for the objects analyzed. Chapter 6 presents a catalogue of the bladed weapons found in staggering quantities within Hasanlu IVB, a battle scene setting in which such artifacts were unusually common. Christopher Thornton, building on Vincent Pigott’s doctoral dissertation (1981), presents a typology of these weapons, which were made of a variety of materials: iron, copper and copper alloys, stone, and bone. Functional groups include arrowheads, spearheads, daggers, swords, dirks, and dagger and sword blades and hilts. Within each of these groups, the authors define a series of types based on form and provide extensive comparanda for each type. Because of the size of the collection, and the fact that it was deposited in a very short moment in time, the Hasanlu IVB bladed tools can be used to refine and correct previous studies based on undocumented artifacts. The occurrence of different styles and materials in a single, controlled stratigraphic context sounds a special warning, demonstrating the danger of attempting to use morphological types to propose chronological or ethnic relationships, especially when such types come from unstratified or unprovenienced collections. Thornton and Pigott show that the Hasanlu IVB corpus has fewest parallels at sites to the southwest (Luristan and Assyria), and most to the north and northeast (the Caspian littoral and Transcaucasia). They conclude by addressing a pair of problems that have been of considerable interest to scholars: distinguishing between weapons used by the inhabitants and those brought to the site by the invading army, and identifying the home(s) of the invaders. A thorough study of the Hasanlu IVB weapons in context with associated finds, combined with information from relevant sites that remain unpublished, may eventually provide this information. In Chapter 7 Janet Monge and Colleen McCarthy provide a vivid glimpse of one aspect of the lives of people who died in the Hasanlu IVB citadel. The chapter presents evidence for deliberate violence against these individuals, represented as a result of in-



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juries inflicted while they were alive (healed fractures), as well as those that caused their death. Although postcranial fractures were also noted, the study presented here is limited to cranial trauma, most often depressed fractures of the vault and facial bones. One of the most striking aspects of this research is that the pattern and distribution of ante- and perimortem fractures differs between men and women. The pattern for men appears to fall into that thought to be typical for warfare, with 57% of the fractures on the cranial vault. The pattern of healed fractures for women shows the majority (67%) occur in the face and mandible, while only 33% are to the vault. While some antemortem facial trauma for both men and women could be from accidents, Monge and McCarthy suggest that the percentage observed on female skeletons seems too high for accidents to be the only explanation. Furthermore, 24% of facial fractures observed on women occur on victims who died as late teens/young adults; the same measure for men is only 7%. Monge and McCarthy relate the greater rate of trauma to women at Hasanlu to a broader picture of interpersonal violence in the modern world. As noted by Thornton and Pigott, one of the problems encountered in trying to understand the battle of Hasanlu IVB is the identity of the victims, sorting out the inhabitants of the citadel from the invading army. In Chapter 8, Matthew C. Dulik, Joseph G. Lorenz, and Theodore G. Schurr present the results of a project undertaken to determine whether DNA could be used to obtain a better understanding of the population history at Hasanlu. Dulik and his colleagues attempted to extract aDNA from teeth from six Period IVB skeletons recovered from the cemetery, and from skeletons found in some of the burned buildings; the latter includes one of the three skeletons associated with the gold bowl (Winter 1989: Fig. 2). The teeth were taken from skeletons that Dulik had previously analyzed using craniometric methods to address issues of population affinity (2005). Based on a preliminary analysis of a small sample of the skeletal collection, he had suggested that skeletons associated with the Hasanlu gold bowl belonged to a different population from that of the majority of victims, and represented invaders who were carrying off the treasure (Dulik 2005:20–23, 43). It was hoped that the pilot study reported here would provide further information about the skeletons and their population

affinities, but authentic (ancient) DNA was not present in the analyzed sample. Nevertheless, the methodology employed was proven sound, and because of the variety of factors that affect the preservation of DNA in archaeological specimens, it is still possible that additional samples might yield more satisfactory results.

notes 1. Magee (2008) has suggested a different interpretation of the radiocarbon evidence. To a great extent, his argument rests on an assumption that Burned Building III is not contemporary with BBII. Dyson rejects this assertion categorically based on excavated data. 2. Some of Medvedskaya’s artifact comparisons are with materials excavated from the Early Phrygian Destruction Level at Gordion, which had been dated to 700 BC based primarily on assumptions about the relationship between historical and archaeological events (Voigt 2009). A large series of radiocarbon dates has now placed this destruction at ca. 800 BC (DeVries et al. 2003), so that Medvedskaya’s use of Gordion evidence in support of a later date for Hasanlu IVB is now turned on its head and supports instead a date of 800 BC.

References Cited Danti, Michael. 2005. The Il Khanid Highlands: Hasanlu Tepe (Iran) Period I. University Museum Monograph 120. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. de Schauensee, Maude. 1989. Horse Gear from Hasanlu. Expedition 31(2-3): 37–52. De Vries, Keith, Peter Ian Kuniholm, G. Kenneth Sams, and Mary M. Voigt. 2003. New Dates for Iron Age Gordion. Antiquity 77(296) Project Gallery. http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/ devries/devries.html. Dulick, Matthew. 2005. An Osteometric Study of Human Remains for Level IVB at Hasanlu, Iran. Master’s thesis, Anthropology Department, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Dyson, Robert H., Jr. 1956. A Preliminary Report of Painted Pottery in Northern Iran. Ms., RHD personal papers. ——— 1957. Iran, 1956. University Museum Bulletin 21(1): 27–39. ——— 1966a. Excavations on the Acropolis at Susa and Problems of Susa A, B, and C. PhD diss., An-

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thropology Dept., Harvard University. ——— 1966b. The Hasanlu Project. In New Roads to Yesterday, ed. Joseph R. Caldwell, pp. 413–29. New York: Basic Books. ——— 1983. Introduction. In Hajji Firuz Tepe, Iran: The Neolithic Settlement, by Mary M. Voigt, pp. xxv–­x xviii. Hasanlu Excavation Reports 1. University Museum Monograph 50. Philadelphia. ——— 1989a. Rediscovering Hasanlu. Expedition 31(2-3): 3–11. ——— 1989b. The Iron Age Architecture at Hasanlu: An Essay. Expedition 31(2-3): 107–27. Dyson, Robert H., Jr., and Oscar White Muscarella. 1989. Constructing the Chronology and Historical Implications of Hasanlu IV. Iran 27:1–27. Dyson, Robert H., Jr., and Mary M. Voigt. 2003. A Temple at Hasanlu. In Yeki bud, yeki nabud: Essays in the Archaeology of Iran in Honor of William M. Sumner, ed. Naomi F. Miller and Kamyar Abdi, pp. 219–36. The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Monograph 48. Los Angeles: University of California. ——— eds. 1989. East of Assyria: The Highland Settlement of Hasanlu. Expedition 31(2-3). Hakemi, Ali, and Mahmud Rad. 1950. Shara va Natidijiy Kavishayi Ilmiye Hasanlu Solduz (Rapport et Resultants des fouilles scientifiques Hasanlu, Solduz). Tehran: Guzarishha-yi bastan-shinasi.

Kealhofer, Lisa, ed. 2005. The Archaeology of Midas and the Phrygians: Recent Work at Gordion. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Magee, Peter. 2008. Deconstructing the Destruction of Hasanlu: Archaeology, Imperialism, and the Chronology of the Iranian Iron Age. Iranica Antiqua 43:89–106. Marcus, Michele I. 1989. Emblems of Authority: The Seals and Sealings of Hasanlu IVB. Expedition 31(2-3): 53–63. ——— 1996. Emblems of Identity and Prestige: The Seals and Sealings from Hasanlu, Iran: Commen-

tary and Catalogue. Hasanlu Special Studies 3. University Museum Monograph 84. Philadelphia: The University Museum. Medvedskaya, Inna N. 1982. Iran: Iron Age I, trans. S. Pavovich. BAR International Series 127. Oxford. ——— 1988. Who Destroyed Hasanlu IV? Iran 26:1–15. ——— 1989. The End of Urartian Presence in the Region of Lake Urmia. In Archaeologia Iranica et Orientalis: Miscellanea in Honorem Louis Vanden Berghe, ed. L. de Meyer and E. Haerinck, Vol. I, pp. 439–53. Ghent: Peeters Press. ——— 1991. Once More on the Destruction of Hasanlu IV: Problems of Dating. Iranica Antiqua 26:149–61. Muscarella, Oscar White. 1989. Warfare at Hasanlu in the Late 9th Century B.C. Expedition 31(2-3): 24–36. ——— 2006. The Excavation of Hasanlu: An Archaeological Evaluation. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 342:69–94. Pigott, Vincent C. 1981. The Adoption of Iron in Western Iran in the Early First Millennium B.C.: An Archaeometallurgical Study. PhD diss., Anthropology Dept., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Stein, Sir Aurel. 1940. Old Routes in Western Iran. London: Macmillan. Voigt, Mary M. 1983. Hajji Firuz Tepe, Iran: The Neolithic Settlement. Hasanlu Excavation Reports 1. University Museum Monograph 50. Philadelphia. ——— 2009. The Chronology of Phrygian Gordion. In Tree Rings, Kings, and Old World Archaeology and Environment, ed. Sturt W. Manning and Mary Jaye Bruce. Oxford: Oxbow Books. ——— Forthcoming. The Unfinished Project of the Early Phrygian Destruction Level. In The Archaeology of Phrygian Gordion, Royal City of Midas, ed. C. Brian Rose. Gordion Special Studies 7. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

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Furniture Remains and Furniture Ornaments from the Period IVB Buildings at Hasanlu Maude de Schauensee

Introduction The settlement of Hasanlu, sacked and burned at the end of the 9th century BC, is unusual in that so much was preserved within it by the very fire that destroyed it (Dyson 1989a,b). The furniture and furniture decorations that are the subject of this chapter are only a small part of the contents belonging to daily life carried out within the buildings, but they are important because actual furniture is only rarely recovered in archaeological contexts in the Near East.1 Hasanlu lay either just beyond the borders of two 1st millennium polities, Urartu and Assyria (Rothman 2003:109), or inside Urartu (Kroll 2011). Just to the north of the Ushnu-Solduz valley lies the Urmia Plain, which Biscione suggests may have already been part of the Urartian Empire at the end of the 9th century (2003:167, 170–71; also Kroll 2011). Hasanlu’s position astride north-south and east-west trade routes made the settlement open to influences from cultures beyond its own borders (see Winter 1976). The impressive size of both the settlement and the buildings at Hasanlu certainly establish it as a center in its own right at the time of its destruction. A consistency of interpretation of styles derived from adjacent regions, and their combination across object classes into a distinctive Local Style (Winter 1977), is demonstrated in the few remains of furniture and orna-

ments thought to be associated with furniture excavated in the Hasanlu Burned Buildings. Local Style objects or objects that combine Local Style with stylistic elements of known origin are considered to have been made at a local/regional center in Ushnu or Solduz, possibly at Hasanlu itself, even though only one manufacturing area producing metals has been excavated at the settlement so far (de Schauensee 1988:46). Technical analyses seem to support the existence of a regional manufacturing center, as some results show material compositions not paralleled at other excavated sites (see Fleming, Stapleton, both this volume). A few pieces of more careful manufacture and more elegant North Syrian and Assyrian styles were most probably imports. These were, however, small in number (see Marcus 1990 for an excellent discussion of local/regional and peripheral centers).

Furniture Contexts and Preservation Fragmentary evidence of furniture, as well as furniture fittings and ornaments, was found in many, but not all, burned buildings on the High Mound (see Appendix 1.1). The deliberate destruction and looting, as well as building collapse, and decay of artifacts made of organic materials but not charred by the fire greatly limit the amount which can be said about furniture at Hasanlu. The few actual furniture pieces recovered

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fig. 1.1a Distribution of furniture, furniture elements, and furniture ornaments at ground floor level in the Period IVB buildings. Kimberly Leaman Insua and Maude de Schauensee

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were found at floor level or in low fill. Most of the ornaments were retrieved from second story collapse (Fig. 1.1a,b). The discrepancy between the low number of artifacts at first floor levels and the high number in upper levels of buildings suggests that either the ground floor was sparsely furnished or that it had been extensively looted before the fire raced out of control. Looting seems likely because very few other artifacts were found on that level apart from large quantities of weaponry (Thornton and Pigott, this volume). Furniture found in the first floor level in the main room (Room 5) of Burned Building II includes two wooden stools (or backless thrones), the wooden back for a piece of furniture, a tall iron lamp, and a drum (or table) identified by its decorative bone edging. These were the only pieces of furniture found at Hasanlu that can be securely identified. Most other furniture parts or decorations were identified through comparison with similar elements found at other sites, especially the Assyrian capital of Nimrud. A group of furniture ornaments in the fill within BB IW, Room 1, included three copper/bronze lionpaw foot covers, studs, wood fragments, and small bone and ivory inlay pieces. These almost certainly belonged to a single piece of furniture, possibly a table (NBK 7:43, 45, 52, 54, Object Card). Other furniture fragments were found in this area but were from pieces which could not be identified. Found among the many artifacts in upper collapse of several buildings were small furniture pieces including metal stands and an Egyptian Blue cosmetic stand (Moorey 1985:188–93; 1994:186–89). At Hasanlu this man-made vitreous compound appears to have been used mostly for shaped or molded objects, not as small inlay pieces, although this may be deceptive since little inlay was recovered. Ornaments in upper level contexts included Egyptian Blue terminals and elements, fragmentary metal sheathing, ivory inlay, and fragments of ivory objects and components. In Burned Building II these were in the same contexts as many disparate objects, usually of a luxury nature. The variety of objects found together suggests that this was a storage context.

Description of Furniture Pieces The most complete pieces of furniture are two stools (or backless thrones) that had been deliberately smashed at the base of a mudbrick platform at

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the south end of BB II, Room 5, the main room of a building thought to have been a temple (Dyson and Voigt 2003). The stools (Stools A and B) were associated with a group of fragments from large pieces of furniture or architectural elements (Group 1). Stool B lay on top of and with the fragments of Group 1, while Stool A rested against the platform. Group 1 included a large board inlaid on three sides that had intact surfaces (HAS 64-852, UPM 65-31-310; preserved length ca. 126 cm); another board of similar size with no surface preservation; and other shaped fragments (Fig. 1.2, Plate 1.1). Textile fragments (Chapters 2 and 3, this volume) were attached to parts of Stool B and a small section of the inlaid board. A furniture back and fragments of boards (Group 2) lay a little apart from Group 1 (HAS 64852, -27, -28, UPM 65-31-310, -611, T. NBK 40:45– 46, 93–104). A tripod iron lamp and some fitted wood fragments (Group 3) lay against the east edge of the same platform (NBK 40:45–46, 55–56). All these objects may originally have stood on the platform.

Wood Stools and Group 1 The stools were both low and square. Each had two shaped and two simple legs with low terminals: all were round in section. The design of the front legs differed on the two stools but the back legs were similar. On both stools stretchers, square in section, connected the legs. The legs of Stool B provided a height of about 36 cm. The stretchers of the same stool were well enough preserved to provide an approximate length of 40 cm, telling us that this stool was square. A fragment of a large round dowel set near the top of Leg 2, just above the upper stretcher, may have been a seat rail. Leg 1+3 (found in two sections) has a similar hole for a seat rail. Sufficient space appears to remain above the rail to allow for a seat but no trace of seating material was found, suggesting that it had not been wood. Legs 4 and 5 with their low, squat terminals were similar in proportion to those represented on ivory fragments showing chairs (Muscarella 1980: nos. 116, 118)2 (Fig. 1.3a; Plate 1.2). The functions of small dowels set into the top and sides of the upper part of Leg 2 are unknown (Fig. 1.3c). Stool A was very badly smashed but reconstructed stretcher length suggests that this stool had also measured about 40 cm on a side. No reliable height

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could be determined (NBK 40:98, 99). The front legs of Stool A (Legs 8 and 9) were baluster shaped, unlike the more elaborate front legs of Stool B (Legs 1 and 2). Preservation was too poor to permit studies that might determine manufacturing techniques. Additionally only a few tools that might have been used for working wood were found. Two possible tools excavated in a side room (Room 13) of BB III are small iron saw blades. The larger blade was decorated with an incised chevron band (HAS 62-975, UPM 63-5172; Fig. 1.4 and Color Plate 1.1 on the DVD). The smaller blade was undecorated (HAS 62-972, T). No wood remains of seats could be identified for the stools. Comparison to representations of stools on fragments of two ivory objects in Local Style (Muscarella 1980: nos. 119, 169) and one of the two stools on the Gold Bowl (Winter 1989: fig. 6; H . ātimī, Abū al-Qāsim n.d.:18; T 3712) suggests the possibility of woven rush seating (Baker 1966: pls. 214–16 for actual Egyptian stools). Several types of wood were used for the stools with no apparent consistency for parts of the stools (Hasanlu Project Archives). Woods such as poplar and maple were probably local, but others, such as ash, boxwood, walnut, and elm, would have been imported from hillier or moister regions in the Caucasus, Anatolia, or the Caspian region (Harris 1989:15, 18; Hepper 1996). Since these woods differed in texture and color the inconsistency in their use suggests that the furniture may have been painted for uniform appearance. Traces of red paint (H) were found on fragment F (Fig. 1.2). No evidence for the use of overlays, inlays, or other embellishments was found with the stools. The shape and proportions of the stools are similar to those of the lower parts of armless chairs represented on Local Style ivory plaques (Muscarella 1980: nos. 116, 118), a bone cosmetic box (ibid.: no. 73) (Fig. 1.5a–b, d), and clay sealings (Marcus 1996:86, fig. 22, no. 5B; 88: fig. 25, no. 5E; 91–92: figs. 31, 32, no. 6A; 92: fig. 33, no. 6B). These chairs are low and stocky with their legs most similar to Legs 4, 6, and 7 of the wood stools. Unlike the legs of chairs on representations from Hasanlu, those of stools are shown as cloven hoofs (Muscarella 1980: nos. 119, 169; Winter 1989: fig. 6). The seats of representations on one of the ivory fragments and one stool on the Gold Bowl are, unlike the chair seats, shown as rush (Fig. 1.6a–b). This is unlike furniture shown on 9th century reliefs

5

from Zincirli, Carchemish, and Maras (Symington 1996: pl. 31a,b,d) and 8th century Zincirli and Karatepe (Symington 1996: pls. 31c, 33) where furniture is all shown with straight thick legs, sometimes with low terminals, and seats without any detail that could indicate seating material. The Hasanlu stools were very similar in size. At 36 cm reconstructed height, they appear smaller and shorter than those in Assyrian representations of backless thrones (Baker 1966: pl. 291). They seem closer in size and proportion to seats shown on neo-Hittite stone reliefs such as a stool on a funerary relief from Zincirli (Symington 1996: pl. 31a). Backless chairs excavated in 8th century Urartian tombs at Altıntepe, at a height of about 50 cm, would have been considerably taller than Stool B. Their legs, like the Hasanlu examples, were connected all around by stretchers, but unlike the Hasanlu examples, they were metal-clad (Özgüç 1961:271, figs. 21, 22; Merhav 1991:250). The low foot used for the Hasanlu stools is also seen on wood furniture in the tombs at Altıntepe, in tombs near Adilçevaz (Işik 1986: fig. 4, pls. 9, 12, 13), and in cylindrical metal overlays for terminals at Altıntepe (Özgüc 1961:270, 271, 275, fig. 21; 1969:66, 68, 71, pls. XIX:2, XX:1, XXII:1). The low foot was also used for 9th century Assyrian furniture at Nimrud (Curtis 1996: pl. 47a, 49a). It was replaced in Assyria by the pinecone terminal after the 9th century, but is known to have lasted in Urartu until at least the time of Rusa II in the 7th century (Seidl 1996:186). The late date of low cylindrical terminals in Urartu and the comparison between Urartian furniture and the Hasanlu stools suggest that the stools could have been made near the end of Period IVB. Unlike chairs in representations at Hasanlu, representations of stools are sometimes shown as independent entities (Winter 1989:95–96, fig. 6; Muscarella 1980: nos. 119, 169) (Fig. 1.6a,b). It is possible that the two actual stools, A and B, were used in this way or may have served as backless thrones for cult statues or people (Curtis 1996:171–72). The presence of life-size statues at Hasanlu is suggested by the eye inlays made of ivory and bone found on the floors of BB II, Room 5, and BB IW, Room 5, and in the fill of Room 7a of BB II (HAS 60-899a,b, UPM 61-5-205; HAS 64515a,b, UPM 65-31-339, T; HAS 58-430, T 10606; Dyson and Voigt 2003:230–31, fig. 20.5; Muscarella 1980: nos. 205, 206).

6

F

H

G 1 D

B C

C

2

E

4

E 7

C

1

3

3

2

Stool B

GROUP 1

9

8

A

C

N

C

6

Stool A

5

PLATFORM

I

GROUP 2

Textile 1: Textile 65-31-101 2: Textile 65-31-99, 65-31-102 3: Textile 65-31-110 A: Inlaid Board B: Plain Board C: Round Fragments D: Flat Fragments E: Tapering Flat Boards F: Shaped Corner Fragment G: Reed-like Material H: Red Pigment I: Furniture Back

N

Stools A & B Stool B Stool A Leg 6 Legs 1 + 3 Leg 7 Leg 2 Leg 8 Leg 4 Leg 9 Leg 5

FIG. 1.2 The disposition of the furniture and other fragments at and near the platform at the south end of BB II Room 5 suggests that it had been deliberately destroyed (HAS 64-852). Kimberly Leaman Insua after field plan



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

7

PL. 1.1 Stool B and part of Group 1 during excavation. The stretchers between Legs 1 + 3 and 2 of Stool B appear curved due to warping as they burned (HAS 64-852). UPM neg. no. 78172:7

Some of the fragments (Group 1) found together with the stools were from large objects (Fig. 1.2). The inlaid board (A) (across which Stool B lay) retained a sturdy tenon at its unbroken end. The board was originally decorated on at least one of its broad sides as well as two edges with unknown material(s) set into shallow triangular and deeper rectangular cutouts (Fig. 1.7, Plate 1.3). Only charred glittery traces of the securing mastic now remain. The different depths of the cutouts suggest that different inlay materials were used. A sec-

ond board of similar size to the inlaid board but with no intact surfaces (B) lay partially beneath board A and was probably a pair to it. Some round (C) and flat (D) fragments, two tapering boards with matching halfround dowel holes (or small notches) (E), and a large, shaped corner fragment with a groove cut across one wide surface (F) were also part of the group. A wood dowel secured the fragmentary element which had been fitted into the shorter side of fragment F. When complete this element must have been large and sturdy.

8

8

Seat Rail?

Seat Rail?

Stretcher

Stretcher

FRONT Interior VIEW

6+ 7

9

Stretcher

Stretcher

6+ 7

BACK Interior VIEW

RIGHT SIDE VIEW

10 cm

STOOL A

Seat Rail?

Seat Rail?

Stretcher

B1

B2

Stretcher 2

8

FRONT VIEW

Stretcher

Stretcher 1+ 3

5

SIDE VIEW

STOOL B

2

4

BACK VIEW

5 10 cm

FIG. 1.3a,b (above) Schematized reconstruction drawing of Stools A and B. Leg 1 + 3 of Stool B are a single leg. Leg 1 + 3 and Leg 2 were elaborately treated, unlike plain rear Legs 4 and 5. Leg 5 may have been facetted but, like Leg 4, was very poorly preserved. Preserved portions of Legs 6 through 9 from Stool A and stretcher fragments provide information for a reconstruction drawing of this poorly preserved stool. The overall plans and sizes of Stools A and B appear similar although details of their legs differ (HAS 64-852, HAS 64-28, UPM 65-31-611). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2007 after in situ plan and field schematic reconstruction drawings of the stools and their parts

3 cm

fig. 1.3c (left) The function of small dowels (A–F) set into the top and sides of Leg 2 is unknown (HAS 64-27, T). Laura Flaxman and Kimberly Leaman Insua after field drawing



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

9

Group 1 was also from different tree species such as boxwood, poplar, and prunus (Hasanlu Project Archives). The fact that board A was decorated on at least three sides suggests that it was to be viewed in the round. Its size, scale of decoration, and large tenon suggest that it had been part of a large and elaborate structure, possibly of an architectural nature, perhaps a canopy or shrine. The heavy construction of corner fragment F also supports my suggestion that the structure might have been an enclosure for the stools. Square stools inside an enclosure are shown on the fragmentary Bitik vase of the Old Hittite Period (Symington 1996:126, fig. 13; Özgüç 1988:104, pl. 67.2). While this representation is earlier than the Hasanlu furniture, it illustrates the kind of furniture associated with the sacred marriage ritual, including stools or beds inside a structure (Symington 1996:126). The red painted legs and red and cream striped sides of the marriage bed on the Inandik vase (again of earlier date) seem to fit with the idea that the Hasanlu stools were originally painted (Özgüç 1988: pl. I:5; Symington 1996:126, fig. 14). The black mattress or cover on the Inandik vase may provide an explanation for the textile fragments with Hasanlu Group 1 as a covering for the stools or their seats. A canopy from the time of the Egyptian Queen Hetepheres (4th Dynasty), although very much earlier in date, shows a heavily decorated canopy as it would have been used (Baker 1966:43, pls. 31, 34).

Furniture Back and Group 2

PL. 1.2 The field photograph of Leg 2 shows its elaborate shaping. A fragment of a stretcher protrudes below the round hole probably for the seat rail. The top of the leg appears sloped due to warping (HAS 64-852, T). UPM neg. no. 78157:14

No metal parts or nails were used in making any of this furniture, and no metal of any kind was found near it. A small area of reed-like material (G) was preserved near one of the small flat fragments. Traces of red pigment (H) remained in the groove of the corner fragment F (NBK 40:99). Wood used for the fragments in

Another group of wood fragments (HAS 64852) was found on the floor of BB II, Room 5. It comprised what has been tentatively identified as a wooden back made of boxwood for a piece of furniture (I) (Hasanlu Project Archives) (Figs. 1.2, 1.8, Plate 1.4), and several boards of apparently equal size, and a few long, round elements (Group 2). Because of the proximity of Group 2 to the back, they are considered together here although their relationships are unclear. Identification of the furniture back is based on comparison with the shape and proportions of ivory chair backs from 7th century Nimrud (e.g., Mallowan 1966(2): 491, no. 385; Mallowan and Herrmann 1974: pl. VI). Representations of chair backs from Hasanlu are little help here except to show that in profile the chair backs varied.

10

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

FIG. 1.4 This iron saw was decorated with a line of chevrons across the top of the blade. A wood handle would have been hafted to the blade by the small nails remaining in the tabs at the ends of the blade (HAS 62-975, UPM 63-5-172). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2007 from object and Object Card

Group 3 A few fragments of shaped and fitted wood and an iron tripod lamp make up Group 3 which lay at the east side of the mudbrick platform (NBK 40:94). The fact that the three groups were found on the floor bordering the same platform suggests that they may have been used together. The lamp was recorded in the field notes as about 1.25 m tall. The three flattened pads supporting the shallow dish-shaped lamp bowl (HAS 64-459, UPM 65-31-459 [lamp bowl]; see Color Plate 1.2) and the tripod feet in the rough field notebook sketch strongly suggest that the support for the lamp had been made of three rods grouped together (NBK 40:55–56). If this is the case, the lamp may have been similar in form to a tripod iron lamp with dish-shaped bowl from Karmir Blur (Merhav 1991:264, fig. 11). If the lamp and the stools were used together they demonstrate that objects of different stylistic derivations were used in the same context. A similar combination of Urartian-derived and Local Style is seen in other objects such as a copper/bronze and iron stand (HAS 72-62, UPM 73-5-365) discussed below. This demonstrates an amalgamation and reinterpretation of derived styles into a new regional or local style.

Drum or Table The low tripod drum or table found inverted on the floor of BB II, Room 5, is an example of furniture whose cultural derivation cannot easily be deter-

5 cm

mined. The legs of this object were splayed and the top was broken into two offset arcs of unequal size (leg height ca. 37 cm, top diameter ca. 57.5 cm. HAS 62595, T; NBK 39:20; Dyson and Voigt 2003:231–32, fig. 20.7) (Fig. 1.9, Plate 1.5). Rectangular bone inlay plaques edging the legs and top outlined the shape of the object. No trace of the material from which it was made could be identified although charcoal was found on the surrounding floor area. The arcs of the top suggest that it or its frame had been rigid. Two bone discs, one pierced by a gold sheet–covered copper/bronze stud, had decorated the larger arc. Two more gold-covered studs were found with the second, smaller arc. A crescent-shaped bone element was also found with the smaller arc. The elaborate inlay as well as the gold-covered studs and decorative edging suggest that this object was of high value. Tripod wood tables with circular tops are known from chamber tombs at Adilçevaz (Işik 1986:426–27, figs. 7, 8, pls. 6–13), but these have carved square legs and feet and plain tops. They appear to have no other ornamentation. Neither the tripod tables nor the Hasanlu drum or table are like any furniture represented on the Assyrian reliefs.

Tripod Piece of Furniture An object that was perhaps a table is suggested by three copper/bronze terminal covers in the shape of lion paws (HAS 58-403a–c, UPM 59-4-172a,b, T 10708; thickness of metal ca. 0.15 cm; Color Plate 1.3)



A

B

11

C

D Chair Representations 3 cm

FIG. 1.5a–c Representations of chairs on ivory plaques and a bone cosmetic container (b) have the same blocky legs, short feet, and low proportions as the Hasanlu wood stools. The bearded figures seated on the chairs in Figures 1a,b,d hold beakers or long objects in one hand. Other details of the chairs and scenes vary, but together with the beakers and objects the figures hold, each scene seems to suggest that stools A and B may have had a ceremonial function. Fragment (c) is only preserved well enough to show that the shapes of the back and seat were similar to those of the other chairs. Any object the figure might have held is also lost. (a) HAS 64-775, UPM 65-31-360 (Muscarella 1980: no. 118). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2007; (b) HAS 62-436, T (Muscarella 1980: no. 73). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2007 after Object Card and photograph; (c) HAS 64-997, UPM 65-31-326 (Muscarella 1980: no. 60). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2007 FIG. 1.5d HAS 64-1068, MMA 65.163.14 (Muscarella 1980: no. 116). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1965. Theodore Hemmarplath and Kimberly Leaman Insua

Rollout A

B Chair Representation Stool Representations 3 cm

FIG. 1.6a,b The patterns on the seats of the two unbroken stools appear to have been made of woven rush. The bovine terminals are similar to the actual Egyptian Blue terminals (Color Plate 1.8a–c). (a) HAS 64-996, T; (b) HAS 60-950, T. Theodore Hemmarplath and Kimberly Leaman Insua after field drawings and photographs

12

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

FIG. 1.7. This schematic drawing shows the pattern of the inlay on this large board. The differences in the depths of the cutouts suggest that different materials were used for the square and the triangular inlays (HAS 64-852, UPM 65-31-310). Laura Flaxman and Kimberly Leaman Insua 2008 after field drawing

and small bone inlay pieces, copper/bronze tacks, and charred wood fragments, all excavated in the same area of the collapse of BB IW, Room 1. Because they were all found close together, these fragments and ornaments are being considered together. Lion-paw terminals are known to have been used for furniture (NBK 7:43, 45, 52, 54, Object Cards). The bone inlay pieces associated with the terminals are curved, square, rectangular, circular, semi-circular, and chevron shaped. The group included some of the securing bone pegs (HAS 58-425, -426a–c, -429, UPM 59-4-68, -69, -70, T 10650; NBK 7:54; Object Cards). Square, rosette, and triangular eggshell inlay pieces (HAS 58-429, UPM 59-4-70, T 10667) were found in the same area. It is likely that these inlay pieces are part of the same group (NBK 7:54) (Plate 1.6a, b). One hundred and fifty-five copper/bronze tacks were also found (HAS

58-397 through HAS 58-399, T 10608, T 10672, T 10673; NBK 7:54; Object Cards). Narrow strips of copper/bronze sheet with associated wooden boards (HAS 58-416 through -421) were recorded by the excavator as part of the same group. Board fragments were described as 1 or 2 cm thick with a few nails still in position spaced about 5 cm apart (NBK 7:54). The decorative use of nails or tacks is attested by the furniture described above and a small, lidded wooden box (HAS 62-435, T; Fig. 1.10, Color Plate 1.4). Fragmentary remains of tack-decorated wooden furniture were found in Tomb I of the 8th century at Altıntepe (Özgüç 1969:66, pl. XXI:2, 3). Ornamental tacks are also used on a wooden screen from Tumulus W at Gordion dated to the late 9th century (Young 1960: pl. 56, fig. 5; Simpson 1996:207, pl. 63b. See De Vries et al. 2003, and De Vries, Sams, and Voigt 2005 for revised dating at Gordion).



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

13

PL. 1.3 The large and sturdy size of the inlaid board is apparent here (A in Fig. 1.2). The difference in the depths of the triangular and rectangular inlay spaces suggests the use of different inlay materials (HAS 64-852, UPM 65-31-310). The two tapered boards (E in Fig. 1.2) are visible in lower right of image. UPM neg. no. 78172:11

The three lion-paw terminals are comparable to three similar covers excavated at Nimrud. Curtis’s comparison of the Nimrud covers to a tripod stone table from Khorsabad, and his suggestion that some lion-paw covers from Nimrud were from tables (Curtis 1996:176–78, 179–80; Baker 1966:186, no. 298), suggest the same identification for the Hasanlu piece. Lion-paw terminals are also shown on tables represented on the White Obelisk from Nineveh, although these appear to be tetrapod (Orthmann 1975: pl. 206). The lion paws were the only metal furniture terminals excavated at Hasanlu. No lion-paw termi-

nals are shown on any representations of furniture at Hasanlu, but representations of bovine terminals (Muscarella 1980: nos. 119, 169; Winter 1989: fig. 6) as well as actual Egyptian Blue bovine terminals were found (see below).

Furniture Parts: Wood Fragments from the same sections of two identical furniture legs made of elm wood (Hasanlu Project Archives) and deeply carved with a facetted lozenge pattern were excavated in collapse near the south wall of

14

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

A

A

B

B

5 cm

FIG. 1.8 This schematic rendering of the flat wooden furniture back (I in Fig. 1.2) shows that the upper board had been held in place by dowels through tenons inserted into the uprights. The lower board was too poorly preserved to identify construction details. The surface of the flat motif on the central splat is raised 1.75 cm above the background (HAS 64-852). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2007 after field plan and field rendering

BB II, Room 5 (HAS 64-461a,b; NBK 40:56, 57) (Fig. 1.11, Plate 1.7). The lozenge pattern appears roughly comparable to an incised linear, open lozenge and zigzag design covering the legs of a tripod wooden table with a round top from Adilçevaz (Işik 1986: figs. 4, 7, pl. 9), and to fragments of wooden objects with linear and modeled geometric designs excavated at Altıntepe (Özgüç 1961:274). No other examples of modeled geometric patterns were found at Hasanlu, but incised geometric decoration is known on small objects. A fragment of a carved wood object from the secondary collapse of BB IVE, Room 3, was decorated with low, flat-relief incised linear geometric designs (HAS 74-47, T; NBK 73:28), as is a very small ivory fragment from the fill of BBV, Room 3 (HAS 74-N536, UPM 75-29380; NBK 77:263–64, 266), and fragments of a small wooden box found with SK 344 in BB IV, Room 1 (HAS 72-70, T; NBK 62:52, 53) (Plate 1.8a–c). The same lozenge motif is seen on the upper garment of the central heroic figure on a large copper/bronze breastplate for a horse excavated in BB IV-V (Winter 1980: frontispiece, figs. 24, 28, folding plate). Some wooden fragments were clearly parts of furniture but were of indeterminate function and style. Three fragmentary undecorated splayed wood legs of similar shape (HAS 60-1013a–c; length of longest

fragment 30.0 cm) were found in the fill of the northcentral section of BB II, Room 5 (NBK 13:105; Object Card) (Fig. 1.12). No seat was recorded, but comparanda suggest that the legs had probably belonged to a simple stool (see Baker 1966: figs. 159, 212, 214 for examples from Egypt). Two fragments of ridged rods or small furniture legs (HAS 60-1013d,e, UPM 61-5320) that may have been made of elm wood (Hasanlu Project Archives) were found with the three legs. These appear to be from a different object.

Furniture Parts: Metal Clad Two identical supports were found in the upper or second story collapse of BB III, Room 11 and adjacent Room 13. Each was in the shape of a human right leg made of copper/bronze and iron sheet over an elm wood core with a cast copper/bronze shod foot (height 34.0 cm; HAS 62-777, T; HAS 62968, MMA 63.109.2; Muscarella 1988:22, no. 2; de Schauensee 1988: pl. 45; Hasanlu Project Archives). It seems likely that they are supports for an object, perhaps a low table (Fig. 1.13, Plate 1.9). Comparison to two bronze tables with human leg supports found in a late Early Bronze period tomb at Horoztepe in the Pontic region (Symington 1996:113, figs. 1, 2; Özgüç



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

15

PL. 1.4 The wooden furniture back (HAS 64-852) lies at bottom right of this image (I in Fig. 1.2). A structural beam lies across its upper corner. Part of the inlaid board can be seen at top right. UPM neg. no. 78173:5

and Akok 1958:53–54, pls. II:1–3, III:1–4) shows a long-standing tradition for supports in the shape of human legs. Their use at Horoztepe for low tables suggests use as table supports for the Hasanlu legs. The combination of copper/bronze with iron is seen frequently at Hasanlu: for example, a tripod stand (see below), a copper/bronze vessel with an iron handle (de Schauensee 1988:52, fig. 41a), weapons (Thornton and Pigott, this volume), and metal plaques (see below). Thus the bimetallism of the BB III legs is consistent with other object classes at the settlement. This fact, combined with their proportion and style suggest that the legs were made in a local or regional manufacturing center.

Small Furniture Small furniture pieces are represented by stands of different materials, styles, sizes, and functions. A unique copper/bronze tetrapod stand for two vessels (HAS 58-237a, UPM 59-4-116; Dyson 1959:13; Porada 1967: pl. 1486A; de Schauensee 1988: pl. 43) (Fig. 1.14a,b, Color Plate 1.5) was excavated in the collapse of BB IW, Room 2. Visual observation suggests that the stand was cast in one piece with the flat-relief decoration of human and animal figures rendered in Local Style in the mold. Its poor surface condition obscures any chased detailing that might have been present. The standing human figures each hold one hand

16

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

28 30

29

27

26

31 32

25

24 33 34

23

22 35

21 20 1

19 2

18 3

17 4

16 5

15 6

7

13

14

9

11

8

12 10

FIG. 1.9 Reconstruction drawing of the bone inlaid drum/table. The bone edging plaques were used as a guide to the shape of the piece and to approximate the thickness of the top and legs (HAS 62-595, T). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2009 after field drawing

5 cm

in front of their face in a position similar to that of the standing figures on a bone cosmetic box (Muscarella 1980: no. 73) and a small gold cloisonné knife handle (HAS 60-1005, T; Porada 1965:116, 118, pl. 31) (see Color Plate 3.1). This position suggests a ceremonial/ religious use for the stand. The mid-calf fringed garments are similar to those shown on some Local Style ivory plaques (e.g., Muscarella 1980: nos. 103, 105), the gold knife handle, and copper/bronze plaques (e.g., HAS 62-1054, T). The animals which decorate the rings appear to have a decorative function. The style and somewhat crude appearance of the stand suggest local/regional manufacture. A bimetallic stand uses iron rod construction (seen in Urartu) in combination with copper/bronze

human leg supports and other ornamentation (HAS 72-62, UPM 73-5-365; Fig. 1.15a,b, Plate 1.10, Color Plate 1.6). This stand had been badly broken and deformed during the collapse of BB IV, where it was found high in the upper collapse of Room 6 (NBK 62:27, 30, 31, 32). The bimetallism of this stand harks back to stands from the “Room of the Bronzes” at Nimrud (Barnett and Gökçe 1953:123), later Urartian stands (Merhav 1991: pl. 243:39a,d), and the use of bimetallism in other object classes at Hasanlu. However, neither the Nimrud nor Urartu stands use human leg supports. Further, the reduced scale (height ca. 45 cm) and the Local Style repoussé decoration on copper/bronze bands suspended between the legs from small hooks seem to place manufacture at a lo-



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

17

PL. 1.5 Bone plaques, alternating set on edge and laid flat, identify the two arcs that had formed the top of the drum (or table) and its three legs. Two round bone discs can be seen near the upper left and lower right-center edges of the larger arc. A gold sheet–covered copper/bronze tack lies next to the upper left disc. A crescent-shaped bone piece lies near the upper left edge of the smaller arc. Some of the securing bone pegs remained in place in the plaques, others lie near them (HAS 62595, T). UPM neg. no. 78139: 20

cal/regional center. The motif of a person confronting a horned animal repeated on the two recovered bands (of the original three) suggests a ceremonial function for this stand. The nude human leg uprights with shod feet had been cast over groups of three iron rods that rise to form a ring top stabilized by three copper/bronze clamps in the shape of pendant triangles with solid ball terminals. The human leg supports are very similar to those from a bimetallic stand reported by Hakemi and Rad to have come from a grave on the east side of the Low Mound; however, the Hakemi and Rad reconstruction drawing differs from the configuration of our stand (Hakemi and Rad 1950: fig. 35:1, 2). Hakemi and Rad also noted, but did not illustrate, a similar smaller stand with hoof terminals (1950).

A small, undecorated copper/bronze tripod ring stand with shod human feet (HAS 58-216, T 10624, height 7.0 cm) (Plate 1.11a) was excavated from the collapse of BB IW, Room 2. It is similar to a small stand (HAS 62-755, T; height 10.0 cm; de Schauensee 1988:53, pl. 43) (Plate 1.11b) excavated in a side room (Room 11) of BB III. The contexts of these two stands offer no clues to their functions. A small lightcolored matte Egyptian Blue tripod stand with compartmented top, found in the upper collapse of BB II, Room 7a, may have been a cosmetic stand (HAS 64660, MMA 65.163.38) (Plate 1.11c). Its material, color, and style are consistent with other Egyptian Blue objects. Ceramic tripod stands, some with human foot terminals, were a standard part of grave furniture in the Period IV cemetery where they supported

18

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

A

A

B PL. 1.6a,b. A selection of the bone inlay plaques which had probably ornamented the same piece of furniture as the copper/bronze lion paw terminal covers (HAS 58-425, -426, -429, UPM 59-4-68, -69, -70). UPM neg. no. 78091:32, 33; Hasanlu Project photograph

bridge-spouted pouring vessels. The style of the small stands suggests that they were probably made regionally.

Ornaments for Furniture The above discussion shows how varied the stylistic derivations for furniture seem to have been. The

B

same is true for ornaments believed to have belonged to furniture.

Egyptian Blue Ornaments The Egyptian Blue used at Hasanlu was almost exclusively light blue in color with a matte surface (Brill 1999[1]: 202; 1999[2]: 469). It was used



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

19

5 cm

FIG. 1.10 Copper/bronze tacks used decoratively on a wooden box. The lid would have slid on a thong or string run through perforations in the handle on the lid and the tabs on the sides of the box (HAS 62-435, T). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2007 after Object Card and field photographs

across several object classes and appears to have been a favored material. Some objects were carefully made, others appear cruder. Most of the Egyptian Blue artifacts are consistent in style and scale with objects of other materials thought to have been made in a local or regional manufacturing source. However, fragments from a small beaker or cup made of the light blue matte material usual for Hasanlu are decorated with a well-conceived pair of confronted winged genii and pairs of goats, each pair separated by trees (HAS 60-269, T; HAS 64-611, T; MMA, HAS 64-832, T), and a thick-walled situla-shaped cup with button base is decorated with bands of scale and guilloche motifs (HAS 64-530, MMA 65.163.36) Both are Assyrian style but the source of manufacture is uncertain; however, these objects reinforce the fondness for the use of Egyptian Blue for diverse classes of objects at Hasanlu. Some objects in this material, such as the bovine furniture terminals, are unique to Hasanlu. Two of the Egyptian Blue bovine terminals, one with an elm wood core (HAS 64-493, T; HAS 64-536, T; Object Cards, Hasanlu Project Archives; Color Plate 1.7a,b),

were stored with many other luxury objects in the second story of BB II, Room 7a (NBK 40:65, 66, 67, 68, 69). Because of the tumbled nature of the collapse it is not possible to tell if some ornaments were from complete artifacts or if they were stored separately. The two sections of a third terminal were found in the upper collapse of two different rooms, Rooms 9 and 12 (HAS 64-702 + HAS 64-794, UPM 65-31-354; NBK 40:27, 28; Color Plate 1.7c). Some of the other Egyptian Blue objects may also have been furniture parts. These include two identical flat, bar-like plaques (preserved length 37.5 cm; HAS 64-534a,b, T) (Fig. 1.16); one fragmentary small tube (length 13.90 cm; HAS 64-602, UPM 6531-290; Color Plate 1.8a); two large, slightly tapered tubes (length 22.7 cm; HAS 64-628, UPM 65-31289; HAS 64-629, T; Color Plate 1.8b); and a fragment of a palmette-shaped applique (HAS 64-665, UPM 65-31-296b; Color Plate 1.9), all of which were found in Room 7a with two of the hoof terminals. A fragment of a copper/bronze bar plaque (HAS 64-674, T) very similar to the Egyptian Blue bar plaques was

20

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

PL. 1.7 Fragments of two wooden furniture legs with deeply carved facetted lozenge decoration. The holes for the stretchers are visible at the tops of the fragments (HAS 64-461a,b). UPM neg. no. 78163: 23

also found in Room 7a. A fragment of a third Egyptian Blue bar plaque (HAS 64-1033, T) was found in the collapse of nearby Room 11 along with other diverse objects (NBK 40:14). The three bovine hoof terminals were each unique and different in size, style, quality of manufacture, and to some extent, quality and color of material. The third terminal appears closest in form and style to terminals on the rush(?)-seated stools on the Gold Bowl (Winter 1989: fig. 6) and a rush(?)-seated stool carved on a fragment of a curved ivory object (Muscarella 1980: no. 119). There are no parallels for the other two terminals at Hasanlu. Bovine and lion terminals are known in Urartu from 8th century tombs at Altıntepe, where cast

5 cm

FIG. 1.11 The two perforations that abutted each other inside the carved wooden furniture leg fragments probably accommodated stretchers or rails (HAS 64-461a). Hasanlu Project

bronze bovine terminals with hollow centers were recovered from Tomb III (Özgüç 1969:70, pl. XXII:2, 3). These, however, were combined with decorative elements not found at Hasanlu. A fragmentary wooden furniture leg in the shape of a bovine hoof resting on a palmette set above a low cylindrical terminal was excavated in Tomb 1 at Altıntepe (ibid.:66 n 16, pl. XXII:1, p. 70). This fragment had originally been clad with silver or bronze sheet metal and the stretchers embellished with copper/bronze, a bimetallic practice not found at Hasanlu. Two sets of carved legs for tripod wooden furniture found in chamber tombs near Adilçevaz also



21

PL. 1.8a Fragment of a thin curved wooden object with incised lines and zigzags in low flat relief (HAS 74-47, T). UPM neg. no. 96762:37 PL. 1.8b Fragments of a small unidentified ivory object with crenellated edge. It is decorated with incised geometric designs (HAS 74N536, UPM 75-29-380). UPM neg. no. 96782:32

PL. 1.8c (below) Fragments of a wooden box with tab handles and borders of incised lozenges filled with lines. A peg remains in one of the tab handles suggesting that the box originally had an attached lid (lower right in image) (HAS 72-70, T). UPM neg. no. 95113:10

22

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

5 cm

FIG. 1.12 Field drawing of three wooden legs probably for a simple low stool. One fragment retains a tenon for insertion (HAS 60-1013). Kimberly Leaman Insua after field drawing

had bovine terminals. Here one set of terminals rested directly on the floor while the other was set above a cone foot (Işik 1986: figs. 4, 6, pls. 9, 10, reconstruction drawings figs. 7, 8). Bovine hooves are also known from metal tripod furniture such as a cauldron stand from Altıntepe (Merhav 1991:228, fig.7). The style of the terminals for each of these pieces of furniture and those rendered as images are always identical, suggesting that the three Hasanlu terminals were single artifacts not intended for use together. Three large, thick spade-shaped artifacts (HAS 64-537, UPM 65-31-297; HAS 64-630, MMA 65.163.37; HAS 64-631, T; length of largest 19.0 cm, thickness 2.0 cm) were found in the same area of Room 7a (see Color Plate 1.10). They are similar in shape to ivory, gypsum, and bronze spade-shaped blinkers for horses excavated at Nimrud (Orchard 1967:13–25, pls. XII–XXV; Curtis, Collon, and Green 1993: fig. 9) and bronze blinkers from Urartu (Merhav 1991:84, no. 37.1-2). Although the length of the Hasanlu artifacts appears similar to the many comparable objects, they are much thicker and heavi-

er. They also have a large square central perforation but no perforations at the edges. It therefore seems likely that they were attached through the central perforation. Absence of decoration on the flat surfaces and differences in surface treatment suggest that the “handle” and the edges of the “spade” were intended to be seen but its flat surfaces were not. The context of these artifacts in the same area as furniture ornaments suggests the possibility of a similar function for them. The single fragment of a half palmette applique (HAS 64-665, UPM 65-31-296) is similar in plan to metal, stone, and ivory models from Nimrud (Curtis 1996:178–79, pl. 53); however, the Hasanlu fragment is smaller and less carefully finished. Its interior shaping suggests that it had been placed on the leg of a piece of furniture at its point of change from an angular to a rounded shape. The Egyptian Blue bar plaques (and the copper/ bronze bar fragment) can be compared to elements on the legs and between the volutes on the stretchers of a backless throne of Ashurnasirpal II on a 9th cen-



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

Section

23

Top view of foot IRON 5 cm

FIG. 1.13 Copper/bronze and iron sheathing for a leg of a piece of furniture, possibly a table. The foot was cast with a perforation allowing the inner wooden leg to stand directly on the floor (HAS 62-968, MMA 63.109.2). Kimberly Leaman Insua after field drawing

tury relief from Nimrud (BM 124565; Baker 1966: pl. 292). It is possible they functioned similarly. The two larger Egyptian Blue tubes (HAS 64628, UPM 65-31-289; HAS 64-629 [fragmentary], T) are the same in proportion and design, each having a narrow set-back at one end. The complete tube

PL. 1.9 The iron (lower leg) and copper/ bronze (upper leg) sheathing were attached to the wooden core by a line of copper/ bronze studs up the exterior of the leg. The foot wore a low buttoned boot with curled toe. A narrow, flat, right-angle flange at the top of the leg was evenly pierced with small holes for attachment (HAS 62-968, MMA 63.109.2). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1963. UPM neg. no. 78155:34

has ridging at the opposite terminal. The third tube (HAS 64-602, UPM 65-31-290) was plain, shorter, and smaller in diameter than the others, with a very small perforation. The function of the tubes as furniture ornaments is suggested by their context in the same collapse as the other elements.

24

FIG. 1.14a,b Unique cast copper/bronze tetrapod stand for two vessels. The use of Local Style for the figures suggests a local or regional source for the stand or perhaps manufacture at the settlement itself (HAS 58-237a, UPM 59-4-116). Kimberly Leaman 2006



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

25

IRON 5 cm

IRON 5 cm

FIG. 1.15a (above left) The copper/bronze and iron tripod stand following conservation. The ring top was formed from the iron rods that form the uprights. The ring was decorated and stabilized by pendant copper/bronze triangular clamps terminating in large balls. A break in the front of the upper section of one leg shows that the rods extended about 3 cm into the legs when they were cast over the rods. The two copper/bronze sheet metal bands recovered during excavation had hung between the legs from small hooks. They bear identical scenes. A small central copper/bronze pin secured the three iron stretchers which ran from the ankles to a central point between the legs of the stand (HAS 72-62, UPM 73-5-36). Kimberly Leaman 2006 FIG. 1.15b (above right) The reconstruction drawing of the stand shows that it was similar in plan to some Urartian iron and bronze rod-formed stands (HAS 72-62, UPM 73-5-36). Kimberly Leaman 2006

PL. 1.10 The field photograph shows the fragments of the bimetallic stand as placed by the excavator (HAS 72-62, UPM 73-5-36). UPM neg. no. 95110:9

Comparison of the tubes to a large ivory rodshaped structural element in the British Museum (Barnett 1957: pl. CXLVII, Suppl. 26)3 and a table leg (Oates and Oates 2001: fig. 102), both from Nimrud, also suggests a function with furniture. The narrow setback on the larger Hasanlu tubes can be seen on the Nimrud rod, but the Hasanlu tubes lack the two rectangular cutouts of the Nimrud example. While association and function for the Egyptian Blue pieces discussed above remain uncertain, the fact that there are three identical spade-shaped ornaments and three identical long bar plaques suggests that they served as decoration on a tripod object. However the unique nature of the three bovine terminals, and the fact that only two tubes are similar, argue against this reconstruction and suggest instead that these were simply stored decorative elements.

26

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

PL. 1.11a,b These two small copper/bronze tripod stands have terminals in the shape of shod human feet. They were found in different buildings (BB IW, Rm 2, and BB III, Rm 11) on the High Mound and had probably held small vessels (HAS 58-216, T 10624; HAS 62-755, T). Hasanlu Project photographs HAS 58-SL 49, HAS 62-SL 80

PL. 1.11c Small Egyptian Blue tripod stand (center) with a compartmented top (right) and triangular base (left). It might have been a cosmetic stand (HAS 64-660, MMA 65.163.38, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund 1965). UPM neg. no. 78159:29-31

Ivory and Wood Plaques and Ornaments Ornaments could also take the form of inlays made of ivory, bone, or metal. Their function as ornaments is inferred from the size and shape of the pieces and through comparanda. In some instances, ivory and metal plaques share both imagery and style.

Some ivory objects were probably imported, but most appear to have been made locally or regionally. The largest number of fragments of ivory inlay, and other ivory objects, was recovered from second story contexts, particularly in rooms along the east and south sides of BB II, Room 5, where they appear to have been stored either as parts of complete objects or as loose decora-



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

27

5 cm

FIG. 1.16 The broad side of this Egyptian Blue bar plaque has raised edges. The narrow sides are ornamented with small ridges. Fragments of a second plaque were noted on the Field Card (HAS 64-534a, T). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2007 after Object Card and photographs

tive elements in a context that included luxury goods. A few ivory plaques can be combined into groups, perhaps from single objects. However, no ivory pieces can be confidently reconstructed. Most of the ivory found in BB II came from the upper collapse of Rooms 6, 7a, 8, and 10 on the east and southeast sides of Room 5, and from the east and southeast edges of Room 5, into which fragments had fallen from those upper side rooms as the building collapsed. The area outside of Room 7a to the east is also included here, since material in this area had almost certainly fallen from upper level rooms as the building collapsed from west to east, pulling the roof and side walls down to the east of BB II. The direction of collapse is documented by the west to east fall of the wooden columns in Room 5 (Robert H. Dyson, Jr., pers. comm.). Comparison to ivory decorated furniture from Nimrud suggests that at least some, perhaps most, of the ivory plaques and some of the objects carved in partial and full round from Hasanlu had been intended for use on furniture; however, no direct archaeological evidence exists at Hasanlu. As at Nimrud, both ivory and wood appear to have been used for plaques and objects in the round at Hasanlu, although very few wood pieces remain. Plaques of both materials

were probably manufactured in the same workshops (Herrmann 1992:3–4; see also Moorey 1994:126).

Plaques The height of a few ivory Local Style and other plaques can be estimated (e.g., Muscarella 1980: nos. 5, 97), but none of the Local Style plaques were complete enough to provide an estimate of their width. Many plaques had been scored, nicked, or rocker stamped on the reverse as preparation for better adhesion (e.g., ibid.: nos. 21, 22, 58, 164, 177, 178, 196). Some plaques also had vertical holes for small dowels (e.g., ibid.: nos. 21, 22, 168). These may have held plaques above or below them in place. Other plaques had dowel holes from the front of the plaque through a corner, eye, or other area (e.g., ibid.: nos. 1, 18, 21, 55A, 79, 85, 86, 88, 89, 109, 116, 120, 122, 165, 185). Undamaged side edges on a few ivory plaques cut through figures indicating that the scene or figure was completed on the next plaque(s) (e.g., ibid.: nos. 5, 8, 14, 18, 33, 170). This is unlike the self-contained scenes rendered in Local Style in repoussé on metal plaques (see below). Scenes most often represented on the Local Style ivory plaque fragments excavated in BB II include battle scenes, human or animal figures, mythical or ani-

28

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

3 cm

FIG. 1.17 and PL. 1.12 This partially preserved repoussé silver sheet overlay decorated in Local Style shows a man driving a single-horse chariot. The overlay had probably covered a small plaque (HAS 64-475, T). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2007 after Object Card and photographs; UPM neg. no. 78163:19

mal combats, and ceremonial/religious scenes (Muscarella 1980). Careful examination of the fragments allows us to tentatively group plaques which were possibly used on single artifacts. For example, a group of Local Style plaque fragments repeat battle scenes of horse and chariot warriors, with fallen nude foe (Muscarella 1980: nos. 1–3, 33, 40), chariots (nos. 6, 8–10, 12–15, 18–24, 28–30, 35), archers (nos. 49, 51, 52), and foot soldiers (nos. 54–56, 58, 64). All of these are carved in a very similar style, perhaps in one workshop or by one hand. Other fragments in the same style showed lions, some winged, probably facing an adversary that is not preserved (ibid.: nos. 163–67, 173, 174). Others showed bulls (ibid.: nos. 150, 183), deer (ibid.: nos. 144, 156), or mythical beasts sometimes battling a man (ibid.: nos. 168, 176, 178, 180–82). Also depicted were ceremonial scenes of figures seated in chairs (ibid.: nos. 60, 116, 118) or holding a cup or hand in front of their faces (ibid.: nos. 74–78). Three figures on a bone cosmetic container also hold their hands in this position (ibid.: no. 73). There is no evidence to help us understand how the plaques were grouped or how many artifacts they were intended to decorate. The turbulent nature of the collapse and the probable portability of at least some of the objects that might have been ornamented with plaques make it impossible to suggest which of the plaques discussed above may have been used on the same objects, although most were

found in Rooms 6 and 8. There is also similarity between a few fragments of wooden plaques and an ivory fragment cut in a similar style (ibid.: nos. 7, 39, 143). It is possible that wood and ivory plaques were combined on a single object. Another group of battle scene plaques of approximately the same size were carved using a slightly different cutting style (ibid.: nos. 4, 17, 26, 48, 59, 61, 109). Almost all were found in Room 7a. These may have functioned as another unit, whether on one or more artifacts we do not know. The scenes on both sets of battle plaque fragments appear similar in plan to the narrative repetitive program of the 9th century bronze gates of Shalmaneser III from Balawat (King 1915; also Barnett 1973; Oates 1974) and may have recorded similar exploits. Other fragments carved in a Local Style but distinct from the sets described above formed other stylistically related groups. One group shows standing human figures, some of which appear to be in framed panels. Other fragments seem to have been part of larger scenes, possibly a procession as described by Muscarella (1980: nos. 79, 84–91). One fragment formed a corner for the object to which it had been applied (ibid.: no. 89). This group was all found in Room 8. Smaller sets of fragments in styles considered to be Iranian Style by Muscarella (1980: nos. 190–91) were also found. One set of relatively large plaques



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

(ca. 8.3 cm high x 13.7 cm wide) shows three or more right-facing winged striding bulls each separated by a plant element (ibid.: nos. 214–17, 221). This group was found in the second story collapse of BB II, Room 10, and it seems likely that they were used together. A set of fragments in another style also considered to be Iranian by Muscarella shows right- and left-facing kneeling winged bulls and a fragment of a front-facing element whose surface is lost (ibid.: nos. 218–20). The front-facing element probably separated pairs of bulls. Fragments from enough plaques remain to tell us that at least two sets must have originally existed. These relatively small, thick plaques are so close in size, carving technique, style, and subject matter that they must have been made in the same workshop, probably by the same hand. The fragments were found in BB II, Rooms 8 and 10. Fragments from two plaques of similar size and decorative motif show tall tree-like plants. They are of considerable interest as one plaque was made of ivory (Muscarella 1980: nos. 191–93, 195–97), the other of wood (ibid.: no. 194). The proportions of the two plaques are similar but details of the plants differ slightly, perhaps due to the difference in material. Fragments of two thin silver sheet overlays (HAS 64862a,b, UPM 65-31-388a,b) with tall plant-like elements were, like the wood and ivory fragments, excavated in BB II, Room 6. These seem to match the size and carving of the ivory and wood plaques suggesting that both materials may have been overlaid with precious metal and that these overlays had covered these plaques (Color Plate 1.11a,b). A repoussé silver overlay showing a one-man chariot drawn by a single horse (HAS 64-475, T) rendered in Local Style was also found in Room 6. It may have covered a small plaque, probably made of wood since no trace remains (Fig. 1.17, Plate 1.12). The single horse and driver probably indicates a twowheeled chariot, a type of vehicle used at Hasanlu, as the poorly preserved remains of a small two-wheeled wooden vehicle were excavated in BB IV-V, Room 1 (de Schauensee 1989: fig. 15a,b). Plaques rendered in Local Style also appear to have occasionally been embellished with inlay. For example, a wood plaque (Muscarella 1980: no. 45) of about the same proportion as the ivory plaques had a border of inlaid triangles along its lower edge. Only glittery traces of mastic now remain.

29

A few ivory fragments in classic Assyrian style were also found in BB II, Rooms 8 and 10. These were presumably imported. Some were incised with a single repetitive element and may have been border inlays for individual objects (ibid.: nos. 286A, 286B [striding ostriches], no. 290 [pairs of confronted kneeling goats separated by a plant element], nos. 292, 293 [plant elements]). Five fragments from sub-square plaques of approximately the same size were found in BB IVE, Room 3. All were incised with striding ostriches (ibid.: no. 285). It seems likely that these had decorated the same object. Two individual plaques each incised with the image of a winged genie and a kneeling goat (ibid.: nos. 281, 283), as well as a few other small fragments (ibid.: no. 282), were found in the same room of BB IVE. A single Assyrian-style plaque fragment (ibid.: no. 291), probably from a winged bull, found west of Tower 5 gives a glimpse of the degree to which the settlement was ransacked. Fragments of two relatively large low-relief plaques with considerable surface wear that cannot easily be accounted for were also found. The first (ibid.: no. 280) appears to be an Assyrian import representing a male figure carrying a lamb and a scepter(?). The second (ibid.: no. 284) is also in Assyrian style. It shows plant elements, as well as fragments of two figures each wearing a polos headdress. Both of these fragments were found in the collapse of the same room (BB II, Room 10).

Ornaments Fully or Partially in the Round Fragmentary ivory and wood objects sculpted either fully or partially in the round were excavated in the same areas as the fragmentary plaques of ivory and the very few made of wood. Some of them may have embellished objects of some size such as furniture. However, figural ornaments on slightly later representations of thrones are often shown with upraised arms as part of their arm and seat supports (e.g., Herrmann 1996: pl. 45a–c; Baker 1966: pl. 295). This position does not seem to appear at Hasanlu nor do 9th century representations of furniture seem to use figures in this way (e.g., Baker 1966: pls. 291, 292). Actual furniture parts from Zincirli (Andrae 1943: pl. 61) and 7th century Nimrud (Herrmann 1996: pls. 40b, 43c) made of ivory confirm that ivory was used structurally as well as decoratively in furniture. Oth-

30

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

er Hasanlu fragments such as human heads with peg bottoms or voids in the tops of the heads may have been parts of objects incorporated into free-standing objects or figures of perishable material, most likely wood. Two examples (Muscarella 1980: nos. 124, 249) are of different North Syrian styles, suggesting that the objects which they embellished may have come from different sources. It is possible that two small, snarling lion head wood protomes (ibid.: no. 189) of North Syrian stylistic derivation may also have decorated furniture, but they appear considerably smaller than the bulls’ heads on bronze furniture of contemporary and slightly later date (Baker 1966: pls. 292, 330, 332). Unlike the bronze examples, the Hasanlu heads had inlaid eyes and forehead knobs most probably made of another material or kind of wood than the heads themselves but the knobs are lost. Dowels, dowel holes, and the glittery residue of mastic tell us that some sculptures were affixed to larger objects. Often their reverse surfaces were left rough or unfinished. The variety of methods of attachment suggests that the ivories were affixed to more than one type or section of larger objects. Some full round or partial round objects appear to have been imported while others may have been locally or regionally made, although none appear to have been executed in the Local Style as defined through the flat plaques discussed above. However, the repoussé gold band surmounting a fragment of an ivory sculpture with a central wood post (HAS 64-933, T; Muscarella 1980: no. 175; Object Card) is in the same Local Style as the plaques, suggesting that both were made in the same manufacturing center. The figure may have also been locally made or the band simply added to it. A fragment of a figure of a charioteer(?) was made in sections, as indicated by the tang at the base and the rough surfaces on the sides of this fragment (ibid.: no. 136; Object Card). The similarity of the carving style of this fragment and that with the gold band suggests that it is possible that both had come from the same object; however there is no supporting archaeological evidence for this suggestion. A handle, probably for a box, in the shape of a crudely carved recumbent lion inlaid in its shoulders with gold-banded green glass(y) material (HAS 64901, T; Muscarella 1980: no. 187) may also have been

locally made. Two dowel holes in its base identify its function. The gold banding surrounding the inlay pieces is similar to that used in some Egyptian Blue objects such as a small bowl (HAS 64-653, UPM 6531-298), two small Egyptian Blue pectorals (Winter 1980: figs. 58, 59), and a calcite vessel (de Schauensee 2001: fig. 1). The use of the same type of banding on objects carved in Local Style, made of a favored material and made of stone, indicates that there was a thriving local manufacture of luxury goods meant for the settlement. Fragments from objects in the round or partial round, sometimes inlaid, were also found. One example is a knee-shaped fragment that had been inlaid with chevrons of another material held in place by dowels (HAS 64-1075, T 25862; Muscarella 1980: no. 72). Towers similar to those on an enigmatic battle scene fragment (ibid.: no. 70) are carved below the chevrons. A carved and inlaid wing has small dowels for attachment at the edges suggesting that the complete piece must have been rendered in openwork (ibid.: no. 138; Object Card). The carving style of another wing fragment is similar to that of the fragment of the figure with the gold band, suggesting that this wing, too, might have been locally or regionally made. Fragments of human body parts, such as a sandaled foot in the round supported by a thin tang pierced by two dowel holes (Muscarella 1980: no. 131), indicate that complete figures were used as components or decorations for larger artifacts. Figural ornaments are sometimes seen on representations of thrones as part of their arm and seat supports. A few representations, such as a throne shown in an 8th century wall painting from Til Barsip (Curtis 1996: fig. 2), the throne of Nabu-apla-iddina on a relief from Sippar (Orthmann 1975: pl. 248), and contemporary Assyrian reliefs from Khorsabad dating to the time of Sargon II (Baker 1966: figs. 297, 298), show standing figures as decorative arm or seat supports on furniture. These figures are usually shown with their arms raised over their heads. None of the fragments from Hasanlu are in this position and none of the few representations of seat furniture show figures used in this way. A few objects in the round (e.g., Muscarella 1980: nos. 136, 253) appear to have been made from several parts that were pegged together. None of these are complete enough to identify their function.



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

Composite Objects Several fragments belonging to what seem to have been similar composite objects of different sizes can also be identified. Most were made of ivory (ibid.: nos. 13, 92, 93, 132, 133, 135), but two were made of wood (ibid.: nos. 134, 190). The most complete of these composite objects (ibid.: no. 92) is made of ivory. It has an upper section carved in the round showing the bare feet of a human figure, identified by Muscarella as a deity standing on the back of a snarling recumbent lion, and a bottom section decorated with a low-relief panel of standing/walking human figures carved in Local Style. The two are connected by a narrow neck with an unfinished surface that must have originally been inlaid with a plastic material. Deep, irregularly spaced holes in the neck would have helped hold the inlay material in place. The fragment is large (preserved height 25 cm) and was carved from a single piece of ivory. Identification of this object as a furniture part is based on comparison to a similarly identified composite object of Syro-Hittite (9th century? or later date) and unknown provenience (Symington 1996:115, pl. 28b). Both the figures and the lion on the Hasanlu composite had the deeply cut eye sockets intended for inlay often seen at the settlement. A single complete eyeball made of glass(y) material remains in an Egyptian Blue inlay piece in the shape of a snarling double lion head. The lenticular pupil was separately set into the eyeball (Color Plate 1.12). A second, less complete group of fragments (Muscarella 1980: no. 93) probably belonged to the lower section of another composite object of approximately the same size and description as the one described above. One of the wood composite fragments (ibid.: no. 190) shows the forepaw of a recumbent lion above a ridge. A band below the ridge had been inlaid. Comparison to the ivory composite suggests that this may have been a plastic material. Now only a securing dowel remains.

Oval Band-shaped Objects Three ivory objects shaped as oval bands excavated from the upper collapse of BB II Room 7a (Muscarella 1980: nos. 262–64) may have been furniture decorations. However, they are much smaller and thinner than the larger, heavier multi-register

31

oval artifacts with high-relief striding bulls from Nimrud that have been identified as furniture decorations by Herrmann (1992:29-30, pl. 75; 1996:161 n 3, pl. 42b, c). It seems unlikely that the Hasanlu bands, which are all differently decorated, served the same function. The similarity in shape is probably due to the natural shape of the tusk from which they were made. Other small pieces such as discs and chevrons (Muscarella 1980: no. 207) were also for inlay but little more can be said about them other than that they indicate the amount of embellishment that was present at the settlement. Chevrons (ibid.: no. 210A) probably indicate inlaid borders. Several copper/bronze chevrons, some with iron nails, were found in the northeast corner of BB IW, Room 5, showing that this form of decoration was not confined to bone and ivory (HAS 58-494, UPM 59-4-134, T 10707; NBK 7:53; Object Card).

Metal Plaques Ivory chevrons bordered the top and bottom edges of two sets of alternating repoussé copper/ bronze and iron plaques, but not the sides. The plaques were excavated in the collapse of BB III, Room 9. No trace remained of the object(s) that these plaques had decorated, but it seems likely that the objects had been used in that room. The plaques are all similar in size (ca. 9.6 x 6.6 cm). Each bore a self-contained repoussé narrative scene rendered in Local Style. The set of three metal plaques was made up of two copper/bronze plaques with hunting scenes flanking a central iron plaque with confronted fighting lions above a small quadruped (HAS 62-1059, T; HAS 621060, MMA 63.109.3; HAS 62-1061, UPM 63-5-180; Object Cards) (Fig. 1.18, Plate 1.13). The set of five plaques consisted of three made of copper/bronze with battle scenes alternating with two iron plaques with equestrian scenes (HAS 62-1054, T; HAS 62-1055, T; HAS 62-1056 through -1058, UPM 63-5-177 through -179; Object Cards) (Fig. 1.19, Color Plate 1.13). Two more copper/bronze plaques were found in the same area. They show pairs of rampant horned animals separated by a central palm tree. An iron plaque angled as though for a corner carries the images of rampant animals flanking a central tree (HAS 62-1123 through -1125, T; Object Cards) (Plate 1.14).

32

IRON 5 cm

FIG. 1.18 The set of three alternating copper/bronze and iron plaques is drawn in the order in which they were found. Each shows a complete scene. The tacks at the corners of the plaques are made of the opposite metal, the central ones of the same metal as the plaques, increasing the decorative effect of the iron and copper/bronze. Ivory chevrons border the top and bottom edges of the set (HAS 62-1059, T; HAS 62-1060, MMA 63.109.3, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1963; HAS 62-1061, UPM 63-5-180). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2006 from plaques and after Object Cards and photographs

PL. 1.13 In situ photograph of the set of three alternating copper/bronze and iron repoussé plaques bordered top and bottom with ivory chevrons (HAS 62-1059, T; HAS 62-1060, MMA 63.109.3, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1963; HAS 62-1061, UPM 63-5-180). UPM neg. no. 78140:14



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

33

PL. 1.14 Two repoussé copper/bronze plaques and one iron plaque. One copper/bronze plaque is decorated with rampant horned animals facing a central tree, the other with winged animals also confronting a tree. The iron plaque bears a tree. These plaques were excavated in the same area as the two sets of alternating copper/bronze and iron plaques (HAS 62-1123 thru -1125, T). UPM neg. nos. 78142:18, 20; HAS 62-SL 112

Sheathing While the metal plaques were used as inlay or applied decorative elements, metal sheathing or overlay was also used. Some fragments of copper/bronze sheet excavated in the low fill of the southeast section of BB II, Room 5, were used to cover furniture parts (HAS 64-465a,b, UPM 65-31-179; HAS 64-468, T; NBK 40:56). One fragment (HAS 64-468) was associated with poplar wood (Hasanlu Project Archives) (Fig. 1.20a–c, Plate 1.15). The shallow relief treatment in a long rectangular shape on the central surface of this fragment is similar to that on a square bronze furniture leg overlay at Altıntepe, although here it is set above ornamental palmettes (Özgüç 1969: pl. XIX:1. See also Özgüç 1961:271, figs. 21, 22 for use of metal overlay on furniture). No metal palmettes were found at Hasanlu, only the single fragmentary Egyptian Blue palmette discussed above.

Furniture Parts or Ornaments(?) Two finely carved alabaster finials with fluted copper/bronze knobs covered by thin gold sheet were found less than 1 m apart on the floor of the southeastern corner of Room 5 (HAS 64-320, MMA 65.163.57; Muscarella 1988:77–78, no. 124; HAS 64-321, T; NBK 40:55; Object Cards). The unique configuration of their identical copper/bronze attachment mechanisms leaves us ignorant as to what sort of object they

had been a part. It might have been furniture. The elegance of their proportions and fineness of manufacture suggest that they were not made locally (Fig. 1.21, Color Plate 1.14).

Glass Tubes Another set of objects which might have been used as furniture decorations were a group of 1 complete (HAS 64-678b, T; length 15.0 cm) and 17 fragmentary glass tubes (Moorey 1994:199 citing Barag 1970:194, no. 216). Most were excavated in the upper collapse of BB II, Rooms 7a and 6 (NBK 40:63, 69; Object Cards). Seven tubes have square sections (HAS 64-676, T; HAS 64-679, UPM 65-31-282; HAS 64680, UPM 65-31-283 (2); HAS 64-681, UPM 65-31279; HAS 64-84, UPM 65-31-280; HAS 64- ? ), 3 have octagonal sections (HAS 64-677, T; HAS 64-678a, b, UPM 65-31-281, T), and 1 has a circular section (HAS 60-507, T). Fragments of octagonal tubes were found outside BB II, Room 7a (HAS 70-D167, HAS 72-N97a,b, HAS 72-S11, HAS 72-S14, UPM), and on South Street outside BB II, Room 13 (HAS 59-741). When color could be identified it was blue, usually described as bright blue or light blue opaque (Stapleton, this volume; Stapleton 2003: Tables 7.1, 8.1, 8.3; Stapleton and Swanson 2002a:153, Table 2, fig. 6; Stapleton and Swanson 2002b:316, 319, 320, Table 1; Object Cards). A “lip” at the complete terminal of a fragmentary square tube (HAS 64-84, UPM

34

IRON 5 cm

FIG. 1.19 The set of five alternating copper/bronze and iron plaques in excavation order. Each plaque bears a unique self-contained scene. Where preservation allows, the plaques show a significant amount of chased detail. Although not shown in this drawing these plaques, like the set shown in Figure 1.18, were bordered along the top and bottom edges by ivory chevrons secured by small ivory pegs (HAS 62-1054, T; HAS 62-1055, T; HAS 62-1056 through -1058, UPM 63-5-177 through -179). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2006 from plaques and after Object Cards and photographs



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

35

FIG. 1.20a–c These fragments of copper/ bronze sheet had covered square or rectangular wooden elements, possibly sturdy furniture parts. The first (a) was decorated with a line of shallow repoussé bumps and had been secured by a flat-headed tack. The second (b) was decorated with a row of domed tacks and a line of tab-like elements. The front and side surfaces of the third (c) are decorated with rectangles in shallow relief. One domed attachment stud remains in place (HAS 64-465a, UPM 65-31-179; HAS 64-465b; HAS 64-468, T). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2007 after objects and Object Cards

a

b

c 5 cm

PL. 1.15 Fragments of copper/bronze overlay (a in Fig. 1.20a–c) showing the row of repoussé bumps along the bottom of the largest fragment. An attachment tack is still in place in the lower right fragment (HAS 64-465a, UPM 65-31179). Hasanlu Project photograph

65-31-280) suggests that a form, probably a rod, had been used and removed during manufacture of the tubes (Color Plate 1.15a). Two tubes had had pieces of copper/bronze inserted into the matrix of the glass during manufacture. The broken end of a square tube (HAS 64-680, UPM 65-31-283) has small strips of very thin sheet metal in three corners (see Color Plate 1.15b). A break further up the tube showed that the strips did not extend its entire length. The field drawing of an octagonal tube (HAS 64-677, T) shows three thin rods in the glass matrix on two contiguous sides and one opposing side (Fig. 1.22). The purpose of the metal inserts is unknown. The place of manufacture is also unknown as the glass used for these tubes does not resemble that from known sites (Stapleton, this volume). Rod-formed glass tubes are known from 13th century BC Elam: at Choga Zanbil where black-andwhite tubes had decorated wooden doors (Moorey 1985:206 citing Ghirshman 1966:30, 65, 74, fig. 20, pl. XXV:1, 4); and at Susa (Moorey 1985:206 citing Barag 1970:149 n 88a) where fragments of decorative

36

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

3 cm

Copper/Bronze Rods

FIG. 1.22. Octagonal glass tube with three small rods inserted into the body of the glass. Like the thin copper/bronze strips inserted into the matrix of the tube in Color Plate 1.15b, the purpose of the rods is unknown (HAS 64-677, T). Kinberly Leaman Insua after Object Card 5 cm

FIG. 1.21 One of a pair of finely crafted, fine-grained white stone finials with gold-sheet covered copper/bronze knobs for an unknown object. The upper part of the longer bar of this unique two-part attachment mechanism is broken away. The bottom of the bar is also broken. The off-center position of one bar as it enters the base of the finial suggests that the second bar had been inserted beside it. An area of iron corrosion below the knob is noted on the Object Card. The source of the iron cannot be established (HAS 64-321, T). Kimberly Leaman Insua 2007 after Object Card

glass tubes of similar type but unknown use were excavated. A tube from Room 12, Palace III, at Choga Zanbil retains its bronze construction rod (Ghirshman 1968: pl. L:2). These examples considerably predate the destruction of Hasanlu but might fit with an early construction date for BB II in the late 2nd millennium BC (Dyson and Voigt 2003:221). The Hasanlu tubes might also have been pieces not in active use, or they may have come to the settlement as tribute or booty, a possibility supported by the presence of inscribed Elamite maceheads of 13th century date at Hasanlu (Dyson 1989b: caption for fig. 21). However, the lack



furniture remains and furniture ornaments from the period ivb buildings

37

Conclusions

WOOD

5 cm

FIG. 1.23 Thick-walled copper/bronze tube with heavy “collar” at the intact terminal. A sturdy dome-headed pin running through the tube part way up its length secured it to a wooden core. The intentionally bent terminal prevented the pin from slipping (HAS 64-1057, T). Kimberly Leaman Insua after Object Card

of comparanda for the glasses from which the tubes were made makes this seem less likely (Stapleton, this volume). A heavy tubular copper/bronze object with a wood core and one intact terminal (HAS 64-1057, T) (Fig. 1.23) lay on top of the bench along the east section of the south wall of Room 5 in a mixed group of apparently unrelated objects fallen from the upper levels of side rooms. The excavator suggested that this tube might have belonged to furniture but none of the artifact types in the same fill context appear to be furniture related (NBK 40:54-56). We include it here because of the excavator’s suggestion of its use with furniture.

The remains of furniture and furniture ornaments excavated at Hasanlu show that such objects were used or stored in many buildings on the High Mound. The distribution pattern shows small amounts of furniture in the lower levels of buildings and large amounts of ornamentation mixed with other object classes in upper collapse. Although the sparseness of furniture and furniture ornaments on the ground floor may indicate that furniture was used sparingly in these rooms, it seems more likely that this level had been looted while the contents of the upper level remained relatively intact, probably due to the conflagration or building collapse. The few furniture remains at floor level are quite large and most, like Stools A and B, did not have embellishments. Lack of ornamentation may account for their destruction in place. Looting of furniture of relatively large scale is represented on a slightly later relief of Nineveh from the time of Sennacherib (Layard 1853: pl. 40). Textual accounts of the spoils of looting from the time of Ashurnasirpal II, including decorated furniture (e.g., Grayson 1991:217), combined with the taste for the elaborate and varied ornamentation that must have existed at Hasanlu, as demonstrated by the remains of many different classes of objects excavated in the upper rooms, suggest that the more elaborate goods on the first floor may have been looted while the burning and building collapse prevented looting of the upper floors. The ground floors of the buildings may therefore have been more heavily furnished than indicated by the few remains found in them. The furniture and ornaments excavated within the buildings show how styles well known in major centers influenced the craftsmen at Hasanlu, and how these imported styles were reinterpreted and sometimes combined with the regional Local Style, resulting in a new idiom that is seen not only in furniture and ornaments but across the repertoire of object classes at Hasanlu. Further excavations may help our understanding of the idiom and show its extent in the area or wider region. Materials are also used in ways not seen elsewhere, such as the use of Egyptian Blue terminals and decorations for furniture. Styles could also be combined in ways not seen elsewhere, as in a tripod stand with an Urartian-style iron rod upper part, a copper/

38

peoples and crafts in period ivb at hasanlu, iran

bronze lower part using elements (human legs) not seen in Urartu, and the addition of copper/bronze decorations on the top ring and as repoussé bands decorated in Local Style. The pervasiveness of Local Style, a style not currently known outside of Hasanlu, the consistency of proportion, stylistic conventions, and sometimes blending of regional and local styles suggest that much of the furniture recovered from the site was made at or near the settlement. For example the wooden stools are very similar to stools and the bottom sections of chairs shown on Local Style ivory inlay fragments. The use of Local Style decoration on copper/bronze and iron inlay plaques and the use of Egyptian Blue in ways not seen at other sites further support a local/regional manufacturing center for a significant amount of the material excavated at Hasanlu. At the same time, evidence of the adoption of non-local stylistic elements is also documented. The lion-paw terminal covers reflect influence from Assyria to the west, although because of their scale, these appear not to have been made in a major center. Their combination with bone and ivory inlay pieces suggests contact with Urartu where later pieces use combined materials. The use of glass(y) materials and inlays of now-lost materials must have enhanced the colorful quality of the repertoire and added to the unique appearance of the life-style of the settlement. A regional manufacturing location remains to be identified. It might be Hasanlu itself, although only one manufacturing area for bronze working has been found to date. Other manufacturing areas may lie in as yet unexcavated parts of the High or Low Mounds. Although the amount of furniture at Hasanlu is tantalizingly small it does show how varied, colorful, and highly decorated it must have been. The breadth of its stylistic range and ornamentation, as well as its intended use, supports once again the dominant role this settlement must have held in the life of the area. The Local Style that pervades the repertoire of furniture and other artifact classes shows that this was a well-established settlement with its own cultural identity. The extensive use of precious materials such as ivory shows that the settlement had access to sources for them and the extensive use of the Local Style for their manufacture shows access to sophisticated manufacturing center(s). Perhaps they were at the settlement itself and await excavation. Future studies and excavations in the region and at Hasanlu itself should

tell us more about the people who made the furniture and ornaments and how they were used by the inhabitants of this exciting and thriving center.

notes 1. See Kubba 2006 for an overview of furniture representations and furniture parts in Mesopotamia over time. 2. See also annotated volume of Muscarella 1980 in Hasanlu Project Archives. 3. The author thanks Dr. John Curtis for allowing her to examine this piece and other material from Nimrud in the collections of The British Museum.

Acknowledgments The author thanks Mary Voigt, Holly Pittman, the outside readers, and Robert H. Dyson, Jr., for their very helpful comments and suggestions. She thanks Kimberly Leaman Insua for her excellent preparation of images and plans used in this chapter.

References Cited Andrae, Walter. 1943. Die Kleinfunde von Sendschirli. Mitteilungen aus den Orientalischen Sammlungen 15. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Baker, Hollis S. 1966. Furniture in the Ancient World: Origins and Evolution, 3100-475 B.C. New York: Macmillan. Barag, Dan. 1970. Mesopotamian Core-formed Vessels 1500–500 B.C. Glass and Glassmaking in Ancient Mesopotamia. In An Edition of the Cuneiform Texts which Contain Instructions for Glassmakers, A. Leo Oppenheim et al. Corning, NY: The Corning Museum of Glass, pp. 131–99. Barnett, R.D. 1957. A Catalogue of the Nimrud Ivories with Other Examples of Ancient Near Eastern Ivories in the British Museum. London: The Trustees of The British Museum. ——— 1973. More Balawat Gates: A Preliminary Report. In Symbolae Biblicae et Mesopotamicae, ed. M. A. Beek, A. A. Kampman, C. Nijland, and J. Ryckmans, pp. 16-22. Leiden: Brill. Barnett, R. D., and N. Gökçe. 1953. The Find of Urartian Bronzes at Altın Tepe, near Erzincan. Anatolian Studies 3:121–29. Biscione, Raffaele. 2003. Pre-Urartian and Urartian Settlement Patterns in the Caucasus, Two Case



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Studies: The Urmia Plain, Iran, and the Sevan Basin, Armenia. In Archaeology in the Borderlands: Investigations in Caucasia and Beyond, ed. Adam T. Smith and Karen S. Rubinson, pp. 167–84. The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Monograph 47. Los Angeles. Brill, Robert, H. 1999. Chemical Analyses of Early Glasses. 2 vols. Corning, NY: The Corning Museum of Glass. Curtis, John. 1996. Assyrian Furniture: The Archaeological Evidence. In The Furniture from Western Asia, Ancient and Traditional, ed. Georgina Herrmann, pp. 167–80. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. Curtis, John, Dominique Collon, and Anthony Green. 1993. British Museum Excavations at Nimrud and Balawat in 1989. Iraq 55:1–37. de Schauensee, M. 1988. Northwest Iran as a Bronzeworking Centre: The View from Hasanlu. In Bronzeworking Centres of Western Asia c. 1000– 539 B.C., ed. John Curtis, pp. 45–62, pls. 37–52. London: Kegan Paul International. ——— 1989. Horse Gear from Hasanlu. Expedition 31(2-3): 37–52. ——— 2001. A Note on Three Glass Plaques from Hasanlu. Iraq 63:99–106. De Vries, Keith, Peter Ian Kuniholm, G. Kenneth Sams, and Mary M. Voigt. 2003. New Dates for Iron Age Gordion. Antiquity 77(296) Project Gallery. http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/devries/ devries.html. De Vries, Keith, G. Kenneth Sams, and Mary M. Voigt. 2005. Gordion Redating. In Anatolian Iron Ages 5: Proceedings of the Fifth Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium Held at Van, 6–10 August 2001, ed. A. Çilingiroğlu and G. Darbyshire, pp. 45-46. London: British Institute at Ankara. Dyson, Robert H., Jr. 1959. Digging in Iran: Hasanlu, 1958. Expedition 1(1)3:4–18. ——— 1989a. Rediscovering Hasanlu. Expedition 31(2-3): 3–11. ——— 1989b. The Iron Age Architecture at Hasanlu: An Essay. Expedition 31(2-3):107–27. Dyson, Robert H., Jr., and Mary M. Voigt. 2003. Religious Aspects of Burned Building II at Hasanlu. In Yeki Bud, Yeki Nabud: Essays on the Archaeology of Iran in Honor of William M. Sumner, ed. Naomi F. Miller and Kamyar Abdi, pp. 219–36. The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University

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of California, Monograph 48. Los Angeles. Ghirshman, Roman. 1966. Tchoga Zanbil (Dur-Untash). Vol. I, La Ziggurat. Mémoires de la Mission de la Délégation en Iran, Vol. 39. Paris: Librairie orientaliste Paul Geuthner. ——— 1968. Tchoga Zanbil (Dur-Untash). Vol. II, Temenos, Temples, Palais, Tombes. Mémoires de la Mission de la Délégation en Iran, Vol. 40. Paris: Librairie orientaliste Paul Geuthner. Grayson, A. Kirk. 1991. Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC I (1114–859 BC). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Hakemi, Ali, and Mahmoud Rad. 1950. The Description and Results of the Scientific Excavations of Hasanlu, Solduz [in Persian]. Tehran: Guzarishha-yi bastanshinasi. Harris, Mary Virginia. 1989. Glimpses of an Iron Age Landscape: Plants at Hasanlu. Expedition 31(2-3): 12–23. Hasanlu Project Field Object Cards. Hasanlu Project Archives, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia. Hasanlu Project Field Notebooks (NBK) (photocopies). Hasanlu Project Archives, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia. H . ātimī, Abū al-Qāsim. n.d. Catalogue of the Selective Exhibition of the Golden and Silver Objects in the N.M.I. Introduction by M. R. Kargar, Director of N.M.I. Tehran: Mūzih-i Millī-i Īrān. Hepper, F. Nigel. 1996. Timber Trees of Western Asia. In The Furniture of Western Asia, Ancient and Traditional, ed. Georgina Herrmann, pp. 1–12. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. Herrmann, Georgina. 1986. Ivories from Room SW 37, Fort Shalmaneser. Ivories from Nimrud (1949– 1963) Fascicule 4. London: The British School of Archaeology in Iraq. ——— 1992. The Small Collections from Fort Shalmaneser. Ivories from Nimrud (1949–1963) Fascicule 5. London: The British School of Archaeology in Iraq. ——— 1996. Ivory Furniture Pieces from Nimrud: North Syrian Evidence for a Regional Tradition of Furniture Manufacture. In The Furniture of Western Asia, Ancient and Traditional, ed. Georgina Herrmann, pp. 153–64. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. Işik, C. 1986. Tische und Tischdarstellungen in der Urartäischen Kunst. Belleten (197): 413–45.

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King, L. W., ed. 1915. Bronze Reliefs from the Gates of Shalmaneser, King of Assyria, B.C. 860–825. London: British Museum. Kroll, Stephan. 2011. Urartian Cities in Iran. In Urartu: Transformation in the East, ed. Kemalettin Körağlu and Eghan Konyar, pp. 150–69. Anatolian Civilization Series, 1. Istanbul: Tūpras-Yapi Kredi Culture, Arts and Publishing. Kubba, S. A. A. 2006. Mesopotamian Furniture: From the Mesolithic to the Neo-Assyrian Period (ca. 10,000–600 B.C.). BAR International Series 1566. Oxford. Kyrieleis, H. 1969. Throne und Klinen, Studien zür Formgeschichte altorientalischer und griechischer Sitz- und Liegemobel vorhellenistischer Zeit. Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts, Erg. 24. Berlin: De Gruyter. Layard, Henry Austen. 1853. A Second Series of the Monuments of Nineveh. London: J. Murray. Mallowan, M. E. L. 1966. Nimrud and Its Remains. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. Mallowan, Max, and Georgina Herrmann. 1974. Furniture from SW.7 Fort Shalmaneser. Ivories from Nimrud (1949–1963), Fasc. 3. London: The British School of Archaeology in Iraq. Marcus, Michelle I. 1990. Centre, Province, and Periphery: A New Paradigm from Iron-Age Iran. Art History 13(2): 129–50. ——— 1996. Emblems of Identity and Prestige: the Seals and Sealings from Hasanlu, Iran: Commentary and Catalogue. Hasanlu Special Studies III, University Museum Monograph 84. Philadelphia: The University Museum. Merhav, Rivka, ed. 1991. Urartu: A Metalworking Center in the First Millennium B.C.E. Jerusalem: The Israel Museum. Moorey, P. R. S. 1985. Materials and Manufacture in Ancient Mesopotamia: The Evidence of Archaeology and Art. Metals and Metalwork, Glazed Materials and Glass. BAR International Series 237. Oxford. ——— 1994. Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Muscarella, Oscar White. 1980. The Catalogue of Ivories from Hasanlu, Iran. Hasanlu Special Studies II, University Museum Monograph 40. Philadelphia: The University Museum. ——— 1988. Bronze and Iron: Ancient Near Eastern

Artifacts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Oates, David. 1974. Balawat (Imgur Enlil): The Site and Its Buildings. Iraq 36:173–78. Oates, Joan, and David Oates. 2001. Nimrud: An Assyrian Imperial City Revealed. London: The British School of Archaeology in Iraq. Orchard, J. J. 1967. Equestrian Bridle-Harness Ornaments. Ivories from Nimrud (1949–1963) Fascicule 1, pt. 2. Aberdeen: The British School of Archaeology in Iraq. Orthmann, Winfried von. 1975. Propyläen Kunst Geschichte: Der Alte Oriente. Bd 14. Berlin. Özgüç, Tahsin. 1961. Excavations at Altıntepe. Belleten 25(98): 269–90. ——— 1969. Altıntepe II: Tombs, Storehouse and Ivories. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlarindan V, Seri, No. 27. Ankara. ——— 1988. Inandiktepe: An Important Cult Center in the Old Hittite Period. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlarindan V, Seri, No. 43. Ankara. Özgüç, T., and M. Akok. 1958. Horoztepe: An Early Bronze Age Settlement and Cemetery. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlarindan V, Seri, No. 18. Ankara. Porada, Edith. 1965. The Art of Ancient Iran. New York: Crown Publishers. Porada, Edith, with contributions by Robert H. Dyson, Jr. 1967. Notes on the Gold Bowl and Silver Beaker from Hasanlu. In A Survey of Persian Art, ed. Arthur Upham Pope, pp. 2971–978. New York: Oxford University Press. Riis, P. J., and Marie-Louise Buhl. 1990. Les Objets de la Période dite Syro-Hittite (Age du Fer). Hama Vol. II, no. 2: Fouilles et Recherches de la Fondation Carlsberg 1931–1938. Copenhagen: Aarhus. Rothman, Mitchell S. 2003. Ripples in the Stream: Transcaucasia-Anatolian Interaction in the Murat/Euphrates Basin at the Beginning of the Third Millennium BC. In Archaeology in the Borderlands: Investigations in Caucasia and Beyond, ed. Adam T. Smith and Karen S. Rubinson, pp. 95– 110. The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Monograph 47. Los Angeles. Seidl, Ursula. 1996. Urartian Furniture. In The Furniture of Western Asia, Ancient and Traditional, ed. Georgina Herrmann, pp. 181–86. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. Simpson, Elizabeth. 1996. Phrygian Furniture from



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Gordion. In The Furniture of Western Asia, Ancient and Traditional, ed. Georgina Herrmann, pp. 187–209. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. Stapleton, Colleen Patricia. 2003. Geochemical Analysis of Glass and Glaze from Hasanlu, Northwest Iran: Constraints on Manufacturing Technology. PhD diss., Univ. of Georgia, Athens. Stapleton, C. P., and S. E. Swanson. 2002a. Chemical Analysis of Glass Artifacts from Iron Age Levels at Hasanlu, Northwestern Iran. Journal of Glass Technology 43C:151–57. ——— 2002b. Batch Material Processing and Glassmaking Technology of 9th Century B.C. Artifacts Excavated from the Site of Hasanlu, Northwest Iran. In Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology VI, ed. P. B. Vandiver, M. Goodway, and J. L. Mass, pp. 315–21. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings vol. 712. Warrendale, PA: Materials Research Society. Symington, Dorit. 1996. Hittite and Neo-Hittite Fur-

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niture. In The Furniture of Western Asia, Ancient and Traditional, ed. Georgina Herrmann, pp. 111–38. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. Winter, Irene J. 1976. Phoenician and North Syrian Ivory Carving in Historical Context: Questions of Style and Distribution. Iraq 38(1): 1–22. Winter, Irene J. 1977. Retrospective on the “Local Style” of Hasanlu IVB: A Study in Receptivity. In Mountains and Lowlands: Essays in the Archaeology of Greater Mesopotamia, ed. L. D. Levine and T. Cuyler Young, pp. 371–86. Malibu: Undena. Winter, Irene J. 1980. A Decorated Breastplate from Hasanlu, Iran. Hasanlu Special Studies I, University Museum Monograph 39. Philadelphia: The University Museum. ——— 1989. The “Hasanlu Gold Bowl”: Thirty Years Later. Expedition 31(2-3): 87–106. Young, Rodney S. 1960. The Gordion Campaign of 1959: Preliminary Report. American Journal of Archaeology 64(3): 227–43.

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2

The Analysis and Conservation of the Hasanlu Period IVB Textiles Nancy Love

Introduction The Iron Age site of Hasanlu in northwestern Iran yielded many textile remains. They were excavated between 1958 and 1974 in the Burned Buildings of Period IVB (ca. 1100 to 800 BC) destruction level on the High Mound of Hasanlu Tepe. Most of the samples had been preserved by charring (de Schauensee, Chapter 3, this volume). Seventy-five samples were recorded and assigned field numbers, packed on site, and shipped to the University of Pennsylvania Museum. Some of the samples were examined by Harold Burnham, Royal Museum of Ontario, in 1961 and 1962. Later studies were begun by Louisa Bellinger of The Textile Museum in Washington, D.C., but not completed. A conservation survey was begun by the author in 2001 to assess the condition of the collection. It determined that information was being lost due to the active state of degradation of the samples, and that most of the collection was inaccessible to researchers. A conservation program was developed to stabilize the samples to limit loss of information, and to rehouse the collection in new storage containers that would allow study access. Due to the extremely fragile condition of the materials, an analysis was undertaken at the same time to record additional information. A complete photographic record of the samples was made by the Museum’s Photo Studio upon completion of the conservation process. All 75 samples were photographed,

and 114 fragments were selected for a detailed analysis of materials and structures (see Appendix 2.1 on DVD). The results presented here are intended to give future researchers basic information about the collection. The project was funded by a grant from the Kevorkian Foundation.

Collection The collection includes samples of loom-woven textiles (95), balls of yarn (1), rope (5), basketry (1), string (2), and unprocessed plant materials (4). The loom-woven textile samples consist of single- and multi-layer fragments. The smallest fragments are less than 1 cm2 (Plate 2.2). The largest sample, originally in one piece, is 13.9 cm long x 9.6 cm wide x 3.5 cm thick (Plate 2.3). Due to the fragile condition of the charred material, only small sections could be removed intact from the excavation. Some samples represent larger in situ fragments (de Schauensee, Chapter 3, this volume). A small number of associated materials were found with the textile fragments: metal beads (6), mud plaster (1), pigment (1), and leather (1).

History Survival of textiles is extremely rare in northwestern Iran due to the adverse effect of post-depositional conditions on the fragile structure of organic

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The samples were packed in the materials that were available on site. They were padded with cotton wool and tissue and placed inside paper envelopes, cardboard and metal boxes, and a variety of other containers for field storage (Plate 2.5a). Most samples remained in the original packing materials at the University of Pennsylvania Museum and had never been studied. The small number of samples that had been researched were previously rehoused on Ethafoam or tissue paper liners, placed in plastic boxes, and stored in sealed metal cabinets.

Condition of Samples The structural condition of the blackened samples is extremely fragile due to their charred condition. The degree of polymerization (the length of the polymer chains of molecules that make up the fibers) is very low compared to undamaged fibers, with the result that the charred fibers can no longer hold together. Their structural strength is similar to that of ash. The breakdown and shedding of the fibers appear visually as black dust (Plate 2.5b). The lack of structural integrity makes the samples vulnerable to damage. Any type of pressure or movement—crushing, abrasion, static charge or vibration—can cause the fibers to PL. 2.1 Charred textile in situ. A tassel is visible at the center top edge (HAS turn to powder. Previous damage had 74-S37a, UPM 75-29-809). UPM neg. no. 96757:33 resulted in a thick layer of black dust that in some cases completely obscured the surface. Many of the original storage containers had been damaged and were no longer protecting the fibers. The charring process, when it occurred, presamples from pressure and abrasion. All of the samples served the morphology of the fibers and the weave had lost material; some had literally turned to dust. structure of the textiles. Most of the extant samples were preserved by charring (93). There are a smaller number of uncharred samples (21) (Plate 2.4). There Analysis of Samples are also a small number of textile pseudomorphs, not included in this analysis, that were preserved by con Each sample was assigned a University of Pennsyltact with copper/bronze and iron objects (de Schauenvania Museum (UPM) accession number in the numsee, Chapter 3, this volume). ber sequence for the year of excavation. The samples



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PL. 2.2 This single-layer fragment, less than 0.5 cm square, is typical of very small-sized samples. The textile is a balanced plain weave, unidentified animal fiber (UPM 93-4-172a). UPM neg. no. S4-146841

were then removed from their original storage containers, wrapped in acid-free tissue paper, placed on a paper tray, and sealed in a plastic bag for temporary storage during analysis. The surface of each sample was cleaned of dust by a gentle stream of air. Loose fibers and dust particles were collected, placed in a labeled plastic bag, and kept with the sample for future research.

Equipment Visual analysis was conducted using a Bausch and Lomb Stereo Zoom 7 Microscope with a magnification of 10x to 70x. The reflected light source was a halogen high-intensity lamp. Measurements were taken with a handheld scale and calipers.

Method

PL. 2.3 This large, multi-layer fragment has two layers of textiles made of bast fiber. One is a weft-faced plain weave with the warps used in groups of 4 (center of image), the other a balanced plain weave (HAS 72-S65, UPM 73-5-787a,b). UPM neg. no. S4-14675

Each sample contains from one to more than a hundred fragments. Samples with a single fragment were analyzed individually. Multi-fragment samples were examined to identify different weave structures. For samples with more than one type of weave structure, one fragment of each structure was analyzed where possible. Additional diagnostic structures of selvedges and seams and accessories of fringe, tassels, and sewing yarns were also analyzed. Many of the samples are so degraded that information about their characteristics could not be obtained. On the analysis form a field is left empty if no information

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PL. 2.4 These uncharred fragments were preserved by contact with a copper/bronze bowl. The textile is a balanced plain weave with paired warps and wefts, bast fiber (HAS 62-S127, UPM 63-5-2074). UPM neg. no. S4-146724

could be obtained, or when diagnostic structures and accessories were not present. The numbers in parentheses in this chapter represent the number of fragments from which structural and material information could be obtained, not the total number of fragments analyzed.

Dimension The dimension recorded is usually the measurement of the largest analyzed fragment in the sample. On very small samples, the warp and weft per centimeter count is based on one area of yarns, and could not be averaged from three areas as used in the standard method (Emory 1995).

Materials The yarn fibers of the loom-woven textiles are from animal (66) and plant (21) materials. Fibers were

analyzed by the visual methods described above. The animal fibers are identified as wool (40) and goat hair (21). Wool-like fibers that were too degraded for more specific analysis were recorded as unidentified animal fiber (5). The plant material used for the textiles and string appears to be bast-like (21). The fibers used for the basket and rope samples were identified as nonbast plant materials (13).

Weave Structure Eight weave structures have been identified. The textile classifications and terminology used are those established by Irene Emory (1995). There are single element structures of interlooping (2) (Plate 2.6). The simple weaves include balanced plain weave (18), balanced plain weave with paired warps and wefts (2), and weft-faced plain weave (69). Compound weaves include balanced plain weave or weft-faced plain



analysis and conservation of the hasanlu period ivb textiles

weave with supplementary weft pile and/or loop (7) (Plate 2.7), and weft-faced plain weave with supplementary weft patterning (1) (Plate 2.8). The last structure identified is twined (3) (Plate 2.9). The weave structures identified as twined were difficult to analyze due to small fragment size and surface degradation. It is possible that these structures are a distorted weft-faced plain weave.

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The number of fragments analyzed for each weave structure should not be used to indicate a predominant structure as different samples may contain several fragments from the same piece of cloth. Samples UPM 65-31-99 (Plate 2.10) through 105, -109, and -110 are from the same location and were attached to sections of wooden furniture (de Schauensee, Chapter 1, this volume, Fig. 1.2). The sample fragments are similar in yarns and weave structure and may be from a single piece of cloth.

Warp and Weft Direction Because most of the fragments have no finished edges, the warp and weft directions are determined in the following manner. In fragments having the structures of weft-faced plain weave and weft-faced plain weave with supplementary weft, the warp direction was assigned to the set of more tightly spun yarns. Weft direction was assigned to the more loosely spun yarns. The

PL. 2.5a Original tin box used for field storage (HAS 74-S64, UPM 75-29-803a–c). Courtesy of K. Leaman

PL. 2.5b Interior of the tin box after removal of the sample fragments. Detached textile fibers on the packing material (UPM 7529-803a–c). Courtesy of K. Leaman

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PL. 2.7 Example of balanced plain weave with supplementary-weft loop pile, goat hair fiber. (HAS 74-S69, UPM 75-29816b). UPM neg. nos. S4-146784, S4-146785 PL. 2.6 Example of a single element, interlooping weave structure, bast fiber (HAS 72-S69, UPM 73-5-804e). UPM neg. no. S4-146781

PL. 2.8 This multi-layer fragment has a weft-faced plain weave with supplementary patterning (center of image) and several layers of textiles with aligned simple selvedges (upper left of image). The fiber is goat hair (HAS 72-S65, UPM 73-5-703). UPM neg. no. S4-146755

weft direction usually has a higher thread count per centimeter. The fragments of balanced plain weave were assigned a warp and weft direction for continuity, although the yarns and thread counts are similar. The interlooping yarns are described as the warp.

Yarns Most of the yarns are singles, S (56) and Z (81) spun. The singles were also used double and triple for both warp and weft, and in groups of four for the warp. Warp and weft yarns were used 2-ply, 3-ply, and multi-ply in both S and Z directions. The yarns



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PL. 2.10 Example of a weft-faced plain weave, wool fiber associated with wooden furniture (HAS 64-S2a, UPM 65-31-99). UPM neg. no. S4-146741 PL. 2.9 This uncharred fragment has a twined weave structure, bast fiber (HAS 74-S46a, UPM 75-29-803b). UPM neg. no. S4-146807

used for supplementary-weft loop pile and supplementary-weft patterning are similar to the yarns of the ground structure of the fragment. They are used single or double and some are plied. Most of the yarns range in diameter from 0.1 mm to 0.5 mm and are described as finely spun. Yarns of larger diameter are described as coarse. The description of “coarse” and “fine” woven is a distinction made by the author only for this collection.

Additional Structures There are very few examples of selvedges (11) and sewn seams (3). Most of the selvedges are simple selvedges constructed with the weft turning back over the warp at an oblique angle (7) (Plate 2.8). Alternately

PL. 2.11 Example of selvedge cord with four warp ends. The structure is a weft-faced plain weave, wool fiber (HAS 74-S33a, UPM 75-29-816a). UPM neg. no. S4-146839

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PL. 2.12a Example of a simple selvedge with a 2-ply yarn added to the edge as decorative loops. The structure is weftfaced plain weave, goat hair (HAS 72-S69, UPM 73-5-804g). UPM neg. no. S4-146785

the weft can form a selvedge cord over two warp ends (3). One sample has a selvedge cord over four warp ends (Plate 2.11). Although this structure may be more consistent with a heading cord than a selvedge, there are no other diagnostic features to make a definitive identification. Sample UPM 73-5-804g is a two-layer fragment. The selvedge on the top layer has several loops that appear to be decorative (Plate 2.12a). The edge on the bottom layer, which may be a warp end, appears to have a knotted self-fringe (Plate 2.12b). Most of the sewing seams are butt seams, where two selvedges are positioned edge to edge and secured with overcast stitches (Plate 2.13). The sewing threads

PL. 2.13 Example of a butt seam. The simple selvedges are sewn with an overcast stitch with a multi-ply sewing yarn. Weft-faced plain weave structure, unidentified animal fiber (HAS 72-S61a, UPM 73-5-806a). UPM neg. no.S4-146799a

PL. 2.12b Example of a possible warp end finished with knotted self-fringe (HAS 72-S69, UPM 73-5-804g). UPM neg. no. S4-146785



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PL. 2.14 The groups of detached fringes are associated with a weft-faced plain weave, wool fiber. The fringe yarns are similar to the warp yarns and are constructed with a multiple-ply s-Z (HAS 72-S54a, UPM 73-5-797). UPM neg. no. S4-146768

are single, 2-ply, or multi-ply yarns. The field photo of sample UPM 75-29-805a, now in fragments, shows an object with a seam secured with running stitches on one side and a perpendicular edge finished with a buttonhole stitch (de Schauensee, Chapter 3, this volume, Plate 3.12a,b).

Accessories Some of the loom-woven textiles have fragments of fringe (16) and tassels (3). The fringe can be detached (Plate 2.14) or a tangled mass adhered to the fragment (Plate 2.15). The analyzed fringes have three basic structures: groups of singles with a loose Z twist, and 2-ply and 3-ply with an S or Z tight twist. Sample UPM 63-5-2077b has a fragment of finely plaited strip. All of the tassels are associated with textile fragments. Most were found with

PL. 2.15 This mass of fringe may be attached to the fragment of weft-faced plain weave textile, goat hair fiber (HAS 72-S69, UPM 73-5-804n). UPM neg. no. S4-146795

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PL. 2.16 (left) Detail of small detached tassels associated with textile fragments of the same yarn, goat hair fiber. The tassels have a re-plied cord, wrapped neck, and skirts of multiple single yarns (HAS 74-S65, UPM 75-29787a). UPM neg. no. S4-146756

PL. 2.17 (right) Detail of tassel, bast fiber, associated with a weft-faced plain weave textile fragment with fringe (HAS 74-S37a, UPM 75-29-809). UPM neg. no. S4-146828

UPM 73-5-790 has small bundles of aligned wool fibers that may have been processed in preparation for spinning (Plate 2.19). very fine woven textiles of goat hair. They have 2-ply and multi-ply yarns and are constructed with a replied cord (two or more plied yarns twisted together), a wrapped neck, and a multiple fringe skirt (Plate 2.16). A second type of larger tassel from sample UPM 7529-809 is more coarsely constructed and of bast fiber (Plate 2.17).

Balls of Yarn and Processed Fibers Two of the samples are from processed fibers. Sample UPM 63-5-2073a.1 contains balls of yarn made of fine-spun goat hair (Plate 2.18a, b). Sample

Rope and Basket The rope fragments are constructed with a 2-ply z-z-S (3) and 2-ply s-s-Z (2) twist (Plate 2.20). The basket fragments are coiled construction and have an oval base (Plate 2.21).

Rehousing After analysis the entire collection was rehoused in new containers to protect the samples from mechanical and environmental damage. The fragments are arranged in individual compartments in transparent



analysis and conservation of the hasanlu period ivb textiles

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PL. 2.18a This sample has three complete balls of yarn and six fragments. Textile fragments of similar yarns were found in the collection (HAS 62-S143, UPM 63-5-2073a). UPM neg. no. S4-146719 PL. 2.18b (below) Detail of ball of yarn (HAS 62-S143, UPM 63-5-2073a). UPM neg. no. S4-146719

polystyrene boxes housed in enamel-coated metal cabinets in Museum storage. The boxes make the collection accessible to researchers and allow the fragments to be examined without being touched (Plate 2.22).

Conclusion The textile fragment collection from Hasanlu in Iran is an important addition to the corpus of archaeological textiles of West Asia. The presence of at least eight different weave structures and the finely processed yarns confirm that the technical skills to produce finely woven cloth were well established and known to the people of Hasanlu. Excavation areas, contexts, and associations indicate that some of the textiles are clothing and from daily use. On the other

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PL. 2.19 Bundles of aligned wool fibers, processed for possible spinning (HAS 72-S62, UPM 73-5 790). UPM neg. no. S4-146822

hand, most of the fragments in the upper levels appear to have been stored (de Schauensee, Chapter 3, this volume). Sample UPM 75-29-807a is an example of a fragment with many parallel layers of the same cloth (Plate 2.23). This configuration would be consistent with a textile folded for storage. Although textile production cannot be estab-

lished by the presence of textiles alone, the balls of yarn and processed fibers may suggest textile activities. No other evidence of textile production has been found. The apparent absence of identified weaving tools, including looms, may be the result of destruction by fire, or that textile production areas of the settlement have not been excavated.



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PL. 2.20 Sample of rope made from plant fiber (HAS 72-S32, UPM 73-5-791). UPM neg. no. S4-146760

PL. 2.21 Fragment of oval base of a basket made with plant fiber (HAS 74-S91a, UPM 75-29-806). UPM neg. no. S4-146820

The Hasanlu textile conservation project has documented the samples through records and photographs, and new storage containers provide access for researchers. Analysis of this collection provides basic information on materials and weave structures of the textiles. Future research with more sophisticated analytical equipment combined with information from

the archaeological context will provide more information about this important collection.

Reference Cited Emory, Irene. 1995. The Primary Structure of Fabrics. New York: Watson-Guptil.

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PL. 2.22 The fragments, removed from the original tin box, have been arranged in individual compartments and rehoused in transparent polystyrene boxes. They continue to shed fibers (HAS 74-S64a, UPM 75-29-803a-c). Courtesy of K. Leaman

PL. 2.23 The many parallel layers of cloth suggest that the textile was folded for storage; weft-faced plain weave structure, goat hair fiber (HAS 74-S47a, UPM 75-29-807a). UPM neg. no. S4-146823

3

Contexts of Textiles from the Hasanlu IVB Destruction Level Maude de Schauensee

Introduction The Period IVB burned level at Hasanlu is one of the few archaeological contexts from the Middle East to have produced textiles preserved in any quantity. This large and varied sample is the result of two factors. The first is that the settlement was destroyed by a surprise attack, leaving intact a record of daily life activities. The second is that the very fire that destroyed the settlement also preserved the textiles by charring them; a very few fragments were preserved by proximity to metal. While textiles have been found at sites in the Middle East dating from Neolithic times, little is known for the Iron Age (Barber 1991:196–209). There is, however, one excavated sample that is contemporary with Hasanlu IVB. The redating of the burned Early Phrygian Destruction Level at Gordion to the end of the 9th century BC (De Vries et al. 2003, 2005) places this level, and therefore the textiles, at approximately the same date as those from Hasanlu. A comparison of the evidence for textiles from Hasanlu and Gordion shows that they, and probably textile production, differed considerably (Ellis 1981; Burke 2005). This variation between sites is significant, suggesting the importance of regional traditions of textile production in the 9th century Middle East. The first study of the Hasanlu textiles was undertaken by Dr. Harold Burnham at the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, in 1961 and 1962 when 32

samples of textiles from the 1958–1962 seasons were sent to him. Burnham’s preliminary report was received by The Hasanlu Project in 1963 (Hasanlu Project Archives. See also Dyson 1962:8–9; 1964:21, fig. p. 18). A subsequent study by Louisa Bellinger of the Textile Museum, Washington, DC, was not completed. A third attempt at study was unsuccessful and the project was delayed until 2001 when conservation and analysis of all the textile samples were undertaken by Nancy Love (this volume, Chapter 2, Appendix 2.1)1 through a grant from The Kevorkian Foundation. The descriptions that follow, which place the samples in their archaeological context, depend on Love’s results.

The Textile Assemblage Seventy-five samples of textiles from all seasons of excavation were brought back to the University of Pennsylvania Museum. Only small samples could be taken because the burning that preserved the textiles had made them so fragile (Plate 3.1). When sampling was not possible the presence of textiles was recorded in the field notes. The Museum’s textiles were conserved, analyzed, and rehoused by Love (ibid.). In some cases samples were subdivided during analysis. Love identified textiles with simple and compound weave structures, some with supplementary weft patterning, supplementary loop and/or pile. The textiles were woven from

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PL. 3.1 This small sample from a multi-layer, multi-textile shows the fragmentary preservation of the textiles (HAS 72-S62, S67S69, UPM 73-5-801, -803, -804e, g, n, -806b). UPM neg. no. 95101:15

fine diameter yarns prepared from wool, goat hair, unidentified animal fiber, and bast fiber. Love identified interlooping in two samples. Fringe and tassels were also identified. Several balls of finely spun goat hair yarn (HAS S62-143, UPM 63-5-2073a.1) were found in a context with compound weave textiles and a skeleton (BB VII, SK 252, see below) (Appendix 3.1 on DVD and NBK 35:12). A few samples preserved evidence of selvedges and seams. A single partially preserved lozenge design was isolated in a multi-layer sample2 (HAS 72-S65, UPM 73-5-703; Fig. 3.1, Plate 3.2). A note with the field description of this sample records plaited fringe ending in a small double tassel made from the fibers of the associated multi-layer textile (NBK 68:22). No felt, which was found at Gordion (Ellis 1981:309), was excavated at Hasanlu. Vegetal matter was used for basketry, rope, and with a few objects such as crests on metal helmets (Love, Chapter 2, this volume, and Appendix 2.1 on DVD).

Evidence of dyes or colored patterns, which was found at Gordion (Ellis 1981:296, 304, 305), was not preserved at Hasanlu. Only two, possibly three, suggestions of red color are recorded. The first was an area of red deposit (HAS 60-1124) surrounding the body of a very young child (SK 148) on the floor of the north section of BB II, Room 5 (NBK 14:45, 46, 89). Because of the definition of the deposit area it is likely that the color came from clothing, even though no trace of textile was found. Traces of red pigment were also found associated with a sample containing textile and fringe (HAS 72-S54a, UPM 73-5-798) in the second story of BB IV-V, Room 2b (NBK 61:43, 69). Reddish color observed on a fragment of charred textile found inside a pot in the second story collapse of BB IV-V, Room 4, (HAS 74-S54a, UPM 75-29-811b; NBK 76b:171) may have come from the textile, but again, this is uncertain (Appendix 2.1 and Appendix 3.1). Red soil was found with a textile fragment (HAS



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FIG. 3.1 Field sketch of the left side of a fragment of the top layer of a multilayer multi-textile sample showing a pile multiple lozenge design. The pattern would have been completed on an adjoining piece of fabric (HAS 72-S65, UPM 71-5-703). Field sketch by Maude de Schauensee; image prepared by Kimberly Leaman

58-481, UPM 59-4-225) associated with a skeleton (SK 37) in BB IW, Room 9, but this may not be pigment (Appendix 2.1; Appendix 3.1; NBK 7:11B, 13, 13A). If any of these samples are indeed pigment, they suggest that red color was used with both clothing and non-clothing textiles at Hasanlu. Red-colored textiles are attested in documentary sources for the first half of the 1st millennium BC in the Middle East. Red is mentioned in association with wool in inscriptions dating to Tiglath Pileser I (1114–1076 BC) (e.g., Grayson 1991:20), Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) (e.g., Grayson 1991:197, 203), and Shalmaneser III (858–824 BC) (e.g., Grayson 1996:16, 22), and for textiles, yarn for weaving, and multi-colored clothing in inscriptions of Sargon II (721–705 BC). Here red is mentioned as a color for textiles in Urartu (Thureau-Dangin 1912: line 366 [Column III]; Prism B, fragment C, lines 49–51). Other colors are also mentioned in inscriptions of Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III. They include

PL. 3.2 The pile weave defines the design, apparently a multiple lozenge pattern, of this textile. The seam joining two pieces of fabric has partially opened along its length (HAS 72-S65, UPM 715-703). UPM neg. no. S4-146755

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purple, red-purple, blue, and multi-colored borders. Colored textiles, particularly wool, and garments with multi-colored borders, often linen, were frequently listed in Assyrian texts as booty or tribute (for examples, see Grayson 1991:199, 200, 208, 217; 1996:11, 18, 38), and color is well known throughout the history of textile production (Barber 1991). The only evidence for multi-colored textiles from Hasanlu IVB comes from a small gold knife handle decorated with a cloisonné figure rendered in Local Style that has been inlaid with partially preserved multi-color glass(y) paste3 (HAS 60-1005, T; Porada 1965:116–17, pl. 31. See Color Plate 3.1. See below; see also Thornton and Pigott, Chapter 6, this volume). The image is that of a man with long hair and a beard wearing a short fringed kilt. The colors of the remaining inlay were identified as probably blue and white (Object Card). Multi-colored fringe has also been identified on the Assyrian-style dress of figures on two glass beakers found at Hasanlu. These are believed to have been imported and were heirlooms (Saldern 1966; Marcus 1991). Blue as well as multi-colored fringe is represented on Assyrian-style dress in wall paintings from Til Barsip dating to 8th century BC (Parrot 1961: pls. 109–111). These garments are covered with repetitive small-scale, multicolored patterns and edged with a patterned border. Multi-colored garments with long fringed skirts and shirts possibly decorated with appliques are shown on panels made of glazed bricks from Assur (Parrot 1961: pl. 79). These comparanda give an idea of the duration of this type of clothing. Multi-colored trim and borders are also mentioned in texts, as well as garments made of linen (e.g., Grayson 1991:199). Linen has not been identified at Hasanlu, although bast fiber is known (Love, Chapter 2, this volume, Appendix 2.1). The multi-colored borders for garments mentioned in this and other references may account for the decorated borders seen on some representations (e g., copper/bronze plaque HAS 62-1056, UPM 63-5-177; see Color Plate 1.13). Since the style of the image on the gold knife handle is “Local,” or specific to the settlement, it suggests that multi-colored clothing was worn at the settlement. This would be consistent with the use of color throughout the repertoire of object classes at Hasanlu and shows a fondness for color at the settlement. Multi-colored glazed ceramics and objects made of fritty pastes, Egyptian Blue, and colored glasses (Brill

1999[1]: 43–44; 1999[2]:43–44; Stapleton, Chapter 4, this volume; 2003), as well as bimetallic and multimaterial objects (Winter 1980: figs. 58, 59), and copper/bronze and glazed ceramic wall tiles (e.g., Porada 1967: pl. 30 for a unique wall tile with the knob as a human head rendered in Local Style) support the use of color and ornament at the settlement (see Plates 1.9 and 1.14, Color Plates 1.7, 6.9).

Archaeological Contexts The textiles at Hasanlu were found within the buildings, either as possible clothing for individuals or as textiles that were probably stored. No actual textiles were found in the cemetery, but a few pseudomorphs associated with metal artifacts such as belts buried with the dead remained. Unlike Gordion, no evidence of textile production was identified.

Textiles Found in Buildings Textile remains were excavated during all seasons, found in many of the buildings on the High Mound at Hasanlu (Appendix 3.1; Fig. 3.2a,b). Many of the excavated structures had second stories, so that it is possible to distinguish between spaces where textiles were used or stored. Textiles recovered from deposits just above floors or at floor level were almost always associated with skeletons, identified by the excavators either as clothing or as textiles carried by the dead. Textiles were also occasionally found with objects fallen from above the first floor. In buildings with a large central hall, the greatest concentration of archaeological material, including textiles, was recovered from brick and earth that represent the collapse of second story rooms flanking the central hall, a room with no upper story. The largest quantity of textiles from Hasanlu IVB was found in a second story context in BB IV-V (a small building added between BB IVE and BB V, both buildings with columned halls). The textiles in BB IV-V often appear to have been superimposed or stacked. Textiles of weave structures similar to those found in the second story of BB IV-V were also recovered from similar contexts in BB III. Non-clothing textiles associated with human skeletons were of types found in upper level contexts, suggesting that these textiles were either being looted (or saved) by individuals who were killed in the collapsing buildings.



contexts of textiles from the hasanlu ivb destruction level

P23

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FIG. 3.2a Location of textiles in the lower levels of collapse within the burned buildings. Kimberly Leaman Insua and Maude de Schauensee

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The second story rooms of Hasanlu IVB, especially those in BB II, were filled with valuable items such as ivory containers and furniture elements (see Chapter 1), glazed wall tiles, metal vessels, caches of weapons, storage jars, as well as sealings (Thornton, this volume; Dyson 1989b:120, figs. 18, 19, 23; Marcus 1989: fig. 58). The similarity of locations for stored textiles and luxury goods suggests that the textiles in upper level contexts were also of high value. This inference is supported by the inclusion of textiles, yarn, and clothing in listings of booty in Assyrian inscriptions (e.g., Grayson 1996:211; Thureau-Dangin 1912: line 366 [Column III]; Prism B, fragment C, lines 49–51). Excavation of the Early Phrygian Destruction Level at Gordion produced rooms equipped with spindle whorls, clay loom weights, and a weaving comb (Burke 2005). This abundant evidence for textile production in buildings within the elite quarter of the city contrasts strongly with Hasanlu IVB. The excavated areas of Hasanlu are notable for the small number of spindle whorls recovered, suggesting that areas for textile production have not been found. They may lie in unexcavated areas of the High Mound or, more likely, in the Low Mound where a craft area for metal working has already been identified (Dyson 1962:423; de Schauensee 1988:46).

Evidence of Textiles in the Hasanlu Cemeteries No textiles were preserved in the Hasanlu IV cemeteries but rare occurrences of organic pseudomorphs exist. Faint pseudomorphs of textile or leather were found on a wide copper/bronze strip/belt in the grave of an adult male(?) (HAS 59-231, disc.; SK 105; Object Card; NBK 12:27). The organic material had originally formed the support for a metal strip, sewn to it through widely spaced holes along its edge. Textile pseudomorphs were also recorded on an iron torque (HAS 59-306, disc.) recovered from the grave of a sub-adult (SK 115; Object Card; NBK 12:33; Selinsky 2009: Appendix B). Traces of a leather band or belt, apparently a support for decorative copper/bronze studs, were found in the grave of a young woman in another part of the cemetery (SK 455; NBK 41:28; Selinsky 2009: Appendix B). Other pseudomorphs were too indistinct to provide information.

Textile Function: Evidence for Clothing at Hasanlu The fragments of textiles found with skeletons and identified as clothing were all simple weaves with no embellishments (Love, Chapter 2, this volume, Appendix 2.1). Local Style representations of humans rendered on ivories and other media (Winter 1977) are the most useful sources for suggesting clothing styles that might have been worn at Hasanlu.

Upper Garments Upper garments appear to be shirt- or tunic-like with short sleeves or untailored arm openings (Muscarella 1980: nos. 51, 55A, 58 for examples of sleevelike arm edges, nos. 49, 54 for non-sleeve-like edges). Neck edges could be V-shaped or round. Neck and arm edges could be plain or with a patterned border. Copper/bronze plaque HAS 62-1056 (UPM 63-5-177) shows a dotted border (Fig. 3.3, Color Plate 1.13), but the ivory plaques show plain borders, perhaps because of the absence of specific detail used in the carving of these plaques. Arm edges could also be fringed. Similar upper garments were shown with both short and long skirts at Hasanlu.

Skirts Long, short, or mid-calf skirts, usually fringed but otherwise undecorated, are worn by figures rendered in Local Style on several types of objects. These include a large cast tetrapod stand (HAS 58-237a, UPM 59-4-116) excavated in the second story(?) collapse of BB IW, Room 2 (Fig. 1.14a,b and Color Plate 1.5), the repoussé copper/bronze bands from a copper/bronze and iron tripod stand (HAS 72-62, UPM 73-5-365) found in the upper collapse of BB IV Room 6 (Fig. 1.15a,b), narrative low-relief iron and copper/ bronze plaques from BB III, Room 9 (Fig. 1.19, Color Plate 1.6), ivory plaques from the upper collapse of eastern side rooms of BB II (Muscarella 1980: nos. 54, 56, 65, 103, 107–109), the gold cloisonné knife handle discussed above (HAS 60-1005, T; Color Plate 3.1), and a bone cosmetic container (Muscarella 1980: no. 73). A rare example of patterned textile used for skirt bodies is seen on the skirts of archers on one of the copper/bronze plaques (HAS 62-1054, T) from a



contexts of textiles from the hasanlu ivb destruction level

FIG. 3.2b Location of textiles in the upper levels of collapse within the burned buildings. Kimberly Leaman Insua and Maude de Schauensee

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IRON IRON 5 cm FIG. 3.3 The neck and arm borders of the Vnecked shirts and the wide belts on the figures on the copper/bronze plaque are decorated with tiny punched dots, but the body of the textiles of both the upper garments and the short fringed skirts are plain (HAS 62-1056, UPM 63-5-177). Kimberly Leaman Insua from object and Object Card

set of five alternating copper/bronze and iron plaques (Plate 3.3). Whether patterned skirts were rarely worn or whether they are not shown in representations on ivory due to the nature of the material and small size of the images, or rarely on metal plaques due to lack of surface preservation, we do not know. While representations show fringed borders and patterned skirts, no fringe, tassels, or patterned textiles were found with actual clothing remains.

One-piece Garments Occasionally long, loose unbelted one-piece garments are represented on Local Style ivory plaques. There is considerable variation among these garments as well as the contexts in which they are worn. On one fragment a bearded figure wearing a one-piece garment sits on a chair that rests on the back of a lion (Fig. 1.5a); a figure on another fragment wearing a similar garment rides a horse and carries a spear (Muscarella 1980: no. 33). The line of the fringed border decoration across the bodies suggests that these garments had been wrapped. A figure on another fragment is seated on a chair and wears a one-piece garment with fringed

5 cm FIG. 3.4 The figures on this copper/bronze plaque wear short fringed skirts made of patterned textiles. Poor preservation obscures the upper garments (HAS 62-1054, T). Kimberly Leaman Insua from Object Card and photographs

PL. 3.3 Copper/bronze plaque showing archers wearing short skirts made of patterned textiles (HAS 62-1054, T). UPM neg. no. 78142:23

bottom and sleeves. This garment seems to have a scalloped motif similar to that seen on the clothing of some warriors (Fig. 1.5c). Another figure seated on a chair holds a long object and wears a one-piece garment. This garment has a fringed bottom and sleeves(?) (Fig. 1.5d). A bone cosmetic container shows a figure seated on a chair wearing a garment with a fringed bottom. He holds a cup and a long object (Fig. 1.5b). These representations show—through the variation in the garments, the positions of the individuals, and the details of the chairs—that the settings and activities represented on the plaques differ and that one-piece garments were worn in several settings.



contexts of textiles from the hasanlu ivb destruction level

A fragment of a wood figure, whose face had a narrow chin, high cheekbones, and large inlaid eyes (HAS 64-931, T; Muscarella 1980: no. 127), wears an elaborate draped garment secured by two brooch-like elements at the shoulders. The neck border had been inlaid suggesting that it had differed, probably in both design and color, from the textile of the garment. The figure also had an inlaid headdress. The inlay is lost but the lightly scored surface preparation of the excised areas suggests that the inlay was a malleable material whose adhesion was aided by the roughened surface. Three ivory heads (Muscarella 1980: nos. 124–126) have similar facial features. Their separate headdresses may have given them an appearance similar to the wooden head; however, the heads appear to have had different functions. The wooden head was part of a figure but while one ivory head was for insertion into a larger figure, probably made of wood, the other two were for application to a larger object (ibid.: nos. 178, 179). The stylistic similarity between all the heads suggests that they may have been made in the same center. A very fragmentary ivory figure (HAS 64-1062, UPM 65-31-325; Muscarella 1980: no. 253) wears a one-piece(?) garment with undecorated body and a rectangular motif on the neck and arm borders. The same border motif reappears outlining the forepaw of a lion on a large composite furniture element (Muscarella 1980: no. 92). Perhaps the border design is significant in some way, or the two pieces were made in the same center or region—we do not know. One should, however, remember that ivory was a precious material, so some of the ivory objects may have been heirlooms just as the Gold Bowl (HAS 58-469, T 10712) may have been. If this is the case it may account for some of the variations in dress styles represented.

The Meanings of Costume Differences It is difficult to determine if clothing style is specific to a type of activity or setting. The activities that the figures wearing one-piece garments are engaged in appear to be very different. One seems to be in a war or hunting setting with his spear and horse, another in a symbolic setting on his chair and lion, perhaps representing a god or priest; other figures seated on chairs appear engaged in other activities (Muscarella 1980: no. 33; Figs. 1.5a–d, this volume). Not enough

65

remains of other fragments to allow any suggestion of the activity of the wearer to be made. Figures wearing skirts are equally enigmatic. Those on the legs of the tetrapod stand wear mid-calf skirts and hold a hand in front of their faces. The figure on the gold knife handle wears a short skirt and also holds a hand in front of his face. Two figures on a bone cosmetic container wear short skirts and hold beakers in front of their faces. All these suggest ceremonial/religious scenes. However, short skirts are also worn in battle scenes on ivory and copper/bronze plaques (Muscarella 1980: no. 55a,b; Figs. 3.3, 3.4, Color Plate 1.13). Some of the depictions of costume are on objects whose carving style differs from that of the Local Style plaques, but the figures have some similar characteristics, while others appear so different that they either were imported or may represent people from other regions. A finely carved, very fragmentary figure seems to represents a foreigner. This figure wears a short kilt with an allover lozenge pattern and narrow border. A dip in the border suggests that a pendant element had probably hung between the legs. The textile patterning and difference in garment shape suggest that this object was not locally made (HAS 64- ; UPM 65-31485; Muscarella 1980:197; no. 254). Contemporary Assyrian reliefs from Nimrud from the time of Ashurnasirpal II show that short skirts were worn by Assyrian warriors (e.g., Winter 1980: fig. 9) and by both victors and prisoners on the Balawat Gates (e.g., Winter 1980: fig. 10), confirming that this was a widespread mode of dress. The careful carving and differences in stylistic details suggest that two relatively large ivory objects that may be furniture parts may have been made in a different regional workshop than the plaques. The more complete of the two objects depicts males with very different costumes from any in other depictions. One man wears a vertically treated (pleated?) closefitting skirt without fringe (Muscarella 1980: no. 92 center). A second figure on this object and a figure on a fragment from the similar object (Muscarella 1980: no. 93) appear to wear large undecorated pectorals. The only figure in these images well enough preserved to show a complete upper torso wears either armbands or a close-fitting short-sleeved upper garment with borders at the sleeves. Two small pectorals were excavated at Hasanlu, but neither is as large as those shown on the figures

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and both bear inlaid images. They are made of Egyptian Blue inlaid with gold banded shell and multicolored frit/faience/degraded glass pieces not tailored to fit their spaces (HAS 64-606, T 25740; HAS 64607, T; Winter 1980: figs. 58, 59; Object Cards). The style of the human figure on the complete pectoral appears to be derived from Assyria, while the use of small pieces of inlay not cut to fit is perhaps influenced by eastern Anatolia (Çilingiroğlu 2003: figs. 10.11, 10.12 for an example of wall inlay of 7th c. date at Ayanis). The overall reduced size and proportion of the Hasanlu pectorals is consistent with that seen in other artifacts at the settlement and Egyptian Blue was a favored material (see de Schauensee, Chapter 1, this volume). Taken together these factors suggest regional manufacture for the pectorals. Figures on the Gold Bowl from Hasanlu (HAS 58-469, T 10712) wear short and long skirts and long dress-like garments; however these differ in style from those on the ivory and copper/bronze plaques. Dotted zigzag patterns between strong vertical lines are shown on the lower garment and some dress-like garments (Winter 1989: figs. 4–6, 13, 14, 19) (Fig. 3.5). This is the only instance where dotted herringbone patterns occur on garment textiles at Hasanlu. Dotted line patterns also occur on the silver beaker but these are combined with other patterns (Marcus 1989: fig. 1) (Fig. 3.6). Some of the figures on the Gold

Bowl, such as the female figure riding a lion and the figure receiving a child from an individual seated on a stool, wear dress-like garments without fringe but with straight pins on their shoulders. Straight pins were also found with skeletons at Hasanlu (see below). Upper garments worn by skirted figures on the Gold Bowl are indicated only by plain narrow neck bands and arm edges; however, it is possible that no upper garments are worn and the bands represent torques and armbands. Armbands and torques may also be worn by some of the figures in the upper register who wear fringed, wrapped garments. Although similar to depictions of costume on objects in Local Style in that both short and long skirts are worn, the people on the Gold Bowl wear textiles that differ in design, and in the use of other elements such as long tassels. These differences are not a surprise because the Hasanlu Gold Bowl is a unique piece whose place of manufacture and date as well as its iconography are not yet completely understood (Porada 1959; 1965:98–101; Winter 1989; Rubinson 2003). The Bowl seems to be an heirloom and would therefore show an earlier style of dress. Differences in details of the garments may also represent external cultural influences. For instance, a figure on a silver vessel from Marlik wears an upper garment with a dotted zigzag pattern above a short skirt (Tomb 45, Trench XXII H, Negahban 1983:50, nos. 19, 54, 56, no. 19 lower, 57; 1996(1): 79–80; 1996(2):

FIG. 3.5 The line drawing of the Gold Bowl clearly shows details of the short, long, and dress-like garments as well as the borders, lines, and dotted patterns which embellish them (HAS 58-469, T 10712). Maude de Schauensee, Hasanlu Project Archives



contexts of textiles from the hasanlu ivb destruction level

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FIG. 3.6 Drawing of the silver beaker with electrum-overlaid scenes and borders. Some of the figures wear garments made of patterned textiles; the patterns differ from those on other renderings (HAS 58-425, T 19770). Grace Freed Muscarella, Hasanlu Project Archives

fig. 4:19, color plate XX A). It is also possible, as suggested by Negahban (1996(1): 80), that the use of the dotted pattern may in some cases have ceremonial significance. This would seem reasonable given the nature of the Bowl. Dotted motifs, however, are seen elsewhere at Hasanlu. Figures in a battle scene decorating a silver beaker (HAS 58-427, T 10770), found in the collapse of BB IW, Room 1 (NBK 7, p. 8 of typed object list for XXIV [Z 27]) and rendered in Local Style, also wear garments whose textile patterns include dotted motifs, but here they are combined with linear designs (Marcus 1989: fig. 1). Figures on two pieces of imported heirloom core-formed glass wear garments that have Assyrianstyle patterns, multi-colored fringe, and tassels. These pieces, which date to the Mitannian period, show how colorful textiles could be (von Saldern 1966; Marcus 1991). As the patterns on the garments are small and repetitive they may represent appliques rather than

woven patterns. No appliques were associated with textiles found at Hasanlu, either with skeletons or in upper level storage contexts, and no garment with this type of patterning is shown on representations in the Local Style repertoire. No objects that could have been used as appliques were found in graves.

Manufacture No textiles were well enough preserved to identify how clothing was made. Representations often give the impression that untailored clothing was worn, but we know from fragments of non-clothing textiles that textiles were sewn to make objects such as bags(?) (see below) and that tailoring had long been known (e.g., Barber 1991 for examples of early Egyptian and other clothing). In addition, a few fragments show that lengths of cloth had apparently been stitched together to make a wider textile.

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Belts Wide belts are often shown on representations, but no metal belts were worn by any of the dead in the burned buildings or the cemetery. Copper/bronze bands, some with terminals with perforated ends suitable for binding together with a cord or thong, were found in the buildings (de Schauensee 1988: pls. 33, 34; Muscarella 1988: nos. 54–59) and wide as well as narrower copper/bronze strips, some retaining traces of a leather or cloth backing, were found in two graves in the north cemetery at Hasanlu, together with but not worn by, skeletons (SK 105, SK 107; NBK 12:27, 29). At least one of these (SK 107) is male (Selinsky 2009: Appendix B). The inclusion of belts as part of the grave goods may indicate a specialized use or status symbol; we do not know. Perhaps leather belts were for daily wear much as in modern times (Color Plate 3.2). Pins Short straight pins tapering to a point were found with some skeletons in the Burned Buildings, particularly with some individuals in a group found together at the north end of BB II, Room 5. These, because of their location at the upper torso, may have been used to secure clothing (e.g., pins were found with SK 135, SK 138, SK 140, SK 146, SK 255, SK 260; SK 263; NBK 14:76, 79, 81, 87; NBK 39:7, 12, 15, 19). The designs on the upper shafts vary but fall within the types shown in Marcus 1994 (figs. 7A–C, E, F). Pins were also found with some skeletons in the cemetery. These were usually types similar to those found with some skeletons in the buildings and were located on the upper torso, often at or near the shoulders, neck, sternum, and/or thorax (e.g., SK 448, SK 479, SK 481, SK 483, SK 484, SK 486, SK 495, SK 503, SK 505, SK 507, SK 508; NBK 41:12, 80, 84, 88, 90, 95, 114, 132, 136, 141, 143). Most were copper/ bronze, a few iron. Some of the pins must have been quite ornamental with their variation in color due to differences in composition (Fleming, Chapter 5, this volume). Three pins with SK 503, SK 448, and SK 481 were triangular with the pin beneath (HAS 64574, -350, -193). The skeletons with which this pin type was found also had straight pins like skeletons in the cemetery and in the buildings as described above. The triangular pin type was not found with skeletons in the buildings. Lion pins (see below) were not found

in the cemetery. Clothing pins are not shown on Local Style ivory or metal plaques. This may be due to lack of surface preservation, small size of the plaques, or lack of realistic detail portrayed. Large pins are shown on the shoulders of some figures wearing one-piece garments on the Gold Bowl, perhaps indicating how at least some of the pins were used (Winter 1989: fig. 14; Fig. 3.5).

Helmets Several helmets with metal and textile elements were found in Burned Building II. Most helmets had been lost during the battle and were not associated with skeletons. Representations rendered in Local Style provide some information on materials that have not been preserved. A warrior wearing a helmet flecked like the hides of the horses rendered on a Local Style ivory fragment suggests that leather or hide may have been used for helmets. These representations show a decorative top element (Muscarella 1980: nos. 55A [helmet], 9, 21, 33, 171 [horses]). The Hasanlu crests and earflaps suggest that decorative metal elements were used with helmets of perishable material. The representations suggest that this type of helmet was worn by the inhabitants of the settlement. However, cap-shaped crested helmets could also be decorated and made entirely of metal (de Schauensee 1988: pl. 55). Both taller decorated (HAS 60-883, T; Winter 1980: fig. 60) and more squat, conical helmets (HAS 60-1030, UPM 61-5-352; Winter 1980: fig. 61; HAS 72-69, de Schauensee 1988: pl. 54) were found as well as the cap-shaped helmets discussed above, but no remains of organic material were associated with them. The similarity in proportions of helmet HAS 60-1030 to that worn by the central hero on the decorated breastplate (HAS 74-241, T; Winter 1980:21, fig. 24) suggests that, as also noted by Muscarella (1989: fig. 11a,b), squat conical helmets may have been worn at Hasanlu.4 The hero on the breastplate wears a shortskirted, short-sleeve garment with hatched and lozenge-patterned borders. This border design appears unique to this object. It is possible, however, that figures shown on some of the metal plaques may wear garments with similarly patterned borders, but poor preservation has obscured the details.



contexts of textiles from the hasanlu ivb destruction level

Distribution of Textiles within the Burned Buildings Hasanlu IVB provides detailed information on buildings and their contexts that allows us to see that there are significant differences in the distribution and types of goods, such as the location and types of stored textiles and clothing (Appendix 3.1) and to suggest ways in which those buildings varied in function and the kinds of activities carried out within them. It seems that all people trapped in the buildings, whether inhabitants or attackers, wore clothing made of similar textiles. They were all simple weave structures (balanced plain weave or weft-faced plain weave) with no accessories such as tassels or fringe (Love, Chapter 2, this volume, Appendix 2.1). Textiles associated with skeletons but thought not to have been worn as clothing were always of weave structures the same as or similar to those found in second story locations in buildings where they appear to have been stored. Many of the carried or stored textiles were compound weave structures but some were simple weave structures. Some textiles of both weave structures had supplemental wefts, and some had accessories such as fringe or tassels (Love, Appendix 2.1). In addition, some samples in both these contexts were of multi-layer and/or multi-fabric textiles, showing that several textiles had been piled together.

Burned Building IW Textiles were found with three skeletons (SK 37– SK 39) fallen together from above into the fill of Room 9, a small room apparently for domestic trash (NBK 7:010, 11, 11A, 011B, 12, 013, 013A; Winter 1989: fig. 2). These skeletons were associated with the Gold Bowl (HAS 58-469, T 10712) that was carried by SK 38. Textiles found with SK 37 (HAS 1958, UPM 59-4225) were thought to have been carried rather than worn. Analysis has identified them as multi-layer weftfaced plain weave textiles of unidentified fiber (Love, Appendix 2.1). The multi-layer character of the sample supports the excavator’s suggestion that the textiles were in superimposed layers and carried. Powdery traces remained of leather(?) from the backing for 180 copper/bronze buttons (Plate 3.4) on an armored “gauntlet” that would have protected the left arm and shoulder of SK 37 (HAS 58-445,

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T 10699; NBK 7:010, 10A, 011A, 011B, 015, 015A). Neither SK 38 nor SK 39 had associated textiles, although SK 38 had a powdery yellow and plum-red residue behind his right arm that may have been from leather. The elaborate nature of their associated weaponry (Thornton, Chapter 6, this volume) and the protective clothing of SK 37 and SK 38 suggest a special or elite status for these three men (Winter 1989: fig. 2; NBK 7:010, 011, 011A, 011B, 013, 015, 016, 017). Craniometric studies of two of the skeletons (SK 37, SK 39) show that these men differed from the local population buried in the Period IV cemetery and that they belonged to the invader group (Dulik 2005:20–23). It therefore seems likely that they were looting the textiles found with them (as well as the Gold Bowl). We hope that future aDNA studies will be able to provide additional information about skeletons, which could help in distinguishing inhabitants from invaders (see Dulik et. al., Chapter 8, this volume). The only other evidence of textiles in BB IW were pseudomorphs that covered the interior and exterior surfaces of a silver beaker with scenes rendered in Local Style and defined in electrum overlay (HAS 58-427, T 10770). The textile preserved by the pseudomorphs appears to have been a coarse-woven balanced plain weave and may have been used as a wrapping (Love, Appendix 2.1; Winter 1989: fig. 7; Winter 1977; Marcus 1996:19–29; Porada 1965:113–14; 1967: pl. 1488) (Plate 3.5). The shape of the silver beaker is very similar to beakers shown on a bone cosmetic container (Muscarella 1980: no. 73) and to five beakers excavated in the collapse of BB II: polychrome (HAS 64-114, T) and plain (HAS 64-153, T) glazed ceramic, undecorated silver (HAS 60-1004, T), and copper/ bronze (HAS 60-297, UPM 61-5-190; HAS 60-1002, MMA 63.109.2).

Burned Building II Textiles from the ground floor of BB II were found with skeletons, both with a special group on the floor at the north end of Room 5 and in Room 2, and with a group of furniture remains at the south end of Room 5 (Fig. 1.2). The second floor collapse of this building included a few people with textiles and some objects from the storage areas, both of which had fallen into rooms below.

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PL. 3.4 Copper/bronze buttons in situ show the shape of the leather “gauntlet” belonging to a skeleton (SK 38) excavated in BB IW, Room 9. A quiver (right side of image) crosses the gauntlet (HAS 58-455, UPM 59-4-94, T 10707). Grass/ reed fragments (UPM 59-4-226) were associated with the quiver. The quiver was originally thought to have been a belt, but comparison to quiver HAS 70-670 (UPM 71-23-234) identifies it as a quiver. UPM neg. no. 78083:37

Textiles from the Floor Level of BB II The special nature of a group of people found clustered at the north end of Room 5 supports the identification by Dyson and Voigt (2003) of BB II as a temple. The group was composed of about 20 skeletons of individuals ranging from mature adult to juvenile, male and female (Selinsky 2009: Appendix B). Almost all were distinguished by the long, thin iron pins with heavy copper/bronze finials in the shape of snarling recumbent lions found with them (see Color Plates 5.1–5.27, Muscarella 1988: nos. 42–50; de Schauensee 1988: pls. 30, 31; Marcus 1993: figs. 1, 2, 8, 9. See Fleming, Chapter 5, for archaeometallurgical studies of the lions). The sizes of the lion finials on the pins range from very small to quite large (ca. 3.0 to 11.5 cm). The lion pins were on the upper torso when found in situ; however, the association of pins with individual skeletons could not always be established due

to overlap or scatter of the skeletons and their furnishings. Cases that were not ambiguous show that the lion pins could be worn singly or in multiples of up to nine (SK 141). As the attack that destroyed the settlement was apparently a surprise, we assume that this group was wearing their usual daily attire. If this is true this group may not have dressed like the people shown on the ivory and metal plaques discussed above, but may have worn garments of a style better suited to supporting heavy lion pins. Their costume presumably served to identity a special social status and role for this group of people. Marcus has suggested (1993) that the lion pins might also have served as weapons, but they do not seem to have been so used during this attack. One of three lion pins associated with SK 150 (UPM 61-5-237, HAS 60-570; NBK 14:46, 91), two of three associated with SK 152 (UPM 61-5-240, HAS



contexts of textiles from the hasanlu ivb destruction level

60-571; UPM 61-5-239, HAS 60-567), one of three with SK 138 (HAS 60-557, UPM 61-5-214), and an unassigned lion pin (HAS 60-954, UPM 61-5-180) in the same group bore pseudomorphs all around the iron pin shaft showing that they had pierced a garment (NBK 13:104, NBK 14:46, 79, 93). Unfortunately no weave structures could be identified. Three lion pins (HAS 62-523, -524, -525, T(2), UPM 63-5-181; NBK 39:19) were found on the upper torso of a young adult (SK 263). One (HAS 62-525, UPM 63-5-181) bore pseudomorphs of a weave structure tentatively identified by Love as weft-faced balanced plain weave made of yarn with a slight S twist (Love, Appendix 2.1; Plate 3.6). In addition to the pseudomorphs on lion pins, wool weft-faced plain weave textile fragments were associated with SK 141, the skeleton with the nine lion pins, elaborate jewelry, and a cylinder seal with copper/bronze caps. The similarity of the weave structures identified from actual fragments and from identifiable pseudomorphs suggests that this group of people wore garments of weave structures consistent with clothing associated with skeletons found in other buildings. The pattern of the pseudomorphs found with lion pins suggests that the lion pins had penetrated several layers of cloth (Love, Appendix 2.1), perhaps fastening a robe or some kind of unstructured garment. Chains attached to rings near the lions’ tails (HAS 60-956, T; HAS 62-441, UPM 63-5-963; Object Card; de Schauensee 1988: pl. 30) would have helped to secure the heavy pins. Some of the “lion pin group” wore bracelets with snakehead terminals of the same type excavated on a skeleton in the Period IVB cemetery (e.g., SK 111; Rubinson and Marcus 2005:136, figs. 1, 2). The presence of the same bracelet type both in the cemetery and in buildings helps confirm that the group in BB II resided at Hasanlu. The identity and significance of the bracelets remains unknown although a connection to the southern Caucasus has been suggested (Rubinson and Marcus 2005). One skeleton in this special group (SK 135; NBK 14:76) wore an unusual number of ornaments and also had remains of textiles of weave structures similar to those found in upper level/second story storage areas associated with it. This individual wore three lion pins (HAS 60-554 thru 556, UPM 61-5207, T, ROM 904.222.1), two identical dress pins with knobbed heads (HAS 60-560, MMA 61.100.15),

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PL. 3.5 The silver beaker immediately following excavation shows areas of pseudomorphs of the textile in which it had been wrapped (HAS 58-425, T 19770). UPM neg. no. 78095:14

nine bracelets, and other jewelry including snakehead bracelets like those found in the cemetery. The textiles associated with, but not worn by, this skeleton include a fine-woven balanced plain weave fabric of unidentified fiber with supplementary pile and/or loops (HAS 60-621, UPM 61-5-930; Love, Chapter 2, this volume). This textile adhered to the exterior of a copper/bronze bowl (HAS 60-621, UPM 61-5-206) containing glass beads (HAS 60-624, UPM 61-5-209a–f, MMA 61.100.113). A two-part copper/bronze crest and associated copper/bronze earflaps for a helmet were also found with this skeleton. Vegetal matter was noted between the two parts of the crest. Sewing holes are

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PL. 3.6 The pseudomorphs of a weft-faced balanced plain weave textile cover all surfaces of the iron tang of this lion pin and show that it had pierced the textile (HAS 62-525, UPM 63-5-181). Hasanlu Project photograph

closely spaced around its edge (HAS 60-620, MMA 61.100.39a–m; Muscarella 1988: no. 60a–m; Object Card). This crest is similar in shape, although plainer, than one found in the north section of Room 5 (HAS 62-581, UPM 63-5-247). Iron spearheads were also associated with SK 135. Like many other skeletons in this group, the bones were too poorly preserved for identification of age and sex, but the combination of lion pins and other jewelry with military gear is striking. A curved copper/bronze crest made of two addorsed parts (HAS 62-581, UPM 63-5-247) from a second helmet, not associated with a skeleton, was found on the floor near the bench along the north wall in the same room. This crest was decorated with repoussé dots and tapered to a small tube-shaped element at the back to hold a now-lost decorative insert. A fragment of untwisted vegetal matter held together by a continuous narrow binding of the same material was found in situ on the lower edge of the crest. Breaks in the binding were spaced about 0.5 cm along the bundle, roughly equivalent to the distance between the holes along the lower edge of the crest, again showing the use of vegetal material with metal helmet crests (Plate 3.7). Traces of leather were recorded about 1.40 m west of the crest but were thought not to have been related to it. A copper/bronze earflap (HAS 62-582, T) was also recorded but no relationship to the crest or the leather

was noted (NBK 39:19A; Object Card). A small copper/bronze omphalos bowl (HAS 60-575, MMA 61.100.135) described in the field notes as lined with textile (UPM 61-5-925) lay inverted near the head of SK 130 (NBK 14:41, 48, 71). The textile was a fine-woven weft-faced plain weave of unidentified fiber (Love, Appendix 2.1). The relationship of the bowl and textile to the skeleton is not clear. An iron spearhead (HAS 60-1119) lay nearby, perhaps dropped by SK 130 in the intensity of the battle. Although no remains thought to have been from clothing were found with SK 263, fragments of a single layer of weft-faced plain weave textile of unidentified animal fiber (HAS 62-S141a, UPM 63-5-2080a; ibid.) were associated with carnelian and frit beads (HAS 62-528, UPM 63-5-264) at its waist (Plate 3.8, Plate 6.17). These fragments were described by the excavator as possibly from a bag that had held the beads (NBK 39:15, 19). The remains of thread made of bast fiber (HAS 62-S141b, UPM 63-5-2080b) were found with a string of stone, shell, amber, frit and copper/bronze beads (HAS 62-527, UPM 63-5-275) at the person’s neck confirming this type of stringing material for at least some bead necklaces. A final piece of possible evidence regarding dress was in the form of an area of red color (HAS 60-1124) surrounding a child (SK 148) without lion pins but in the same group (see above). Red clothing along with



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PL. 3.7 Field photograph of a copper/bronze helmet crest composed of two parts close together at the ends and bowed apart through the center. A small amount of plant material remains in place at the lower edge of one part of the crest. The terminals at one end of the crest sections are rolled (lower right in image), probably for the insertion of a now lost ornament. The detail of the plant material from the bottom edge of the helmet shows how the spacing of the breaks in the binding appear to conform to that of the holes along the bottom edge of the helmet crest (HAS 62-581, UPM 63-5-247). UPM neg. no. 78141:27, Hasanlu Project photograph

the lion pins with their silvery iron pins and copper/ bronze lion finials (Fleming, Chapter 5, this volume and Color Plates 5.1–5.27) and other jewelry would have made this group very distinctive indeed. At the south end of BB II Room 5, textiles were found associated with wood furniture remains (Stools A and B, Groups 1–3) smashed and destroyed on the floor at the base of the platform in front of a small raised room (Room 6) (NBK 40:45, 46, 98, 99; de Schauensee, Chapter 1, this volume. Fig. 1.4). A few textile fragments (HAS S64-1a, 2a, 3a, 7a, 14a, 16a, 22, 51, UPM 65-31-99 through -105, -109) were attached to parts of Stool B and a fragment of a large inlaid board (HAS 64-852, UPM 65-31-310), possibly from a bed or canopy (Fig. 1.2). Most of these fragments were fine-woven wool weft-faced plain weave without accessories such as tassels or fringe. Love (Chapter 2, this volume) thought they may have come from the same textile. Two differed however. One was a fine-woven goat hair weft-faced plain weave textile (HAS S64-16a, UPM 65-31-104), the other was a coarse-woven wool balanced plain weave (HAS S6415a, UPM 65-31-110). Both were attached to stretchers of Stool B. Because the larger group of textile fragments was not confined to a single piece of furniture, it is possible that this textile may have been a large cover or hanging, while the two different fragments

may have come from textiles specific to Stool B. No textiles were found with either Stool A or the furniture back. A single small fragment from a fine-woven bast textile (HAS 64-S8a, UPM 65-31-108) was found on the floor near the furniture group but was separate from it.

Textiles in the Second Story Collapse of BB II Textiles were found with objects fallen from the upper levels of side rooms into Room 5 of BB II. A few textile fragments were associated with a group of objects of copper/bronze and other materials (HAS 62-398 though 405, -407, -408, -S148; T, MMA 63.109.18, disc.) found together in collapse in the northeast section of Room 5 (NBK 39:16; Love Appendix 2.1). Two fragments were unburned multilayer bast textiles preserved by contact with metal. A series of textiles were associated with a copper/bronze fluted bowl (HAS 62-398, disc.) The first was a finewoven balanced plain weave (UPM 63-5-2074, HAS 62-S148) attached to the exterior of the bowl. The second was a coarse-woven multi-layer bast fragment (UPM 63-5-2075, HAS 62-S127) associated with a copper/bronze studded belt/strip (HAS 62-407, disc.) wrapped around the fluted bowl. String made from plant material (HAS 62-S145, UPM 63-5-2078) was recovered from four frit beads (HAS 62-401) found

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PL. 3.8 This photograph of SK 263 shows beads which had probably been contained in a bag at waist level, beads at the neck, and three lion pins at the upper torso. A small amount of stringing thread remained with the necklace. UPM neg. no. 76304

inside a small bowl (HAS 62-400, T) that was inside the fluted bowl (HAS 62-398). A small leather bag (HAS 62-408, UPM 63-5-2084) was inside the small bowl (Plate 3.9). Fragments of a coarse-woven single- and multi-layer balanced plain weave wool textile bearing rim impressions (HAS 62-S144, UPM 635-2079) were also found with the fluted bowl. Perhaps someone had dropped this group of objects, we do not know. An unassociated carbonized textile fragment identified as a weft-faced plain weave with supplementary pile and loop (UPM 63-5-2082, HAS 62-S148), a weave structure found in storage locations, was also found in this northeast corner of the room. Textiles, often but not always associated with objects, were found in burned collapse in the southeast corner of BB II, Room 5 (Appendix 3.1). Most appeared to have fallen into Room 5 from side rooms as the build-

ing collapsed. Fragments of fine weft-faced plain weave wool textile (HAS S64-51, UPM 65-31-109) were attached to two fragmentary wood furniture legs with deeply carved diamond patterns (HAS 64-461, UPM 65-31-311). A small copper/bronze repoussé plaque with flat iron ring found in the collapse of the east central section of Room 5 (HAS 60-1016, T; NBK 13:105) had been wrapped in textile and was associated with a multi-layer fine-woven weft-faced plain weave wool textile, possibly with pile (UPM 61-5-929; Love, Appendix 2.1; Plate 3.10). A fragment of a wool weft-faced plain weave textile with selvedge and stitched seam is all that remains of a tailored object, possibly a bag (HAS S64-46, UPM 65-31-112, Love, Chapter 2), showing that such items appear to have been stored with luxury goods. The very fragmentary remains of a skeleton (SK-) fallen from the upper level or roof were found lying



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partly against a bench in the same southeast corner of BB II Room 5 (NBK 40:55). We do not know if any of the objects found in this area had been associated with this individual when the building collapsed. Textiles or fiber were also recorded as associated with some skeletons in the collapse fallen into Room 5 (Appendix 3.1). An individual (SK 126) recovered in the northern section of Room 5 had fallen onto the top of the high offering bench located along the north wall east of the doorway. This individual was not part of the “lion pin group” on the floor. Fragments of rope made from plant material (UPM 61-5-926) were associated with his heavily decorated copper/bronze capshaped crested helmet and earflaps confirming the use of plant material with this type of helmet (HAS 60528, T; NBK 14:31, 33, 35, 41, 48, 67; de Schauensee 1988:12, 55, pl. 55). Whether this person was part of the personnel associated with BB II or was an invader trapped while looting storage rooms cannot be determined at present.

Burned Building III PL. 3.9 This leather bag (HAS 62-S408, UPM 63-5-2084) was found inside a small copper/bronze bowl (HAS 62-398). UPM neg. no. S4-146739

PL. 3.10. The surface of this copper/ bronze plaque is covered with traces of textile. The plaque has a flat iron ring at one end and is decorated in repoussé with two lions separated by a figure with a dagger. Small, regularly spaced holes edge the plaque (HAS 60-1016, T). UPM neg. no. 78128:28

Textile fragments were recovered from BB III, both from collapse in Room 12 where they were found together with skeletons (SK 172, SK 173) presumably fallen from the second floor, and in upper collapse in Room 4 where textiles must have been in storage. It is

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not clear if textile storage extended further north in this room (Fig. 3.2b). Sherds of storage jars and a large quantity of charcoal were also found in Room 4 making this context similar to that of the second story of BB IV-V where textiles and storage vessels were found together. The textile fragments in Room 4 included multi-layer fine-woven weft-faced plain weave fabrics made of unidentified animal hair (HAS 62-S146, UPM 63-5-2076; NBK 28:7). The multi-layer character of these textiles is similar to textiles in BB IV-V. The fragments associated with the two skeletons (SK 172, SK 173) that had fallen into the collapse in Room 12, where sherds from large vessels were found (NBK 17:30, 31), were similar to textiles found in the second floor collapse of BB IV-V. The textiles with SK 172 were fine-woven multi-layer fabrics made of goat hair with attached and loose plaited fringe (HAS 62-S142b, UPM 63-5-2077b; Love, Appendix 2.1; NBK 17:30). The fragments were located near the right humerus and were most probably being carried. The fragments (HAS 62-S142a, UPM 63-5-2077a; Love, Appendix 2.1) with SK 173 lay in the area of the skull. These were fine-woven goat hair single layer weft-faced plain weave textile. It seems likely they were from clothing displaced by the force of the fall.

Burned Building IV The only textiles in BB IV were associated with a skeleton of a mature male adult (SK 344) (Selinsky 2009: Appendix B) crushed on the floor of Room 6 by the collapsing building (Plate 3.11). The textiles were woven of bast, wool, and goat hair fibers. They were weft-faced plain weave and balanced plain weave structures, and single and multi-layer (HAS 72-S62, -S67 through S69, UPM 73-5-790, -801, -803, -804an, -806a, -806a.2, -806b. Love, Appendix 2.1). The multi-layer textiles were thought to have been carried while the single layer textiles were thought to have been clothing (NBK 62:52). Visible differences in the textiles were recorded in the field notes. Love’s analyses tell us that some of the multi-layer fragments had supplementary wefts and/or accessories of multi-ply or knotted fringe, supplementary pile or loop, or decorative looped selvedge (HAS 72-S67 thru S69, UPM 735-801, -803, -804a–n; NBK 62:36, 40, 41, 42, 47, 50, 52, 53, 54; NBK 63:10, 13, 25; Love, Appendix 2.1). A very fine goat hair multi-layer weft-faced plain weave

fragment in the same group had associated fringe (HAS 72-S69, UPM 73-5-804n); a coarse-woven bast balanced plain weave fragment had looped pile and/ or loops laid in supplementary wefts (HAS 72-S69, UPM 73-5-804e). A two-layer fragment in the same sample was of particular interest. It was composed of two separate superimposed textiles, both made of bast fiber (HAS 72-S69, UPM 73-5-804g). The top fragment was edged with a decorative looped selvedge, the bottom textile was a fine-woven weft-faced plain weave fabric with two rows of small knots that became fringe. (Love, Chapter 2, this volume: Plate 2.12a, b). The alignment of the two textiles shows that they had lain on top of each other. The weave structures of the textiles in this group are similar to those of textiles found in upper level storage areas in BB III and BB IV-V. No textiles other than this group were found with SK 344. Textiles (HAS 62-S61A, UPM 73-5-806a,b) on the floor near but not with SK 344 also had compound weave construction and were part of the same group. SK 344 also dropped two bridles and a sword (see Thornton and Pigott, Chapter 6, this volume). One bridle could be reconstructed from the arrangement of the copper/bronze ornaments and bit (de Schauensee 1988: pl. 15). The other did not have headstall decorations and only the iron mouthpiece and horn core cheekpieces remained. This man may have been looting both textiles and equipment for horses (de Schauensee and Dyson 1983: figs. 9a,b). Horses, specifically those trained for harness, horse gear, and textiles are frequently listed in conquest annals as tribute and as part of the spoils of battle (e.g., Grayson 1991:199, 211, 216–17; ThureauDangin 1912: lines 36, 50, 55, 366, 367). These inscriptions speak for the value of both textiles and horses at Hasanlu. However, without further analysis one cannot be sure if SK 344 was looting or trying to save them.

Burned Building IVE Horse gear as well as horse skeletons were excavated on the floor of Room 3 (a columned hall converted to a stable) of BB IVE. Decorated bridles for ridden horses had fallen to the bases of the columns on which they had hung, showing that the stable was in active use at the time of the destruction. A large group of harnesses for driven horses (HAS 74-466, T; de Schauensee 2004:25; 2006:131–35) extended beyond the eastern limit of excavation and could not be com-



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PL. 3.11 SK 344, in situ in BB IV Room 1, is surrounded by black ashy soil and fragmentary remains of textiles. A copper/ bronze bridle, an iron mouthpiece with horn-core cheekpieces, and an iron sword lie at the right and feet of the skeleton. UPM neg. no. 95102:1

pletely excavated. Thick coarse fringe was attached by small domed studs to a fragment of an object of copper/bronze sheet with a handle-like projection that was part of the group. The object could not be identified; therefore the function of the associated fringe could not be established (NBK 73:141, 188c; de Schauensee 1989, 2004, 2006). Interestingly fringe is not represented on ivory plaques from Hasanlu depicting horses; only a few tassels are shown on driven horses rendered in Local Styles (Muscarella 1980: nos. 6, 29, 30, 34) and on a plaque in an unplaced style where tassels, alternating with discs, decorate the bridle straps. A large tassel hangs beneath this horse’s chest (ibid.: no. 5). Representations of horses on 9th century Assyrian reliefs from Nimrud show horses wearing fringedecorated body straps (e.g., Winter 1980: fig. 9). A textile sample (HAS 72-S62, UPM 73-5-790) found unassociated on the floor of BB IVE, Room 6,

was made up of single- and multi-layer textiles that were both coarse and fine weft-faced plain weave structures and included bundles identified as aligned processed fibers (Love, Appendix 2.1). Love suggests that these fibers may indicate fiber/textile processing (Love, Chapter 2, this volume). In addition to textile remains a few small fragments of basketry (HAS 74-S91A, UPM 75-29-806) were found on the floor of Room 3. These were oval and appear to have come from the bases of baskets (Plate 3.12).

Burned Building V No textiles were recorded in BB V; however remains of rope were recorded with pots on the floor of Room 8. The relationship of the rope to the pots could not be determined (NBK 77:313).

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Burned Building IV-V Most of the textiles excavated in BB IV-V came from the second story, with stratification that provides clear evidence of a second floor provenience (Appendix 3.1; Fig. 3.1a,b). Textiles had fallen onto areas of the second story floor and into and on top of large storage jars on that level. Sherds from some of these jars sealed the second story from the level below (Plate 3.13). The sherd layer covered a layer of charcoal from beams that had almost certainly been set into plastered U-shaped sockets in the side walls of the building. Sockets were preserved at 2 m 10 cms above floor level in the north wall of Room 1 (NBK 61:116), in the north wall of Room 4 at a similar height above the floor, and in the west side of the west wall of Room 3 (stairway) (NBK 76A:82, 84, 87, 89, 90, 92, 99, 105). The textiles were found in the second stories of Rooms 1, 2a, 4, and to an apparently lesser degree

Room 2b (or their preservation was less good)(NBK 61:28, 63, 68; NBK 76A:9, 13, 120, 123). Fibers from which the textiles were woven were identified by Love as wool, goat hair, unspecified animal hair, and bast (Love, Chapter 2, Appendix 2.1). Weave structures of the textiles in all the rooms were similar and included weft-faced plain weave, balanced plain weave, supplementary weft patterning, pile and/or loop-decorated textiles, and twining. Interlooping was also identified. Accessories included tassels and fringe. Some multilayer fragments were composed of textiles of different weave structures and fibers. These samples suggested that textiles had lain on top of or above each other. Other samples appeared to have been single fabrics. Some single textiles lay in superimposed layers, suggesting that they had been folded (Pl. 2.23). Some fragments appeared to lie in loose folds as though the textile had not been folded but had fallen onto itself (Love, Chapter 2, Appendix 2.1; NBK 61:28, 63, 68;

PL. 3.12 These fragmentary remains of an oval base made of plant material had probably been part of a basket (HAS 74-S91A, UPM 75-29-806). UPM neg. no. 96757:26



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PL. 3.13 View over some of the large, broken pithoi which had sealed the second story collapse in BB IV-V from the fill below. UPM neg. no. 96761:8

NBK 76A:9; NBK 76B:153, 159) (Plate 3.14) Perhaps these had been hung, we do not know. The top textile (HAS 72-S65, UPM 73-5-703) of a multi-textile sample (HAS 72-S65, UPM 73-5-703, 73-5-787a,b) was a small fragment of a plain weave goat hair textile with supplementary weft pile patterning. The poorly preserved pattern appears to be part of a multiple lozenge design that was terminated by the edge of the fabric. The design probably continued on the next panel. This textile retained both selvedge and butt-seamed edges. The seam has opened along part of its length revealing the textile below, also at its seamed edge (Love, Chapter 2, Appendix 2.1) (Fig. 3.1, Plate 3.2). The second textile was a weft-faced plain weave wool fragment. This textile in turn lay on a goat hair fiber balanced plain weave textile with supplementary weft and tassels made from the same yarns as the fabric (UPM 73-5-787a) (Love, Chapter 2, this volume). The

multi-layer, multi-textile composition of this sample suggests that textiles had been folded and intentionally piled (or stored) on top of each other. It also tells us that complete textiles could be composed of more than one length of fabric. Woven multiple lozenge patterns are known from areas with other traditions in earlier periods. Such an example is a linen textile from northern Italy dating to the Early Bronze Age (Barber 1991: fig. 6.4). Lozenge patterns were also found at Gordion, although here a single lozenge was used (Ellis 1981: pl. 101C; Barber 1991: fig. 7.8). A small fragment of an ivory human figure from Hasanlu wears a lozengepatterned skirt, demonstrating the use of the lozenge pattern with textiles at this time (Muscarella 1980: no. 254). The fineness of execution and garment shape suggest that this ivory figure was probably imported. Another multi-layer fragment was composed of three separate textiles (HAS 72-S52, UPM 73-5-

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PL. 3.14 Field photograph of a fragment of a multi-layer fine-woven balanced plain weave bast textile. It was associated with a pot (Pot Cluster N) in the sherd layer which had sealed the second story collapse of BB IV-V from below (HAS 74-S48a, UPM 75-29-804). UPM neg. no. 96765:36

807a–c). They were wool, of coarse and fine yarns, and were coarse- and fine-woven single- and multi-layer fragments with multiple weave structures (Love, Appendix 2.1), again suggesting the stacking of textiles. Accessories such as tassels and fringe were found with some of the textiles in BB IV-V. Other tassels found in the same areas could not be associated with specific textiles (Plates 2.16, 2.17). Tassels and fringe varied in type and size (Love, Chapter 2, Appendix 2.1). For example, a fragment of fine-woven goat hair weft-faced plain weave textile had fringe of yarn similar to the warp fiber and a relatively large tassel (HAS 74-S37a, UPM 75-29-809). This sample was associated with sherds in the upper collapse of Room 4, north of the north wall of Room 3 (stairway) (NBK 76A:9, 120, 123), and a fine-woven wool weft-faced plain weave textile had fringe of yarn similar to the warp fiber (HAS 72-S57, UPM 73-5-795). This sample was found in the upper collapse of Room 2a. A fine-woven wool weft-faced plain weave textile had multiple

and single yarn fringe of yarn similar to the warp fiber (HAS S72-54b, UPM 73-5-797), and a fine-woven wool fragment had two types of fringe (HAS S72-54a, UPM 73-5-798). Both these textiles were found in the upper collapse of Room 2b. The examples described here were all multi-layer fragments from single textiles suggesting that they had been folded and stored. The lack of uniformity among the fringe and the tassels shows the variety that must have existed among the textiles (Love, Appendix 2.1). The different findspots of these textiles suggest how much space was used for the storage of textiles. Textiles associated with, or occasionally inside of, large storage jars (Pots A–J, Sherd Clusters K–N) in the upper level of BB IV-V could have been coverings for the jars (NBK 76A:9, 13; NBK 76B:144, 145, 148, 150 [sketch plan], 153); however Love’s analyses (this volume, Appendix 2.1) show that these textiles were multi-weave, multi-layer, and sometimes of different fibers, like those in storage situations. This suggests



contexts of textiles from the hasanlu ivb destruction level

that these textiles had probably been stored in piles, perhaps on shelves, above the vessels and had fallen into them to be preserved by the unique environments created inside the jars by the fire. For example, a multilayer sample (HAS 74-S46a, UPM 75-29-803a-c) inside Pot D was composed of a single- and multi-layer fine-woven balanced plain-weave goat hair textile (UPM 75-29-803a), a wool single-layer coarse-woven weft-faced plain weave textile (UPM 75-29-803b), and a single- and multi-layer bast twined fragment (UPM 75-29-803c). Similar textile remains were found with Sherd Clusters J, L, N (NBK 76B:153, 159). Wood fragments were found with fine-woven textile fragments HAS 74-S175A (UPM 75-29-808a) inside Pot A. If this charcoal is not intrusive it may be the only indication that textiles had been stored on shelves above the pots. A fragment from a fine-woven multi-layer goat hair balanced plain weave textile with a border section of groups of multiple wefts (HAS 74-S45A, UPM 75-29-805a) was found with Cluster L. It had been part of a sewn object, perhaps a bag. This bag shows that some of the textiles stored in this context were finished pieces. The rolled top edge of the fragment was intact and a finished edge had been formed along one side using coarse stitching through the folded selvedge. Some of the stitching thread remained in place at the time of excavation (NBK 76b:153, 159; Love, Chapter 2, this volume, Appendix 2.1) (Plate 3.15a–d). A few fragments of textile and thread were found in rooms below the second story collapse in BB IV-V. These were always associated with objects (Appendix 3.1). The first floor rooms of BB IV-V appear to have been a service area for BB IVE and BB V (both in use as stables at the time of the destruction). Horse gear was found through the fill below the second floor pithoi almost to floor level, mostly along the walls where the gear was presumably stored. The greatest concentration of objects was on the north side of Rooms 1 and 4. A few fragments of fine-woven multi-layer textile of both wool and bast fibers, some with a simple selvedge intact and one with interlooping (HAS 72-S55, UPM 73-5-794a, b), were excavated in Room 1 associated with a fragmentary coiled copper/bronze sheet metal strip that was probably a decoration, perhaps for a strap (HAS 72-119, T; HAS 72-N370a, UPM 73-5-

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456; NBK 61:46, 52, 54, 58; NBK 76A:112; Love, Appendix 2.1). Some fragments of string were recorded with a cage bell (HAS 74-92, T; NBK 76A:120) that was part of a large group of horse gear made up of many small buttons,5 tube pendants, 121 cage bells with ball clappers often made of stone, and 55 subrectangular pendants6 (e.g., Winter 1980: fig. 4). This group of ornaments was associated with a heavily decorated breastplate (Winter 1980) excavated in Room 4. A few minute fragments of textile were recorded with this group, suggesting that the horse may have worn a special covering possibly as a support for the ornaments, or that this special set of decorations may have been wrapped in textile for storage (NBK 76b:158). The horse that wore this gear would most likely have been led, as five buttons with central knobs7 (HAS 74237, T) of the type used for decorating headstall strap crossings (see de Schauensee 1989: figs. 7, 8) were recorded (Object Card no. 21 for HAS 74-237), but no bit was found. A few textile fragments, including a wool finewoven multi-layer balanced plain weave fabric and fragments of a weft-faced plain weave textile of unidentified fiber (HAS 74-S52a, UPM 75-29-771, -810a–c) associated with an inverted copper/bronze basin (HAS 74-265, T; Plate 3.16), were found in Room 1 near a beam fragment and the remains of a small two-wheeled wooden vehicle (de Schauensee 1989: fig. 15a,b). The basin and the textiles had almost certainly fallen from the second story (NBK 76A:9; NBK 76B:166). Textile fragments were also recorded near the doorway between Room 1 and the Lower Courtyard (NBK 61:98). Their location suggests that these textiles had fallen from the second story.

Burned Building VII The only textiles in BB VII were associated with an individual (SK 252) who had fallen into the East Room near its east wall as the building collapsed (NBK 35:12, 12a; Appendix 3.1). The textiles were multi-layer weft-faced plain weave structures made from goat hair and woolen yarns. Some fragments had supplementary weft pile or detached fringe (HAS S62-143, UPM 63-5-2073a.2, -2073b through 2073d), others had been sewn at the selvedges with yarn similar to the weft yarn (Love, Appendix 2.1). The weave structures identified by Love are similar to

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PL. 3.15a,b These field photographs show both sides of a fragment of a sewn object with a decorative border section woven from groups of multiple wefts. A folded selvedge formed a finished edge along one side. Some stitches remain in place (HAS 74-S45A, UPM 75-29-805a). UPM neg. no. 96765:37, 38

PL. 3.15c,d Another fragment of the same textile clearly shows the multiple wefts forming the design section (HAS 74-S45A, UPM 75-29-805a). UPM neg. no. 96764:31, 32

those of textiles found in upper level storage areas of BB IV-V and BB III (see above; Love, Appendix 2.1). Several balls of finely prepared goat hair yarn (HAS S62-143, UPM 63-5-2073a.1; Love, Chapter 2, this

volume; Plate 2.18a,b) were part of the textile group with SK 252. It is possible that weaving or yarn preparation took place in this building, but it is more likely that the unwoven yarn was stored with the textiles and



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PL. 3.16 Unburned weft-faced plain weave bast textile (HAS 74-S52A, UPM 75-29-810a) in situ inside a copper/ bronze basin (HAS 74-265, T). UPM neg. no. 96768:27

was being looted with them. Woolen yarn prepared for weaving is mentioned in texts as booty together with textiles and other goods (Thureau-Dangin 1912: line 366; Prism B, line 49–50). Wool is also among the items listed as tribute at the time of Shalmaneser III (e.g., Grayson 1996:18).

Chariot Gate The only textiles found in this structure were coarse- and fine-woven weft-faced plain weave wool fragments (HAS 74-S165a, UPM 75-29-815) associated with the badly burned bones of a child (SK 355) and a sub-adult (SK 354) (Selinsky 2009: Appendix B) found intermingled in the northeast corner of Room 1 (NBK 74:38, 39, 60, 61, 62, 67; Love, Appendix 2.1). It is almost certain that these textiles were clothing. The presence of the child confirms that these people were residents.

Conclusions Study of the contexts in which the textiles were found, combined with Love’s technical analyses of weave structures and fibers, gives insight into the number and variety of textile types at this settlement in northwestern Iran in the late 9th century BC, and

suggests functional differences for them within the settlement. The textiles that were found with some of the dead in burned buildings and identified as probable clothing appear consistently to have had balanced plain weave or weft-faced plain weave structures. Textiles associated with skeletons but thought not to have come from clothing usually had weave structures similar to those in second story locations identified as storage areas. In this context textiles were woven with either simple or compound weave structures. Both weave structures could have accessories such as fringe or tassels. Clothing textiles never had such accessories. Both clothing and stored textiles were woven from bast and animal fibers. The small sample size of the textiles and their extremely fragile state, caused by the very charring that preserved them, limits the amount of information that can be obtained from their study. Clothing styles can only be suggested through a study of representations, particularly those rendered in Local Style as this style appears most immediately regional. We hope this study has not only provided new information about Iron Age textiles from northwest Iran as represented through the Period IVB settlement of Hasanlu but has helped us to understand a little about the important function that textiles had within the settlement.

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notes 1. All technical identifications used in this chapter were made by Nancy Love (this volume, Chapter 2 and Appendix 2.1). A copy of Appendix 2.1 with supplemental excavation data is on file in the Hasanlu Project Archives. 2. “Multi-layer” is defined by Love (this volume) as a sample with two or more layers. 3. This handle is in the collections of the Mūzih-i Millī-i Īrān and cannot be examined to confirm the colors of the inlay. Information is taken from the Object Card made in the field. 4. See Dezsö 2001:73–78 for a discussion of helmets found at Hasanlu and the problem of their origins. 5. NBK 76b:162 notes traces of reddish “fibery” material under the caps of many of the small copper/bronze buttons in this group. 6. Although much later in date, a braid ornament from Akhalgori shows a caparison elaborately decorated with buttons and pendant plaques (Ghirshman 1964: fig. 325). Elaborate caparisons may also have been used in earlier periods. 7. The knobbed buttons were identified by the author from a field sketch (Field Card 21 for HAS 74-237). The largest button measured 3.6 cm in diameter, the other four ranged in size from 3.2 to 3.3 cm in diameter. Their function was identified through comparison to knobbed buttons of similar size and number associated with copper/bronze headstall decorations (de Schauensee 1989: figs. 7, 8, 18–20. See also de Schauensee 2006).

Acknowledgments The author thanks Nancy Love and Robert H. Dyson, Jr., for reading this chapter and for their helpful comments. She also thanks the outside readers for their valuable and helpful suggestions. She especially thanks Mary Voigt and Holly Pittman for their valuable comments and editorial suggestions. The author also thanks Kimberly Leaman Insua for her skill in preparing the plans and illustrations for this paper, Francine Sarin of the University of Pennsylvania Museum Photo Studio for her careful photographic recording of all the textile fragments so useful for this chapter and for scholars in the future, and Jennifer Swerida for her help with the tedious task of checking references.

References Cited Barber, E. J. W. 1991. Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Brill, Robert. 1999. Chemical Analyses of Early Glasses. 2 vols. Corning, NY: The Corning Museum of Glass. Burke, Brendan. 2005. Textile Production at Gordion and the Phrygian Economy. In The Archaeology of Midas and the Phrygians: Recent Work at Gordion, ed. Lisa Kealhofer, pp. 69-81. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Çilingiroğlu, Altan. 2003. Recent Excavations at the Urartian Fortress of Ayanis. In Archaeology in the Borderlands: Investigations in Caucasia and Beyond, ed. Adam T. Smith and Karen S. Rubinson, pp. 197–212. The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Monograph 47. Los Angeles. de Schauensee, Maude. 1988. Northwest Iran as a Bronzeworking Centre: The View from Hasanlu. In Bronzeworking Centres of Western Asia c. 1000– 539 B.C., ed. John Curtis, pp. 45–62, plates 13– 56. London: Kegan Paul International. ——— 1989. Horse Gear from Hasanlu. Expedition 31(2-3): 37–52. ——— 2004. What the Horses Wore. DIG 6(5): 22– 25. ——— 2006. A Note on Bit Types at Hasanlu, Iran. Iraq 68:129–38. de Schauensee, Maude, and Robert H. Dyson, Jr. 1983. Hasanlu Horse Trappings and Assyrian Reliefs. In Essays on Near Eastern Art and Archaeology in Honor of Charles Kyrle Wilkinson, ed. Prudence O. Harper and Holly Pittman, pp. 59–77. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Dezsö, Tamás. 2001. Near Eastern Helmets of the Iron Age. BAR International Series 992. Oxford. De Vries, Keith, Peter Ian Kuniholm, G. Kenneth Sams, and Mary M. Voigt. 2003. New Dates for Iron Age Gordion. Antiquity 77(296) Project Gallery. http:// antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/devries/devries.html. De Vries, Keith, G. Kenneth Sams, and Mary M. Voigt. 2005. Gordion Re-dating. In Anatolian Iron Ages 5. Proceedings of the Fifth Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium Held at Van, 6–10 August 2001, ed. A. Çilingiroğlu and G. Darbyshire, pp. 45–46. London: British Institute at Ankara. Dulik, M. C. 2005. An Osteometric Study of Human Remains for Level IVB at Hasanlu, Iran. Master’s thesis, Dept. of Anthropology, Univ. of Pennsyl-



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vania. Dyson, Robert H., Jr. 1962. The Hasanlu Project. Science 135(3504): 1–11. ——— 1964. Sciences Meet in Ancient Hasanlu. Natural History 73(8): 15–25. ——— 1966. The Hasanlu Project. In New Roads to Yesterday, ed. J. R. Caldwell, pp. 413–35. New York: Basic Books. ——— 1989. Rediscovering Hasanlu. Expedition 31(2-3): 3–11. Dyson, R. H., Jr., and Oscar White Muscarella. 1989. Constructing the Chronology and Historical Implications of Hasanlu IV. Iran 27:1–28. Dyson, R. H., Jr., and Mary M. Voigt. 2003. A Temple at Hasanlu. In Yeki Bud, Yeki Nabud: Essays in Honor of William M. Sumner, ed. Naomi F. Miller and Kamyar Abdi, pp. 219–36. The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Monograph 48. Los Angeles. Ellis, Richard. 1981. Textiles: The Textile Remains. In Three Great Early Tumuli, ed. Ellen Kohler, pp. 294–310, plates 99–101. Gordion Excavations Final Reports, 1. University Museum Monograph 43. Philadelphia: The University Museum. Ghirshman, Roman. 1964. The Arts of Ancient Iran from Its Origins to the Time of Alexander the Great. New York: Golden Press. Grayson, A. Kirk. 1991. Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC , vol. I (1114–859 BC). The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods, vol. 2. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ——— 1996. Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC, vol. II, (858–745 BC). The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods, vol. 3. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Guralnik, Eleanor. 2005. Neo-Assyrian Patterned Fabrics. In Anatolian Iron Ages 5. Proceedings of the Fifth Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium Held at Van, 6–10 August 2001., ed. A. Çilingiroğlu and G. Darbyshire, pp. 221–32. London: British Institute at Ankara. Hasanlu Project Field Notebooks (photocopies): NBKs 7, 14, 35, 39, 40, 61, 62, 76A, 76B. Hasanlu Project Archives, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia. Hasanlu Project Object Cards. Hasanlu Project Archives, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia.

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Layard, Austen Henry. 1849. The Monuments of Nineveh, from Drawings Made on the Spot. Vol. 1. London: John Murray. Marcus, Michelle I. 1991. The Mosaic Glass Vessels from Hasanlu: A Study in Large-Scale Stylistic Trait Distribution. Art Bulletin 73:536–60. ——— 1993. Incorporating the Body: Adornment, Gender, and Social Identity in Ancient Iran. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 3(2): 157–78. ——— 1994. Dressed to Kill: Women and Pins in Early Iran. The Oxford Art Journal 17(2): 3–15. ——— 1996. Emblems of Identity and Prestige: The Seals and Sealings from Hasanlu, Iran. Hasanlu Special Studies III. University Museum Monograph 84. Philadelphia: The University Museum. Muscarella, Oscar White. 1980. The Catalogue of Ivories from Hasanlu, Iran. Hasanlu Special Studies II. University Museum Monograph 40. Philadelphia: The University Museum. ——— 1988. Bronze and Iron: Ancient Near Eastern Artifacts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ——— 1989. Warfare at Hasanlu in the Late Ninth Century B.C. Expedition 31(2-3): 24-36. ——— 2004. The Hasanlu Lion Pins. In A View from the Highlands: Archaeological Studies in Honor of Charles Burney, ed. Antonio Sagona, pp. 693– 710. Louvain: Peeters Press. Negahban, Ezat O. 1983. Metal Vessels from Marlik. Prähistorische Bronzefunde, II(3). Munich: C. H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung. ——— 1996. Marlik: The Complete Excavation Report. 2 vols. Philadelphia: The University Museum. Parrot, André. 1961. The Arts of Assyria. New York: Golden Press. Porada, Edith. 1959. The Hasanlu Bowl. Expedition 1(13): 19–22. ——— 1965. The Art of Ancient Iran. New York: Crown Publishers. ———, with contributions by Robert H. Dyson, Jr. 1967. Notes on the Gold Bowl and Silver Beaker from Hasanlu. In A Survey of Persian Art, ed. Arthur Upham Pope, pp. 2971–978. New York: Oxford University Press. Rubinson, Karen. 2003. The Hasanlu Gold “Bowl”: A View from Transcaucasia. In Yeki Bud, Yeki Nabud: Essays in Honor of William M. Sumner, ed. Naomi F. Miller and Kamyar Abdi, pp. 237–42.

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The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Monograph 48. Los Angeles. Rubinson, Karen, and Michelle Marcus. 2005. Hasanlu IVB and Caucasia: Explorations and Implications of Contexts. In Anatolian Iron Age 5. Proceedings of the Fifth Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium Held at Van, 6–10 August 2001, ed. A. Çilingiroğlu and G. Darbyshire, pp. 131–38. London: British Institute at Ankara. Saldern, Axel von. 1966. Mosaic Glass from Hasanlu, Marlik, and Tell al-Rimah. Journal of Glass Studies 8:9–25. Selinsky, P. 2009. Appendix B. In Death a Necessary End: Perspectives on Paleodemography and Aging from Hasanlu, Iran. PhD diss., Univ. of Pennsylvania. Stapleton, Colleen Patricia. 2003. Geochemical Anal-

ysis of Glass and Glaze from Hasanlu, Northwest Iran: Constraints on Manufacturing Technology. PhD diss., Univ. of Georgia. Athens. Thureau-Dangin, F. 1912. Une Relation de la Huitième Campagne de Sargon (714-av. J.C.). Paris: Librairie Paul Geuthner. Winter, Irene J. 1977. Perspective on the Local Style of Hasanlu IVB: A Study in Receptivity. In Mountains and Lowlands: Essays in the Archaeology of Greater Mesopotamia, ed. Louis D. Levine and T. Cuyler Young, Jr., pp. 371–86. Malibu: Undena. ——— 1980. A Decorated Breastplate from Hasanlu, Iran. Hasanlu Special Studies I. University Museum Monograph 39. Philadelphia: The University Museum. ——— 1989. The “Hasanlu Gold Bowl”: Thirty Years Later. Expedition 31(2-3): 87–106.

4

Glass and Glaze Analysis and Technology from Hasanlu, Period IVB Colleen P. Stapleton

Hasanlu in Glass History The careful excavations of Hasanlu that yielded numerous objects made of glass and other glassy materials have made this site a valuable source of information for glass history. The phrase “glassmaking hiatus” is often used to describe the glass industry during the transition between the Bronze Age and the Iron Age in the Near East, mainly because of the lack of glassmaking sites and of significantly large archaeological finds of glass objects. Sites from which there is evidence of manufacture of glass from raw materials around this period include 14th century BC Amarna (Shortland and Tite 2000), 13th century BC Qantir (Rehren and Pusch 1998), 14th century BC Nuzi (Vandiver 1982, 1983), and 7th century BC Nimrud (Bimson 1987). Objects made of glass have been found at a number of sites throughout the Near East (for a summary see Oppenheim et al. 1970; see also Moorey 1994). The glass from Hasanlu IVB is also important because it was made during a period when a new basic technology appears in the Near Eastern glass industry. During the Bronze Age, the basic recipe for glass in the Near East appears to have been a mix of relatively pure quartz, a natural mineral, and ash derived from salt-tolerant plants. These main ingredients created soda-lime-silica (Na 2O-CaO-SiO2) glasses that also contained greater than about 1.5 wt% each of potash (K 2O) and magnesia (MgO). During the

Bronze to Iron Age transition, natron appears to have been used instead of plant ash as the sodium source for some glasses, but its geographical source is not clear. Natron is a naturally occurring, sodium-rich mineral that usually contains very little potash or magnesia. This difference in potash and magnesia levels between plant ash and natron is also reflected in the final glass compositions and is used to place glass in “plant ash” or “natron” technological categories. Some glasses at Hasanlu contain the low potash and magnesia levels that are usually indicative of natron-type glasses. The scientific study of ancient glasses can reveal the technology of manufacture, including methods of production, colorant processing, and identities of raw and batch materials (Brill 1988; Freestone 2006; Rehren and Pusch 2005; Mass, Wypyski, and Stone 2002; Vandiver 1983; Biavati and Verita 1989; Wedepohl 1997; Henderson 2002). In this chapter, chemical and mineralogical analyses of Hasanlu glasses and glazes are presented and used to interpret some of the technology involved in their manufacture. The glasses from Hasanlu IVB included here are transparent-totranslucent blue (blue tp-tl), blue opaque or turquoise (blue opq or trqs), white opaque (white opq), yellow opaque (ylw opq), and black or dark brown. (See Color Plates 4.1 and 4.2 for examples of these colors.) The glazes discussed occur in all of these colors except for blue opaque and black-brown. In addition to interpreting the manufacturing technology, the analyti-

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cal results are also used to compare the industries that produced the Hasanlu glasses and glazes to the major vitreous materials industries of the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age.

Analytical Techniques Glass, as a material, is made of atoms that are arranged randomly; there is no recurring pattern of atoms in glass. This random arrangement gives glass its strength and color properties in its solid form, and its working properties in its liquid and soft states. Most ancient glass has strong color and is usually either opaque or translucent. Light may pass through it, but we cannot see any clear, distinct image through it. Much of the color and opacity is made by inclusions that are crystalline, meaning that the inclusions have regular and recurring patterns of atoms, unlike the glass matrix that surrounds them. Generally the inclusions are small and range in size from thousandths of millimeters to whole millimeters, otherwise the strength of the glass would be compromised by these “imperfections.” When choosing a technique to analyze a sample of ancient glass, the preferred small sample size and mixed-phase nature of the material (glass and crystalline) should be taken into consideration by the analyst. Electron microprobes are useful in this regard because small samples, on the order of hundredths of millimeters (0.1 mm), can be used in the instrument and the actual area of analysis can be made to be even smaller, 0.001 mm in diameter. These instruments can be used to analyze the chemistry of whole objects by averaging the analyses of several different areas on a sample, and also can be used to identify the very small crystalline inclusions that give color and opacity to glass. In the electron microprobe, little damage is done to the sample and this allows the sample to be re-analyzed or analyzed using different techniques. In electron microprobe analysis (EMPA), a beam of electrons is bombarded onto the surface of a sample, a polished chip of glass for this study, and the electrons interact with atoms of the glass. Some of these electrons are scattered back from the sample and then captured by a detector that uses these backscattered electrons to make an image of the sample. On a display monitor, denser areas of the sample are shown in brighter contrast to less dense areas because of the larger number of

backscattered electrons. The differences in densities are directly related to the type of atom (chemical element) and/or to the arrangement of atoms (crystallinity) in the analysis area, and allow different materials in the sample to be recognized on a monitor. Unlike backscattered electrons, other electrons from the beam interact with the atoms of the sample and cause those atoms to give off energy in the form of X-rays, which are counted by a wavelength dispersive (WD) or energy dispersive (ED) detector. Each atom gives off specific levels of energy, depending on the element. By counting X-rays of specific energy levels, proportions of elements in the sample are determined and the chemical composition of the sample can be calculated. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) is also a useful technique for analyzing small samples. In the LA-ICP-MS technique, a laser beam moves across a section of the surface of a sample and ablates (vaporizes) that area of sample into electrically charged gas particles, ions, called a plasma. The plasma ions are forced from the laser area into the ICP-MS instrument and made to flow through an intense magnetic field and around a corner. Heavier ions move more slowly around the corner than lighter ions. This separation of ions allows each ion mass to be captured individually and counted, literally, in the mass spectrometer (MS). The mass of an ion is directly related to its chemical composition and, combined with the counted quantity of a given ion mass, is used to calculate the proportion of elements in a sample. Unlike in EMPA, the laser actually removes parts of the sample for analysis and can cause visible changes, on the order of a millimeter, to the sample surface. In this study, electron microprobe analysis with wavelength dispersive and energy dispersive analysis, along with an imaging capability, were used to determine both bulk and spot chemical analyses of the glasses and their inclusions, including colorants. Mineralogy of the inclusions was inferred from the chemistry as well as physical properties that were determined from the microprobe images. Detailed descriptions of the EMPA analytical techniques and conditions can be found in Stapleton and Swanson (2002a). In this study, the same samples used for EMPA were also used for the LA-ICP-MS analyses. Trace elements were analyzed using laser ablation inductively coupled mass



glass and glaze analysis and technology from hasanlu, period ivb

spectrometry and details of this analytical method are describe in Stapleton (2003) and Stapleton, Swanson, and Ghazi (2005).

Analytical Results The Hasanlu glasses from this study are all of the soda-lime-silica type (Na 2O-CaO-SiO2). Representative major element analyses of glasses and glazes are presented in Tables 4.1 and 4.2, and representative trace element LA-ICP-MS analyses in Table 4.3. Analytical results on some glasses and glazes are also published in Stapleton and Swanson (2002a, 2002b) and Stapleton, Swanson, and Ghazi (2005). The glasses contain about 52–72 wt% SiO2, 12–22 wt% Na 2O, 0.7–4.2 wt% K 2O, 0.7–6.4 wt% MgO, 1.7–9.3 wt% CaO. Aluminum occurs at around 0.8–6 wt% Al2O3 and iron at between 0.4 wt% and 15 wt% FeO. Most glasses contain P2O5, SO3, and Cl at less than 1 wt% each. Antimony occurs in the blue opaque, yellow opaque, and white opaque glasses at around 1–8 wt% Sb2O5, mostly in the crystalline colorants. The antimony and lead reported in some of the blue tp-tl and black glasses occur in discrete phases that are not homogeneously distributed in these samples, and the Sb2O5 and PbO values listed in Table 4.1 may not be representative of an entire glass sample. Copper in the black glasses is also heterogeneously distributed. The yellow opaque glasses contain around 7 wt% to 17 wt% PbO, partly in the crystalline colorant and partly in the glass matrix. In the blue opaque and blue tp-tl glasses, copper occurs at around 0.6–4.8 wt% CuO. Cobalt was not detected in the blue opaque glasses. Tin was not detected in the blue opaque or blue tp-tl glasses. Neither cobalt nor tin was analyzed in any of the other glasses. The glazes contain about 50–70 wt% SiO2, 5.5– 15 wt% Na 2O, 2.2–5.6 wt% K 2O, 1–5 wt% MgO, 2–8.5 wt% CaO. Aluminum occurs at around 1.2– 3.2 wt% Al2O3 and iron around 0.5–2.2 wt% FeO. Phosphorus and sulfur are present at less than 1 wt% each of P2O5 and SO3, except for two blue glazes that contain about 1.2 wt% SO3. Chlorine varies from 0.1 wt% to 1.4 wt% Cl. The blue transparent glazes contain about 3–5 wt% CuO. The yellow glaze contains almost 30 wt% PbO and 2 wt% Sb2O5. The white opaque glaze contains about 3 wt% PbO and 2.5 wt% Sb2O5. Occasional, small (