Pedagogical Lexicography Today: A Critical Bibliography on Learners' Dictionaries with Special Emphasis on Language Learners and Dictionary Users [Reprint 2014 ed.] 9783110947014, 9783484309968

Citation preview

LimSWEAIPIBniCA S S

M A X NIEMEYER VERLAQ TÜBINQEN ARCHIVEXEMPLAR

ERSCHEINUNQSDATUM

9.9.33 ARCHIVNUMMER

LEXICOGRAPHICA Series Maior Supplementary Volumes to the International Annual for Lexicography Supplements ä la Revue Internationale de Lexicographie Supplementbände zum Internationalen Jahrbuch für Lexikographie

Edited by Sture Allen, Pierre Corbin, Reinhard R. K. Hartmann, Franz Josef Hausmann, Ulrich Heid, Oskar Reichmann, Ladislav Zgusta 96

Published in cooperation with the Dictionary Society of North America (DSNA) and the European Association for Lexicography (EURALEX)

Fredric Thomas Dolezal / Don R. McCreary

Pedagogical Lexicography Today A Critical Bibliography on Learners' Dictionaries with Special Emphasis on Language Learners and Dictionary Users

Max Niemeyer Verlag Tübingen 1999

We dedicate this book to our parents John Rafferty McCreary and Ruth Major

McCreary

Thomas Riley Dolezal and Barbara Lamb Dolezal

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme [Lexicographica / Series maior] Lexicographica : supplementary volumes to the International annual for lexicography / publ. in cooperation with the Dictionary Society of North America (DSNA) and the European Association for Lexicography (EURALEX). Series maior. - Tubingen : Niemeyer. Früher Schriftenreihe Reihe Series maior zu: Lexicographica 96. Dolezal, Fredric: Pedagogical lexicography today. - 1999 Dolezal, Fredric: Pedagogical lexicography today : a critical bibliography on learners' dictionaries with special emphasis on language learners and dictionary users / Fredric Thomas Dolezal/Don R. McCreary. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1999 (Lexicographica : Series maior ; 96) ISBN 3-484-30996-2

ISSN 0175-9264

© Max Niemeyer Verlag GmbH, Tübingen 1999 Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlages unzulässig und strafbar. Das gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. Printed in Germany. Gedruckt auf alterungsbeständigem Papier. Druck: Weihert-Druck GmbH, Darmstadt Einband: Nädele Verlags- und Industriebuchbinderei, Nehren

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements

VII

Pedagogical Lexicography: An Introduction

IX

Annotated Bibliography

1

Index of Monolingual Learners' Dictionaries

129

Topical Index: English

135

Topical Index: German

199

Acronyms of Cited Dictionaries

203

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our gratitude to Professor Dr. Franz Josef Hausmann for his kind advice, collegiality, and permission to have access to his library of metalexicography in the Department of Applied Linguistics at Erlangen University in Erlangen, Germany. There is not enough space to express our full thanks to Professor Emeritus Dr. Ladislav Zgusta for his encouragement and patient advice. With the help of Professor Dr. Herbert Ernst Wiegand, we were able to get a list of hard to find references in 1995 that helped us to begin the long process of compiling this bibliography. We also would like to thank Dr. Reinhard R. K. Hartmann for his very useful insights and comments during the latter stages of the compilation of the bibliography. Don McCreary would like to thank the Franklin College of Arts and Sciences at the University of Georgia for awarding him a visiting professorship to Erlangen University in Germany under the Erlangen Exchange Program. And Fredric Dolezal would like to thank Dr. Thomas Creamer for timely support and advice. We want to thank Prisca Schüler for writing thirty-five annotations (her name appears after the annotations that she wrote). We are grateful for Dr. Rüdiger Schreyer's keen editorial eye and ear for anglophone style and sensibility. Thanks to Dr. Janice Aski for help with translating the Italian titles, and also to Dr. Hildebrando Ruiz, for assistance with several Romance languages. We appreciate the work in 1994-95 of our research assistant Anita Bowles (for her editing, proofing, fact-checking, and corrections); we also recognize the valiant sufferance of our research assistance group composed of Vanessa Dittrich, Charles Cohen, Frederick Pagniello, Hilda Mata, Harold Torrence, Lisa Stevenson, and Tze Hui Lau. We also want to thank Michael Ryan for setting up a TACT program that enabled us to compile word frequencies.

Introduction

Pedagogical Lexicography

This bibliography of 521 items was compiled and annotated in order to assist researchers around the world in pedagogical lexicography. This sub-area of lexicography, mentioned in several titles over the last dozen years (Hartmann, 1995; Diab, 1990; Tomaszczyk, 1987), is also called Benutzungsforschung (usage research) or dictionary user research, in many articles in German and in English, respectively. Later in this introduction, in the section named 'Terminology', we provide some background information on the terms user and Benutzer. We have chosen the term pedagogical lexicography because of the possible scope of its meaning based on our current understanding of the denotative and connotative values of 'pedagogical'. Moreover, there is already some use of the term pedagogical dictionary (French dictionnairepidagogique): learner's dictionaries (German Lernerwörterbücher), school dictionaries (German Schulwörterbuch), and college dictionaries might all profitably fit under the heading pedagogical dictionaries. We were also guided by the thematic and topical scope of the articles we collected for annotation. With these multiple considerations in mind, the domain of pedagogical lexicography includes the study and production of dictionaries for the specific purpose of assisting the foreign language learner and the native language learner, as well as comprising the study of the use of dictionaries by teachers and students in formal and informal settings. We also include research on the general dictionary user because of the natural affinity between dictionary users and language learners. Thus, as we look to the future development of this area, the mutual concerns of the teacher, the lexicographer and the learner/dictionary user could be the focus of pedagogical lexicography. 1 After reading 521 research articles, we find that researchers in lexicography are often unaware of the available published work on the topic, particularly if it is in another field, such as reading comprehension (see the topical index under Comprehension of the Entry and Reading Comprehension). 2 Reading the bibliography will provide ample evidence of the breadth of work on learners dictionaries and users of dictionaries, which includes the treatment of collocations (the most frequent topic); grammar; definition; meaning; and examples in dictionaries. After those five topics, we see a dramatic decline in the number of articles that cover macrostructure/ alphabetical ordering, and the other elements of dictionary entries; pronunciation; illustrations; and etymology (the least frequent topic). Since 1990, there have been relatively few new articles (aside from a few on alphabetical ordering) on these lesser studied topics. The reader is referred to the topical index for further evidence of these trends. The bibliography lists articles written in German, French, and English (and a few in Italian, Dutch, and Portuguese) on research regarding the use and uses of dictionaries, and those regarding the learner and the dictionary. We have included articles of a more theoretical em1

2

The 'triangle relation' between teacher, lexicographer and the learner/user was introduced and discussed at a EURALEX workshop on the learner/user at Liege (1998). For example, the work of Laufer (1992, 1992), McKeown (1991, 1993), McNaughton et al (1997), Nist and Olejnik (1995), and Roby (1991).

χ phasis if the topic of our collection is addressed directly, or if the articles address central methodological issues. We have attempted to obtain a comprehensive range of publications in these languages; it is possible that there are regional publications that did not come to our attention during our search. However, it was our intent to be inclusive in our work, rather than exclude contributions not in the widely known and cited literature of lexicography. As a result, the bibliography includes such publications as Reading Research Quarterly, Levende Talen-, ESPecialisf, and Fremdsprachen lehren und lernen. While we have included some material published in 1998, the collection of new items for annotations ended in December 1998. Newspaper articles have not been listed. Reviews are listed if they contain noteworthy information or have analytical importance. We have included publications representing disciplines not directly related to lexicography. Many of the issues germane to the use of dictionaries and to the language learner are of great interest to teachers and scholars who work in language acquisition, reading comprehension, and psycholinguistics. Some of the important contributions to the study of dictionary use and to pedagogical lexicography come from these disciplines. They have been included not only because they address the central concerns in this bibliography, but because they offer insights that could be highly useful to lexicographers. We also hope this bibliography will encourage more 'cross-reading': one of the weaknesses of the lexicographic enterprise we describe here is the scant awareness shown of work outside of each particular discipline. For example, publications in lexicography do not normally cite important studies in say, reading comprehension, nor do publications in reading comprehension normally cite relevant (or for that matter, irrelevant) work in lexicography. 3 The bibliography is alphabetically ordered by the family names of the first authors and editors. Further classification of the bibliography can be found in our topical index; however, the wealth of topics covered in publications cited here cannot be noted with total thoroughness. Therefore, we would like to repeat these words of L. Zgusta (Lexicography Today, 1988: VIII), ... to read bibliographies in continue ing as much pleasure as gain.

is, at least by my judgment, a most gratifying pastime, provid-

In order to assist the reader in deriving the most pleasure from the bibliography, we have included a wide-ranging topical index; it should be noted that the topical index is extensive but not exhaustive. We have compiled an index not only of lexicographic terminology, but also of key words selected on the basis of their frequency of use in the titles and epitomes. We also list in the index other categories: publications that treat a particular language other than English (located under the name of the language); select terms from the German literature; and general categories that subsume related key words. There is a category we call "Criticism" - understood in its ordinary sense; the intent was to collect a list of publications that are critical of a dictionary or type of dictionaries, or of specific authors and methods. We have further subdivided this category by frequently occurring words of abuse, ambiguous, inaccurate, inadequate, misuse, and opaque. The titles and annotations in the bibliography are the 3

It is also true that within lexicography we find a narrow awareness (from the citational evidence) of relevant studies; after running a computer assisted check of references to determine who cited whom, we can tentatively claim that references are mostly intranational and intraregional. Moreover, we find a strong general tendency for authors to cite themselves.

XI source of the key terms and words; thus, there are publications that do not appear under certain relevant topics because the key word does not occur within a title or epitome. However, we have also cross-referenced sources within many of the epitomes making it possible to follow topics and issues within and beyond the topical index. Furthermore, we have traced the chronology of some of the important dialogues carried on in various publications by explicitly mentioning relevant connections (for two examples, see Benson 1990b, Herbst 1988 and Pätzold 1987 for a discussion of the BBI; and, Tono 1998, 1989, Li 1998, and Bensoussan et al. 1984 on the efficacy of dictionary use among students).

Cross-Disciplinary Dictionary Research

The desire for more research into dictionary use and the dictionary user has appeared with regularity in the literature for the past twenty years.4 Calls for empirical research create both an incentive and disincentive for studies of users and dictionaries: the need for more research can be clearly documented, but at the same time we see that the attendant call for a rigorous research methodology defeats all but the most energetic scholarly entrepreneurs (no rigor without dollars — the amount of time and materials needed to develop and run rigorous experiments on dictionaries and dictionary users requires funding levels not generally available to lexicographic projects). See especially Wiegand (1998a) and Hartmann (1987c) 5 for critical analyses of the state of empirical research on lexicography and for descriptions of pertinent research methodology. The impetus for empirical research on the dictionary user is largely motivated by the interest in learners' dictionaries. The lexicographic studies which focus on conventional monolingual dictionaries concern themselves for the most part with attitudes towards 'the dictionary', frequency of dictionary use and with determining general user knowledge of dictionary format and content (Greenbaum, 1984; Quirk, 1974). Studies of standard monolingual dictionaries can also be found in the literatures of reading comprehension and of vocabulary acquisition; even in these disciplines one can find a dual focus on native speakers and language learners. Language learning remains the central concern in both lexicography and these other disciplines which treat dictionaries: LI language learning and vocabulary acquisition may be theoretically distinct from L2 learning, but obviously learning and the learner stand as key-words in the total dictionary-use enterprise. The published reports of research on use and the dictionary user emanate from pedagogically based projects; thus no one should be surprised that learning and the assessment of learning 4

The following citations are from some of the most recent works that make the call: "There is a dire need for research in the behaviour and habits of users of learners' dictionaries". Kemerman 1996, p. 405 "... with the exceptions of two recent studies ... research on dictionary use and dictionary definition is virtually nonexistent". Nist and Olejnik, 1995, p. 172 "... next to nothing is known about how dictionary users, foreign language users or others, go about finding their way in these valuable sources of information". Bogaards 1992, p. 51

5

For example, Hartmann (1987c) asserts that lexicographical research is immature, "often non-representative, noncomparable ..., non-correlational, and non-replicable".

XII skills and outcomes dominate the whole literature of dictionary use. A thorough reading of the publications in this bibliography on the use of dictionaries causes us to be cautious in making any claim; there is no broad agreement on just what 'tasks' a learner or dictionary user accomplishes (or even needs to accomplish) to effectively make use of any dictionary. 6 Curiously, the task or process of 'looking up' is not generally mentioned, nor are there many 'readers'; instead, the authors seem to prefer use words to describe what people do when they open up a dictionary. Perhaps with the recent treatment of dictionary use in the three-volume Wörterbücher/ Dictionaries/ Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography (Hausmann et al, 1989, 1990, 1991) and Wörterbuchforschung (Wiegand, 1998a), there will be an impetus to standardize the approaches and methods of studying the topic. We can also look forward to the day that there will be a consensus concerning what the major topics and issues in the area are. Research on the language learner as dictionary user falls into three general categories: 1) dictionary typology (for instance, the arguments for and against the bilingual dictionary vs. the monolingual dictionary); 2) the so-called needs 7 of the user (questions and solutions on informative content, format, accessibility, etc); 3) dictionary choice (which dictionary 'performs' better; which dictionary is more suitable for beginning, intermediate and advanced learners). Studies on the attitudes of selected dictionary users, frequency of use, and user skills, while not numerous enough to form a separate approach, support work in the three categories. Current and past research shows that alphabetically ordered dictionaries are predominantly used for reading difficult texts (decoding), rather than for finding appropriate lexical items for a particular writing task (encoding); however, if we consider checking spelling to be an encoding task, then we should consider encoding and decoding to be nearly equivalent motivations for dictionary use. As with many of the issues in empirical lexicography, the lack of a consensus on terminology and appropriate methodology to test dictionary use and reception hinders our ability to make reliable judgments about why people open a dictionary. Any conclusions found in the literature must be considered tentative, since there are relatively few empirical studies on dictionaries and their uses and users; furthermore, the studies are mainly confined to classroom behavior. We would do well to re-read early publications on lexicography: A reading of Barnhart (1962) should remind us that no matter how far academic and practicing lexicographers go in their quest for the ideal dictionary, the reality for all major lexicographic ventures can be reduced to the transaction between publisher and dictionary buyer: Barnhart was not shy to assert the economic foundation of dictionary use (italics added): "The editor's very first concern, therefore, must be to determine the probable buyer of a particular book".9·

6

At this point, the findings are at loggerheads: bilingual dictionaries are useful/not useful; learner's dictionaries clearly guide students/are confusing; dictionaries are effective/ineffective learning tools, etc.

7

This is a tricky topic in that the user's 'needs' begs the central question that motivates the research into the user and dictionary use (see Dolezal and McCreary 1996, p. 128); furthermore, 'needs' are highly contingent upon who is asking the question: for example, Jehle 1990 contrasts needs as seen by the 'popular press' (new and exotic word inclusion) with "realistic reference situations" ("grammar, definition, collocation, examples, and usage"). Why the popular press are automatically precluded from engaging in "realistic reference situations" is not addressed.

XIII Results of empirical studies suggest that dictionary users do not distinguish among types of dictionaries; moreover, no matter how lexicographers might classify a 'thesaurus', students do not necessarily consider a thesaurus a text belonging to a separate category of reference book. After reading the current literature, we cannot say whether dictionary users are as familiar with a dictionary as they are with a thesaurus, or whether they are able to state their own preferences for one or the other text based on a specific look-up task. This state of affairs only serves to re-emphasize how much dictionary research still needs to be done. Interestingly, there are indications in the available research that alphabetically ordered entries that do not adequately present onomasiological and/or semantic relationships (fields and hierarchies, for example) are an obstacle to the typical student's successful use of a dictionary (either because the user is lazy or because the user finds the information largely inaccessible: see Bogaards, 1994a; Laufer, 1993, 1992; Laufer and Hadar, 1997; McKeown, 1991).9 However, as far as we know, no one has engaged in an empirical study of the thesaurus-user/ buyer/reader. In as much as thesauri are not a part of the on-going dialogue in lexicography, we can say that thesauri studies do not fit in the current agenda of conventionally accepted lexicographic research. It may be that a comprehensive approach to dictionary research could open up the dialogue to a wider range of theoretical concerns: for example, we need to understand (or at least build a consensus for) just what sort of texts are dictionaries, and just what sort of texts dictionaries are.

Terminology

While there has been some more standardization of lexicographic terms since the publication of Lexicography Today (Zgusta 1988),10 there are still, as Zgusta has written, "difficult, undefined terms" in the specialized areas that this bibliography covers. The history of the overarching terms learner's dictionary (das Lernerwörterbuch) and the user (der Benutzer) provides us with the opportunity to engage in an interesting case-study of the ordinary word as (undefined) term. The product that we call a learner's dictionary comes from a global demand for English language instruction for speakers of other languages; as it happens, the idea of the learner's dictionary has crossed into the teaching of languages other than English (Lernerwörterbuch is a caique of learner's dictionary.11). The evidence from the past ten years in English language publications of lexicography suggests that the idea of the language learner has largely made the distinction between foreign language learners and second language learners 8

See for instance, Hausmann 1985c, "The publishers make their money with bad dictionaries, while the good ones are grant enterprises" [that are not commercially viable], and "... everybody gets the dictionary he deserves" ("Die Wörterbuchverlage verdienen ihr Geld nämlich mit den schlechten Wörterbüchern, die guten sind Zuschussunternehmen", and "... jeder das Wörterbuch hat, das er verdient". 9 The usefulness of presenting semantically organized entries is promoted by Crystal, 1986, p. 74: "In my ideal dictionary the structure of the semantic fields which are the organizing principle of that work would be maximally explicit...". 10 Metalexicography; microstructure; macrostructure are more established across the discipline, although metalexicography is not a universally accepted term.

XIV moot: The arguments that support a sub-disciplinary division between ESL and EFL are associated more strongly with language pedagogy than with lexicography. Upon considering the second term, we find that the idea of the user/der Benutzer can be found across languages, but in English and German lexicographic publications it has the status of a lexicalized concept. In this section we will document the relevant terminological trends in lexicography. The very ordinariness of the lexical items learner and user indicates that they are not intended to introduce highly precise and defined concepts. However, over time, usage has narrowed the sense learner's dictionary and created more senses for user: a) a learner's dictionary is alphabetically ordered and monolingual with an emphasis on predicate structures and sentence patterns. Bilingual dictionaries may be compiled for language learners 12 , but they are not included under the term learner's dictionary 13 (although the "bilingualized" dictionary may be considered a type of learner's dictionary); b) 'user' (and 'use' of the dictionary) has a much broader range of application: it is not conceptually limited to dictionaries planned for specific purposes. As we have noted previously, research on the dictionary user appears mostly in research on the language learner. Consequently, the research predominantly concentrates on bilingual dictionaries and pertinent monolingual dictionaries (in many cases, a learner's dictionary, but also dictionaries for native language learners—school children, college students). Outside the discipline of lexicography, research in English that we would classify under 'user studies' is labeled 'word learning', 'vocabulary acquisition' and other similar designations. 14 It is always useful to remember that 'use' refers to a variety of reading tasks. Learner's dictionary and user have similar historical trajectories: both are derivatives that have become lexicalized in the discourse of lexicography. Learner's dictionary appears to be derived through reanalysis of The Advanced Learner's Dictionary (Hornby 1948); the title obviously refers to a dictionary for 'advanced learners' not an advanced 'learner's dictionary'. User shows a semantic narrowing of sense; its increased specificity implying a type of use that is constant and very important for the user. The original sense, 1) "One who has or makes use of a thing; one who uses or employs anything" is the basis for a later specific sense of user, 2) "A person who takes narcotic, etc., drugs", (first recorded in the OED, 1935). While this is the first occurrence of a specified sense documented in the OED, a sense that is

11 12

See Hausmann (1974) for an early usage - ein Lernwörterbuch. We note the collocation of bilingual and learner's dictionary in Hartmann (1983a), "The Bilingual Learner's Dictionary and Its Uses". The use of bilingual in order to signify a distinct type of learner's dictionary serves to further confirm our definition of learner's dictionary: 'bilingual' marks a special case, bilingual dictionaries for 'learners', which may also be understood to be distinct from the bilingual dictionary as Übersetzungswörterbuch — 'translation dictionary' (Hartmann 1982).

13

There may be two main reasons that explain this divergence: 1) the hegemony of English language teaching in the recent and current dialogue of language learning; and 2) the various claims and counter claims for the greater 'usefulness' of the so-called learner's dictionary as compared specifically with a bilingual dictionary. (See the section "The Dictionary User" for further discussion.)

14

We could say that these projects study certain types of dictionary users (school children as readers and writers, for example).

XV more germane to the application of user in lexicography is the later specialized sense, 3) "A person or organization that makes use of a computer" (first documented, 1967, with user-assigned). This evidence suggests the same apparent narrowing of sense we find in the 'user' of a dictionary. Somewhat ironically 15 , OED2 records the following lexical combination found in Dictionaries 1 (1979:110) as another early instance of user: 4) "User-oriented service programs ... could put the student in immediate contact with a wealth of lexicographic information". All of the recorded instances of 'user', whether pertaining to computers or dictionaries, are strongly context dependent, unlike 'user' as drug taker. If we place 'user' in a sentence with no context or situation, it would neither be interpreted in the broadest sense of 'user', nor in the specified senses associated with computers or dictionaries: "She is a user". We would either think that 'she' takes drugs or is a person who seeks and cultivates acquaintanceships for cynical personal gain (the OED does not mention this quite ordinary sense). User may appear as a lexical item with its own specified sense when it occurs in the literatures of computers and dictionaries; however, we understand the narrower sense only as a consequence of first knowing the context in which the word appears. For instance, it would be difficult to guess that "user-oriented service programs" in example #4 refers to computer users not dictionary users. Even if the derived sense of user does not merit a subentry in a dictionary, it has become lexicalized as a quasi-term in lexicography. Not surprisingly, we can trace the lexicalization process along with the development of the discipline itself. Hartmann 1979 (Dictionaries and their Users, the proceedings of a conference in 1978) provides the first use of user in a title. Within the text of Quirk 1974, which is a reprint of conference proceedings published in 1973 of a paper delivered in 1972, user(s) appears with some regularity: for instance (p. 157), "And as far as the standardness of the language is concerned, the user is prepared to trust the lexicographer". One can see the initial development of the derived sense of user by reading the articles collected in Householder and Saporta 1962: we especially direct the reader's attention to the Barnhart contribution wherein he juxtaposes "the buyer" with "the users of the dictionaries" (p. 163).16 According to our bibliography, an early use of Benutzer within a lexicographic title appears in Hoberg 1978 ("Zur Frage der Benutzer eines neuen großen Wörterbuchs der deutschen Gegenwartssprache"); after reviewing earlier articles in lexicography, we found Benutzer used in the text of Neubert 197017 (p. 341) "Eine so definerte Benutzbarkeit ist abhängen von der Fach- und Sprachkenntnis des Benutzers". We found the next occurrence of lexicographic 'Benutzer' in Hausmann 1974 (e.g. "des fremdsprachlichen benutzer"; "der Benutzer unter dem Stichwort... antrifft..."). The preliminary evidence suggests that while it may be intuitively clear that Benutzer has its origins in the language of computerology, the earliest

15 16

The reader should note that this use of user pertains to a person using a computer not a dictionary. It is interesting that Barnhart did not feel it necessary to spell out 'the buyer of a dictionary', but throughout his article always places "the user" within a phrase - "the user of the dictionary"; "modern users of the college dictionary".

XVI specialized use of Benutzer as 'computing person' appears to nearly coincide with its use as 'dictionary reading person'. The situation in English is also complicated because of the long history of 'user' usages. The whole discussion is further complicated because use comprehends the meanings of German Benutzung ('consultation') and Nutzen ('benefit').

'User-Friendliness' and Lexicography

Given the conjoining of computers and lexicography, it is not surprising that there is a shared vocabulary, if not a shared terminology; witness the use of user-friend-lbenutzerfreundwordformations in lexicographic articles.18 One might question the unexamined borrowing of this trendy quasi-term. Clearly, the idea of 'user-friendliness' is appealing to the current Zeitgeist, but its use probably obscures more than it illuminates. The concept presupposes an eager computer-using clientele who are somewhat impeded by computational mystification. In regards to computational lexicography, a sweeping generality (user-friendly) is used to describe the complex set of tasks required in the process of looking-up items in a dictionary; lookingup is no less complex when using a computer. For all the benefits that are associated with the use of a computational dictionary, they must come to naught if the prospective dictionary user does not understand what sort of information can be searched by way of this or that keystroke. Furthermore, we assume too much if we base our predictions for the future of pedagogical lexicography on an ever-growing population of so-called computer-literate students. Our own anecdotal evidence over the past five years shows a steady disinterest in computer assisted instruction among college students: there are some students who bring familiarity of computer tasks to the classroom; there are more students who must be 'trained' and/or cajoled during the term in which instructional technology will be used. Indeed, why expect students to be more willing to use a variety of highly sophisticated search functions, than they are to read the prefatory material in a conventional print dictionary? Not only are computer skills among students somewhat overestimated, but we should also be aware that a basic knowledge of language theory cannot be assumed for the ordinary dictionary reader. For some years English language analysis skills have been distinctly out of fashion if not downright proscribed from lesson plans in both Great Britain and the United States (for the situation in Great Britain see, Teaching grammar: a Guide for the National Curriculum, Richard Hudson, 1992; in the US witness the various manifestos of the whole language movement). It is predictable and not at all surprising that students do not know how to use a dictionary. Calls for teaching dictionary skills will not be heard in a time when the 17

18

Neubert also uses these terms: Wörterbuchsituation·, Wörterbuchtyp·, Benutzertyp. Undoubtedly, Wiegand's terminological coinages (for example Wiegand 1985a, Wörterbuchbenutzungssituationen, 'situations of dictionary use') have been a major impetus for the development of the lexicographic sense of Benutzer. On the other hand, other terms are still possible: we note the title of Klug 1989, "Rationeller Wörterbuchgebrauch im Aufbaukurs Englisch" ("Rational Dictionary Use in the Advanced English Course"). One might question the usefulness of the user as a term to designate any number of (idiosyncratic) uses and users (students; learners; scholars; teachers ...), not to mention the ideological force of thinking of dictionaries as user-oriented rather than, say, reader-oriented.

XVII conventional wisdom denies the value of formal language instruction, especially if dictionaries are seen as tools of a de-contextualized and over-determined approach to language learning.19 The unfortunate lack of language analysis skills among the current student population can only hinder their ability to comprehend and read dictionaries as reference texts: students who do not know the basic terminology of traditional or (heaven forfend!) descriptive grammars will be hard pressed to decipher even the newest and best formatted information that is founded upon the latest theories of reading comprehension, grammatical theory and lexicology. The outcast state of grammar in the schools has been oft bewailed with fore-bemoaned moans; yet it is worth noting that the very confluence of the issues concerning dictionary use and reasonable expectations of a dictionary user's command of grammar, which we discuss here, were touched upon at the inaugural EURALEX meeting; we take the following excerpt from our entry for Cowie (1984): [Cowie] concludes by saying, "...EFL lexicography has strengthened its reputation for user-centered innovation"; but at the same time, the necessity to keep up with current trends in linguistics has coincided with a "waning interest in the teaching of grammar".

The Dictionary User

The development of pedagogical lexicgraphy with its focus on the triangular relation among teachers, lexicographers and learners/ users will surely bring a coherency and cohesiveness to research on dictionary users, especially since there is evidence in the literature over the past fifteen years which claims that dictionary users lack the basic reference skills that would allow them to effectively use a dictionary [see Tono 1984, 1998; Snell-Hornby 1984].20 We can also find this sentiment expressed in the language teaching literature along with the topic of teaching methodology as it pertains to dictionary use.21 In lexicography, a point of view concerning the effectiveness of dictionary use in the language classroom has been expressed, for example, by Tomaszczyk (1987: 145): It is clear enough, however, that language learning involves much more than the extensive use of

19

20

We find this recent, and revealing, statement from Reading Research Quarterly, Nist and Olejnik 1995, p. 172: "What is particularly interesting is the 'bad press' that looking up words in the dictionary receives as a way of obtaining meaning for unknown words". Obviously, the "bad press" must refer not to articles published in lexicographic outlets, but to articles in educationist circles. We include abroad selection of statements concerning dictionary skills. "Neither a poor understanding of compilers' intentions and methods nor the text structure of most dictionaries seems to inhibit the students' acquisition of reference skills ... Intermediate-level students are not having problems for which the dictionaries can be held responsible: they are simply not using them efficiently or fully". Kipfer 1987, p. 50. "...the vast majority of [translation] errors would not have occurred if dictionaries had been used with skill. More often than not, they seemed not to have been consulted at all. This finding is confirmed by student behavior in class". Tomaszczyk 1987, p. 137. "... the main source of mistakes is not so much lack of reference skills or the use of inadequate

XVIII reference books and that dictionaries are not nearly as important to the average learner as some lexicographers and most teachers consider them to be ... it seems reasonable to suggest that the whole question of dictionary use and dictionary skills should be considered within the wider context of FL learning, of which it is an integral part.

If we can trust the existing user/learner studies, then we can imagine the hapless dictionary user standing donkey-like between the quick and easy, but relatively low nutritive nourishment of the bilingual dictionary and the demanding, complex, and relatively high nutritive nourishment of the learner's dictionary [Bogaards, 1994; Nuccorini 1991]; or, we can imagine the stymied user sitting next to an unopened learner's dictionary; or, we might imagine the user lost within a thicket of foreign words without the requisite training or guidance that would allow him to search his way into the clearing. In order to accomplish the Himalayan task of mastering a foreign language, one must be able to speak with the Sherpa guides, the advanced learners' dictionaries; however, a low level of achievement in foreign language skills is a major hindrance, one that leaves most learners at base camp (or in the current vocabulary, 'fossilized'). Lexicographers painstakingly introduce more discrete definitions, examples, and grammatical information: many critiques of their work call for yet more nuanced information (Aarts, 1991a; Herbst, 1996; Nesi, 1987; Olofsson, 1996; Pätzold, 1994, 1987; Piotrowski, 1997), while the learner, according to some studies, doggedly resists being a user of any type of dictionary. There is also some evidence that where learners/users do consult a dictionary, they read entries cursorily and do not take the time to understand the logical structure of the entry or the notational system found in the entry. The solution to the problem, and we use problem advisedly (for example, see Nuccorini 1990, and Tomaszczyk 1987:140: "the whole problem could be dismissed as a pseudo-problem..."), arrives under two main headings: 1) make a more so-called 'user-friendly' dictionary (which in positive connotations must mean to develop a more readable format, better examples, better organization, etc., and in negative connotations must mean to dumb-it-down 22 ); 2) teach students reference skills. Solution number one above must comprehend a set of somewhat contradictory findings in user-oriented research. Studies (for instance Tono, 1984) strongly suggest that too-many (examples; sub-senses) becomes not-enough (pertinent information), when we consider the hab-

dictionaries as an unwillingness to consult reference books at all". Tomaszczyk 1987, p. 140. "We are intrigued by the paradoxical tension between the great abundance of grammatical information offered in dictionaries and the rank reluctance on the part of the learner to make use of it". Hartmann, 1989c, pp. 217-18.

21

"Too little is known about dictionaries. Not the lexicographers but the public in general are lacking in dictionary culture". Hausmann 1991. "... the gap that exists between prevalent lexicographic theory ... and the practice of dictionary users and modern language learning methodology". Kemerman 1996. In Cumming et al. (1994: 370) we see the central conflict exposed: "Dictionary designers with an eye to learner's needs aim to invalidate Miller's (1986) statement that 'dictionaries are reference books, not teaching instruments' ".

XIX its of dictionary use: Tono finds that his subjects looked only, or mainly, at the beginning of entries. Some researchers call for brief uncomplicated entries, while other studies report that students can and do find information within an entry (Bensoussan, Sim and Weiss, 1984; Bogaards, 1998a, 1998b; Fenner, 1997; Nesi and Meara, 1991). It may be that what looks to be contradictory may actually be a question of demographics: the students who are more advanced may be more motivated to look and search, while the beginner or fossilized student may be unmotivated, lazy, or incapable of reading through an entry. The advanced learner can interpret entries because his or her second language skill is high, which will not be the case with all groups of students. In this bibliography we notice more than a few arguments and pleas for solution number two. Some of the authors are aware that dictionaries do not fit well in the curricula of some of the current educationists of English language teaching; we do not know of any comprehensive plan or approach that would address the issue of dictionary skills instruction in the context of the British or American classroom (notwithstanding the contribution to this effort made by Stark's Dictionary Workbooks, 1990). Any prospects for success in the promotion of dictionary skills instruction at both the primary and secondary levels in public schools seem to be less than salutory (cf. FN 19), although the situation may improve in the United Kingdom with the implementation of a new national syllabus for secondaryschool modern language teaching. This area of lexicographic research, pedagogical lexicography, should be a valuable area of research since it crosses several disciplines, all connected by deep interests in the study of language. However, although the number of studies has greatly increased since the 1970's, the value of some of the articles is questionable. In the twenty-first century, with better international communication and cooperation, this area has the potential to be a valuable resource for lexicography, reading comprehension, applied linguistics, native monolingual language education, and non-native foreign language education.

22

For example, Ayto (1984:59): "We believe that our approach, of never exceeding an educational level of seventeen to eighteen, will best serve the interests of the majority of our users".

XX A N o t e to the R e a d e r

A complete list of dictionaries and dictionary acronyms that are referred to in the introduction and bibliography can be found at the end of this book. The topical index which follows the bibliography can be used not only to find articles grouped under a specific topic, but also to get an overview of the areas in the literature that have been well-covered or not yet fully developed. April 1999 Fredric Thomas Dolezal Don Rafferty McCreary

Annotated Bibliography

Aarts, Flor (1991a): Lexicography and syntax: The state of the art in learners' dictionaries of English. -In: James E. Alatis. (ed.): Linguistics and language pedagogy: The state of the art. Georgetown University Roundtable on Languages and Linguistics, 1991, 567-582. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. compares three dictionaries, OALD4, LDOCE2, and COBUILD for their organization of verb entries and the system of grammatical codes. He finds opaque codes and inconsistent treatment of verb complementation and phrasal verbs, AARTS recommends transparent codes and proposes a new set of twenty-two codes that cover "the vast majority of verb patterns in English. AARTS

Aarts, Flor (1991b): OALD, LDOCE and COBUILD: Three learner's dictionaries of English compared. Cahiers de l'Institut de Linguistique 17 (1-3), 211-226. This article is a comparative dictionary review that analyzes the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, and the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary, according to five measures. According to AARTS, all three dictionaries include some infrequent vocabulary; COBUILD consistently defines words with complete example sentences and has more example sentences; COBUILD lists more morphological information, but it unfortunately has a confusing format; and COBUILD has a syntactic coding system that "is easier for the student to handle" than the other dictionaries. Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim (1991): An empirical investigation of some cognitive processes of translation between English and Arabic with special reference to the use of dictionaries. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. -University of Exeter, Exeter, U.K. analyzes the translation strategies of Arabic speakers, focusing on their use of English-Arabic bilingual dictionaries. He uses a "think-aloud protocol" in which the subjects verbalize their thoughts when they use the dictionaries. Eight subjects translated a short text from English into Arabic. The findings include: dissatisfaction with these dictionaries because the entries were too long and had a lack of useful translation equivalents; bilingual dictionaries were much preferred over monolingual dictionaries; dictionaries were used for checking spelling, grammar, and verifying meanings; the subjects sometimes chose the wrong entry or did not find the equivalent under the correct entry, even though it was there; Arabic-English dictionaries, although available, were not consulted to check the accuracy of the translation. AL-BESBASI

Alexander, Richard J. (1998): Really spoilt for choice? Fixed expressions in learners' dictionaries of English. -In: Thierry Fontenelle, Philippe Hiligsmann, Archibald Michiels, Andre Moulin, and Siegfried Theissen (eds.): Actes EURALEX '98 proceedings: Papers submitted to the eighth EURALEX international congress on lexicography in Liege, Belgium. (Vol. II), 535-543. Liege, Belgium: University of Liege, English and Dutch Departments.

2 explains nine categories of fixed expressions that he developed and assesses the treatment of each (90 expressions in all) in the four English learners' dictionaries, finding that CIDE has the best coverage, LDOCE3 is second, OALD5 is third, and COBUILD2 has the least. ALEXANDER

Alexander, Richard J. (1992): Fixed expressions, idioms, and phraseology in recent English learners' dictionaries. -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part I). Studia Translatologica. Ser.A. Vol. 2, 35-42. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. analyzes the treatment of idioms and collocations in LDOCE2, OALD4, and COBUILD, finding OALD4 to be "the most user-friendly of the three dictionaries". ALEXANDER

Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels (1996): The big four: The year of the dictionaries; Explaining what to whom? English Today 12(2), 41-55. In a two-part book review, ALLEN and PAUWELS critically review four learners' dictionaries published in 1995, OALD5, LDOCE3, COBUILD2, and CIDE. ALLEN compares the vocabulary coverage, microstructure, defining style, and examples in detail, finding more strengths and fewer weaknesses in LDOCE3. He also notes COBUILD's innovations in its full sentence defining style and its use of a corpus for its examples. His strongest criticism is reserved for CIDE's entry structure that uses semantic "guide words", PAUWELS compares the four dictionaries "based on the experiences of eight Flemish teachers of English and finds that both OALD5 and LDOCE3, with a simpler entry structure, are easier to use, while COBUILD2 and CIDE have a number of advantages for experienced learners, including more vocabulary coverage, "good examples", and more grammatical information. Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. (1983a): The interlingual/translation dictionary. -In: R.R.K.Hartmann.(ed.): Lexicography: Principles and practice, 153-162. New York: Academic Press. outlines several types of interlingual dictionaries according to the purpose: terminological data-books; machine translation; target language comprehension; and target language production. He concludes with a description of two major problems encountered by users: the difficulty of "finding ready equivalents" and problems with meaning discrimination. AL-QASIMI

Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. (1983b): Linguistics and bilingual dictionaries. Leiden: E. J. Brill. This book is a "linguistic treatment of methodological issues in bilingual lexicography". Four chapters follow the introductory chapter with commentary on and linguistic analysis of the components of bilingual dictionaries. The first two chapters categorize dictionary types, including learner's dictionaries, and analyze problems with the IPA, Kenyon and Knot, and the Hill system. The last two chapters discuss the lexicographer's decisions about translation equivalents, and problems with the discrimination of different senses of a word in translation, followed by a discussion of prescriptive and descriptive labels, and the connotations of those labels, e.g., colloquial and slang. Finally, the author recommends illustrative example sentenc-

3 es to enhance the learners' understanding, but he notes that the lexicographer must decide whether to create them or collect them from conversation or written sources. Antor, Heinz (1994): Strategien der Benutzerfreundlichkeit im modernen EFL-Wörterbuch. (User-friendliness strategies in modern EFL dictionaries) Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen 23, 65-83. ANTOR analyzes OALD, LDOCE, and COBUELD from the perspective of user-friendliness in both their macrostuctures and micro-structures. In a very detailed comparative review, he examines every element in the entry structure, especially concentrating on the treatment of register and varieties, the grammatical treatment of adjectives, count and non-count nouns, verb constructions, user-friendly definitions, examples, collocations, and usage notes. He has praise for all three learners' dictionaries, especially for their defining styles, but reserves special praise for the usage notes and useful appendices in LDOCE.

Antor, Heinz (1988): "Einsprachige englische Wörterbücher für Muttersprachler — eine Alternative für den deutschen Schüler?" (Monolingual English dictionaries for the native speaker — A n alternative for German students?). Neusprachliche Mitteilungen aus Wissenschaft und Praxis 41 (4), 223-228. This article discusses the possible advantages of using English dictionaries designed for native speakers instead of learners' dictionaries in EFL teaching. The study used The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary, Collins English Dictionary, Longman Dictionary of the Eng-lish Language, and the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (a learner's dictionary), ANTOR compared the learner's dictionary to the others and found the greatest difference to be the lack of grammatical information in the dictionaries for native speakers. The author concludes that only two of the dictionaries for native speakers, Collins and Longman, would prove helpful for the foreign language learner. Ard, Josh (1982): The Use of Bilingual Dictionaries by ESL Students while Writing. Review of Applied Linguistics 58, 1-27. ARD describes the attitudes of students, teachers and methodologists toward dictionaries and their shortcomings. He times (in seconds) and records how students choose English words from their bilingual dictionaries, and critically looks at actual dictionary use by Japanese, Arabic, and Spanish speakers while writing short compositions, He concludes with cautionary comments on how untrained, inaccurate dictionary use influences ESL students' writing. Arnold, Donna I. (1980-81): College-level dictionaries and freshman composition. Dictionaries 2-3, 69-79. evaluates five college dictionaries used in the US on "how well they are suited to the needs of freshman composition students." She finds that Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, 2nd ed. (1978) "would be of most use to students of freshman compoARNOLD

4 sition" because it provides appropriate guidance on usage and consistently detailed synonym discrimination. Atkins, B.T. Sue., ed. (1998): Using dictionaries: Studies of dictionary use by language learners and translators. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 88). edited collection contains the final report of the EURALEX survey on dictionary use by ATKINS and VARANTOLA and a number of observational and experimental studies. This bibliography contains ATKINS and VARANTOLA (1998a and 1998b), BOGAARDS, HULSTUN and ATKINS, MACKINTOSH, N E s i , ROGERS and AHMAD, and VARANTOLA (all 1998). ATKINS'

Atkins, B.T.S. (1996): Bilingual dictionaries: Past, present, and future. -In: Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex '96 proceedings I-II (Part II), 515-546. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, Dept. of Swedish. presents her vision of the state of electronic bilingual dictionaries in the near future, first outlining the present-day strengths and weaknesses of printed dictionaries, and then demonstrating how those weaknesses can be solved and eliminated by the use of hypertext connected to the web with no space restrictions. Her vision is not a CD-ROM version of a printed dictionary, but rather access to a bilingual database, "a virtual dictionary", with hypertext links. ATKINS

Atkins, Beryl T. S. (1991): Corpus lexicography: The bilingual dimension. -In: A. Zampolli,L. Cignoni, and . C. Peters (eds.): Computational lexicology and lexicography. Vol. I: 43-64. Pisa: Giardini Editori Ε Stampatori. compares the entries in the Collins-Robert French Dictionary (1987), an English-French learners' dictionary, which has examples from the COBUILD corpus, with the entries from the same pre-corpus dictionary in 1978. Entries from the OALD (1974) are also used for comparison. She illustrates the beneficial use of the citations from the concordances of the corpus, resulting in fuller entries and "the finer breakdown of senses". ATKINS

Atkins, Beryl T. (1985): Monolingual and bilingual learners' dictionaries: A comparison. -In: Robert Ilson (ed): Dictionaries Lexicography and Language Learning, 15-24. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ATKINS illustrates the systematic contrasts between monolingual and learners' dictionaries, concentrating on differences in headwords, the grammatical classification, the explanation of a word's senses, the use of examples, and the metalanguage in the entry. Each contrast is illustrated by entries from several dictionaries including the LDOCE, the Chambers Universal Learners' Dictionary, and three bilingual English-French dictionaries.

Atkins, Β. T. Sue and Krista Varantola (1998a): Language learners using dictionaries: The final report on the Euralex/AILA research project on dictionary use. -In: Β. T. Sue Atkins

5 (ed.): Using dictionaries: Studies of dictionary use by language learners and translators. 2181. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 88). ATKINS and VARANTOLA analyze the results of 1140 surveys on dictionary use by EFL students in France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, updating ATKINS and KNOWLES (1990). The students who used the dictionary for translation looked up an average of four words out of twenty items tested, but 26% never looked up any word. Advanced students used the dictionary less often, while average and below average students, determined by a placement test, used it more often. Even when students were trained in dictionary use, they did not consult their dictionaries more often.

Atkins, Β. T. Sue and Krista Varantola (1998b): Monitoring dictionary use. -In: Β. T. Sue Atkins (ed.): Using dictionaries: Studies of dictionary use by language learners and translators. 83-122. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 88). and VARANTOLA repeat their report of the results of a survey and of several tests of dictionary skills, which follows below. ATKINS

Atkins, B.T.S. and Krista Varantola (1997): Monitoring dictionary use. International of Lexicography 10(1), 1-45.

Journal

ATKINS and VARANTOLA report the results of a survey and of several tests of the dictionary skills of thirty-two Finnish advanced learners of English. They find that the students preferred bilingual dictionaries more than three times as often as learners' dictionaries for look-ups. In one thousand look-ups, the students' own perceived success rates were much higher for decoding tasks, i.e., L2-L1 translation. The monolingual English learners' dictionaries were frequently consulted to check their use of appropriate collocations, to check their L1-L2 translations after a Finnish-English bilingual dictionary was first consulted, but less frequently to check on an entry's grammatical information.

Atkins, B.T.S., Beth Levin, and Grace Song (1996): Making sense of corpus data: A case study. -In: Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex '96 proceedings I-II (Part I), 345-354. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, Dept. of Swedish. ATKINS et al. examine two verbs of sound, "rattle" and "rumble", and their treatment in LDOCE3, COBUILD2, and CIDE. They report that the transitive and intransitive uses of "rattle" are inconsistently treated in these learners' dictionaries.

Atkins, B.T.S. and Beth Levin (1995): Building on a corpus: A linguistic and lexicographical look at some near-synonyms. International Journal of Lexicography 8(2), 85-114. ATKINS and LEVIN examine the treatment of seven verbs in the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, and the Collins COBUILD Dictionary. The verbs shake, quake, quiver, shiver, shudder, tremble, and vibrate were looked

6 at for both transitive and intransitive uses. The five verbs thought to be intransitive also had transitive uses. ATKINS then examines other verbs for their transitivity and causative use, distinguishing between "internally and externally caused verbs", which can then explain "the apparent idiosyncratic behavior of certain verbs". She concludes that the three dictionaries do not display any attempts at systematicity of description. Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles (1990): Interim report on the Euralex/AILA research project into dictionary use. -In: T. Magay and J. Zigäny (eds.): Budalex '88 proceedings: Papers from the Euralex third international congress, 381-392. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado. ATKINS and KNOWLES survey over 1100 EFL students at the secondary or post-secondary level in seven European countries on their dictionary use. They find that 60.4% "had never been taught how to use a dictionary", and that bilingual dictionaries are preferred by 59.5% of the students to just 22% who prefer monolingual dictionaries. Of the 723 students who use a dictionary regularly, "75% chose a bilingual dictionary and 25% a monolingual". They also find that for a fixed phrase "lame duck" and a phrasal verb "do without" the students were divided on where to look up the expression and the better students (with grades of A's and B's in their courses) were not any better at locating multi-word expressions. They note that performance on a multiple choice vocabulary test is improved only slightly with the free use of a dictionary. Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Delia Summers, and Janet Whitcut (1987): A research project into the use of learners' dictionaries. -In: A. Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985,2943 -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). This is a pilot project with the purpose of measuring EFL students' skills for dictionary use when using a bilingual or monolingual dictionary. It contains samples of profile questionnaires and sets of tests to measure dictionary skills, such as decoding, which is translating from L2 to L I , and encoding, which is "free expression" and LI to L2 translation. Atkins, Beryl T., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin (1986): Explicit and implicit information in dictionaries. -In: UW Centre (ed.): Advances in lexicology: Proceedings of the_conference. Second annual conference of the UW Centre for the new Oxford English Dictionary. November 9-11, 1986, 45-64. Waterloo, Canada. Waterloo, Ontario: UW Centre for the New OED. ATKINS et al. examine the construction of example sentences in OALD and LDOCE with verbs that collocate with certain noun phrase and prepositional phrase complements, which is often related to the verb's transitivity. They suggest that both dictionaries lack examples and consistent patterns "informing the dictionary users of the transitive and intransitive uses of a given verb." They also note that OALD and LDOCE "split and resplit the senses, a laudable technique in many ways, but one that tends to obscure trans-sense or trans-word class relationships, such as the various transitivity alternations".

7 Äugst, Gerhard (1991-1993): New trends in the research on word-family dictionaries. Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 25-27, 183-197. This is a detailed history and description of word-family dictionaries. Brief mention of their use in teaching the basics of word formation to a foreign learner is included. Augst, Gerhard, Volker Bunse, Andrea Höppner, Roswitha Rusert, Sebastian Schmidt, and Frank-Martin Siinkel (1997): Rechtschreibwörterbücher im Test. Subjektive Einschätzungen, Benutzungserfolge und alternative Konzepte. (Spelling dictionaries on trial: Subjective assessments, utility value, alternative designs.) -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (= Lexicographica Series Maior 78). et al. test the usefulness of spelling dictionaries, including the Duden, focusing on how user-friendly they are. They tested three spelling dictionaries on 60 secretaries and 30 teachers. After self-reporting their dictionary use for four weeks, both groups were tested on "five problems involving spelling and punctuation". The results show that both secretaries and teachers have difficulty with sections in spelling dictionaries covering both spelling and punctuation. The authors conclude with fourteen suggestions for improving the macrostructure, the entries, and the sections on spelling rules. AUGST

Aust, Ronald, Mary Jane Kelley, and Warren Roby (1993): The use of hyper-reference and conventional dictionaries. Educational Technology Research and Development 41(4), 6373. et al. compare the use of electronic dictionaries to paper dictionaries by students of Spanish in the US. Both bilingual and monolingual learners' dictionaries were compared. When students used the electronic dictionaries, twice as many definitions overall were checked and more words were looked up per minute. When using a bilingual electronic dictionary, 25% more meanings were looked up, and the reading tasks were completed in 20% less time. However, there was no significant difference in reading comprehension related to the use of printed or electronic dictionary use. AUST

Ayto, John (1984): The vocabulary of definition. -In: Dieter Götz and Thomas Herbst (eds.): Theoretische und praktische Probleme der Lexikographie, 50-62. Munich: Max Hueber Verlag. specifies certain principles of definition, such as, "a word should be defined using words simpler than itself', and then proceeds to demonstrate how difficult this can be with very specific nautical terms, such as lateen sail. A Y T O also reviews problems with the first attempts to strictly limit definitions in the first edition of the LDOCE to the two thousand word defining vocabulary. AYTO

Ayto, John (1983): On specifying meaning. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): Lexicography: Principles and practice, 89-98. London: Academic Press.

δ Α Υ Τ Ο examines two basic techniques used in writing definitions; one, the "classical analytical definition" with a "genus word" followed by "differentiae which distinguish it from others", two, "semantic analysis" using a matrix with features for componential analysis, which leads to the grouping of items under similar features. A Y T O also addresses problems of connotation as expressed in dictionary entries.

Bahns, Jens (1996): Kollokationen als lexikographisches Problem. (Collocations as a lexicographic problem) -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 74). analyzes the presentation of collocations in all four editions of the OALD, two editions of the LDOCE, and the first edition of COBUILD. In an addendum, he also examines OALD5, LDOCE3, COBUILD2, and CIDE. The corpus used for analysis is 1375 verb plus noun collocations. B A H N S finds that LDOCE3 has improved in its treatment the most and has more collocations than the other three. OALD5 has improved its treatment, but not as much as LDOCE. CIDE and COBUILD are tied in third place. An entire chapter is devoted to a detailed presentation of the collocational theories of BENSON and HAUSMANN. The 135 page text includes 162 references to metalexicographic research. BAHNS

Bahns, Jens (1994): Die Berücksichtigung von Kollokationen in den drei grossen Lernerwörterbüchern des Englischen. (The treatment of collocations in the three big learners' dictionaries of English) Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen 23, 84-101. reports on an investigation into how the three leading learners' dictionaries of English (OALD, LDOCE, and COBUILD) "cope with the task of supplying collocations in dictionary entries." For this purpose, a corpus of 1375 verb plus noun collocations with 176 different nouns was gathered from a collocational dictionary (BBI) to serve as a basis for comparison. The central question was how many were traceable in the three dictionaries, and BAHNS found that "around 40% " were in all three, although he finds that OALD, with 44%, had a slight advantage. Bahns exemplifies three types of treatment of collocations: definitions with examples, examples only, and pattern information with examples, which are used in all three learners' dictionaries. BAHNS

Bahns, Jens (1989): Kollokationen als Korrekturproblem im Englischunterricht. (Collocation as a proofreading problem in English instruction) Die Neueren Sprachen 88(5), 497-514. This is an article for teachers of English which discusses how collocation dictionaries can help the teacher during the correction or proofreading of written exams. There is a comparison of two collocation dictionaries: Dictionary of English words in context and the BBI Combinatory Dictionary. Ballweg-Schramm, Angelika (1983): Handbuch schwerer Wörter - Libero oder Außenverteidiger der Lexikographie? (Guide to hard words -offensive sweeper or outside defender of lexicography? -In: Helmut Henne and Wolfgang Mentrup (eds.): Wortschatz und Verständigungsprobleme: Was sind 'schwere Wörter' im Deutschen? Sprache der Gegenwart 57,143159. Düsseldorf: Schwann.

9 argues for a new kind of dictionary of difficult words which is structured according to topic. Since sports are an important area of mass communication, she shows what such a dictionary could look like, using some examples from soccer jargon. She asked German soccer coaches via questionnaire what these difficult words, e.g. Libero 'sweeper' actually mean. B A L L W E G - S C H R A M M believes that only this kind of detailed research and detailed presentation of the context in which the words belong can produce a dictionary of difficult words. [Prisca Schüler] BALLWEG-SCHRAMM

Barnhart, Clarence L. (1962): Problems in editing commercial monolingual dictionaries. -In: Fred Householder and Sol Saporta (eds.): Problems in lexicography. International Journal of American Linguistics 28(2) (April),161-181. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. presents the results of the first dictionary user survey prepared by an academic researcher. He asked 108 college professors in 99 colleges in the US "to rate six types of information", meaning, spelling, pronunciation, synonyms, usage notes, and etymologies. The professors ranked the information they assumed their American students looked up most often in English dictionaries. The results indicated that dictionaries were used most frequently for checking meanings and "almost as frequently for spelling". BARNHART

Barone, Rosangela (1979): On the use of the Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata 11 (1-2), 187-194. In this study, B A R O N E writes about a course for first year university students in which they are taught to use the OALD. She claims that it is useful to teach students specific strategies for dictionary use. In addition, BARONE gives information on the makeup of the entries in the OALD. Battenburg, John D. (1991): English monolingual learner's dictionaries — a user-oriented study. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 39). This article surveys the history of lexicographical research and how its focus has moved from lexical entries to the learners themselves. BATTENBURG discusses the eleven components of dictionary entries (e.g. headwords, pronunciation, illustrative sentences, etc.). The author also gives a brief overview of studies done with various types of dictionary users: native English speakers; English as a foreign language students; and English as a second language students. He stresses the need for empirical research and comments on new developments such as the use of computers. Battenburg, John D. (1989): A study of English monolingual learners' dictionaries and their users. Purdue University Dissertation. UMI: order AAC 9003881. This is a survey of 60 ESL students at Ohio University (Most were Arabic-, Chinese-, or Korean- speaking.) A questionnaire was used to determine usage habits, reference skills, and the opinions of dictionary users. More specifically, the questions elicited information such as what types of dictionaries the students owned; if they had ever been taught to use a dictionary in an

10 English class; what type of information they sought most often (spelling, etymology, usage labels, etc.); how they chose the particular dictionaries they owned; changes they would like to make, etc. Two variables were considered: native language background and language proficiency level. They found that: the learners' use of dictionaries was largely unaffected by LI or cultural background; a positive correlation exists between dictionary ownership and use; regular use of dictionaries is not common, although the advanced students in this study used them more than those in other studies; except for irregular verb forms and spelling tables, few learners used introductory or etymological information or appendices. Further, students at all levels felt frustrated with their dictionaries, but many could not state possible areas of improvement. Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley and Susan Jellis (1996): The role of corpora in compiling the Cambridge International Dictionary of English. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 1(1), 39-59. et al. elucidate the different components of corpora, and how information on a word's frequency can affect the makeup of the entry ; the inclusion of the headword, ordering of sense discriminations, choice of examples, and ordering of collocations are all governed by frequency data. Two characteristic features of modern learners' dictionaries, a limited defining vocabulary and extensive grammatical information, were also improved in accuracy and usefulness by frequency data. BAUGH

Baxter, James (1980): The dictionary and vocabulary behavior: A single word or a handful? TESOL Quarterly 14 (3), 325-336. argues for the use of monolingual dictionaries in the classroom. He believes that the long-term use of bilingual dictionaries leads students to always search for the exact lexical item. This article is germane for the study of reading comprehension. BAXTER

Bejoint, Henri (1994): Tradition and innovation in modern English dictionaries. Oxford: Clarendon Press. surveys lexicography in the English speaking world. One section (pp. 6 5 - 7 7 ) outlines the features of the most widely used learners' dictionaries, concentrating on the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, and the Collins COBUILD Dictionary. BEJOINT

Bejoint, Henri (1989a): Codedness and lexicography. -In: Gregory James (ed.): Lexicographers and their works, 1-4. Exeter Linguistic Studies 14. University of Exeter Press. believes that the status of a word's "codedness" is a factor which should be considered in lexicography. This term refers to both frequency of use and "syntagmatic rigidity". The words that conform to these criteria of analysis are "...the proper subject matter for a dictionary". Collocations, such as deciduous tree, are also likely candidates for being marked for "codedness". BEJOINT

11 Bejoint, Henri (1989b): The teaching of dictionary use: Present state and future tasks. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. 1, 208-215. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. The article outlines the basic principles considered essential to lexicographic pedagogy, such as: mastering alphabetical headings, choosing from homonyms on the basis of semantic or grammatical information, and choosing an appropriate dictionary. Bejoint, Henri (1988): Psycholinguistic evidence and the use of dictionaries by L2 learners. In: Mary Snell-Hornby (ed.): Ziirilex '86 proceedings: Papers read at the Euralex International Congress, University of Ziirich, 9-14 September 1986, 139-148. Tubingen: Francke Verlag. reviews the experimental psycholinguistic evidence on bilingualism and lexical acquisition and concludes that little of it is relevant for dictionary use for language learning. Based on this evidence, B E J O I N T states that neither bilingual nor monolingual dictionaries can be recommended to students as effective tools for learning nor can claims be made that dictionary use leads to L2 acquisition. BEJOINT

Bejoint, Henri (1981): The foreign student's use of monolingual English dictionaries: A study of language needs and reference skills. Applied Linguistics 2(3), 207-222. discusses the needs of foreign language learners with particular emphasis on encoding and decoding activities. The importance of the students' reference skills is also stressed along with the problems involved in finding appropriate senses of words through analyzing the ordering or subdivision of polysemous entries. A questionnaire regarding their use of English monolingual dictionaries was given to French speakers learning English. The study concluded that most foreign language learners and speakers use dictionaries; monolingual dictionaries are satisfactory on the whole, but most students do not use their dictionaries to their fullest potential. BEJOINT

Bejoint, Henri (1979): The use of informants in dictionary-making. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): Dictionaries and their users: Papers from the BAAL seminar on lexicography. Exeter Linguistic Studies 4 & ITL Review of Applied Linguistics 45-46,25-29. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. proposes that lexicographers survey informants, potential dictionary users, in order to build a corpus of entry words and colloquial phrases for a modern dictionary. He also proposes that informants help the lexicographer accurately label register and stylistic variation. He suggests that this method would produce a dictionary more descriptive and more reflective of the actual state of the language than the traditional dictionary produced by a team of lexicographers. This seminal article was a precursor to many articles on the value of a large corpus for lexicography. BEJOINT

12 Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin (1987): The place of the dictionary in an EFL programme, I: The value of the dictionary in vocabulary acquisition; II: The dictionary and encoding tasks. -In: A. Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985,97-114. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). In the first part of this article, BEJOINT discusses several differences between bilingual and monolingual dictionaries. The role of these two dictionary types in the development of lexical competence of learners is stressed. The article proposes the creation of a handbook that will provide learners with information on the strengths and weaknesses of different types of dictionaries and how monolingual learners' dictionaries and bilingual dictionaries can help learners with specific classroom tasks. In the second part, M O U L I N evaluates French learners' dictionary use to facilitate their writing in English. He discusses difficulties facing the learner when trying to access single words; idioms; sentences, or particular types of discourse, in bilingual or monolingual dictionaries; also discussed are the subsequent difficulties in encoding these units in the L2. Both authors recommend the use of monolingual learners' dictionaries, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. Benbow, Timothy (1990): Report on the New Oxford English Dictionary User Survey. International Journal of Lexicography. 3(3), 155-203. reports the results of a survey-questionnaire on the expected use of the electronic version of the OED by 497 professionals in library science, literature, linguistics, and lexicography who already use the print version of the OED on a regular basis. The three most frequently expected uses of these academics are searches involving the character string, the usage labels, the quotation section, and the etymology section. BENBOW

Benson, Morton (1990a): Collocations and general-purpose dictionaries. International Journal of Lexicography. 3(1), 23-34. explores the potential for the expansion of the treatment of collocations in general monolingual and bilingual dictionaries. General dictionaries include grammatical collocations, but not enough, and are weak in lexical collocations. B E N S O N calls for a new dictionary, the "monolingual decoding dictionary", for both native speakers and language learners, and relates this to KROMANN et al.'s research (1991a, 1984) on S H C H E R B A ' S principle of encoding and decoding with active and passive dictionaries. BENSON concludes with a recommendation that the location of collocations in the dictionary be under both the base and the collocator, e.g., "changed my mind' (base) would be listed under both "mind" and "changed", and "driving rain" (base) would be listed under both "driving" and "rain." Both the bases and the collocators "changed" and "driving" would have these fixed phrases given as integral parts of their entries. BENSON

Benson, Morton (1990b): The BBI combinatory dictionary of English and the German learner: A response to Κ. M. Pätzold. Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen. 19, 202-212.

13 BENSON sharply criticizes PÄTZOLD'S review of the BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English in FLL 16 (1987). BENSON criticizes PÄTZOLD'S understanding of collocations and idioms, his use of English, and his "unfair" and "excessive nitpicking". PÄTZOLD, in his reply (a letter to the editor, pp. 209-212), defends himself and reviews some of the strengths of the BBI that he pointed out in the 1987 review. However, he continues his criticism of BBI's unfulfilled promise on its jacket: "the BBI tells you which words go together in English and which words do not". BBI concentrates on two-word collocations without much context and "larger structures are rare, which hurts its usefulness for the German learners of English".

Benson, Morton (1990c): Culture-specific items in bilingual dictionaries of English. Dictionaries. 12, 43-54. BENSON addresses the referential gaps that exist when idioms are translated into a language that does not have a term for the "culture-specific item" in question. Possible methods for solving the problem are proposed, such as literal translation, direct borrowing of the English term, or searching for a corresponding concept in the other culture.

Benson, Morton (1989a): The structure of the collocational dictionary. International Journal of Lexicography. 2 (1), 1-14. describes the structure of the BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English, explaining that it is based on HAUSMANN'S principles of collocations. He first examines the treatment of phrasal verbs and adjective - noun collocations in OALD and LDOCE, noting the inconsistencies. He then relates the results of a test given to seventeen Soviet EFL teachers on finding English collocations in the BBI and then correctly using them. Of twenty-five collocations, the Russians correctly filled in 32% on the pretest. Two days later, they completed 93% on the posttest after fifteen minutes of instruction on the use of the BBI. In a translation task, from Russian to English, the teachers scored "practically 100%". The teachers scored 22% on a third test on British-US differences, illustrating the many difficulties the Russians have with collocations that are regional. Benson notes that 19 of the 25 collocations tested are given in the BBI. In summary, BENSON claims that the BBI is an effective tool for advanced learners of English. BENSON

Benson, Morton (1989b): The collocational dictionary and the advanced learner. -In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners dictionaries: State of the art, 84-93. (Anthology Series 23.) Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. examines the treatment of collocations in the BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English, OALD, LDOCE, and COBUILD. He promotes the notion that the BBI is useful for ESL students, points out inconsistencies in both the OALD and the LDOCE, and sharply criticizes COBUILD for its "stilted English". BENSON

Benson, Morton (1988): Trying out a new dictionary. TESOL Quarterly 22(2), 340-345. This is a study of the usefulness of the BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English for advanced learners of English. It discusses referential gaps that occur when an idiom (e.g. meals-on-

14 wheels) does not exist in the target culture. The author finds that British English collocations are treated more thoroughly in dictionaries than are set-forms in American English. BENSON concludes that the BBI's treatment of collocations makes it very useful for learners of English who are at an advanced level of study. Benson, Morton (1985a): Collocations and idioms. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Dictionaries, lexicography, and language learning., 61-68. Oxford: Pergamon Press. examines grammatical collocations (e.g., verb and preposition, adjective and preposition) and lexical collocation (verb plus noun e.g., go fly a kite). He states that the LDOCE and the OALD give many collocations, but American general use dictionaries do not. He concludes with idioms and states that LDOCE and OALD are more comprehensive than Webster's or the American Heritage Dictionary. BENSON

Benson, Morton (1985b): Lexical combinability. Papers in Linguistics 18(1), 3-15. analyzes various word combinations, free combinations, idioms, compounds, and collocations, such as "hatch a conspiracy". BENSON specifies two types of obligatory collocations, "creation/ activation", such as "compile a dictionary", and "eradication/ nullification", such as "reverse a decision". B E N S O N also highlights several British/American English collocational differences. BENSON

Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss (1984): The effect of dictionary usage on EFL test performance compared with student and teacher attitudes and expectations. Reading in a Foreign Language 2 (2), 262-276. This paper reports the results of three studies designed to discover whether the use or non-use of dictionaries had an effect on students' performance on EFL reading tests. The general conclusion is that, when given the choice, students preferred to use bilingual dictionaries, but that the use of dictionaries had no significant effect on students' test scores. This is contradicted by the T O N O (1989) study. The results of a questionnaire administered to both students and teachers to ascertain dictionary use and preferences are also reported. Bensoussan, Marsha (1983): Dictionaries and tests of EFL reading comprehension. English Language Teaching Journal, 37 (4), 341-345. reports on classroom tests at the University of Haifa that examine EFL reading comprehension in the context of the faculty decision to allow or disallow dictionary use during tests. The research method is described and its rationale explained (no specific dictionaries are mentioned). "It was concluded that the dictionary does not really 'give' the student the meaning of a word". BENSOUSSAN

Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp (eds.) (1995): Manual of specialised lexicography: The preparation of specialised dictionaries. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

15 and T A R P outline the types of technical and subject-specific dictionaries and detail the essential components for the lexicographer. In addition to sections on monolingual and bilingual learners' dictionaries, the book includes a chapter on the usefulness of user surveys, interviews, protocols, and tests on how informants use dictionaries when translating technical terminology. BERGENHOLTZ

Binon, Jean and Serge Verlinde (1992): Le Dictionnaire d'Apprentissage du Fransais des Affaires. (The French learners' dictionary of business) -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part I). Studia Translatologica, Ser. A, Vol. 2, 44-50. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. and VERLINDE describe the preliminary results of a project in pedagogical lexicography that is specialized for the domain of French business terms. A four-page appendix exemplifies a detailed treatment of the entry word, travail, i.e., work, with its many collocations in the French business setting. BINON

Blok, Henk (1994): Het woordengoek gebruiken: Een klein kunstje? De praktijk van het basisonderwijs. (Dictionary use: A piece of cake? The practice of instruction in elementary school.) Levende Talen 490 (May), 276-279. surveys final examination test results and language teaching methods related to dictionary use in Dutch elementary schools. He finds that students have little experience with dictionaries and are unable to use the information on word meaning, grammatical information, usage, or etymology. He also finds that teachers are unaware of the difficulties students have with dictionaries and are overly optimistic about their students ability with dictionaries. BLOK

Boelcke, J., B. Straub and P. Thiele (1983): Wie entsteht ein Wirtschaftswörterbuch? Einige lexikographische Anmerkungen. (How is a dictionary on Economics compiled? Some lexicographical comments.) Caliiers d'Allemand I. 256-266. The three authors, BOELCKE, STRALB and THIELE, document the compilation of their GermanFrench dictionary of economics. Two of them are native speakers of German, one is a French speaker. They describe the preparation, production and correction phases of their project, the text corpora they included and their operational procedures. The authors emphasize the necessity of definitions in cases where there are no direct equivalents in the other language. They included Swiss and Austrian variants of economic jargon as well as abbreviations and acronyms. Because of the predominance of Anglo-Saxon neologisms, they included IPA transcriptions as well as usage rules and collocations for verbs to best serve the user. [Prisca Schüler] Bogaards. Paul (1998a): Scanning long entries in learner's dictionaries. -In: Thierry Fontenelle. Philippe Hiligsmann, Archibald Michiels. Andre Moulin, and Siegfried Theissen (eds.): Actes EURALEX '98 proceedings: Papers submitted to the eighth EURALEX international congress on lexicography in Liege, Belgium. (Vol. II), 555-563. Liege, Belgium: University of Liege, English and Dutch Departments.

16 BOGAARDS, in this experimental study, tested 54 Dutch learners of English on the amount of time (in seconds) that they spent on English learners' dictionary entries of varying lengths, finding that they spent less time (42 seconds) with LDOCE and C1DE compared to COBUILD and OALD (52 seconds). On a follow-up translation test on the words looked up, he found that when students used LDOCE or CIDE, their answers were correct or "nearly correct" 87% of the time. OALD was in second, and COBUILD users, the least accurate, scored 82%. BOGAARDS concludes that "LDOCE and CIDE, which both have access structures which are based on semantic principles, give the best results; students find the information they are looking for more often and they need less time to find it". Bogaards, Paul (1998b): What type of words do language learners look up? -In: Β. T. Sue Atkins (ed.): Using dictionaries: Studies of dictionary use by language learners and translators. 151-157. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 88). BOGAARDS tests 45 first year Dutch students of French on their decision-making about which words from French texts should be looked up in a bilingual dictionary. He examined them on three types of words, "infrequent words", words used in an "idiomatic sense", and false cognates. The students looked up 67% of the infrequent words, 75% of the idiomatic words, and 24% of the false cognates, and made errors in translation for 29% of the infrequent words, 41% of the idiomatic, and 53% of the false cognates, even though they looked them up. For those words not looked up in the dictionary, the error percentages were higher, 51 %, 77%, and 78%, respectively, for the three types of words. Bogaards, Paul (1997): Les informations collocationnelles dans le dictionnaire." (Information on collocations in the dictionary.) Revue Frangaise de Linguistique Appliquee 2(1), 31-42. BOGAARDS examines HAUSMANN'S theory of the analysis of collocations and tests it on the dictionary search strategies of learners of French and Dutch, discovering different strategies for each group. He finds that the Dutch students learning French looked up the base first and the collocator second, and looked up the noun first in noun-adjective and noun-verb collocations. The French-speaking students of Dutch, however, did not have a clear preference for the base or collocator, instead preferring to look up the noun first and especially to look up infrequent words. Bogaards, Paul (1996): Dictionaries for learners of English. International Journal of Lexicography 9(4), 277-320.

BOGAARDS evaluates and compares four learners' dictionaries, OALD5, LDOCE3, COBUILD2,

and the new CIDE. He finds that LDOCE3 has the best access structure, the better "precision" in its definitions and a more appropriate defining style, as well as a larger number of examples. OALD5 also scored well, especially for layout, grammatical information, and useful examples. COBUILD2 and CIDE followed behind in BOGAARDS' rankings, primarily because the accessibility "of forms" and of "multi-word expressions" was not as efficient, and because the use of labels and the general layout of these two dictionaries were not as useful, according to BOGAARDS.

17 Bogaards, Paul (1995): Dictionnaires et comprehension ecrite. (Dictionaries and reading comprehension.) Cahiers de lexicologie 67 (2), 37-53. BOGAARDS "investigates the relationship between dictionary use and reading". He critically discusses the rare experimental evidence, BENSOUSSAN, S I M , AND W E I S S ( 1 9 8 4 ) , SUMMERS ( 1 9 8 8 ) , T O N O ( 1 9 8 9 ) , N E S I a n d M E A R A ( 1 9 9 1 ) , M Ü L L I C H ( 1 9 9 0 ) , HULSTIJN ( 1 9 9 3 ) , a n d LUPPESCU

and

and the explanations that have been given for the lack of advantages for readers of a foreign language when using dictionaries. In conclusion, he proposes some new lines of thought, a heuristic flow-chart, and discusses recent research on dictionary use and dictionary reading. DAY ( 1 9 9 4 ) ,

Bogaards, Paul (1994a): Tuning the dictionary to the skills of intermediate learners. Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen 23, 192-205. BOGAARDS reports the results of four controlled experimental studies of high school students, Dutch learners of French, who looked up 27 French words and fixed phrases in a bilingual French-Dutch dictionary. Both the explicit teaching of the meaning of the grammatical codes in the entries and the elimination of the task of looking up the entries using alphabetical ordering had the effect of raising the scores of two of the groups. B O G A A R D S seconds H A U S M A N N ' S proposal that dictionaries must supply more information on collocations at both the collocator and the base, citing errors that could be traced to the students' failure to find the appropriate entry. He also criticizes the grammatical codes used in one French-Dutch dictionary as too opaque.

Bogaards, Paul (1994b): Leerwoordenboeken in het talenonderwijs. (Learner's dictionaries in language instruction) Levende Talen 490 (May), 264-269. An empirical study is reported that analyzes the role of learners' dictionaries in the learning of French by Dutch speaking freshmen. There is a comparison/contrast of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries. The notion of user-friendliness is examined in regard to the language and organization of monolingual dictionaries. Bogaards, Paul (1993): Models of dictionary use. Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen. (Dutch Contributions to AILA '93 Selected in Honour of Johan Matter) 46/47, 17-28. reviews the research on learners' usage of dictionaries, including a thorough discussion of both the survey type and the experimental type. He concentrates on three models for users' look-up strategies, by SCHOLFIELD (1982), HARTMANN (1989,1989b), and M Ü L L I C H (1990), and proposes his own model, a flow diagram based on H A R T M A N N ' S model. BOGAARDS

Bogaards, Paul (1992a): French dictionary users and word frequencies. -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings III (Part I). Studia Translatologica, Ser.A, Vol. 2, 51-61. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere.

18 reports the results of a survey of French native speakers' and Dutch learners' intuitions about where they would look up fixed phrases in a French dictionary. He then examines four French dictionaries to see where the phrase was actually listed and compares the learners' expectations with the actual listings. BOGAARDS then compares the frequency rank ordering from a large corpus of words in six fixed phrases in French to see if the word frequency could make a difference in the expectations regarding the look ups, and finds that the French native speakers would tend to look up the less frequent words in the fixed phrases. BOGAARDS

Bogaards, Paul (1992b): Ά la recherche de collocations dans le dictionnaire de langue etrangere. (Research on collocations in a foreign language dictionary.) -In: Ramon Lorenzo (ed.): Actas do XIX Congreso Intemacional de Lingiiistica e Filoloxia Romänicas, II (Lexicoloxia e Metalexicografia), 175-185. ACoruna: Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. BOGAARDS reports the results of an experiment on the search strategies of secondary level students of French, who were divided into four groups. They were asked to look up 26 multi-word expressions. He found that the Dutch speaking learners of French tended to look up the noun in the multi-word expression first and were influenced by the grammatical structure of the expression.

Bogaards, Paul (1991a): Dictionnaires pedagogiques et apprentissage du vocabulaire. (Pedagogical dictionaries and the learning of vocabulary.) Cahiers de lexicologie 59 (2), 93-107. discusses possible advantages and disadvantages of the monolingual dictionary for foreign language learners, and then describes an experiment with Dutch students learning French. Students had to translate a short text into French with or without the help of several dictionaries. Two weeks later, they were asked to translate 17 "difficult words" which were isolated from the text. "The numbers of words retained by the users of monolingual or bilingual dictionaries did not differ sufficiently to be taken as proof for the superiority of the monolingual dictionary", (from the abstract) BOGAARDS

Bogaards, Paul (1991b): Word frequency in the search strategies of French dictionary users. Lexicographica 7, 202-212. An experiment was conducted on two groups of native speakers of French to ascertain the relations of word frequency in set collocations to their "looking up behaviour". Understanding search strategies may help dictionary makers to save space by eliminating some of the duplication of entries for idiomatic expressions. "For the time being...the French dictionary maker can save space by affording no more than a single mention of those fixed phrases which are composed of two words with clearly different frequencies ...". The article includes a well documented report on the research methods employed along with statistical tables and a discussion of the results. Bogaards, Paul (1990): Oil cherche-t-on dans le dictionnaire? (Where can one find it in the dictionary?) International Journal of Lexicography 3 (2), 79-102.

19 examines French and Dutch learners' strategies for looking up collocations in the foreign language in a monolingual dictionary. He finds that when looking up adjective plus noun collocations, four criteria were reported by the students: relative frequency of the two words, order of the words, class of the words, and figurative or literal meaning of the word in the expression. In their dictionary search strategies, all students looked up the noun first, but several French-Dutch differences were noted. French speakers rely on word frequency more, while Dutch speakers rely on word class first, with word frequency as a secondary strategy. BOGAARDS

Bogaards, P. (1988): A propos de l'usage du dictionnaire de langue etrangere. (Concerning the use of the foreign language dictionary). Cahiers de lexicologie 52 (1), 131-152. reviews studies by TOMASZCZYK, BAXTER, BEJOINT, HARTMANN, GALISSON, and R A S He mentions the lack of homogeneous, in-depth samples as well as the vagueness of some of the studies' questions. In addition, he describes his current study: a 30-item questionnaire given to 400 Dutch learners of French, regarding their choice of dictionary; frequency of dictionary use; and reasons for selecting a particular dictionary. BOGAARDS then discusses the results of his survey as well as future directions in lexicography, such as computer dictionaries and the use of computers for research. BOGAARDS MUSSON.

Bogaards, Paul (1985): Een vergelijking van het gebruik van twee woordenboeken door Gerlingen van het a.v.o. (A comparison in the use of two dictionaries by secondary school students.) -In: G.E. Booij, A.C.M. Goeman, and P. Th. van Reenen (eds.): Corpusgebaseerde Woordanalyse Jaarboek 1985, 17-19. Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit. BOGAARDS compares the usage of two French-Dutch bilingual dictionaries by Belgian students of French. He finds that they have difficulties using either dictionary for looking up the French word and for choosing the correct equivalent from the entry.

Bolinger, Dwight (1990): Review of: The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, 4th Edition. International Journal of Lexicography 3(2): 133-145. presents an exceptionally thorough review, including a detailed analysis of the shortcomings of the OALD's use of the IPA, a critique of the treatment of gradable adjectives, and inconsistencies in the location of idioms and collocations, as well as a lack of American English idioms. BOLINGER praises the defining policy, citing very readable definitions, and also praises the numerous examples that read well and that efficiently discriminate senses. BOLINGER likes the block capital letters for defining the senses of a polysemous word. There are five pages of criticism of OALD's revised grammatical codes. Overall, a detailed and nitpicking, but surprisingly positive review. BOLINGER

Bool, Hilary and Ronald Carter (1989): Vocabulary, culture, and the dictionary. -In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners' dictionaries: State of the art, 172-183. (Anthology Series 23) Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.

20 and CARTER demonstrate how three learners' dictionaries, O A L D , L D O C E , and C O fail to provide enough information for phrases such as "Velcro fastener" and "hunt saboteurs". They recognize that the "dictionaries do have to be selective." BOOL

BUILD,

B o u k r e e v a , Tatiana (1996): Vers un dictionnaire bilingue informatise d'apprentissage. (Toward an electronic bilingual learner's dictionary.) Les Langues Modernes 90(2), 58-67. describes the features of an electronic French-Russian learners' dictionary, including a description of exercises for the users on new words, collocations, figurative meanings, and idiomatic phrases. The article contains many examples of how this new computer dictionary could be used in the classroom to aid the learning of French by Russian students. BOUKREEVA

B r a y , Laurent (1989): Consultabilite et lisibilite du dictionnaire: Aspects formels. (Easy access and readability of the dictionary: Formal aspects.) -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/ Dictionaries/ Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. I: 135-146. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. examines in detail the readability of the dictionary through nine purely formal aspects of printing and meta-lexicography: the size of the volume, the weight of the paper, the format (unabridged, semi-abridged, or pocket), the size of the margins, the number of columns, the layout within columns, the guide words, the use of color, and the font types. BRAY

Brito, Eliana V. (1992): "Leitura de textos didaticos: U m a abordagem pragmatica." (Reading didactic texts: A pragmatic approach.) ESPecialist 13 (1), 93-102. surveys Brazilian eighth graders on their reading strategies and dictionary use. She finds that the students' primary strategy was the use of a dictionary to retrieve meaning and to understand the author's intention. However, when the students were given training in critical reading, their use of the dictionary to retrieve meaning declined.

BRITO

B r o e d e r s , Ton (1987): The treatment of phonological idioms. -In: A. Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the E U R A L E X seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985,246-256. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). defines a phonological idiom in English as "an idiom whose accentual pattern is not predictable". He claims that learners' dictionaries need to include information regarding this accentual pattern in the entries for particular idioms. BROEDERS uses a "sentence accent assignment rule" to accurately predict the position of the accent. A review of the patterns currently used in the O A L D C E and the ODCIE 2 is the basis for this critical discussion. In contrast, he finds that the L D O C E adequately treats the accentual pattern of many English idioms. BROEDERS

B u j a s , Zeljko (1975): Testing the performance of a bilingual dictionary on topical current texts. Studia Romanica et Anglica Zagrabiensia 39, 193-204.

21 This article thoroughly describes the testing of an English-Croatian dictionary (the DEC 70) against print materials in an effort to catch any gaps or errors in its composition. Researchers read periodicals and other current, frequently published texts, then looked up nearly every word to test the dictionary's comprehensiveness. Bwenge, Charles (1989): Lexicographical treatment of affixational morphology: A case study of four Swahili dictionaries. -In: Gregory James (ed.): Lexicographers and their works, 517. Exeter Linguistic Studies 14. University of Exeter Press. This study examines problems encountered by the lexicographer attempting to organize a dictionary of Swahili. B W E N G E compares the methods used by four dictionaries to classify terms which contain a "complex morphological structure." He notes that for a Bantu language like Swahili, a traditional alphabetic lexical system ".. .is not suitable". B W E N G E also discusses classifying the affixational morphemes of the language as separate entries instead of treating them in the same manner as prefixes, infixes, etc. accord-ing to the lexical structure of most European languages. Cahill, Aidan (1989): Word-frequency dictionaries of Russian: The user perspective. -In: Gregory James (ed.). Lexicographers and their works, 18-27. Exeter Linguistic Studies 14. University of Exeter Press. This study focuses on Russian scholars who, unlike their Western counterparts, have been vigorous in their study of lexicography. Word frequency is said to be emphasized in the design of Russian student dictionaries. Such a design scheme allows students and teachers to maximize efficiency in learning lexical items. The author compared several dictionaries of the type listed above and discovered that the inclusion of words is not just a function of word frequency, but also of lexicographers' philosophies. Therefore, there are divergences and variations between Russian Word Count (RWC) dictionaries. Calanchini, Elena (1982): Vocabolari nazionali: contatti, immagine e aspettative dei giovani." (Swiss national dictionaries: Use, images, and expectations of young people.) -In: Ottavio Lurati and Hans Strieker (eds.): Die Schweizerischen Wörterbücher: Beiträge zu ihrer wissenschaftlichen und kulturellen Bedeutung, 241-249. Fribourg, Suisse: Editions Universitaires Fribourg Suisse. reports a survey of Swiss students' usage of the four Swiss dictionaries of French, German, Italian, and Romansch. They use them most frequently as sources of scientific information, next as interesting reading material, and lastly as guides for usage. CALANCHINI

Candel, Danielle (1983): A propos de dictionnaires du Fran9ais langue etrangere. (On the dictionaries of French as a foreign language) -In: Robert Galisson (ed.). Image et usage du dictionnaire, 110-126. Etudes de linguistique appliquee 49 (Janvier-Mars).

22 analyzes the treatment of a variety of words and collocations in six learners' dictionaries, detailing the coverage of the lexicon, the methods of definition and explication, the treatment of multi-word expressions, and the effectiveness of their illustrations. CANDEL

Carter, Ronald (1989): Review articles: LDOCE and COBUILD. International Journal of Lexicography 2(1), 30-43. highlights several features of L D O C E 2 and C O B U I L D , such as the defining style, especially C O B U I L D ' s conversational style in its definitions, the extensive examples, and the grammatical information, especially C O B U I L D ' s middle column. CARTER reserves special praise for the multi-million word corpus that provides all of C O B U I L D ' s examples. CARTER

Chagunda, M. (1983): Interfaces between technical dictionaries and EAP learners. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis. University of Aston in Birmingham. compares the treatment of technical terms in the Longman Dictionary of Scientific Usage (1979) and the Modern Dictionary of Electronics (1963). CHAGUNDA tape-recorded several informants on the adequacy of the definitions and found that these technical students "generally disliked extravagant definitions, and ...appreciated the usefulness of diagrams in a technical dictionary". CHAGUNDA

Channel), Joanna M. (1990): Vocabulary acquisition and the mental lexicon. -In: Jerzy Tomaszczyk and Barbara Lewändowska-Tomaszczyk (eds.): Meaning and lexicography, 2130. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Pub. Co. reviews the research on vocabulary acquisition by language learners, elucidates the factors involved in vocabulary comprehension and production, and comments on the relevance of ESL learners' dictionaries. She states that "learners' dictionaries (can) be seen as pedagogical tools, rather than merely as ancillary reference materials (because) the lexicon appears to be an independent entity (and) vocabulary acquisition (is) a separate learning activity". CHANNELL

Chansou, Michel (1983): Pour un reflexion sur la nomenclature des dictionnaires de l'ecole elementaire. (Reflection on the lexicon of dictionaries in elementary school). -In: Robert Galisson (ed.): Image et usage du dictionnaire, 127-146. Etudes de linguistique appliquee 49 (Janvier-Mars). surveys French elementary school teachers with a detailed survey-questionnaire on their satisfaction with the coverage of the French lexicon, the appropriateness of the definitions, and the updating of popular expressions in learners' dictionaries for elementary students. CHANSOU

Chi, Man Lai Amy (1998): Teaching dictionary skills in the classroom. -In: Thierry Fontenelle, Philippe Hiligsmann, Archibald Michiels, Andre Moulin, and Siegfried Theissen (eds.): Actes EURALEX '98 proceedings: Papers submitted to the eighth EURALEX international congress on lexicography in Liege, Belgium. (Vol. II), 565-577. Liege, Belgium: University of Liege, English and Dutch Departments.

23

CHI explains the status of the dictionary in schools in Hong Kong, laments the lack of dictionary skills training, and presents the results of a survey and a "pre-test". The survey reveals that most university students own a bilingual English-Chinese dictionary for comprehension, but that very few students own monolingual English learners' dictionaries. The pre-test reveals poor knowledge of the IPA symbols for pronunciation, the least looked up item in dictionary entries. Cop, Margaret (1991): Collocations in the bilingual dictionary. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. Ill, 2775-2778. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. COP outlines the presentation of collocations in dictionaries, including general bilingual dictionaries, specialized dictionaries of collocations, "translatory bilingual dictionaries" for production of the L2, and passive bilingual dictionaries for comprehension of the L2. Cortelazzo, Manlio (1982): Utilizzazione dei vocabolari nazionali nelle universitä. (The use of the Swiss national dictionaries in the university.) -In: Ottavio Lurati and Hans Strieker (eds.): Die Schweizerischen Wörterbücher: Beiträge zu ihrer wissenschaftlichen und kulturellen Bedeutung, 193-199. Fribourg, Suisse: Editions Universitaires Fribourg Suisse. reports the results of a survey of 5 9 university teachers in Switzerland on their use of Swiss dictionaries. Eighteen teachers (30%) do not use them at all. Of the 41 teachers (69%) who use them, only 9 (15%) use them frequently. Of the four dictionaries, the Swiss Italian was the most used, followed by the Romansch dictionary, and the Swiss French and Swiss German dictionaries were used infrequently. CORTELAZZO

Coviello, Giuseppina (1987): II dizionario oggi: Due gruppi di studenti messi a confronto su un "oggetto" molto discusso. (The dictionary today: Two groups of students confront a much debated "object".). Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata 19 (1), 109-129. using Galisson's ( 1 9 8 3 ) questionnaire, surveys first year and fourth year Italian university students of French on their dictionary use, including their preferences for monolingual or bilingual or encyclopedic dictionaries, the use of dictionaries at school, at home, and on trips in France, the relationship between a dictionary, grammar, and the textbook, and the causes of dissatisfaction with dictionaries. The results were compared with those from GALISSON ( 1 9 8 3 ) . COVIELLO,

Cowie, A. P. (1998): A. S. Hornby, 1898-1998: A centenary tribute. International Journal of Lexicography 11(4), 251-268. In this historical account, C O W I E details H O R N B Y ' S academic life as a teacher, administrator, and textbook author in Japan, followed by work for the British Council and for his publisher, Oxford University Press. C O W I E informs us of the myriad achievements in H O R N B Y ' S professional life as a lexicographer who devoted his energies to helping students of the English language; in

24 addition, he highlights HORNBY'S innovations in phraseology, verb pattern coding, and exemplification that endure in the structure of modern learners' dictionaries. Cowie, Anthony P. (1996): The 'Dizionario Scolastico': A learner's dictionary for native speakers. International Journal of Lexicography 9(2), 118-131. COWIE notes several worthwhile features of this monolingual Italian dictionary (1992), including numerous and well done invented examples by the lexicographers in the entries, numerous collocations that are limited to two or three word phrases, the use of terminological tables, and detailed illustrations. Cowie, Anthony P. (1995): The learner's dictionary in a changing cultural perspective. -In: Braj B. Kachru and Henry Kahane (eds.): Cultures, ideologies, and the dictionary: Studies in honor of Ladislav Zgusta, 283-295. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 64). COWIE reviews two dictionaries: the Advanced Learner's Dictionary (ALD 1, 1948) and the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (OALD 4,1989). He examines the treatment of culture from three varying perspectives: the encoding of linguistic information in relation to cultural information, the treatment of gender and gender related issues, and the organization of cultural information in terms of new lexical items, compounds or derivatives. Cowie, Anthony P. (1993): Getting to grips with phrasal verbs. English Today 9(4), 38-41. COWIE addresses problems posed by phrasal verbs for dictionary compilers (particularly for EFL dictionaries): how the entries are arranged, and how the necessary grammatical information can be imparted clearly. He stresses the value of a computerized corpus of the language to provide a wide range of examples for each phrase. Cowie, Anthony P. (1990): Verb syntax in the revised Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary: Descriptive and pedagogical considerations. -In: Euralex '90 proceedings. Ed. Bibliograf in collaboration with The Commission of the European Communities. Barcelona: Bibliograf. 341-347. COWIE describes the changes made in the grammatical coding for the OALD4, moving away from the opaque codes numbered from one through twenty-five, VP1-VP25, to clearer readable abbreviations. Some comparisons with LDOCE2 and COBUILD are also made. Cowie, A.P. (1989a): Pedagogical description of language: Lexis. Annual Review Of Applied Linguistics 10, 196-209. COWIE reviews the history of teaching dictionaries, then focuses on two recent projects in lexical research: the OUP Leeds project and COBUILD. The Leeds project focuses on discerning and defining multiple meanings while the COBUILD project has compiled a large number of English language texts so that words can be examined in a wide variety of natural contexts.

25 then discusses new developments such as "controlling vocabulary" and "grammatical class" in EFL lexicography. COWIE

Cowie, Anthony P. (1989b): The language of examples in English learners' dictionaries. -In: Gregory James (ed.): Lexicographers and their works, 55-61. Exeter Linguistic Studies 14. University of Exeter Press. In this study, C O W I E looks at the design of dictionary entries. He specifically examines how one may successfully illustrate the meaning of a lexical item through the use of examples. Several factors, such as context and the distinction of different meanings, are important criteria for choosing which examples to include in a lexical entry. C O W I E discusses these criteria, and examines the efficacy of actual ("recorded") sentences and "invented" sentences (created especially for elucidating meaning); he concludes that the "learner's perceived learning needs" should be the primary guide for the dictionary compiler. Cowie, Anthony P. (1989): Learners dictionaries: Recent advances and developments. -In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners' dictionaries: State of the art, 42-51. (Anthology Series 23) Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. examines O A L D 4 , L D O C E 2 , C U L D , and C O B U I L D for their verb patterns and grammatical codes, the examples, the defining policies, the illustrations, and the usage notes. He notes the recent trend to take natural examples from a corpus, but defends the traditional invented examples because they can be "shaped in the learners' interests". COWIE

Cowie, A.P. (1987a): Syntax, the dictionary, and the learner's communicative needs. -In: Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985, 183-192. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). discusses the role of syntax in the dictionary, the importance of cohesion across example sentences, and the contributions of syntax and cohesion to the learner's achievement in L2 discourse skills. The dictionary is described as a potentially valuable resource that should contain the grammatical and discourse-level information the learner needs in order to communicate effectively. COWIE

Cowie, Anthony, ed. (1987b): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). This collection contains eighteen papers organized into three sections: "Research into dictionary use and design," including the reference needs of the foreign language learner and his or her reference skills; "The dictionary in teaching and translation," including classroom training in dictionary skills; and "Progress in dictionary design," including recent changes in the design of learners' dictionaries with syntactic coding, illustrations, and example sentences. This annotated bibliography contains: ATKINS et al.; BEJOINT and M O U L I N ; B R O E D E R S ; C O W I E ; DRYSDALE;

26 HARTMANN; HERBST a n d STEIN; ILSON; JANSEN e t a l . ; KIFFER; MAINGAY a n d RUNDELL; M O O N ; SNELLH O R N B Y ; a n d TOMASZCZYK.

Cowie, Anthony P. (1984): EFL dictionaries: Past achievements and present needs. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the international conference on lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983,155-164. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1). emphasizes the principles of encoding grammatical information for language production in EFL dictionaries (also known as learners' dictionaries), especially mentioning trends in British commercial lexicography. He mentions a few criticisms of the use and legitimacy of grammatical codes. The author proposes answers and also presents some suggestions regarding "syntactic specification" and "collocatibility of entry words". He concludes by saying, "...EFL lexicography has strengthened its reputation for user-centered innovation"; but at the same time, the necessity to keep up with current trends in linguistics has coincided with a "waning interest in the teaching of grammar". COWIE

Cowie, A. P. (1983a): English dictionaries for the foreign learner. -In:R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): Lexicography: Principles and practice, 135-144. New York: Academic Press. comments on the reference needs of advanced EFL learners. He discusses the difficulty posed by common English words which enter into a variety of grammatical constructions and idioms. He argues that these "necessary everyday words" are of primary importance to the dictionary-maker. COWIE also addresses the question of strict alphabetical ordering vs. the clustering of derivatives, idioms, compounds, etc. under a single entry. He stresses the need for "deliberate teaching" of reference skills. Finally, he cautions that dictionary-makers must take students' "known or anticipated reference skills" into account when designing practical lexical entries. COWIE

Cowie, A.P (1983b): On specifying grammar. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): Lexicography: Principles and practice, 99-107. New York: Academic Press. considers the lexicographer's problem "in trying to reconcile a grammarian's view of the structure and function of words with the...demands of conventional dictionaries". COWIE examines "grammatical units" such as lexemes, derivatives, and compound nouns, exemplifying problematic decisions that the lexicographer must make. He concludes with observations on grammatical labeling, praising the labels used in the Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary and the Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English. COWIE

Cowie, Anthony P. (1981a): The treatment of collocations and idioms in learners' dictionaries. Applied Linguistics 2(3), 223-235. briefly presents the problems encountered by lexicographers when treating idioms and collocations in learners' dictionaries. Later, he focuses on dictionaries of idiomatic English and makes specific reference to the Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English. COWIE

27 Cowie, Anthony P. (ed.) (1981b): Lexicography and its pedagogic applications. Thematic issue of Applied Linguistics 2(3). This collection, introduced by C O W I E , contains eight papers on dictionary use, primarily on the use of learners' dictionaries for ESL. The topics include learners' reference skills, collocations, pronunciation, register, regional variation, and meaning in learners' dictionary definitions. This annotated bibliography contains B E J O I N T , C O W I E , D U B O I S , G I M S O N , H A R T M A N N , J A I N , T O M A S Z C ZYK, and a review by H A R T M A N N . Cowie, A. P. (1979): The treatment of polysemy in the design of a learner's dictionary. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): Dictionaries and their users: Papers from the BAAL seminar on lexicography. Exeter Linguistic Studies 4 & ITL Review of Applied Linguistics 45-46, 8288. Exeter: University of Exeter Press and Louvain: Catholic University Press. In this article, C O W I E calls for careful studies of the "requirements" of learners of English as a foreign language; the lexicographer should provide information that helps the learner learn how to avoid and be aware of "sources of common errors". The treatment of polysemy is the major focus, especially as it concerns delineation of sub-senses by listing non-systematic syntactic functions. A great deal of attention is given also to non-parallel word-formation and collocatibility across sub-senses. C O W I E claims that the careful and systematic use of formatting and design can generate a more informed linguistic performance by the learner. The learners' dictionary seems to require a more elaborate treatment of polysemy than found in a general dictionary which allocates more space to grammatical information and the inclusion of more "hard words". Cowie, Anthony P. (1978a): The place of illustrative material and collocations in the design of a learner's dictionary. -In: Peter Strevens (ed.): In honour of A.S. Hornby, 127-139. Oxford: Oxford University Press. highlights various collocations, pointing out the difficulties they pose for the foreign learner; then he examines ways that two learners' dictionaries, the O A L D and the O D C I E , have treated fixed expressions within dictionary entries. COWIE

Cowie, Anthony P. (1978b): Problems of syntax and the design of a pedagogic dictionary. Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata 10 (2), 255-264. This article discusses some of the recurrent syntactic problems that the foreign learner of English faces; it attempts to show how a pedagogic dictionary (the ODCIE) could be a tool which helps foreign learners to "(i) ascertain and compare the more important grammatical properties of items [and] (ii) stimulate and guide the production of sentences containing the verb-particle combination which are syntactically and lexically novel". Cowie, A. P. and Peter Howarth (1996): Phraseology - a select bibliography. Journal of Lexicography 9(1), 38-49.

International

28 and HOWARTH have compiled a bibliography that lists approximately 285 references that examine phraseology, collocations, idioms, and other fixed expressions, including a good number of items relevant to learners' dictionaries. It is now updated (1998) on the EURALEX website. COWIE

Creamer, Thomas (1987): Beyond the definition: Some problems with examples in recent Chinese-English and English-Chinese bilingual dictionaries. -In: Anthony P. Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner, 238-245. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). examines the appropriateness and usefulness of examples in an English-Chinese bilingual dictionary. He cites several types of problems with examples, including: an incomplete definition in the entry combined with a poor example, a lack of sense discrimination in the example, inappropriate placement of the example in the entry, and the absence of examples. CREAMER

Crystal, David (1986): The ideal dictionary, lexicographer, and user. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Lexicography: An emerging international profession, 72-81. Manchester: Manchester University Press in association with the Fulbright Commission, London. bemoans the dearth of experimental studies on dictionary use, recommending that a lexicographer's "traditional training in descriptive lexicography should be supplemented with the ability to practise what might now be called 'experimental lexicography'". CRYSTAL criticizes Q U I R K ' S questionnaire on dictionary use given to British undergraduates for being too "orthodox" and for having "serious limitations". CRYSTAL recommends "acceptability judgments" to get at the users' lexicographic competence and verbal protocols, experiments based on users' self-reporting of their dictionary use behavior, and "allowing the users to determine the questions asked in questionnaires to determine the users' performance limitations" (in C H O M SKY'S sense). CRYSTAL

Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex (1994): On-line lexical resources for language learners: Assessment of some approaches to word definition. System 22(3), 369377. et al. evaluate the defining policies of L D O C E , with traditional definitions in phrases, and C O B U I L D , with its full sentence definitions, in a controlled experimental procedure with 85 adult advanced level E S L students. The students preferred C O B U I L D ' s sentence definitions plus a usage example (71%) over L D O C E ' s phrasal definitions plus examples (27%). CUMMING

Czochralski, Jan (1981): Zur theoretischen und praktischen Lexikographie. (On theoretical and practical lexicography.) Kwartalnik Neofilologiczny 28(2), 167-180. presents the fundamental principles of lexicography without a single reference to the standard works on the subject. Theoretical considerations are followed by a basic typology of dictionaries. CZOCHRALSKI then focuses on monolingual and bilingual dictionaries and suggests some basic principles for a good bilingual dictionary. [Prisca Schüler] CZOCHRALSKI

29 Dalgish, Gerard Μ. (1995): Learners' dictionaries: Keeping the learner in mind? -In: Braj B. Kachru and Henry Kahane (eds.): Cultures, ideologies, and the dictionary: Studies in honor of Ladislav Zgusta, 329-338. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 64). offers a review and comparison of the methodologies used by five popular learners' dictionaries: Longman Dictionary of American English, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, COBUILD English Learner's Dictionary, and Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary. He contrasts the dictionaries using the number of entries; treatments of pronunciation and inflection; grammatical coding; the language and examples used in definitions; and other referential and usage notes. DALGISH examines these elements regarding the way in which they "reflect attitude and demands on different groups of learners". He notes the strengths and weaknesses of the various dictionaries in each of these areas. DALGISH

Dalgish, Gerard M. (1985): Dictionary selection and the lexicon. Papers in Linguistics 18(1), 65-79. outlines the structure of a "forthcoming American English as a Second Language Dictionary", concentrating on selectional criteria for entries, sub-senses, grammatical information, and usage notes based on ESL error analysis. DALGISH

Delbridge, Arthur (1989): Usage and style: Implications for lexicography. -In: Gregory James (ed.): Lexicographers and their works, 66-73. Exeter Linguistic Studies 14. University of Exeter Press. addresses the problem of spelling and semantic variants in Australian English. He notes that a major consideration in lexicography is the variation which exists within a single language. His view is that lexicographers must be aware of their own biases and cognizant of the views of the community towards variants. Care must also be taken in the "labeling of usage", since a dictionary can be both prescriptive as well as descriptive in its approach to any language. DELBRIDGE

De Andrade, Maria Aparecida Ferreira (1992): Dictionarios: Meta, atalho ou mito? (Dictionaries: Goal, obstacle, or myth?). ESPecialist 13(1), 65-74. D E A N D R A D E surveys 2 0 0 Brazilian secondary students on their dictionary use while "learning English for special purposes". She finds that the students have many difficulties with their dictionaries, and that their teachers are naively optimistic about their students' familiarity with dictionaries.

D'Elia, Caterina (1992): Syntactic information in monolingual dictionaries: The Oxford Learner's Dictionary. Linguisticae Investigationes 16(2), 233-265. analyzes issues of form/meaning in the dictionary, especially as it pertains to transitive and intransitive usage (with attention to locatives and datives). Explanation of verbs found in D'ELIA

30 the dictionary are studied for ease of comprehension and attendant issues of organization and the viability of the notational system to indicate syntactic categories and structures. D ' E L I A proposes a highly systematic presentation of syntactic information based on a proposed approach (a defined set of principles) that emphasizes the lexicon as a matrix table. Descamps, J. L. and R. Vaunaize (1983): Le dictionnaire au jour le jour en milieu adulte: Une pre-enquete. (The dictionary used from day to day by adults: A pre-study.) In: Robert Galisson (ed.): Image et usage du dictionnaire, 89-109. Etudes de linguistique appliquee 49. and VAUNAIZE report the results of a survey they gave to 1 0 5 French speaking adults in France on their dictionary use. These adults tended to use their dictionaries at home rather than at work. They looked up spellings the most, definitions second, the existence of a word third, and pronunciation the least. DESCAMPS

Diab, Turki (1990): Pedagogical lexicography: A case study of Arab nurses as dictionary users, 31. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 31). D I A B ' S book, based on his Ph.D. dissertation, examines dictionary use by 405 student nurses in Jordan and finds that well over 80% were using one or two English-Arabic bilingual dictionaries for decoding nursing texts written in English. More than 25% also used OALD and another 10% used LDOCE as supplemental dictionaries. The usage of the English learners' dictionaries was low because the students had "relatively poor general linguistic proficiency". D I A B has included 303 items in his bibliography on meta-lexicography.

Diab, Turki (1989): The role of dictionaries in English for Specific Purposes: A case study of student nurses at the University of Jordan. -In: Gregory James (ed.): Lexicographers and their works, 74-82. Exeter Linguistic Studies 14. University of Exeter Press. This article is a summary of D I A B ' S doctoral dissertation which addressed the skills dictionary users have and learn; the means through which the users apply their skills; the needs of users; and the types of dictionaries used. D I A B used a "user-perspective" approach and conducted an English for Specific Purposes (ESP) study. He also conducted structured interviews, had the students maintain "dictionary use" diaries, and analyzed some syllabi for dictionary use. Among other things, he found that dictionary use was encouraged only at the higher levels. Dolezal, Fredric T. and Don R. McCreary (1996): Language learners and dictionary users: Commentary and an annotated bibliography. Lexicographica 12, 125-165. The authors annotate, after an evaluative introduction, 178 articles that are primarily about the four major dictionaries for advanced learners of English, LDOCE, OALD, COBUILD, and CIDE. Doppagne, Veronique (1998): Moving EFL students to a regular use of the learner's dictionary: Carrot or stick approach? -In: Thierry Fontenelle, Philippe Hiligsmann, Archibald Michiels, Andre Moulin, and Siegfried Theissen (eds.): Actes EURALEX '98 proceedings:

31 Papers submitted to the eighth EURALEX international congress on lexicography in Liege, Belgium. (Vol. II), 589-592. Liege, Belgium: University of Liege, English and Dutch Departments. In this brief report, DOPPAGNE reveals that English learners' dictionaries are virtually unknown in Francophone Belgium. In a classroom test of dictionary use, she instructed her students to avoid making errors in their English essay writing by using a learners' dictionary, but instead discovered that a French-English dictionary provided more efficient help. In the future, she plans to require her students to buy COBUILD2 and "to create new dictionary habits". Drysdale, P. D. (1987): The role of examples in a learner's dictionary. -In: Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985,213-223. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). discusses the importance of including examples in a learner's dictionary. In addition, the article includes six specific functions served by such examples: to supplement the information in a definition; to show the entry word in context; to distinguish one meaning from another; to illustrate grammatical patterns; to show other typical collocations; and to indicate appropriate registers or stylistic levels. The article is written from an analytical perspective with some insights from the learner's perspective. DRYSDALE

Dubois, Jean (1981): Models of the dictionary: Evolution in dictionary design. Applied Linguistics 2(3), 236-249. the editor of the Dictionnaire du frangais langue etrangere, describes "the traditional model" of the dictionary for native speakers, based on etymology and literary examples, and then highlights the evolution of the contemporary model, which incorporated colloquial language for examples and syntactic patterns. He claims that these modern French dictionaries are actually learners' dictionaries for French native speakers. He concludes with a description of the features of an English-French bilingual dictionary he edited, the Dictionnaire de l'Anglais Contemporain, demonstrating the pedagogical use of a controlled vocabulary, and the organization of the entries based on syntactic patterns, everyday expressions, and stylistic information. DUBOIS,

Ducroquet, Lucile (1994): Are bilingual dictionaries useful linguistic tools? Language ing Journal 9, 48-51.

Learn-

This study compared the completeness of citations in the fields of information technology, business, general information, and medicine using the Harraps and Collins Robert dictionaries. Both dictionaries showed a high degree of correctness, completeness and accuracy with respect to information technology, but they did not exhibit such high quality accuracy in the other areas studied. The author concludes that bilingual dictionaries are useful, but are somewhat arbitrary in their inclusion of material.

32 El-Badry, Nawal Η. (1990): Bilingual dictionaries of English and Arabic for Arabic-speaking advanced learners of English. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Exeter, Exeter, U.K. surveys 493 Arab students of ESL on their use of both English learners' dictionaries and bilingual Arabic-English dictionaries and finds that the English-Arabic dictionary is the most frequently used type with the Al-Mawrid English-Arabic dictionary by Β A ' ALBAKI chosen by 55%. The OALD is used by 24% of the students. As for usage, the meanings of words are looked up the most, followed by spelling, synonyms, usage, and pronunciation. These Arabic students found that both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries were difficult to use because the definitions were ambiguous, the examples were insufficient, and the usage was unclear. The Arabic-English and monolingual Arabic dictionaries had other problems: the obsolescence of the Arabic vocabulary in the entries, a lack of modern vocabulary, especially technical vocabulary, and poorly arranged entries, making information difficult to find. EL-BADRY

Ellegard, Alvar (1978): On dictionaries for language learners. Moderna Sprak 72(3), 225-242. This is a survey article that gives a history of the dictionary. E L L E G A R D discusses the pros and cons of bilingual versus monolingual dictionaries for language learners. The effectiveness of the A L D and L D O C E are compared along with suggestions for improvements, with an emphasis on etymology. El-Sakran, T. (1985): The treatment of phrasal and prepositional verbs in general purpose English-Arabic dictionaries. Unpublished. M.Sc. thesis. University of Aston in Birmingham, Birmingham, U.K. surveyed 36 Egyptian graduate students in the U.K. on their dictionary use. Of the 36 students, 34 used several bilingual English-Arabic dictionaries, and many reported dissatisfaction with a lack of examples and insufficient information. E L - S A K R A N found that there was not enough grammatical information in the English-Arabic dictionaries to help these students with phrasal verbs in English. EL-SAKRAN

Feldweg, Helmut (1997): Wörterbücher und neue Medien: Alter Wein in neuen Schläuchen? (Dictionaries and new media, electronic bilingual dictionaries: Old wine in new bottles?) Lili, Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik 27(106), 30-43. criticizes the new electronic dictionaries because they are "mirror images of paper dictionaries" with unexploited potential as powerful reference tools. He describes a research project on bilingual dictionaries that are user-friendly, very flexible, and adaptable to the users' needs. FELDWEG

Fenner, Kirsten (1997): Von Text zu Text: die Textsorte Wörterbuch als Vermittlerin bei der Rezeption und Produktion von Texten. Ein benutzerorientierter Ansatz. (From text to text: The dictionary as text type as a mediator of reception and production of texts. A user-oriented approach.) Lexicographica 13, 169-197.

33 describes characteristics of the dictionary as text in bilingual dictionaries of English and GermanfCo///ni, Duden-Oxford, and Langenscheidt's). She believes that the primary distinction between active dictionaries (Übersetzungswörterbücher) and passive dictionaries (Erklärungswörterbücher) is not addressed in English-German bilingual dictionaries, because publishers claim that their dictionaries can serve all possible users and purposes. She elaborates further theoretical considerations concerning the dictionary as text, leading to an evaluation of the Longman Language Activator, which has "raised reading a dictionary to a principle". In F E N N E R ' S opinion, the Activator systematically directs the user to all lexemes and phrasal verbs linked to an item in a very convenient way. She refers to a study in which 87% of students interviewed at Heidelberg University said they enjoyed looking something up in a dictionary and then kept on reading. Like many others, FENNER demands a systematic introduction to dictionary use in schools and universities and a dictionary structure that is conducive to reading. [Prisca Schüler] FENNER

Festag, Ewald (1991): Wie ist es denn nun eigentlich richtig? Einige Anmerkungen zur Aussprache bestimmter englischer Wörter. (How is it really correct? Some remarks on the pronunciation of certain English words) Fremdsprachenunterricht 35 (2), 89-91. presents a list of English words whose pronunciation tends to vary thus leading to insecurity on the part of the learner and teacher. The article draws the reader's attention to the pronunciation of some of the following: library, clothes, address, and cafe.

FESTAG

Fillmore, Charles (1989): Two dictionaries. International Journal of Lexicography 2(1), 5783. In this lengthy review, FILLMORE takes a very detailed look at the language of the definitions in LDOCE2 and COBUILD, critically analyzing COBUILD's full sentence definitions, syntagmatic features, and semantics, and focusing on relational terms, polysemy, and etymological motivation. This review is among the two most linguistically oriented reviews (with B O L I N G E R ' S ) , but focuses on lexical semantics, rather than the analysis of the grammatical information in the two dictionaries. It is especially critical of the COBUILD definitions. Fischer, Ute (1994): Learning words from context and dictionaries: An experimental comparison. Applied Psycholinguistics 15(4), 551-574. conducted a controlled experiment on learning the meanings of words from dictionaries with three groups of German students of English: the first group read a text which had unfamiliar words, the second group had a list of dictionary entries from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary for the same unfamiliar words, and the third group had both the text and the dictionary entries. All three groups then were asked to write one English sentence for each unfamiliar word, followed by a German translation for each. The result, discussed at length, is that the contextual cues in the text, and their efficient use, are critical "for acquiring an adequate understanding of word meanings". FISCHER

34 Fontenelle, Thierry, Philippe Hiligsmann, Archibald Michiels, Andre Moulin, and Siegfried Theissen, eds. (1998): Actes EURALEX '98 proceedings: Papers submitted to the eighth EURALEX international congress on lexicography in Liege, Belgium. (Vol. I; Vol. II) Liege, Belgium: University of Liege, English and Dutch Departments. This two-volume collection of sixty-five papers contains eleven papers under the chapter topic, "Dictionary Use", of which this bibliography contains nine. The other chapter topics are: plenary lectures (3 papers), computational lexicology and lexicography (23 papers), "lexical combinatorics" (4 papers), the dictionary-making process (6 papers), bilingual lexicography (5 papers), lexicographical and lexicological projects (6 papers), terminology and dictionaries (5 papers), and "miscellaneous" (2 papers). Fontenelle, Thierry (1996): Ergativity, collocations, and lexical functions. -In: Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex '96 proceedings I-II (Part I), 209-222. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, Dept. of Swedish. examines the treatment of ergative verbs with causative-inchoative alternation in the Collins-Robert English-French dictionary. FONTENELLE contends that the inclusion of much collocational information for the transitive and intransitive uses of verbs and their agents, objects, and patients, makes the Collins-Robert useful for learners, but finds fault with the treatment of a few ergative verbs, such as "bake". FONTENELLE

Fontenelle, Thierry (1992): Collocation acquisition from a corpus or from a dictionary: A comparison. -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part I). Studia Translatologica, Ser.A, Vol. 2, 221-228. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. considers the treatment of collocations in a machine-readable version of the Collins Robert English-French dictionary, focusing on collocations with the word price. The coverage of price as either the base or the collocator of the collocation is extensive but occasionally inconsistent. A corpus analysis was also done for price giving a concordance based on frequency. These corpus analysis results are compared to the types of collocations found in the Collins-Robert. FONTENELLE

Fontenelle, Thierry and Jocelyne Vanandroye (1989): Retrieving ergative verbs from a lexical database. Dictionaries 11, 11-39. and VANANDROYE discuss the treatment of ergative verbs in L D O C E 1 ( 1 9 7 8 ) in its defining formulas and its grammatical codes. They then examine codes for a machine-readable dictionary that could be used for NLP applications. FONTENELLE

Fox, Gwyneth (1989): A vocabulary for writing dictionaries. In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners' dictionaries: State of the art, 153-171. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre (=Anthology Series 23).

35 Fox addresses the issue of a strictly controlled defining vocabulary, revealing that the so-called 2000 word vocabulary is actually "easier to describe as 3000 forms". Fox also describes the rationale behind the use of several sentence patterns in the conversational style of the definitions in COBUILD. Fox, Gwyneth (1987): The case for examples. -In: John M. Sinclair (ed.): Looking up: An account of the COBUILD project in lexical computing and the development of the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary, 137-159. London and Glasgow: Collins. Fox examines the policy of using authentic examples from both the spoken data and written data of the COBUILD corpus. She notes problems regarding how lifting examples from various contexts and then shortening them can damage their usefulness for learners, and she notes other considerations for the lexicographer when editing lengthy examples from the corpus. Gadbois, Vital (1986): La place des dictionnaires du frangais dans les classes quebecoises des 15-20 ans. (The place of dictionaries of French for secondary students in Quebec.) -In: Lionel Boisvert, Claude Poirer, and Claude Verreault (eds.): La lexicographie quebecoise: Bilan et perspectives. Actes du colloque organise par l'equipe du Tresor de la langue frangaise au Quebec et tenu ä l'Universite Laval les 11 et 12 avril 1985, 127-134. Langue fran?aise au Quebec, 3 e section, 8. Quebec: Les presses de Γ Universite Laval. surveys secondary students on their actual dictionary use and attitudes and finds: they look up meanings and spellings the most; they occasionally look up multiple senses or antonyms of a word; and that they rarely look up usage or grammar of a word. As for their attitude to the dictionary, the students do not attach much importance to the dictionary and it does not play a part in their academic lives. GADBOIS

Galisson, Robert (1987): De la lexicographie de depannage ä la lexicographie d'apprentissage: Pour une politique de renovation des dictionnaires monolingues de FLE ä l'ecole. (On learners' lexicography: Toward restoring the role of the monolingual French dictionary in the French as a second language classroom.) Cahiers de lexicologie 51(2), 95-118. argues for restoring the dictionary to its former prominent place in the French as a second language classroom. The regular use of dictionaries in second language classes has declined over the past several decades because dictionary makers have not adapted them to new school curricula emphasizing communicative competence. G A L I S S O N recommends that dictionary entries be transformed to become "tools for the extension and structuring of lexical knowledge, truly complementing the teaching method". GALISSON

Galisson, Robert (1983): Image et usage du dictionnaire chez les etudiants (en langue) de niveau avance. (Perception and usage of the dictionary among advanced learners of French) -In: Robert Galisson (ed.): Image et usage du dictionnaire, 5-88. Etudes de linguistique appliquee 49 (Janvier-Mars).

36 surveys French students' monolingual dictionary use and finds that students generally do not realize that the dictionary can be used in language learning. According to the students, the dictionary is best used for decoding text; however, encoding, using it to write, is a distant second. When asked to define the word, dictionary, they mention only decoding and encoding in their definitions, and do not include learning more about language. GALISSON

Gillard, Patrick and Adam Gadsby (1998): Using a learners' corpus in compiling ELT dictionaries. -In: Sylviane Granger (ed.): Learner English on computer, 159-171. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd. and G A D S B Y enumerate the advantages of using a corpus of learner errors in English to improve learners' dictionaries, especially the production dictionaries, Longman Language Activator and Longman Essential Activator. The learner corpus is used by these Longman editors to determine whether to include certain words and phrases and to improve access in the Activator by using keywords that are very frequent in learners' English. They also have improved the wording of some definitions that could cause misunderstanding by testing items from Longman's defining vocabulary that are less frequent and are sometimes misused in the learners' corpus. "By having access to a very large body of students' writing, lexicographers are sensitised to and reminded of the needs of their audience". GILLARD

Gimson, A. C. (1981): Pronunciation in EFL dictionaries. Applied Linguistics 2(3), 250-262. The article presents a detailed discussion on the ways in which dictionaries address information on pronunciation. The focus of the discussion is the adequacy of such information for the learner of a foreign language. Issues such as dialectal varieties of pronunciation, models of phonetic annotation, inclusion of information on current phonological changes as well as information on allomorphic distribution are examined. References are made to specific dictionaries. Gorbahn-Orme, Adeline and Franz Josef Hausmann (1991): The dictionary of false friends. In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography, Vol. Ill: 2882-2888. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. This article, with seventy dictionaries and numerous articles in the bibliography, examines dictionaries of false cognates. Examples are taken from English and French, followed by discussion of the demands put upon the lexicographer, such as the careful selection of headwords and the explanation of the different meanings of the cognates being "brief and to the point. Labels indicating style level, regional restrictions, and inherent linguistic restrictions are also recommended. Görlach, Manfred (1991): The dictionary of transplanted varieties of languages: English. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography, Vol. II: 1475-1499. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

37 GÖRLACH examines dictionaries for the various dialects of English which have arisen from English transplanted to various parts of the world. He first discusses the general causes for the changes that occur in a language. Then he examines the dictionaries of English as a native language (e.g., the U.K., the US, Canada, Australia) and those dictionaries of English as a second language (e.g., West African, Caribbean English, and others). GÖRLACH next discusses dictionaries of English-related pidgins and Creoles, first examining criteria for inclusion or exclusion of particular varieties, then examining the respective varieties by geographical region (e.g., the Caribbean, including Jamaica and the Bahamas), noting particular distinctions in the dictionary entry format. The bibliography lists eighty-two dictionaries.

Gouws, Rufus H. (1995): Review of: Lernerwörterbücher in Theorie and Praxis (1994) by Ekkehard Zöfgen. Lexicographica 11,269-277. Gouws summarizes Z Ö F G E N ' s book in English, highlighting the analytical criteria ZÖFGEN uses to criticize monolingual and bilingual learners' dictionaries. Gouws also discusses Z Ö F G E N ' s analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of a valency dictionary. There is little evaluation and much implicit praise. Gray, J. C. (1986): Creating the electronic New Oxford English Dictionary Computers and the Humanities 20, 45-49. reports the results of a survey of users of the on-line OED (now on CD-ROM) on their expected uses of it and their preferred uses of the OED in the future. These include listing quotations by given word strings, and listing them by author, source, and date. Other requests by the future users would require changes in the database, e.g., searching semantic fields, using the OED as a thesaurus, and generating frequency ratings from the entire corpus of citations. GRAY

Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor (1984): The image of the dictionary for American college students. Dictionaries 6, 31-52. et al. report the results of a survey of 240 American college student informants. Thirty-two questions were asked, including: dictionary preference, most common reasons for dictionary use, frequency of use, use of other reference books, evaluation of dictionaries' completeness as well as ease of comprehension, among some others. The results contrast the replies of various groups: men/women, upperclassmen/lowerclassmen, and humanities/science or business students. Lastly, the authors compared their results to those of QUIRK who conducted a similar study in the U.K., and found that the Americans used their English dictionaries more than their British counterparts. According to their self-reports, the Americans were more demanding about improving comprehensive coverage of the lexicon and were less demanding about improving the wording of the definitions. Overall, the American students were more satisfied with their dictionaries. GREENBAUM

Griffin, R (1985): Dictionariesin the ESL classroom. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Southern Illinois University.

38 reports the results of a survey, a ten-item questionnaire, given to 1 2 8 E S L students from 13 different language backgrounds at the undergraduate level on their usage of dictionaries. The questions were on the types of dictionaries owned, the frequency of use, and the use of the front matter and back matter. The results showed that bilingual dictionaries were the most popular, the students were not aware of the features of learners' dictionaries, and the front and back matter in all dictionaries was ignored. GRIFFIN

Gross, Gaston (1989): Le dictionnaire et l'enseignement de la langue maternelle. (Dictionaries as an aid in teaching the mother tongue) -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/ Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. 1:174-180. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. This is an examination of dictionary use in France, particularly in elementary and secondary schools. Although widely used, learners' dictionaries have at least one serious flaw: they separate lexical from syntactic information. The computer revolution means a new dictionary is possible: one that works at the phrase level rather than the word level and that can be customized to fit the user's ability. Hanks, Patrick (1990): Towards a statistical dictionary of modern English: Some preliminary reflections. -In: T. Magay and J. Zigäny (eds.): Budalex '88 proceedings: Papers from the Euralex third international congress, 53-57. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado. discusses the inclusion of words in a dictionary and the ordering of their senses based on the frequency information found in a large corpus, such as COBUILD's eighteen million word corpus. He argues that the "most important meaning" as judged by the lexicographers should be the first sense listed. He also argues that for the appropriate ordering of senses and for the most useful collocations for the learners, a large corpus is essential. HANKS

Hanks, Patrick (1988): A new kind of dictionary for English learners. Les Cahiers de I APLIUT 30-31, 8 (1-2) septembre-decembre, 73-88. This article explains how the COBUILD dictionary was created through an analysis of the most common "phraseological patterns" associated with each lexical item. A large computerized corpus of the English language was used to determine the relative frequency of particular types of phrases. The dictionary stresses the "normal" use of a word rather than the "possible" uses. The author claims that this approach helps the language student produce more "natural" or "conventional" utterances in the second language. Examples for the dictionary entries are taken from the corpus of actual usages of the lexical item. Hanks, Patrick (1987): Definitions and explanations. -In: John M. Sinclair (ed.): Looking up: An account of the COBUILD project in lexical computing and the development of the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary, 116-136. London and Glasgow: Collins.

39 criticizes the usual conventions in definitions such as brackets and parentheses, then turns to COBUILD's use of definitions written in "everyday language" in full sentences that can be used as spoken models. These are treated as several "equations" for dictionary entries. Hanks argues for the consistent application of specific clause structures, e.g. "A Ν is a " for count nouns, and "N is a " for non-count nouns. For figurative meanings, the clause "If you say that Ν is a , you mean that " is used. H A N K S gives an example: "if you say that woman is a bitch, you mean t h a t . . . " HANKS

Hansford, Gillian (1991): Will Kofi understand the white woman's dictionary? Some ways to make a bilingual dictionary more usable to a new literate. Notes on Linguistics 52 (Feb), 1728.

reports on the process of compiling a bilingual dictionary for newly literate Chumburung speakers (Ghana). Problems of dictionary design, including affixation, alphabetical ordering, and grammatical classifications are discussed. She stresses the importance of designing an easily accessible format for the average literate person. HANSFORD

Harras, Gisela (1989a): Wörterbücher als Hilfsmittel der linguistischen Forschung. (Dictionaries as an aid in linguistic research) -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/ Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. 1:159-163. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. This encyclopedia article examines a variety of facets of dictionary use as it pertains to linguistic research (the linguist as dictionary user). Two main themes are addressed: 1) the dictionary as a model for linguistic theory, especially lexicon construction and analysis (with attention paid to morphology, phonology and syntax); and 2) the dictionary as language informant that can provide data for the development of a semantic metalanguage; basic vocabulary; for the compilation of a particular corpus for analysis; and for cross-linguistic research. Harras, Gisela (1989b): Zu einer Theorie des lexikographischen Beispiels. (Toward a theory of lexicographic examples.) In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. 1: 607-614. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. outlines the essential components of example sentences for an effective dictionary entry, highlighting the inclusion of typical collocations within the examples. H A R R A S then proposes eight criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of examples in entries. HARRAS

Harras, Gisela (1986): Bedeutungsangaben im Wörterbuch. Scholastische Übungen für Linguisten oder Verwendungsregeln für Benutzer? (Representations of meaning in the dictionary. Scholarly exercises for linguists or usage rules for users?) -In: Walter Weiss, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Marga Reis (eds.): Textlinguistik contra Stilistik? Wortschatz und Wörter-

40 buch, Grammatische oder Pragmatische Organisation von Rede? Kontroversen, alte und neue, 134-143. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. concurs with W I E G A N D ( 1 9 8 5 ) that representations of meaning are not to be understood as analytical definitions. Inspired by the work of H. P U T N A M , she postulates three theses for a more holistic description of meaning: (1) Words do not have rigid reference, (2) stereotypes (she also invokes R O S C H ' S prototypes) are established by a community, ( 3 ) within the community there is a division of labor as far as definitions are concerned. She arrives at the following implications for representations of meaning in the dictionary: They are not analytical definitions and there is no number of necessary and sufficient features that must be included in a definition. Dictionary definitions do not have to presuppose an average speaker as user. The diversity of stereotypes should be represented in the dictionary and the user of a dictionary should be instructed in an introduction not to search for the meaning of a given word. [Prisca Schüler] HARRAS

Hartmann, Reinhard (1996): Lexicography as an applied linguistic discipline. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): Solving language problems: From general to applied linguistics, 230-244. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. in this general overview of pedagogical lexicography, outlines the relationship between several areas within linguistics, semantics, morphology, syntax, and the lexicon, and dictionary making as applied to dictionaries for learners. The value of learners' dictionaries as language learning tools is explained in three sections on dictionary typology, dictionary reviews and criticism, and dictionary use by learners. HARTMANN,

Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. (1995): Pedagogical lexicography: Some desiderata. -In: Rene Dirven and Johan Vanparys (eds.): Current approaches to the lexicon: A selection of papers presented at the 18th LAUD symposium, Duisburg, March 1993, 405-411. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. introduces the field of dictionary research related to bilingual and monolingual learners' dictionaries to a non-specialist audience. The article concludes with a sixteen item wish list for learners' dictionaries, including comprehensive histories of lexicographical traditions in English, German, French, and Russian lexicography, better information on how reference skills should be taught, and more experimentation with computer dictionaries. HARTMANN

Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. (1994a): Bilingualised versions of learners' dictionaries. Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen 23, 206-220. reports a "controlled study" by seven of his graduate students on the use of bilingualised dictionaries, dictionaries that are learners' dictionaries, such as the OALD, that also have a few translation equivalents in the students' mother tongue. H A R T M A N N ' S graduate students observed 28 Exeter University students using bilingualised dictionaries in a reading comprehension task. The reported results show successful look-ups and generally positive evaluations from the dictionary users, who were all unfamiliar with the new bilingualised learners' HARTMANN

41 dictionaries. Since the study depended on informal observations, there were no tests or other tasks to independently confirm a successful look-up. Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. (1994b): The use of parallel text corpora in the generation of translation equivalents for bilingual lexicography. -In: Willy Martin, Willem Meijs, Margreet Moerland, Elsemiek ten Pas, Piet van Sterkenburg, and Piek Vossen (eds.): Euralex 1994 proceedings, 291-297. Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit. discusses the potential use of corpora in English and in German to search for translation equivalents and to match collocations for both languages. H A R T M A N N proposes that parallel text corpora also be used to compile bilingual thesauruses.

HARTMANN

Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. (1992): Learners' references: From the monolingual to the bilingual dictionary. -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part I). Studia Translatologica, Ser.A, Vol. 2, 63-70. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. promotes the notion of the bilingualised learners' dictionary, reviewing the history and criticism of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, and noting the mixed typology of the bilingualised dictionary and the lack of dictionary user research. HARTMANN

Hartmann, R.R.K. (1991): Contrastive linguistics and bilingual lexicography. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/ Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. Ill: 2854-59. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. outlines the importance of contrastive analysis for bilingual lexicography in this brief article. He stresses that the wealth of studies from the 1950's through the 1970's can inform bilingual dictionary makers regarding the comparative accuracy for six components: translation equivalence of the word, semantic differences related to meaning discrimination, contrastive graphology, the grammatical equivalence of the syntactic information contained in abbreviations and codes, the grammatical equivalence of the example sentences, and the phonetic equivalence to the users' sound system, symbolized by the IPAor other phonetic systems used in the bilingual dictionary. HARTMANN

Hartmann, R.R.K. (1989): The dictionary as an aid to foreign language teaching. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. I: 181-189. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. The article examines the historical links between dictionary-making and foreign-language teaching. It explores the points of view of both dictionary maker (compiler) and dictionary user. The earlier assumption of compilers, "The more I put in an entry, the better", is changing towards a more restricted, segmental dictionary. Concerning the user, the determination of his reference needs and skills is necessary for the creation of improved dictionaries. A number of pedagogi-

42 cal issues are reviewed (e.g. controversy of monolingual vs. bilingual dictionary, psychological and sociological factors and how they influence dictionary use are discussed). Hartmann, R.R.K. (1989b): Sociology of the Dictionary User: Hypotheses and Empirical Studies. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. I: 102-111. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. This article presents twelve hypotheses regarding the dictionary user along with empirical studies which have been conducted in order to test them. The studies are listed in chronological order under the author's name. A very brief description of each study and its results is given. Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. (1989c): What we (don't) know about the English language learner as a dictionary user: A critical select bibliography. -In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners dictionaries: State of the art, 213-221. (Anthology Series 23.) Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. HARTMANN reviews seven research reports on aspects of dictionary use by learners and three collections of papers that focus on the learner. He praises ATKDMS et al.'s ( 1 9 8 8 ) work and T O N O ' S ( 1 9 8 9 ) and SCHOLFIELD'S ( 1 9 8 2 ) research, and has critical questions for BAXTER ( 1 9 8 0 ) , BENSOUSSAN et al. ( 1 9 8 4 ) and TOMASZCZYK ( 1 9 7 9 ) . He concludes that much research, especially replicable studies, need to be pursued and that the teaching of dictionary reference skills needs to be built into the FL curriculum.

H a r t m a n n , Reinhard R. Κ. (1988): The learners' dictionary: Traum oder Wirklichkeit? (Dream or reality?) -In: Karl Hyldgaard-Jensen and Arne Zettersten (eds.): Symposium on lexicography III: Proceedings of the third international symposium on lexicography May 14-16, 1986 at the University of Copenhagen, 215-235. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 19). reminisces about his language learning experiences with English, "a little Russian", and then "teaching German and learning Japanese". Written half in German and half in English, he highlights the developments in meta-lexicography in the late 1970's and in the 1980's. HARTMANN laments the undeveloped state of learners' dictionaries for the Japanese language. HARTMANN

Hartmann, R.R.K. (1987a): Dictionaries of English: The user's perspective. -In: Richard W. Bailey (ed.): Dictionaries of English: Prospects for the record of our language, 121-135. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. reviews the major studies of dictionary users through 1985, concentrating on the findings of BARNHART (1962), QUIRK (1973; op cit QUIRK, 1974), BEJOINT (1981), MITCHELL (1983; op cit MITCHELL, 1983b), BENSOUSSAN et al. (1984), and W I E G A N D (1985; op cit WIEGAND, 1985a). HARTMANN

43 Hartmann, R.R.K. (1987b): Wozu Wörterbücher? Die Benutzungsforschung in der zweisprachigen Lexikographie? (Why dictionaries? Usage studies in bilingual lexicography.) Lebende Sprachen 32(4), 154-156. claims that research on dictionary users has become an independent research area recently. He divides usage studies into four areas: lexicographic typology, user typology, needs analysis, and competence analysis. The research methodology can be classified into six types: critiques, case studies, questionnaires, protocols, observations, and experiments. HARTMANN

Hartmann, R.R.K. (1987c): Four perspectives on dictionary use: a critical review of research methods. -In: Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985, 11-28. -Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). reviews research methods in lexicography, summarizes fifteen studies, and calls for research on observed actual usage of dictionaries by learners. He notes the number of anecdotal and speculative reports, cautions against the apparent reliance on questionnaire surveys, and examines controlled experimental studies, such as B E N S O U S S A N et al. ( 1 9 8 4 ) and A R D ( 1 9 8 2 ) . He concludes that the state of lexicographical research is immature, "often non-representative, noncomparable...non-correlational, and non-replicable". HARTMANN

Hartmann, Reinhard (1985): Contrastive text analysis and the search bilingual dictionary. -In: Karl Hyldgaard-Jensen and Arne Zettersten lexicography II: Proceedings of the second international symposium 16-17, 1984, at the University of Copenhagen, 121-132. -Tubingen: (=Lexicographica Series Maior 5).

for equivalence in the (eds.): Symposium on on lexicography, May Max Niemeyer Verlag

examines the contributions of contrastive analysis and error analysis to the understanding of foreign language learning, exemplifying these with English-German examples, and then turns to the relevance of contrastive analysis to bilingual lexicography, specifically German-English and English-German bilingual dictionaries for learners. H A R T M A N N criticizes two German-English dictionaries for not being transparent in their abbreviations and codes and for having confusing microstructures in their entries. HARTMANN

H a r t m a n n , R.R.K, (ed.) (1984): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the international conference on lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983. -Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1). This collection of papers highlights the state of lexicography in the early 1980's. This annotated bibliography contains C O W I E ; H A T H E R A L L ; H A Y W A R D and M O U L I N ; K R O M A N N , R U B E R and RosB A C H ; M A G A Y ; M D E E ; M I C H I E L S and N O E L ; O G A S A W A R A ; S N E L L - H O R N B Y ; W I E G A N D (all 1984). Hartmann, R.R.K. (1983a): The bilingual learner's dictionary and its uses. Multilingua: nal of cross cultural and interlanguage communication 2(4), 195-201.

Jour-

British students (in schools and colleges) were surveyed regarding their use of bilingual diet naries for language learning. A copy of the survey-questionnaire is included in the article. Ί results showed that bilingual dictionaries are frequently consulted; however, there is little struction on how to select and use a dictionary effectively. Hartmann, R.R.K. (1983b): On specifying context. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): Lexicog phy: Principles and practice, 109-119. New York: Academic Press. outlines a "model of language variety" that incorporates idiolects, speech acts, r< isters, stylistic variants, sociolects, and dialects. He concludes with observations on the role dictionaries for users in multilingual nations and for users of creolized varieties of languag HARTMANN

Hartmann, R.R.K, (ed.) (1983c): Lexicography: Principles and practice. New York: Acade ic Press. In this anthology (see: A L - Q A S I M I ; A Y T O ; C O W I E (two articles); H A R T M A N N ; M O U L I N ; and Ί MASZCZYK) there are three parts: in the first part, the authors discuss general issues of diction; writing such as the function and classification of dictionaries as well as historical develc ments within lexicography. In the second part, the articles concentrate on methods of recoi ing, describing, and presenting vocabulary in dictionaries. In the third part, the authors exa ine various historical and pedagogical issues in relation to the several types of dictionar available. Hartmann, R.R.K. (1982): Das zweisprachige Wörterbuch im Fremdsprachenerwerb. (T bilingual dictionary in second language acquisition.) -In: Herbert Emst Wiegand (ed.): S dien zur neuhochdeutschen Lexikographie II, 73-86. Germanistische Linguistik 3-6/i Hildesheim: Georg Olms. investigates the role of the bilingual dictionary for native speakers of English leai ing German. 178 informants at a British university describe the nature and frequency of th dictionary use in questionnaires. Translating is identified as the most complex task bilingi dictionaries are used for. H A R T M A N N refers to the bilingual dictionary therefore, as Übers zungswörterbuch, 'translation dictionary'. Word meaning is reported by the informants as t primary information they get out of dictionaries, followed by grammar and usage. [Prisca Sch er] HARTMANN

Hartmann, R.R.K. (1981a): Style values: Linguistic approaches and lexicographical pract es. Applied Linguistics 2(3), 263-273. discusses "style as a dimension of language variation", including regional, regist and other social variation as labeled in monolingual English dictionaries, including Webste Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Collins Dictionary of the Englt Language, and the Chambers Universal Learner's Dictionary. H A R T M A N N finds a huge diver ty in style labels with many discrepancies, and states that "definitions of specific style valu still leave much to be desired". This results in stvle labels that are ambiguous and arbitrary. HARTMANN

45 Hartmann, R.R.K. (1981b): Dictionaries, learners, users: Some issues in lexicography. Applied Linguistics 2(3), 297-303. commends four learners' dictionaries because their updated vocabulary, including colloquial terms, their comprehensive coverage of vocabulary, their phonetic and grammatical information, advice on appropriate usage, and the arrangement of entries and cross-referencing have "reached new levels of near-perfection". HARTMANN

Hartmann, R.R.K, (ed.) (1979): Dictionaries and their users. Papers from the BAAL seminar on lexicography. Exeter Linguistic Studies 4 & ITL Review of Applied Linguistics 45-46. Exeter: University of Exeter Press and Louvain:Catholic University Press. This relatively early collection of articles on the "user" includes contributions by COWIE, M O U LIN and OPITZ from the section "Theme 4 : Learners and LSP dictionaries;" other articles in the anthology are not reported in this bibliography, though they may reasonably be regarded as informative and germane in a general sense. There is a fairly comprehensive bibliography of pre-meta-lexicography days. Harvey, Keith and Deborah Yuill (1997): A study of the use of a monolingual pedagogical dictionary by learners of English engaged in writing. Applied Linguistics 18(3), 253-278. and Y U I L L , in this detailed study of the use of C O B U I L D by international students when writing essays, find that the students benefit from its complete sentence definitions, the examples from the corpus, and the listing of synonyms. However, the grammar codes were not consulted or even understood well, and some look-ups were hindered either because the needed information was absent or because it was buried in overly long entries. This study may be replicable since the article includes a detailed procedure section and survey-questionnaires in the form of innovative flow-charts that users can answer during their look-ups. HARVEY

Hatherall, Glyn (1984): Studying dictionary use: some findings and proposals. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the international conference on lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983,183-189. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1). asks how it is that the dictionary compiler can make a claim to knowing the needs and wants of the user. HATHERALL wonders about the validity of dictionary user studies based on questionnaires: the intrusiveness of empirical research on users must skew any results. He designs and describes an empirical study that he hopes overcomes the difficulties; after presenting some observations on user behaviour, the author points out areas in which the users' needs are in contrast with the dictionary compiler's perception of the needs (for example, just where the Collins German Dictionary is rich in information is a place where the users are less likely to visit). HATHERALL

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1995): Von der Unmöglichkeit der kontrastiven Lexikologie. (On the impossibility of contrastive lexicology) -In: Hans-Peder Kromann and Anne Lise Kjaer (eds.):

46 Von der Allgegenwart der Lexikologie:Kontrasti ve Lexikologie als Vorstufe zur zweisprachigen Lexikographie, 19-23. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 66).

argues that "in word usage, the idiom principle prevails over the open choice principle. Therefore contrastive lexicology is possible but in small domains of vocabulary. Beyond this area contrastive lexicology becomes contrastive phraseology and textology." (from the abstract) HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1994): Typologie du dictionnaire general bilingue. (Typology of the general bilingual dictionary) -In: Udo L. Figge (ed.): Portugiesische und portugiesisch-deutsche Lexikographie, 11-33. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 56). The bilingual dictionary has five functions: It is to support translation from the foreign language or comprehension, translation to the foreign language or free production as well as learning. It is directed to one or two linguistic communities. Every element of the dictionary must be examined from the point of view of its function. Besides this functional typology, there are typologies of the addressees and the macrostructures. About a dozen dictionaries are characterized from a functional point of view." (from the abstract) The article concludes with 196 useful references from metalexicographic research. Hausmann, Franz Josef (1992): Die zweisprachigen Wörterbücher. (The bilingual dictionaries.) -In: Karl Hyldgaard-Jensen and Arne Zettersten (eds): Symposium on lexicography V: Proceedings of the fifth international symposium on lexicography, May 3-5, 1990 at the University of Copenhagen, 408-411. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 43). in this brief article, comments on the use of bilingual dictionaries at the university level, first explaining what users of Portuguese-German dictionaries should be able to accomplish in an ideal situation. This is followed by critical commentary on the actual situation for Spanish, Italian, French, and English bilingual dictionaries. HAUSMANN,

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1991): Collocations in monolingual and bilingual English dictionaries. -In: Vladimir Ivir and Damir Kalogjera (eds.): Languages in contact and contrast: Essays in contact linguistics, 225-236. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. reviews the strengths and weaknesses of the Dictionary of English Words in Context, Wolf Friederich, ed. (Dortmund: Lensing. 1978), and compares it to the Duden Stilwörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache (1971). H A U S M A N N faults both dictionaries for not including entries for collocations under both the collocator and the base. According to H A U S M A N N , to help the learner produce texts in the foreign language, it is important to put the entry at the word which is the base in the dictionary. To help the learner comprehend texts, it is important to put the entry at the collocator in the dictionary. H A U S M A N N then turns to the English learners' dictionaries, OALD, LDOCE, and CULD, and a bilingual learners' dictionary, the Pons Global HAUSMANN

47 Wörterbuch Deutsch-Englisch. He finds that the collocations are typically listed under the collocator and not the base. He also criticizes the German-English dictionary for its unsystematic treatment of collocations, and illustrates numerous difficulties the English-speaking learner of German would encounter. Hausmann, Franz Josef (1990a): Les dictionnaires du frantjais hors de France. (The dictionaries of French outside France) -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/ Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. II: 1500-1505. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. surveys the history of dictionary writing for varieties of French outside of France: Canadian, Belgian, Swiss, and African. He also examines what a regional dialect and what a standard variety of French are. The bibliography has fifty-one dictionaries of regional varieties of French. HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1990b): Les dictionnaires pour l'enseignement de la langue etrangere: fran^ais. (Dictionaries for foreign language teaching: French) -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/ Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. II: 1386-1390. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. describes the elements needed for a French monolingual learners' dictionary to be used for classroom learning, rather than for quick consultation. Among these elements are: collocations, figurative usage, emphasis on context, visual aids, synonyms, and antonyms. Many sentences would be included as examples; in short, an encyclopedic approach is called for. The history of French bilingual lexicography for learners is outlined. H A U S M A N N lists nineteen dictionaries and twenty-eight research articles in the bibliography. HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1989a): Dictionary Criminality. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/ Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. I: 97-101. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. criticizes dictionary publishers for various forms of deception, including deception about the overstated size of their dictionaries and deception regarding the potential (but doubtful) usefulness of various bilingual dictionaries. He especially criticizes the publishers of passive bilingual dictionaries that rely on LI competence when they are advertized as useful translation tools for foreign students who have little competence in the language. This practice "must be regarded as irresponsible". HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1989b): 'Im Tunnel ist es immer dunkel' Fremdsprachenunterricht und Wörterbuch. ("In the tunnel it's always dark". Foreign language instruction and the dictionary.) -In: Eberhard Kleinschmidt (ed.): Fremdsprachenunterricht zwischen Sprachen-

48 politik und Praxis. Festschrift für Herbert Christ zum 60. Geburstag, 152-160. -Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag (=Tübinger Beiträge zur Linguistik 340). elucidates the difficulties that dictionaries present to the foreign language learner, concentrating on six criteria: the number and quality of the examples, the understandibility of the definitions, the microstructure of the entry, the listing of word family information, the presentation of homonyms, and the consideration of synonymy between sentences. HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1988): Grundprobleme des zweisprachigen Wörterbuchs. (Fundamental problems of the bilingual dictionary.) In: Karl Hyldgaard-Jensen and Arne Zettersten (eds.): A Symposium on lexicography III: Proceedings of the third international symposium on lexicography May 14-16, 1986 at the University of Copenhagen, 137-154. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 19). begins his article with the question, "which are the best dictionaries in the world?" He compares bilingual dictionaries according to (1) the relationship between macrostructure and microstructure, (2) the layout of the microstructure, and (3) the rationalization of collocations. He also argues in terms of functions of dictionaries and distinguishes between active tasks (translation and composition) and passive tasks (comprehension and interpretation). He praises the bilingual dictionaries by the Dutch publisher Van Dale for being rich in collocations, both for translating and interpreting for Dutch speakers as well as for speakers of French, English and German. [Prisca Schüler] HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1987): Le dictionnaire, catalogue d'emplois. Etude de lexicographie comparee. (The dictionary, a catalog of usage: A study of comparative lexicography.) Cahiers de lexicologie 50(1), 107-114. provides a brief comparative analysis of the treatment of usage, especially concentrating on examples and collocations, for the dictionaries of the U.K., the US, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy.

HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1985a): Kollokationen in deutschen Wörterbüchern: Ein Beitrag zur Theorie des lexikographischen Beispiels. (Collocations in the German dictionary: A contribution to a theory of lexicographic examples) In: Henning Bergenholtz and Joachim Mugden (eds.): Lexikographie und Grammatik, 118-129. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 3.). elucidates his lexicographic theory of collocations with numerous examples from German collocation dictionaries, observing that many free combinations are included wrongly as fixed collocations. In dictionaries designed to help users decode, i.e., comprehend texts, collocations should be placed at the entries for collocators. On the other hand, in dictionaries (such as learners' dictionaries), designed to help users encode, i.e., generate texts, collocations should be placed at the entries for bases. " H A U S M A N N emphasizes that attempting to find the English collocation through the collocator... is a hopeless task." (from BENSON, 1 9 8 9 ( / 7 L 2 ( 1 ) : 6 ) . HAUSMANN

49 Hausmann, Franz Josef (1985b): Trois pay sages dictionnairiques: la Grande-Bretagne, la France et l'Allemagne: Comparaisons et connexions. (Three countries' dictionaries, Great Britain, France, and Germany: Comparisons and connections) Lexicographica 1,24-50. compares the quantity, quality, and status of general monolingual and learners' dictionaries in Britain, France, and Germany. He also examines collocation dictionaries, synonym dictionaries, and bilingual dictionaries and claims that dictionaries have the highest status in France. HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1985c): Welche französischen Wörterbücher soll ich kaufen? (Which French dictionaries should I buy?) -In: Ekkehard Zöfgen (ed.): Wörterbücher und ihre Didaktik. Bielefelder Beiträge zur Sprachlehrforschung 14 (1-2), 90-97. A consumer guide to French dictionaries with some snappy remarks at the end: "Publishers make money with bad dictionaries, good dictionaries are a wasted asset" and "everybody gets the dictionary he/she deserves", (p.97) [Prisca Schüler] Hausmann, Franz Josef (1985d): Neue französische Wörterbücher III" (New French dictionaries III.) Die Neueren Sprachen 84(6), 686-720. In this lengthy review, HAUSMANN updates his 1979 and 1982 reviews of French dictionaries suitable for learners, covering the Dictionnaire du Frangais Contemporain, the Dictionnaire Larousse du Frangais Langue Etrangere, and two new dictionaries, Le Robert Methodique and the Dictionnaire Hachette de la langue frangaise. He then evaluates school dictionaries, children's dictionaries, and bilingual dictionaries, focusing on the treatment of phraseology. Hausmann, Franz Josef (1983): Wörterbücher in Frankreich und Deutschland. Ein Vergleich. (Dictionaries in France and Germany. A comparison.) -In: Herbert.Ernst Wiegand (ed.): Studien zur neuhochdeutschen Lexikographie III 119-155. Germanistische Linguistik 1-4 /82. Hildesheim: Georg Olms. compares dictionaries in France and Germany. His main questions are: what kinds of dictionaries are there? which are the successful ones? In France, Larousse, Littre, and Robert are known entities and 80% of the French own their Petit Larousse, whereas in Germany, there is no such dictionary culture. According to HAUSMANN, while the French use dictionaries, the Germans consult encyclopedias (Brockhaus, Meyer). [Prisca Schüler] HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1982): Neue Wörterbücher für den Französischunterricht II (New dictionaries for French instruction II.) Die Neueren Sprachen 81(2), 191-219. presents an overview of dictionaries for learners of French in Germany. He examines and analyzes the DFC, Dictionnaire du Frangais Contemporain, and the DFLE, the Dictionnaire Larousse du Frangais Langue Etrangere, and several bilingual French-German and German-French dictionaries, especially concentrating on the treatment of collocations and idioms. HAUSMANN

50

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1979): Neue Wörterbücher für den Französischunterricht oder: Was ist ein Schulwörterbuch? (New dictionaries for French instruction or: What is a school dictionary?) Die Neueren Sprachen 78(4), 331-351. criticizes dictionaries for German learners of French, questioning their usefulness in the classroom and for vocabulary learning. He laments the lack of user research that could adequately inform lexicographers and language teachers of the proper presentation of lexical information. HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1977): Einführung in die Benutzung der neufranzösischen Wörterbücher. (Introduction to using French dictionaries.) Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag ^ R o manische Arbeitshefte Series 19). monograph is, according to the title, an introduction to the use of French dictionaries. Even though he says the purpose of the book is not theoretical, it reads very much like a theoretical overview of the dictionary. He describes the structure of the dictionary, the structure of the lemma and defines types of dictionaries and their functions. A survey of French dictionaries on the market and their assessment is embedded in this theoretical discourse, which provides the reader with more theoretical terminology that he/she needs to use a dictionary efficiently. [Prisca Schüler] HAUSMANN's

Hausmann, Franz Josef (1974): Was ist und was soll ein Lernwörterbuch? (What is a learners' dictionary and what should it be?) -In: Helmut Stimm and Alfred Noyer-Weidner (eds.): Zeitschrift für Französische Sprache und Literatur. Vol. 84: 97-129. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. discusses the qualities of two dictionaries of the French language, the Petit Robert (PR), a learners' dictionary, and the Dictionnaire du frangaise contemporain (DFC). He compares both dictionaries with respect to their composition and treatment of their respective entries in homonomy vs. polysemy, syntactic vs. semantic organization, word families vs. word fields, synonomy of words in general, and selectivity vs. extensiveness of entries. H A U S M A N N finds that the DFC is superior to the PR in all categories except the last, in which the PR has a far more extensive set of entries than the DFC; however, he notes that a very large number of entries can dilute a dictionary's effectiveness. HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.) (1989): (Vol. I), 1990 (Vol. II), 1991 (Vol. III). Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. et al. in this massive three-volume work of more than 3 0 0 0 pages, cover the field of lexicography, both in theory and in practice. This bibliography contains 24 items from this encyclopedic work, largely from volume I, section 2, "Dictionaries and Their Users". HAUSMANN

Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn (1989): COBUILD and LDOCE II: A comparative review. International Journal of Lexicography 2(1), 44-56.

51 HAUSMANN and GORBAHN review C O B U I L D and L D O C E 2 for their c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s , defin-

ing style, examples, grammatical information, dialectal variation, and usage notes. They praise LDOCE2 for substantial improvements from the first edition and praise COBUILD for its "revolutionary system of definitions" and its consistent use of a corpus. The criticisms of COBUILD are that "many of the definitions are eminently unreadable," and that there are "many long articles, in which the average user will be lost." Hayward, Timothy and Andre Moulin (1984): False friends invigorated. -In: Reinhard R. K. Hartmann (ed.): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the international conference on lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983,190-198. -Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1). HAYWARD and MOULIN delineate the types of false cognates that may trouble the language learner, examining diachronic, orthographical, geographical, stylistic, syntactic, lexical, and cultural false friends. The article concludes with the pedagogical implications of false friends. Heath, David (1985): Grammatische Angaben in Lernerwörterbüchern des Englischen. (Grammatical information in English learners' dictionaries) In: Henning Bergenholtz and Joachim Mugden (eds.): Lexikographie und Grammatik, 332-345. Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 3). HEATH contrasts the grammatical usage notes for verbs in the OALD, LDOCE, and the CULD. He finds that the verbs of reporting, say, tell, speak, talk, and inform, have varying information on valency, regarding the predicative patterns of collocation in the three learners' dictionaries, with the CULD having the weakest coverage. Heath, David (1982): The treatment of grammar and syntax in monolingual English dictionaries for advanced learners. Linguistik und Didaktik 49/50, 95-107. The detailed analysis of three advanced learners dictionaries, OALD (1980); LDOCE (1978); C U L D (1980) generally supports (and a d u m b r a t e s upon) the findings in BEJOINT (1981). HEATH

closely examines "grammatical and pattern information" and example sentences; he compares the usefulness and accuracy of the systematic ordering of grammatical information across the three dictionaries. The author studies the pattern information for a number of verbs, nouns, and adjectives. HEATH questions the thoroughness of "grammatical and syntactic" information and the consistent use of code markers in all three dictionaries. Heath, David and Thomas Herbst (1985): Wer weiß schon, was im Wörterbuch steht? Plädoyer für mehr Wörterbucharbeit im Englischunterricht. (Who knows what's in the dictionary?: A plea for more dictionary work in English instruction.) Die Neueren Sprachen 84 (6), 580595. "A survey among 160 university students of English has revealed a remarkable lack of dictionary using skills. This shows the need for teaching and practising the use of the dictionary at school to a much larger extent than seems to be common practice. The curricula for... German

52 Gymnasien do not on the whole put sufficient emphasis on the various dictionary using skills. A constant practising of these skills in language classes seems essential; dictionary work in school should be combined with other language work...." (from the abstract) Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael (1985): Englische Wörterbücher und Nachschlagwerke. (English dictionaries and reference works.) -In: Ekkehard Zöfgen (ed.): Wörterbücher und ihre Didaktik. Bielefelder Beiträge zur Sprachlehrforschung 14 (1-2), 98-180. and PÄTZOLD discuss a number of dictionaries that German Anglisten should find beneficial to the production of texts in English. They cover a variety of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, learner's dictionaries and special reference works such as pronunciation dictionaries, as well as dictionaries of phraseologisms and idioms. They conducted an empirical study on learner's dictionaries with a corpus of 100 test items, consisting of unknown words advanced students had marked in three sample texts. LDOCE ranked highest as far as the coverage of the 100 test items was concerned. [Prisca Schüler] HENKE

Herbst, Thomas (ed.) (In press): The perfect learners' dictionary(?). -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior). In press. This collection contains 23 articles on monolingual English learners' dictionaries that address the following subjects: the history of learners' dictionaries (COWIE), comparative analyses of four recent English learners' dictionaries, OALD5, LDOCE3, COBUILD2, and CIDE (BOGAARDS and others), and the comparative treatment of compound nouns (BEJOINT), idioms (MOON), and syntactic information (AARTS). A number of articles are explorations into the meta-lexicography of learners' dictionaries, including valency (HERBST), analyses of defining style (ILSON), collocations (HAUSMANN), suffixation (POPP), exemplification (STEIN), and other characteristics of the lexicography of learners' dictionaries. Herbst, Thomas (1996): On the way to the perfect learners' dictionary: A first comparison of OALD5, LDOCE3, COBUILD2, and CIDE. International Journal of Lexicography 9(4), 321-357. In a detailed four way comparison, HERBST examines all four new (1995) dictionaries for the readability of their definitions, grammatical information, appropriate examples, and their access structure. All four use computer corpora to great advantage ordering both their macrostructures and microstructures based on the actual frequency of usage from the spoken and written data. HERBST prefers the LDOCE3 for its easy to read format and its efficient access structure, praises the OALD5 for its overall structure, and cites COBUILD2 for its natural examples and CIDE for its strengths in British-American variation. Overall, HERBST does not prefer COBUILD2 or CIDE. Herbst, Thomas (1991a): Dictionaries for foreign language teaching: English. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/ Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. II: 1379-1385. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

examines monolingual dictionaries in the teaching of English as a second language. He compares several dictionaries, including the COBUILD, LDOCE, and the Chambers Universal Learner's Dictionary on the following: number and format of entries, definitions, examples, treatment of grammar, inclusion of illustrations, usage notes, language notes, e.g., stylistic points, British and American English labels, and pronunciation, e.g., the use of the IPA. H E R B S T concludes the article by discussing how the dictionaries are using lexicographical research in their respective designs. HERBST

Herbst, Thomas (1991b): Ausspracheangaben in englischen Wörterbüchern - kein Raum für Innovation? (Pronunciation in English dictionaries: No room for innovation?) Lexicographical, 169-181. analyzes the treatment of pronunciation in three learners' dictionaries, the OALD, LDOCE, and COBUILD, and in The Longman Pronunciation Dictionary and the English Pronouncing Dictionary. He finds "remarkable discrepancies" in the transcription systems, all of which are based on the IPA. Even though there is not a lot of room for innovation, the presentation of pronunciation in dictionaries should satisfy the following requirements for university students: the IPA should be used; the most widely used pronunciation should be represented; British and American varieties should be represented; stress patterns should be indicated. [Prisca Schüler] HERBST

Herbst, Thomas (1989): Grammar in dictionaries. -In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners dictionaries: State of the art, 94- 111. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre (=Anthology Series 23). outlines the types of grammatical information found in learners' dictionaries and compares the transparency of the grammar codes in OALD, LDOCE2, and COBUILD. H E R B S T then examines the comprehensiveness of the treatment of complementation patterns and finds the dictionaries lacking, although he finds that "LDOCE2 may seem most suitable for the learner". H E R B S T concludes with a proposal for a "valency dictionary of English". HERBST

Herbst, Thomas (1988): Review of: The BBI Combinatory Dictionary. System 16 (3), 380384. critically reviews the BBI, lauding its comprehensive listing of complementation patterns, but finds shortcomings in its grammatical coding system and a lack of information on selectional restrictions in the patterns of collocations. B E N S O N replied in a letter to the editor in System, Vol. 18 (1): 126-128, (1990), contesting every point that H E R B S T raised. H E R B S T , in his own letter to the editor, 18(1) 128-130, defends his original criticisms and reiterates his point that the BBI suffers from "its lack of 'user-friendliness'". HERBST

Herbst, Thomas (1987): A proposal for a valency dictionary of English. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): A spectrum of lexicography: Papers from AILA Brussels 1984,29-47. Benjamins: Philadelphia.

54 calls for a dictionary for learners that employs valency as its primary element; i.e., the coding of verbs, such as put, so that the ESL student will know that, for example, he put + object + locative prepositional phrase , as in he put the pen on the table, is required. A semantic component within the word put requires this syntactic construction. H E R B S T contends that the information on syntactic patterns in the OALD and the LDOCE is useful but the "shortcomings are also obvious", since the space required for a full listing of the patterns is considerable. He then proposes the use of "straightforward symbols" to handle both simple verb with complementation and phrasal verbs with complementation and gives several examples. HERBST

Herbst, Thomas (1986): Defining with a controlled defining vocabulary in foreign learners' dictionaries. Lexicographica 2, 101-119. studies the L D O C E 1 and tests the defining policy of the dictionary, as well as comparing it (in 200 entries) to the O A L D (that does not restrict its defining vocabulary). The author finds some inconsistencies and shortcomings in the L D O C E , but all in all determines that the concept has merit, not to mention that users had more success comprehending entries in comparison to the non-controlled dictionary. H E R B S T advocates a flexible policy that would allow for including words not in the control-list, especially in entries of technical terms. He concludes the article with a list of seven principles concerning the use of a controlled defining vocabulary. HERBST

Herbst, Thomas (1985a): Das zweisprachige Wörterbuch als Schreib Wörterbuch: Informationen zur Syntax in zweisprachigen Wörterbüchern Englisch-Deutsch/Deutsch-Englisch (The bilingual dictionary as a writer's dictionary: Information on syntax in bilingual dictionaries of English-German and German-English) -In: Henning Bergenholtz and Joachim Mugden (eds.): Lexikographie und Grammatik, 308-331. (Lexicography and Grammar) -Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 3 ). contrasts the coverage of several grammatical features in LDOCE 1 and six bilingual German-English dictionaries. He reports excellent coverage of the countable-uncountable nouns in LDOCE and very poor coverage in the bilingual dictionary, comparable and accurate coverage of plurals and subject-verb agreement, extremely poor coverage of predicative and attributive adjectives in the bilingual dictionaries, and virtually no coverage of phrasal verbs in the German-English bilingual dictionaries. HERBST

Herbst, Thomas (1985b): Von Fehlern, die vermeidbar wären: Ein weiteres Argument für mehr Wörterbucharbeit im Englischunterricht. (About errors which could have been avoided: An additional argument for more dictionary work in English instruction.) -In: Ekkehard Zöfgen (ed.): Wörterbücher und ihre Didaktik. Bielefelder Beiträge zur Sprachlehrforschung 14(12), 236-248. analyzes essays written by German Gymnasium students for errors and finds that 30 to 40% of the errors could have been avoided with dictionary use. He employs error analysis to identify the users' problems with dictionaries. The students did not use dictionaries for three reasons: (1) they did not know that they could find the information in the dictionary; (2) they HERBST

55 did not know how to find the information; and (3) they were not aware they should check for the usage of the word in the dictionary. H E R B S T urges teachers to spend more time on when, how, and why to use a dictionary. H E R B S T concludes that not only must dictionaries become more user-friendly, but students must also become more "dictionary-friendly." [Prisca Schüler] Herbst, Thomas (1984a): Adjective complementation: A valency approach to making EFL dictionariesApplied Linguistics 5(1), 1-11. focuses on certain adjective and preposition combinations in two learners' dictionaries, such as "liable to flood, liable to V_, accessible to , and accessible for ." After conducting a "valency analysis of 555 English adjectives," he finds that LDOCE1 is more systematic and more explicit in its coverage of adjective patterns, while OALD has chosen to illustrate the adjective complementation in examples. He also finds that LDOCE1 (1978) covers about 30% of the adjective complementation patterns and that the OALD (1980) covers only about 20% of these patterns. HERBST

Herbst, Thomas (1984b): Bemerkungen zu den Patternsystemen des Advanced Learner's Dictionary und des Dictionary of Contemporary English: (Remarks on the system of grammatical patterns in the OALD and the LDOCE) -In: Dieter Götz and Thomas Herbst (eds.): Theoretische und praktische Probleme der Lexikographie, 139-165. (Theoretical and practical problems in lexicography) Munich: Max Hueber Verlag. examines the OALD (1980) and the LDOCE (1978) for their treatment of verb patterns, especially for phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs. He finds them lacking in their comprehensiveness and their systematic treatment, since OALD has only 52% and LDOCE has 57% of his pre-selected verb patterns. He calls for a valency dictionary for learners of ESL, which would also benefit teachers of ESL in their marking of papers. HERBST

Herbst, Thomas and David Heath (1994): Enzyklopädische Lernerwörterbücher -ein neuer Wörterbuchtyp? (Encyclopedic learners' dictionaries -a new dictionary type?) Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen 23, 149-163. H E R B S T and HEATH exemplify and criticize two encyclopedic dictionaries, the Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, and the OALD - Encyclopedic Edition, focusing on the overly long entries, all entirely in English, and recommend that encyclopedic information be put in bidirectional bilingual English-German, German-English dictionaries.

Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein (1987): Dictionary-using skills: A plea for a new orientation in language teaching. -In: Ed. Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985, 115-127. -Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). Since most students are incompetent at using a dictionary as a reference tool, H E R B S T and STEIN argue for the directed instruction of dictionary skills in any language learning situation. They

56 outline the functions of dictionary education: "acquisition of general reference skills", e.g., alphabetical order and cross-referencing; "development of discrimination faculties and skills", e.g., the singling out of one particular item and its critical assessment; "language achievement control", e.g., checking their written work and independently editing it; and "guide for selfstudy and self-education", e.g., acquiring new information independent of the classroom. The discussion is based on the authors' instructional experiences in English classes for German students. Hill, C. P. (1985): Alternatives to dictionaries. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Dictionaries, lexicography, and language learning. English language teaching documents, 120: 115-121. Oxford: Pergamon Press. HILL describes the reference works available for ESL learners, including pictorial dictionaries, such as The English Duden, thesauruses, such as Roget's Thesaurus, and conceptual lexicons, such as the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English, The Topic Dictionary, and the General Service List of English Words. HILL also praises dictionaries that give extensive treatment of idioms, such as, ODCIE, LDOCE, and The Longman Dictionary of English Idioms. Hoberg, Rudolf (1978): Zur Frage der Benutzer eines neuen großen Wörterbuchs der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. (Concerning questions of the user of a new comprehensive dictionary of contemporary German) -In: Helmut Henne, Wolfgang Mentrup, Dieter Mohn, and Harald Weinrich (eds.): Interdisziplinäres Deutsches Wörterbuch in der Diskussion. Sprache der Gegenwart, 45: 31-41. Düsseldorf: Pädagogischer Verlag Schwann. HOBERG discusses the monolingual dictionary with respect to the users, whose technical knowledge may vary greatly; an underlying theme being that a dictionary must be designed for the particular user (e.g., a technical dictionary is ill-suited for the layman). HOBERG first discusses the dictionary user and lists a number of questions that should be addressed in the design of dictionaries , as well as research in general. He next discusses the reasons for various types of dictionaries, given the range of possible dictionary users, and examines the research on the vocabulary. In his discussion of the treatment of technical language, he examines the role a technical dictionary can play with respect to the technical expert, and he lists three key points with respect to efficiency of use: knowledge of linguistics, logic, and scientific theory. He then gives a detailed treatment of technical words, a semantic description of words that are ambiguous in laymen's registers, e.g., standard language. HOBERG finally discusses the student as a dictionary user, examining the types of students, e.g., those of the Höhere Schulen and those of the Berufsschule, and their respective skills of dictionary use. Hoffmann, Hans G. (1988): Die großen "learners' dictionaries" - ein aktueller Vergleich. (The comprehensive learners' dictionaries -an actual comparison) Zielsprache Englisch 18(2), 1-8.

HOFFMAN compares the O A L D , the L D O C E , and the C O B U I L D , and uses his own experience

with the dictionaries as evidence to form the basis for his comparative analysis. The LDOCE has more useful information and is more user-friendly, according to his subjective evaluation.

57 Höhne, Steffen (1991): Die Rolle des Wörterbuchs in der Sprachberatung: Eine Sekundäranalyse zur Wörterbuchbenutzungsforschung. (The role of the dictionary in linguistic consulting: A secondary analysis of dictionary use research.) Zeitschrift für Germanistische Linguistik 19(3), 293-321. H Ö H N E reports how people in Germany use dictionaries and the problems they encounter, based on more than 15,000 phone calls to a grammar and usage hot line at his university in Düsseldorf. Users had problems with the content of the definitions, a lack of information on style and syntax, and questions on orthography.

Householder, Fred and Sol Saporta (eds.) (1962): Problems in lexicography. International Journal of American Linguistics 28(2) (April) Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. This is the seminal work on lexicography as understood within the context of structural linguistics of the 1950's. Ten of the seventeen papers are concerned with bilingual lexicography. This bibliography contains: BARNHART, IANNUCCI, and MARTIN (all 1962). Houtman, Kees and Gerame Wouters (1994): 'Een boek waar alles in staat!': Gesprek met leerlingen over woordenboeken en een proef op de som. ("ABook where everything is!": A conversation with students on dictionaries and a test). Levende Talen 490 (May), 306-310. and W O U T E R S interviewed and tested Dutch high school students on their dictionary use as a language learning aid. They found that the students were generally ignorant about the dictionary as a language learning source and were very poor at using dictionaries to get information. HOUTMAN

Howarth, Peter A. (1996): Phraseology in English academic writing: Some implications for language learning and dictionary making. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 75). explicates and contrasts English and Russian collocations, exemplifies the difficulties that non-natives have with producing accurate English collocations, idioms, and metaphors, and, in one chapter, examines the effectiveness of six dictionaries for learners. In this thirty-page chapter, he examines the treatment of collocations in the OALD (1989), the LDOCE (1987), ODCIE, the ODCIE (vol. 1, 1975, vol. 2, 1983), and-the ODPV (1993), the Oxford Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. The bulk of the chapter contrasts and criticizes the BBI (1986), and the SEC (1988) Selected English Collocations, a dictionary of collocations that is published in Warsaw. HOWARTH

Huang, G. F. (1985): The productive use of EEL dictionaries. RELC Journal, 16(2), 54-71. In a contrastive analysis of errors in the writing of English by Chinese university students, explains the cross-linguistic difficulties that Chinese students have when they write in English. He then looks in LDOCE, OALD2, and CULD for synonyms, examples, and gramHUANG

58 matical information related to these errors and finds all three dictionaries lacking. H U A N G makes five recommendations for improving learners' dictionaries in order to help these users with encoding. H U A N G suggests that more semantic and syntactic information be added with easy to understand pattern codes, many more examples, more synonyms, explanatory usage notes, and more idioms. Hüllen, Werner (1994): Rezensionsaufsatz: Ein neues Wörterbuch zur Lösung eines alten Problems. (Review article: A new dictionary that is a solution to old problems.) Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung 5(2), 89-99. reviews the Longman Language Activator. The World's First Production Dictionary (London: Longman, 1993), especially focusing on whether it meets the needs of the English learner for encoding. In this negative review, he criticizes it for being opaque in its microstructure and difficult to use. He specifically criticizes the dictionary's eight introductory articles for a lack of theoretical transparency. It seems to be unclear whether the articles are meant for linguists or learners. [Prisca Schüler] HÜLLEN

Hulstijn, Jan H. (1993): When do foreign-language readers look up the meaning of unfamiliar words? The influence of task and learner variables. The Modern Language Journal 77 (2), 139-147. This is a study which found that words which students deemed relevant, in terms of their reading goal, were looked up more frequently than words which were deemed irrelevant. The experiment involved the use of computers and pseudo-words to find out when students looked up words. They also found that words whose meanings could be inferred from the context were looked up less frequently than words whose meanings could not be inferred easily. Also, students with larger vocabularies looked up fewer words than students with smaller vocabularies. Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. Sue Atkins (1998): Empirical research on dictionary use in foreignlanguage learning: Survey and discussion. -In: Β. T. Sue Atkins (ed.): Using dictionaries: Studies of dictionary use by language learners and translators. 7-19. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 88). and A T K I N S survey and discuss an extensive bibliography of research articles on dictionary use, dividing them into five categories: attitudes and needs of users, text comprehension by users, text production, vocabulary learning, the proficiency of the user, and critical reviews of dictionaries. HULSTIJN

Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus (1996): Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. The Modern Language Journal 80(3), 327-339. et al. test university-level Dutch students of French on their vocabulary retention of difficult words from a reading passage. The students were divided into three groups, one assisted by glosses in the margins of each page, one assisted by free access to a French-Dutch dictioHULSTIJN

59 nary, and a control group with no assistance. They found that the marginal glosses were most helpful for vocabulary learning. As for dictionary use, they found that these "advanced L2 learners ... seldom use a dictionary", and that "even when readers consult the dictionary, ... (they) forget almost immediately the meanings of more than half of the words". Humble, Philippe (1998): The use of authentic, made-up and 'controlled' examples in foreign language dictionaries. -In: Thierry Fontenelle, Philippe Hiligsmann, Archibald Michiels, Andre Moulin, and Siegfried Theissen (eds.): Actes EURALEX '98 proceedings: Papers submitted to the eighth EURALEX international congress on lexicography in Liege, Belgium. (Vol. II), 593-599. Liege, Belgium: University of Liege, English and Dutch Departments. claims that when learners' dictionaries are used for encoding (primarily writing), invented examples should be used in entries for words that beginners would look up. Advanced users can benefit from authentic corpus examples, while intermediate learners can learn from "controlled examples", which are adapted from authentic sentences containing technical vocabulary. HUMBLE

Humbley, John (1990): Dictionnaires d' Apprentissage Anglais: Passage en Revue. (English learners' dictionaries: A review) Langues Modernes 84 (1), 73-82. A comparison of the OALD 1989), the LDOCE (1987), and the COBUILD (1988) in areas such as Briticisms/Americanisms; grammatical information; illustrations; phonetic transcription; and types of definitions. The author finds that the COBUILD is most suited to the neophyte language learner since it demystifies the dictionary. Oxford and Longman are more traditional, contain more entries than COBUILD, and could accompany the English-language learner throughout his/her scholastic career. Iannucci, James E. (1962): Meaning discrimination in bilingual dictionaries. -In: Fred Householder and Sol Saporta (eds.): Problems in lexicography, 201-217. International Journal of American Linguistics 28(2) (April). Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. analyzes the treatment of meanings for polysemous entry words in 28 French-English, Spanish-English, Italian-English, and German-English dictionaries. He reviews the discrimination of the sub-senses of polysemous words in 37 dictionaries in all. This classic article has been referred to several hundred times over the past 35 years. IANNUCCI

Ibrahim, Amr Helmy and Michele Zalessky (1989): Enquete: l'usage du dictionnaire (Study: The use of the dictionary.) Le Frangais dans le Monde 29 (August-September), 24-30. I B R A H I M and Z A L E S S K Y report the results of a survey on dictionary use by French students in France and students of French in China, Japan, and the US. All of the students owned a French dictionary. The non-native French learners used their dictionaries to check meanings, while the native French students used theirs to check spelling.

60 Ickler, Theodor (1982): Ein Wort gibt das andere. Auf dem Weg zu einem 'Wörter-Lesebuch' für Deutsch als Fremdsprache. (One word leads to another: Towards a "vocabulary reader" for German as a foreign language.) Linguistik und Didaktik 49/50(1-2), 3-17. demands two separate things in this article: a German dictionary of synonyms of a new kind and a "readable dictionary" or "vocabulary reader" for German as a foreign language. Dictionaries, says ICKLER, cannot be read. They are a ladder the user kicks away once he has climbed up on it. Ickler speaks in favor of the bilingual dictionary because a monolingual dictionary leads to increased uncertainty in the language learner. A dictionary of synonyms must be based, of course, on a monolingual corpus. ICKLER criticizes various ways of vocabulary building in the classroom: Wortkunden and Grundwortschätze "basic vocabularies" and flash cards never yield satisfying results. Any successful vocabulary building must take into account the structures of vocabulary, i.e. synonyms and the primarily syntagmatic nature of language. The solution: a "readable dictionary" with texts, etymologies, anecdotes, poetry, and interesting quotes. [Prisca Schüler] ICKLER

Ilson, Robert (1998): Review of: The Newbury House Dictionary of American English and Random House Webster's Dictionary of American English. International Journal of Lexicography 11(3), 227-237. reviews two new learners' dictionaries intended for use in the US very critically, citing them for less than adequate vocabulary coverage and for inadequate entries. He compares them unfavorably to LDOCE5 in their microstructures, finding a lack of information for complementation, collocation, meaning (both in numbers of senses and explanation of meaning), and for fewer illustrations. ILSON concludes with the recommendation that learners of English not buy either American dictionary. ILSON

Ilson, Robert (1990): Semantic regularities in dictionaries. -In: Jerzy Tomaszczyk & Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk(eds.): Meaning and lexicography.l23-132.Philadelphia:John Benjamins. ILSON examines the treatment of verbs that can be either transitive or intransitive, e.g. bake, in three learners' dictionaries, LDOCE, OALD, and CULD. He then examines "nouns of place" that can act as collective nouns, e.g., school, and nouns, referring to an office or rank, e.g., mayor and professor. He finds that LDOCE is slightly better in its coverage than OALD, and the CULD comes in third.

Ilson, Robert (1987a): Illustrations in dictionaries. -In: Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 13 April 1985, 193-212. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). discusses eight "word fields or semantic domains" that can be used to classify illustrations. Then exemplifies how illustrations can be used with nouns, including polysemous nouns ILSON

61 and metaphorical nouns, adjectives, prepositions, and verbs. The appendix includes twentytwo illustrations. Ilson, Robert (ed.) (1987b): A spectrum of lexicography: Papers from AILA Brussels 1984. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. This collection contains ten papers and an introduction by ILSON. The topics covered include semantic information in definitions and examples, types of dictionary definitions, lexical equivalence in bilingual dictionaries, and two papers on learner dictionaries, one on valency theory applied to ESL dictionaries, and another on the creation of a controlled vocabulary. This annotated bibliography contains HERBST and NEUBAUER (both 1 9 8 7 ) . Ilson, Robert (1986): General English dictionaries for foreign learners: Explanatory techniques in dictionaries. Lexicographica 2, 214-222. examines four principal categories of techniques used in dictionaries to explain the meanings and uses of words; according to the author they are: explanation, illustration, discussion, and definition. ILSON exemplifies and critiques the techniques as found in the Collins English Learner's Dictionary, LDOCE1, Chambers Universal Learners Dictionary; and the OALD (1981), with some contrastive analysis and commentary based on the under-appreciated work of Charles K . O G D E N , especially as found in Basic by example (1933). ILSON

Ilson, Robert (ed.) (1985): Dictionaries, lexicography and language learning. New York: Pergamon Press. This book is a collection of fourteen articles about EFL learners' dictionaries, divided into three sections: types of dictionaries, parts of dictionaries, and applications of and alternatives to dictionaries for learners. The first part compares the EFL learners' dictionaries with monolingual dictionaries for native English speakers. The second part examines the lexical entry, including the head word, pronunciation, grammatical information, collocations, and usage notes. The third part examines the use of dictionaries by EFL students. This bibliography contains ATKINS; BENSON; H I L L ; JACKSON; KIRKPATRICK; L A M Y ; ROSSNER; SINCLAIR; STEIN; UNDERHILL; WELLS;

and

WHITCUT

(all 1985).

Ilson, Robert (1983): Etymological information: Can it help our students? English Teaching Journal 37 (1), 76-82.

Language

argues for the inclusion of etymological information in monolingual learners' dictionaries. Etymologies have four types of information in them: etyma and cognates, including borrowing; morphology and analysis of lexical units in terms of their constituent structure; processes of word-formation, such as blends and folk etymologies; and "why etymologies", such as metaphors. ILSON

62 Iqbal, Zafar (1987): Aspects of the learners' dictionary with special reference to advanced Pakistani learners of English Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Aston at Birmingham, Birmingham, U.K. IQBAL reports a survey on 700 undergraduate second-year Pakistani students with a 54-item questionnaire on their dictionary use. Over 90% of the students had their own English dictionaries, especially the OALD, but were unaware of any differences between it and a general purpose English dictionary. The LDOCE, CULD, and the Collins ELD were used by fewer than 10% of the students. Dictionaries were used primarily for decoding activities, i.e., reading comprehension in English. Meaning was most frequently looked up, followed by spelling. IQBAL also found that students received no guidance in selecting or using dictionaries.

Jackson, Howard (1995): Learners' dictionaries in contrast: Langenscheidt and Longman. Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen 24, 58-74. compares and contrasts LDOCE2 (1987) with the Langenscheidt Grosswörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache (LGDAF) 1993, "the first German learners' dictionary". LGDAF borrows, according to JACKSON, features from both OALD4 and LDOCE2, regarding layout, defining vocabulary, attention to collocations, and even individual illustrations (directly from LDOCE). JACKSON gives a descriptive account, implicitly positive, of LDOCE2, and a similarly descriptive account of LGDAF, but notes that the target audience, advanced learners of German, needs to know a good deal more about inflections than does the learner of English in order to use LGDAF well. JACKSON is also critical of "some 100 abbreviations...the compilers of LGDAF have... assumed too great a knowledge and skill on the part of the users". JACKSON

Jackson, Howard (1985): Grammar in the dictionary. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Dictionaries, lexicography and language learning, 53-59. Oxford: Pergamon Press. investigates the grammatical information that needs to be in a dictionary. He stresses that the use of codes, as in the LDOCE and the ALD, must take into account the ease of use and understandability of the codes and patterns, while at the same time remaining comprehensive and accurate. JACKSON

Jackson, Howard (1975): What's in a bilingual dictionary? Modern Languages 56 (2), 85-89. gives an extensive definition of a bilingual dictionary with a call to reform the microstructure in order to show more detail and convey more semantic information per entry. JACKSON

Jacobsen, Jane Rosenkilde, James Manley, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen (1991): Examples in the bilingual dictionary. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. Ill: 2782-2789. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. et al. outline the use of examples in the dictionary entry, review a number of research articles about the presentation and use of examples, define "example" as a formal category, and

JACOBSEN

63 distinguish examples from other components in the entry, the definitions, translation equivalents, synonyms, and illustrations. They also consider when the dictionary-maker should use examples, whether or not examples should be translated, and conclude with some alternatives to formal examples. Jain, Mahavir (1981): On meaning in the foreign learner's dictionary. Applied Linguistics 2(3), 274-286. discusses in relative detail some disadvantages of using limited or controlled vocabulary in the definitions provided in monolingual learner's dictionaries. Due to the vocabulary limitations, lexical-semantic information is often incomplete and inadequate, thereby not meeting the production needs of the learner. He points out how lexical-semantic differentiation is especially important when considering words such as cry/weep, afire/ablaze, tree/bush/shrub.

JAIN

James, Gregory (ed.) (1989): Lexicographers and their works. Exeter Linguistic Studies 14. University of Exeter Press. This collection of papers (see BEJOINT, BWENGE, CAHILL, COWIE, DELBRIDGE, D I A B , and T O N O all 1989), surveys a wide range of topics, such as word-frequency, grammatical information, and semantic considerations, as well as a wide range of users and learners, such as Swahili, French, Arabic, Russian, and Japanese speakers. Jansen, J., J. P. Mergeai, and J. Vanandroye (1987): Controlling LDOCE's controlled vocabulary. -In: Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985, 78-94. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). et al. analyze the two thousand word defining vocabulary of the LDOCE with a software program that searches for each word in the dictionary text. They found that the use of the controlled vocabulary lacks consistency, e.g., not including words that occur frequently in the text, such as business and hole, while including words that are not headwords, such as someone, anyone, and amusing. They also note that highly polysemous words are very frequently used in the definitions, which can lead to ambiguity. JANSEN

Jehle, Günter (1990a): Das englische und französische Lernerwörterbuch in der Rezension: Theorie und Praxis der Wörterbuchkritik. (The English and French Learners' Dictionaries in Review: Theory and Practice of Dictionary Criticism.) -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 30). has compiled 210 review articles of English and French monolingual learners' dictionaries including OALD, LDOCE, CULD, and COBUILD, and also the Dictionnaire du franqaise contemporain and the MicroRobert. JEHLE contrasts reviews written by linguists with newspaper and magazine reviews. Linguists criticize the quality and precision of definitions, the consistency of the grammar codes, and the inclusiveness of neologisms and technical terms. The JEHLE

64 reviews from the popular press examine the definitions of "words of popular interest" (such as "bonk" or "dildo"). Jehle, Günter (1990b): Grammatik und Kollokationen im Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (Grammar and Collocations in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English). Die Neueren Sprachen 89(5), 498-507. This article discusses to what extent the second edition of LDOCE succeeds in providing the foreign learner with easily understandable information concerning grammar and collocations. Moreover, the author examines the principles that govern the use of a defining vocabulary which is restricted to two thousand lexical items, JEHLE concludes that the revised dictionary is an extremely valuable reference for the EFL learner. Jehmlich, Reimer (1972): Der türnächste Nachbar. (The door-next neighbor.) Praxis des neusprachlichen Unterrichts 19(3), 259-271. critique of teaching materials focuses especially on the glossaries in textbooks of English for German students in the Hauptschule. Rather than glossing words like ketchup and supermarket, he believes that it is more important to provide the student with a phonetic transcription. He criticizes other glosses for their inappropriate simplicity in cases of potential interference. Translations for prepositions, in particular, are more often than not highly inappropriate. He suggests that in some cases monolingual vocabulary sections in textbooks could be more effective and altogether recommends a more flexible approach (a mixture of bilingual and monolingual glosses) to the presentation of vocabulary in textbooks of English. [Prisca Schüler] JEHMLICH'S

Kalliokuusi, Virpi and Krista Varantola (1998): From general dictionaries to terminological glossaries: User expectations vs. editorial aims. -In: Thierry Fontenelle, Philippe Hiligsmann, Archibald Michiels, Andre Moulin, and Siegfried Theissen (eds.): Actes EURALEX '98 proceedings: Papers submitted to the eighth EURALEX international congress on lexicography in Liege, Belgium. (Vol. II), 593-599. Liege, Belgium: University of Liege, English and Dutch Departments. The authors relate the story of a Frenchman who bought korvasieni (a poisonous Finnish mushroom) and was misinformed regarding the poisonous nature of this food after consulting an inaccurate entry for this word in a Finnish-French dictionary. They conclude that some encyclopedic information is necessary for specific terminology, and that a more permissive, less orthodox approach would be more user-friendly. The Frenchman survived. Keller, Howard H. (1987): Pedagogical wishes for a machine dictionary: An example from Russian. The Modern Language Journal 71(1), 12-17. K E L L E R specifies the requirements for future electronic dictionaries of Russian-English and English-Russian that would make them user-friendly and pedagogically sound. He highlights the potential use of "wildcard letters" to shorten lengthy Russian words that the student would

65 search for and how this would enhance the student's learning of "word family membership for many Russian words". K e r n e r m a n , Lionel (1996): English learners' dictionaries: How much do we know about their use? -In: Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex ' 9 6 proceedings I-II (Part I), 405-414. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University Dept. of Swedish. laments the paucity of studies that illuminate the actual usage of learners' dictionaries by learners of English and summarizes the discouraging results, based on eleven articles that used survey-questionnaires, revealing the low level of knowledge that students have about the efficient use of dictionaries. K E R N E R M A N notes that English learners' dictionaries are not integrated into any E S L curricula and proposes that the dictionary type he calls "semi-bilingual" be promoted in ESL programs. In this new type of dictionary, only the entry word is translated into the students' first language, followed by the rest of the entry f r o m the English learners' dictionary, usually the OALD. KERNERMAN

Kharma, Nayef N. (1985): Wanted: A brand-new type of learner's dictionary. 4(2): 85-90.

Multilingua

This article reports a study undertaken at Kuwait University. The author attempted to "investigate the need of Arab students of English for monolingual and bilingual dictionaries". Two questionnaires were administered to 284 students. In addition, other tests were given to smaller groups throughout the school year. These tests were intended to elicit information regarding the need for and "actual use of the various types of dictionaries". K H A R M A concludes that most students use a bilingual dictionary all of the time (sometimes in conjunction with a monolingual dictionary). The students seem to have difficulty understanding the definitions used in their monolingual dictionaries. Specifically, they reported having problems with: idioms, proverbs, phrasal verbs, and compounds. The author suggests that a more appropriate dictionary for university and secondary students would be a monolingual dictionary with "equivalents/paraphrases added to each meaning of the entry". KilgarrifF, Adam (1997): Putting frequencies in the dictionary. International cography 10(2): 135-155.

Journal of Lexi-

describes the construction of a frequency list of the words from a corpus, the British National Corpus, followed by an explanation of how the frequency information from the corpus data was put to use in L D O C E 3 and C O B U I L D 2. The value for EFL learners of the frequency number in L D O C E or the marking with diamonds in C O B U I L D is alluded to in the abstract and the conclusion, but not specifically addressed in any detail in the text. KILGARRIFF

K i p f e r , Barbara Ann (1987): Dictionaries and the intermediate student: Communicative needs and the development of user reference skills. -In: Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the E U R A L E X seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985,44-54. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17).

66 K I P F E R researched the relationship between language needs and dictionary skill; the acquisition of dictionary skills and its relationship to needs and attitudes; the influence of dictionary skills on reading and writing ability; and the utilization of three tools for the improvement of reference skills: more intensive instruction in using dictionaries; the introduction of learners' dictionaries to native speakers; and the automated dictionary. The control test and questionnaire are included in the article.

Kipfer, Barbara Ann (1985): Dictionaries and the intermediate student: Communicative needs and the development of user reference skills. Unpublished M. Phil, thesis. University of Exeter. surveyed 2 9 2 American high school students on their dictionary use and found that ( 1 ) most were not taught dictionary reference skills; (2) most students used dictionaries incorrectly and infrequently; (3) students were unwilling to refer to dictionaries because they feared they would appear to be ignorant; (4) some students were unaware of the differences between types of reference works, e.g., dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses, and encyclopedias; (5) students used dictionaries primarily to find the meaning of a word, and secondarily for spelling; (6) when students were taught dictionary skills, their reference skills were enhanced; (7) these American students found that EFL learners' dictionaries were valuable reference tools and of interest to them. KIPFER

Kipfer, Barbara Ann (1984) Workbook on lexicography: A course for dictionary users with a glossary of English lexicographical items. Exeter Linguistic Studies 8. R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.) Exeter: University of Exeter Press. includes in this general orientation to dictionary content much material from English learners' dictionaries, such as the OALD and the LDOCE. An appendix contains a valuable glossary of 150 words specific to lexicography. KIPFER

Kirkpatrick, Betty (1985): A lexicographical dilemma: Monolingual dictionaries for the native speaker and for the learner. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Dictionaries, lexicography and language learning, 7-13. Oxford: Pergamon Press. contrasts two types of dictionary, one for the native speaker, another for the FL learner, the ESL speaker. She examines differences in the treatment of the entry regarding pronunciation symbols, the space allowed for the entry itself, and the total allowed for the maximum number of words possible. She discusses the creation of a defining vocabulary used in learners' dictionaries, the number of sub-senses and their treatment, especially in EFL dictionaries, and the importance of example sentences and their selection and labeling in both types of dictionaries. KIRKPATRICK

Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow (1990): Die Darstellung von Verben in neueren einsprachigen Lernerwörterbüchern des Englischen. (The presentation of verbs in recent monolingual learner's dictionaries of English) Die Neueren Sprachen 89(4), 374-388.

67 This article contains a comparative analysis of the description of verbs (syntactic patterns with special reference to valency theory, definitions, stylistic and pragmatic information) in three monolingual learners' dictionaries: COBUILD, LDOCE, and OALD. They conclude that the advantages and disadvantages concerning the aforementioned categories are evenly distributed among the three dictionaries. The Oxford is given preference in the area of verb patterns while the Longman is said to be best in the area of verb definitions. Klug, Hans Jürgen (1989): Rationeller Wörterbuchgebrauch im Aufbaukurs Englisch. (Rational dictionary use in the advanced English course) Fremdsprachenunterricht 33(10), 490493. In this study, two dictionaries, a pocket type and a standard (both published by Enzyklopädie Verlag ) are compared and a number of differences which could cause problems for the students are examined (such as bilingual correspondences, abbreviation conventions, and the format of entries). The author believes that it is the responsibility of teachers to show their students how to properly use a given dictionary and not to assume that the students need not be guided if they already have experience with bilingual dictionaries. Knight, Susan (1994): Dictionary use while reading: The effects on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for students of different verbal abilities. The Modern Language Journal 78(3), 285-299. KNIGHT tested 112 undergraduate second year Spanish students on their vocabulary comprehension of four short Spanish texts of 150 -250 words. She divided the students into high and low ability groups. Half the students in each group had access to a Spanish-English dictionary, the Harper-Collins Spanish-English Dictionary. She found that the high ability students learned more words from context and were not helped significantly by the dictionary, corroborating BENSOUSSAN, SIM, WEISS (1984). However, she also found that the low ability students were not skillful at guessing the meaning of a word from context, and were helped considerably by the dictionary, corroborating TONO (1989). She concludes that low ability students should be encouraged to use bilingual dictionaries to assist with the comprehension of L2 texts. Knowles, Frank (1993): Dictionaries for advanced learners and users of foreign languages. Verbatim 19(3), 13-16. KNOWLES highlights the problems that advanced learners have with finding information in bilingual dictionaries on collocations. He recommends several English, German, and Russian collocation dictionaries and concludes by calling for more CD-ROM editions of bilingual dictionaries. Knowles, Frank E. (1989): The role of the learners' dictionary in the training of translators: Some observations on the Soviet approach. -In: Mary Snell-Hornby (ed.): Translation and lexicography, 139-148. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

68 K N O W L E S outlines the lexicographic situation in the USSR of the 1980's focusing on the quantity, over 1000 different bilingual dictionaries and the direction of translation, usually Russianmother tongue (Asian languages within the Soviet Union). Bilingual Russian-English and English-Russian dictionaries also receive attention in this article. The bibliography lists 14 dictionaries and 12 books on meta-lexicography by Russian scholars.

Kokawa, Takahiro and Shigeru Yamada (1998): Review of: Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture and Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, Encyclopedic Edition. International Journal of Lexicography 11(4), 343-357. and Y A M A D A , in this comprehensive review of two encyclopedic learners' dictionaries, find both to be helpful to the advanced reader of English. They find that LDELC has better coverage, especially of famous Americans in various fields, while the OALDCE is less userfriendly due to its rather technical and dense text. KOKAWA

Krishnamurthy, Ramesh (1987): The process of compilation. -In: John M. Sinclair (ed.): Looking up: An account of the COBUILD project in lexical computing and the development of the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary, 62-85. London and Glasgow: Collins. delineates the lexicographic research project at Birmingham University, which led to the production of the COBUILD learners' dictionary. He covers the original seven million word corpus and its sources, the selection of entries, the concordances, the selection of examples, and several issues regarding inputting to the database and the on-line editing of the dictionary text during several editorial stages. KRISHNAMURTHY

Kromann, Hans-Peder (1986): Die zweisprachige Lexikographie: ein Stiefkind der Germanisten. (Bilingual Lexicography: the Germanists' stepchild). -In: Walter Weiss, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Marga Reis, (eds.): Textlinguistik contra Stilistik? Wortschatz und Wörterbuch, grammatische oder pragmatische Organisation von Rede? Kontroversen, alte und neue, 177-181. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. K R O M A N N ' S main argument that bilingual lexicography is neglected by Germanists stands rather inconsequentially at the end of this short article. After presenting a typology of dictionaries, which leads to a dichotomy of active and passive dictionaries, he writes about the transparency of vocabulary, followed by a final section on "meaning discrimination" {Bedeutungsdifferenzierung) in dictionary entries. [Prisca Schüler]

Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach (1991a): Principles of bilingual lexicography. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. Ill: 2711-2728. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. K R O M A N N , R U B E R , and R O S B A C H , in a lengthy article, delineate "the user aspect" of the bilingual dictionary for both native speakers of the source language and native speakers of the target

69 language, combining this dichotomy with both productive (speaking and writing) goals and comprehension goals (primarily reading). After reviewing their own concept of the "active dictionary" and "passive dictionary" distinction, depending on whether production (active) or comprehension (passive) is desired by the user, the authors issue a call for more research into how people actually use dictionaries. Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach (1991b): Grammatical constructions in the bilingual dictionary. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. Ill: 2770-2774. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. and R O S B A C H examine grammatical and "idiosyncratic constructions", and note how these constructions are listed in the dictionary entries with labels and example sentences. They then explain the necessity for "valency specifications", and exemplify this with the obligatory use of articles in certain German constructions in a German dictionary for L2 learners. KROMANN, RIIBER,

Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach (1984): 'Active' and 'passive' bilingual dictionaries: The Scerba concept reconsidered. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the international conference on lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983,207-215. -Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1)· This article begins by questioning the usefulness of "monolingual descriptive dictionaries" and "EFL dictionaries" for the user as translator, whether encoding or decoding (producing or comprehending). Because of the "anisomorphism of languages", the needs of the users are very difficult to predict. Bilingual dictionaries have advantages for the translator/user: for example, "direct access to equivalents...(and) no superfluous material in the form of etymologies...". The solution to providing for the user's needs can be found in S H C H E R B A ' S suggestion for preparing rigorously targeted dictionaries distinguishing between the user as foreign language producer and the user as foreign language decoder. The authors elaborate on this concept by introducing the notions of "active and passive translation dictionaries" and the presentation of translational equivalents. Many examples are provided. Kühn, Peter (1983): Sprachkritik und Wörterbuchbenutzung. (Language criticism and dictionary use.) -In: Herbert Ernst Wiegand (ed.): Studien zur hochdeutschen Lexikographie II: 157-177. Germanistische Linguistik 1-4/82: Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. makes assumptions about why dictionary use is a mere "fiction" in Germany. He proposes a number of Sprachhandlungen, 'instances of language behavior', where general monolingual dictionaries could come into play as tools of clarification, confirmation, and interpretation. He says that dictionaries are not necessary, but useful. Concerning language criticism, he gives the example of the German word Nation, 'nation', and shows how dictionaries can aid the disambiguation of ideological terms. As to language pedagogy and dictionaries, K Ü H N emKÜHN

70 phasizes the development of a historisches Sprachverständnis 'historical understanding of language' for which monolingual dictionaries can be used effectively. [Prisca Schüler] Kühn, Peter and Ulrich Püschel (1982): Der Duden reicht mir. Zum Gebrauch allgemeiner einsprachiger und spezieller Wörterbücher des Deutschen. (The Duden is good enough for me. On the usage of monolingual and special dictionaries of German.) -In: Herbert Ernst Wiegand (ed.): Studien zur hochdeutschen Lexikographie II: 121-151. Germanistische Linguistik 3-6/80. Hildes-heim: Georg Olms Verlag. According to KÜHN and PÜSCHEL, the monolingual German dictionaries since the 16th century were traditionally written for certain nationalistic political purposes rather than for certain users. Even though the publishers of contemporary German dictionaries would like to reach the widest range of users possible, their dictionaries just do not sell; the most popular dictionaries in Germany are the Duden orthographic dictionary and the dictionary of foreign terms by the same publisher. KÜHN and PÜSCHEL conducted a survey among German teachers in order to find out what the most likely users of general German dictionaries really do with them. Among German teachers, two-thirds do not own an allgemeines deutsches Wörterbuch "general German dictionary", because they believe the Duden is good enough. [Prisca Schüler] Lamy, Marie-Noelle (1985): Innovative practices in French monolingual learners' dictionaries as compared with their English counterparts. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Dictionaries, lexicography and language learning, 25-34. Oxford: Pergamon Press. describes a number of distinctions between the LDOCE and several French dictionaries, notably the Dictionnaire Larousse du franqais langue etrangere (DLFLE). Major contrasts include the use of a defining vocabulary in the LDOCE, but not in the DLFLE, grammatical information in the LDOCE in each entry, but "numbered cross-references to annexed verb conjugations" in the DLFLE, and contrasts in their accompanying workbooks; the goal of the OALD workbook, for example, is to explicate the content of each entry to make it more useful, but the goal of the DLFLE's workbook is to give the learners "productive exercises" to improve their use of French vocabulary. LAMY

Landau, Sidney (1991): Review article: Approaches to meaning and their uses in lexicography. Dictionaries 13, 91-114. in this review of J . TOMASZCZYK and B . LEWANDOWSKA-TOMASCZCYK'S Meaning and Lexicography (Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1990), critically evaluates several articles regarding ESL dictionaries, including the LDOCE, the OALD, Chambers Universal Learner's Dictionary, and COBUILD. His review is forthright; for example, he writes: "we will forever be cursed with [ESL] dictionaries that grow larger and larger because their makers are afraid to cut anything". LANDAU,

Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna den Tuinder (1985): Strategies for accessing bilingual dictionaries: A question of regulation. Hispania 68(4), 858-64.

71 et al. seek to uncover the differences in the strategies used at different levels of language study. He chose 89 subjects from varying levels of undergraduate Spanish classes and had them translate 15 sentences with the aid of any bilingual dictionary. He found that beginning and intermediate learners favor a search based on lexical form while advanced learners employed a semantic-based strategy. These findings are discussed in light of the psycholinguistic theory of Lev VYGOTSKY and studies by William FRAWLEY. LANTOLF

Laufer, Batia (1993): The effect of dictionary definitions and examples on the use and comprehension of new L2 words. Cahiers de Lexicologie 63(2), 131-142. discusses the usefulness of definition vs. example in the learner's dictionary. She conducted a study of 43 first-year university students in Haifa who were enrolled in a course in "English for Academic Purposes". The students were tested on 18 unfamiliar words without the availability of contextual clues; nine words were defined only, and the remaining nine were illustrated only. Each student had to translate the unfamiliar words and use each one in a sentence. At a later stage, the students were given more information on the words that were tested. They received illustrations for the words that had previously been defined and definitions for the words that had previously been illustrated. The students were then given the opportunity to revise their original translations or sentences in light of this new information. The author found that for comprehension purposes, the combined dictionary entry with a definition and an example yielded the best results and that a definition-only entry was better than an illustration-only entry. For the purpose of translation, the combined entry was again the best, but there was no significant difference in the usefulness of a definition-only entry vs. an illustration-only entry. LAUFER

Laufer, Batia (1992): Corpus-based versus lexicographer examples in comprehension and production of new words. -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part I). Studia Translatologica, Ser.A, Vol. 2, 71-76. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. reports an experiment to determine whether examples taken from a corpus are more helpful to the dictionary user than examples created by lexicographers. She tested 57 adult subjects on their comprehension by a translation task and their production by a sentence writing task and found that the group who read the lexicographers' created examples had significantly higher scores. She also found that infrequent words, unknown to the adult learners, that were exemplified with both definitions and created examples were significantly more helpful than examples alone. LAUFER

Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar (1997): Assessing the effectiveness of monolingual, bilingual, and 'bilingualised' dictionaries in the comprehension and production of new words. The Modern Language Journal 81(2), 189-196. LAUFER and H A D A R examine the effectiveness of three types of learners' dictionaries with Hebrew speakers who are learning English based on scores on a multiple choice vocabulary test and a sentence production task. They find that, rather than dividing the 123 students by language proficiency level (which produced no differences by dictionary type), they divided them

72 by "dictionary use skill". For the "unskilled users", the bilingual dictionary (English-Hebrew) was best overall; for "average dictionary users", the bilingualised dictionary, an OALD-based dictionary with a few Hebrew translation equivalents added to each entry, was best overall; and for the "good dictionary users", the bilingualised OALD and the monolingual dictionary, LDOCE, gave the best results for comprehension and for production. The authors suggest that "a good 'bilingualised' dictionary is suitable for all types of learners". Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel (1997): Bilingualised dictionaries: How learners really use them. System 25(3), 361-369. and K I M M E L report the results of a controlled experimental study on the preferred lookup strategies of 70 Hebrew speaking students, using extracts from a "bilingualised" dictionary with one or two translation equivalents per entry, such as the Oxford Student Dictionary for Hebrew Speakers. The subjects were tested for their performance on a multiple choice comprehension task with 15 low frequency words, such as "swindle". They found that the Hebrew equivalent was preferred, with the English monolingual information a close second, and that "33% of learners do not have any preferred strategy for looking up the meaning of unknown words". LAUFER

Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed (1994): Monolingual, bilingual, and 'bilingualised' dictionaries: Which are more effective, for what, and for whom? -In: Willy Martin, Willem Meijs, Margreet Moerland, Elsemiek ten Pas, Piet van Sterkenburg, and Piek Vossen (eds.): Euralex 1994 proceedings, 565-576. Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit. LAUFER and M E L A M E D report the results of a controlled experimental study on the comparative effectiveness of three dictionaries, the LDOCE, the Oxford Student Dictionary for Hebrew Speakers (the bilingualised OALD with one or two translation equivalents per entry), and a bilingual English-Hebrew dictionary. 123 adult subjects were tested for their performance on a multiple choice comprehension task and a sentence writing task, using the word in the student's own sentence. They found that "the unskilled users benefited more from the bilingual dictionary, both in comprehension and production" and that "the good users obtained better results with the monolingual dictionary (LDOCE), both in comprehension and production".

Lemmens, Marcel (1994): Het woordenboek binnenstebuiten. Woordenboekinstructie in het vertaalonderwijs. (The dictionary inside out. Dictionary instruction in translation courses.) Levende Talen 490 (May), 298-302. describes the training in the use of dictionaries for translation courses offered at the Hogeschool Maastricht in the Netherlands. The bilingual Dutch-English and monolingual English dictionaries that are available are evaluated. LEMMENS

Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker (1991a): On the relationship between lexis and grammar in English learners' dictionaries. Cahiers de l 'Institut de Linguistique 17 (1-3), 227-242.

73 This article contains a number of recommendations for editors of learners' dictionaries and a proposal. They recommend that dictionaries include grammar notes that are comprehensive and simple "in order to avoid frequent cross-referencing", and that the number and length of examples must be limited in order "to reduce the space required". Their proposal is to integrate the grammar of the language into the dictionary to increase the usefulness of the learners' dictionary as a language learning tool. The article concludes with "expected problems", such as space limitations, difficult decisions on what phrase and sentence level grammatical information to include, and expected difficulty with "concise and clear grammatical points". Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker (1991b): On the relationship between lexis and grammar in English learners' dictionaries. International Journal of Lexicography 4(1), 1-14. and W E K K E R argue for a "central grammar component that allows users to have easy access to explanations of individual grammar codes used in the dictionary". LEMMENS and W E K K E R seem to prefer the table of codes in the L D O C E and "the excellent verb patterns in the O A L D " to the extra column in C O B U I L D , which "covers a minimum of grammar". LEMMENS

Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker (1986): Grammar in English learners' dictionaries. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 16). and W E K K E R delineate and critically analyze the grammatical coding systems in five learners' dictionaries: O A L D , L D O C E , O D C I E (both the first and second editions), and the Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. The authors propose a new coding system that is "selfexplanatory and reasonably easy to use".

LEMMENS

Li, Lan (1998): Dictionaries and their users in Chinese universities: With special reference to ESP learners. -In: Tom McArthur and Ilan Kernerman (eds.): Lexicography in Asia: Selected papers from the Dictionaries in Asia Conference, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 1997 and other papers, 61-79. Tel Aviv: Password Publishers, Ltd. Li reports the results of a survey-questionnaire on the use of dictionaries by 691 Chinese university students and 110 "university teachers". All of them own bilingual dictionaries, on average four per person; English-Chinese dictionaries are preferred for comprehension, but less than half own Chinese-English dictionaries. Li also reports a translation test requiring dictionary use with recorded look-ups and finds that 27% of the look-ups resulted in mistranslations due to several factors: the first equivalent in the entry tends to be chosen (replicating T O N O ' S (1984) finding), polysemous words were troublesome, and near equivalents in the entries were thought to be accurate equivalents. Li also supports T O N O ' S (1984) finding that dictionary use was very helpful for accurate translation; in fact, 73% of the look-ups were successful.

Li, Y. C. (1987): What a student needs from a Chinese-English dictionary. Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers' Association 22 (February), 135-139.

74

Li states the "great need" for a learners' dictionary of Chinese, illustrating the usefulness of appropriate example sentences to discriminate sub-senses and the use of contrasting word pairs that cause problems for the learners. He criticizes existing Chinese-English dictionaries for merely listing glosses in an unhelpful way, and calls for the addition of understandable grammar codes to the entries. Lindstrom, Naomi (1980): Making the bilingual dictionary safer for students. Hispania 63(4), 718-723. LINDSTROM examines The University of Chicago Spanish-English English-Spanish Dictionary and 1,000 Spanish Idioms. She uses these works as the basis for critiquing foreign language dictionaries. She found that they often lack syntactical information and give students the idea that Spanish is simply a word for word translation of English. In addition, they do not assist students who seek semantic connections between groups of words. Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day (1993): Reading, dictionaries, and vocabulary learning. Language Learning 43(2), 263-287. This experimental study of 295 Japanese ESL students showed that the use of a bilingual dictionary resulted in significantly better vocabulary test scores than those of a control group which used monolingual dictionaries. However, the reading speed of the experimental group was only half that of the control group. Further, some vocabulary items were harder for the control group (possibly due to misuse of the dictionary). Only short-term memory of vocabulary was tested. MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards (1983): On dictionaries and definitions. RELC Journal 14(1), 111-124. MACFARQUHAR and RICHARDS surveyed 180 ESL students at the University of Hawaii on their dictionary use. They found that the students only used dictionaries to check word meanings and spellings, and that most were not aware that grammatical information and usage information was also in the entries. They had the students rank the definitions for 60 words (idioms, culture specific items, compounds, and slang) for comprehensibility in three dictionaries, LDOCE, OALD, and Webster's New World Dictionary and found that the LDOCE was superior because it had the clearest definitions. The OALD ranked slightly ahead of the Webster's. Mackin, Ronald (1978): On collocations: Words shall be known by the company they keep. In: Peter Strevens (ed.): In honour of A.S. Hornby, 149-165. Oxford: Oxford University Press. MACKIN analyzes the way collocations are treated in the O A L D and the ODCIE. He also pre-

sents the results of a survey of "university colleagues" on their interpretations of one hundred idioms and collocations, many of them incorrect, and of the many unexpected variations on common collocations they produced.

75 Mackintosh, Kristen (1998): An empirical study of dictionary use in L2-L1 translation. -In: B. T. Sue Atkins (ed.): Using dictionaries: Studies of dictionary use by language learners and translators. 123-149. Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 88). reports the results of an experimental study with controlled variables, a French to English translation task for LI English students, an English to French task for LI French students, and the recording of verbal protocols while the tasks were underway. She describes the most common problems of student translators with the translation task (with comprehension problems and the need for an equivalent for 35% of the students), the dictionaries most commonly used (a "specialized hybrid", a bilingualized or monolingualized French-English dictionary used by 57%), and elements of the entry most commonly consulted (both definition and equivalent, followed by equivalent only, followed by definition only). The most frequent cause for dissatisfaction with the dictionary was that the word was missing (88%), and the second most frequent complaint was that there was no entry that matched the desired term exactly (29%). MACKINTOSH

Magay, Tämas (1984): Technical or general: Problems of vocabulary selection in a mediumsize dictionary. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the international conference on lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983, 221-225. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1). delineates three factors for deciding on vocabulary inclusion: size, purpose/scope, and user-orientation. He discusses the most common methods for making selection decisions. This article uses names of diseases to test the selection choices in some dictionaries, including LDOCE and the English-Hungarian Concise Dictionary. The author favors a sociolinguistic method, "since what the learner-user needs is strongly related to his social status, his level of education, and the activity for which he consults the dictionary". M A G A Y suggests more cooperation among specialists and lexicographers and for more "feedback from the learner-user". MAGAY

Maingay, Susan and Michael Rundell (1987): Anticipating learners' errors — implications for dictionary writers. -In: Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985, 128-135. Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, pp. (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). and R U N D E L L argue that advanced language learners often select the wrong word from a series of choices because, although they might have some information about the word, they lack the fullness of knowledge possessed by the native speaker, resulting in "near-misses". The implications for dictionary-writing are discussed. The authors include the results of a study conducted by the Longman ELT Dictionary and Reference Department, in collaboration with the Applied Psychology Unit of Medical Research Council in Cambridge. The authors also examined writing samples from students at the Indian Institute of Technology in New Delhi, Japanese students at the Senior High School in Hiroshima and students who took the Cambridge Proficiency Exam in 1982. MAINGAY

76 Mairesse, Paul (1993): Autonomie. Quel materiel, quelle pedagogie? (Autonomy. What material, what educational methods?) Le Franqais dans le Monde May-June 33 (257), 65-68. M A I R E S S E notes that a learner's construction of an "autodictionary" (a dictionary that the learner creates for individual use) requires specific skills such as inference and using context. The article describes some pedagogical techniques which can be used to develop skill in working with polysemy.

Marckwardt, Albert H. (1973): The dictionary as an English teaching resource. TESOL Quarterly 7(4), 369-379. This article examines the usefulness of the dictionary as a source of information for the teacher. Teachers can find information in dictionaries which cannot be found in textbooks: word meanings; spelling and pronunciation; grammar; usage status; synonym discrimination; application of derivational affixes; and distinctions between spoken and written English. The article does not treat learners' dictionaries. Marello, Carla (1998): Hornby's bilingualized dictionaries. International Journal of Lexicography 11(4), 292-314. presents a historical account of bilingual dictionaries for learners that have been based on three OALD editions and two earlier dictionaries by Hornby. She finds that, although several dictionaries that were based on OALD2 and OALD3 could be called bilingualized, most of these dictionaries are actually bilingual L2 - LI dictionaries for intermediate or advanced students of English. They include English-Chinese, English-Italian, English-Greek, English-Norwegian, and English-Hebrew dictionaries. She concludes that these were not meant for encoding; rather they are for decoding activities, mainly assisting with reading comprehension. MARELLO

Marello, Carla (1987): Examples in contemporary Italian bilingual dictionaries. -In: Anthony P. Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner, 224-237. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). examines the usefulness of examples in recent Italian-English dictionaries and reports the results of a survey of 42 Italian teachers of English and of 58 Italian university students on their dictionary use. Forty-one of the 58 students were dissatisfied with their bilingual dictionaries because they could not find appropriate translations and because they found that sense discriminations were unclear. MARELLO

Marello, Carla (1982a): Fare italiano (anche) con i vocabolari monolingui. (Learning Italian (even) with a monolingual vocabulary.) -In: Edoardo Lugarini (ed.): Insegnare la lingua: Pariare e scrivere, 72-83. Roma: Edizioni Scolastiche Bruno Mondadori. surveys and compares seven Italian monolingual dictionaries for their vocabulary coverage, their intended audience, and the components of their entries, the etymology, definiMARELLO

77 tions, grammatical abbreviations, and examples. She comments on the usefulness of these dictionaries in Italian language instruction for Italian students in schools. Marello, Carla (1982b): Invece di 'sciacquare i panni in Arno': I vocabolari d'italiano nell'insegnamento. (Instead of "rinsing the wash in the Arno": Teaching with Italian dictionaries. ) -In: Pier Marco Bertinetto and Carlo Ossola (eds.): Insegnare stanca, 219-308. Bologna: Societä Editrice il Mulino. surveys the use of monolingual Italian dictionaries in Italian schools and recommends specific instruction in elementary and secondary schools in dictionary use, concentrating on the structure of the entry, including understanding definitions, collocations, verb paradigms, and abbreviations. MARELLO

Martin, Samuel E. (1962): Selection and presentation of ready equivalents in a translation dictionary. -In: Fred Householder and Sol Saporta (eds.): Problems in Lexicography, 153159. International Journal of American Linguistics 28 (2) (April) Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. adopts the user's perspective in this article on the difficulties of constructing a Japanese-English dictionary for learners of Japanese. M A R T I N includes fourteen recommendations for Japanese lexicographers that are especially insightful.

MARTIN

Martin, Willy (1985): Reflections on learner's dictionaries. -In: Karl Hyldgaard-Jensen and Arne Zettersten (eds.): Symposium on lexicography II: Proceedings of the second international symposium on lexicography May 16-17, 1984 at the University of Copenhagen, 169181. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 5). M A R T I N comments on the LDOCE 1 ( 1 9 7 8 ) and OALD 3 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , giving a working definition of a learners' dictionary and critically evaluating the macrostructure and the microstructure of these two dictionaries and a Dutch-English/English-Dutch bilingual dictionary for learners.

Martin, W. and B.P.F. Al (1990): User-orientation in dictionaries: 9 propositions. -In: T. Magay and J. Zigäny (eds.): Budalex '88 proceedings: Papers from the Euralex third international congress, 393-399. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado. and A L S outline nine proposals to improve learners' dictionaries, including the structuring of either productive dictionaries for encoding or comprehension dictionaries for decoding. They recommend the incorporation of studies of "users' intuitions" in order to make the entry structure more user-friendly. MARTIN

Martino, Giovanni de (1986): II ruolo dei processi psico-socio-culturo-mentali nell'uso del dizionario bilingue, con particolare riguardo al dizionario inglese-italiano e viceversa. (The role of psychological, social, cultural, and mental processes in the use of bilingual dictionaries, with particular attention to English-Italian and Italian-English dictionaries.) Richerche interdisciplinari di glottodidattica 12 (settembre - dicembre), 3-79.

78 In a two-part article, MARTINO first recapitulates his 1 9 8 1 article below, again criticizing bilingual dictionaries for their simplistic listing of equivalents. He expands on the type of exemplification necessary to enable the user to choose an appropriate equivalent based on the extralinguistic information in the context around the word. In the second part, he provides a linguistic foundation for bilingual lexicography, taken from BLOOMFIELD and SAPIR, and specifies a number of requirements for a satisfactory pedagogical dictionary of Italian-English. Martino, Giovanni de (1981): II dizionario bilingue come componente dell'insegnamento glottodidattico. (The bilingual dictionary as a component of language teaching.) -In: Federico Albano Leoni and Nicola De Blasi (eds.): Lessico e semantica: Atti del XII Congreso Internazionale di Studi, Sorrento, 19-21 maggio 1978, 161-181. Roma: Bulzoni Editore. criticizes monolingual Italian and English dictionaries, including the Concise Oxford Dictionary, and the OALD, for their circularity, and criticizes bilingual English-Italian dictionaries for merely listing equivalents in the entry without any information on usage, few examples, or any instruction on how to choose the appropriate equivalent. This problem is illustrated with "red" and its many collocations. MARTINO

McArthur, Tom and Ilan Kernerman (eds.) (1998): Lexicography in Asia: Selected papers from the Dictionaries in Asia Conference, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 1997, and other papers. Tel Aviv: Password Publishers, Ltd. This collection contains two papers that are directly concerned with dictionary use, T O N O (1998) and Li (1998), which are included in this bibliography. McArthur, Tom (1989): The background and nature of ELT learners' dictionaries. -In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners dictionaries: State of the art, 52-64. (Anthology Series 23.) Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. briefly outlines the history of English language teaching, including the first attempts in the 1930's to limit essential vocabulary to 1000 words, and the development of a controlled defining vocabulary in the first learners' dictionary developed in Japan, later published as the OALD in 1948. M C A R T H U R then reviews the learners' dictionaries of the late 1980's: LDOCE2, OALD3, COBUILD, ODCIE, CULD, and the Collins ELD. MCARTHUR

McCorduck, Edward Scott (1993): Grammatical information in ESL dictionaries. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 48). categorizes monolingual dictionaries for English learners under the general rubric, "ESL Dictionaries". He provides a comprehensive list of monolingual English dictionaries of a variety of levels (advanced, intermediate, beginners; specialized: idiom and multiword). He also notionally connects the term "user" with the term "learner". A detailed examination of morpho-syntactic categories and their notation and presentation in English dictionaries is offered. The author analyzes the major monolingual English learner's dictionaries. In the second part of the book McCorduck describes an empirically based research project that focusMCCORDUCK

79 es on the user of the learner's dictionary. The book concludes with recommendations for ESL lexicography. McCreary, Don R. (1998): Review of: New Japanese-English Character Dictionary and NTC's New Japanese-English Character Dictionary. International Journal of Lexicography 11(2), 137-153. in this comprehensive review of two Japanese-English dictionaries, finds both to be helpful to the advanced reader of Japanese. He praises the innovative access structure for the characters that eliminates the use of radicals. MCCREARY,

McCreary, Don R. (1989): Vygotskyan theory applied to Japanese-English lexicography. Resources in Education. July. ERIC Document ED 304013, 1-14. expounds on SHCHERBA'S concept of active and passive bilingual dictionaries with notions of how Japanese users look up words, make decisions on which sub-sense to choose, and make use of illustrative examples. The article highlights the tendency of the Japanese user to make poor decisions regarding the choice of sub-senses and to make poor use of examples when they translate from Japanese to English. MCCREARY

VYGOTSKY'S

McCreary, Don R. (1986): Improving bilingual Japanese-English and English-Japanese dictionaries. Papers in Linguistics 19(1), 55-66. examines six English-Japanese and four Japanese-English dictionaries for the difficulties they present the non-Japanese user. He exemplifies four features in the bilingual dictionaries that were found to be lacking: usage notes, e.g., explanation and exemplification of status and situation, including honorific and colloquial language comparisons; expanded loan word information; cultural notes on Japan; and the Romanization of all entries. A proposal is presented for a notational system and the addition of examples of situational and social variants to correct these problem areas. MCCREARY

McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal (1999): A study of dictionary use by ESL students in an American university. International Journal of Lexicography 12(2), 107-145. and DOLEZAL report the results of a controlled experiment on the use of a college dictionary in the US, the American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition. They find that when international students use this dictionary alone to comprehend words, without any supporting contexts, it provides no advantage over simply guessing the meaning of words without any dictionary help. MCCREARY

McCreary, Don R. and Fredric Dolezal (1998): Language learners and dictionary users: Bibliographic findings and commentary. -In: Thierry Fontenelle, Philippe Hiligsmann, Archibald Michiels, Andre Moulin, and Siegfried Theissen (eds.): Actes EURALEX '98 proceedings: Papers submitted to the eighth EURALEX international congress on lexicography in

80 Liege, Belgium. (Vol. II), 611-618. Liege, Belgium: University of Liege, English and Dutch Departments. This report delineates the findings of this annotated bibliography on learners' dictionaries and research on users. The authors note that the "findings revolve around the tension between two notions: lexicography as a science vs. lexicography as an art", and conclude that scientific research has been impeded by three factors: the failure to develop methodologies for surveys and experimental studies, the failure to replicate studies, and the failure to promote pedagogical research within academia in order that it be equally valued with philological, literary, and other academic discourses. McKeown, Margaret G. (1993): Creating effective definitions for young word learners. Reading Research Quarterly 28(1), 16-31. experimentally tests primary school students ( 1 1 year-olds) on two dictionary tasks: their use of standard dictionary definitions compared to their use of COBUILD-style definitions as aids for understanding "hard words" during a sentence writing task. The students doubled their accurate use of the "hard words" in their sentences with the help of the COBUILDstyle definitions. M C K E O W N also discovered a cognitive strategy used by the children, the reinterpretation of an unfamiliar word in a definition into a more familiar word, followed by overextension of this word, which led to much misuse and many errors in their written sentences. MCKEOWN

McKeown, Margaret (1991): Learning word meanings from definitions: Problems and potential. -In: Paula Schwanenflugel (ed.): The psychology of word meanings, 137-156. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. focuses on the learning of words through dictionary definitions for 4th-8th grade native speakers. She claims that "...young students do not learn much from (the) traditional dictionary format", and reviews the development of rules of lexicography: concepts of genus and differentia; substitutability; reductionism; and necessity or sufficiency. She then examines recent alternatives: lexical fields; a controlled vocabulary approach; discursive explanations; examples; and collocations. She categorizes difficulties in two widely-used student dictionaries: weak differentiation; vague language; likely naive interpretation; and disjoint components. M C K E O W N develops several principles for maximally comprehensible definitions for young learners: identify the unique role of the word; characterize the word (by prototype); make meaning accessible; and arrange for attention to the whole definition. Two tests, sentence construction and answering questions, were conducted using dictionary definitions and revised definitions. The revised definitions yielded better results. MCKEOWN

McNaughton, David, Charles Hughes, and Karen Clark (1997): The effect of five proofreading conditions on the spelling performance of college students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities 30(6), 643-651. In this experimental study, M C N A U G H T O N et al. studied twelve college students previously tested for serious spelling difficulties. The students wrote compositions under five conditions:

81 handwriting alone, handwriting with the aid of a standard dictionary, Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (1984), handwriting with the aid of a hand held electronic spelling checker, word processing on a computer, and word processing with Word 5.0 with the aid of its spelling checker. The dictionary was ranked last by the students as a helpful spelling aid. The use of the dictionary decreased the students' ability to detect spelling errors. If any errors were detected, the dictionary was the least helpful aid at correction. Moreover, the use of the dictionary took over twice as long as the other aids, averaging 4 minutes, 13 seconds per word misspelled. The use of Word 5.0 with its spelling checker significantly helped the students with both the detection of and the correction of errors. Mdec, James S. (1984): Constructing an entry in a learner's dictionary of standard Kiswahili. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the international conference on lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983, 237-241. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1). considers the problems of morphological and semantic information, derivatives, and affixation in the context of constructing a learner's dictionary of Kiswahili; each problem and solution is illustrated with data and analysis. He makes a case for providing the learner with a comprehensive selection of usage examples. MDEE

Meara, Paul and Fiona English (1987): Lexical errors and learners' dictionaries. Paper presented at the IATEFL Conference. ERIC Document ED 290322, 1-9. and E N G L I S H examine 1 3 6 4 lexical errors that appeared in examination papers written by students from fourteen different language backgrounds. Then they analyze the treatment of these words in the Longman Active Study Dictionary to determine if the entry explicitly rectifies the error or if it contains information that would lead the student to avoid the error. They find that the overall usefulness of this dictionary is quite high. MEARA

Meijs, Willem (1996): Linguistic corpora aind lexicography. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 16, 99-114. outlines the advantages of large corpora, over one hundred million words, for monolingual English learners' dictionaries, evaluating COBUILD, LDOCE, and CIDE. He gives a historical overview of corpus linguistics, recommends five uses of corpora, including authentic examples, sense distinctions, and frequency information, and addresses three areas of concern: refining statistics for compounds and collocations, semi-automatic data selection to preselect appropriate examples, and sense marking based on context. MEIJS

Mentrup, Wolfgang (1984a): Text, Wörter, und Wörterbuch im Deutschunterricht. Auch im Hinblich auf schwere Wörter. (Text, words, and dictionaries in the German classroom. Also accommodating hard words). -In: Gerhard Äugst (ed.): Wortschatz und Wörterbuch, 61-79. Der Deutschunterricht 36(5).

82 surveys the role of dictionaries in the German classroom for native speakers of German by presenting a model of actions involved in reading texts, distinguishing between actions on a syntagmatic axis and actions on a paradigmatic axis. In this context he compares texts/ words to pharmaceutical drugs, because they have certain effects and side effects and the user is dependent on certain directions for use. German dictionaries fail to accommodate difficult words such as, for instance, pharmaceutical vocabulary. His syntagmatic-paradigmatic model combined with what he calls wh-question chains are, in his view, important practical devices for textual comprehension. [Prisca Schüler] MENTRUP

Mentrup, Wolfgang (1984): Wörterbuchbenutzungssituationen- Sprachbenutzungssituationen. Anmerkungen zur Verwendung einiger Termini bei H.E. Wiegand. (The dictionary-use Situation - the language-use situation. Remarks concerning the use of some terms by H.E. Wiegand) In: Werner Besch, Klaus Hufeland, Volker Schupp, Peter Wiehl (eds.): Festschrift für Siegfried Grosse zum 60. Geburtstag. 143-173. Göppingen: Kümmerle Verlag. examines the dictionary in light of the scholarship of W I E G A N D . He discusses the various types of dictionary use, reading and writing of text, and questions of orthography, and their relations typologically, illustrating his points with six diagrams and tables. He then discusses specific questions of dictionary use, e.g., reasons for using a dictionary, how often it is used, and what is gained by the use of a dictionary. He also outlines these relationships in a typology of use, including the problems of language use, specifically their classification, e.g., grammatical use, spelling, form, plurality, the classes of information in a dictionary, and the pragmatic aspect of the dictionary with respect to the user. M E N T R U P then discusses W I E G A N D ' S model in light of a "lexicographical stratal model". He concludes with four different types of pragmatics with respect to the dictionary. MENTRUP

Mettke, Hans (1990): Zum sprachlichen Handwerkszeug des Englischlehrers. (On the English teacher's linguistic tools). Fremdsprachenunterricht 34 (8-9), 435-439. A teacher from the former GDR advises other teachers from East Germany which dictionaries to buy. He describes some monolingual and bilingual dictionaries and assesses their strengths and weaknesses. Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel (1984): The pro's and con's of a controlled defining vocabulary in a learner's dictionary. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the international conference on lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983, 385-394. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1). Two dictionaries (The Collins Concise English Dictionary and the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English) are used as the database for a computer generated analysis, called the IBM STAIRS information-retrieval package, of the efficacy of a controlled set of terms for defining. While the motivation for this research is the learner's ability to access information through a non "entry-bound" medium, that is, in machine readable format, the authors address more general questions concerning the "retrieval of semantic relationships within dictionary definitions". Many illustrative examples are provided.

83 Mikkelsen, Hans Kristian (1992): What did Scerba actually mean by 'active' and 'passive' dictionaries?-In: Karl Hyldgaard-Jensen and Arne Zettersten (eds.): Symposium on lexicography V: Proceedings of the fifth international symposium on lexicography, May 3-5, 1990 at the University of Copenhagen, 25-40. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 43). explains the notions of active and passive applied to bilingual dictionaries intended for decoding and encoding. He reviews SHCHERBA's writings, including those on language theory, language in society, and bilingualism, and includes commentary that praises the use of monolingual learners' dictionaries in advanced foreign language classes. MIKKELSEN

Miller, George A. (1984): How to misread a dictionary. -In: Yorick Wilks (ed.): Proceedings of Coling '84,462. Morristown, NJ: Association for Computational Linguistics. M I L L E R summarizes experimental results from a dictionary reading task by American children of monolingual English dictionaries. He finds that children misuse the information from dictionary entries, confusing the syntactic category of the entry and the sense distinctions of polysemous entries.

Miller, George A. and Patricia M. Gildea (1987): How children learn words. Scientific American 257 (3): 94-99. and G I L D E A report the findings of an experiment on how fifth and sixth grade children (11 year-olds) in the US use English dictionaries to produce sentences. They find that the children use a substitution strategy that erroneously takes a word or a phrase that they know from the dictionary entry and inserts it into their own sentence without paying attention to the syntactic category or collocational appropriateness. MILLER

Minaeva, Ludmila (1992): Dictionary examples: Friends or foes? -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part I). Studia Translatologica, Ser.A, Vol. 2, 77-80. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. considers illustrative examples in O A L D , L D O C E , and C O B U I L D , pointing out various weaknesses, and arguing for examples created by lexicographers rather than examples taken out of context from a large corpus. MINAEVA

Mitchell, Evelyn (1983a): Search-Do reading: (2) Using a dictionary. A preliminary analysis. Working Paper 20. Formative Assessment of Reading Strategies in Secondary Schools. Aberdeen, U.K.: Aberdeen College of Education. analyzes the presentation of information in entries from five dictionaries, highlighting the potentially confusing variation in the presentation of definitions, grammatical information, and examples. M I T C H E L L suggests potential difficulties in dictionary use for inexperienced elementary students with reading the entry, identifying relevant information in the entry, unMITCHELL

84 derstanding the meaning, and applying this understanding to the source text. The appendix of this 24 page report has seven dictionary skills tests. Mitchell, Evelyn (1983b): Search-Do reading: (3) Difficulties in using a dictionary. Working paper 21: Formative assessment of reading strategies in secondary schools. Aberdeen, U.K.: Aberdeen College of Education. analyzes dictionary search skills into several component skills, called "search-do reading". All of the 94 students tested are native English speakers, Scottish primary school pupils in 6th and 7th grade, who used a general English dictionary for five dictionary skills tests. First the students, according to MITCHELL, must recognize the relevant information in the dictionary, then use it for comprehension of the text they are reading. In the results, MITCHELL found that the students experience difficulties at every stage: (1) searching for the headwords, (2) understanding the structure of the entries, (3) identifying the relevant part of the definition, (4) relating the appropriate sense to the context of the text they are reading, and (5) difficulty merging the word, by using a paraphrase, with the content of the text. These five tests are relevant to a typology of dictionary search skills. MITCHELL

Mittmann, Brigitta (1995): Examples in English monolingual learners' dictionaries. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Friedrich-Alexander Universität, Erlangen-Nürnburg, Germany. discusses the extensive use of examples in O A L D 4 , L D O C E 2 , and C O B U I L D 1 , how they were chosen, and the advantages and disadvantages in their wording. The review of literature relies on COWIE 1989b, DRYSDALE 1987, Fox, 1987, and HARRAS 1989b. She also reviews HAUSMANN'S theory of collocations. C O B U I L D ' s example sentences are criticized for their length and complexity, as artifacts of a corpus, rather than invented (and useful) examples. MITTMANN describes, but does not comment critically on, O A L D ' s and L D O C E ' s examples. MITTMANN

Monaco, Roberta (1989): Pour une utilisation active des dictionnaires. (For an active usage of dictionaries) Le Frangais dans le Monde 29(227): 54-55. In a two-page article on elementary school dictionaries, M O N A C O recounts statements by W I T and BARTHES. She distinguishes between a passive, "transitive" role for dictionary use which relies on denotation, and a preferred, active "intransitive" role which draws on cultural, contextual and metaphoric levels of meaning. TGENSTEIN, B O C H

Montgomery, Michael (1983): Explaining language variation to the public. -In: Yeatman Anderson (ed.): Papers of the Dictionary Society of North America, 1981, 107-114. Terre Haute, Indiana: Indiana State University and the DSNA. reports his experiences with a telephone question and answer service on grammar and editing and finds that the public wants highly prescriptive advice from dictionaries rather than descriptive information. MONTGOMERY

85 Moon, Rosamund (1998): On using spoken data in corpus lexicography. -In: Thierry Fontenelle, Philippe Hiligsmann, Archibald Michiels, Andre Moulin, and Siegfried Theissen (eds.): Actes EURALEX '98 proceedings: Papers submitted to the eighth EURALEX international congress on lexicography in Liege, Belgium. (Vol. II), 347-355. Liege, Belgium: University of Liege, English and Dutch Departments. MOON reveals the intricacies and ambiguities involved in conversational data which makes up about 10% of the total data in corpora. MOON argues that the constraints on the size of dictionaries and the emphasis on the literal meaning of single words make spoken data less than useful in a learners' dictionary. Moon, Rosamund (1996): Data, description, and idioms in corpus lexicography. -In: Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex'96 proceedings I-II (Part I), 245-256. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, Dept. of Swedish. MOON examines variability in English idioms, finding that "40% of the 6700 fixed expressions I examined had canonical variations, as in 'hit the roof and hit the ceiling'". A number involve British - US differences, such as "cool your heels" (US) and "kick your heels" (Br.). She also finds that "30% of the idioms in the Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Idioms (1995) occur less often than once per ten million words in the Bank of English. When variation and usage are covered in depth, the inclusion of infrequent idioms can create physical space problems in paper dictionaries, but electronic dictionaries can solve this problem. Moon, Rosamund (1992): Textual aspects of fixed expressions in learners' dictionaries. -In: Pierre J. L. Arnaud and Henri Bejoint (eds.): Vocabulary and applied linguistics, 13-27. Hampshire, U.K.: Macmillan Academic and Professional, Ltd. MOON analyzes fixed phrases, idioms, and metaphors in various contexts, and exemplifies the pragmatic difficulties that ESL students face with English, French, and Russian metaphors that look like equivalents but are "also misleading: they are faux amis". She comments on the inadequate and misleading treatment fixed phrases receive in bilingual dictionaries, and the inconsistent placement of the phrase under one of the words, but not the other, in monolingual dictionaries. Moon, Rosamund (1988): "Time" and idioms. In: Mary Snell-Hornby (ed.): Zürilex '86 proceedings: Papers read at the Euralex International Congress, University of Ziirich, 9-14 September 1986, 107-115. Tübingen: Francke Verlag. MOON examines the treatment of the word "time" and idioms containing it in the ODCIE (1983) and in the Birmingham corpus, illustrating eight different senses for "time". Moon, Rosamund (1987a): Monosemous words and the dictionary. -In: Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the Univer-

86 sity of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985, 173-182.-Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). discusses problematic definitions of "quasi-monosemous" words that cannot be broken down into clear sub-senses because their meaning varies with the context, e.g., "keep to the left" and "the butter won't keep" (and 28 more senses for keep). She recommends that ESL learners' dictionaries should not adopt fine discriminations for every sense of the word, but instead should subcategorize the meanings into "essential and basic meanings". MOON

Moon, Rosamund (1987b): The analysis of meaning. -In: John M. Sinclair (ed.): Looking up: An account of the COBUILD project in lexical computing and the development of the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary, 86-103. London and Glasgow: Collins. examines polysemy, homonymy, and metaphor and demonstrates how COBUILD treats single entries and run-ons. The criteria for sense distinctions are as follows: syntactic considerations, including the word class the entry belongs to, verb transitivity, verb complementation, collocations for verbs, nouns, and adjectives, and derivatives from derivational suffixation. M O O N argues for and justifies COBUILD's policy under each section. MOON

Moulin, Andre (1983): LSP dictionaries for EFL learners. -In: Ed. R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): Lexicography: Principles and practice, 144-152. New York: Academic Press. discusses the learner's lexicographical needs, such as specific utilitarian information related to a particular occupation; and contends that LSP (Language for Specific Purposes) dictionary compilers have not met the learner's needs. M O U L I N then outlines an "ideal LSP dictionary" with entries that include grammatical codes, synonyms and antonyms with cross references, complete sentences for examples, and illustrations. MOULIN

Moulin, Andre (1979): Dictionaries— general, technical, specialist, etc. — and how they often leave (foreign) advanced learners in the lurch. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): Dictionaries and their users. Papers from the BAAL seminar on lexicography. Exeter Linguistic Studies 4 & ITL Review of Applied Linguistics 45-46, 76-81. Exeter: University of Exeter Press and Louvain: Catholic University Press. includes insightful, but anecdotal, remarks on the non-native user/learner and his or her primary informational needs (e.g. "The foreign learner wants to know not only what words mean, but also what he can do with them ..."). There is a general description of the available learners' dictionaries with some specific comparisons made. M O U L I N calls for "studies" in at least three areas: a) information required (phonetic; lexical; grammatical; pragmatic); b) accessibility of information (including attention to theoretical and technical issues of design and format); c) and informative clues concerning the creative use of the target language. The author calls for a survey of needs and for cooperation between the lexicographer and technical specialist. MOULIN

87 Müllich, Harald (1990): Die Definition ist blöd! (This definition is dumb!) -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 37). experimentally studied the use of monolingual dictionaries by German high school students in their English and French language courses. Errors were as much due to students' strategies as to weaknesses in the dictionaries. This scientifically rigorous study will interest specialists in meta-lexicography and foreign language pedagogy. The goal of the study was to find out about the real dictionary use of students in the last three years of the German high school (Gymnasiale Oberstufe or 11th, 12th, and 13th grades). The data consist of students' transcripts of what they did, but in some cases the written protocol was substituted by a tape recorder. Parallel to writing a translation, (out) "loud thinking" was taped which reported the steps involved in the "looking-up-process". Also, charts show when a student used a dictionary, how successfully he used it and what reasons could have led to a certain decision. In light of his investigation, he "developed O M E G A (Option, Minimization, Election, Genesis, Adaptation) as an expedient for the description and analysis of the whole process of dictionary use and for breaking it down both into different stages and steps and into individual acts". MÜLLICH

N a g a n u m a , Kunio (1978): The history of the Advanced Learner's Dictionary, A.S. Hornby, ISED, and Kaitakusha, Tokyo. -In: In honour of A.S. Hornby^ 11-13. Peter Strevens. Oxford: Oxford University Press. relates the early history of the first English monolingual learners' dictionary. H O R N and Dr. Η. E. P A L M E R worked together at the Institute for Research in English Teaching in Tokyo between 1932 and 1936 and produced the Idiomatic and Syntactic English Dictionary, eventually published in 1942 by Kaitakusha in Tokyo. This was the basis of the first Advanced Learner's Dictionary in 1948. NAGANUMA BY

N a k a m o t o , Kyohei (1998): From which perspective does the definer define the definiendum: Anthropocentric or referent-based? International Journal of Lexicography 11(3), 205-218. in this detailed and innovative analysis of the defining policies of four English learners' dictionaries, focuses his study on two definition types: referent-based and anthropocentric. He analyzes the use of "you" and other pronouns, primarily in COBUELD2 and LDOCE5, and specifies these as anthropocentric. Both O A L D 5 and CIDE tend to have objective definitions, or "referent-based", which are analytical definitions with genus and differentiae. N A K A MOTO argues that the two perspectives, when mixed in one definition, can hinder the foreign user's understanding. He also claims the overuse of "you" or the "sexist use of you" especially impedes the user's comprehension because this use of the pronoun conveys a connotation that is culturally loaded; e.g., "boyfriend- a man that you are having a romantic relationship with". (LDOCE3) and "pregnant- having an unborn baby growing inside your body". (LDOCE3) NAKAMOTO,

N a k a o , Keisuke (1998): The state of bilingual lexicography in Japan: English-Japanese/Japanese-English dictionaries. International Journal of Lexicography 11(1), 35-51.

88 reviews the progress achieved in the making of Japanese/ English learners' dictionaries in Japan. Following a summation of the history of Japanese lexicography, the author addresses the problem of encoding (speaking and writing) by Japanese learners of English and the generally low quality of Japanese to English dictionaries. He describes two newer dictionaries that are more user-friendly because they provide accurate idiomatic equivalents in English for Japanese terms, sense discriminations for usage and style, and they also present the headwords in the ordering of the syllabary rather than in alphabetical order. NAKAO

Nakao, Keisuke (1989): English-Japanese learners' dictionaries. International Journal of Lexicography 2(4), 295-314. This article aims to report the state of dictionary making in Japan, particularly Japanese/English learners' dictionaries. Some brief historical information is provided and then the author addresses the problems of entry headings, the arrangement of meanings, and grammatical information. In particular, some difficulty exists in providing accurate equivalents for English and Japanese terms since the languages and cultures are so very different. The author advocates graded information in an entry so as to indicate how important a piece of information is relative to another. Nencioni, Giovanni (1989): The dictionary as an aid in belles lettres. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/ Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. I: 146-151. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. examines the role the dictionary can play in understanding literature. Since dictionaries are repositories of the state of a language at a particular time, examination by literary scholars of the dictionaries used by particular authors in a literary period enables the scholars to have greater comprehension of their written work. NENCIONI

Nesi, Hilary (1998): Defining a shoehorn: The success of learners' dictionary entries for concrete nouns. -In: B.T. Sue Atkins (ed.): Using dictionaries: Studies of dictionary use by language learners and translators. 159-178. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 88). investigates students' perceptions of five definitions taken from four recent learners' dictionaries, OALD5, LDOCE3, COBUILD2, and CIDE, and one desk dictionary, the Concise Oxford Dictionary ( 1 9 9 0 ) . Using the method introduced by C U M M I N G et al. ( 1 9 9 4 ) , the students were asked to rate the definitions for their helpfulness. The definitions in LDOCE3 and CIDE were thought by the students to be the most helpful. When the students were asked to interpret the definition and use the word correctly in a sentence, they were more successful with CIDE. NESI

Nesi, Hilary (1996): The role of illustrative examples in productive dictionary use. Dictionaries 17, 198-206.

89 reports an experiment on the dictionary use of forty adult ESL learners. One group of twenty consulted dictionary entries from LDOCE with examples included and a second group of twenty consulted the entries without examples, followed by a sentence production task. N E S I found that consulting the entries with examples took a little longer and the percentage of appropriate (correct) written sentences was a little higher, but neither result was significant, which was further evidence of the ESL learners' poor ability to use learners' dictionaries. NESI

Nesi, Hilary (1994): The effect of language background and culture on productive dictionary use. -In: Willy Martin, Willem Meijs, Margreet Moerland, Elsemiek ten Pas, Piet van Sterkenburg, and Piek Vossen (eds.): Euralex 1994 proceedings, 577-585. Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit. reports the results of an experimental study on the dictionary use of 51 Portuguese and 44 Malaysian undergraduates studying English. The students wrote sentences with the aid of learners' dictionaries using "target words likely to be unknown" and "high frequency words...known to all". The Malaysians wrote fewer accurate and appropriate sentences than the Portuguese because they had "a significantly greater number of grammar errors". Their ability to comprehend the grammatical information in the entries was poor. NESI

Nesi, H. (1992): Go away and look it up! Revue de Phonetique Appliquee 103/104, 195-210. N E S I examines the difficulties encountered in the use of monolingual dictionaries by ESL students. She identifies five steps in dictionary use: identification of the word to look up; locating the dictionary entry; finding the appropriate definition; understanding the definition; and applying the definition. Difficulties which can cause the student to choose the incorrect meaning may be encountered at any step. The author provides suggestions for avoiding or minimizing the dangers at each stage.

Nesi, Hilary (1989): How many words is a picture worth? A review of illustrations in dictionaries. -In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners' dictionaries: State of the art, 124-134. (Anthology Series 23.) Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. analyzes the use of illustrations in dictionaries, commenting on various illustrated dictionaries and pictorial dictionaries for both native speakers and non-native learners. N E S I then addresses how extensively illustrations may be used to define terms accurately and what types of terms are best served by illustrations. NESI

Nesi, Hilary (1987): Do dictionaries help students write? -In: Thomas Bloor and John Norrish (eds.): Written language. British Studies in Applied Linguistics 2,85-97. London: Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research. examines actual lexical errors appearing in the writing of ESL learners and how those words are treated in the OALD, LDOCE, and CULD. She finds that for errors in register, collocational range, and mistaken meanings, all three learners' dictionaries are severely lackNESI

90 ing. N E S I recommends better cross-referencing for similar words, better coverage of polysemous words, and more information on collocational restrictions. Nesi, Hilary (1984): Dealing with lexical errors. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis. University of Aston in Birmingham, U.K. examines how OALD, LDOCE, and CULD account for EFL learners' errors in speech and writing. N E S I finds that all three dictionaries fail to give the learner sufficient information in order to avoid errors. Four elements of the entry require more effective treatment: grammatical properties of the entry, commonly used collocations, information on register, and description of meaning that is appropriate for the student's level of understanding. NESI

Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara (1994): Patterns of misinterpretation in the productive use of EFL dictionary definitions. System 22(1), 1-15. and M E A R A describe and illustrate the use of largely unknown words in written sentences by adult ESL learners. Three groups of learners had access to definitions in three learners' dictionaries, OALD, LDOCE, and COBUILD. Those using OALD had a significantly greater percentage of errors, especially errors caused by misunderstanding the definitions and the usage of the target words. N E S I and M E A R A exemplify several strategies that ESL learners appear to wrongly apply to the definition to produce incorrect sentences. NESI

Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara (1991): How using dictionaries affects performance in multiplechoice EFL tests. Reading in a Foreign Language 8(1), 631-643. This is a replication and extension of a previous study by B E N S O U S S A N , SIMM, and W E I S S ( 1 9 8 4 ) . The subjects were EAP adults in Great Britain. The results showed that the availability of dictionaries (monolingual and/or bilingual) did not significantly affect scores on reading tests. However, unlike the results of the previous study, dictionary users took longer to complete the test. The explanation for the results may include test item types, experimental conditions, usability of particular dictionaries, and users' strategies. Neubauer, Fritz (1987): How to define a defining vocabulary. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): A spectrum of lexicography: Papers from AILA Brussels 1984,49-59. Benjamins: Philadelphia. positively evaluates the L D O C E defining vocabulary and proposes the creation of a defining vocabulary for a German dictionary intended for learners of German. He cautions that the "2280 word forms (in LDOCE)...have many senses..., including a restricted sub-set of senses used by the editors...", and explicates a few difficult decisions that must be made in order to create a defining vocabulary in German. NEUBAUER

Neubauer, Fritz (1985): Auf der Spur des 'unbekannten Wesens': Der DaF- Wörterbuchbenutzer. (Tracing the unknown creature: The German as a second language dictionary user.) In: Ekkehard Zöfgen (ed.): Wörterbücher und ihre Didaktik. Bielefelder Beiträge zur Sprachlehrforschung 14(1-2), 216-235.

91 reports on the use of German dictionaries by foreign students of German when writing compositions in German. His data consists of dictionary-usage transcripts, which the students had to turn in with their homework assignments. The primary use for the dictionary was searching for meaning and the bilingual dictionary was preferred for this task. N E U B A U E R found that these learners used their dictionaries extensively and for a variety of purposes and discusses how dictionary instruction in the language classroom can increase user satisfaction. [Prisca Schüler] NEUBAUER

N e u b e r t , Gunter (1970): Die Darstellung des technischen Wortguts in englisch-deutschen Fachwörterbüchern in der Sicht des Technikers. (The representation of engineering vocabulary in English-German dictionaries from the engineer's point of view.) Wissenschaftliche Zeitung der Technischen Universität Dresden 19, 339-342. tries to assess English-German technical dictionaries. He uses the English word, valve, which is used in many different areas of engineering but which does not have a German equivalent. Depending on the context (electricity, oil, gas, pressure etc.) the word valve must be translated into its proper technical term in German. N E U B A U E R compares the entries for valve in 4 polytechnic dictionaries (de Vries, Walther, Ernst, Dorian), all of which show unsatisfying representations. The interpretation depends on the linguistic and technical knowledge of the user. According to N E U B A U E R , the collaboration that would be necessary between translators and technicians to improve technical dictionaries is a daunting task. [Prisca Schüler] NEUBERT

Nguyen, Dinh-Hoa (1986): How to present grammatical information in a learner's dictionary of English. Lexicographica 2, 61-77. briefly outlines some of the problems an English learner faces when trying to locate grammatical information in a definition. He suggests that bilingual dictionaries that have developed compact and understandable coding systems might be of use in the construction of monolingual learner's dictionaries. The author uses his English Vietnamese Dictionary to illustrate his claims; lengthy samples from this dictionary are included in an appendix. NGUYEN

Nikula, Henrik (1986): Wörterbuch und Kontext. Ein Beitrag zur Theorie des lexikalischen Beispiels. (Dictionary and context: A contribution to the theory of the example in dictionary definitions.) -In: Walter Weiss, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Marga Reis (eds.): Textlinguistik contra Stilistik? Wortschatz und Wörterbuch, Grammatische oder Pragmatische Organisation von Rede? Kontroversen, alte und neue, 187-192. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. evaluates the use of corpus examples versus invented examples in dictionary definitions. According to N I K U L A , examples must evoke a prototype use for the lexeme in question. The dimensions of such a prototype context are discussed along with the question of valency in a very theoretical discourse without any concrete examples. [Prisca Schüler] NIKULA

Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik (1995): The role of context and dictionary definitions on varying levels of word knowledge. Reading Research Quarterly 30(2), 172-193.

92 and O L E J N I K report a controlled experiment of 186 undergraduate students, all English speakers, on their use of dictionary definitions in English when trying to comprehend ten nonce words in context. They were tested on three comprehension tasks and one writing task. "Those (students) who had adequate dictionary definitions performed better than those who (had) inadequate definitions, indicating that the quality of the definitions appears to determine the extent to which college students are able to learn unknown words". NIST

Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq (1996): Towards a more grammatical bilingual dictionary. -In: Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex'96 proceedings I-II (Part II), 597607. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, Dept. of Swedish. et al. propose that publishers include more grammatical information, especially verb valency, and other collocational information in dictionaries in a CD-ROM format. They highlight their work on a "Contrastive Verb Valency Dictionary", a trilingual French-English-Dutch work, focusing on a single entry, the treatment of "\ook-regarder-kijken and their several collocations, along with their complementation with prepositional phrases, noun phrases, and adjective phrases. NOEL

Nuccorini, Stefania (1994): On dictionary misuse. -In: Willy Martin, Willem Meijs, Margreet Moerland, Elsemiek ten Pas, Piet van Sterkenburg, and Piek Vossen (eds.): Euralex 1994 proceedings, 586-597. Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit. reports an experimental study of Italian university students' usage of dictionaries on an actual translation exam. The results are based on the errors found in the students' translations of English to Italian with the aid of an English-Italian dictionary. The students tended to choose the first translation equivalent, did not know how to interpret the grammatical information for verbs, and relied on cognates, which were sometimes false. NUCCORINI

Nuccorini, Stefania (1993): Pragmatics in learners' dictionaries. Journal of Pragmatics 19(3), 215-237. This study examines and contrasts the methodologies employed by three learner's dictionaries, LDOCE, OALD, and COBUILD. Each employs tables and explanatory notes, but varies in its format and use of these. The author concludes that the pragmatic information encoded in the dictionary information relies on the pragmatic knowledge of the user. Nuccorini, Stefania (1992): Monitoring dictionary use. -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part I). Studia Translatologica, Ser.A, Vol. 2, 89-102. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. reports the results of a survey-questionnaire of eleven Italian students and five Italian EFL teachers in Italy on their use of bilingual dictionaries and three English learners' dictionaries, OALD, LDOCE, and COBUILD. She finds that the students depended completely on bilingual English-Italian dictionaries to understand the meanings of the English words looked NUCCORINI

93 up, and found that this was generally true for the EFL teachers as well. The teachers used the example sentences and usage information in the learners' dictionaries to a greater extent than the students. Information on "grammar, syntax, complementation codes and labels", as noted in her questionnaire, was rarely looked up by either group. Nuccorini, Stefania (1990): Holding a post and filling the job: English collocations in EnglishItalian, Italian-English dictionaries. -In: Bibliograf in collaboration with The Commission of the European Communities (ed.): Euralex '90 proceedings, 369-380. Barcelona: Bibliograf. examines collocational errors made by Italian students of English and the treatment of collocations, such as "to get a foot in the door", in several English-Italian dictionaries and in LDOCE, OALD, and BBI. She finds that collocations are treated in an unsystematic way and require greater attention by lexicographers in order to meet learners' needs. NUCCORINI

Nuccorini, Stefania (1988): The treatment of metaphorical and idiomatic expressions in learners' dictionaries. -In: Mary Snell-Hornby (ed.): Zürilex '86 proceedings: Papers read at the Euralex International Congress, University of Zürich, 9-14 September 1986,149-160. -Tübingen: Francke Verlag. N U C C O R I N I reports on how OALD3 and LDOCE2 treat metaphors and idioms, such as "hold one's nose", "doing time", and "wet blanket". N U C C O R I N I also mentions CULD's treatment of idioms, but does not rank them for effective or ineffective treatment of idioms.

Ogasawara, Linju (1984): Problems in improving Japanese English learners' dictionaries. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the international conference on lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983, 253-257. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1). bemoans the state of the English learners' dictionary in Japan; he points out the historical, social and economic reasons behind the weakness of the learners' dictionaries: one salient factor is the dependence of compilers on English dictionaries designed for native speakers of English. The author carefully provides a fourteen point list of requirements for a good learners' dictionary along with a description of the problems associated with English learners' dictionaries in Japan. He calls for "more basic research and more surveys on...contrastive studies of the languages and cultures...and analysis of common errors made by students...". OGASAWARA

Ogawa, Yoshio (1978): Hornby Osei: A tribute from Japan -In: Peter Strevens (ed.): In honour of A.S., 8-10. Hornby. Oxford: Oxford University Press. describes H O R N B Y ' S personal history in Japan between 1 9 3 0 and 1 9 4 0 relating the studies that led to the 1942 publication, the Idiomatic and Syntactic English Dictionary, the forerunner to the first edition of the Advanced Learner's Dictionary in 1948, later to become the OGAWA

OALD.

94 Olijkan, Ed and Gerame Wouters (1994): Woordenboeken in de praktijk. (Dictionaries in practice.) Levende Talen 490 (May), 252-253. and W O U T E R S outline the contributions to a thematic issue of Levende Talen on dictionary use in the classroom in Holland. The role of the dictionary in second language instruction at the high school level and the need for students to learn how to use the dictionary are emphasized by the contributors because dictionaries are important for the acquisition of new vocabulary. OLIJKAN

Olofsson, Arne (1996a): Cambridge International Dictionary of English (CIDE) (Review article). Moderna Sprak 90(1), 99-103. reviews C I D E in detail, especially criticizing the structure of the entries with the sub-senses marked by guide-words. He finds that "learners, even at an advanced stage, will be frustrated too often by not finding an item". He a|so criticizes the sections on "false friends", and the treatment of grammar and pronunciation. OLOFSSON

Olofsson, Arne (1996b): Frequency matters. Moderna Sprak 90(2), 158. in this one-page note, reports the introduction of information for English learners on the most frequently used words in English in two learners' dictionaries, COBUILD and LDOCE. He warns readers that this information can be inaccurate and provides a convincing example,"buck", meaning "dollar"; however, a variant "Bucks", which is frequently used as a shortening for Buckinghamshire and "other proper names", is the cause for the "high frequency" of this word in COBUILD. OLOFSSON,

Opitz, Kurt (1988): Dictionaries in language learning: What they can and what they can't do. -In: Karl Hyldgaard-Jensen and Arne Zettersten (eds.): Symposium on lexicography III: Proceedings of the third international symposium on lexicography May 14-16,1986 at the University of Copenhagen, 517-528. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 19). speculates on the value of learners' dictionaries for long-term language learning, as opposed to language study at school. He recommends a "contextualized dictionary" that would contain encyclopedic information and much collocational information. OPITZ

Opitz, Κ. (1979): Technical dictionaries: Testing the requirements of the professional user. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): Dictionariesand their users: Papers from the BAAL seminar on lexicography. Exeter Linguistic Studies 4 & ITL Review of Applied Linguistics 45-46, 89-95. Exeter: University of Exeter Press and Louvain: Catholic University Press. reports the results of an experiment and provides pedagogically-motivated observations based on experiences teaching engineering and nautical students: the discussion concentrates on problems and issues associated with identifying a "technical register". For the user of specialized English the dictionary is seen as a means to linguistic "survival". The author counts 45 OPITZ

95 technical dictionaries available in a store and raises questions concerning the identity and needs of the prospective audience(s). The report on the experiment (using 29 subjects and a control group) compares the responses by the subjects to a questionnaire on identification of nautical terms with the inclusion or absence of the identified terms in three types of dictionaries. OPITZ calls for criteria for lexical selection in a technical dictionary (how many pertinent "general" lexical items should be included) and raises questions on what constitutes a "hard-word" in a technical dictionary. Pätzold, Kurt-Michael (1997): The new generation of learner dictionaries (Part II of "Words, words, words") Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen 26, 185-218. analyzes the five learners' dictionaries of English that were published in 1 9 9 5 , LDOCE, CIDE, OALD, and COBUILD. He tests them with a pre-selected list of 50 items from American English, finding that LDOCE covers them the best. For a set of 50 collocations related to the body, e.g., "smack your lips", he is critical of the poor coverage, finding that OALD covers 17, CIDE and COBUILD cover 16 and LDOCE covers 14. For example sentences in all four, he is very critical: "COBUILD may well make too high demands on... customers; LDOCE has the fewest examples; OALD seems niggardly with its space; CIDE is not complete in its coverage of syntactic patterns, [however] CIDE has a great many examples, and good ones too". PÄTZOLD

Pätzold, Kurt-Michael (1994): Words, words, words: The latest crop of dictionaries for learners of English (Part I) Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen 23, 13-64. examines five bilingual German-English and five English-German dictionaries on a pre-selected list of 800 words and fixed phrases chosen from the BBI. He finds the "most gaps... in... colloquial fixed expressions," and also faults them for inadequate coverage of American English. PÄTZOLD then reviews four American college dictionaries and four British desk dictionaries on a pre-selected list of 150 words and fixed phrases. He finds that the Random House-Webster's College Dictionary is the most comprehensive and the most user-friendly. The Chambers Dictionary and the Collins English Dictionary were ranked first and second in his tests of the British dictionaries. PÄTZOLD

Pätzold, Kurt-Michael (1987): Context is all: The BBI combinatory dictionary of English and the German learner. Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen 16, 151-182. reviews the B B I in detail, praising the easy to use arrangements, the usage notes, and the comprehensive treatment of collocations and complementation for verbs, nouns, and adjectives. However, he also finds that the BBI is not as comprehensive in its treatment of collocations as the LDOCE is. His review is detailed but nitpicking. BENSON replied in an article in the 1990 issue of FLL and PÄTZOLD replied in a letter to the editor in that issue, vol. 19. (op. cit. under BENSON 1990b in these annotations) PÄTZOLD

Petti, Vincent (1989): Notes on dictionary making. Moderna Sprak 83(3), 201-207.

96 outlines the requirements for the successful compilation and publication of a bilingual dictionary, using Swedish-English examples. He concentrates on the problems of translation equivalence that users face and how the bilingual lexicographer can aid the user by including precise meaning discriminations and plentiful examples. PETTI

Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1997): Review of: OALDCE, LDOCE, COBUILD, CIDE. Lexicographica 13,289-294. critically reviews the four monolingual English learners' dictionaries that were published in 1995, especially criticizing COBUILD for being "not as useful as the other dictionaries". He praises OALDCE 5's improved access structure for being "very clear when compared to the other ones". However, he finds that LDOCE 3 has lost some of its earlier clarity, and he reserves his strongest criticism for CIDE for its confusing access structure, unsatisfying treatment of multi-word expressions, a poor index of phrasal verbs, and overall complexity. PIOTROWSKI

Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1989): Monolingual and bilingual dictionaries: Fundamental differences. -In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners' dictionaries: State of the art, 72-83. -Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre (=(Anthology Series 23) criticizes monolingual English learners' dictionaries for their use of definitions that contain "metalanguage...another level of abstraction". He notes that monolingual dictionaries are "inherently circular" in their attempts to define, but bilingual dictionaries "do not describe meaning at all", instead substituting translation equivalents. PIOTROWSKI

Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1988): A dictionary of Real English versus the best dictionary available. EFL lexicography. Dictionaries 10, 21-58. compares two learners' dictionaries, LDOCE2 and COBUILD, the "dictionary of real English," according to its publicity slogans. He examines the vocabulary coverage, the defining style, the treatment of collocations, pronunciation, and grammar in this detailed review, concluding that LDOCE2 is the more useful dictionary for learners of English.

PIOTROWSKI

Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1987): Indication of English pronunciation in bilingual dictionaries. Applied Linguistics 8(1), 39-47. describes the systems for the treatment of pronunciation in bilingual dictionaries and the improvements that lexicographers could make to aid the language learner. The users' needs should be considered first in five key decisions for the dictionary maker: the choice of a transcription system, its consistent application, its regular updating, the choice of a dialect, a "standard", and the description of variants. PIOTROWSKI

Potter, Liz (1998): Setting a good example: What kind of examples best serve the users of learners' dictionaries? -In: Thierry Fontenelle, Philippe Hiligsmann, Archibald Michiels, Andre Moulin, and Siegfried Theissen (eds.): Actes EURALEX '98 proceedings: Papers submitted

97 to the eighth EURALEX international congress on lexicography in Liege, Belgium. (Vol. II), 357-362. Liege, Belgium: University of Liege, English and Dutch Departments. argues that carefully chosen corpus examples are more helpful for users of English learners' dictionaries than invented examples are. She claims that the large size of corpora (323 million words in the Bank of English) makes it possible to find appropriate examples for any word. She illustrates this claim with one word, bloom, and, in a user survey for COBUILD on its "real examples", discovers that users "liked them a lot". POTTER

Procter, Paul (1996): The making of a modern dictionary. Moderna Sprak 90(1), 3-8. explains the "innovative features" of the Cambridge International Dictionary of English (CIDE), praising the coverage of vocabulary, over "100,000 words and phrases", and the use of guide-words and a phrase index "that facilitates the user's access". He also highlights the use of a hundred-million word corpus for examples and usage and the dictionary's treatment of definitions and sub-senses. PROCTER

Procter, Paul (1976): The design of a dictionary for language teaching and learning. -In: Gerhard Nickel (ed.): Proceedings of the fourth international congress of applied linguistics, vol. 3, 309-321. Stuttgart: Hochschulverlag. describes the editorial features of the first edition of LDOCE, focusing on the innovations of the controlled defining vocabulary, the usage and stylistic labeling, and the syntactic coding. PROCTER

Püschel, Ulrich (1989): Wörterbücher und Laienbenutzung. (Dictionaries as used by laymen) In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.):Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. I: 128-135. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. investigates the needs of the average user (Laienbenutzer) in general and from the perspective of the native and non-native speaker. P Ü S C H E L sets forth concerns that need to be considered by dictionary compilers: amount of material offered by a dictionary; how many types of users should be addressed in a dictionary; and finally, a call for research on dictionary design. The entry concludes with a useful bibliography. PÜSCHEL

Püschel, Ulrich (1986): Vom Nutzen synonymisch und sachlich gegliederter Wörterbücher des Deutschen. (The uses of German synonym dictionaries and thesauri). Lexicographica 2, 222-243. provides a brief history of German synonym dictionaries from the 8th to the 19th centuries; he finds that they are mostly useful for serving the practical function of foreign language learning. On the other hand, the thesauri of the Roget tradition (especially with attention to Daniel S A N D E R S , Deutscher Sprachschatz, 1873, and August SCHLESSING, Deutscher Wortschatz, 1881-1901) do not appear to serve the purposes claimed by the compilers. The PÜSCHEL

98 author claims, however, that the latter two works were perceived at the time as a cure used for "cultivating the degenerated German". Pye, Glennis (1996): Don't give up, look it up! Defining phrasal verbs for the learner of English. -In: Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex'96 proceedings I-II (Part II), 697-704. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, Dept. of Swedish. PYE highlights the importance of phrasal verbs for the ESL learner and has several recommendations for the improved structure of phrasal verb dictionaries, including the clear identification of the verb, syntactic patterns exemplified without any coding, and the marking by boldface of the two hundred most important phrasal verbs. She also emphasizes the learners' need for information about "object/subject restrictions", which is collocational information about the restrictions that the phrasal verb has for particular subjects or objects in its collocations. Quirk, Randolph (1974): The image of the dictionary. -In: The linguist and the English language, 148-163. (by) Randolph Quirk. London: Edward Arnold. Q U I R K , in this chapter, reports a survey of 2 2 0 British undergraduate students on their English dictionary use. The answers to the thirty-item questionnaire revealed that 71% of the students used their dictionaries at least once a month and that they primarily looked up the meaning of words and also looked at the synonyms and antonyms. Some difficulty with the metalanguage of definitions was reported, as well as a lack of interest in the information in the entries on pronunciation, etymology, and grammar. G R E E N B A U M et al. ( 1 9 8 4 ) replicated this survey with American undergraduates.

Reif, Joseph A. (1987): The development of a dictionary concept: an English learner's dictionary and an exotic alphabet. -In: Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985, 146-158. -Tübingen:Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). explains the editorial decisions he had to make on the Oxford Student's Dictionary for Hebrew Speakers, one of the first bilingualized dictionaries. He justifies the inclusion of glosses in Hebrew after each entry from the dictionary on which it is based, the Oxford Student's Dictionary of Current English,and also justifies the deletion of phonetic transcriptions, grammar codes, and abbreviations. This dictionary's effectiveness was experimentally tested by L A U F E R (op. cit.) with student users and scored very well compared to their use of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries. REIF

Renouf, Antoinette (1987): Corpus development. -In: John M. Sinclair (ed.): Looking up: An account of the COBUILD project in lexical computing and the development of the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary, l-40.London and Glasgow: Collins. describes the corpus used to create the COBUILD learners' dictionary. Its size is about 7.4 million words, 75% from printed sources, which are mainly books. British English acRENOUF

99 counts for 70% of the corpus and American English 20%, while the remainder is a mixture of regional varieties of English. The types of texts in the corpus, both fiction and non-fiction, are categorized in detail. Rey, Alain (1986): Les ecarts culturels dans les dictionnaires bilingues. (Cultural gaps in bilingual dictionaries). Lexicographica 2, 33-42. Sociocultural questions play a role in many kinds of bilingual dictionaries. For example, anthropological lexicography employs a descriptive metalanguage that REY illustrates with an Indonesian-French bilingual dictionary. Next, the history of bilingual dictionaries in Europe is traced (first, Latin-vernacular, later, bilingual modern language to modern language dictionaries). The problem of translating items from popular culture is illustrated; similarly, problems arise with "institutionalisms" (terms from government and administrative bodies). Everyday words (e.g. horse) are difficult because of differences in culture and folk taxonomies. Technical and scientific terms may be directly borrowed. When two languages are separated by a vast geographic distance and great cultural distance, different lexicographic strategies are needed (i.e., illustrations and long glosses). Finally, special, regional, and cultural dictionaries are discussed. Ripfel, Martha (1990): Wörterbuchbenutzung bei Muttersprachlern. Untersuchungsbericht über eine Befragung erwachsener muttersprachlicher Sprecher zur Wörterbuchbenutzung. (Dictionary use through native speakers: Study report on questioning of adult native speakers on dictionary use.) Lexicographica 6,237-251. describes a research project conducted by the students in her seminar course on research in dictionary use at Heidelberg University in which they surveyed a group of adults, all native speakers of German, who were from various social and educational backgrounds. This study examines the questions of ownership and use of monolingual German dictionaries, the relationship between school instruction in dictionary use and the present adult use of a dictionary, It also examines orthographic forms, proposals for orthographic reform, and the factors in the decision to purchase a dictionary. R I P F E L concludes with discussion of the results of the study. RIPFEL

Ripfel, Martha (1989): Ergebnisse einer Befragung zur Benutzung ein- und zweisprachiger Wörterbücher. (Results of a survey on the usage of mono- and bilingual dictionaries.) Lexicographica 5, 178-201. presents the results of a survey on dictionary use among 279 German university students of English and French, who were asked to fill out questionnaires on how they use monolingual and bilingual dictionaries. Although many charts attempt to specify various types of dictionary use, she could not clearly disambiguate the different tasks for which learners use dictionaries. RIPFEL cautiously presents the results of her study as tendencies: dictio-nary users want the introduction to a dictionary to be short, want the entries to be clear and have few abbreviations, and want the etymologies to be dropped. They believe that more emphasis should be put on dictionary use in class by school teachers. When asked about deficiencies in the RIPFEL

100 dictionary, 57% of the students felt they were deficient and criticized them for a lack of examples. [Prisca Schüler] Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand (1986): Wörterbuchbenutzungsforschung. Ein kritischer Bericht. (Dictionary usage research: A critical report) Germanistische linguistik 87-90,491-520. The goal of this Heidelberg dictionary project was to collect empirical data, leading to knowledge about how foreign students of German use dictionaries in certain situations. The evaluation of the data should yield a theory of lexicography for learners that would be used to develop a midsize, one-volume learners' dictionary of German. The editors critically report which research methods and results were reported up to 1986, citing nineteen studies from 1973-1986, which reveal that written questionnaires, usage protocols, and tests to survey attitudes, users' needs, and preferences are the most frequent research methods. The authors conclude with four recommendations for future dictionary use research: (1) usage should not be predominantly determined by publishers' interests; however, it should focus more on the development of a theoretical basis; (2) lexicography should learn to see itself as a specific part of empirical social research; (3) it should develop a methodology for data collection and evaluation; (4) it must work on fruitful questions which go beyond lexicography. Roberts, Roda P. and Catherine Montgomery (1996): The use of corpora in bilingual lexicography. -In: Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex '96 proceedings I-II (Part II), 457-464. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, Dept. of Swedish. and MONTGOMERY review the Oxford-Hachette English-French/French-English Dictionary 's use of a corpus, the first in bilingual lexicography, and they introduce the corpora that are used in the Bilingual Canadian Dictionary project, giving the percentages of newspapers and magazines in French and English in the corpora. ROBERTS

Roby, Warren B. (1991): Glosses and dictionaries in paper and computer formats as adjunct aids to the reading of Spanish texts by university students. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Kansas. Lawrence, Kansas, US. UMI Order #AAI 9238698. investigates the use of both a bilingual dictionary and a glossary by American university students of Spanish. The students were divided into two groups, one using printed dictionaries and glossaries, and the other using the computer versions. He found that when the students had both the dictionary and the glossary to support their reading of Spanish text, they were significantly faster. Students using the computer version looked up significantly more words. However, there was no difference between the groups on a reading comprehension test. On a post-test questionnaire, students using the computerized dictionary indicated they were more satisfied than those using the printed dictionary. ROBY

Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad (1998): The translator and the dictionary: Beyond words? -In: Β. T. Sue Atkins (ed.): Using dictionaries: Studies of dictionary use by lan-

101 guage learners and translators. 193-204. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 88). and A H M A D explore the use of technical dictionaries by specialist translators, especially English-German dictionaries of law, science, and medicine. They highlight the problematic lists of synonyms in entries in these dictionaries without appropriate contexts or usage information. They recommend customized electronic dictionaries and improved access to terminological databases for technical translators. ROGERS

Rossner, Richard (1985): The learner as lexicographer: Using dictionaries in second language learning. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Dictionaries, lexicography and language learning, 95-102. Oxford: Pergamon Press. emphasizes the second language learner-user of the dictionary, highlighting the learners' skills and his needs for word search strategies. He concludes with five suggestions for more efficient use of the dictionary: the use of the pocket bilingual dictionary on the street, the creation of vocabulary note cards, the use of a small notebook to jot down vocabulary in context, practice at tasks involving collocations and connotations, and the classroom use of grammatical patterns in the OALD and the LDOCE. ROSSNER

Rundell, Michael (1998): Recent trends in English pedagogical lexicography. Journal of Lexicography 11(4), 315-342.

International

presents a positive summation of develpments in the 1990's in this survey of the field, and emphasizes Hornby's early contributions and innovations. R U N D E L L highlights the advantages of basing a learners' dictionary on a corpus, notes improvements in the treatment of collocations, cautions against the overuse of decontextualized examples from the corpus, and praises recent developments in access structure that are realized in LDOCE's layout and in CIDE's guide words. R U N D E L L points to advances in the disambiguation of meaning, notably by the defining policies of LDOCE and COBUILD; in addition, he praises the use of frequency information to determine the list of headwords and the ordering of senses within an entry as important advances. RUNDELL

Sager, Juan C. (1989): The dictionary as an aid in terminology. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.) Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography Vol. I: 167-170. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. examines the role that the dictionary plays in developing terminologies, such as creating terminological databases, delimiting terminological fields, clarifying of terms, and compiling glossaries, rather than ad hoc creations. SAGER then discusses the role of the terminologist in translating foreign terms or generating neologisms. He concludes with a discussion of the role of dictionaries in standardization of technical terms in their spelling, fixed meaning and usage. SAGER

102 Schaeder, Burkhard (1984): Anleitung zur Benutzung einsprachiger neuhochdeutscher Wörterbücher. (Instructions for the use of monolingual German dictionaries.) -In: Gerhard Augst (ed.): Wortschatz und Wörterbuch. Der Deutschunterricht 36(5), 81-95. article can easily be used as a lesson plan by German teachers in Germany. SCHAEDER makes detailed suggestions as to how dictionaries can be incorporated in the German language curriculum. He covers questions about the macrostructure (structure, typology, selection of lemmata, and usage rules) as well as the microstructure of dictionaries (structure of the lemma, types of information) and how they can help to make students more efficient dictionary users. [Prisca Schüler] SCHAEDER'S

Schafroth, Elmar (1997): Neue Horizonte in der pädagogischen Lexikographie des Spanischen. (New horizons in Spanish pedagogical lexicography: Spanish learners' dictionaries) Ibero-Romania, 45, 1-25. SCHAFROTH describes three recent learners' dictionaries of Spanish, the Elemental Diccionario didäctico de espanol, the Intermedio Diccionario didäctico de espanol, and the Diccionario para la enseiianza de la lengua espanola (DELE), comparing their vocabulary selection, the treatment of collocations, the clarity of the definitions, the treatment of grammar and the usefulness of their usage notes, as well as their political correctness. SCHAFROTH recommends DELE, the only corpus-based dictionary, and the only one for advanced learners, for its user friendliness. Romance lexicography can only catch up with English learners' dictionaries through more corpus work and the improvement of macrostructure and usage notes. [Prisca Schüler]

Schneider, Klaus P. (1998): Review of: Kollokationen als lexikographisches Problem: Eine Analyse allgemeiner und spezieller Lernerwörterbucher des Englischen by Jens Bahns and Oxford Learner's Wordfinder Dictionary by Hugh Trappes-Lomax. System 26(1), 137-143. generally praises B A H N S ' text ( 1 9 9 6 ) for the comprehensive analysis of the treatment of collocations in the English learners' dictionaries, but also expresses a few irritations at some rather opaque explanations. He has a very negative review of the "Wordfinder", a production dictionary ( 1 9 9 7 ) for advanced learners of English, which divides the lexicon into semantic fields that are confusing, difficult to use, and, in his opinion, weak in access structure because the cross-references are deficient. SCHNEIDER

Schnorr, Veronika (1991): Problems of lemmatization in the bilingual dictionary. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. Ill: 2813-2817. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. examines the selection of head words for the dictionary entries, which are generally the bare infinitive form of a verb or other undeclined form, but she points out a number of sources for inconsistencies: spelling variants, feminine forms, a non-existent singular base form, e.g., for arms, meaning weapons. SCHNORR discusses first the inclusion of one or several lemmas under one base form, second lemmas separated from the respective base forms, and SCHNORR

103 then exemplifies this with many compounds and collocations. She concludes with whether or not to include a lemma for proper names, place names, abbreviations, and the use of the nonbase form as the lemma in the bilingual dictionary for the L2 learner. Scholfield, Phil (1982): Using the English dictionary for comprehension. TESOL Quarterly 16 (2), 185-194. discusses seven steps in a non-empirical study that ESL students must take for successful dictionary use. These are: (1) Locate the word(s) or phrase you do not understand. (2) If the unknown word is inflected, remove the inflections to recover the form to look up (the canonical form). (3) Search for the unknown in the alphabetic list. (4) If you cannot find at least one main entry for the unknown, try the following procedures: (a) If the unknown seems to be a set phrase, idiom, or compound word, try looking up each main element, (b) If the unknown seems to have a suffix, try the entry for the stem, (c) If the unknown appears to be an irregularly inflected form or a spelling variant, scan nearby entries, (d) If there is an addendum, search there. (5) If there are multiple senses or homographic entries, reduce them by elimination. (6) Understand the definition and integrate it into the context where the unknown word was met. (7) If none of the senses entered seems to fit, attempt to infer one that does fit from the sense you have. If more than one fits, seek further contextual clues in the source text to disambiguate. In order to proceed through the seven steps, the learner must have knowledge of certain rules of English, as well as certain dictionary conventions and must also be able to test hypotheses and infer from context. SCHOLFIELD

Scott, Clive (1989): Dictionaries and dictionary skills: Bring the skeleton out of the closet. UEA (University of East Anglia)Papers in Linguistics (June), 78-101. examines the various uses of bilingual and monolingual learners' dictionaries, highlighting the difficulties of achieving translation equivalence and the "product-oriented" nature of translation exercises that prompt dictionary use by language learners. He praises COBUILD for its readable definitions and, using French examples, proposes fourteen "communicative activities", to promote dictionary use in the foreign language classroom. SCOTT

Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. (1996): Drei Lernerwörterbücher für Fortgeschrittene: eine Neuerscheinung, eine "völlige Neuentwicklung" und eine "grundlegende Neubearbeitung". (Three learners' dictionaries for advanced students: A new edition (CIDE), a completely new development (LDOCE3), and a thoroughly revised edition (OALD5). ) Neusprachliche Mitteilungen aus Wissenschaft und Praxis 49(4), 252-257. SIEGRIST reviews and compares CIDE, LDOCE3, and OALD5 for their vocabulary coverage, their defining style, their illustrations, and their treatment of collocations, usage, corpus frequency information, orthography, pronunciation, false friends, grammar, encyclopedic information, and their user-friendliness. He finds that OALD5 and LDOCE3 have made improvements over their older editions as far as user-friendliness is concerned. However, he prefers LDOCE3 and CIDE because of his 50 test vocabulary items, OALD5 contained only 16, whereas LDOCE3 had 32 and CIDE had 31. [Prisca Schüler]

104 Sinclair, John Μ. (1991): Corpus, concordance, collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. S I N C L A I R highlights the value of very large corpora, over one hundred million words, for linguists for various studies in non-Chomskyan descriptive linguistics, lexical semantics, lexicology, collocation, and grammar. The importance of large corpora for research on collocation is emphasized in several chapters. S I N C L A I R refers to the COBUILD dictionary research project in many examples, and discusses COBUILD's defining policy and the formulaic everyday English used in its definitions.

Sinclair, John M. (ed.) (1987a): Looking up: An account of the COBUILD project in lexical computing and the development of the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary. London and Glasgow: Collins. This collection contains ten papers that describe in detail the process of compiling COBUILD, developing a defining policy, selecting examples, and refining usage information. This annotated bibliography contains: Fox; H A N K S ; K R I S H N A M U R T H Y ; R E N O U F (all 1987); M O O N (1987b); and S I N C L A I R (1987b, 1987c). Sinclair, JohnM. (1987b): Grammar in the dictionary. -In: John M. Sinclair (ed.): Looking up: An account of the COBUILD project in lexical computing and the development of the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary, 104-115. London and Glasgow: Collins. describes the grammatical pattern information in COBUILD, arguing for the simplest and most unambiguous coding. S I N C L A I R justifies the use of the extra column in the middle of the page for the grammar information and some semantic information, and provides his list of guidelines for the most appropriate treatment of grammar in the COBUILD dictionary. SINCLAIR

Sinclair, JohnM. (1987c): The nature of the evidence. -In: JohnM. Sinclair (ed.): Looking up: An account of the COBUILD project in lexical computing and the development of the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary, 150-159. London and Glasgow: Collins. examines verb patterns, focusing on phrasal verbs and exemplifying them with set, a very productive phrasal verb. He then describes how set and its phrasal verb combinations are treated in COBUILD. SINCLAIR

Sinclair, John M. (1985): Lexicographic evidence. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Dictionaries, lexicography, and language learning, 81-94. English language teaching documents, 120. Oxford: Pergamon Press. S I N C L A I R details and exemplifies the sources of "good evidence" for lexicographers, focusing on introspection and informant testing, citations of language in use, and the concordancing of texts by computers. Concordances from COBUILD of the verb decline and its collocations are given with commentary on their value for learners.

105 Sinclair, John Μ. and D. M. Kirby (1991): Progress in computational lexicography. -In: A. Zampolli, L. Cignoni, and C. Peters (eds.): Computational lexicology and lexicography, Vol. I, 233-257. Pisa: Giardini Editori Ε Stampatori. and K I R B Y present a detailed plan of the COBUILD project, including the components of the corpus, the construction of the entries in the 1987 learners' dictionary, and information on several related projects, such as the TEFL corpus and the COBUILD English course for EFL learners. SINCLAIR

Smith, Richard C. (1998): The Palmer-Homby contribution to English teaching in Japan. International Journal of Lexicography 11(4), 269-291. in this historical account, describes Η . E . P A L M E R ' S and A . S . H O R N B Y ' S work in Tokyo in the 1920's and 1930's, and assesses their achievements in curriculum development and instructional methodology; in addition, he highlights several innovations in lexicology, notably their development of materials on collocational patterns and verb patterns. SMITH,

Snell-Hornby, Mary (1990): Dynamics in meaning as a problem for bilingual lexicography. In: Jerzy Tomaszczyk and Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (eds.): Meaning and lexicography, 209-225. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. S N E L L - H O R N B Y addresses the problem of varying interlingual relationships. Many dictionaries design their entries on the principle of substitution or equivalence so that the item in one language must be given a precise match in the other language. However, S N E L L - H O R N B Y points out that this is not always possible with terms which are culture-bound or with words expressing perception and sociocultural norms. She then discusses new methods in bilingual lexicography that try to grapple with this, e.g. the Longman lexicon which arranges entries in related fields.

Snell-Hornby, Mary (1987): Towards a learner's bilingual dictionary. -In: Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985,159-170. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). S N E L L - H O R N B Y argues for a pedagogically designed learner's dictionary that integrates grammar, semantics, and pragmatics. The danger in current dictionaries is that they function as word lists, thus perpetuating the notion of finding the exact meaning in the foreign language without regard for proper use of the foreign word. An argument is also presented in favor of an "active" dictionary for writing and other encoding tasks as well as a separate "passive" dictionary for understanding and decoding. The author describes the situation of Western Europe, focusing on the learning of English as a foreign language.

Snell-Hornby, Mary (1984): The bilingual dictionary — help or hindrance? -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the international conference on lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983, 274-281. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1).

106 provides an overview of "where the conventional bilingual dictionary can be a hindrance...to the user" and suggests a method of "interlingual coordination". She analyses the "descriptive verb", such as: bustle, nag, 'huschen", and 'scheppern'. There is a report of a pilot study conducted with German-speaking learners of English in Switzerland. She calls for a contrastive dictionary of synonyms ordered by semantic fields. A brief outline for comparing and contrasting synonyms is offered, which leads to the need "to reveal the dynamic system of relationships within and between languages" instead of merely listing equivalencies of isolated lexemes. SNELL-HORNBY

Snook, Roger (1992): Review of: Longman Pronunciation Dictionary International Review of Applied Linguistics 30(3), 241-245. reviews this dictionary of pronunciation for E S L learners, praising the lexical coverage, the consistent use of the I.P. Α., and the coverage of both British and American pronunciation. He includes several observations on the value of this dictionary for German users. SNOOK

Standop, Ewald (1985): Englische Wörterbücher unter der Lupe. (English dictionaries under the magnifying glass.) -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 2). STANDOP critically examines the strengths and weaknesses of the English monolingual learners' dictionaries, OALD, LDOCE, CULD, and the Collins' ELD. In addition to analyzing British and American standard English desk dictionaries, he also examines eight bilingual GermanEnglish and English-German dictionaries. The bibliography contains exactly 100 English dictionaries and 40 books and articles on the meta-lexicography of English dictionaries.

Stark, Martin (1999): Encyclopedic learners' dictionaries: A study of their design features from the user perspective. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 92). describes and evaluates two encyclopedic learners' dictionaries, the LDELC and the OALD, Encyclopedic edition. He surveys users on their attitudes toward and their evaluations of the features in this new type of learners' dictionary. STARK

Stark, Martin P. (1990): Dictionary workbooks: A critical evaluation of dictionary workbooks for the foreign language learner. Exeter Linguistic Studies, Vol. 16. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. describes and criticizes fourteen workbooks for monolingual learners' dictionaries, thirteen for bilingual dictionaries and fourteen for monolingual native speaker dictionaries. He critically evaluates them for their exercises on pronunciation, grammar, decoding skills, encoding skills, and reference skills. STARK

Stein, Gabriele (1991): Illustrations in dictionaries. International Journal of Lexicography (2), 99-127.

4

107 reviews the use of illustrations in English dictionaries from the sixteenth century onward, and then focuses the review on the extensive use of illustrations in LDOCE (1987) and OALD (1989), analyzing them by their various labeling, and their integration with the dictionary definitions. STEIN

Stein, Gabriele (1990): From the bilingual to the monolingual dictionary. -In: T. Magay and J. Zigäny (eds.): Budalex '88 proceedings: Papers from the Euralex third international congress, 401-407. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado. compares several examples of idiomatic English in a Collins English-German dictionary and the LDOCE 2 (1987), noting several differences. First, she notes the use of one word translation equivalents in the bilingual dictionary. Second, the EFL dictionary has full explanations of the sense and the usage, many more example sentences, and valuable count-noncount noun information. Third, the English-German dictionary is more approachable and seems userfriendly for the German intermediate student of English. S T E I N feels that the LDOCE 2 can become the dictionary of choice for students of English, but their teachers need a bilingual wordbook of the two thousand word (LDOCE) defining vocabulary as a teaching aid. STEIN

Stein, Gabriele (1989a): Recent developments in EFL dictionaries. -In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners' dictionaries: State of the art, 10-41. -Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre (=Anthology Series 23). S T E I N compares and critically analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of four learners' dictionaries: the OALD 3, LDOCE 2, CULD, and COBUILD. She finds that the LDOCE is "more innovative and helpful to the users", because it contains simpler definitions, more usage information, and better examples.

Stein, Gabriele (1989b): EFL Dictionaries, the teacher and the student. JALT Journal 11(1), 36-45. argues that foreign language teaching has to include the use of both bilingual dictionaries and learners' monolingual dictionaries. Bilingual dictionaries provide translation equivalents but, unlike monolingual dictionaries, do not provide access to target language meaning discriminations. Dictionary-using skills, including paraphrasing, must be taught. STEIN

Stein, Gabriele (1986): Final recommendations. -In: Robert llson (ed.): Lexicography: An emerging international profession, 147-151. Oxford: Manchester University Press in association with the Fulbright Commission, London. summarizes the results of the conference papers, calling for more research on the dictionary user. "Any discussion of optimising present-day dictionaries has to give pride of place to the needs of the dictionary user". She also calls for "critical in-depth evaluations that show editors (of dictionaries) where there are serious inconsistencies and shortcomings...of a particular dictionary". STEIN

108

Stein, Gabriele (1985): Word-formation in modern English dictionaries. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Dictionaries, lexicography and language learning, 35-44. Oxford: Pergamon Press. examines the lexicographical problem of word-formation for five dictionaries for native speakers of English and for three learners' dictionaries, Chambers Universal Learners' Dictionary, OALD, and the LDOCE. She finds that affixes are "treated as headwords in the A-Z text" in the five dictionaries for English speakers; however, the three learners' dictionaries have "three different policies". The LDOCE treats affixes as headwords, just as the first five dictionaries do, but the OALD lists the combining forms and some affixes in the A-Z text, but most of the prefixes and suffixes are in the appendix along with irregular verb forms and abbreviations, while the Chambers dictionary has the combining forms in the A-Z text and the affixes in the appendix. STEIN

Stein, Gabriele (1979): The best of British and American lexicography. Dictionaries

1, 1-23.

surveys the LDOCE (1978), outlining its use of the IPA, its detailed usage labels (for the time, the 1970's), and its controlled vocabulary of approximately two thousand words. She comments on the advantages of the defining policy, the grammar codes, the treatment of compound words and run-ons, and its illustrations. She contrasts LDOCE's policy with the OALD's (1974) in each section. STEIN

Steiner, Roger (1986): How many languages should a 'bilingual' dictionary offer? Lexicographica 2, 85-92. outlines the potential needs of multiple audiences for any bilingual dictionary, concentrating on active skills, speaking and writing, requiring LI to L2 , and passive skills, listening and reading, requiring L2 to LI translation. Illustrating this with French to English examples, he then demonstrates the necessity for providing several varieties of the L I , such as British English and American English, in order to meet the needs of the multiple audiences. One example is marchand des quatre saisons defined as "costermonger" and "barrow boy", which means fruit vendor in American English. STEINER

Steiner, Roger J. (1984): Guidelines for reviewers of bilingual dictionaries. Dictionaries

6,

166-181.

outlines a systematic format for reviews, including: degree of inclusiveness, substitutable translation equivalents, degree of meaning discrimination, appropriate equivalents according to established standards, reversibility, accuracy of grammatical information and idiomatic information, convenience, and usability. STEINER

Steiner, Roger J. (1982): How a bilingual dictionary best serves the writer. -In: Donald Hobar (ed.): Papers of the Dictionary Society of North America, 1977,24-31. Terre Haute, Indiana: Indiana State University and the DSNA.

109 delineates fifteen recommendations for bilingual lexicographers in order for them to increase the usefulness and clarity of the bilingual dictionary for the user. These include reversibility that complements sense discrimination, illustrative examples, usage labels, and shortened definitions of only one to three words in length. STEINER

Steiner, Roger J. (1975): Monodirectional bilingual dictionaries. Babel: International Journal of Translation 21(3), 123-124. discusses the six functions of bi-directional, bilingual dictionaries. However, half of these are usually unnecessary for the native speaker of one of the languages (for instance, an English speaker does not need the pronunciation of principal parts of write). A monodirectional bilingual dictionary will be simpler in design, but its compilation will require much research and development, preferably done with computers. STEINER

Stock, Penny (1992): The cultural dimension in defining. -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part I). Studia Translatologica, Ser.A, Vol. 2, 113-120. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. STOCK examines the defining policy of learners' dictionaries and how the criteria for a definition can be established, exemplifying these criteria with the definition of tomato as a type of fruit. She proposes that learners' dictionaries contain more encyclopedic information in their entries, claiming, "to explain meaning one should explain stereotypes or prototypes using 'encyclopedic' information".

Strevens, Peter (1987): The effectiveness of learners' dictionaries. -In: Robert Burchfield (ed.): Studies in lexicography, 76-93. Oxford: Oxford University Press. STREVENS examines the O A L D ' s and the L D O C E ' s grammatical codes, commenting on their excellent coverage, but less than transparent coding. He also praises the consistent count-noncount distinctions for nouns in both dictionaries, and concludes both can be of benefit for learners, but notes that both ESL teachers and students are generally unaware of the potential of learners' dictionaries.

Summers, Delia (1996): Computer lexicography: The importance of representativeness in relation to frequency. -In: Jenny Thomas and Mick Short (eds.): Using corpora for language research, 260-266. London: Longman. highlights the advantages of using corpora in dictionary making, focusing on the ordering of the sub-senses within each entry according to their frequency in the concordances, and also highlighting the ordering of collocations for the entries according to their frequency of occurrences in the corpus. She also explains the advantages of the use of the spoken corpus of the British National Corpus for the Longman Language Activator, an ESL dictionary for encoding. SUMMERS

110 Summers, Deila (1993): Longman/Lancaster English language corpus - Criteria and design. International Journal of Lexicography 6(3), 181-208. SUMMERS elucidates the different components of corpora, and how they can affect the outcome of lexicographic searches; e.g., for the entry word, decide, in COBUILD, which has a seven million word corpus, the most frequent construction with 'decide' is "decide to V," which appears first in the entry; however, under the same entry, decide alone is given first in LDOCE, based on its fifteen million word corpus of written texts. SUMMERS claims that a very large corpus can be representative of general usage across the English speaking population and lexicographers can use corpora to enhance the dictionary's benefits for the users. Summers, Delia (1988a): English language teaching dictionaries: Past, present and future. English Today 4(2), 10-14. This brief article by the director of Longman dictionaries offers an overview of the history of ELT (English Language Teaching) dictionaries. She addresses the reasons for students' preference for bilingual dictionaries and reviews their pros and cons. A comparison is made between the OALD, the COBUILD, and the LDOCE which tested them against vocabulary groups to see which gave the best coverage of "modern" and "historical" or "literary" words. Summers, Delia (1988b): The role of dictionaries in language learning. -In: Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy (eds.): Vocabulary and language teaching, 111-125. London: Longman. SUMMERS reports the results of an experiment conducted by Longman for internal use. Adult ESL learners were tested on their comprehension of words in three reading passages with eight pre-tested "hard" target words in each. They were tested with a multiple choice test under four different conditions: with access to LDOCE definitions only; with access to LDOCE examples only; with access to both LDOCE definitions and examples; and with no access to any information aside from the contexts of the reading passages. The group with access to the LDOCE examples only did marginally better than the other groups on the test. All three groups with access to the LDOCE had higher scores than the context only group, indicating that the LDOCE increased their comprehension. Sundström, Mats-Peter (1992): Tackling lexicographical anisomorphism in front matter comments. -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part II). Studia Translatologica, Ser. A, Vol. 2, 527-532. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. SUNDSTRÖM recommends that the front matter of bilingual dictionaries for learners contain information on grammatical, morphological, and lexical contrasts between the foreign language and the students' first language. The entry words that are subject to systematic and problematic differences, based on these contrasts, would have a cross-reference to the appropriate section of the front matter.

Ill Svensen, Bo (1993): Practical lexicography: Principles and methods of dictionary-making. Oxford: Oxford University Press. in this comprehensive survey of the field, includes a detailed chapter on bilingual lexicography and a section on monolingual learners' dictionaries.

SVENSEN,

Takebayashi, Shigeru (1998): LPD and EPD15: A comparative review. International Journal of Lexicography 11(2), 125-136. reviews the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (1990) and the English Pronouncing Dictionary, 15th edition (1997), focusing on their usefulness for Japanese, who are oriented toward American English. He generally praises LPD for its transcriptions, especially its notation for marking stress. However, he finds that both dictionaries are anglocentric and neglect American pronunciation. "Especially EPD15's comparative thinness of information about American pronunciation is a little regrettable". TAKEBAYASHI

Taylor, Andrew and Adelaide Chan (1994): Pocket electronic dictionaries and their use. In: Willy Martin, Willem Meijs, Margreet Moerland, Elsemiek ten Pas, Piet van Sterkenburg, and Piek Vossen (eds.): Euralex 1994 proceedings, 598-605. Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit. and CHAN report the results of a survey given to 494 university students in Hong Kong on their use of pocket electronic dictionaries (PED). They found that 18% of the students use a PED and most of these are bilingual English-Chinese, Chinese-English, with an American dictionary as the basis for the English side. Of those who use the PED, 44% use the PED to find the Chinese equivalent of an English word, and 100% check the meaning of English words by first referring to their Chinese equivalents, rather than reading the definitions in English. TAYLOR

Ter-Minasova, Svetlana (1992): The freedom of word-combinations and the compilation of learners' dictionaries. -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part II). Studia Translatologica, Ser. A, Vol. 2, 533-539. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. adumbrates upon the notion of lexical combinability as the key to the mastery of a foreign language. She illustrates this notion with cross-linguistic Russian-English lexical restrictions, and recommends that many so-called free combinations of words should also be included in a Russian-English combinatory learners' dictionary, since the lexical restrictions on the word combinations between the two languages are a considerable problem for the learner. TER-MINASOVA

Thompson, Geoff (1987): Using bilingual dictionaries. English Language Teaching Journal 41(4), 282-286. This is a short review of some problems associated with the use of monolingual dictionaries for second language teaching (e.g., the use of the foreign language in definitions which the student

112 may not understand). The author then goes on to outline his criteria for a bilingual dictionary, and he also lists some of the traditional objections to using such a dictionary. Tickoo, Makhan L. (ed.) (1989a): Learners' dictionaries: State of the art. -Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre (=AnthoIogy Series 23). This collection contains sixteen papers that describe and exemplify the status and development of English monolingual learners' dictionaries in the late 1980's. This annotated bibliography includes: BENSON, B O O L and CARTER, C O W I E , Fox, HARTMANN, HERBST, M C A R T H U R , N E S I , P I OTROWSKI, STEIN, TICKOO, and ZGUSTA (all 1989). Tickoo, Makhan L. (1989b): Which dictionary and why? Exploring some options. -In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners dictionaries: State of the art, 184-203. -Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre (=Anthology Series 23). Following a lengthy review of the beneficial features of monolingual English learners' dictionaries, TICKOO reports the results of a survey of one hundred English teachers in India and Singapore on their preferences re the three dictionaries, OALD, LDOCE, and COBUILD. He found that the teachers preferred the definitions, explanations, and example sentences in COBUILD. A second survey of sixty undergraduate students in Singapore revealed that "the vast majority...understand very little of what dictionaries now provide...". Tomaszczyk, Jerzy (1990): Metalinguistic behaviour and language study. -In: Jerzy Tomaszczyk and Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (eds.): Meaning and lexicography, 254-275. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. elucidates the verbs of naming that also act as hedging devices, e.g., "the socalled N", and how they operate in Polish and English. He turns to the treatment of eight of these "English phrases used as metalinguistic comments" in LDOCE, OALD, and COBUILD, and finds adequate treatment of them in LDOCE, but some missing senses in OALD and COBUILD. TOMASZCZYK

Tomaszczyk, Jerzy (1989): L1-L2 technical translation and dictionaries. -In: Translation and lexicography, 177-186. Mary Snell-Hornby (ed.): Philadelphia: John Benjamins. reports on his own dictionary use during a lengthy translation task, translating a book on "the industrial uses of diamonds from Polish into English". Of his dictionary look-ups, 81% were for specialized terminology and 18% were for "collocations, syntactic properties of words, prepositions, etc." TOMASZCZYK

Tomaszczyk, Jerzy (1988): The bilingual dictionary under review. -In: Mary Snell-Hornby (ed.): Zürilex '86 proceedings: Papers read at the Euralex International Congress, University of Zürich, 9-14 September 1986, 289-297. -Tübingen: Francke Verlag.

113 presents an overview of book reviews of bilingual dictionaries over a twenty-year period from the mid-1960's. He divides his analysis of the reviews into critical commentaries on nine lexicographic categories, including equivalents, reversibility, retrievability, and comprehensive coverage. TOMASZCZYK

Tomaszczyk, Jerzy (1987): FL learners' communication failure: Implications for pedagogical lexicography. -In: Anthony Cowie (ed.): The dictionary and the language learner: Papers from the EURALEX seminar at the University of Leeds, 1-3 April 1985, 136-145. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 17). The purpose of the study was to examine a number of texts translated by non-native speakers to look for instances of deviation from target language norms in terms of the information provided by dictionaries and, thus, to see what proportion of the mistakes made might not have occurred if dictionaries had been consulted. The texts translated were of a scientific nature because of their unambiguous quality. Texts produced by science translators and by students of translation were examined for language errors which were then checked against dictionaries available to writers; translation classes were observed to see how language problems were addressed; and other samples of writing such as essays were examined to compare with the translated texts. TOMASZCZYK found that the majority of errors would have been avoided if dictionaries had been used with greater skill or if they had been used at all; that students often will ask others before consulting the dictionary; and that when the dictionary is consulted, the information is seldom checked against another source. Tomaszczyk, Jerzy (1983): On bilingual dictionaries: The case for bilingual dictionaries for foreign language learners. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): Lexicography: Principles and practice, 41-51. New York: Academic Press. defends the usefulness of bilingual dictionaries for language learning. He argues that these dictionaries can be helpful to students in the areas of culture-specificity of vocabulary, L1/L2 interference, and interlingual contrasts. In addition, he notes that most students (and many teachers) will prefer to use bilingual dictionaries, even when monolingual dictionaries are available. TOMASZCZYK gives several suggestions for the improvement of learner's dictionaries. He emphasizes the productive needs of language learners, and stresses the usefulness of "paraphrastic definitions" and "suggestions of textual equivalents" for culture-specific vocabulary items. He also notes the need for the inclusion of more syntactic information in dictionary entries. TOMASZCZYK concludes by examining the need for entries in L1/L2 bilingual dictionaries which would explain "lexicalized L2 material" in the L2 for which no equivalent exists in the L I . TOMASZCZYK

Tomaszczyk, Jerzy (1981): Issues and developments in bilingual pedagogical lexicography. Applied Linguistics 2(3), 287-296. TOMASZCZYK examines how well learners' dictionaries can meet the user's needs and states that one type of dictionary is missing but essential, an L1-L2 productive dictionary that interprets LI culture-bound words so that the user can use them "actively in the production of L2 texts

114

about the LI culture". TOMASZCZYK then discusses the "main problem in vocabulary...(which is) minimization of the lexicon", exemplifying his points with Russian-English, Russian-French, Russian-Czech, and German-English dictionaries. Tomaszczyk, Jerzy (1979): Dictionaries: Users and uses. Glottodidactica 12, 103-119. looks at the ways in which dictionaries are used by foreign language learners and the extent to which they meet the users' needs. It surveys the evaluation of dictionaries by the subjects, their frequency of dictionary use, habits and feelings when using dictionaries, and strategies applied when more than one dictionary is available. A fifty-seven item questionnaire was used in the study.

TOMASZCZYK

Tommola, Hannu (1992): 'Banja' and 'bejsbol' in Finnish context: Making a dictionary of realia. -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part II). Studia Translatologica, Ser.A, Vol. 2, 549-560. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. TOMMOLA explicates a project to create a translator's database of realia and a Finnish-Russian dictionary that specializes in culture-bound words in Finnish, including "sauna" and Finnish "baseball".

Tono, Yukio (1998): Interacting with the users: Research findings in EFL dictionary user studies. -In: Tom McArthur and Ilan Kernerman (eds.): Lexicography in Asia: Selected papers from the Dictionaries in Asia Conference, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 1997 and other papers, 97-118. Tel Aviv: Password Publishers, Ltd. TONO discusses the problematic nature of research findings on dictionary use, several methodological problems, the low number of "quasi-experimental studies", and the high number of "still impressionistic and not very systematic" studies. TONO makes valuable comparisons between different types of published research work, includes a substantial bibliography, and highlights his own research, which is posted on his own website.

Tono, Yukio (1989): Can a dictionary help one read better? In: Gregory James (ed.): Lexicographers and their works, 192-200. Exeter Linguistic Studies 14. University of Exeter Press. This is a study of the relationship between the use of a dictionary and reading comprehension. The sample was made up of "...17 first-year and 15 second-year junior high school students studying at a preparatory school near Tokyo". These students attended special English courses and many had taken a training course specifically in dictionary skills. The test itself was composed of six separate tests in four categories: placing words in alphabetical lists, finding meanings with the use of a dictionary, finding the most appropriate meanings from those listed in the entry on the basis of context, and finding idioms. There was also a comprehension test in which subjects read two passages (one with a dictionary, one without) and then were asked to select correct statements about the contents of the passage. The study found that "...the subjects made a significantly higher proportion of errors when they did not use dictionaries than when

115 they did use them". This contradicts the BENSOUSSAN et al. ( 1 9 8 4 ) study, though T O N O is quick to point out that in addition to the differences in analysis and design, the subjects in this study had received specialized training. Tono, Yukio (1984): On the dictionary user's reference skills. Unpublished B.Ed, thesis. Tokyo Gakugei University. Tokyo, Japan. tested 4 0 2 Japanese undergraduate students on their use of English-Japanese dictionaries when translating a short passage in English from Reader's Digest into Japanese. T O N O found that these students tended to look at the beginning of the entry and usually chose the first definition, and that they felt discouraged about reading through lengthy entries. They also relied on the context of the passage and the meaning of the word when choosing a Japanese equivalent for the translation, and used grammatical information only to reject an equivalent that seemed appropriate at first glance, (adapted from D I A B , 1 9 9 0 ) TONO

Twaddell, W. F. (1973): Lexicography and people. -In: Raven McDavid, Jr. and Audrey Duckert (eds.): Lexicography in English, 214-220. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 211. New York: New York Academy of Sciences. highlights the impact of users' attitudes on the art of lexicography, how lexicography fits in the humanities, and how dictionary makers fit in academia. TWADDELL

Underhill, Adrian (1985): Working with the monolingual learners' dictionary. -In: Robert IIson (ed.): Dictionaries, lexicography and language learning, 103-114. Oxford: Pergamon Press. promotes the monolingual learners' dictionary as the best book available for foreign students learning English. He lists seven advantages of the learners' dictionary, including "students hav[ing] to think in English", and the "rapid expansion of passive vocabulary". He also notes some problems; i.e., ESL teachers do not understand how to use this type of dictionary, nor do they have their students practice its use. He concludes with hints on how to use the learners' dictionary in class work. UNDERHILL

Van der Meer, Geart (1998): Four English learner's dictionaries and their treatment of figurative meanings. English Studies 78(6), 556-571. In an expansion of his 1996 article (op. cit.), V A N DER M E E R explains the treatment of senses, both literal and figurative, in the four English learners' dictionaries, CIDE, COBUILD, LDOCE, and OALD. He makes critical comments on more than thirty individual words, such as gobsmacked. V A N DER M E E R , arguing against a strict ordering of senses based on frequency, claims that the literal sense of the word should come first since this "makes it easier to define the figurative uses". Van der Meer, Geart (1996a): How alphabetical should a dictionary be? (the case of HIGH and its combinations in some dictionaries). -In: Arne Zettersten and Viggo Hj0rnager Peder-

116 son (eds.): Symposium on lexicography VII: Proceedings of the seventh symposium on lexicography May 5-6,1994 at the University of Copenhagen, 183-197. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 76). V A N DER M E E R analyzes the treatment of the multi-word expressions with "high", such as high class and high roller in two English-Dutch dictionaries and six English monolingual dictionaries, including COBUILD, LDELC, and OALD. He finds that although several dictionaries use strict alphabetical ordering for collocations, OALD uses a meaning-based principle for collocations similar to that of a thesaurus, which he praises for its "user-oriented" nature.

Van der Meer, Geart (1996b): The treatment of figurative meanings in the English learners' dictionaries (OALD, LDOCE, CC, and CIDE). -In: Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex'96 proceedings III (Part II), 423-42. Martin Gellerstam, Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, Dept. of Swedish. examines the treatment of figurative uses of words in four learners' dictionaries and finds that CIDE has "the best solutions", which include separating meanings with boxed senses and consistently giving literal meanings first, then figurative meanings second. V A N DER M E E R

Van der Wouden, Ton (1992): Prolegomena to a multilingual description of collocations. In:Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II. Part II. Studia Translatologica, Ser.A, Vol. 2, 449-456. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. V A N DER W O U D E N discusses collocations, contrasting Dutch, English, and French collocations and highlighting the difficulties in translation. He recommends that learners' dictionaries adopt a policy of grouping collocations according to semantic types.

Van Noppen, Jean Pierre and Christine Michaux (1991): Demands on a Dictionary-cum-grammar for untrained readers of English texts. Cahiers de Γ institute de linguistique Louvain 17(1-3), 243-254. and M I C H A U X report on the typical student user of the dictionary whose skill level necessitates a specific set of demands on the reference works (dictionary and grammar) being used to aid in translation; a specially constructed reader's dictionary and reader's grammar is given to the student reader that provides enough information to explain a set of sentences. V A N NOPPEN

Varantola, Krista (1998): Translators and their use of dictionaries. -In: Β. T. Sue Atkins (ed.): Using dictionaries: Studies of dictionary use by language learners and translators. 179-192. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 88). VARANTOLA reports the results of observations and a survey of four advanced Finnish translation students who used several types of dictionaries during a Finnish to English translation task about fisheries. The methodology is similar to that of ATKINS and VARANTOLA ( 1 9 9 7 ) . The

117 students used bilingual Finnish-English dictionaries for the translation equivalent and then used a monolingual dictionary such as LDOCE or CIDE to check for appropriate collocations and usage. VARANTOLA recommends the use of corpora such as the MicroConcord and calls for the creation of "virtual corpora" that could be consulted by technical translators. Varantola, Krista (1994): The dictionary user as decision maker. -In: Willy Martin, Willem Meijs, Margreet Moerland, Elsemiek ten Pas, Piet van Sterkenburg, and Piek Vossen (eds.): Euralex 1994 proceedings, 606-611. Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit. proposes that the next generation of electronic dictionaries should have a corpus attached so that concordances can be done on problematic words and collocations. She describes the use of a prototype version of COBUILD on CD-ROM with a corpus of five million words. VARANTOLA

Varantola, Krista (1992): Words, terms, and translators. -In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II (Part I). Studia Translatologica, Ser. A, Vol. 2, 121-128. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. VARANTOLA highlights the problems of technical translators when confronted with a highly technical word that they do not know. General monolingual dictionaries, bilingual dictionaries, and technical glossaries may have the word, but VARANTOLA claims that their coverage is insufficient for accurate translations. She includes a survey of fourteen translators' expectations of what technical terms they expect to find in a dictionary.

Veisbergs, Andrejs (1996a): False friends dictionaries: A tool for translators or learners or both. -In: Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex '96 proceedings I-II (Part II). 627-634. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, Dept. of Swedish. VEISBERGS outlines four types of false cognates: ( 1 ) "complete-false friends", words that are spelled similarly, but have separate meanings in the two languages; (2) "partial false friends", L2 words that are more polysemantic than the LI words; (3) "nuance differentiated word pairs...have the same denotative meaning, yet have slight semantic, usually connotative, differences"; and (4) "pseudo false friends...non-existent word pairs...the language learner builds on the basis of (a) native word", VEISBERGS had advanced students translate a text into English and found that in "60% of the likely cases, there were pseudo friends created". He also polled his graduate students about which type of false friends dictionary they preferred and found that they liked the expanded type with examples, coverage of variation, and explanations of connotations.

Veisbergs, Andrejs (1996b): Idiom transformation, idiom translation and idiom dictionaries. In: Arne Zettersten and Viggo Hj0rnager Pederson (eds.): Symposium on lexicography VII: Proceedings of the seventh symposium on lexicography May 5-6, 1994 at the University of Copenhagen, 241-246. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 76).

118 discusses the treatment of idioms in dictionaries of idioms, criticizing prescriptive tendencies that misinform the student translator regarding the supposed invariability of idioms. The English learners' dictionaries are also weak in this regard, although VEISBERGS reserves praise for the ODCIE for giving possible alternatives and appropriate modifications to idioms that occur naturally in English. VEISBERGS

Vermeer, Hans J. (1989): Wörterbücher als Hilfsmittel für unterschiedliche Typen der Translation. (Dictionaries as an aid for various types of translations) -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Vol. I: 171-174. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. points out the need for more culturally sensitive material for the user as translator, with special attention to synonyms. Translators need more encyclopedic information as well as specific grammatical notations and the indication of morphological patterns. VERMEER

Verstraten, Linda (1992): Fixed phrases in monolingual learners' dictionaries. -In: Pierre J. L. Arnaud and Henri Bejoint (eds.): Vocabulary and applied linguistics, 28-40. Hampshire,U.K.: Macmillan Academic and Professional, Ltd. analyzes the syntactic and semantic properties of fixed phrases, criticizes L D O C E and C O B U I L D for their unsystematic treatment of fixed phrases, and recommends that a fixed phrase be treated as a separate entry, rather than placed at the end of an often lengthy entry. VERSTRATEN

2

Voigt, Walter (1984): Der Wörterbuchverlag und das 'optimale' Wörterbuch. (The dictionary publisher and the perfect dictionary.) -In: Dieter Goetz and Thomas Herbst (eds.): Theoretische und praktische Probleme der Lexikographie, 334-339. München: Max Hueber Verlag. V O I G T speaks from the point of view of the dictionary maker (Langenscheidt) and addresses primarily English-German and German-English dictionaries. The development of the perfect dictionary is determined by (1) the user, (2) theoretical lexicography, (3) new technology, and (4) the financial feasibility of the project. V O I G T reports some requests made in letters to the editor by users and boards of education and addresses specifically the issue of phonetic transcription. The average user normally does not complain about the formal representation of the microstructure. From the perspective of theoretical lexicography he addresses (1) collocations, (2) the treatment of technical terms, and (3) the use of computer corpora. [Prisca Schüler]

Voigt, Walter (1981): Wörterbuch, Wörterbuchmacher, Wörterbuchprobleme. Ein Werkstattgespräch. (Dictionaries, dictionary makers, dictionary problems: Talking shop.) -In: Wort und Sprache: Beiträge zu Problemen der Lexikographie und Sprachpraxis, 24-33. Berlin: Langenscheidt. historiography of dictionary making is garnished with little quotes and anecdotes and interesting random facts about dictionaries. The professional lexicographer V O I G T hints proVOIGT'S

119 fusely at not-so-random facts ranging from the early achievements of Gustav LANGENSCHEIDT to the principles and maxims underlying Langenscheidt's modern bilingual dictionaries. [Prisca Schüler] Wagner, Horst (1985): Wozu einsprachige Wörterbücher für den fortgeschrittenen Lerner des Französischen? (What is the purpose of monolingual dictionaries for the advanced learner of French?) Bielefelder Beiträge zur Sprachlehrforschung 14(1-2), 249-260. analyses the benefits of monolingual French dictionaries to the advanced learner. He sees a dictionary as a partial inventory of the French language, whose domain of usage is written communication. W A G N E R compares the role of the monolingual dictionary for the advanced learner to KRASHEN'S monitor. He presents an analysis of active and passive user situations and makes recommendations on what kind of dictionary to use in each situation. Dictionary use in KRASHEN'S terms is learning, not acquisition, according to W A G N E R . Finally, he compares several French monolingual dictionaries including electronic dictionaries and evaluates their advantages and disadvantages for the user. [Prisca Schüler] WAGNER

Walter, Elizabeth (1996): Parallel development of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries for learners of English. -In: Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex'96 proceedings I-II (Part II), 635-641. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, Dept. of Swedish. examines the use of frequency counts of corpora for determining the inclusion of a word as an entry in a modern dictionary and for determining the ordering of senses within an entry. She contends that cross-linguistic information should be considered in the creation of extra sense divisions in entries, which she exemplifies with French-English translations. In order to assist the language learner, lexicographers adapting examples from corpora should include fuller descriptions of collocations, and should modify example sentences from the corpora, especially when publishers develop parallel versions of one dictionary, a learners' dictionary in English with, for example, a French-English parallel counterpart. WALTER

Walter, Elizabeth (1992): Semantic set-defining: Benefits to the lexicographer and the user. In: Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.): Euralex '92 proceedings I-II. (Part I). Studia Translatologica, Ser.A, Vol. 2,129-136. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere. examines the problematic use of synonyms in the definitions in the entries of learners' dictionaries and the types of disambiguating information that are necessary for the discrimination of near-synonyms.

WALTER

Walz, Joel (1990a):The dictionary as a secondary source in language learning. French Review 64(1), 79-94. This article summarizes some problems associated with the use of learners' dictionaries (polysemy and homonyms, discrete item search rather than thematic development). W A L Z builds a

120 case for instruction in their proper use, since students (especially at the novice level) still need dictionaries even in a proficiency-based contextualized methodology. Dictionaries, although misused by most students, should be tools for lifelong language learning. Walz, Joel (1990b): The dictionary as a primary source in language learning. French Review 64(2), 225-38. believes that the dictionary should be used as a "document authentique". Several French dictionaries are discussed in terms of class activities for different levels.

WALZ

Wells, J. C. (1985): English pronunciation and its dictionary representation. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Dictionaries, lexicography and language learning, 45-52. Oxford: Pergamon Press. highlights several decisions the lexicographer must make, including whether to use RP or "General American". He notes that LDOCE uses double pronunciations whenever RP and American English differ. He discusses several problematic areas: competing pronunciations, as in either and either /ayther/, the "r-link", and the assignment of stress. The potential choice of three notational systems is contrasted with the J O N E S ' , the W I N D S O R - L E W I S ' , and the GIMSON systems as examples for representing vowels. He recommends the IPA for consonants. WELLS

Whitcut, Janet (1988): Lexicography in simple language. International Journal of Lexicography 11(1), 49-55. explains the development of and usefulness of the two thousand word defining vocabulary in LDOCE (1978). She explains two types of controlled vocabulary lists: one based on words that the learner must master, e.g., "thousand word English" or "Basic English", and the other based on frequency counts done on a corpus. LDOCE developed its frequency counts based on W E S T ' S General Service List of English (1953) and supplemented this with counts done on the defining language of dictionaries in the U.K. and the US. W H I T C U T explains issues involving sense restrictions, limits on affixation, collocations, neologisms, and "the question of accuracy vs. comprehensibility" in the defining vocabulary. WHITCUT

Whitcut, Janet (1986): The training of dictionary users. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Lexicography: An emerging international profession, 111-122. Manchester: Manchester University Press, in association with the Fulbright Commission, London. examines in anecdotal fashion the problems that ESL students have with learners' dictionaries. Examples include: lexicographical decisions about headwords, e.g., one or two for ice, noun or verb, their sub-senses, and which idioms can be found under which headword in three dictionaries, OALD, LDOCE, and CULD; multiple homographs, e.g., ten for tip, and the problems they present the ESL learner; and problems with sound symbols and stress marks. Abbreviations and other dictionary conventions are problematic for the user; e.g., an experienced ESL teacher "had always thought that the small capitals we use for cross-references were a misprint !". WHITCUT

121 Whitcut, Janet (1985): Usage notes in dictionaries: The needs of the learner and the native speaker. -In: Robert Ilson (ed.): Dictionaries, lexicography, and language learning, 75-80. Oxford: Pergamon Press. outlines the function of usage notes: first, to address prescriptive grammar, covering many of the favorite targets over the years, e.g., hopefully, and different to/different from·, second, to limit usage to appropriate situations; third, to help EFL learners with vocabulary choice and with widespread grammatical difficulties; fourth, to assist with probable malapropisms and potential collocation problems for ESL learners. WHITCUT

Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (1998a): Wörterbuchforschung. Untersuchungen zur Wörterbuchbenutzung, zur Theorie, Geschichte, Kritik und Automatisierung der Lexikographie. Vol. 1. (Dictionary research: Studies on dictionary use, on theory, history, criticism, and the computerization of lexicography.) Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. expounds on critical areas of dictionary research in this 1031 page text, followed by 131 pages of bibliography and appendices. Related to the meta-lexicography of learners and their dictionaries, W I E G A N D discusses in great detail (775 pp.) dictionary use, methods of observing and surveying use by learners, and methods of testing dictionary use. He concludes this massive work with criticism of the underdeveloped state of user research. WIEGAND

Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (ed.) (1998b): Perspektiven der pädagogischen Lexikographie des Deutschen. (Perspectives on learner lexicography for German). -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 86). has commissioned nineteen articles and a bibliography on the meta-lexicography of one learners' dictionary for German, Langenscheidts Grosswörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache. The treatment of collocations, examples, polysemy, and the treatment of grammar, including verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are among the topics addressed. As contributions to the meta-lexicography of learners' dictionaries, the more worthwhile articles are the following: comparisons of this dictionary with French learners' dictionaries (SCHAFROTH and ZÖFGEN) and with English learners' dictionaries ( H E R B S T ) ; the treatment of grammatical information, particularly the German verb (BERGENHOLTZ and M O G E N S E N ) ; the treatment of stylistic and regional labeling (PÜSCHEL); a critical commentary on the inadequate treatment of compounds, a crucial area for students of German (VAN DER COLFF); the treatment of examples, focusing on the value of invented examples over corpus examples (NEUBAUER); and the treatment of collocations in detail (LEHR). The collection concludes with a valuable bibliography (KAMMERER and W I E G A N D ) of 5 8 9 references that concentrates on the meta-lexicography of German dictionaries. WIEGAND

Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (ed.) (1998c): Wörterbucher in der Diskussion III. Vorträge aus dem Heidelberger Lexikographischen Kolloquium. (Discussing the dictionary III: Lectures given at the Heidelberg colloquium on lexicography). -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 84).

122 has collected twelve articles on eclectic topics, including learner lexicography and electronic dictionaries. Several articles address dictionaries and hypermedia, German dictionaries and the internet, and the alphabetically ordered macrostructure. In addition, an article on an English learners' dictionary examines the patterns of verbs in the forthcoming "Collins Cobuild Valency Dictionary." WIEGAND

Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (ed.) (1989): Wörterbücher in der Diskussion. Vorträge aus dem Heidelberger Lexikographischen Kolloquium. (Discussing the dictionary: Lectures given at the Heidelberg colloquium on lexicography). -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 27). This is a collection of essays on eclectic topics in lexicography. The areas covered include: orthographic dictionaries; neologism dictionaries; particles in the dictionary; dictionary styles; the dictionary of Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm and its new edition; a historical German "firstname-book"; a handbook of the Serbo-Croatian verb; what is a lemma?; phraseology and lexicography; school dictionaries; why there is no chance for a dictionary-culture in Germany; and a world history of meta-lexicography. Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (1987a): Zur handlungstheoretischen Grundlegung der Wörterbuchbenutzungsforschung. (Concerning the pragmatic foundations of research on the dictionaryuser) Lexicographica 3, 178-227. carefully describes the progress being made on studying the dictionary-user before introducing a theoretical model for empirical research on the question. W I E G A N D delineates five search methods users employ and places them in the context of the expected outcomes the user has identified. The article contains a highly elaborate schema of types of situationallybased dictionary use (die Wörterbuchbenutzungssituation), as well as other charts and schemas on methodologies of user-oriented dictionary research; each item is discussed in detail. Suggestions are made concerning the methods and structure of an empirically-based research program on the dictionary-user. WIEGAND

Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (1987b): Über den Nutzen von Wörterbüchern. (Concerning the usefulness of the dictionary) -In: Mogens Dyhr and Jorgen Olsen (eds.): Festschrift für Karl Hyldgaard-Jensen zum 70. Geburtstag am 3. Februar 1987, 308-318. Kopenhagener Beiträge zur Germanistischen Linguistik 3. Kopenhagen: C. A. Reitzels Forlag. This article examines the different ways in which dictionaries may be considered useful. He points out that studies which are focused on the usage and the usefulness of dictionaries were initiated only a short time ago. W I E G A N D briefly writes about forty studies with which he is familiar. Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (1985a): Fragen zur Grammatik in Wörterbuchbenutzungsprotokollen. Ein Beitrag zur empirischen Erforschung der Benutzung einsprachiger Wörterbücher. (Questions concerning grammar in dictionary use protocols. A contribution to the empirical

123 research on the usage of monolingual dictionaries.) -In: Henning Bergenholtz and Joachim Mugdan (eds.): Lexikographie und Grammatik, 20-98. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. introduces his idea of Wörterbuchbenutzungssituationen "situations of dictionary use". He presents his experiments with transcripts of dictionary use within his theoretical framework. W I E G A N D describes specifically a type of transcript that he finds most suitable for empirical research: the use of monolingual dictionaries in situations where the user translates into a foreign language. Finally, he addresses the presentation of grammar in monolingual dictionaries of German. [Prisca Schüler]

WIEGAND

Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (1985b): Eine neue Auffassung der sogenannten lexikographischen Definition. (A new view of the so-called lexicographical definition.) -In: Karl HyldgaardJensen and Arne Zettersten (eds.): Symposium on lexicography II: Proceedings of the second international symposium on lexicography, May 16-17,1984 at the University of Copenhagen, 15-100. -Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 5). This paper must be seen as part of W E G A N D ' S theory of lexicographical description of meaning (Theorie der lexikographischen Bedeutungsbeschreibung), which, again, is a part of his general theory of lexicography (Allgemeine Theorie der Lexikographie). The central focus of this paper is the type of dictionary entry in monolingual dictionaries that can be referred to as "lexicographical definition" (Lexikon- oder Wörterbuchdefinition). [Prisca Schuler] Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (1985c): Einige grundlegende semantisch-pragmatische Aspekte von Wörterbucheinträgen. Ein Beitrag zur praktischen Lexikologie. (Some fundamental semantic-pragmatic aspects concerning dictionary entries: A contribution to a practical lexicology). -In: Ladislav Zgusta (ed.): Probleme des Wörterbuchs. Wege der Forschung. Band 612, 342-377. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. investigates the application and applicability of semantic theory in lexicography and makes some "non-traditional suggestions" for a practical lexicology. Defining dictionary use as a cultural practice that follows certain traditions, WIEGAND finds that a sociology of dictionary users is a gap in the research on dictionary use that needs to be filled. He proposes a battery of questions that need to be asked in order to establish such a sociology of dictionary users. Moreover, he presents a typology of user situations and demands a new conception of lexicography that is supported by semantic theory, and which correlates types of dictionary entries with user situations. [Prisca Schüler] WIEGAND

Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (1984): On the structure and contents of a general theory of lexicography. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the international conference on lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983, 13-30. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1). elaborates on a theory of lexicography and concludes with a survey of German students on their judgments of acceptable definitions for the word lemon. He also has several WIEGAND

124 recommendations for lexicographers on employing the user's perspective in the construction of entries. Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (1983a): Ansätze zu einer allgemeinen Theorie der Lexikographie. (Towards a general theory of lexicography) -In: E. Schildt and D. Viehweger (eds.): Die Lexikographie von heute und das Wörterbuch von morgen, 92-127. Linguistische Studien, Reihe A, 109: Berlin: Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR. Zentralinstitut für Sprachwissenschaft. presents some points of departure towards a general theory of lexicography by providing answers for the following questions: Is lexicography a Wissenschaft ? What is its main object of inquiry? What is the nature of a general theory of lexicography? How does one establish a general theory of lexicography? What is its purpose? W I E G A N D points out that the production of the text in the dictionary must be based on the needs of the potential user rather than be a mere description of the data. [Prisca Schüler] WIEGAND

Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (1983b): Überlegungen zu einer Theorie der lexikographischen Sprachbeschreibung. (Considerations concerning a theory of the lexicographical description of language.) -In: Karl Hyldgaard-Jensen and Arne Zettersten (eds.): Symposium zur Lexikographie, 35-72. Germanistische Linguistik 5-6/82. Hildesheim: Georg Olms. presents a number of definitions of lexicography as he embarks on a journey through his theory of lexicographical description of language (lexikographische Sprachbeschreibung). It is necessary, according to W I E G A N D , to order the phenomena associated with lexicography and distinguish the different theoretical components before lexicographers can arrive at a general theory of lexicography. [Prisca Schüler] WIEGAND

Wiezell, Richard John (1975): Problems in bilingual lexicography: Romance and English. Hispania 58(1), 131-136. explains the difficulties that users have with bilingual Spanish-English and FrenchEnglish dictionaries, focusing on the tendency to list glosses without much explanation of the connotations or much exemplification. He also gives several examples of false cognates and of grammatical differences in commonly used phrases that are not treated adequately by the bilingual dictionary. WIEZELL

Williams, John (1996): Enough said: The problems of obscurity and cultural reference in learners' dictionary examples. -In: Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl (eds.): Euralex' 96 proceedings III (Part II), 497-505. Göteborg, Sweden: Göteborg University, Dept. of Swedish. criticizes example sentences lifted from large corpora that become decontextualized and therefore obscure. He also cites examples that have too much redundancy and that seem less than authentic. He also praises examples from CIDE and COBUELD 2 that give just enough information to provide an appropriate cultural context that enhances understanding. WILLIAMS

125 Wolf, Birgit (1992): Wörterbuch und Benutzer - Versuch einer empirischen Untersuchung. (The dictionary and the user: Α study based on empirical research) -In: Ursula Brausse and Dieter Viehweger (eds.): Lexikontheorie und Wörterbuch, 295-389. -Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 44). The focus of this study is on the needs and interests of the user and on the ability of the user to find words he or she is looking for, with attention to the notion of user-friendliness. The article is a detailed discussion of data collected from a 25 item questionnaire (most items have multiple sub-questions); the questions elicit information concerning the types and frequency of usage patterns found in a large number of informants of differing ages and social backgrounds. W O L F provides the results of each question in charts showing percentages of responses; she interprets and discusses each item of the questionnaire. The study covers a variety of general and specialized monolingual German dictionaries. The author concludes that the dictionaries are not user-friendly and that there is a disjunction between the expectations of the users and the information actually found in the dictionaries. Yorkey, Richard (1997): Dictionaries for language learners. TESOL Quarterly 31(1), 177-181. YORKEY reviews three learners' dictionaries, COBUILD1, OALD5, and the Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture. YORKEY reviews all three favorably, praising the use of corpora, the choice of words by their frequency counts, the easy to read definitions, especially COBUILD's, the comprehensive treatment of phrasal verbs, and the usage notes. YORKEY also notes that the Longman is an encyclopedic dictionary with much useful information about the cultures of the U.K. and the US.

Zettersten, Arne, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen and Jens Erik Mogensen (eds.) (1998): Symposium on lexicography VIII: Proceedings of the eighth international symposium on lexicography May 2-4, 1996, at the University of Copenhagen. -Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 90). et al. include twenty-two articles about lexicography, of which eight are related to pedagogical lexicography. The relevant topics addressed are as follows: a valency dictionary of English; the treatment of phrasal verbs in English learners' dictionaries; "Making a basic dictionary: Practical and metalexicographical considerations"; false cognates and their treatment in bilingual dictionaries; semantic and encyclopedic information in specialized bilingual dictionaries; lexical combinability; "How to find the correct target language equivalent"; and "Specialized bilingual (German) dictionaries of the past". ZETTERSTEN

Zettersten, Arne and Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen (eds.) (1996): Symposium on lexicography VII: Proceedings of the seventh symposium on lexicography May 5-6, 1994, at the University of Copenhagen. -Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 76). et al. have collected eighteen articles about lexicography, of which two are related to pedagogical lexicography. This bibliography includes both, VAN DER M E E R ' S (1996a) article on collocations and VEISBERGS' (1996b) article on the translation of idioms. ZETTERSTEN

126 Zgusta, Ladislav (1989): Idle thoughts of an idle fellow; or, Vaticinations on the learner's dictionary. (Asatyakosyam). -In: Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.): Learners dictionaries: State of the art, 1-9. -Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre (=Anthology Series 23). adumbrates upon issues concerning the "prognoses concerning the possible and desirable future development of the learner's dictionary". ZGUSTA notes the necessity of presenting encyclopedic and pragmatic information that provides the learner with not only sentence grammaticality (for instance), but also "functional appropriateness". Because of the proliferation of specialized dictionaries and the vast increase of linguistic knowledge, he calls for a modularization of dictionaries, which can be best effected by the computerization of lexicography; in this way, the user can access as much or as little detailed information on a variety of aspects of a language as she sees fit (collocations; syntactic patterns; synonyms; onomasiological sets; etc.). ZGUSTA

Zgusta, Ladislav (1988): Pragmatics, lexicography and dictionaries of English. World Englishes 7(3), 243-253. reviews the philosophical background to pragmatics, explicates difficulties related to pragmatics with translational equivalence from Greek to English and then turns to an examination of the defining style of COBUILD. He praises the definitions in COBUILD for two strengths: their readability and their use of the entry words in their usual syntactic patterns. He also criticizes the defining style for two weaknesses: occasional narrowness in the definitions caused by the editorial need for readability and unclear anaphoric references in example sentences.

ZGUSTA

Zgusta, Ladislav (1987): Translational equivalence in a bilingual dictionary. Dictionaries 9,147. in this much fuller version of his 1 9 8 3 article (below), highlights the various methods for providing the learner with adequate LI equivalents, either glosses, definitions, explanations, or encyclopedic information for the foreign language item in the bilingual dictionary. He examines the semantic problems of translational equivalence, stressing functional equivalence in context over structural or formal equivalence with 74 well chosen examples. ZGUSTA,

Zgusta, Ladislav (1983): Translational equivalence in the bilingual dictionary. -In: R.R.K. Hartmann (ed.): LEXeter '83 proceedings: Papers from the International Conference on Lexicography at Exeter, 9-12 September 1983,147-154. -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 1). in this oft-cited seminal article, elucidates various methods for giving the user's L I equivalents, explanations, and definitions for the foreign language item in the bilingual dictionary. In numerous examples that reveal the complexities of determining equivalence, he demonstrates the usefulness of explanations or exemplification in lieu of definitions or lists of glosses, and highlights the bilingual lexicographer's goal, providing functional equivalents for the user in appropriate contexts. ZGUSTA,

127

Zgusta, Ladislav (1975): Linguistics and bilingual dictionaries. Studies in Language Learning 1(1), 95-109. explains the differing purposes of bilingual dictionaries of living and dead languages. It also discusses the differences between monolingual and bilingual dictionaries and addresses the advantages and disadvantages of each. He also explains valency dictionaries and notes that the observations of syntactic research should be incorporated in dictionaries. ZGUSTA

Zöfgen, Ekkehard (1994): Lernerwörterbücher in Theorie und Praxis. (The learners' dictionary in theory and practice.) -Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (=Lexicographica Series Maior 59). The goal of this research is to contribute to the theoretical as well as to the empirical side of "learner's dictionary" research. The chapters cover a wide range of topics such as analyses of special dictionaries (e.g. collocational valency), results of empirical dictionary research, and principles of foreign language teaching. Finally, an attempt is made to offer some practical perspectives on monolingual and bilingual pedagogical lexicography. Zöfgen, Ekkehard (1991): Bilingual learner's dictionaries. -In: Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds.): Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/ Dictionnaires: An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography Vol. Ill: 2888-2903. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. examines the bilingual dictionary, which students prefer to the monolingual counterpart. He compares two formats for entries, alphabetical and semantic categories, discussing the requirements for the learner's dictionary. A strictly topical arrangement by semantic categories has not always been strictly followed in the past. Z Ö F G E N discusses the problems of vocabulary selection, including using the frequency of words as a primary factor for including them or not. He also discusses how to disambiguate with polysemous entries, exemplifying this with two dictionaries, one English-German, and one English-French. He also discusses the history of several types of dictionaries and concludes with suggestions for developing better bilingual learner's dictionaries for the future. The bibliography contains fifty dictionaries and fortyseven research articles. ZÖFGEN

Zöfgen, Ekkehard (1986): Lernerwörterbücher auf dem Prüfstand oder: Was ist ein Lernerwörterbuch? (Learner's dictionary under scrutiny or: What is a learners' dictionary?). Bielefelder Beiträge zur Sprachlehrforschung 14(1-2), 10-89. compares several French, English and German learners' dictionaries. The article presents ideas based on personal observations and anecdotal evidence about what should be changed in the dictionaries. ZÖFGEN primarily addresses issues concerning how a dictionary should be organized, how definitions should be improved, and how many examples should be indicated. ZÖFGEN

Index of Monolingual Learners' Dictionaries (with # of references)

B B I (11) BBI Combinatory Dictionary (Benson, Benson, Ilson) The BBI Dictionary of English Word Combinations (revised edition) Bahns, Jens. 1994, 1989 Benson, Morton. 1990b, 1989a, 1989b, 1988 Herbst, Thomas. 1988 Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1990 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994, 1987

CIDE (22) Cambridge International Dictionary of English Alexander, Richard J. 1998, 1992 (idioms) Allen, Robert and P. Pauwels 1996 (review) Atkins, B.T.S., Beth Levin, and Grace Song. 1996 (verbs) Bahns, Jens. 1996 (collocations) Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley and Susan Jellis. 1996 (corpus) Bogaards, Paul. 1996 (review) Herbst, Thomas. 1996 (review) Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press (analysis) Meijs, Willem. 1996 corpus) Nakamoto, K. 1998 (defining policies) Nesi, Hilary. 1998 (usage) Olofsson, Ame. 1996 (corpus problems) Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1997 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 (review) Procter, Paul. 1996 (overview) Rundell, Michael 1998 (layout) Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 (review) Van der Meer, Geart. 1998 (figurative meanings), 1996b (collocations) Varantola, Krista. 1998 (usage) Williams, John. 1996 (examples)

COBUILD (81) The COBUILD Dictionary (Collins University International Language

Birmingham Database)

Aarts, Flor. 1991a, 1991b (coding) Alexander, Richard J. 1998, 1992 (macrostructure) Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 (review) Antor, Heinz. 1994 (idioms) Atkins, Beryl T. S. 1991 (corpus) Atkins, B.T.S., Beth Levin, and Grace Song. 1996 (verbs) Atkins, B.T.S. and Beth Levin. 1995 (verb phrases) Bahns, Jens. 1996, 1994 (collocations) Bejoint, Henri. 1994 (overview) Benson, Morton. 1989b (collocations) Bogaards, Paul. 1996 (review) Bool, Hilary and Ronald Carter. 1989 (fixed phrases) Carter, Ronald. 1989 (review) Cowie, Anthony P. 1990, 1989a, 1989c (coding) Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 (usage) Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 (review) Doppagne, Veronique 1998 (instructional use) Fillmore, Charles. 1989 (review) Fox, Gwyneth. 1989, 1987 (examples) Hanks, Patrick. 1990, 1988, 1987 (definitions) Harvey, Keith and Deborah Yuill 1997 (experimental test of looking-up strategies) Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 (review) Herbst, Thomas. 1996 (comparative review) 1991a (coding), 1991b (coding), 1989 (pronunciation ) Herbst, Thomas ed. In press (comparative analysis) Hoffmann, Hans G. 1988 (review) Humbley, John. 1990 (review) Jehle, Gunter. 1990a (reviews) Kilgarriff, Adam. 1997 (corpus and word frequency) Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 (analysis of VP) Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987 (corpus development) Landau, Sidney. 1991 (review) Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991b (grammar)

130 McArthur, Tom. 1989 (review) McKeown, Margaret G. 1993 (defining policy) Meijs, Willem. 1996 (corpus) Minaeva, Ludmilla. 1992 (examples) Mittmann, Brigitta. 1995 (examples) Moon, Rosamund. 1998 (spoken corpora), 1996 (idioms), 1987b (polysemy) Nakamoto, Kyohei 1998 (defining policies) Nesi, Hilary. 1998 (usage) Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 (usage) Nuccorini, Stefania. 1993 (pragmatics) 1992 (usage) Olofsson, Arne. 1996 (corpus problems) Pätzold, Kurt-Michael 1997 (review) Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 (review) Potter, Liz 1998 (corpus examples) Renouf, Antoinette. 1987 (corpus development)) Rundell, Michael 1998 (meaning) Scott, Clive. 1989 (review and usage) Sinclair, John M. 1991,(corpus), 1987b (grammar), 1987c (treatment of verbs), 1985 (lexical evidence) Sinclair, John M., ed. 1987a (articles on COBUILD) Sinclair, John M., and D. M. Kirby. 1991 (corpus development) Stein, Gabriele. 1989a (review) Summers, Delia. 1993, 1988a (corpus) Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b (usage) Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1990 (analysis) Van der Meer, Geart. 1998 (figurative meanings), 1996a (collocations) Varantola, Krista. 1994 (CD-ROM and corpus) Verstraten, Linda. 1992 (fixed phrases) Williams, John. 1996 (examples) Yorkey, Richard. 1997 (review) Zgusta, Ladislav. 1988 (defining style)

CULD (14) Chambers Universal Learners' Cowie, Anthony P. 1989c Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991 Heath, David. 1985 Huang, G. F. 1985 llson, Robert F. 1990 Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a

McArthur, Tom. 1989 Nesi, Hilary. 1987, 1984 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1988 Standop, Ewald. 1985 Stein, Gabriele. 1989a Whitcut, Janet. 1986

DFC (5) Dictionnaire du Frangais

Contemporain

Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985d, 1982, 1979, 1974 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a

DLFLE (9) Dictionnaire Larousse du Frangais Langue Etrangere Galisson, Robert. 1987 Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b, 1985b, 1985c, 1985d, 1983, 1982, 1979

LGwDaF (5) Langenscheidt's Grosswörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache Fenner, Kirsten. 1997 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Voigt, Walter. 1984, 1981 Wiegand, Herbert Emst, ed. 1998b

LDELC (6) Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture

Dictionary Antor, Heinz. 1988 Herbst, Thomas and David Heath. 1994 Kokawa, Takahiro and Shigeru Yamada 1998 Stark, Martin 1999 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Yorkey, Richard. 1997 (review)

131 LLA (4) Longman Language Activator and Longman Essential Activator Fenner, Kirsten. 1997 Gillard, Patrick and Adam Gadsby 1998 Hüllen, Wemer. 1994 Summers, Delia. 1996

LDOCE (113) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary

English

Aarts, Flor. 1991a, 1991b (coding) Alexander, Richard J. 1998, 1992 (idioms) Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 (review) Antor, Heinz. 1994 (macrostructure) Atkins, Beryl T. S. 1985 (analysis) Atkins, B.T.S., Beth Levin, and Grace Song. 1996 (verbs) Atkins, Beryl T., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin. 1986 (examples) Ay to, John. 1984 (defining style) Bahns, Jens. 1996, 1994 (collocations) Bejoint, Henri. 1994 Benson, Morton. 1989a (phrasal verbs) 1989b, 1985a (collocations) Bogaards, Paul. 1996 (review) Bool, Hilary and-Ronald Carter. 1989 (fixed phrases) Broeders, Ton. 1987 (phonology) Carter, Ronald. 1989 (review) Cowie, Anthony P. 1990, 1989c (coding) Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 (usage) Dalgish, Gerard Μ. 1995 Diab, Turki. 1990 (usage) Fillmore, Charles. 1989 Fontenelle, Thierry and Jocelyne Vanandroye. 1989 (ergative verbs) Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991 (review) Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Heath, David. 1985, 1982 (coding) Henke, K ä t h e and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 (review), 1991a (review), 1991b (pronunciation), 1989 (grammar codes) 1987 (grammar, valency), 1986 (defining vocabulary), 1985a (coverage), 1985b (usage),

1984a (adjective complementation), 1984b (phrasal verbs) Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press (comparative analysis) Hill, C. P. 1985 Hoffmann, Hans G. 1988 Howarth, Peter A. 1996 (collocations) Huang, G. F. 1985 (and use by Chinese) Humbley, John. 1990 Ilson, Robert F. 1998, 1990, 1986 (verb treatment) Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 (and use by Pakistanis) Jackson, Howard. 1995 (review) 1985 (grammar) Jansen, J., J.P. Mergeai, and J. Vanandroye. 1987 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a (reviews) Kilgarriff, Adam. 1997 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1984 (workbook) Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 (verb analysis) Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985 (workbook) Landau, Sidney. 1991 (review) Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 (bilingualised) Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 (bilingualised) Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991b, 1986 (grammar) MacFarquhar, P.D. and Jack Richards. 1983 (usage) Magay, Tämas. 1984 (coverage) Maingay, Susan and Michael Rundell. 1987 (usage) Martin, Willy. 1985 (macrostructure) McArthur, Tom. 1989 (review) Meara, Paul and Fiona English. 1987. (usage with Longman Active Study Dictionary) Meijs, Willem. 1996 (corpus) Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984. (defining vocabulary) Minaeva, Ludmilla. 1992 (examples) Mittmann, Brigitta. 1995 (examples) Nakamoto, Kyohei 1998 (defining policies) Nesi, Hilary. 1998 (usage), 1996 (usage and examples), 1987 (usage and writing), 1984 (usage) Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 (usage) Neubauer, Fritz. 1987 (defining vocabulary) Nuccorini, Stefania. 1993 (pragmatics), 1992 (usage), 1990 (collocations), 1988 (idioms) Olofsson, Arne. 1996. (corpus problems)

132 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1997, 1987 (review) Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 (review) Procter, Paul. 1976 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Rundell, Michael 1998 (layout) Siegrist, Ottmar K. 1996 (review) Standop, Ewald. 1985 (review) Stein, Gabriele. 1991 (illustrations), 1990 (analysis), 1989a (review), 1985 (word formation), 1979 (review) Strevens, Peter. 1987 (coding) Summers, Delia. 1993 (corpus) 1988a (review) 1988b (usage) Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b (usage) Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1990 (verbs) Van der Meer, Geart. 1998, 1996b (figurative meanings) Varantola, Krista. 1998 Verstraten, Linda. 1992. Wells, J.C. 1985 (pronunciation) Whitcut, Janet. 1988 1986 (usage)

OALD (81) Oxford Advanced Learner's

Dictionary

Aarts, Flor. 1991a, 1991b (codes) Alexander, Richard J. 1998, 1992 (idioms) Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 (review) Antor, Heinz. 1994 (macrostructure) Atkins, Beryl T. S. 1991 (corpus) Atkins, Beryl T., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin. 1986 (examples) Bahns, Jens. 1996, 1994 (collocations) Barone, Rosangela. 1979 (the use of) Benson, Morton. 1989a (phrasal verbs) 1989b, 1985a (collocations) Bogaards, Paul. 1996 (review) Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 (review) Bool, Hilary and Ronald Carter. 1989. (fixed phrases) Broeders, Ton. 1987 (phonology) Cowie, Anthony P. 1995 (and culture) 1998, 1990, 1989c (coding) 1998, 1978a (collocations) Diab, Turki. 1990 (usage) El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 (usage) Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991 (review)

Heath, David. 1985 (coding) Herbst, Thomas. 1996 (review), 1991b (pronunciation), 1989 (grammar codes), 1987 (grammar, valency), 1984a (adjective complementation), 1984b (phrasal verbs) Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press (comparative analysis) Herbst, Thomas and David Heath. 1994 (review) Howarth, Peter A. 1996 (collocations) Huang, G. F. 1985 (and use by Chinese) Ilson, Robert F. 1990 (verb treatment) Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 (and use by Pakistanis) Jackson, Howard. 1995 (review) Jehle, Gunter. 1990a (reviews) Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1984 (workbook) Kokawa, Takahiro and Shigeru Yamada 1998 Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985 (workbook) Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 (bilingualised) Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 (bilingualised) Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991b, 1986 (grammar) MacFarquhar, P.D. and Jack Richards. 1983 (usage) Mackin, Ronald. 1978 (collocations) Marello, Carla 1998 (bilingualized versions of OALD) Martin, Willy. 1985 (macrostructure) Martino, Giovanni de. 1981 (review) McArthur, Tom. 1989 (review) Minaeva, Ludmilla. 1992 (examples) Mittmann, Brigitta. 1995 (examples) Nakamoto, Kyohei 1998 (defining policies) Nesi, Hilary. 1998 usage), 1987 (usage and writing), 1984 (usage and errors) Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 (usage) Nuccorini, Stefania. 1992 (usage), 1990 (collocations), 1988 (idioms) Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1997 (review) Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 (review) Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 (review) Smith, Richard C. 1998 (historical) Standop, Ewald. 1985 (review) Stark, Martin 1999 (analysis and review) Stein, Gabriele. 1991 (illustrations) 1979 (review) Strevens, Peter. 1987 (coding) Summers, Delia. 1988a (review) Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b (usage) Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1990 (verbs)

133 Van der Meer, Geart. 1998 (figurative meanings), 1996a (collocations), 1996b (figurative meaning) Yorkey, Richard. 1997 (review)

ODCIE (9) Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic

English

Broeders, Ton. 1987 Cowie, Anthony P. 1978a 1978b Hill, C P . 1985 Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1986 Mackin, Ronald. 1978 McArthur, Tom. 1989 Moon, Rosamund. 1988

Topical Index

Abbreviations Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele. 1983 Cowie, Anthony P. 1990 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991 Hartmann, Reinhard. 1985 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Klug, Hans Jürgen. 1989 Marello, Carla. 1982a Marello, Carla. 1982b Ripfel, Martha. 1989 Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Stein, Gabriele. 1985 Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Ability (students'; users') Blok, Henk. 1994 Gross, Gaston. 1989 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Knight, Susan. 1994 Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984 Nesi, Hilary. 1996 Nesi, Hilary. 1994 Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Academic Barnhart,Clarence L. 1962 Benbow,Timothy. 1990 Gadbois, Vital. 1986 Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Laufer, Batia. 1993 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric Dolezal. 1998 Accent, accentual Broeders, Ton. 1987 Access, accessible, accessibility See also macrostructure Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Bray, Laurent. 1989 Hansford, Gillian. 1991 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus. 1996 Knight, Susan. 1994 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1984

Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca, and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991b McCreary, Don R. 1998 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984 Moulin, Andre. 1979 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Procter, Paul. 1996 Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad. 1998 Rundell, Michael. 1998 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Stark, Martin 1999 Stein, Gabriele. 1989b Summers, Delia. 1988b Zgusta, Ladislav. 1989 Accuracy Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley, and Susan Jellis. 1996 Ducroquet, Lucile. 1994 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991 Heath, David. 1982 Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Steiner, Roger J. 1984 Whitcut, Janet. 1988 Acquisition Bejoint, Henri. 1988 Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Channell, Joanna M. 1990 Fontenelle, Thierry. 1992 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1982 Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Knight, Susan. 1994 Olijkan, Ed and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Acronyms Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele. 1983 Activator See also production dictionary Fenner, Kirsten. 1997 Gillard, Patrick and Adam Gadsby. 1998

136 Hüllen, Werner. 1994 Summers, Deila. 1996 Active dictionary Benson, Morton. 1990a Fenner, Kirsten. 1997 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Kromann, Hans-Peder. 1986 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991a, 1991b, 1984 Adjectives Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Heath, David. 1982 Herbst, Thomas. 1985a Herbst, Thomas. 1984a Ilson, Robert. 1987a Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1987 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Adult students Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 Descamps, J. L. and R. Vaunaize. 1983 Laufer, Batia. 1992 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Nesi, Hilary. 1996 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994, 1991 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Summers, Deila. 1988b Advanced students, advanced learners Atkins, Beryl Τ. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Battenburg, John D. 1989 Benson, Morton. 1989a Benson, Morton. 1989b. Benson, Morton. 1988 Cowie, A. P. 1983a Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 Diab, Turki. 1989 El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 Galisson, Robert. 1983 Heath, David. 1982 Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus. 1996

Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Klug, Hans Jürgen. 1989 Knowles, Frank. 1993 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna den Tuinder. 1985 Maingay, Susan and Michael Rundell. 1987 McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 Mikkelsen, Hans Kristian. 1992 Moulin, Andre. 1979 Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Varantola, Krista. 1998 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Advantages (of a learners' dictionary) Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Antor, Heinz. 1988 Bogaards, Paul. 1991a Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1984 (of the bilingual d.) Meijs, Willem. 1996 Mittmann, Brigitta. 1995 Stein, Gabriele. 1979 Summers, Deila. 1996 Underhill, Adrian. 1985 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1975 Affixes, affixation Bwenge, Charles. 1989 Hansford, Gillian. 1991 Marckwardt, Albert H. 1973 Μ dee, James S. 1984 Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Stein, Gabriele. 1985 Whitcut, Janet. 1988 African Bwenge, Charles. 1989 Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990a Μ dee, James S. 1984 Age (of different learners) Wolf, Birgit. 1992

137 Aid to learning (the dictionary as an aid) Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996. Gross, Gaston. 1989 Harras, Gisela. 1989a (an aid to research) Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989a Houtman, Kees and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Kühn, Peter. 1983 Nencioni, Giovanni. 1989 Nesi, Hilary. 1994 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 Roby, Warren B. 1991 Sager, Juan C. 1989 (for terminology) Stein, Gabriele. 1990. Van Noppen, Jean Pierre and Christine Michaux. 1991 Vermeer, Hans J. 1989 Alphabetical Ordering Bejoint, Henri. 1989b Bogaards, Paul. 1994a, 1990 Cowie, A. P. 1983a. Hansford, Gillian. 1991 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Nakao, Keisuke. 1998 Tono, Yukio. 1989 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1984 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Alternatives to dictionaries Hill, C. P. 1985 Ilson, Robert. 1985 Alternatives to ESL dictionaries Antor, Heinz. 1988 Hill, C. P. 1985 Ilson, Robert. 1985 Ambiguous, ambiguity El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1981a Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 Jansen, J., J. P. Mergeai, and J. Vanandroye. 1987 Moon, Rosamund. 1998 Sinclair, John M. 1987b American English Arnold, Donna I. 1980-81 Bamhart, Clarence L. 1962 (American students)

Benson, Morton. 1988,1985a 1985b Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 1985 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Herbst, Thomas. 1996, 1991a, 1991b Humbley, John. 1990 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985 Kokawa, Takahiro and Shigeru Yamada. 1998 (encyclopedic dictionary) McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 (research on the use of American d.) Miller, George A. 1984 (children) Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Renouf, Antoinette. 1987 Roby, Warren B. 1991 (students) Snook, Roger. 1992 Standop, Ewald. 1985 (desk dictionaries) Stein, Gabriele. 1979 Steiner, Roger. 1986 Takebayashi, Shigeru. 1998 (pronunciation) Taylor, Andrew and Adelaide Chan. 1994 (electronic dictionary) Wells, J.C. 1985 Analysis of dictionaries (analytical) Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Ayto, John. 1983 Bahns, Jens. 1996 Bejoint, Henri. 1989a Bogaards, Paul. 1997 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Drysdale, P. D. 1987 Fillmore, Charles. 1989 Gouws, Rufus. H. 1995 Harras, Gisela. 1989a, 1986 Heath, David. 1982 Herbst, Thomas. 1984a Hoffmann, Hans G. 1988 Ilson, Robert. 1986. Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984 Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1988 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994 Anaphoric reference Zgusta, Ladislav. 1988

138 Anecdotal evidence Hartmann, R. R. K. 1987c Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Moulin, Andre. 1979 Tono, Yukio. 1998 Voigt, Walter. 1981 Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1986 Anglo-saxon neologisms Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele. 1983 Anisomorphism Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1984 Sundström, Mats-Peter. 1992 Anthology See also thematic issues Atkins, Β. T. S., ed. 1998 Cowie, Anthony, ed. 1998, 1987b, 1981b Hartmann, R. R. K., ed. 1984, 1983c, 1979 Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b, 1985 James, Gregory, ed. 1989 McArthur, Tom and Ilan Kemerman, eds. 1998 Sinclair, John M., ed. 1987a Tickoo, Makhan L., ed. 1989a Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b, 1998c, 1989 Anthropological lexicography Rey, Alain. 1986 Antonyms Gadbois, Vital. 1986 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b Moulin, Andre. 1983 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Appendix Battenburg, John D. 1989 Binon, Jean and Serge Verlinde. 1992 Ilson, Robert. 1987a Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1984 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a Nguyen, Dinh-Hoa. 1986 Stein, Gabriele. 1985 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998 Application Cowie, Anthony P., ed. 1981b (pedagogical)

Fontenelle, Thierry and Jocelyne Vanandroye. 1989 (NLP) Ilson, Robert. 1985 (pedagogical) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1985c (of semantic theory) Applied linguistics Hartmann, Reinhard. 1996 Herbst, Thomas. 1987 Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b Appropriateness, appropriate Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 B£joint, Henri. 1989b (dictionary) Chansou, Michel. 1983 Creamer, Thomas. 1987 (examples) Drysdale, P. D. 1987 (register) Hanks, Patrick. 1990 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1981b Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Kharma, NayefN. 1985 Li, Y. C. 1987 (examples) McCreary, Don R. 1986 (examples) Meijs, Willem. 1996 (examples) Miller, George A: and Patricia M. Gildea. 1987 Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad. 1998 (contexts) Sinclair, John M. 1987b (grammar) Steiner, Roger J. 1984 (equivalents) Sundström, Mats-Peter. 1992 (cross-reference) Varantola, Krista. 1998 (collocations) Whitcut, Janet. 1985 (usage) Williams, John. 1996 (context) Zgusta, Ladislav. 1989, 1983 (context) Arabic, Arabic-Englsih, English-Arabic Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Ard, Josh. 1982 Battenburg, John D. 1989 Diab, Turki. 1990 El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 El-Sakran, T. 1985 James, Gregory, ed. 1989 Kharma, NayefN. 1985 Arbitrary Ducroquet, Lucile. 1994 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1981a Assessment Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland

139 Sussex. 1994 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1977 Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Attention (by learners) McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Miller, George A. and Patricia M. Gildea. 1987 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Attitudes to Dictionaries Ard, Josh. 1982 Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Gadbois, Vital. 1986 Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Stark, Martin. 1999 Twaddell, W. F. 1973 Audience needs Hartmann, Reinhard R.K. 1995 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Marello, Carla. 1982a Opitz, Κ. 1979 Steiner, Roger. 1986 Australian English Delbridge, Arthur. 1989 Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Austrian Boelcke, J. B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1988 Authentic examples Fox, Gwyneth. 1987 Humble, Philippe. 1998 Meijs, Willem. 1996 Williams, John. 1996 Autodictionary Mairesse, Paul. 1993 Automatic data selection Meijs, Willem. 1996. Average users Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Hansford, Gillian. 1991

Harras, Gisela. 1986 Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Püschel, Ulrich. 1989 Voigt, Walter. 1984 Background, L 1 Battenburg, John D. 1989 Griffin, P. 1985 Meara, Paul and Fiona English 1987 Nesi, Hilary. 1994. Background, social Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Base (in a collocation) See also collocator Benson, Morton. 1990a Bogaards, Paul. 1997 Bogaards, Paul. 1994a Fontenelle, Thierry. 1992 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991, 1985a Base (form of a word) Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Basic Vocabulary Harras, Gisela. 1989a Beginning (students, learners) Humbley, John. 1990 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983b Tono, Yukio. 1989 Walz, Joel. 1990a Behavior, behaviour (by users) Baxter, James. 1980 Bogaards, Paul. 1991c Crystal David. 1986 Hatherall, Glyn. 1984 Beneficial (for users) Atkins, Beryl T. S. 1991 Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b

140 Better dictionaries, best, and good (comparative studies) See also comparison Alexander, Richard J. 1998 Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Bogaards, Paul. 1996. Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Cowie, Anthony P. 1996 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985c Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Herbst, Thomas. 1986 llson, Robert F. 1990 Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 Laufer, Batia. 1993 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Nesi, Hilary. 1987 Ogasawara, Linju. 1984 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Stein, Gabriele. 1989a, 1979 Summers, Delia. 1988a, 1988b Underhill, Adrian. 1985 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996b Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 Bibliography Atkins, Β. T. S., ed. 1998 Cowie, Anthony, ed. 1987b Cowie, Anthony P., ed. 1981b Diab, Turki. 1990 Gorbahn-Orme, Adeline and Franz Josef Hausmann. 1991 Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1989c Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ., ed. 1984 Hartmann, R. R. K. ed. 1979 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990a Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b Hausmann, Franz Josef, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Ladislav Zgusta, eds. 1989 (Vol. 1), 1990 (Vol. II), 1991 (Vol. III) Householder, Fred and Sol Saporta. 1962 Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b Ilson, Robert. 1985 Knowles, Frank E. 1989 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric Dolezal. 1998

Püschel, Ulrich. 1989 Sinclair, John M., ed. 1987a Standop, Ewald. 1985 Tickoo, Makhan L., ed. 1989a Tono, Yukio. 1998 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 Bidirectional dictionary Herbst, Thomas and David Heath. 1994 Steiner, Roger J. 1975 Bilingual Dictionary Atkins, Β. Τ. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Bogaards, Paul. 1998 Bujas, Zeljko. 1975 Cop, Margaret. 1991 Creamer, Thomas. 1987 Czochralski, Jan. 1981 Dubois, Jean. 1981 Hansford, Gillian. 1991 Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1992, 1991, 1989a, 1985, 1982 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Herbst, Thomas. 1985a Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Jackson, Howard. 1975 Kharma, NayefN. 1985 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991a, 1991b Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Lindstrom, Naomi. 1980 Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 Martin, Willy. 1985 Martino, Giovanni de. 1986, 1981 Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Petti, Vincent. 1989 Rey, Alain. 1986 Roby, Warren B. 1991 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Snell-Homby, Mary. 1987, 1984 Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Steiner, Roger. 1986, 1982, 1975 Thompson, Geoff. 1987

141 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1988 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1983 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 Bilingual learners' dictionary Atkins Beryl T. 1985 Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Gouws, Rufus. H. 1995 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983a Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 Bilingual Lexicography Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994b Hartmann, R. R. Κ. 1991, 1987b Hartmann, Reinhard. 1985 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b Householder, Fred and Sol Saporta. 1962 Jacobsen, Jane Rosenkilde, James Manley, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen. 1991 Kromann, Hans-Peder. 1986 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991a Martino, Giovanni de. 1986 Nakao, Keisuke. 1998 Roberts, Roda P. and Catherine Montgomery. 1996 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1990 Svensen, Bo. 1993 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975 Bilingualised Dictionary Hartmann, Reinhard R. K. 1994a, 1992 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997. Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Marello, Carla. 1998 Reif, Joseph A. 1987 Bilingualism Bejoint, Henri. 1988 Mikkelsen, Hans Kristian. 1992 Borrowing, borrowed words Benson, Morton. 1990c Ilson, Robert. 1983

McCreary, Don R. 1986 Rey, Alain. 1986 Briticisms Humbley, John. 1990 British English Benson, Morton. 1989a, 1988, 1985b Co wie, Anthony P. 1984 Crystal David. 1986 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983a, 1982 Herbst, Thomas. 1996., 1991a, 1991b Kilgarriff, Adam. 1997 Moon, Rosamund. 1996 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Renouf, Antoinette. 1987 Snook, Roger. 1992 Standop, Ewald. 1985 Stein, Gabriele. 1979 Steiner, Roger. 1986 Summers, Delia. 1996 Canadian English Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Canadian French Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990a Roberts, Roda P. and Catherine Montgomery. 1996 Canonical form Moon, Rosamund. 1996 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Caribbean English Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Causative Atkins, Β. T. S. and Beth Levin. 1995 Fontenelle, Thierry. 1996 (causative-inchoative) CD-ROM See electronic dictionaries Checking of dictionaries Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Bamhart, Clarence L. 1962

142 Children (dictionary use by) Blok, Henk. 1994 Chansou, Michel. 1983 Gross, Gaston. 1989 Marello, Carla. 1982b McKeown, Margaret G. 1993 Miller, George A. 1984 Miller, George A. and Patricia M. Gildea. 1987 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Monaco, Roberta. 1989 Chinese-English dictionaries Chi, Man Lai Amy. 1998 Creamer, Thomas. 1987 Li, Lan 1998 Li, Y. C. 1987 Taylor, Andrew and Adelaide Chan. 1994 Chinese students (dictionary use by) Battenburg, John D. 1989. Huang, G. F. 1985 Li, Lan. 1998 Taylor, Andrew and Adelaide Chan. 1994 Choice (of dictionary) Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Bogaards, P. 1988. Maingay, Susan and Michael Rundell. 1987 Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Chomsky Crystal David. 1986 Sinclair, John M. 1991 Circularity Martino, Giovanni de. 1981 Classes of information Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Classic articles Iannucci, James E. 1962 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1983, 1987 Classical definition Ayto, John. 1983 Classify, classification Bwenge, Charles. 1989 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1987b

Ilson, Robert. 1987a Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Classroom use Baxter, James. 1980 Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Bensoussan, Marsha. 1983 Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Cowie, Anthony, ed. 1987b Galisson, Robert. 1987 Griffin, P. 1985 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 Ickler, Theodor. 1982. Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 Olijkan, Ed and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Scott, Clive. 1989 Code(s), coding See also grammatical information; syntactic information Aarts, Flor. 1991a, 1991b Bogaards, Paul. 1994a Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Cowie, Anthony P. 1998, 1990, 1989c, 1987b, 1984 Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 Fontenelle, Thierry and Jocelyne Vanandroye. 1989 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991, 1985 Heath, David. 1982 Herbst, Thomas. 1989, 1988, 1987 Huang, G. F. 1985 Jackson, Howard. 1985 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991b, 1986 Li, Y. C. 1987 Moulin, Andre. 1983 Nguyen, Dinh-Hoa. 1986 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1992 Procter, Paul. 1976 Pye, Glennis. 1996 Sinclair, John M. 1987b Smith, Richard C. 1998 Stein, Gabriele. 1979 Strevens, Peter. 1987 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b

143 Codedness Bejoint, Henri. 1989a Cohesion Cowie, A. P. 1987a Collection See also anthology; thematic issues Atkins, Β. T. S., ed. 1998 Cowie, Anthony, ed. 1998, 1987b, 1981b Hartmann, R. R. K., ed. 1984, 1983c, 1979 Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b, 1985 James, Gregory, ed. 1989 McArthur, Tom and Ilan Kernerman, eds.1998 Sinclair, John M., ed. 1987a Tickoo, Makhan L„ ed. 1989a Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b, 1998c, 1989 Collective (nouns) Ilson, Robert F. 1990 College (student use) Arnold, Donna I. 1980-81 Barnhart, Clarence L. 1962 Crystal David. 1986 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Griffin, P. 1985 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983a Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Knight, Susan. 1994 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 McNaughton, David, Charles Hughes, and Karen Clark. 1997 Nesi, Hilary. 1994 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Quirk, Randolph. 1974. Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b Tono, Yukio. 1984 Collocatibility Cowie, Anthony P. 1984, 1979 Collocations Alexander, Richard J. 1992, 1998 Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Bahns, Jens. 1996, 1994, 1989 Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley and Susan Jellis.

1996 Bejoint, Henri. 1989a Benson, Morton. 1990a, 1990b, 1989a, 1989b, 1988, 1985a, 1985b Binon, Jean and Serge Verlinde. 1992 Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 Bogaards, Paul. 1997, 1994a, 1992b, 1991c, 1990 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Candel, Danielle. 1983 Cop, Margaret. 1991 Cowie, Anthony P. 1996, 1981a, 1978a Drysdale, P. D. 1987 Fontenelle, Thierry. 1996, 1992 Hanks, Patrick. 1990 Harras, Gisela. 1989b Hartmann, Reinhard R. K. 1994b Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991, 1990b, 1988, 1985a, 1985a, 1985b. Heath, David. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1988 Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Ilson, Robert. 1998, 1985 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Jehle, Gunter. 1990b Knowles, Frank. 1993 Mackin, Ronald. 1978 Marello, Carla. 1982b Martino, Giovanni de. 1981 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Meijs, Willem. 1996 Mittmann, Brigitta. 1995 Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Nesi, Hilary. 1984 Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1990 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1987 Pye, Glennis. 1996 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Siegrist, Ottmar K. 1996 Sinclair, John M. 1985 Smith, Richard C. 1998 Summers, Deila. 1996 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Van der Wouden, Ton. 1992

144 Varantola, Krista. 1998, 1994 Voigt, Walter. 1984 Walter, Elizabeth. 1996 Whitcut, Janet. 1988 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Zettersten, Arne, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen, and Jens Erik Mogensen. 1998 Zettersten, Arne and Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen. 1996 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1989 Collocator (s) See also Base. Benson, Morton. 1990a Bogaards, Paul. 1997, 1994a Fontenelle, Thierry. 1992 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991, 1985a Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Colloquial language Dubois, Jean. 1981 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Combination(s) (of words) Benson, Morton. 1985b Cowie, Anthony P. 1978b. Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985a Herbst, Thomas. 1984a Sinclair, John M. 1987c Ter-Minasova, Svetlana. 1992 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Combinatory dictionary Bahns, Jens. 1989 Benson, Morton. 1990b, 1989a, 1989b, 1988 Herbst, Thomas. 1988 Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1987 Commercial lexicography Barnhart, Clarence L. 1962 Cowie, Anthony P. 1984 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric Dolezal. 1998 Communicative competence Galisson, Robert. 1987 Communicative needs Cowie, A. P. 1987a Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987, 1985 Scott, Clive. 1989

Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1987. Wagner, Horst. 1985 Comparative analysis of dictionaries Hoffmann, Hans G. 1988 Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 Compare (types of dictionary) Atkins, 1985 (learners' vs. monolingual) Aust, Ronald, Mary Jane Kelley, and Warren Roby. 1993 (electronic vs. paper) Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984. (bilingual vs. non-use) Bogaards, Paul. 1994b, 1992a (French vs. Dutch) Bwenge, Charles. 1989 (Swahili dictionaries) Cahill, Aidan. 1989 (Russian) Chagunda, M. 1983 (technical) Ducroquet, Lucile. 1994 (French bilingual) Fontenelle, Thierry. 1992 (French bilingual vs. corpus) Hatherall, Glyn. 1984 (user needs vs. dictionarymakers) Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991 (bilingual lexicography) Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1987 (French, English, & German); 1985d, 1982, 1979 (French learners'); 1974 (French standard vs. learners') Kirkpatrick, Betty. 1985 (standard vs. learners') Klug, Hans Jürgen. 1989 (pocket vs. standard) Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985 (French learners' vs. English) Marello, Carla. 1998 (bilingualised), 1982a (Italian monolingual) Neubert, Gunter. 1970 (German technical) Opitz, Κ. 1979 (German technical) Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 (Spanish learners') Wagner, Horst. 1985 (monolingual French) Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a (monolingual German, German learners' dictionaries), 1998b (Langenscheidt's German learners' dictionary) Compare (types of research) Crystal, David. 1986 Tono, Yukio. 1998 Comparison of learners' dictionaries See also better dictionaries Aarts, Flor. 1991a, 1991b Alexander, Richard J. 1998 Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Antor, Heinz. 1988

145 Atkins, Beryl Τ. S. 1991, 1985 Bahns, Jens. 1994, 1989 Bogaards, Paul. 1996, 1994b, 1985 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Breeders, Ton. 1987. Cowie, Anthony P. 1996, 1990 Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 Ellegard, Alvar. 1978 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991, 1988, 1987, 1985b,1983 Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Heath, David. 1985, 1982 Herbst, Thomas. 1996, 1991a, 1989, 1986, 1985a Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Hoffmann, Hans G. 1988 Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Humbley, John. 1990 Ilson, Robert F. 1990, 1985 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 Landau, Sidney. 1991 Laufer, Batia. 1993 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Moulin, Andre. 1979 Nesi, Hilary. 1987 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1993 Ogasawara, Linju. 1984 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Stein, Gabriele. 1990, 1989a, 1979 Summers, Delia. 1988a Underhill, Adrian. 1985 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996b Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991, 1986 Compilers Cowie, Anthony P. 1993, 1989b Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989a Hatherall, Glyn. 1984 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Moulin, Andre. 1983 Ogasawara, Linju. 1984 Püschel, Ulrich. 1989, 1986

Compilation process Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987 Petti, Vincent. 1989 Sinclair, John M., ed. 1987a Steiner, Roger J. 1975 Ter-Minasova, Svetlana. 1992 Complements, complementation Aarts, Flor. 1991a Atkins, Beryl T., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin. 1986 Herbst, Thomas. 1989, 1988, 1987, 1984a Ilson, Robert. 1998 Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1992 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1987 Components (of the corpus) Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley and Susan Jellis. 1996. Moon, Rosamund. 1998 Sinclair, John M„ and D. M. Kirby. 1991 Summers, Delia. 1993 Components (of the dictionary entry) Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Battenburg, John D. 1991 Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991 Jacobsen, Jane Rosenkilde, James Manley, Viggo Hj0mager Pedersen. 1991 Marello, Carla. 1982a McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Componential analysis Ayto, John. 1983 Composition, written Ard, Josh. 1982 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 Compounds Benson, Morton. 1985b Cowie, Anthony P. 1995, 1983a, 1983b Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Kharma, Nayef N. 1985 MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1983 Meijs, Willem. 1996

146 Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Stein, Gabriele. 1979 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Comprehension (of the entry by the user) Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991, 1988, 1985a Herbst, Thomas. 1986 Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Knight, Susan. 1994 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991a, 1984 Laufer, Batia. 1993, 1992 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997. Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1983 Marello, Carla. 1998 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 McKeown, Margaret. 1991, 1993 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983b Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Nesi, Hilary. 1994 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Roby, Wan-en B. 1991 Scholfield, Phil. 1982. Summers, Delia. 1988b Tono, Yukio. 1989 Whitcut, Janet. 1988 Comprehensive coverage (of vocabulary) Benson, Morton. 1985a Bujas, Zeljko. 1975 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1981b Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Herbst, Thomas. 1989, 1988, 1984b Ilson, Robert. 1998 Kokawa, Takahiro and Shigeru Yamada. 1998 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994, 1987 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1988 Yorkey, Richard. 1997 Computational lexicography Atkins, Beryl T. S. 1991 Sinclair, John M., and D. M. Kirby. 1991

Computers and lexicography Battenburg, John D. 1991. Bogaards, P. 1988 Gross, Gaston. 1989 Hartmann, Reinhard R.K. 1995 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987 Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984 Renouf, Antoinette. 1987 Sinclair, John M. 1987a, 1985 Summers, Delia. 1996 Voigt, Walter. 1984 Computerized dictionary See also electronic dictionaries Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Gray, J.C. 1986 Roby, Warren B. 1991 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a Concordance Atkins, Beryl T. S. 1991 Fontenelle, Thierry. 1992 Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987 Sinclair, John Μ. 1991 Sinclair, John M. 1985 Summers, Delia. 1996 Varantola, Krista. 1994 Conjugation (of the verb) Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985 Conjunctions Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Connotation Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Ayto, John. 1983 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975 Contemporary Dubois, Jean. 1981 (French design) Kühn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982 (German) Context and entry word Bahns, Jens. 1989 Ballweg-Schramm, Angelika. 1983 Benson, Morton. 1990b Cowie, A. P. 1989a

147 Cowie, Anthony P. 1989b Drysdale, P. D. 1987 Fischer, Ute. 1994 Fox, Gwyneth. 1987 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983b Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991, 1990b Hulstijn, Jan H. 1993 Knight, Susan. 1994 Mairesse, Paul. 1993 Martino, Giovanni de. 1986 Meijs, Willem. 1996 Minaeva, Ludmilla. 1992 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983b Moon, Rosamund. 1992, 1987a Neubert, Gunter. 1970 Nikula, Henrik. 1986 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1987 Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad. 1998 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Summers, Delia. 1988b Tommola, Hannu. 1992 Tono, Yukio. 1989, 1984 Williams, John. 1996 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1983 Contextualized (dictionary) Opitz, Kurt. 1988 Walz, Joel. 1990a Contradictory studies Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Tono, Yukio. 1989 Contrasting L 1 and L 2 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1984 Sundström, Mats-Peter. 1992 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1983 Van der Wouden, Ton. 1992 Contrastive Analysis Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991, 1985 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1995 Huang, G. F. 1985 Ilson, Robert. 1986 Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Ogasawara, Linju. 1984

Contrastive Lexicography Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1995 Controlled study (experimental) Atkins, B.T. Sue, ed. 1998 Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1998b, 1994a Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 Fischer, Ute. 1994 Hartmann, Reinhard R. K. 1994a Hartmann, R. R. K. 1987c Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus. 1996 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994. Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 McKeown, Margaret G. 1993 McNaughton, David, Charles Hughes, and Karen Clark. 1997 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Opitz, Κ. 1979 Tono, Yukio. 1998 Controlled vocabulary Cowie, A. P. 1989a Dubois, Jean. 1981 Fox, Gwyneth. 1989 Herbst, Thomas. 1986 Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b Jain, Mahavir. 1981 Jansen, J., J. P. Mergeai, and J. Vanandroye. 1987 Mc Arthur, Tom. 1989 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984 Procter, Paul. 1976 Stein, Gabriele. 1979 Whitcut, Janet. 1988 Conventions (of the dictionary) Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Klug, Hans Jürgen. 1989 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Whitcut, Janet. 1986. Conventional dictionary Aust, Ronald, Mary Jane Kelley, and Warren Roby. 1993 Cowie, A. P. 1983b

148 Snell-Homby, Mary. 1984

Whitcut, Janet. 1988

Corpus, corpora

Correctness Ducroquet, Lucile. 1994 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 (political)

Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Atkins, Beryl T. S. 1991 Atkins, Β. T. S., Beth Levin, and Grace Song. 1996 Atkins, Β. T. S. and Beth Levin. 1995 Bahns, Jens. 1996, 1994 Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley and Susan Jellis. 1996 Bejoint, Henri. 1979 Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 Bogaards, Paul. 1992a Carter, Ronald. 1989 Cowie, Anthony P. 1993 Cowie, Anthony P. 1989c Fontenelle, Thierry. 1992 Fox, Gwyneth. 1987 Gillard, Patrick and Adam Gadsby. 1998 Gray, J.C. 1986 Hanks, Patrick. 1988, 1990 Harras, Gisela. 1989a Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994b Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Kilgarriff, Adam. 1997 Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987 Laufer, Batia. 1992 Meijs, Willem. 1996 Minaeva, Ludmilla. 1992 Mittmann, Brigitta. 1995 Moon, Rosamund. 1996, 1998 Moon, Rosamund. 1988 Nikula, Henrik. 1986 Potter, Liz. 1998 Procter, Paul. 1996 Renouf, Antoinette. 1987 Roberts, Roda P. and Catherine Montgomery. 1996 Rundell, Michael. 1998 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Sinclair, John Μ. 1991 Sinclair, John Μ., and D. Μ. Kirby. 1991 Summers, Delia. 1996, 1993 Varantola, Krista. 1998, 1994 Voigt, Walter. 1984.

Count (nouns) Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Herbst, Thomas. 1985a Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Strevens, Peter. 1987 Course (on dictionary skills) Barone, Rosangela. 1979 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1984 Klug, Hans Jürgen. 1989 Lemmens, Marcel. 1994 Tono, Yukio. 1989 Coverage (of vocabulary) Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Benson, Morton. 1985a Bujas, Zeljko. 1975 Candel, Danielle. 1983 Chansou, Michel. 1983 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1981b Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1989, 1988, 1985a, 1984b Ilson, Robert. 1998 Kokawa, Takahiro and Shigeru Yamada. 1998 Marello, Carla. 1982a Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994, 1987 Procter, Paul. 1996 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Snook, Roger. 1992 Summers, Delia. 1988a Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1988 Varantola, Krista. 1992 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996 Yorkey, Richard. 1997 Criteria (for the selection of entries) Cowie, Anthony P. 1989b Dalgish, Gerard M. 1985 Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Opitz, Κ. 1979. Summers, Delia. 1993

149 Criticism See also: Ambiguous; Inaccurate; Inadequate; Incompetent; Inconsistent; Incorrect; Inexperienced; Infrequent; Insecurity; Misuse; Opaque; Unable; Unaffected; Unaware; Uncertainty; Unclear; Undeveloped; Unfamiliar; Unhelpful; Unknown; Unreadable; Unsatisfying; Unskilled; Unsystematic; Untrained; Unwilling. Criticism, General Crystal 1986: Experimental Lexicography Cowie 1984: Grammar in EFL dictionaries Feldweg 1997: Electronic dictionaries (bilingual) Gouws 1995: review of Zöfgen 1994 Hanks 1987: conventions of dictionary notations in definitions (Cobuild) Hartmann 1992: bilingualised dictionaries/ user research Hartmann 1987b: user research Ickler 1982: "vocabulary reader" prefers bilingual Jehmlich 1972: glossaries in textbooks Kühn 1983: ideology and dictionary use McCreary and Dolezal 1998: of lexicographic research as science vs. art Ripfel 1989: use of mono-/bilingual dictionaries (experimental) Stark 1990: workbooks for mono-/bilingual dictionaries Tono 1998: unsystematic research Wiegand 1998a: method for dictionary use experiments Criticism, of a particular dictionary Bilingual Bogaards 1994a: French/Dutch (experimental) Hartmann 1985: German/English (contrastive analysis/error analysis) Lindstrom 1980: University of Chicago Spanish/ English Dictionary Wiegand 1998b: (Langenscheidt's German learners' dictionary) Learner's Bolinger 1990: OALD4 Hüllen 1994: Longman Language Activator (preface either for linguists or learners)

Schneider 1998: (Oxford Learner's Wordfinder Dictionary) Zgusta 1988: COBUILD (equivalence; defining style; examples) Monolingual Lindstrom 1980: 1000 Spanish Idioms Benson 1990b: BBI Herbst 1988: BBI (user-friendliness) Pätzold 1987: BBI Criticism, Comparisons of dictionaries Bilingual Creamer 1987: Chinese/English dictionaries (examples) Li, Y. 1987: Chinese/English dictionaries (examples) Li, L. 1998: Chinese/English dictionaries (equivalents) Martino 1986: Italian/English (equivalents and examples) McCreary 1998, 1989, 1986: Japanese/English and English/Japanese dictionaries (user) Wiegand 1998a: (German/English dictionaries) Learner's (Criticism) Allen and Pauwels 1996: OALD; LDOCE3; COBUILD 2; CIDE Benson 1989b: OALD; LDOCE; COBUILD;BBI Fillmore 1989: LDOCE2; COBUILD (definitions/lexical semantics) Hausmann 1991: German, German/English and English; Dictionary of English Words in Context, Duden Stilwörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache (1971); OALD, LDOCE, and CULD, and a bilingual learners' dictionary, the Pons Global Wörterbuch Deutsch-Englisch (collocations) Hausmann and Gorbahn 1989: COBUILD and LDOCE2 Herbst and Heath 1994: Longman Dictionary of Language and Culture; OALD-Encyclopedic edition Howarth 1996: the OALD4 (1989), the LDOCE (1987), ODCIE (vol. 1, 1975, vol. 2, 1983), and the ODPV (1993), the Oxford Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs; BBI (1986), and the SEC (1988) Selected English Collocations

150 (Phraseology) Ilson 1986: Collins ELD·, LDOCE; Chamber'sOALD3. Ogden's basic vocabulary Jehle 1990a: contrasts journalistic and academic reviews (210); OALD; LDOCE; CULD; COBUILD and Dictionnaire franqais contemporain, MicroRobert. Martino 1981: COD; OALD as opposed to English/Italian dictionary (prefers bilingual) Mittmann 1995: OALD4; LDOCE2: COBUILD (examples) Olofsson 1996: COBUILD; LDOCE (word frequency) Pätzold 1997: OALD5, LDOCE3, COBUILD2, CIDE Piotrowski 1997: critique of all four monolingual learner's dictionaries Verstraten 1992: LDOCE2, COBUILD (fixed phrases) Wiegand 1998b: (German learners' dictionary) Williams 1996 CIDE; COBUILD2 (examples) Zöfgen 1994: theoretical and practical criticism Monolingual (Criticism) Jehle 1990a: Dictionnaire frangais contemporain; MicroRobert McCreary and Dolezal 1999: American Heritage Dictionary Wiegand 1998a: Langenscheidt's Grosswörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache Culture-bound words Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1990 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1981 Tommola, Hannu. 1992 Culture-specific MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1983 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Data Al-Kasimi, Ali. Μ. 1983a Atkins, Β. T. S., Beth Levin, and Grace Song. 1996 Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley and Susan Jellis. 1996 Fox, Gwyneth. 1987 Harras, Gisela. 1989a Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Moon, Rosamund. 1996

Müllich, Harald. 1990 Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 (Data Collection) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1983a Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Database Atkins, Β. T. S. 1996 Fontenelle, Thierry and Jocelyne Vanandroye. 1989 Gray, J.C. 1986 Kilgarriff, Adam. 1997 Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987 Meijs, Willem. 1996. Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984 Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad. 1998 Sager, Juan C. 1989 Tommola, Hannu. 1992 Decisions (by lexicographers) Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Cowie, A. P. 1983b Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991a Magay, Tämas. 1984 Neubauer, Fritz. 1987 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 Wells, J.C. 1985 Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Decisions (by dictionary users) Bogaards, Paul. 1998. Müllich, Harald. 1990 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Varantola, Krista. 1994. Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Decoding Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Delia Summers, and Janet Whitcut. 1987 Bejoint, Henri. 1981 Benson, Morton. 1990a Diab, Turki. 1990 Galisson, Robert. 1983 Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1984 Marello, Carla 1998 Martin, W. and B.P.F. Al. 1990 Mikkelsen, Hans Kristian. 1992

151 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1987 Stark, Martin P. 1990 Decontextualized examples Humble, Philippe 1998 Williams, John. 1996 Defining policy Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Herbst, Thomas. 1986 McKeown, Margaret G. 1993 Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Rundell, Michael 1998 Sinclair, John M. 1991, 1987a Stein, Gabriele. 1979 Stock, Penny. 1992 Defining vocabulary Ayto, John. 1984 Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley and Susan Jellis. 1996 Fox, Gwyneth. 1989 Herbst, Thomas. 1986 Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b Jackson, Howard. 1995 Jain, Mahavir. 1981 Jansen, J., J. P. Mergeai, and J. Vanandroye. 1987 Jehle, Günter. 1990b Kirkpatrick, Betty. 1985 Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985 McArthur, Tom. 1989 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984 Neubauer, Fritz. 1987 Procter, Paul. 1976 Stein, Gabriele. 1990, 1979 Whitcut, Janet. 1988 Definition Aust, Ronald, Mary Jane Kelley, and Warren Roby. 1993 Ayto, John. 1984, 1983 Bahns, Jens. 1994 Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Candel, Danielle. 1983 Carter, Ronald. 1989 Chagunda, M. 1983 Chansou, Michel. 1983 Cowie, Anthony P., ed. 1981b

Creamer, Thomas. 1987 Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 Descamps, J. L. and R. Vaunaize. 1983 Drysdale, P. D. 1987 El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 Fillmore, Charles. 1989 Fox, Gwyneth. 1989 Galisson, Robert. 1983 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Harras, Gisela. 1986 Harvey, Keith and Deborah Yuill. 1997 Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Herbst, Thomas. 1996, 1991a Höhne, Steffen. 1991 Humbley, John. 1990 Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b Ilson, Robert. 1986 Jackson, Howard. 1975 Jacobsen, Jane Rosenkilde, James Manley, Viggo Hj0mager Pedersen. 1991 Jain, Mahavir. 1981 Jansen, J., J. P. Mergeai, and J. Vanandroye. 1987 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a Kharma, Nayef N. 1985 Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 Laufer, Batia. 1993, 1992 MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1983 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Marello, Carla. 1982a, 1982b Martin, Willy. 1985 McKeown, Margaret. 1993, 1991 Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Moon, Rosamund. 1987a Müllich, Harald. 1990 Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Nesi, Hilary. 1998, 1992 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 Nguyen, Dinh-Hoa. 1986 Nikula, Henrik. 1986 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1989 Procter, Paul. 1996 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997

152 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Scott, Clive. 1989 Sinclair, John Μ. 1991 Stein, Gabriele. 1991, 1989a Steiner, Roger J. 1982 Stock, Penny. 1992 Summers, Delia. 1988b Taylor, Andrew and Adelaide Chan. 1994 Thompson, Geoff. 1987 Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1983 Tono, Yukio. 1984 Walter, Elizabeth. 1992 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1985b, 1984, 1983b Yorkey, Richard. 1997 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1988, 1983 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1986 Definition-only entries Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Denotation Monaco, Roberta. 1989 Derivational affixes Marckwardt, Albert H. 1973. Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Derivatives Cowie, Anthony P. 1995, 1983a, 1983b Mdee, James S. 1984 Description of meaning Al-Kasimi, Ali. M. 1983a Harras, Gisela. 1986. Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 Moon, Rosamund. 1996, 1987b Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Nesi, Hilary. 1984 Rundell, Michael. 1998 Van der Wouden, Ton. 1992 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1985b Descriptive Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Bejoint, Henri. 1979 Crystal David. 1986 Delbridge, Arthur. 1989 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul

Rosbach. 1984 Montgomery, Michael. 1983 Rey, Alain. 1986 Sinclair, John M. 1991 Design (of the dictionary) Cahill, Aidan. 1989 Cowie, Anthony P. 1989b, 1987b, 1983a, 1979, 1978a, 1978b Dubois, Jean. 1981. Hansford, Gillian. 1991 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985a Herbst, Thomas. 1991a Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 Moulin, Andre. 1979 Procter, Paul. 1976 Püschel, Ulrich. 1989 Snell-Homby, Mary. 1990, 1987 Stark, Martin. 1999 Steiner, Roger J. 1975 Summers, Delia. 1993 Development (of new dictionaries) Cowie, A. P. 1989a, 1989c McArthur, Tom. 1989 Renouf, Antoinette. 1987 Sinclair, John M., ed. 1987a Stein, Gabriele. 1989a Tickoo, Makhan L., ed. 1989a Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1981 Voigt, Walter. 1984 Walter, Elizabeth. 1996 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1989 Diachronic Hay ward, Timothy and Andre Moulin. 1984 Diagram Bogaards, Paul. 1993 Chagunda, M. 1983 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Dialect(s) Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983b Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990a Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 Dialectal variation Gimson, A. C. 1981

153 Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Dictionary (-ies) exclusive of learners' dictionaries Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 (English-Arabic and usage) Alexander, Richard J. 1992 (idioms in) Al-Kasimi, Ali. Μ. 1983a (for translation) 1983b (bilingual) Antor, Heinz. 1988 (English monolingual for Germans) Ard, Josh. 1982 (for EFL) Atkins, Β. T. S., ed. 1998 (collection on users) Atkins, Β. T. S. 1996 (electronic bilingual) Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 (final report, users study) 1997 (use by translators) Atkins, Β. T. S., Beth Levin, and Grace Song. 1996 (with verbs of sound) Atkins, Β. T. S. and Beth Levin. 1995 (transitive and intransitive verbs) Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 (interim report, users study) Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Delia Summers, and Janet Whitcut. 1987 (users study) Atkins, Beryl T., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin. 1986 (with verb complements) Augst, Gerhard. 1991-1993 (word-family dictionaries) Aust, Ronald, Mary Jane Kelley, and Warren Roby. 1993 (use of electronic) Ayto, John. 1983 (and defining style) Bahns, Jens. 1989 (collocation dictionaries) Ballweg-Schramm, Angelika. 1983 (of difficult words) Barnhart, Clarence L. 1962 (survey of monolingual English dictionaries) Baxter, James. 1980 (monolingual English dictionaries) B6joint, Henri. 1994 (modern English) 1989b (use of) 1988 (and psycholinguistics) 1981 (use of monolingual English dictionaries) 1979 (and informants) Benbow, Timothy. 1990 (the new OED) Benson, Morton. 1990a (and collocations), 1990c (and culture) Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 (use of) Bensoussan, Marsha. 1983 (and reading

comprehension) Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1997 (technical dictionaries) Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 (German-French dictionary of economics) Bogaards, Paul. 1998, 1997 (bilingual and usage), 1995 (and reading comprehension, 1994 (bilingual and use) 1992a (French dictionary) 1992b (and collocations), 1991c (collocations and frequency) 1990 (look up strategies) 1988 (survey of use) Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 (electronic bilingual) Bray, Laurent. 1989 (and readability) Brito, Eliana V. 1992 (and reading) Bujas, Zeljko. 1975 (English-Croatian) Bwenge, Charles. 1989 (Swahili) Cahill, Aidan. 1989 (Russian) Calanchini, Elena. 1982 (Swiss) Candel, Danielle. 1983 (French) Chagunda, M. 1983 (technical dictionary) Cop, Margaret. 1991 (bilingual) Cortelazzo, Manlio. 1982 (Swiss) Cowie, Anthony P. 1993 (and phrasal verbs) Cowie, A. P. 1987a (and syntax) Cowie, Anthony P., ed. 1981b (dictionary use) Creamer, Thomas. 1987 (examples in ChineseEnglish) Crystal David. 1986 (and testing of usage) Czochralski, Jan. 1981 (typology of) Descamps, J. L. and R. Vaunaize. 1983 (French usage) Dubois, Jean. 1981 (French learners' dictionary) Ducroquet, Lucile. 1994 (bilingual French) El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 (Arabic-English) El-Sakran, T. 1985 (Arabic-English) Feldweg, Helmut. 1997 (electronic) Fenner, Kirsten. 1997 (active vs. passive) Fontenelle, Thierry. 1996, 1992 (English-French) Gadbois, Vital. 1986 (use in Quebec) Galisson, Robert. 1987, 1983 (French as a FL) Gorbahn-Orme, Adeline and Franz Josef Hausmann. 1991 (false friends) Görlach, Manfred. 1991 (and English dialects) Gray, J.C. 1986 (electronic) Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 (survey) Gross, Gaston. 1989 (usage in France) Harras, Gisela. 1989a (and linguistic research), 1986 (and definition) Hartmann, Reinhard R.K. 1995 (dictionary research), 1994a (bilingualised)

154 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991 (and contrastive analysis), 1989b (and the user), 1987a (and the user), 1982 (bilingual German-English) Hartmann, Reinhard. 1985 (and contrastive analysis) Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991 (and collocations), 1990a, 1990b (French), 1988 (bilingual), 1985c, 1977 (French) Herbst, Thomas. 1987 (valency dictionary), 1985a (German-English) Herbst, Thomas and David Heath. 1994 (encyclopedic) Hill, C. P. 1985. (thesaurus) Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 (monolingual German) Höhne, Steffen. 1991 (use by Germans) Hullen, Werner. 1994 (production dictionary) Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 (usage) Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus. 1996 (use by Dutch) Iannucci, James Ε. 1962 (bilingual and polysemy) Ibrahim, Amr Helmy, and Michele Zalessky. 1989 (use by French students) Ickler, Theodor. 1982 (synonym dictionary) Ilson, Robert. 1987a (and illustrations), 1983 (and etymology) Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 (use by Pakistanis) Jackson, Howard. 1975 (bilingual) Jacobsen, Jane Rosenkilde, James Manley, Viggo Hj0mager Pedersen. 1991 (and examples) Keller, Howard H. 1987 (electronic) Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 (and reference skills) Knight, Susan. 1994 (and reading comprehension) Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991a (bilingual) Kühn, Peter. 1983 (German) Kühn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982 (German) Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca, and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 (bilingual) Laufer, Batia. 1993 (and definitions) Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 (bilingualised) Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 (bilingualised) Lemmens, Marcel. 1994 (and translation) Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991a, 1991b, 1986 (and grammar) Li, Y. C. 1987 (Chinese-English) Li, Lan. 1998 (Chinese-English)

Lindstrom, Naomi. 1980. (Spanish-English) Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 (and reading) Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 (and translation) Magay, Tarnas. 1984 (English-Hungarian) Marckwardt, Albert H. 1973 (as a reference tool) Marello, Carla. 1998 (bilingualised), 1987 (Italian-English), 1982a, 1982b (Italian monolingual) Martin, Samuel E. 1962 (Japanese-English) Martino, Giovanni de. 1986 (bilingual) McCreary, Don R. 1998, 1989, 1986 (JapaneseEnglish) McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 (and reading definitions) McKeown, Margaret. 1993, 1991 (and reading definitions) Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a (German) Mettke, Hans. 1990. (bilingual German and English Mikkelsen, Hans Kristian. 1992 (active and passive) Miller, George A. 1984 (and reading) Miller, George A. and Patricia M. Gildea. 1987 (and learning vocabulary) Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b (and reading) Monaco, Roberta. 1989 (elementary school dictionaries) Moon, Rosamund. 1987a (and monosemous words) Moulin, Andre. 1983 (for specific purposes) Müllich, Harald. 1990 (use by Germans) Nakao, Keisuke. 1989, 1998 (English-Japanese) Nencioni, Giovanni. 1989 (and literature) Nesi, Hilary. 1989 (and illustrations) Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1991 (usage and reading) Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 (German) Neubert, Gunter. 1970 (German) Nguyen, Dinh-Hoa. 1986 (English-Vietnamese) Nikula, Henrik. 1986 (and examples) Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 (and reading) Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 (and grammar) Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994 (use by Italians), 1990 (Italian-English) Ogasawara, Linju. 1984 (Japanese-English) Opitz, Κ. 1979 (technical dictionaries) Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 (English-German) Petti, Vincent. 1989 (Swedish-English)

155 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 (and pronunciation) Püschel, Ulrich. 1989 (for the German public), 1986 (synonym dictionaries) Pye, Glennis. 1996 (phrasal verb dictionaries) Quirk, Randolph. 1974 (survey of usage) Rey, Alain. 1986 (and culture) Ripfel, Martha. 1989, 1990 (usage by Germans) Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 (usage by Germans) Roberts, Roda P. and Catherine Montgomery. 1996 (French-English) Roby, Warren B. 1991 (Spanish-English and reading) Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad. 1998 (technical dictionaries) Sager, Juan C. 1989 (and terminology) Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 (German) Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 (Spanish) Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 (production dictionary) Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 (and lemmatization) Scholfield, Phil. 1982 (rules of use) Snell-Homby, Mary. 1987, 1984 (bilingual) Snook, Roger. 1992 (pronunciation dictionary) Stark, Martin P. 1990 (dictionary workbooks) Stein, Gabriele. 1985 (and word formation) Steiner, Roger J. 1986, 1984, 1982, 1975 (bilingual dictionaries) Summers, Delia. 1996, 1993 (and corpora) Svensen, Bo. 1993 (bilingual) Takebayashi, Shigeru. 1998 (pronunciation dictionaries) Taylor, Andrew and Adelaide Chan. 1994 (Chinese-English) Ter-Minasova, Svetlana. 1992 (Russian-English combinatory) Thompson, Geoff. 1987 (bilingual) Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989 (and technical translation), 1987, 1983, 1981, 1979 (bilingual and usage) Tommola, Hannu. 1992 (Finnish-Russian) Tono, Yukio. 1989 (and reading by Japanese students) Van Noppen, Jean Pierre and Christine Michaux. 1991 (and grammar) Varantola, Krista. 1992 (technical and bilingual) Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996. (and false friends) Voigt, Walter. 1984 (German-English) Wagner, Horst. 1985 (French monolingual) Walter, Elizabeth. 1996 (and corpora) Walz, Joel. 1990a, 1990b (French) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a, 1987a, 1985c,

1984 (research and theory) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b (German learners' dictionary) Wolf, Birgit. 1992 (and the user) Zettersten, Arne, Viggo Hj0mager Pedersen, and Jens Erik Mogensen. 1998 (collection) Zgusta, Ladislav. 1987, 1983 (and translation) Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994 (and theory), 1991 (bilingual), 1986 (German bilingual) Dictionary culture Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1983. Dictionary-cum-Grammar Van Noppen, Jean Pierre and Christine Michaux. 1991 Dictionary-friendly (students) Herbst, Thomas. 1985b Dictionary makers Bogaards, Paul. 1991c Galisson, Robert. 1987 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991, 1989a Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 Twaddell, W. F. 1973 Voigt, Walter. 1984, 1981 Dictionary making Hartmann, Reinhard. 1996 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1989 Howarth, Peter A. 1996. Nakao, Keisuke. 1989 Petti, Vincent. 1989 Summers, Delia. 1996 Voigt, Walter. 1981 Dictionary usage Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Crystal David. 1986 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Harras, Gisela. 1989a. Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1989c Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985 MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1983 Nesi, Hilary. 1994. Olijkan, Ed and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Quirk, Randolph. 1974

156 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989, 1979 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1985a, 1985c Dictionary user Barnhart, Clarence L. 1962 Battenburg, John D. 1989 Benbow, Timothy. 1990 Bogaards, Paul. 1992a, 1991c Diab, Turki. 1990 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989b, 1989c, 1987a Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1984 Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 Tono, Yukio. 1984 Varantola, Krista. 1994 Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Dictionary writing Hartmann, R. R. K„ ed. 1983c Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990a Didactic character Brito, ElianaV. 1992 Difficulties (for the users) Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983a. Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Chi, Man Lai Amy. 1998 Co wie, Anthony P. 1978a De Andrade, Maria Aparecida Ferreira. 1992 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991. Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Kharma, NayefN. 1985 Li, Lan. 1998 McCreary, Don R. 1986 McCreary, Don R. and F. Dolezal. 1999 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 McNaughton, David, Charles Hughes, and Karen Clark. 1997 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Nakao, Keisuke. 1989 Nesi, H. 1992 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975 Disadvantages (of dictionaries) Bogaards, Paul. 1991a Jain, Mahavir. 1981 Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Mittmann, Brigitta. 1995

Wagner, Horst. 1985 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1975 Disambiguation Kühn, Peter. 1983 Ripfel, Martha. 1989 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Walter, Elizabeth. 1992 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 Discourse Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Cowie, A. P. 1987a Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1977 Nikula, Henrik. 1986 Dissatisfaction (with dictionaries) Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Battenburg, John D. 1989 Coviello, Giuseppina. 1987 El-Sakran, T. 1985 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Olofsson, Ame. 1996 Discriminate meaning Discrimination of senses, Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983a 1983b Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley and Susan Jellis. 1996 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Creamer, Thomas. 1987 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991 Iannucci, James E. 1962 Li, Y. C. 1987 Marckwardt, Albert H. 1973 Marello, Carla. 1987 McCreary, Don R. 1987 Moon, Rosamund. 1987a Nakao, Keisuke. 1998 Petti, Vincent. 1989 Stein, Gabriele. 1989b Steiner, Roger J. 1984 1982 Walter, Elizabeth. 1992 Dissertation Battenburg, John D. 1989 Diab, Turki. 1990, 1989 El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 Iqbal, Zafar. 1987. Müllich, Harald. 1990 Roby, Warren B. 1991

157 Distinction (in meaning) Cowie, Anthony P. 1989b Görlach, Manfred. 1991 (in format) Marckwardt, Albert H. 1973 (between spoken and written English) Meijs, Willem. 1996 Miller, George A. 1984 Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Strevens, Peter. 1987 (count-noncount nouns) Diversity (of types) Harras, Gisela. 1986 Hartmann, R.R.K 1981a DSNA Montgomery, Michael. 1983 Steiner, Roger J. 1982 Dutch (students) Blok, Henk. 1994. Bogaards, Paul. 1998, 1997, 1994a, 1994b, 1992a, 1991a, 1988, 1985 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Houtman, Kees and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus. 1996 Dutch-English dictionaries Lemmens, Marcel. 1994 Martin, Willy. 1985 Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Dynamics Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1990, 1984 Economics (dictionary) Boelcke, J., Β. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 Editor(s) Benson, Morton. 1990b Dubois, Jean. 1981 Herbst, Thomas. 1988 Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991a Neubauer, Fritz. 1987 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1987 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Emst Wiegand. 1986 Stein, Gabriele. 1986 Voigt, Walter. 1984

Editorial Fox, Gwyneth. 1987. Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987 Procter, Paul. 1976 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1988 Education (about dictionaries) Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 Magay, Tämas. 1984 Mairesse, Paul. 1993 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Voigt, Walter. 1984 Efficient (student use) Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Cahill, Aidan. 1989 Fischer, Ute. 1994 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1977, 1974 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 Kernerman, Lionel. 1996 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Electronic dictionaries Atkins, Β. T. S. 1996 Aust, Ronald, Mary Jane Kelley, and Warren Roby. 1993 Benbow, Timothy. 1990 Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Feldweg, Helmut. 1997 Fontenelle, Thierry. 1992 Gray, J.C. 1986 Keller, Howard H. 1987 Knowles, Frank. 1993 Moon, Rosamund. 1996 Roby, Warren B. 1991 Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad. 1998 Taylor, Andrew and Adelaide Chan. 1994 Varantola, Krista. 1994 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998c Elementary school use Blok, Henk. 1994 Chansou, Michel. 1983 Gross, Gaston. 1989 Marello, Carla. 1982b McKeown, Margaret G. 1993

158 Miller, George Α. 1984 Miller, George A. and Patricia M. Gildea. 1987 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Monaco, Roberta. 1989 Empirical Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Battenburg, John D. 1991 Bogaards, Paul. 1994b Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989b Hatherall, Glyn. 1984 Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985. Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1987a, 1985a Wolf, Birgit. 1992. Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994 Encoding Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Deila Summers, and Janet Whitcut. 1987 Bejoint, Henri. 1981 Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Benson, Morton. 1990a Cowie, Anthony P. 1995, 1984 Galisson, Robert. 1983 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985a Huang, G. F. 1985 Hüllen, Werner. 1994 Humble, Philippe. 1998 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1984 Marello, Carla. 1998 Martin, W. and B.P.F. Al. 1990 Mikkelsen, Hans Kristian. 1992 Nakao, Keisuke. 1998 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1993. Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Snell-Homby, Mary. 1987 Stark, Martin P. 1990 Summers, Deila. 1996 Encyclopedia Hausmann, Franz Josef, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Ladislav Zgusta, eds. 1989 (Vol. I), 1990 (Vol. II), 1991 (Vol. III). Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1983 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985

Encyclopedic information Coviello, Giuseppina. 1987 Harras, Gisela. 1989a Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b Herbst, Thomas and David Heath. 1994 Kalliokuusi, Virpi and Krista Varantola. 1998 Kokawa, Takahiro and Shigeru Yamada. 1998 (review) Opitz, Kurt. 1988 Siegrist, Ottmar K. 1996 Stark, Martin. 1999 Stock, Penny. 1992 Vermeer, Hans J. 1989 Yorkey, Richard. 1997 Zettersten, Arne, Viggo Hj0mager Pedersen, and Jens Erik Mogensen. 1998 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1989, 1987 Engineering (technical dictionaries) Neubert, Gunter. 1970 Opitz, K. 1979 English-Arabic (dictionaries) Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Ard, Josh. 1982 Battenburg, John D. 1989 Di ab, Turki. 1990 El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 El-Sakran, T. 1985 James, Gregory, ed. 1989 Kharma, NayefN. 1985 English-Chinese Chi, ManLai Amy. 1998 Creamer, Thomas. 1987 Huang, G. F. 1985 Li, Y. C. 1987 Li, Lan 1998 Marello, Carla. 1998 Taylor, Andrew and Adelaide Chan. 1994 English-Croatian Bujas, Zeljko. 1975 English-Dutch Lemmens, Marcel. 1994 Martin, Willy. 1985 Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a

159 English-French Doppagne, Veronique. 1998 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b, 1988, 1985b, 1985c, 1977 (overview); Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985d, 1982, 1979 (reviews of French learners' dictionaries)

English-German Hartmann, Reinhard. 1985, 1982 Herbst, Thomas. 1985a Herbst, Thomas and David Heath. 1994 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a. Neubert, Gunter. 1970 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Stein, Gabriele. 1990. Standop, Ewald. 1985 Voigt, Walter. 1984 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991, 1986

English-Hebrew Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Marello, Carla. 1998 Reif, Joseph A. 1987

English-Hungarian Magay, Tämas. 1984

English-Italian Marello, Carla. 1998 Martino, Giovanni de. 1986, 1981 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994, 1992, 1990

English-Japanese Ard, Josh. 1982 Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 McCreary, Don R. 1998, 1989, 1986 Nakao, Keisuke. 1989, 1998 Ogasawara, Linju. 1984 Tono, Yukio. 1989, 1984

English-Russian Keller, Howard H. 1987 Knowles, Frank E. 1989

English-Spanish Ard, Josh. 1982 Aust, Ronald, Mary Jane Kelley, and Warren Roby. 1993.

Knight, Susan. 1994 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca, and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 Lindstrom, Naomi. 1980 Roby, Warren B. 1991

EFL (English as a foreign language, student usage) Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Delia Summers, and Janet Whitcut. 1987 Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Bensoussan, Marsha. 1983 Cowie, A. P. 1983a Ilson, Robert. 1985 Moulin, Andre. 1983 Nesi, Hilary. 1984 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 Stein, Gabriele. 1989b Whitcut, Janet. 1985

ESL (English as a second language, student usage) Ard, Josh. 1982 Battenburg, John D. 1989. Benson, Morton. 1989b Channell, Joanna M. 1990 Cowie, Anthony P., ed. 1981b Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 Dalgish, Gerard M. 1985 El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 Griffin, P. 1985 Hill, C. P. 1985 Kirkpatrick, Betty. 1985 Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1988. McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 Moon, Rosamund. 1992 Nesi, Hilary. 1996, 1987 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 Scholfield, Phil. 1982. Summers, Delia. 1988b Whitcut, Janet. 1986

English teachers (ESL) Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996

160 Ard, Josh. 1982 Bahns, Jens. 1989 Benson, Morton. 1989a Festag, Ewald. 1991 Herbst, Thomas. 1984b Marekwardt, Albert Η. 1973 Marello, Carla. 1987 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1992 Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Stein, Gabriele. 1989b Strevens, Peter. 1987 Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1983 Underhill, Adrian. 1985 Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Entry (components of) Battenburg, John D. 1991 Cowie.A. P. 1983a Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1974 Iannucci, James E. 1962 Marello, Carla. 1982a Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Sinclair, John M. and D.M. Kirby. 1991 Summers, Delia. 1996, 1993 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 Entries (problems with) Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996. Bogaards, Paul. 1994a, 1985 Creamer, Thomas. 1987 El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 Hartmann, Reinhard. 1985 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991, 1974 Herbst, Thomas and David Heath. 1994 Laufer, Batia. 1993 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Martin, W. and B.P.F. Al. 1990 McCreary, Don R. 1986 McCreary, Don R. and F. Dolezal. 1999 Miller, George A. 1984 Miller, George A. and Patricia M. Gildea. 1987 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Nakao, Keisuke. 1989 Equivalent(s) (translation equivalence) Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991

Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983a Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 Bogaards, Paul. 1985 Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994a, 1994b, 1991, 1985 Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b Jacobsen, Jane Rosenkilde, James Manley, Viggo Hj0mager Pedersen. 1991 Kharma, Nayef N. 1985 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1984 Li, Lan. 1998 (Chinese-English) Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Martin, Samuel E. 1962 Martino, Giovanni de. 1981 Moon, Rosamund. 1992 Nakao, Keisuke. 1989, 1998 Neubert, Gunter. 1970 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994 Petti, Vincent. 1989 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1989 Scott, Clive. 1989 Snell-Homby, Mary. 1990 Stein, Gabriele. 1990, 1989b Steiner, Roger J. 1984 Taylor, Andrew and Adelaide Chan. 1994 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1988, 1983 Tono, Yukio. 1984 Varantola, Krista. 1998 Zettersten, Arne, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen, and Jens Erik Mogensen. 1998 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1988, 1987, 1983 Ergative Fontenelle, Thierry. 1996 Fontenelle, Thierry and Jocelyne Vanandroye. 1989 Errors (by dictionary users) Bogaards, Paul. 1998 Cowie, A. P. 1979 Hartmann, Reinhard. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1985b Huang, G. F. 1985 Maingay, Susan and Michael Rundell. 1987 McNaughton, David, Charles Hughes, and Karen Clark. 1997 (spelling) Meara, Paul and Fiona English 1987

161 Müllich, Harald. 1990 Nesi, Hilary. 1994, 1987, 1984 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994, 1990 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1987 Tono, Yukio. 1989 Etymology Barnhart, Clarence L. 1962 Battenburg, John D. 1989 Benbow, Timothy. 1990 Blok, Henk. 1994 Dubois, Jean. 1981 Ellegard, Alvar. 1978 Fillmore, Charles. 1989 Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Ilson, Robert. 1983 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbachh. 1984 Marello, Carla. 1982a Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Ripfel, Martha. 1989 EURALEX/AILA research project Atkins, Β. Τ. S., ed. 1998 Atkins, Beryl Τ. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Delia Summers, and Janet Whitcut. 1987

Edited by Bibliograf in collaboration with The Commission of the European Communities. Barcelona, Spain. 1988. 3rd. Budapest, Hungary T. Magay and J. Zigäny, eds. 1986. 2nd. Zurich, Switzerland Mary Snell-Homby, ed. 1985. 1st. Leeds, England Anthony Cowie, ed. 1983. Exeter, England (LEXeter '83) R. R. K. Hartmann, ed. European (use) Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Rey, Alain. 1986 (history of the dictionary) Snell-Homby, Mary. 1987 Examination (of dictionary use) Bahns, Jens. 1989. Blok, Henk. 1994 Gross, Gaston. 1989 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994. Examples (exemplification in the dictionary)

EURALEX Congress Proceedings 1998. 8th. Liege, Belgium Thierry Fontenelle, Philippe Hiligsmann, Archibald Michiels, Andre Moulin, and Siegfried Theissen, eds. 1996. 7th. Göteborg, Sweden Martin Gellerstam, Jerker Järborg, Sven-Göran Malmgren, Kerstin Noren, Lena Rogström, Catarina Röjder Papmehl, eds. 1994. 6th. Amsterdam, Holland Willy Martin, Willem Meijs, Margreet Moerland, Elsemiek ten Pas, Piet van Sterkenburg, and Piek Vossen, eds. 1992. 5th. Tampere, Finland Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja SalmiTolonen and Jürgen Schopp, eds. 1990. 4th. Malaga, Spain

Illustrated Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Bahns, Jens. 1994 Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Carter, Ronald. 1989 Drysdale, P. D. 1987 Harras, Gisela. 1989b Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1987, 1985a Humble, Philippe. 1998 Jacobsen, Jane Rosenkilde, James Manley, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen. 1991 Laufer, Batia. 1993, 1992 Nesi, Hilary. 1996 Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Steiner, Roger J. 1982 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1986

162 Examples from a corpus Fox, Gwyneth. 1987. Hanks, Patrick. 1988 Harvey, Keith and Deborah Yuill. 1997 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Humble, Philippe. 1998 Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987. Laufer, Batia. 1992 Meijs, Willem. 1996 Mittmann, Brigitta. 1995 Moon, Rosamund. 1998 Nikula, Henrik. 1986 Potter, Liz. 1998 Procter, Paul. 1996 Sinclair, John M. 1991 Sinclair, John M., ed. 1987a Summers, Delia. 1988b Walter, Elizabeth. 1996 Williams, John. 1996 Examples constructed, invented Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Cowie, Anthony P. 1996, 1989b, 1989c, 1987a Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Humble, Philippe. 1998 Laufer, Batia. 1992 Minaeva, Ludmilla. 1992 Potter, Liz. 1998 Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Zgusta, Ladislav. 1987, 1983 Examples with problems Creamer, Thomas. 1987 El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 Humble, Philippe. 1998 Li, Y. C. 1987 Marello, Carla. 1987 Martino, Giovanni de. 1981 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Mittmann, Brigitta. 1995 Moon, Rosamund. 1998 Ripfel, Martha. 1989 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Wiezell, Richard John. 1975 Williams, John. 1996 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1987, 1983 Exercises (for dictionary users) Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985

Scott, Clive. 1989 Stark, Martin P. 1990 Expectations (of users) Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Bogaards, Paul. 1992a. Calanchini, Elena. 1982 Varantola, Krista. 1992 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1987a Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Experiences (of teachers with dictionary users) Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 Hoffmann, Hans G. 1988 Opitz, Κ. 1979 Experimental studies (of use) See also controlled study Atkins, B.T. Sue., ed. 1998 Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1998b, 1994a Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 Fischer, Ute. 1994 Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994a Hartmann, R. R. Κ. 1987c Harvey, Keith and Deborah Yuill. 1997 Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus. 1996 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 McKeown, Margaret G. 1993 McNaughton, David, Charles Hughes, and Karen Clark. 1997 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Opitz, Κ. 1979 Tono, Yukio. 1998 Explanation of meaning Atkins Beryl T. 1985. Gorbahn-Orme, Adeline and Franz Josef Hausmann. 1991 Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Ilson, Robert. 1986 Stein, Gabriele. 1990

163 Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b Zgusta, Ladislav. 1987, 1983 Expressions (fixed, idiomatic) See also collocation Alexander, Richard J. 1992, 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Bogaards, Paul. 1996, 1992b, 1991c Candel, Danielle. 1983 Cowie, Anthony P. 1978a Cowie, A. P. and Peter Howarth. 1996 Moon, Rosamund. 1996, 1992 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1988 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Extralinguistic knowledge Martino, Giovanni de. 1986 False friends (false cognates) Bogaards, Paul. 1998 Gorbahn-Orme, Adeline and Franz Josef Hausmann. 1991 Hayward, Timothy and Andre Moulin. 1984 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994 Olofsson, Ame. 1996 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975 Zettersten, Ame, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen, and Jens Erik Mogensen. 1998 Features (of learners' dictionaries) Bejoint, Henri. 1994 Carter, Ronald. 1989 Fillmore, Charles. 1989 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Jackson, Howard. 1995 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Procter, Paul. 1996 Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Fields (semantic, lexical, word) Gray, J.C. 1986 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1974 Ilson, Robert. 1987a McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Sager, Juan C. 1989 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Snell-Homby, Mary. 1990, 1984

Figurative meaning Bogaards, Paul. 1990 Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b Van der Meer, Geart. 1996b, 1998 Financial (considerations for publishers) Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985c Ogasawara, Linju. 1984 Voigt, Walter. 1984 Finnish (users) Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Kalliokuusi, Virpi and Krista Varantola. 1998 Tommola, Hannu. 1992 Varantola, Krista. 1998 Finnish-French Kalliokuusi, Virpi and Krista Varantola. 1998 Fixed expressions Alexander, Richard J. 1992, 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Bogaards, Paul. 1996, 1992b, 1991c Candel, Danielle. 1983 Cowie, Anthony P. 1978a Cowie, A. P. and Peter Howarth. 1996 Moon, Rosamund. 1996, 1992 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1988 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Flow-chart (for usage) Bogaards, Paul. 1995, 1993 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989b Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Folk-etymologies llson, Robert. 1983 Folk taxonomies Rey, Alain 1986 Foreign words Kühn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982. Sager, Juan C. 1989 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1987. Zgusta, Ladislav. 1987

164 Format (of the entry) Aarts, Flor. 1991b Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Bray, Laurent. 1989 Cowie, A. P. 1979 Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Hansford, Gillian. 1991 Herbst, Thomas. 1996, 1991a Jackson, Howard. 1975 Klug, Hans Jürgen. 1989 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Moulin, Andre. 1979 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1993 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 French-Dutch (dictionary) Bogaards, Paul. 1994a, 1988, 1985 Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus. 1996 Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 French-English Doppagne, Veronique. 1998 Dubois, Jean. 1981 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1994, 1985c, 1982, 1979, 1977 Iannucci, James E. 1962 Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Roberts, Roda P. and Catherine Montgomery. 1996 Walter, Elizabeth. 1996 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975

Walz, Joel. 1990a, 1990b Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991, 1986 French-Russian Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1981 Frequency (of a word in a corpus) Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley and Susan Jellis. 1996 Bogaards, Paul. 1992a, 1991c, 1990 Fontenelle, Thierry. 1992 Hanks, Patrick. 1990 Gillard, Patrick and Adam Gadsby. 1998 James, Gregory, ed. 1989 Kilgarriff, Adam. 1997 Meijs, Willem. 1996 Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Summers, Deila. 1996 Walter, Elizabeth. 1996 Whitcut, Janet. 1988 Yorkey, Richard. 1997 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 Frequency dictionary Cahill, Aidan. 1989 Friendliness (user-) Antor, Heinz. 1994 Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1994b Siegrist, Ottmar K. 1996 Wolf, Birgit. 1992

French-Indonesian Rey, Alain. 1986

Frustrated students Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Battenburg, John D. 1989 Coviello, Giuseppina. 1987 El-Sakran, T. 1985 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Olofsson, Arne. 1996

French learners' dictionary Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990a, 1990b, 1988, 1985c, 1985d, 1983, 1982, 1979, 1977, 1974 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Ripfel, Martha. 1989 Steiner, Roger. 1986 Wagner, Horst. 1985

Functions (of the dictionary) Drysdale, P. D. 1987 (of examples) Hartmann, R. R. Κ., ed. 1983c Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 (of dictionary training) Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1987 Steiner, Roger J. 1975 Whitcut, Janet. 1985 (of usage notes)

French-German Hausmann, Franz Josef, 1995, 1992, 1990b, 1988, 1985c, 1985d, 1983, 1982, 1979, 1977

165 Future dictionaries Atkins, Β. T. S. 1996 Bogaards, P. 1988. Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. (future research) Tono, Yukio. 1998 (future research) Zgusta, Ladislav. 1989 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 Gender See also woman Cowie, Anthony P. 1995 Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 General dictionaries Benson, Morton. 1990a Cop, Margaret. 1991 El-Sakran, T. 1985 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985b. Kühn, Peter. 1983 Magay, Tämas. 1984 McCreary, D. R. and Dolezal, F. T. 1999 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983b Moulin, Andre. 1979 Varantola, Krista. 1992 Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Geographical variety (of English) Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Hayward, Timothy and Andre Moulin. 1984 false friends) Rey, Alain 1986 (and cultural distance) German-English dictionary Hartmann, Reinhard. 1985, 1982 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991 Herbst, Thomas. 1985a Herbst, Thomas and David Heath. 1994 Iannucci, James E. 1962 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a Neubert, Gunter. 1970 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Standop, Ewald. 1985 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1981 Voigt, Walter. 1984 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 German learners' dictionary Jackson, Howard. 1995

Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1986 German monolingual dictionaries Kühn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Gloss(es) See also definition; defining policy Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus. 1996. Jehmlich, Reimer. 1972 Li, Y. C. 1987 McKeown, Margaret G. 1993 Reif, Joseph A. 1987 Rey, Alain. 1986 Roby, Warren B. 1991 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1987 Glossary Jehmlich, Reimer. 1972 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985, 1984 Roby, Wane η Β. 1991 Sager, Juan C. 1989 Varantola, Krista. 1992 Grammatical information See also syntactic information; coding Aarts, Flor. 1991a, 1991b Bejoint, Henri. 1989a Bogaards, Paul. 1994a Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Coviello, Giuseppina. 1987 Cowie, Anthony P. 1998, 1990, 1989c, 1987b, 1984, 1983b Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 Fontenelle, Thierry and Jocelyne Vanandroye. 1989 Gadbois, Vital. 1986 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991, 1985, 1982 Heath, David. 1982 Herbst, Thomas. 1991a, 1989, 1988, 1987 Höhne, Steffen. 1991 Huang, G. F. 1985 Jackson, Howard. 1985 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991b,

166 1986 Li, Y. C. 1987 Marckwardt, Albert H. 1973 Montgomery, Michael. 1983 Moulin, Andre. 1983 Nesi, Hilary. 1994 Nguyen, Dinh-Hoa. 1986 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1992 Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Procter, Paul. 1976 Pye, Glennis. 1996 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 Siegrist, Ottmar K. 1996 Sinclair, John M. 1991, 1987b Smith, Richarde. 1998 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1987 Stark, Martin P. 1990 Stein, Gabriele. 1979 Strevens, Peter. 1987 Van Noppen, Jean Pierre and Christine Michaux. 1991 Whitcut, Janet. 1985 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b, 1985a Graphology Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991. Guidewords Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Bray, Laurent. 1989. Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985c (a consumers' guide) Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Steiner, Roger J. 1984 (guidelines for reviewers) Hard words Ball weg-Schramm, Angelika. 1983 Cowie.A. P. 1979 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1983b Zgusta, Ladislav. 1987 Headwords Atkins Beryl T. 1985 Battenburg, John D. 1991 Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley & S. Jellis. 1996 Gorbahn-Orme, Adeline and Franz Josef Hausmann. 1991 Jansen, J., J. P. Mergeai, and J. Vanandroye. 1987 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983b

Nakao, Keisuke. 1998 Stein, Gabriele. 1985 Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Hebrew-English dictionary Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Reif, Joseph A. 1987 Hedge, hedging Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1990 Heuristic flowchart Bogaards, Paul. 1995 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a Historical information Augst, Gerhard. 1991-1993 Battenburg, John D. 1991 Cowie, A. P. 1998, 1989a Dolezal, F. T. and D. R. McCreary. 1996 Ellegard, Alvar. 1978 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1995, 1989a, 1983c Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990a, 1990b Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Kühn, Peter. 1983 Marello, Carla 1998 McCreary, D. R. and F. T. Dolezal. 1998 Meijs, Willem. 1996 Naganuma, Kunio. 1978 Nakao, Keisuke. 1989 Ogasawara, Linju. 1984 Ogawa, Yoshio. 1978 Püschel, Ulrich. 1986 Rey, Alain. 1986 Smith, Richard C. 1998 Summers, Delia. 1988a Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a, 1989 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 Homographs, homographic Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Homonyms, homonymy Bejoint, Henri. 1989b Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Walz, Joel. 1990a

167 Honorific vocabulary McCreary, Don R. 1986 Humanities students (dictionary use by) Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Twaddell, W. F. 1973 (lexicography in the humanities) Hybrid dictionary Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Hypermedia Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998c Hyper-reference Aust, Ronald, Mary Jane Kelley, and Warren Roby. 1993 Hypertext Atkins, Β. T. S. 1996 Hypotheses (about the user) Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989b Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Identification (of the entry word) See also macrostructure McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Nesi, H. 1992 Pye, Glennis. 1996 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Ideological terms Cowie, Anthony P. 1995 Kühn, Peter. 1983 Idiom(s) Alexander, Richard J. 1992 Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Benson, Morton. 1990b, 1990c, 1988, 1985a, 1985b Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Breeders, Ton. 1987 Cowie, A. P. 1983a Cowie, Anthony P. 1981a Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1995 Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press

Hill, C. P. 1985 Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Huang, G. F. 1985 Kharma, NayefN. 1985 Lindstrom, Naomi. 1980 MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1983 Mackin, Ronald. 1978 McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 Moon, Rosamund. 1996, 1992, 1988 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1988 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Tono, Yukio. 1989 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996b Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Zettersten, Arne and Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen. 1996 Idiomatic Bogaards, Paul. 1998, 1991c Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Cowie, A. P. 1983b Cowie, Anthony P. 1981a Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1986 Naganuma, Kunio. 1978 Nakao, Keisuke. 1998 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1988 Ogawa, Yoshio. 1978 Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Steiner, Roger J. 1984 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996b Idiosyncratic constructions Atkins, Β. T. S. and Beth Levin. 1995 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991b Ignorant students Houtman, Kees and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985 Illustrations Candel, Danielle. 1983 Cowie, Anthony P. 1996, 1989c, 1987b Hill, C. P. 1985 Humbley, John. 1990 Ilson, Robert. 1987a, 1986 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Jacobsen, Jane Rosenkilde, James Manley, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen. 1991 Laufer, Batia. 1993

168 Moulin, Andre. 1983 Nesi, Hilary. 1989 Rey, Alain. 1986 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Stein, Gabriele. 1991, 1979 Illustrative examples Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Bahns, Jens. 1994 Battenburg, John D. 1991 Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Carter, Ronald. 1989 Cowie, Anthony P. 1989b, 1978a Drysdale, P. D. 1987 Harras, Gisela. 1989b Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985a Herbst, Thomas. 1984a Humble, Philippe. 1998 Jacobsen, Jane Rosenkilde, James Manley, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen. 1991 Laufer, Batia. 1993, 1992 Li, Y. C. 1987 Martino, Giovanni de. 1981 McCreary, Don R. 1989 Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984 Minaeva, Ludmilla. 1992 Nesi, Hilary. 1996 Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Steiner, Roger J. 1986, 1982 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1986 Inaccurate treatment Ard,Josh. 1982 Kalliokuusi, Virpi and Krista Varantola. 1998 Olofsson, Ame. 1996 Inadequate treatment Jain, Mahavir. 1981 Moon, Rosamund. 1992 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Incompetent students See also ignorant; incorrect; misuse; unaware; unable; unskilled; wrong Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Heath, David and Thomas Herbst. 1985

Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 Kernerman, Lionel. 1996 Inconsistent treatment Aarts, Flor. 1991a Atkins, Β. T. S., Beth Levin, and Grace Song. 1996 Benson, Morton. 1989a, 1989b Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Fontenelle, Thierry. 1992 Herbst, Thomas. 1986 Moon, Rosamund. 1992 Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Stein, Gabriele. 1986 Incorrect usage See also wrong; unable; unskilled Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985 Mackin, Ronald. 1978 Nesi, H. 1992 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 Index Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Procter, Paul. 1996 Inexperienced users Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a Informants Bejoint, Henri. 1979 Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Chagunda, M. 1983 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Harras, Gisela. 1989a Hartmann, R. R. K. 1982 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Sinclair, John M. 1985 Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Infrequent use Aarts, Flor. 1991b Cortelazzo, Manlio. 1982 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985 Laufer, Batia. 1992 Moon, Rosamund. 1996 Innovations Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Bejoint, Henri. 1994

169 Cowie, Anthony P. 1998, 1984 Herbst, Thomas. 1991b Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985 Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Procter, Paul. 1996, 1976 Rundell, Michael. 1998 Smith, Richarde. 1998 Stein, Gabriele. 1989a

Introduction (to the dictionary) Harras, Gisela. 1986 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1977 Kipfer, BarbaraAnn. 1987 Ripfel, Martha. 1989

Insecurity (of the learners) Festag, Ewald. 1991

Intuitions (by users) Bogaards, Paul. 1998b, 1992a Martin, W. and B.P.F. Al. 1990

Instruction (in dictionary skills) Benson, Morton. 1989a Blok, Henk. 1994 Harras, Gisela. 1986 Hartmann, R. R. Κ. 1983a Herbst, Thomas. 1985b Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Lemmens, Marcel. 1994 Marello, Carla. 1982b Martino, Giovanni de. 1981 Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 Olijkan, Ed and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Walz, Joel. 1990a Interlingual Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983a Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991, 1985 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1990, 1984 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1983 Intermediate (students, learners) Bogaards, Paul. 1994a Kipfer, BarbaraAnn. 1987, 1985 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna den Tuinder. 1985 McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Interpretation Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Kühn, Peter. 1983 Mackin, Ronald. 1978 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Nesi, Hilary. 1998 Neubert, Gunter. 1970 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994

Introspection (by lexicographers) Sinclair, John M. 1985

Italian-English dictionaries Iannucci, James E. 1962 Marello, Carla. 1998, 1987 Martino, Giovanni de. 1986, 1981 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994, 1992, 1990 Italian-French dictionaries Coviello, Giuseppina. 1987 Italian monolingual dictionaries Calanchini, Elena. 1982 Cortelazzo, Manlio. 1982 Cowie, Anthony P. 1996 Marello, Carla. 1982a, 1982b Japanese-English dictionaries Hartmann, Reinhard R. K. 1988 Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 Martin, Samuel E. 1962 McCreary, Don R. 1998, 1989, 1986 Nakao, Keisuke. 1989, 1998 Ogasawara, Linju. 1984 Tono, Yukio. 1989, 1984 Judgments (of acceptability) Crystal David. 1986 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1984 Knowledge (of the learners) Galisson, Robert. 1987 Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Kemerman, Lionel. 1996 Maingay, Susan and Michael Rundell. 1987 Neubert, Gunter. 1970 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1993 Scholfield, Phil. 1982

170 Label, labeling Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Antor, Heinz. 1994 Battenburg, John D. 1989 Bejoint, Henri. 1979 Benbow, Timothy. 1990 Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Cowie, A. P. 1983b Delbridge, Arthur. 1989 Gorbahn-Orme, Adeline and Franz Josef Hausmann. 1991 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1981a Herbst, Thomas. 1991a Kirkpatrick, Betty. 1985 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991b Nuccorini, Stefania. 1992 Procter, Paul. 1976 Stein, Gabriele. 1991, 1979 Steiner, Roger J. 1982 Language (foreign, English, EFL) Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Delia Summers, and Janet Whitcut. 1987 Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Bensoussan, Marsha. 1983 Cowie, A. P. 1983a IIson, Robert. 1985 Moulin, Andre. 1983 Nesi, Hilary. 1984 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 Stein, Gabriele. 1989b Whitcut, Janet. 1985 Language (foreign, French, FFL) Dubois, Jean. 1981 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1974 Iannucci, James E. 1962 Müllich, Harald. 1990 Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Roberts, Roda P. and Catherine Montgomery. 1996 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Walter, Elizabeth. 1996 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975

Layout (of the entries) See also macrostructure Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Bray, Laurent. 1989 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Jackson, Howard. 1995 McCreary, Don R. 1998 Rundell, Michael. 1998 Stark, Martin. 1999 Learner (of a foreign language) Antor, Heinz. 1988 Atkins, Β. T. S„ ed. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Bejoint, Henri. 1981 Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1998b, 1991a Creamer, Thomas. 1987 Cowie, Anthony, ed. 1987b Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 Humbley, John. 1990 Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Maingay, Susan and Michael Rundell. 1987 Martin, Samuel E. 1962 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Scott, Clive. 1989 Stark, Martin P. 1990 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1983, 1979 Walter, Elizabeth. 1996 Learners' attitudes Ard, Josh. 1982 Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Gadbois, Vital. 1986 Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Emst Wiegand. 1986 Twaddell, W. F. 1973 Learners' dictionary (bilingual) Atkins, Beryl T. S. 1991, 1985 Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Ogasawara, Linju. 1984 Walter, Elizabeth. 1996 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994

171 Learners' dictionary (bilingualised) Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994a, 1992 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Marello, Carla. 1998 Reif, Joseph A. 1987 Learners' dictionary (monolingual) Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Cowie, Anthony P. 1996 Doppagne, Veronique. 1998 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b, 1974 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Jackson, Howard. 1995 McArthur, Tom. 1989 Naganuma, Kunio. 1978 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Underhill, Adrian. 1985 Wiegand, Herbert Emst, ed. 1998b Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994 Learner-user (of dictionaries) Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989b Magay, Tarnas. 1984 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Learners' use (of dictionaries) See also needs (of the learners) Battenburg, John D. 1989 Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1998b, 1993 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1990 Lemma Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1977 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1989 Level of the subjects (learners) See beginning; intermediate, advanced, college, undergraduate students; adults; children. Lexeme Cowie, A. P. 1983b Nikula, Henrik. 1986 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1984

Lexical competence (knowledge, information) Bejoint, Henri. 1988 Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Bwenge, Charles. 1989 Cowie, Anthony P. 1989b Fillmore, Charles. 1989 Galisson, Robert. 1987 Gross, Gaston. 1989 Jain, Mahavir. 1981 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Sinclair, JohnM. 1991 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1983 Lexicographer Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Bwenge, Charles. 1989 Cowie, A. P. 1983b, 1979 Crystal David. 1986 James, Gregory, ed. 1989 Laufer, Batia. 1992 Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991a Magay, Tämas. 1984 Neubauer, Fritz. 1987 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 Sinclair, John M. 1985. Walter, Elizabeth. 1992 Wells, J.C. 1985 Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Lexicography Atkins, Beryl T. S. 1991 (corpus) Bejoint, Henri. 1994. (survey text) Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 (technical) Binon, Jean and Serge Verlinde. 1992 (business) Crystal David. 1986 (experimental) Hartmann, Reinhard. 1996 (applied linguistics), 1987c (research methods in) Hausmann, Franz Josef, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Emst Wiegand, and Ladislav Zgusta. Eds. 1989 (Vol. 1), 1990 (Vol. II), 1991 (Vol. Ill) (encyclopedia) Householder, Fred and Sol Saporta. 1962 (seminal work) Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1984 (workbook) Landau, Sidney. 1991 (andESL) McCreary, Don R. and Fredric Dolezal. 1999 (and ESL), 1998 (science vs. art)

172 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 (research) Svensen, Bo. 1993 (textbook) Tono, Yukio. 1998 (experimental) Twaddell, W. F. 1973 (and academia) Voigt, Walter. 1984 (theory) Whitcut, Janet. 1988 (practice) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1989, 1985b, 1985c, 1984, 1983a, 1983b (theory) Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994 (theory and practice)

Jehle, Gunter. 1990a (book reviews) McCreary, D. R. and F. T. Dolezal. 1999 (methodology) Sinclair, John M. 1991 (research tools) Literal meaning Van der Meer, Geart. 1998 Loanwords Benson, Morton. 1990c Ilson, Robert. 1983 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Rey, Alain. 1986

Lexicology Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1995 Sinclair, John M. 1991 Smith, RichardC. 1998 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1985c Lexicon Candel, Danielle. 1983 Channell, Joanna M. 1990 Chansou, Michel. 1983 Dalgish, Gerard M. 1985 D'Elia, Caterina. 1992 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Harras, Gisela. 1989a Hartmann, Reinhard. 1996 Hill, C. P. 1985 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1990 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1981 Linguistic (perspective) Atkins, Β. Τ. S. and Beth Levin. 1995 Atkins, Β. T. S., Beth Levin, and Grace Song. 1996 Atkins, Beryl T., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin. 1986 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Fillmore, Charles. 1989 Hartmann, Reinhard. 1996, 1991 Herbst, Thomas. 1987 Householder, Fred and Sol Saporta. 1962 Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b Sinclair, John M. 1991 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1975 Linguists Crystal David. 1986 (methodology) Harras, Gisela. 1989a (theory)

Long-term learning Baxter, James. 1980 Opitz, Kurt. 1988 Looking up process See also search process Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Baxter, James. 1980 Benbow, Timothy. 1990 Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1998b, 1997, 1994a, 1992a, 1992b, 1991c, 1990, 1985 Gadbois, Vital. 1986 Gray, J.C. 1986 Harras, Gisela. 1986 Harvey, Keith and Deborah Yuill. 1997 Hulstijn, Jan H. 1993 Keller, Howard H. 1987 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca, and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Li, Lan. 1998 McKeown, Margaret G. 1993 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Nesi, H. 1992 Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Summers, Delia. 1993 Walz, Joel. 1990a Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1987a Machine-readable dictionaries See also electronic dictionaries. Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983a Fontenelle, Thierry. 1992 Fontenelle, Thierry and Jocelyne Vanandroye. 1989

173 Keller, Howard Η. 1987 Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984 Macrostructure See also layout; identification (of the entry word) Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Augst, Gerhard, Volker Bunse, Andrea Höppner, Roswitha Rusert, Sebastian Schmidt, and FrankMartin Sünkel. 1997 Ballweg-Schramm, Angelika. 1983 Benson, Morton. 1989a Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Dalgish, Gerard M. 1985 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988, 1977 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Marello, Carla. 1982b Martin, Willy. 1985 Martin, W. and B.P.F. Al. 1990 McCreary, Don R. 1998 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983b Olofsson, Ame. 1996 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Pye, Glennis. 1996 Rundell, Michael. 1998 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Stark, Martin. 1999 Material (in the entries) See also microstructure Calanchini, Elena. 1982 Cowie, Anthony P. 1978a Ducroquet, Lucile. 1994 Ilson, Robert. 1998 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1984 Püschel, Ulrich. 1989 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1983 Vermeer, Hans J. 1989 Meaning See Description of meaning; Discriminate meaning Metaphor Bogaards, Paul. 1990 Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Howarth, Peter A. 1996

Ilson, Robert 1987a, 1983 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b Monaco, Roberta. 1989 Moon, Rosamund. 1992, 1987b Nuccorini, Stefania. 1988 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996b, 1998 Methodology (of dictionary treatments) Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1993 Methodology (user research) Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 (EURALEX survey) Chi, Man Lai Amy. 1998 (survey) Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 (controlled) Dolezal, Fredric and Don R. McCreary. 1996 (overview) Hartmann, R. R. K. 1987b (typology of methods) Li, Lan. 1998 (survey) McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 (multiple choice test), 1998 (criticism) Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 (survey) Tono, Yukio. 1998 (criticism) Varantola, Krista. 1998 (survey and observations) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a (criticism), 1987a Microstructure See also material Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Antor, Heinz. 1994 Hartmann, Reinhard. 1985 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Hüllen, Werner. 1994 Ilson, Robert. 1998 Martin, Willy. 1985 Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Voigt, Walter. 1984 Misuse (of the dictionary) Chi, Man Lai Amy. 1998 Li, Lan. 1998 Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 Miller, George A. 1984 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994

174 Walz, Joel. 1990a Models (of dictionaries) Bogaards, Paul. 1993 (for look-up strategies) Dubois, Jean. 1981 (traditional vs. contemporary) Gimson, A. C. 1981 (of phonetic notation) Hanks, Patrick. 1987 (for speaking) Harras, Gisela. 1989a (for linguistic theory) Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983b (of language variety) Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a, 1984b (for usage) Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1987a (for research) Monitoring (usage) Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1992 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Monolingual dictionaries Antor, Heinz. 1988 Atkins, Beryl T. 1985 Barnhart, Clarence L. 1962 Baxter, James. 1980 Calanchini, Elena. 1982 Cortelazzo, Manlio. 1982 Cowie, Anthony P. 1996 Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 KUhn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982 Marello, Carla. 1982a, 1982b Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Monolingual Learners' Dictionaries Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Cowie, Anthony P. 1996 Doppagne, Veronique. 1998 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b, 1974 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press. Jackson, Howard. 1995 McArthur, Tom. 1989 Naganuma, Kunio. 1978 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Underhill, Adrian. 1985 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998a, 1998b Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994

Monosemy Moon, Rosamund. 1987a Morphology Bwenge, Charles. 1989 Harras, Gisela. 1989a Hartmann, Reinhard. 1996 Ilson, Robert. 1983 McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 Multiple choice testing Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Nesi, Hilary And Paul Meara. 1991 Summers, Delia. 1988b Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Multi-word expressions Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Bogaards, Paul. 1996, 1992b Candel, Danielle. 1983 McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Names, naming Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989b Magay, Tämas. 1984 Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1990 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1989 National dictionaries Calanchini, Elena. 1982 Cortelazzo, Manlio. 1982 Kilgarriff, Adam. 1997 (BNC) Kühn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982 Summers, Delia. 1996 (BNC) Native speakers (dictionaries for) Bogaards, Paul. 1991c, 1992a Cowie, Anthony P. 1996 Dubois, Jean. 1981 Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Ilson, Robert. 1985 Kirkpatrick, Betty. 1985

175 McCreary, D. R. and F. T. Dolezal. 1999 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Ogasawara, Linju. 1984 Püschel, Ulrich. 1989 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Stark, Martin P. 1990 Stein, Gabriele. 1985 Whitcut, Janet. 1985

Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a, 1985c, 1983a Wolf, Birgit. 1992

Negative book reviews Hüllen, Werner. 1994 Ilson, Robert. 1998 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1997, 1994, 1987 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998

Neologism Natural (examples, contexts) Cowie, A. P. 1989a, 1989c Hanks, Patrick. 1988 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Humble, Philippe. 1998 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1987, 1983

Needs (of the learners) Bejoint, Henri. 1981 Cowie, Anthony P. 1989b, 1987a, 1987b, 1983a Diab, Turki. 1989 Feldweg, Helmut. 1997 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989a Hatherall, Glyn. 1984 Hüllen, Werner. 1994 Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Jain, Mahavir. 1981 Kharma, N a y e f N . 1985 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1984 Li, Y. C. 1987 Magay, Tämas. 1984 Montgomery, Michael. 1983 Moulin, Andre. 1983, 1979 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1990 Olijkan, Ed and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Opitz, Κ. 1979 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 Püschel, Ulrich. 1989 Pye, Glennis. 1996 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Emst Wiegand. 1986 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Stein, Gabriele. 1986 Steiner, Roger. 1986 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1983, 1981, 1979 Vermeer, Hans J. 1989 Walz, Joel. 1990a Whitcut, Janet. 1985

Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a Sager, Juan C. 1989 Whitcut, Janet. 1988 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1989

New editions (of English learners' dictionaries) Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1989

Newspaper (reviews of d.) Jehle, Gunter. 1990a

Nonce words (and pseudo-words) Hulstijn, Jan H. 1993 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995

Non-count (nouns) Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Herbst, Thomas. 1985a Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Strevens, Peter. 1987

Non-natives Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Ibrahim, Amr Helmy and Michele Zalessky. 1989 McCreary, Don R. 1986 McCreary, D. R. and F. T. Dolezal. 1999 Moulin, Andre. 1979 Nesi, Hilary. 1989 Püschel, Ulrich. 1989 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1987

176 Normal, norm Hanks, Patrick. 1988 Snell-Homby, Mary. 1990 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1987

Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994a, 1987b Varantola, Krista. 1998 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a

Notational system D'Elia, Caterina. 1992 Gimson, A. C. 1981 McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Vermeer, Hans J. 1989

On-line (electronic media) Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 Gray, J.C. 1986 Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987

Noun Atkins, Beryl T., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin. 1986 Bahns, Jens. 1996, 1994 Benson, Morton. 1989a, 1985a Bogaards, Paul. 1997, 1992b, 1990 Cowie, A. P. 1983b Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Heath, David. 1982 Herbst, Thomas. 1985a Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Ilson, Robert F. 1990, 1987a Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Nesi, Hilary. 1998 Νοέΐ, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1987 Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Strevens, Peter. 1987 Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Number Bray, Laurent. 1989 (of columns) Cowie, Anthony P. 1990 (of codes) Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 (of entries) Gillard, Patrick and Adam Gadsby. 1998 (frequency) Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1974 (of entries) Herbst, Thomas. 1996, 1991a (of entries) Kilgarriff, Adam. 1997 (frequency) Kirkpatrick, Betty. 1985 (of entries)

Onomasiological Zgusta, Ladislav. 1989 Opaque (explanations, codes) Aarts, Flor. 1991a Bogaards, Paul. 1994a Cowie, Anthony P. 1990 Hüllen, Werner. 1994 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Optimistic (teachers) Blok, Henk. 1994 DeAndrade, Maria Aparecida Ferreira. 1992 Ordering (alphabetical) Bogaards, Paul. 1994a, 1990 Cowie, A. P. 1983a Hansford, Gillian. 1991 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Nakao, Keisuke. 1998 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1984 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991, 1986

Object (syntactic) Herbst, Thomas. 1987 Pye, Glennis. 1996

Ordering (of senses) Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley and Susan Jellis. 1996 Bejoint, Henri. 1981 Hanks, Patrick. 1990 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1984 Summers, Delia. 1996 Van der Meer, Geart. 1998 Walter, Elizabeth. 1996

Observational study Atkins, Β. T. S„ ed. 1998

Organization (of the dictionary) Aarts, Flor. 1991a (of verb entries)

177 Bogaards, Paul. 1994b (of monolingual) Co wie, Anthony P. 1995 (of cultural information) D'Elia, Caterina. 1992 (of verb entries) Dubois, Jean. 1981 (of entries) Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1974 (semantic) Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991, 1986 Orthography See also spelling Augst, Gerhard et al 1997 Hayward, Timothy and Andre Moulin. 1984 Höhne, Steffen. 1991 Kühn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Siegrist, Ottmar K. 1996 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1989 Overview Al-Kasimi, Ali. M. 1983a (of bilingual dictionaries) Atkins, Β. Τ. S. 1996 (bilingual dictionaries) Battenburg, John D. 1991 (of user research) Bejoint, Henri. 1994, 1989b (learners' dictionaries) Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 (technical dictionaries) Dalgish, Gerard M. 1985 (an ESL dictionary) Hartmann, Reinhard. 1996. (of pedagogical lexicography) Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991 (bilingual dictionaries) Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b (bilingual d. for French learners); 1977 (of French dictionaries) Jehle, Gunter. 1990a (reviews of dictionaries) Knowles, Frank E. 1989 (Soviet lexicography) McArthur, Tom. 1989. (history of EFL teaching) McCreary, Don R. and Fredric Dolezal. 1998 (pedagogical lexicography as science vs. art) Meijs, Willem. 1996 (of corpus linguistics) Petti, Vincent. 1989 (bilingual dictionarymaking) Rundell, Michael. 1998 (learners' dictionaries) Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1984 (of bilingual dictionaries) Steiner, Roger J. 1984 (dictionary reviews) Summers, Delia. 1988a (of EFL dictionaries) Thompson, Geoff. 1987 (criteria for bilingual d . ) Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1988 (of book reviews) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998b (of a German learner's d.)

Zettersten, Arne and Viggo Hjornager Pedersen. 1996 Zettersten, Arne, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen, and Jens Erik Mogensen. 1998 Ownership of dictionaries (by students) Battenburg, John D. 1989 Chi, Man Lai Amy. 1998 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Griffin, P. 1985 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1983 Ibrahim, Amr Helmy and Michele Zalessky. 1989 Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Kühn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982 (by teachers) Li, Lan. 1998 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989, 1979 Paradigmatic features Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a Particle Co wie, Anthony P. 1978b (in phrasal verbs) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1989 Passive dictionaries Benson, Morton. 1990a Fenner, Kirsten. 1997 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Kromann, Hans-Peder. 1986 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991a, 1991b, 1984 Mikkelsen, Hans Kristian. 1992 Pedagogy, pedagogical Bejoint, Henri. 1989b Bogaards, Paul. 1998b, 1991a Cowie, Anthony P. 1990, 1989a Diab, Turki. 1990 Hartmann, Reinhard. 1996, 1989a, 1983c Keller, Howard H. 1987 Kühn, Peter. 1983 Mairesse, Paul. 1993 Martino, Giovanni de. 1986 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric Dolezal. 1998 Müllich, Harald. 1990 Opitz, Κ. 1979

178 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1987 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1987, 1981 Zettersten, Arne, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen, and Jens Erik Mogensen. 1998 Zettersten, Arne and Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen. 1996 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994 Personal (history, use) Cowie, A. P. 1998 Marello, Carla. 1998 Naganuma, Kunio. 1978 Ogawa, Yoshio. 1978 Smith, Richarde. 1998 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1986 Phonetic; See also transcription Gimson, A. C. 1981 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991, 1981b Humbley, John. 1990 Jehmlich, Reimer. 1972 Moulin, Andre. 1979 Takebayashi, Shigeru. 1998 Voigt, Walter. 1984 Phonology Breeders, Ton. 1987 Gimson, A. C. 1981 Harras, Gisela. 1989a Phrasal verbs Aarts, Flor. 1991a Cowie, Anthony P. 1993 El-Sakran, T. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1987, 1984b Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Kharma, NayefN. 1985 Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1986 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Pye, Glennis. 1996 Sinclair, John M. 1987c Yorkey, Richard. 1997 Zettersten, Ame, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen, and Jens Erik Mogensen. 1998 Phrase(s) Atkins, Beryl Τ. S. and Frank Ε. Knowles. 1990 Atkins, Beryl Τ., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin.

1986 B6joint, Henri. 1979 Benson, Morton. 1990a Bogaards, Paul. 1994a, 1992a, 1991c Bool, Hilary and Ronald Carter. 1989 Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Cowie, Anthony P. 1996, 1993 Gross, Gaston. 1989 Hanks, Patrick. 1988 Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991a Moon, Rosamund. 1992 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Procter, Paul. 1996 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1990 Verstraten, Linda. 1992 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975 Phraseology Alexander, Richard J. 1992 Cowie, A. P. 1998 Cowie, A. P. and Peter Howarth. 1996 Hanks, Patrick. 1988 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1995 Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1989 Pictorial illustrations Hill, C. P. 1985 Ilson, Robert. 1987a Nesi, Hilary. 1989 Stein, Gabriele. 1991, 1979 Pocket dictionaries Bray, Laurent. 1989 Klug, Hans Jürgen. 1989 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Taylor, Andrew and Adelaide Chan. 1994 Policy for defining Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Herbst, Thomas. 1986 Sinclair, John M. 1991, 1987a Stein, Gabriele. 1979 Stock, Penny. 1992 Political Kühn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982 (purposes) Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 (political correctness)

179 Polysemous entries Bejoint, Henri. 1981 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Iannucci, James E. 1962 Ilson, Robert. 1987a Jansen, J., J. P. Mergeai, and J. Vanandroye. 1987 Li, Lan. 1998 (Chinese-English) Miller, George A. 1984 Nesi, Hilary. 1987 Van der Meer, Geart. 1998 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991 Polysemy Cowie, A. P. 1979. Fillmore, Charles. 1989 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1974 Li, Lan. 1998 (Chinese-English) Mairesse, Paul. 1993 Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Van der Meer, Geart. 1998 Walz, Joel. 1990a Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Poor entries Creamer, Thomas. 1987 (examples) Herbst, Thomas. 1985a (coverage) Kalliokuusi, Virpi and Krista Varantola. 1998 (definition) llson, Robert. 1998 (coverage) Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 (index) Poor students Diab, Turki. 1990 Houtman, Kees and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Nesi, Hilary. 1996, 1994 Popular culture Chansou, Michel. 1983 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a Rey, Alain. 1986 Positive book reviews Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Carter, Ronald. 1989 Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 Gouws, Rufus. H. 1995 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985d, 1982, 1979 Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994a

Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Hill, C. P. 1985 Jackson, Howard. 1995 McCreary, Don R. 1998 Procter, Paul. 1996 Scott, Clive. 1989 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Snook, Roger. 1992 Williams, John. 1996 Yorkey, Richard. 1997 Pragmatics Brito, ElianaV. 1992 Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Moon, Rosamund. 1992 Moulin, Andre. 1979 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1993 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1987 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a, 1987a, 1985c Zgusta, Ladislav. 1989, 1988 Preference (for a bilingual dictionary) Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Coviello, Giuseppina. 1987 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 Summers, Delia. 1988a Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b Prepositions, prepositional Atkins, Beryl T., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin. 1986 Benson, Morton. 1985a El-Sakran, T. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1987, 1984a, 1984b Ilson, Robert. 1987a Jehmlich, Reimer. 1972 Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Prescriptive (grammar; ideas) Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b Delbridge, Arthur. 1989 Montgomery, Michael. 1983 Whitcut, Janet. 1985

180 Problematic entries Cowie, A. P. 1983b Moon, Rosamund. 1987a Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad. 1998 Sundström, Mats-Peter. 1992 Varantola, Krista. 1994 Walter, Elizabeth. 1992 Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Process of compiling Hansford, Gillian. 1991 Harras, Gisela. 1989a Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987 Petti, Vincent. 1989 Sinclair, John M., ed. 1987a Steiner, Roger J. 1975 Ter-Minasova, Svetlana. 1992 Production dictionary See also Activator Gillard, Patrick and Adam Gadsby. 1998 Hüllen, Werner. 1994 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991a Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Martin, W. and B.P.F. Al. 1990 Nesi, Hilary. 1996, 1994 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1983, 1981 Pronouns Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Pronunciation Barnhart, Clarence L. 1962 Battenburg, John D. 1991 Cowie, Anthony P., ed. 1981b Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 Descamps, J. L. and R. Vaunaize. 1983 El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 Festag, Ewald. 1991 Gimson, A. C. 1981 Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1991a, 1991b IIson, Robert. 1985 Kirkpatrick, Betty. 1985 Marekwardt, Albert Η. 1973 Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996

Snook, Roger. 1992 Stark, Martin P. 1990 Steiner, Roger J. 1975 Takebayashi, Shigeru. 1998 Wells, J.C. 1985 Proper names Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Protocols (an observational method) Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Crystal David. 1986 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1987b Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Müllich, Harald. 1990 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Proverbs Kharma, NayefN. 1985 Psycholinguistics Bejoint, Henri. 1988 Fischer, Ute. 1994 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 McKeown, Margaret G. 1993 Punctuation Augst, Gerhard, Volker Bunse, Andrea Höppner, Roswitha Rusert, Sebastian Schmidt, and FrankMartin S Unkel. 1997 Quasi-experimental studies Tono, Yukio. 1998 Questionnaires Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Delia Summers, and Janet Whitcut. 1987 Ballweg-Schramm, Angelika. 1983 Battenburg, John D. 1989 Bejoint, Henri. 1981 Benbow, Timothy. 1990 Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Bogaards, P. 1988 Chansou, Michel. 1983 Chi, Man Lai Amy. 1998 Coviello, Giuseppina. 1987

181 Crystal David. 1986 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Griffin, P. 1985 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1987b, 1987c, 1983a, 1982 Harvey, Keith and Deborah Yuill. 1997 Hatherall, Glyn. 1984 Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Kernerman, Lionel. 1996 Kharma, Nayef N. 1985 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Li, Lan. 1998 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1992 Opitz, Κ. 1979 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Ripfel, Martha. 1990, 1989 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Emst Wiegand. 1986 Roby, Warren Β. 1991 Stark, Martin. 1999 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1979 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a, 1985c Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Ranking of dictionaries Barnhart, Clarence L. 1962 Bogaards, Paul. 1992a Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1983 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1988 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Readable definitions Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Cowie, Anthony P. 1990 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Scott, Clive. 1989 Yorkey, Richard. 1997 Reading comprehension Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1995 Fischer, Ute. 1994 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991, 1988, 1985a Herbst, Thomas. 1986 Hulstijn, Jan H. 1993 Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus. 1996 Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Knight, Susan. 1994

Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991a, 1984 Laufer, Batia. 1993, 1992 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997. Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1983 Marello, Carla. 1998 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 McKeown, Margaret. 1991, 1993 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983b Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Nesi, Hilary. 1994 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Roby, Warren B. 1991 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Summers, Delia. 1988b Tono, Yukio. 1989 Van Noppen, Jean Pierre and Christine Michaux. 1991 Whitcut, Janet. 1988 Reasons for dictionary use Bogaards, Paul. 1998b, 1988 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Herbst, Thomas. 1985b (reasons for misuse) Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Müllich, Harald. 1990 Summers, Delia. 1988a Recommendations for learners' dictionaries Benson, Morton. 1990a Huang, G. F. 1985 Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991a Martin, Samuel E. 1962 McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 Pye, Glennis. 1996 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 (for research) Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Stein, Gabriele. 1986. Steiner, Roger J. 1982 Tono, Yukio. 1998 (for research) Wagner, Horst. 1985 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1984 References within the entry Bahns, Jens. 1996 Cowie, A. P. and Peter Howarth. 1996

182 Gimson, A. C. 1981 Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1992 Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985 McCreary, Don R. 1986 McCreary, D. R. and F. T. Dolezal. 1999 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a, 1998b Reference works Bejoint, Henri. 1994 Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Cowie, A. P. and Peter Howarth. 1996 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Hausmann, Franz Josef, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Ladislav Zgusta. Eds. 1989 (Vol. 1), 1990 (Vol. II), 1991 (Vol. Ill) Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 Hill, C. P. 1985 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985, 1984 Svensen, Bo. 1993 Van Noppen, Jean Pierre and Christine Michaux. 1991 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998a, 1998b Regional variation Benson, Morton. 1989a Cowie, Anthony P., ed. 1981b Gorbahn-Orme, Adeline and Franz Josef Hausmann. 1991 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1981a Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990a Renouf, Antoinette. 1987 Rey, Alain. 1986 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Register Bejoint, Henri. 1979 Cowie, Anthony P., ed. 1981b Drysdale, P. D. 1987 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983b, 1981a Nesi, Hilary. 1987, 1984 Research project for AILA Atkins, Β. T. S„ ed. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Delia Summers, and Janet Whitcut. 1987

Restrictions (selectional, collocational) Gorbahn-Orme, Adeline and Franz Josef Hausmann. 1991 Herbst, Thomas. 1988 Nesi, Hilary. 1987 Pye, Glennis. 1996 Ter-Minasova, Svetlana. 1992 Whitcut, Janet. 1988 Reversibility Steiner, Roger J. 1984, 1982 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1988 Reviews (of dictionaries; positive review unless marked)) Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 (critical) Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Carter, Ronald. 1989 Fillmore, Charles. 1989 (critical) Gouws, Rufus. H. 1995 (critical) Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Hartmann, Reinhard R. K. 1994a, 1981b Herbst, Thomas. 1996, 1988 (critical) Hill, C. P. 1985 Hüllen, Werner. 1994 (negative) Ilson, Robert. 1998 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a (a collection of reviews of dictionaries) Kokawa, Takahiro and Shigeru Yamada. 1998 McCreary, Don R. 1998 Olofsson, Ame. 1996 (critical) Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1997, 1994, 1987 (critical) Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 (negative) Procter, Paul. 1996 Scott, Clive. 1989 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 (negative) Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Snook, Roger. 1992 Standop, Ewald. 1985 (critical) Stein, Gabriele. 1989a Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1988 (reviews of dictionaries) Williams, John. 1996 Yorkey, Richard. 1997 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1988 (critical)

183 Rules of English Augst, Gerhard, Volker Bunse, Andreas Höppner, Roswitha Rusert, Sebastian Schmidt, and FrankMartin Siinkel. 1997 (spelling) Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 (usage) Broeders, Ton. 1987 (accent) McKeown, Margaret. 1991 (of lexicography) Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 (usage) Scholfield, Phil. 1982 (usage)

Run-on entries Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Stein, Gabriele. 1979

Russian Benson, Morton. 1989a (students) Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Cahill, Aidan. 1989 Hartmann, Reinhard R.K. 1995, 1988 Howarth, Peter Α. 1996 James, Gregory, ed. 1989 Keller, Howard H. 1987 (Russian-English d.) Knowles, Frank E. 1993, 1989 (RussianEnglish d.) Moon, Rosamund. 1992 Ter-Minasova, Svetlana. 1992 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1981 (Russian-Polish d.) Tommola, Hannu. 1992 (Finnish-Russian d.)

Search process See also looking up Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Baxter, James. 1980 Benbow, Timothy. 1990 Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1998b, 1997, 1994a, 1992a, 1992b, 1991c, 1990, 1985 Gadbois, Vital. 1986 Gray, J.C. 1986. Harras, Gisela. 1986 Hulstijn, Jan H. 1993 Keller, Howard H. 1987 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca, and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Li, Lan. 1998 McCreary, D. R. and F. T. Dolezal. 1999 McKeown, Margaret G. 1993, 1991 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Nesi, H. 1992 Neubauer, Fritz. 1985

Rossner, Richard. 1985 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Summers, Delia. 1993 Walz, Joel. 1990a Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1987a

Secondary (school students) Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Bogaards, Paul. 1992b, 1985 DeAndrade, Maria Aparecida Ferreira. 1992 Gadbois, Vital. 1986 Gross, Gaston. 1989 Kharma, N a y e f N . 1985 Marello, Carla. 1982b Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983b

Segmental dictionary Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989a

Selection of entries Dalgish, Gerard M. 1985 Gorbahn-Orme, Adeline and Franz Josef Hausmann. 1991 Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987 Magay, Tämas. 1984 Meijs, Willem. 1996 Opitz, Κ. 1979 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991

Semantics See also defining policy Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 (in CIDE) Fillmore, Charles. 1989 Hartmann, Reinhard. 1996 Ilson, Robert F. 1990, 1987b Sinclair, John Μ. 1991 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1987 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1985c (theory) Zettersten, Arne, Viggo Hj0mager Pedersen, and Jens Erik Mogensen. 1998 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1987 (equivalence) Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1991

Semantic ßeld Gray, J.C. 1986 Ilson, Robert. 1987a Schneider, Klaus P. 1998

184 Snell-Homby, Mary. 1984 Walter, Elizabeth. 1992 Sense, senses Al-Kasimi, Ali. Μ. 1983a 1983b Atkins, Beryl T. S. 1991, 1985 Atkins, Beryl T., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin. 1986 Baugh, Simon, Andrew Harley and Susan Jellis. 1996 Bejoint, Henri. 1981 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Cowie, A. P. 1979 Creamer, Thomas. 1987 Dalgish, Gerard M. 1985 Gadbois, Vital. 1986 Hanks, Patrick. 1990 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991 Iannucci, James E. 1962 Kirkpatrick, Betty. 1985 Li, Y. C. 1987 Marckwardt, Albert H. 1973 Marello, Carla. 1987 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Meijs, Willem. 1996 Miller, George A. 1984 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983b Moon, Rosamund. 1988, 1987a, 1987b Nakao, Keisuke. 1998 Neubauer, Fritz. 1987 Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Petti, Vincent. 1989 Procter, Paul. 1996 Scholfield, Phil. 1982. Stein, Gabriele. 1990, 1989b Steiner, Roger J. 1984, 1982 Summers, Delia. 1996 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1990 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996b, 1998 Walter, Elizabeth. 1996, 1992 Whitcut, Janet. 1988, 1986

Shortcomings in dictionaries Ard, Josh. 1982 Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Herbst, Thomas. 1988, 1987, 1986 Stein, Gabriele. 1986 Simple, Simpler to use Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 (LDOCE) Herbst, Thomas. 1996, 1987 (LDOCE) Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991a (grammar) Sinclair, John M. 1987b (COBUILD) Stein, Gabriele. 1989a (LDOCE) Steiner, Roger J. 1975 (bilingual d.) Whitcut, Janet. 1988 (LDOCE) Situational use of the dictionary Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Whitcut, Janet. 1985 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a, 1987a, 1985a, 1985c Size of the dictionary Bray, Laurent. 1989 Magay, Tarnas. 1984 Moon, Rosamund. 1998 Renouf, Antoinette. 1987 Slang Al-Kasimi, Ali Μ. 1983b MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1983 Sociocultural Rey, Alain. 1986 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1990 Sociology of the user Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989a, 1989b Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1985c

Serbo-Croatian Bujas, Zeljko. 1975 Wiegand, Herbert Emst, ed. 1989

Sociolinguistic Magay, Tämas. 1984

Set collocations Alexander, Richard J. 1998 Benson, Morton. 1988 Bogaards, Paul. 1991c Scholfield, Phil. 1982

Sources for corpus data Gillard, Patrick and Adam Gadsby. 1998 Gray, J. C. 1986 Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987 Renouf, Antoinette. 1987

185 Sinclair, John Μ. 1985 Summers, Deila. 1993 Spanish-English dictionary Ard, Josh. 1982 Aust, Ronald, Mary Jane Kelley, and Warren Roby. 1993 Knight, Susan. 1994 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna den Tuinder. 1985 Lindstrom, Naomi. 1980 Roby, Warren Β. 1991 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975 Specific purposes English (ESP, LSP) Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Binon, Jean and Serge Verlinde. 1992 Cop, Margaret. 1991 Diab, Turki. 1989 McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 Moulin, Andre. 1983, 1979 Opitz, K. 1979 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989 Tommola, Hannu. 1992 Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1989 Specific to culture See also culture bound words Benson, Morton. 1990c Cowie, Anthony P. 1995 Li, Lan. 1998 MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1983 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Nakao, Keisuke. 1989 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1990 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1983, 1981 Tommola, Hannu. 1992

Delbridge, Arthur. 1989 (in Australian English) Descamps, J. L. and R. Vaunaize. 1983 (d. used for) El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 (d. used for) Gadbois, Vital. 1986 (d. used for) Hay ward, Timothy and Andre Moulin. 1984 Höhne, Steffen. 1991 Ibrahim, Amr Helmy and Michele Zalessky. 1989 (d. used for) Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 (d. used for) Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985 Kühn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982 MacFarquhar, P. D. and Jack Richards. 1983 Marekwardt, Albert H. 1973 (for teachers) McNaughton, David, Charles Hughes, and Karen Clark. 1997 (errors and spell-checkers) Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Sager, Juan C. 1989 (for technical terms) Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 (inconsistent) Scholfield, Phil. 1982 (variants) Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996 (false friends) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1989 Standard language Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990a Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 Mdee, James S. 1984 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 Standard dictionary Klug, Hans Jürgen. 1989 Standop, Ewald. 1985 Standardization Sager, Juan C. 1989 Stereotypes Harras, Gisela. 1986 Stock, Penny. 1992

Speech acts Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983b Spelling Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Augst, Gerhard, Volker Bunse, Andreas Höppner, Roswitha Rusert, Sebastian Schmidt, and FrankMartin Sünkel. 1997 Barnhart, Clarence L. 1962 (d. used for) Battenburg, John D. 1989 (d. used for)

Strategies of dictionary use See also user's research Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Barone, Rosangela. 1979 Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1998b, 1997, 1993, 1992b, 1991c, 1990 Brito, ElianaV. 1992 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca, and Johanna den Tuinder. 1985

186 Laufer, Batia and Micha! Kimmel. 1997 Miller, George A. and Patricia M. Gildea. 1987 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Müllich, Harald. 1990 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994, 1991 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1979

Moon, Rosamund. 1987a Neubauer, Fritz. 1987 Olofsson, Arne. 1996 Procter, Paul. 1996 Summers, Delia. 1996 Van der Meer, Geart. 1998 Whitcut, Janet. 1986

Structure of the entries: See macrostructure; access

Successful dictionary use Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994a Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1983 Müllich, Harald. 1990 Nesi, Hilary. 1998 Scholfield, Phil. 1982

Structure (syntactic) Bogaards, Paul. 1992b Bwenge, Charles. 1989 Cowie, A. P. 1983b D'Elia, Caterina. 1992 Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Style in defining See also writing definitions; defining policy Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1996 Carter, Ronald. 1989 Fox, Gwyneth. 1989 Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press McKeown, Margaret G. 1993 Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Siegrist, Ottmar Κ. 1996 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1988 Style in language Delbridge, Arthur. 1989 Gorbahn-Orme, Adeline and Franz Josef Hausmann. 1991 Hartmann, R. R. Κ. 1981a Höhne, Steffen. 1991 Nakao, Keisuke. 1998 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Subject (grammatical) Herbst, Thomas. 1985a (subject-verb agreement) Pye, Glennis. 1996 (subject-object restrictions) Sub-senses Cowie, A. P. 1979 Dalgish, Gerard M. 1985 Iannucci, James E. 1962 Kirkpatrick, Betty. 1985 Li, Y. C. 1987

Suffixation Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Stein, Gabriele. 1985 Survey of dictionary use Atkins, Β. T. S., ed. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990. Barnhart, Clarence L. 1962 Battenburg, John D. 1989 Bejoint, Henri. 1979 Bejoint, Henri. 1979 Benbow, Timothy. 1990 Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Bogaards, Paul. 1993, 1992a Brito, ElianaV. 1992 Chansou, Michel. 1983 Chi, Man Lai Amy. 1998 Coviello, Giuseppina. 1987 De Andrade, Maria Aparecida Ferreira. 1992 El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 Gadbois, Vital. 1986 Galisson, Robert. 1983 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Griffin, P. 1985 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1987b, 1987c, 1983a, 1982 Harvey, Keith and Deborah Yuill. 1997 Hatherall, Glyn. 1984 Heath, David and Thomas Herbst, 1985 Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Kemerman, Lionel. 1996 Kharma, N a y e f N . 1985

187 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Li, Lan. 1998 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1992 Opitz, Κ. 1979 Potter, Liz 1998 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Ripfel, Martha. 1990, 1989 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Roby, Warren B. 1991 Stark, Martin. 1999 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1979 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a, 1985c Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Swahili dictionaries Bwenge, Charles. 1989 James, Gregory, ed. 1989 Mdee, James S. 1984 Swedish-English dictionaries Petti, Vincent. 1989 Swiss dictionaries Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 Calanchini, Elena. 1982 Cortelazzo, Manlio. 1982 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990a Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1984

Bogaards, Paul. 1994a Bolinger, Dwight. 1990 Cowie, Anthony P. 1998, 1990, 1989c, 1987b, 1984, 1978b Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 D'Elia, Caterina. 1992 Dubois, Jean. 1981 Fontenelle, Thierry and Jocelyne Vanandroye. 1989 Gross, Gaston. 1989 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1991, 1985 Heath, David. 1982 Herbst, Thomas. 1989, 1988, 1987 Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Huang, G. F. 1985 Jackson, Howard. 1985 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991b, 1986 Li, Y. C. 1987 Lindstrom, Naomi. 1980 McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Moulin, Andre. 1983 Nguyen, Dinh-Hoa. 1986 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1992 Procter, Paul. 1976 Pye, Glennis. 1996 Sinclair, John M. 1987b Smith, Richard C. 1998 Stein, Gabriele. 1979 Strevens, Peter. 1987 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989, 1983 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1988, 1975

Synonyms Atkins, Β. T. S. and Beth Levin. 1995 Harvey, Keith and Deborah Yuill. 1997 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b, 1985b Huang, G. F. 1985 Ickler, Theodor. 1982 (dictionary of) Jacobsen, Jane Rosenkilde, James Manley, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen. 1991 Marckwardt, Albert H. 1973 Moulin, Andre. 1983 Püschel, Ulrich. 1986 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad. 1998 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1984 Vermeer, Hans J. 1989 Walter, Elizabeth. 1992 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1989

Target audience Benson, Morton. 1988 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991a, 1984

Syntactic information See also grammatical information; coding Aarts, Flor. 1991a, 1991b

Target language Al-Kasimi, Ali. M. 1983a Moulin, Andre. 1979

Syntagmatic features Bejoint, Henri. 1989a Fillmore, Charles. 1989 Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a

Nesi, Hilary. 1994 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 Stein, Gabriele. 1989b Summers, Delia. 1988b Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1987 Teaching dictionary use Baxter, James. 1980 Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Benson, Morton. 1989a Bensoussan, Marsha. 1983 Blok, Henk. 1994 Boukreeva, Tatiana. 1996 Co wie, Anthony, ed. 1987b Galisson, Robert. 1987 Griffin, P. 1985 Harras, Gisela. 1986 Hartmann, R. R. Κ. 1983a Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b Herbst, Thomas. 1985b Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Lemmens, Marcel. 1994 Marello, Carla. 1982b Martino, Giovanni de. 1981 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 Olijkan, Ed and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Scott, Clive. 1989 Walz, Joel. 1990a Technical dictionaries Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Binon, Jean and Serge Verlinde. 1992 Chagunda, M. 1983 Cop, Margaret. 1991 Diab, Turki. 1989 Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 Humble, Philippe. 1998 Magay, Tämas. 1984 McCorduck, Edward Scott. 1993 Moulin, Andre. 1983, 1979 Neubert, Gunter. 1970 Opitz, Κ. 1979 Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad. 1998 Sager, Juan C. 1989

Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989 Tommola, Hannu. 1992 Varantola, Krista. 1998, 1992 Voigt, Walter. 1984 Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1989 Terminological database Al-Kasimi, Ali M. 1983a Cowie, Anthony P. 1996 Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad. 1998 Sager, Juan C. 1989 Terminology (translation of) Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Kalliokuusi, Virpi and Krista Varantola. 1998 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1977 Li, Lan. 1998 Sager, Juan C. 1989 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989 Testing the dictionaries Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1998b, 1996 Bujas, Zeljko. 1975 Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1996, 1986 Magay, Tämas. 1984 Opitz, K. 1979 Siegrist, Ottmar K. 1996 Summers, Deila. 1988a, 1988b Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Testing dictionary use by learners Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998, 1997 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 199C Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Delia Summers, and Janet Whitcut. 1987 Benson, Morton. 1989a Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Bensoussan, Marsha. 1983 Blok, Henk. 1994 Bogaards, Paul. 1998a, 1998b, 1997, 1994a, 1994b, 1992a, 1992b, 1991a, 1991c, 1990 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989b Houtman, Kees and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus. 1996

189 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Knight, Susan. 1994 Laufer, Batia. 1993, 1992 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Nesi, Hilary And Paul Meara. 1991 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Roby, Warren B. 1991 Tono, Yukio. 1989, 1984 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Testing informants Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Sinclair, John M. 1985 Text (analysis of a corpus) Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 Bujas, Zeljko. 1975 Cowie, A. P. 1989a Gillard, Patrick and Adam Gadsby. 1998 Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994b Jansen, J., J. P. Mergeai, and J. Vanandroye. 1987 Kilgarriff, Adam. 1997 Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. 1987 Renouf, Antoinette. 1987 Sinclair, John M. 1985 Summers, Delia. 1993 Text (lexical analysis of, comprehension) Brito, Eliana V. 1992 Galisson, Robert. 1983 Hartmann, Reinhard. 1985 Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 Knight, Susan. 1994 Marello, Carla. 1998 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Roby, Warren B. 1991 Scholfield, Phil. 1982 Text (translation of) Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Bogaards, Paul. 1998, 1991a Diab, Turki. 1990 Fischer, Ute. 1994

Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991, 1985a Li, Lan. 1998 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1987, 1981 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996 Textbooks on lexicography (with chapters on users) Bejoint, Henri. 1994. (survey text) Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 (survey of technical dictionaries) Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1984 (survey text and workbook) Svensen, Bo. 1993 (survey text) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a (dictionary research) Text production Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Thematic issues (on the learners' dictionary) See also collection; anthology Cowie, Anthony P., ed. 1998, 1981b Herbst, Thomas and David Heath. 1994 McArthur, Tom and Ilan Kernerman, eds. 1998 Olijkan, Ed and Gerame Wouters. 1994 Theory of lexicography Bahns, Jens. 1996 (of collocations) Bogaards, Paul. 1997 (of collocations) Czochralski, Jan. 1981 (and general lexicography) Harras, Gisela. 1989a, 1989b (as a model for linguistics) Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991, 1988, 1985a (of collocations), 1977 (of lexicography) Hausmann, Franz Josef, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Ladislav Zgusta. eds. 1989 (Vol. I) Herbst, Thomas. 1989, 1987, 1984a, 1984b (valency theory) Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b (valency theory) Jehle, Gunter. 1990a (reviews) Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 (valency theory) Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber.and Poul Rosbach. 1991a, 1984 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 (Vygotskyan)

190 McCreary, Don R. 1989 (Vygotskyan) Mikkelsen, Hans Kristian. 1992 (Shcherba's) Mittmann, Brigitta. 1995 (of collocations) Nikula, Henrik. 1986 (theory of examples) Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Emst Wiegand. 1986 (of pedagogical lexicography) Voigt, Walter. 1984 (and general lexicography) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a, 1998b, 1998c (valency); 1987a, 1985b, 1985c, 1984, 1983a, 1983b (semantic theory and lexicography) Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994 (theory for user research) Thesaurus Gray, J.C. 1986 Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994b Hill, C. P. 1985 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985 Püschel, Ulrich. 1986 Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Thesis research Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Chagunda, M. 1983 El-Sakran, T. 1985 Griffin, P. 1985 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985 Mittmann, Brigitta. 1995 Nesi, Hilary. 1984 Tono, Yukio. 1984 Traditional dictionary format See also macrostcucture; layout Bejoint, Henri. 1979 Βwenge, Charles. 1989 Cowie, Anthony P. 1989c Crystal David. 1986 Dubois, Jean. 1981 Humbley, John. 1990 Kühn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Twaddell, W. F. 1973 Transcription (phonetic) See also phonetic; phonology Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 (IPA) Herbst, Thomas. 1991b (IPA) Humbley, John. 1990 Jehmlich, Reimer. 1972 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 Takebayashi, Shigeru. 1998

Voigt, Walter. 1984 Translation (L2 to LI) Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1998 Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Delia Summers, and Janet Whitcut. 1987 Benson, Morton. 1990c Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp, eds. 1995 Fischer, Ute. 1994 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Li, Lan. 1998 Jacobsen, Jane Rosenkilde, James Manley, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen. 1991 Jehmlich, Reimer. 1972 Kernerman, Lionel. 1996 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna den Tuinder. 1985 Laufer, Batia. 1993, 1992 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Lindstrom, Naomi. 1980 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Martin, Samuel E. 1962 Müllich, Harald. 1990 Neubert, Gunter. 1970 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994 Rey, Alain. 1986 Sager, Juan C. 1989 Steiner, Roger. 1986 Tono, Yukio. 1984 Varantola, Krista. 1998, 1992 Walter, Elizabeth. 1996 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Zgusta, Ladislav. 1987 Translation (from LI to L2) Atkins, Β. Τ. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Atkins, Beryl, Helene Lewis, Delia Summers, and Janet Whitcut. 1987 Benson, Morton. 1989a Bogaards, Paul. 1998, 1991a Hartmann, R. R. K. 1982 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Laufer, Batia, 1992 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Marello, Carla. 1987 Müllich, Harald. 1990

191 Steiner, Roger. 1986 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989, 1987 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1985a Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Zgusta, Ladislav. 1987 Transparent codes and abbreviations See also coding; grammatical information Aarts, Flor. 1991a Hartmann, Reinhard. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1989 Strevens, Peter. 1987 Typography See layout; macrostructure; traditional dictionary format Typology of dictionaries Czochralski, Jan. 1981 Fenner, Kirsten. 1997 Hartmann, Reinhard. 1996, 1992, 1987b Kromann, Hans-Peder. 1986 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b (of usage) Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983b (of search skills) Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Stark, Martin. 1999 (encyclopedic) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1985c (of user situations) Unable (students) See also incompetent students; criticism Blok, Henk. 1994 Heath, David and Thomas Herbst. 1985 Unaffected (by LI) Battenburg, John D. 1989

Unclear (entries) See also criticism El-Badry, Nawal H. 1990 Hüllen, Werner. 1994 Marello, Carla. 1987 McCreary, D. R. and F. T. Dolezal. 1999 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1988 Undergraduates (as users) Bamhart, Clarence L. 1962 Crystal David. 1986 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Griffin, P. 1985 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983a Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Knight, Susan. 1994 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 McCreary, D. R. and F. T. Dolezal. 1999 Nesi, Hilary. 1994 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Tickoo, Makhan L. 1989b Tono, Yukio. 1984 Undeveloped (Japanese learners' dictionaries) Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1988 McCreary, Don R. 1986 Unexploited (resource) Feldweg, Helmut. 1997 Unfamiliar words Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994a (with bilingualised d.) Hulstijn, Jan H. 1993 (when looked up)

Unaware (students) See also criticism Blok, Henk. 1994 Iqbal, Zafar. 1987 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985 Strevens, Peter. 1987

Unfortunately confusing See also criticism Aarts, Flor. 1991b

Uncertainty (of the students) See also frustrated students; criticism Ickier, Theodor. 1982

Unknown (no strategy for looking up words) Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994

Unhelpful (entries) Li, Y. C. 1987

Unnecessary function Steiner, Roger J. 1975

192 Unreadable (definitions) See also criticism Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Unsatisfying (entries) Neubert, Gunter. 1970 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Unskilled (users) See also incompetent students; criticism Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Unsystematic (treatment of collocations) Alexander, Richard J. 1998 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1990 Tono, Yukio. 1998 (unsystematic research designs) Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a Verstraten, Linda. 1992 Untrained (users) See also incompetent students; criticism Ard, Josh. 1982 Van Noppen, Jean Pierre and Christine Michaux. 1991 Unwilling students Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1985 Usage notes Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1987 Whitcut, Janet. 1985 Users' attitudes Ard, Josh. 1982 Bensoussan, Marsha, Donald Sim, and Razelle Weiss. 1984 Gadbois, Vital. 1986 Hulstijn, Jan and Β. T. S. Atkins. 1998 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Twaddell, W. F. 1973 Users of bilingual dictionaries Atkins, Β. T. S. and Krista Varantola. 1997 Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Bejoint, Henri. 1989b

Bogaards, Paul. 1998, 1991a Bujas, Zeljko. 1975 Chi, Man Lai Amy. 1998 Cop, Margaret. 1991 Cowie, Anthony P. 1990, 1989a Creamer, Thomas. 1987 Diab, Turki. 1990 Hartmann, Reinhard. 1996, 1989a, 1983c Keller, Howard H. 1987 Kühn, Peter. 1983 Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca, and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Lindstrom, Naomi. 1980 Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 Mairesse, Paul. 1993 Martino, Giovanni de. 1986 Müllich, Harald. 1990 Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Opitz, Κ. 1979 Roby, Warren Β. 1991 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1987, 1984 Stein, Gabriele. 1990 Steiner, Roger. 1986, 1982, 1975 Thompson, Geoff. 1987 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1988, 1987, 1981 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994 Users' difficulties Al-Kasimi, Ali. M. 1983a Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Cowie, Anthony P. 1978a De Andrade, Maria Aparecida Ferreira. 1992 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991 Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Kharma, NayefN. 1985 McCreary, Don R. 1986 McCreary.Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 McKeown, Margaret. 1993, 1991 McNaughton, David, Charles Hughes, and Karen Clark. 1997 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Nakao, Keisuke. 1989 Nesi, H. 1992 Quirk, Randolph. 1974

193 Wiezell, Richard John. 1975 User-friendly dictionaries Alexander, Richard J. 1992 (learners') Äugst, Gerhard, Volker Bunse, Andreas Höppner, Roswitha Rusert, Sebastian Schmidt, and FrankMartin Sünkel. 1997 (spelling dictionaries) Feldweg, Helmut. 1997 (bilingual) Herbst, Thomas. 1985b (bilingual) Hoffmann, Hans G. 1988 (learners') Kalliokuusi, Virpi and Krista Varantola. 1998 (Finnish-French bilingual) Keller, Howard H. 1987 (bilingual) Kokawa, Takahiro and Shigeru Yamada. 1998 (encyclopedic) Martin, W. and B.P.F. Al. 1990 (learners') Nakao, Keisuke. 1998 (bilingual) Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1994 (English) Stark, Martin. 1999 (learners') Stein, Gabriele. 1990 (learners') Wolf, Birgit. 1992 (German) Users of monolingual dictionaries (LI native speakers) Antor, Heinz. 1988 Atkins, Β. Τ. S. 1985 Bamhart, Clarence L. 1962 Baxter, James. 1980 Bejoint, Henri 1981 Calanchini, Elena. 1982 Cortelazzo, Manlio. 1982 Cowie, Anthony P. 1996 Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 (first use) Kühn, Peter and Püschel, Ulrich. 1982 Marello, Carla. 1982a, 1982b McNaughton, David, Charles Hughes, and Karen Clark. 1997 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Users of learners' monolingual dictionaries (L2; EFL learners) Bogaards, Paul. 1996 Cowie, Anthony P. 1996 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990b, 1974 Herbst, Thomas. 1996 Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Jackson, Howard. 1995 McArthur, Tom. 1989

Naganuma, Kunio. 1978 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Underhill, Adrian. 1985 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994 Users' needs Feldweg, Helmut. 1997 Hatherall, Glyn. 1984 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1984 Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Ernst Wiegand. 1986 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1981, 1979 Users' research (experimental studies) Atkins, B.T. Sue., ed. 1998 Bogaards, Paul. 1994a Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 Fischer, Ute. 1994 Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994a Hartmann, R. R. Κ. 1987c Hulstijn, Jan, Merel Hollander, and Tine Greidanus. 1996 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994. Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 McKeown, Margaret. 1993, 1991 McNaughton, David, Charles Hughes, and Karen Clark. 1997 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Opitz, Κ. 1979 Tono, Yukio. 1998 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Users' research; Users' decisions; See also strategies of dictionary use Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Atkins, Β. T. S., ed. 1998 (collection on users) Barone, Rosangela. 1979. Bogaards, Paul. 1998, 1997, 1993, 1992b, 1991c, 1990 Brito, ElianaV. 1992. Lantolf, James P., Angela Labarca and Johanna denTuinder. 1985 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999

194 Miller, George A. and Patricia Μ. Gildea. 1987 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Müllich, Harald. 1990 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994, 1991 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Rossner, Richard. 1985 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1979 Varantola, Krista. 1994. Whitcut, Janet. 1986 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Users' research (on the bilingualised dictionary) Hartmann, Reinhard R. Κ. 1994a, 1992 Laufer, Batia and Linor Hadar. 1997 Laufer, Batia and Michal Kimmel. 1997. Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Mackintosh, Kristen. 1998 Marello, Carla. 1998 Reif, Joseph A. 1987 Users (adult students) Cumming, Geoff, Samantha Cropp, and Roland Sussex. 1994 Descamps, J. L. and R. Vaunaize. 1983 Laufer, Batia. 1992 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 McCreary, Don R. and Fredric T. Dolezal. 1999 Nesi, Hilary. 1996 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994, 1991 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Summers, Delia. 1988b Users (children) Blok, Henk. 1994 Chansou, Michel. 1983 Gross, Gaston. 1989 Marello, Carla. 1982b Miller, George A. 1984 Miller, George A. and Patricia M. Gildea. 1987 Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b Monaco, Roberta. 1989 Valency theory Gouws, Rufus. H. 1995 Heath, David. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1989, 1987, 1984a, 1984b Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul

Rosbach. 1991b Nikula, Henrik. 1986 Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Zettersten, Ame, Viggo Hj0rnager Pedersen, and Jens Erik Mogensen. 1998 Zgusta, Ladislav. 1975 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994 Variants Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele, 1983 (Austrian and Swiss) Delbridge, Arthur. 1989 (Australian) Gimson, A. C. 1981 (pronunciation) Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983b (stylistic) McCreary, Don R. 1986 (social, in Japan) Olofsson, Ame. 1996 (in COBUILD) Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1987 (pronunciation) SchnorT, Veronika. 1991 (spelling) Scholfield, Phil. 1982 (spelling) Takebayashi, Shigeru. 1998 (pronunciation) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b (stylistic and regional) Variation in language Bejoint, Henri. 1979 Cowie, Anthony P., ed. 1981b Delbridge, Arthur. 1989 Gimson, A. C. 1981 Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983b, 1981a Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Herbst, Thomas. 1996, 1991b Montgomery, Michael. 1983 Moon, Rosamund. 1996 Veisbergs, Andrejs. 1996 Varieties of language Görlach, Manfred. 1991 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1983b Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1990a Renouf, Antoinette. 1987 Steiner, Roger. 1986 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Verb complementation See also collocations Aarts, Flor. 1991a Atkins, Β. T. S. and Beth Levin. 1995 Atkins, Beryl T., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin.

195 1986 Bahns, Jens. 1996 Benson, Morton. 1985a Bogaards, Paul. 1997 Cowie, Α. P. 1998 Heath, David. 1982 Herbst, Thomas. 1989, 1988, 1987, 1985a, 1984a Ilson, Robert. 1998 Moon, Rosamund. 1987b Noel, Dirk, Filip Devos, and Bart Defrancq. 1996 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1992 Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1987 Smith, Richarde. 1998 Verbs in dictionaries (miscellaneous) Atkins, Β. Τ. S., Beth Levin, and Grace Song. 1996 (verbs of sound) Battenburg, John D. 1989 (irregular) Cowie, Anthony P. 1998, 1990, 1989c (coding in OALD & others) D'Elia, Caterina. 1992 (explanation of) Fontenelle, Thierry. 1996 (ergative) Fontenelle, Thierry and Jocelyne Vanandroye. 1989 (ergative verbs) Heath, David. 1985 (patterns) Ilson, Robert F. 1990 (intransitive-transitive) Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 (coding in OALD & others) Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985 (conjugation) Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1991b (coding in OALD & others) Marello, Carla. 1982b (verb paradigms) Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994 (misuse) Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 (infinitive as lemma) Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1984 (descriptive verbs) Stein, Gabriele. 1985 (and affixation) Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1990 (verbs of naming) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b (the German verb) 1998c (treatment of) Verbs (phrasal) Aarts, Flor. 1991a Atkins, Beryl T. S. and Frank E. Knowles. 1990 Benson, Morton. 1989a Cowie, Anthony P. 1993 El-Sakran, T. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1987, 1984b Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Kharma, Nayef N. 1985 Lemmens, Marcel and Herman Wekker. 1986

Piotrowski, Tadeusz. 1997 Pye, Glennis. 1996 Sinclair, John M. 1987c Yorkey, Richard. 1997 Vocabulary Cowie, A. P. 1989a Dubois, Jean. 1981 Fox, Gwyneth. 1989 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1977 Herbst, Thomas. 1986 Ilson, Robert, ed. 1987b Jain, Mahavir. 1981 Jansen, J., J. P. Mergeai, and J. Vanandroye. 1987 McArthur, Tom. 1989 McKeown, Margaret. 1991 Michiels, Archibald and Jacques Noel. 1984 Procter, Paul. 1976 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 Stein, Gabriele. 1979 Whitcut, Janet. 1988 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1989 Weaknesses in dictionaries See also criticism Allen, Robert and Paul Pauwels. 1996 Atkins, Β. T. S. 1996 Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Dalgish, Gerard M. 1995 Gouws, Rufus. H. 1995 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991 McCreary, Don R. 1986 McCreary, D. R. and F. T. Dolezal. 1999 Mettke, Hans. 1990 Minaeva, Ludmilla. 1992 Müllich, Harald. 1990 Ogasawara, Linju. 1984. Standop, Ewald. 1985 Stein, Gabriele. 1989a Zgusta, Ladislav. 1988 Website Tono, Yukio. 1998 (with experimental research articles and bibliography) Woman, gender Cowie, Anthony P. 1995 Greenbaum, Sidney, Charles F. Meyer, and John Taylor. 1984 Hanks, Patrick. 1987

196 Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Quirk, Randolph. 1974 Word(s) Atkins, Beryl T., Judy Kegl, and Beth Levin. 1986 (class) Augst, Gerhard. 1991-1993 (word formation) Ayto, John. 1983 (definition) Benson, Morton. 1990c (loanwords), 1985b (combinations) Bogaards, Paul. 1992a, 1991c, 1990 (word class & word frequency) Βwenge, Charles. 1989 (classification) Cowie, Anthony P. 1995, 1983a, 1983b (derivatives) 1978b (combinations) Hartmann, R. R. K. 1987b (classification) Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985a (combinations) Herbst, Thomas, ed. In press (compounds, definition, collocations) Herbst, Thomas. 1984a (combinations) llson, Robert. 1987a (classification) Ilson, Robert. 1983 (loanwords) Keller, Howard H. 1987 (Russian word family Marckwardt, Albert H. 1973 (derivations) McCreary, Don R. 1986 (loanwords) McKeown, Margaret. 1993, 1991 (locating the word) Mdee, James S. 1984 (derivatives) Mitchell, Evelyn. 1983a, 1983b (locating the word) Moon, Rosamund. 1987b (class) Nesi, H. 1992 (locating the word) Nikula, Henrik. 1986 (as a prototype) Pye, Glennis. 1996 (locating the word) Rey, Alain. 1986 (loanwords) Rogers, Margaret and Khurshid Ahmad. 1998 (translating) Schnorr, Veronika. 1991 (selection) Scholfield, Phil. 1982 (locating the word) Sinclair, John M. 1987c (combinations) Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1984 (isolated) Stein, Gabriele. 1985 (word formation) Ter-Minasova, Svetlana. 1992 (combinations) Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989 (translating) Van der Meer, Geart. 1996a (combinations) Varantola, Krista. 1992 (translating) Walter, Elizabeth. 1996 (word frequency) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b (German compounds) Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1984 (definition) Wolf, Birgit. 1992 (locating the word)

Workbooks Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1984 Lamy, Marie-Noelle. 1985 Stark, Martin P. 1990 Writing and dictionary use Ard, Josh. 1982 Bejoint, Henri and Andre Moulin. 1987 Fischer, Ute. 1994 Galisson, Robert. 1983 Herbst, Thomas. 1985b Herbst, Thomas and Gabriele Stein. 1987 Howarth, Peter A. 1996 Huang, G. F. 1985 Humble, Philippe. 1998 Kipfer, Barbara Ann. 1987 Kromann, Hans-Peder, Theis Riiber, and Poul Rosbach. 1991a Laufer, Batia. 1992 Laufer, Batia and Linor Melamed. 1994 Maingay, Susan and Michael Rundell. 1987 McKeown, Margaret G. 1993 McNaughton, David, Charles Hughes, and Karen Clark. 1997 Meara, Paul and Fiona English. 1987 Müllich, Harald. 1990 Nakao, Keisuke. 1998 Nesi, Hilary. 1996, 1994, 1987, 1984 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 Nist, Sherrie L. and Stephen Olejnik. 1995 Tomaszczyk, Jerzy. 1989, 1987 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Writing definitions for learners' dictionaries See also deßning policy; definition; semantics; style in defining Ayto, John. 1983 Fox, Gwyneth. 1989 Hanks, Patrick. 1987 Hartmann, R. R. K„ ed. 1983c Nakamoto, Kyohei. 1998 Wrong use of dictionaries by learners See also incompetent; incorrect; unable; unaware; unskilled; criticism Al-Besbasi, Ibrahim. 1991 Heath, David and Thomas Herbst. 1985 Luppescu, Stuart and Richard R. Day. 1993 Maingay, Susan and Michael Rundell. 1987 Miller, George A. 1984

197 Nesi, Hilary and Paul Meara. 1994 Nuccorini, Stefania. 1994 Walz, Joel. 1990a

Sachregister (der 86 Artikel auf Deutsch)

Allgemeines Deutsches Wörterbuch Kühn, Peter and Ulrich Püschel. 1982 Aussprache Festag, Ewald. 1991 Herbst, Thomas. 1991b Bedeutungsangaben Harras, Gisela. 1986 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a, 1985b, 1985c, 1983b Bedeutungs differenzierung Kromann, Hans-Peder. 1986 Benutzer Antor, Heinz. 1994, 1988 Harras, Gisela. 1986 Püschel, Ulrich. 1989 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1987b Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Benutzerorientierung Fenner, Kirsten. 1997 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Benutzung Äugst, Gerhard, Volker Bunse, Andreas Höppner, Roswitha Rusert, Sebastian Schmidt, and FrankMartin Sünkel. 1997 Hartmann, R.R.K. 1988,1987b Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1994, 1992, 1988, 1985d, 1982, 1979, 1977 Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 Höhne, Steffen. 1991 Kühn, Peter. 1983 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Püschel, Ulrich. 1986 Ripfel, Martha. 1990, 1989 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Emst Wiegand. 1986 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984. Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a, 1987a, 1987b, 1985a, Wolf, Birgit. 1992

Beispiel Han-as, Gisela. 1989b Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985a Nikula, Henrik. 1986 Deutsch als Fremdsprache Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a, 1998b Einsprachige Wörterbücher Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1977 Henke, Käthe and Kurt-Michael Pätzold. 1985 Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Kühn, Peter. 1983 Kühn, Peter and Ulrich Püschel. 1982 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 Ripfel, Martha. 1989 Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 Siegrist, Ottmar K. 1996 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1985a Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Erklärungswörterbücher Fenner, Kirsten. 1997 Forschung Han-as, Gisela. 1989a Hartmann, R.R.K. 1987b Höhne, Steffen. 1991 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Emst Wiegand. 1986 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a, 1987a., 1985a Wolf, Birgit. 1992 Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994 Französische Wörterbücher Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1994, 1990a, 1990b, 1988, 1987, 1985b, 1985c, 1985d, 1983, 1982, 1979, 1977, 1974 Ripfel, Martha. 1989 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Fremdsprachen Hartmann, R.R.K. 1982

200 Herbst, Thomas. 1985a Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Gebrauch Klug, Hans Jürgen. 1989 Kühn, Peter and Ulrich Püschel,. 1982 Grammatik Heath, David. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1989, 1987, 1985a, 1984b Jehle, Günter. 1990b Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1985a Grundwortschätz Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Historisches Sprachverständnis Kühn, Peter. 1983 Kollokationen Bahns, Jens. 1996, 1994, 1989 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985a, 1985d, 1982, 1979 Jehle, Günter. 1990b Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Lernerwörterbücher Bahns, Jens. 1994 Feldweg, Helmut. 1997 Gouws, Rufus. H. 1995 Hartmann, R. R. K. 1988 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1974 Heath, David. 1985 Herbst, Thomas and David Heath. 1994 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a Klein, Eberhard, and Elise von Randow. 1990 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Siegrist, Ottmar K. 1996 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a, 1998b Zöfgen, Ekkehard. 1994, 1986 Lexikographie, lexikographisch Ballweg-Schramm, Angelika. 1983 Boelcke, J., Straub, B, and Thiele, P. 1983 Czochralski, Jan. 1981 Harras, Gisela. 1989b Hartmann, R.R.K. 1987b Zweisprachige Lexikographie

Hartmann, R.R.K. 1982 Zweisprachige Lexikographie Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1985a, 1983 Herbst, Thomas. 1985a Zweisprachige Lexikographie Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 Kromann, Hans-Peder. 1986 Zweisprachige Lexikographie Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 Spanische Lexikographie Voigt, Walter. 1984, 1981 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1989, 1985a, 1985b, 1983a, 1983b Lexikographische Sprachbeschreibung Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1983b Lexikologie Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1995 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1985c Lexikon Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1985b Linguistische Forschung Harras, Gisela. 1989b Muttersprachler Antor, Heinz. 1988 Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Nachschlagewerke Henke, Käthe and Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1985 Einsprachige Neuhochdeutsche Wörterbücher Schaeder, Burkhard. 1984 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst. 1998a Rezension, Rezensionsaufsatz Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1991, 1985d, 1982, 1979 Hausmann, Franz Josef and Adeline Gorbahn. 1989 Hüllen, Werner. 1994 Jehle, Gunter. 1990a Pätzold, Kurt-Michael. 1997, 1994, 1987 Schneider, Klaus P. 1998 Siegrist, Ottmar K. 1996 Schafroth, Elmar. 1997 (Spanischen) Standop, Ewald. 1985

201 Schwere Wörter Ballweg-Schramm, Angelika. 1983 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984a

Wörterbuchbenutzungsprotokolle Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a, 1987a, 1985a

Sprachhandlungen Kühn, Peter. 1983

Wörterbuchbenutzungssituation Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Emst Wiegand. 1986 Wagner, Horst. 1985 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a, 1987a, 1985a, 1985c

Technisches Wortgut Neubert, Gunter. 1970

Wörterbuchdefinition Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1985b

Theoretische Lexikographie Czochralski, Jan. 1981 Nikula, Henrik. 1986 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1985b, 1985c, 1983a, 1983b

Wörterbucheinträge Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1985c

Spanische Wörterbücher Schafroth, Elmar. 1997

Wörterbuchgebrauch Klug, Hans Jürgen. 1989 Kühn, Peter and Ulrich Puschel. 1982

Übersetzungswörterbücher Fenner, Kirsten. 1997 Hartmann, R.R.K. 1982 Jehmlich, Reimer. 1972 Wirtschaftswörterbuch Boelcke, J., B. Straub, and P. Thiele. 1983 Wörterbucharbeit Heath, David and Thomas Herbst,. 1985 Herbst, Thomas. 1985b DaF-Wörterbuchbenutzer Hoberg, Rudolf. 1978 Ickler, Theodor. 1982 Jackson, Howard. 1995 Neubauer, Fritz. 1985 Wiegand, Herbert Ernst, ed. 1998b Wörterbuchbenutzung Höhne, Steffen. 1991 Kühn, Peter. 1983 Mentrup, Wolfgang. 1984b Ripfel, Martha. 1990 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Emst Wiegand. 1986 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a 1987a, 1985a Wörterbuchbenutzungsforschung Höhne, Steffen. 1991 Kuhn, Peter. 1983 Ripfel, Martha and Herbert Emst Wiegand. 1986 Wiegand, Herbert Emst 1998a, 1987a

Wörterbuchmacher Voigt, Walter. 1981 Wörterbuchprobleme Ballweg-Schramm, Angelika. 1983 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1988 Herbst, Thomas. 1984b Voigt, Walter. 1984, 1981 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1985c Wörterbuchtyp Herbst, Thomas and David Heath. 1994 Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a Wörterbuchverlag Voigt, Walter. 1984, 1981 Zweisprachiges Wörterbuch. Hartmann, R.R.K. 1987b, 1982 Hausmann, Franz Josef. 1995, 1994, 1992, 1988, 1985d, 1982, 1979 Herbst, Thomas. 1985a Kromann, Hans-Peder. 1986. Ripfel, Martha. 1989. Wiegand, Herbert Emst. 1998a.

Acronyms of Cited Dictionaries

M o n o l i n g u a l dictionaries cited in this bibliography, 2 6 in all, alphabetically ordered by their acronyms: ALD2 = THE ADVANCED LEARNER'S DICTIONARY OF CURRENT ENGLISH. Eds. A S. Homby, E.V. Gatenby, and H. Wakefield. London: Oxford University Press. 2 1963. ALD = (retitled) THE ADVANCED LEARNER'S DICTIONARY OF CURRENT ENGLISH. Eds. A.S. Homby, E.V. Gatenby, and H. Wakefield. London: Oxford University Press. 1 1952. ALDI = A LEARNER'S DICTIONARY OF CURRENT ENGLISH. Eds. A S. Hornby, E.V. Gatenby, and H. Wakefield. London: Oxford University Press. '1948. BBI = The BBI COMBINATORY DICTIONARY O F ENGLISH. M. Benson, E. Benson, R. Ilson, eds., Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. >1986 [2nd Ed. 1998]. CELD = COLLINS ENGLISH LEARNER'S DICTIONARY. Ed. D. J. Carter, et al. London/Glasgow: Collins. 1974. C1DE = CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH Ed. P. Proctor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1995. COBUILD2 = THE COBUILD DICTIONARY (Collins Birmingham University International Language Database). Ed. J. Sinclair. London: HarperCollins. 2 1995 '1987. CODCE = CONCISE OXFORD DICTIONARY OF CURRENT ENGLISH. Eds. H. W. Fowler, F. G. Fowler and J. B. Sykes. Oxford: Clarendon Press. CULD = CHAMBERS UNIVERSAL LEARNERS' DICTIONARY. Ed. Ε. M. Kirkpatrick. Edinburgh: Chambers. 1980. DFC = DICTIONNAIRE DU FRANQAIS CONTEMPORAIN. Ed. J. Dubois, et al. Paris: Larousse. 1966. DLFLE = DICTIONNAIRE LAROUSSE DU FRANQAIS LANGUE ETRANGERE Niveau 2. Ed. J. Dubois. Paris: Larousse. 1979. ISED = IDIOMATIC AND SYNTACTIC ENGLISH DICTIONARY. Eds. A.S. Hornby, E.V. Gatenby, and H. Wakefield. Tokyo: Kaitakusha. 1942. LASDE = LONGMAN ACTIVE STUDY DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH. Ed. D. Summers. Harlow: Longman. 1983. LDELC = LONGMAN DICTIONARY O F ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND CULTURE. Ed. D. Summers. Harlow: Longman. 1992.

204 LDOCE3 = LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH. Ed. D. Summers. Harlow: Longman. 1995. [ 2 1987, >1978 6(1. P. Procter]. LGWDAF = LANGENSCHEIDTS GROßWÖRTERBUCH DEUTSCH ALS FREMDSPRACHE. Eds. Dieter Götz, Günther Haensch, Hans Wellmann. Berlin/ München: Langenscheidt. 1993. LLA = LONGMAN LANGUAGE ACTIVATOR. THE WORLD'S FIRST PRODUCTION DICTIONARY. Ed. D. Summers. Harlow: Longman. 1993. M-R = MICRO-ROBERT, LANGUE FRANQ!AISE PLUS NOMS PROPRES, CHRONOLOGIE CARTES, Deuxieme edition. Ed. Alain Rey. Paris: Le Robert. 1988. NDFC = NOUVEAU DICTIONNAIRE DU FRANQ1AIS CONTEMPORAIN ILLUSTRE. Ed. J. Dubois. Paris: Larousse. 1980. OALD5 = OXFORD ADVANCED LEARNER'S DICTIONARY OF CURRENT ENGLISH. Ed. J. Crowther. Oxford : Oxford University Press. 5 1995. OALD4 = OXFORD ADVANCED LEARNER'S DICTIONARY OF CURRENT ENGLISH. Ed. A.P. Cowie. Oxford : Oxford University Press. 4 1989. OALD3 = OXFORD ADVANCED LEARNER'S DICTIONARY OF CURRENT ENGLISH. Ed. A S. Hornby with the assistance of A. P. Cowie and J. W. Lewis. Oxford : Oxford University Press. 3 1974. ODCIE2 = OXFORD DICTIONARY OF CURRENT IDIOMATIC ENGLISH. Eds. A.P. Cowie, R. Mackin, and I.R. McCaig. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2 1983 [' 1975], OED = THE OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY - A NEW ENGLISH DICTIONARY ON HISTORICAL PRINCIPLES. Ed. J. Murray et al / W.A. Craigie and C.T. Onions/ R. W. Burchfield. Oxford: Clarendon Press. CD-ROM, 1996. [' 1884-1928/1933-, Supplements from 1972], OLWD = THE OXFORD LEARNER'S WORDFINDER DICTIONARY. Ed. Hugh Trappes-Lomax. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1997. PR = PETIT ROBERT, DICTIONNAIRE ALPHABETIQUE ET ANALOGIQUE DE LA LANGUE FRANgAISE. Nouvelle edition. Ed. Alain Rey. Paris: Le Robert. 1977.