Numeral Classifiers in Chinese: The Syntax-Semantics Interface 9783110289336, 9783110287639

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XuPing Li Numeral Classifiers in Chinese

Trends in Linguistics Studies and Monographs 250

Editor

Volker Gast Editorial Board

Walter Bisang Jan Terje Faarlund Hans Henrich Hock Natalia Levshina Heiko Narrog Matthias Schlesewsky Amir Zeldes Niina Ning Zhang Editors responsible for this volume

Walter Bisang Niina Ning Zhang

De Gruyter Mouton

Numeral Classifiers in Chinese The Syntax-Semantics Interface

by

XuPing Li

De Gruyter Mouton

ISBN 978-3-11-028763-9 e-ISBN 978-3-11-028933-6 ISSN 1861-4302 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress. Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. ” 2013 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Printing: Hubert & Co. GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen 앝 Printed on acid-free paper 앪 Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com

This book is dedicated solely to my beloved late mother Xu Yinfeng (06/09/1959—27/10/2012), for her deep love in the past thirty years.

䉘ԕ↔Җ⥞㔉ᡁᮜ⡡Ⲵ⇽Ӣᗀ䬦ࠔˈᝏ䉒ྩ 30 ᒤᶕሩᡁᰐ⿱Ⲵ⡡઼ а⭏ⲴԈࠪDŽ

Preface

This book has grown out of my 2011 dissertation, entitled “On the semantics of classifiers in Chinese” (Bar Ilan University, 2011). The book is a substantial revision of the dissertation, incorporates both the research for the dissertation and the results of my work on classifiers in the years 20112013. Three new chapters, namely, Chapter 2, Chapter 4 and Chapter 10, have been added to the original dissertation. Specifically, Chapter 4 on natural atomicity was presented at the workshop on “Mass/count in linguistics, philosophy and cognitive science” at ENS, Paris in Dec 2012. Chapter 10 is based on my talk at the workshop on “Semantic and typological perspectives on definite” in Düsseldorf in June 2012. In the meantime, a different version of Chapter 8 is published as Li and Rothstein (2012) in Language and Linguistics. Chapter 9 is a development of Li and Bisang (2012) in Lingua. In this book, I discuss both syntax and semantics of classifiers in Chinese. My knowledge of semantics comes directly from Susan Rothstein, who has been guiding and supporting me since we met in 2006. I am grateful to her for what she has done for me at every stage of my career. Both Greg Carlson and Fred Landman deserve special thanks. Greg, as one of the referees of my dissertation in 2010, gave me many constructive comments, which lead to great improvement of my dissertation. Fred read the whole manuscript and edited and commented on it in the spring of 2011, resulting in a much improved final version. I also appreciated Fred’s cutting-ins during my appointments with Susan at their home. I thank them both very much for their contribution to my work on classifiers. I should also like to thank Victor Pan, the conversations with whom always make me think carefully about the question of how much syntax is needed for my semantics for Chinese classifiers. I’ve worked in Israel, German and France since 2006. I thank everybody at the institutions I worked in, in particular, my Israeli teachers: Gabi Danon, Edit Doron, Yael Greenberg, Nirit Kadmon, Fred Landman, Susan Rothstein, and my German linguistic circle: Walter Bisang, Franziska Kretzschmar, Yuchen Hung, Matthias Schlesewsky, Luming Wang, and the linguists in Paris: Hilary Chappell (and members in her Sinotype Project), Katia Chirkova, Redouane Djamouri, Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin, David Ni-

viii

Preface

colas, Victor Pan, Alain Peyraube, Paul Waltraud. Thanks also goes to Lisa Cheng, James Huang, Rint Sybesma, Dylan Tsai, Niina Zhang. I would also take this opportunity to acknowledge the financial support from various sources. Thanks to Bar-Ilan for the Presidential Fellowship (2006-2010), which allowed me to study at BIU. I also wish to thank Walter Bisang for the financial support which made my visit possible in the academic year of 2008-2009 in Mainz, and for his guidance which allowed me to learn so much about the typology of classifiers. The revision of the book was conducted when I was a postdoc fellow in Hilary Chappell’s ERC-Sinotype Project in Paris. I thank her unconditional support during my stay in Paris. Finally, very special thanks to the referee and to the editors of the series, Walter Bisang and Niina Zhang, for their helpful comments. I also thank my project/book editors Julie Miess and Wolfgang Konwitschny for their professional editorial guidance. XuPing Li Paris, June 2013

Contents

Preface .......................................................................................................... v Abbreviations ............................................................................................. xv Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 1. Issues .................................................................................................. 1 1.1. Issue 1: the debate on a count/mass distinction in Mandarin ............ 1 1.2. Issue 2: counting and measuring functions of classifiers .................. 2 1.3. Issue 3: definiteness in classifier languages ...................................... 3 2. Data and source.................................................................................. 4 3. Structure of the book ......................................................................... 6 Part I: The debate on a count/mass distinction in Chinese Chapter 2 Defing classifiers ...................................................................................... 13 1. Chinese classifiers: an illustration ................................................... 13 1.1. Identifying classifiers syntactically ................................................. 13 1.2. Chinese classifiers: a heuristic classification .................................. 16 2. Classifiers as a closed class ............................................................. 21 3. Classifiers without “descriptive content” ........................................ 23 3.1. Classifiers are not nominal .............................................................. 23 3.2. Classifiers have no ‘descriptive content’ ......................................... 28 4. Classifiers are complement-taking................................................... 30 5. Classifiers as stressless .................................................................... 32 6. Classifiers in English: a contrastive look ........................................ 33 7. Conclusions...................................................................................... 41 Chapter 3 The count/mass distinction in Chinese revisited ................................... 42 1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 42 2. Syntactic distinction between count and mass classifiers ............... 44 2.1. Introduction to count/mass classifiers ............................................. 44 2.2. Lexical/functional distinction of classifiers .................................... 47 2.3. Two syntactic diagnostics ................................................................ 49

x

Contents

3. 3.1. 3.2. 4. 5.

Possibility of pre-classifier adjectival modification ........................ 55 Adjectives before count and mass classifiers .................................. 55 Two constraints on pre-classifier adjectives.................................... 59 Optionality of post-classifier de....................................................... 62 Conclusions...................................................................................... 67

Chapter 4 Natural atomicity ..................................................................................... 68 1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 68 2. Countability and individuation ........................................................ 69 3. A lexical distinction between mass and count nouns ...................... 73 4. Individual, stuff and partial-object readings .................................... 77 5. Natural atomicity as a grammatically relevant phenomenon ........... 81 6. Conclusions...................................................................................... 85 Chapter 5 Chinese bare nouns .................................................................................. 86 1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 86 2. The Krifka-Chierchia hypothesis ..................................................... 87 3. Bare nouns as kinds ......................................................................... 89 3.1. Strong kind-inducing contexts ......................................................... 89 3.2. Appositives ...................................................................................... 92 3.3. Scope with respect to opacity .......................................................... 93 3.4. Scope with respect to quantifiers ..................................................... 97 4. Semantics of bare nouns ................................................................ 101 5. Bare predication ............................................................................. 103 5.1. Some analyses of copula clauses ................................................... 104 5.1.1. Ambiguous BEs ............................................................................. 104 5.1.2. Unambiguous BE ........................................................................... 106 5.2. Post-copula bare nouns as predicates of individuals ..................... 108 5.3. Post-copula bare nouns as predicates of subkinds ......................... 112 5.4. Post-copula bare nouns as predicates of kinds .............................. 114 6. Definite bare nouns ........................................................................ 116 6.1. Topic-hood and definiteness .......................................................... 116 6.2. Definite bare nouns in object positions ......................................... 120 6.3. Semantics of definite bare nouns ................................................... 121

Contents

xi

Part II: Functions of classifiers: counting and measuring Chapter 6 Counting and measure functions of classifiers .................................... 127 1. Introduction .................................................................................... 127 2. Counting and measuring readings: a crosslinguistic perspective .. 129 2.1. Introducing counting and measuring readings ............................... 129 2.2. Structures for counting and measuring readings ........................... 133 3. Ambiguity of container classifiers in Chinese ............................... 135 3.1. Counting and measuring readings for Chinese container classifiers 135 3.2. The syntax of counting and measuring readings ........................... 140 4. A feature analysis of classifiers: [±Counting, ±Measuring] .......... 143 4.1. Four types of classifiers ................................................................. 144 4.1.1. Type 1: [+C, -M] classifiers........................................................... 144 4.1.2. Type 2: [-C, +M] classifiers........................................................... 147 4.1.3. Type 3: [+C, +M] classifiers.......................................................... 148 4.1.4. Type 4: [-C, -M] classifiers............................................................ 150 4.1.5. Concluding remarks ....................................................................... 152 4.2. Syntactic support for the counting and measuring readings .......... 153 4.3. Semantic shifting between counting and measuring readings ....... 158 5. Semantics of classifiers: counting and measuring ......................... 161 5.1. Krifka’s (1995) semantics for Chinese classifiers ......................... 162 5.2. Rothstein’s (2010) semantics for English classifiers..................... 164 5.3. Semantics of Chinese classifiers.................................................... 167 5.3.1. Semantics of classifiers in counting readings ................................ 167 5.3.2. Semantics for classifiers on the measure reading .......................... 171 6. Conclusions.................................................................................... 172 Chapter 7 Adjectival modification in classifier phrases: pre-classifier adjectives .................................................................................................................. 174 1. Introduction .................................................................................... 174 2. Licensing pre-classifier adjectives................................................. 176 2.1. Pre-classifier adjectives before counting classifiers ...................... 176 2.2. “Concrete portion” reading (Partee and Borschev 2012) .............. 179 3. The modification relation of pre-classifier adjectives ................... 181 3.1. Adjectival modification in pseudo-partitives................................. 181 3.2. Pre-classifier adjectives in Mandarin ............................................ 183 3.2.1. Rejecting pre-classifier adjectives modifying mass classifiers ..... 184

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Contents

3.2.2. 4. 4.1. 4.1.1. 4.1.2. 4.1.3. 4.2. 5. 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 6.

Rejecting pre-classifier adjectives modifying nouns ..................... 186 Pre-classifier adjectives modifying “Cl+N” .................................. 189 Contexts of using pre-classifier adjectives .................................... 189 Consumption contexts.................................................................... 189 Contexts of significance ................................................................ 191 Contrastive contexts....................................................................... 192 Syntactic structure ......................................................................... 193 Semantics of pre-classifier adjectives............................................ 195 Introduction to ‘expressives’ ......................................................... 195 Pre-classifier adjectives as expressives ......................................... 197 Pre-classifier adjectives and plurality ............................................ 200 Conclusions.................................................................................... 201

Chapter 8 Modification marker de in classifier phrases ...................................... 202 1. Introduction .................................................................................... 202 2. Licensing the post-classifier de ..................................................... 204 2.1. De with mass classifiers (Cheng and Sybesma 1998) ................... 206 2.2. “Information weight” (Tang 2005) ................................................ 209 2.3. The ‘indeterminacy’ account (Hsieh 2008) ................................... 211 3. Unsolved problems (Li and Rothstein 2012) ................................. 214 4. Semantics of Num-measure Cl-de-N: as much as.......................... 216 4.1. Measure classifiers and the particle de .......................................... 216 4.2. Semantics of Num-Clmeasure-de-N ................................................... 218 5. Num-count Cl-de-N: as many as ................................................... 220 5.1. Counting classifiers in measure phrases ........................................ 221 5.2. Semantics of Num-Clcount-de-N ...................................................... 223 6. Conclusions: two puzzles about [+counting] classifiers................ 226 Part III: Definiteness in classifier languages Chapter 9 Definite classifiers in southern Chinese languages ............................. 233 1. Introduction .................................................................................... 233 2. “Cl+N” in three Chinese languages ............................................... 236 2.1. “Cl+N” in Mandarin ...................................................................... 237 2.2. “Cl+N” in Wu ................................................................................ 240 2.2.1. Preverbal “Cl+N”........................................................................... 240 2.2.2. Postverbal Cl+N............................................................................. 242 2.3. “Cl+N” in Cantonese ..................................................................... 243

Contents

xiii

3. Information structure and (in)definite “Cl+N” .............................. 245 4. Syntax of indefinite “Cl+N” .......................................................... 248 4.1. Indefinite “Cl+N” as a reduced form of “one+Cl+N” (Lü 1944) .. 248 4.2. Indefinite “Cl+N” as NumPs ......................................................... 249 4.3. Indefinite “Cl+N” as ClP ............................................................... 251 5. Syntax of definite “Cl+N” ............................................................. 254 5.1. From “Dem+Cl+N” to definite “Cl+N” ........................................ 255 5.2. Definite “Cl+N” as ClP ................................................................. 257 5.3. Definite “Cl+N” as DP .................................................................. 259 6. Semantic interpretation of “Cl+N” ................................................ 262 6.1. “Cl+N” with a counting reading .................................................... 262 6.2. Semantics of indefinite “Cl+N” ..................................................... 264 6.3. Semantics of definite “Cl+N”: from counting to definitenessmarking .................................................................................................... 266 6.3.1. A uniqueness-based approach of definiteness ............................... 266 6.3.2. A familiarity-based approach of definiteness ................................ 269 6.3.3. Semantics of definite “Cl+N” ........................................................ 273 7. Summary ........................................................................................ 274 Chapter 10 Definite classifiers and their modifiers ................................................ 275 1. Introduction to modified “Cl+N”................................................... 275 2. Syntax of modified “Cl+N” in Wu ................................................ 277 2.1. Modified “Cl+N” as a definite expression .................................... 278 2.2. Modified “Cl+N” as DP................................................................. 280 2.2.1. Definite classifiers as D head ........................................................ 280 2.2.2. Dems as [Spec DP] ........................................................................ 282 2.2.3. Adjs/RCs as [Spec DP] .................................................................. 284 3. Semantics of non-bare “Cl+N” ...................................................... 285 3.1. Definite classifiers characterized with “familiarity” ..................... 285 3.2. Interpret modified “Cl-N” compositionally ................................... 287 4. Concluding remarks ....................................................................... 290 References ................................................................................................ 291 Index ......................................................................................................... 307

Abbreviations

ACC

accusative case

CL

classifier

EXP

experiential aspect

DUR

durative aspect

FOC

focus marker

GEN

genitive case

MOD

modification marker

NMLZ

nominalizer

OM

object marker

PASS

passive

PFV

perfective

PL

plural

PRF

perfect

PROG

progressive

PRT

particle

SG

singular

Chapter 1 Introduction

1. Issues This book is a study on numeral classifiers in Chinese. It explores the grammatical properties of Chinese classifiers at the syntax-semantics interface. The core task of this study is to look into the question of how classifiers are semantically interpreted in different syntactic contexts or how different semantic functions of classifiers are realized at the syntactic level. Its primary goal is to provide the missing semantic component in previous syntactically oriented works. The following three issues will be explored in this research: (i) the debate on a count/mass distinction in Mandarin, (ii) counting and measuring functions of classifiers, and (iii) definiteness-marking in classifier languages.

1.1. Issue 1: the debate on a count/mass distinction in Mandarin The first issue is concerned with the question of whether there is a lexical count/mass distinction in the nominal domain in Mandarin. There are three specific questions to be addressed: (i)

(ii)

(iii)

Can classifiers encode a count/mass distinction in Mandarin? In other words, is it plausible to posit a distinction between count and mass classifiers, as proposed in Cheng and Sybesma (1998)? How to characterize the contrast between shui ‘water’ and nanhai ‘boy’ in Mandarin? Does it reflect a grammatical distinction between mass and count nouns or simply an ontological distinction between homogenity? Are there mass-to-count (“universal grinding”) or count-to-mass (“universal package”) shiftings in Mandarin?

2

Introduction

To start with, I make a distinction between “individuation” and “countability” (cf. Joosten 2003). Individuation is a cognitive and/or ontological notion. It refers to whether the referents denoted by nouns are (discrete) individuals or not. In contrast, countability is a grammatical notion. It refers to whether nouns can be directly counted by numerals or not. I take the position that the count/mass distinction is a grammatical phenomenon and it is thus related to the notion “countability” only. In view of that Chinese nouns cannot be directly combined with a numeral, they are all mass nouns (Krifka 1995, Chierchia 1998a, b). As for the first question, I argue in chapter 3 that the distinction between ‘count’ and ‘mass’ classifiers proposed by Cheng and Sybesma (1998) cannot be established in Mandarin. The syntactic diagnostics they suggest cannot be justified in making a dichotomy between count and mass classifiers and therefore, a contrast between count and mass nouns cannot be drawn. I argue in chapter 5 that all the Mandarin bare nouns are mass nouns and they denote kinds (see Chierchia 1998b, Yang 2001, Jiang 2012). Concerning the second question, I find no morphosyntactic evidence available for a grammatical distinction between mass and count nouns in Mandarin. Contra Doetjes (1997), I claim that the contrast between shui ‘water’ and nanhai ‘boy’ simply reflects an ontological distinction between homogeneity and discreteness but not a lexical mass/count distinction. Following up our answers to the first and second questions, it is expected that there are no grammatical operations such as count-to-mass or mass-to-count shifting. It will be argued in chapter 4 that Chinese nouns may refer to ontologically different entities, they have a genuine ambiguity between object reading and stuff reading, or even a partial object reading in some occasions (see Huang and Lee 2009).

1.2. Issue 2: counting and measuring functions of classifiers I claim that Chinese classifiers have two basic functions: a counting function and a measure function, and that the semantic distinction between these two readings is reflected at the syntactic level. Based on the feature [±Counting] and [±Measure], a four-way classification of Chinese classifiers is proposed. With this, I claim that in Chinese, classifiers cannot be divided into two lexical groups, like sortal and mensural classifiers (Lyons 1977, Crofts 1994) or count and mass classifiers (Cheng and Sybesma 1998). Instead, the important distinction lies in the different uses of clas-

Issues

3

sifiers, as expressions introducing counting or expressions introducing measuring. The Mandarin example san ping jiu ‘three bottles of wine’ can either be interpreted with a counting reading or a measuring reading, as in (1a) and (1b) respectively. (1) a. fuwusheng kai le [san ping jiu]. waiter open PFV three CLbottle wine ‘The waiter opened three bottles of wine.’ b. fuwusheng he le [san ping jiu]. waiter drink PFV three CLbottle wine ‘The waiter drank three bottles of wine.’

[Counting]

[Measure]

On the counting function, the classifier applies to the denotation of the bare noun, a kind, and returns a set of atomic entities, which count as one in a particular context (see Rothstein 2010). With this reading, the Numeral-Classifier-Noun is assigned with a right-branching structure: [Num [Cl-N]]. On the measure function, the classifier first combines with the numeral to form a complex modifier, which denotes the set of entities of the head noun type whose measure value is the quantity denoted by the numera classifier (see Krifka 1995, Chierchia 1998a, Landman 2004, Rothstein 2009). Therefore, with the measure reading, it is assigned with a left-branching structure: [Num-Cl [N]]. This approach is significant for several reasons. First, it suggests that both left-branching and right-branching structures are needed for Num-ClN, which capture two different semantic funcitions of classifiers in Chinese. Second, the distinction between counting and measuring classifiers also provide a good explanation of the licensing conditions and functions of pre-classifier adjectives and postverbal de. These two phenomena will be discussed in chapter 7 and 8 respectively.

1.3. Issue 3: definiteness in classifier languages The third issue deals with whether it is possible to have a DP structure in classifier languages such as Chinese, in which there is no grammaticalized definite article. Contra Boškoviü (2010:13) that “if a language has an obligatory classifier system, it does not have DP”, I argue that classifier languages, like Wu Chinese and Cantonese, can have a refined DP structure. I

4

Introduction

also claim that the definiteness encoded by D is characterized with the pragmatic notion “familiarity” but not the semantic notion of “uniqueness”. In southern Chinese languages, classifiers can mark definiteness in the construction “Cl+N”. “Cl+N” can be used alone, as in (2a) or be preceded by elements like adjective, relative clause, possessor, demonstrative etc., as in (2b). (2) a. [tsΩҌ kiu] CL dog ‘The dog died.’ b. [ƾќ tsΩҌ I CL ‘My dog died.’

si-࠺iэ die. die PRT kiu] dog

[Wu: Fuyang]

si-࠺iэ die. die PRT

I propose that definite classifiers are quasi-definite articles that are able to instantiate a determiner head D0 via Cl-to-D raising. The elements occurring before the definite classifier fall into two groups in terms of their syntactic position: demonstratives are analyzed [Spec DP] and adjective/relative clauses are DP modifiers. I argue that definiteness encoded by definite classifiers is characterized with “familiarity” but not with “uniqueness”. To put it more specifically, I propose that definiteness in the Chinese languages be identified with Roberts’s (2003) notion of “weak familiarity”. Definite “Cl+N” refer to entities that are directly involved in the situation or are presupposed to be familiar or identifiable by interlocutors, as part of the background information. The modifiers preceding “Cl+N” express the contextual information on familiarity in an overt way.

2. Data and source I will base the discussion of classifiers largely on the data of Mandarin Chinese, though I will also draw data from other Chinese languages, such as Wu and Cantonese. In chapter 9 and 10, I will explicitly discuss differences between classifiers in Mandarin, Wu and Cantonese. Therefore, when using the expression ‘Chinese’, I mean the Chinese languages or the Sinitic languages, and not just Mandarin. I now provide some general background information about the three Chinese languages that I discuss in this book: Mandarin Chinese, Wu Chinese and Cantonese (Yue Chinese).

Data and source

5

Mandarin Chinese was originally spoken across most of Northern and South-western areas of China. It has now become the national language of People’s Republic of China. The variant of Mandarin studied in this book is the Putong-hua ‘common language’, i.e. Standard Mandarin. Cantonese, a southern Chinese language, is spoken in the southern provinces of China, including Guangdong Province, Guangxi Province, Hong Kong Special Administration Region and Macau Special Administration Region. The variant of Cantonese I study here is Hong Kong Cantonese (mainly based on Matthews and Yip’s 1994 grammar). Wu Chinese is spoken in the Yangtze Delta area including Shanghai City, Zhejiang Province and southern Jiangshu Province. The Wu data presented in this dissertation are based on the Fuyang dialect, the mothertongue of the author. The dialect belongs to the Taihu Lake groups of the Northern Wu dialect. It is spoken in the Fuyang city, in the northwest of Zhejiang province and to the southwest of Shanghai. The dialect has about 600,000 native speakers. The language data used in this book follows the following conventions: Mandarin: Pinyin (People's Republic of China's official Romanization system) Cantonese: Jyutping (the Linguistic Society of Hong Kong Cantonese Romanization Scheme) Wu (Fuyang): IPA symbols. Note that the data I use in the book is Mandarin, unless marked otherwise. Further, tone is not marked in the examples. The author himself is a bilingual speaker of Mandarin and the Fuyang dialect of Wu Chinese. The Mandarin examples used in this book come from various sources, e.g. retrieved from the Peking University Corpus, googled from the internet, made up by the author or otherwise cited from others. They are all carefully checked with other Mandarin speakers from different parts of China. My informants include Chen Yujie (Henan), Hung Yuchen (Taiwan), Li Luxia (Hunan), Liang Xinliang (Liaoning), Liu Hui (Beijing), Victor Pan (Hubei), Wang Luming (Zhejiang), Wang Jian (Jiangsu). The Wu examples are made up by the author and doublechecked with his mother, Xu Yinfeng, and his sister, Li Ping-Er. The Cantonese examples are taken from Matthews and Yip’s (1994) reference grammar of Cantonese and Cheng and Sybesma’s (1999) paper. In addition, I also checked some of the Cantonese examples with my colleages, SingSing Ngai and Hilario de Sousa, who are native speakers of HongKong Cantonese.

6

Introduction

3. Structure of the book The book is composed of three parts, which deal with the three issues raised in section I in respective order. Part I is concerned with the debate on the mass/count distinction in Mandarin. Chapter 2 of the book defines classifiers in Chinese languages. I define classifiers with both syntactic and semantic criteria: a classifier is the mediating element following a numeral or determiner and it expresses the semantic function of counting or measuring entities. I also discuss the categorical features of classifiers in Mandarin and English: Mandarin classifiers are ‘functional’ à la Abney (1987), while (non-individual) classifiers in English are ‘relational nouns’ in nature. Chapter 3 discusses the question of whether there is a count/mass distinction of nominal phrases in Mandarin. I review Cheng and Sybesma’s (1998) claim that the count/mass nominal distinction is grammatically realized in Mandarin classifiers. I examine the two syntactic tests that they argue to substantiate this claim: (i) the presence of pre-classifier adjectives and (ii) the optionality of the particle de after the classifier. I show that the facts do not support Cheng and Sybesma’s distinction between mass classifiers and count classifiers. In chapter 4, I first argue that the mass/count distinction is understood as a grammatical phenomenon. It is related to the grammatical notion of “countability” but not to cognitive or ontological notion of “individuation”. It is then argued that Mandarin only has an ontological distinction between discreteness and homogeneity but has no grammatical mass/count distinction. Nouns like shui ‘water’ and nanhai ‘boy’ merely represent two ontologically different types of nouns, i.e. nouns referring to homogeneous and discrete entities respectively. Additionally, I argue that there is no masscount shifting or count-mass shifting in Mandarin. Mandarin nouns have a genuine ambiguity between object reading and stuff reading, and even a partial object reading in some occasions. Chapter 5 explores the semantics of bare nouns in Chinese. I, following Chierchia (1998b), propose that all Chinese nouns are mass nouns. Chierchia (1998b) suggests that Chinese is an argumental language, in which (i) all the bare nouns occur freely in argument positions in their bare forms, and (ii) bare nouns make reference to kinds. I show that there is good evidence to accept Chierchia’s hypothesis. I look into the object-level interpretations of Chinese bare nouns by focusing on the variability of the interpretation of bare nouns in predicative positions (post-copula positions).

Structure of the book

7

Following Carlson (1977) and Chierchia (1998a, 1998b), I argue that the kind interpretation is the default reading for Chinese bare nouns and that object-level readings, including both indefinite and definite readings, are derived from the kind reading. Part II deals with the counting and measuring functions of classifiers in the sequence of Numeral-Classifier-Noun. In chapter 6, I argue that the counting and measure readings of classifiers are two basic functions of classifiers and that they are distinguished syntactically in Chinese. Following Rothstein’s (2010) semantics for count nouns, I propose that on the counting function, the classifier applies to the denotation of bare nouns, i.e. kind terms, and returns a set of atomic entities, which are counted as one in a certain context. On the measure function, the classifier first combines with the numeral to form a complex modifier, which denotes the set of entities of the head noun type whose measure value is the quantity denoted by the numeral. I follow basically the semantics of measuring in Krifka (1995) (see also Landman 2004, Rothstein 2009). Based on the feature [±Counting] and [±Measure], I develop a four-way classification of Chinese classifiers. With this, I claim that in Chinese, classifiers cannot be divided into two lexical groups, like sortal and mensural classifiers (as in Lyons 1977, Crofts 1994) or count and mass classifiers (Cheng and Sybesma 1998). Instead, the important distinction lies in the different uses of classifiers, as expressions introducing counting or expressions introducing measuring. Chapter 7 and 8 address the two questions left open in chapter 3 respectively: (i) what are the distributional patterns and the semantic function of pre-classifier adjectives? (ii) what is the licensing condition and semantics of the post-classifier de? I propose an account which crucially uses the distinction between counting and measure functions of classifiers. In chapter 7, we argue that pre-classifier adjectives can appear before classifiers in the counting context. That is, they can only appear before [+C, -M] and [+C, +M] classifiers (the latter only on their counting interpretation), but not before [-C, +M] or [-C, -M] classifiers. I propose that preclassifier adjectives modify the constituent of “Cl+N” but not the classifier or the noun. As for the semantic function of pre-classifier adjectives such as da/xiao ‘big/small’, I argue that these phrases have ‘expressive’ meanings in that they express the speaker’s evaluation of the atomic entity in the denotation of “Cl+N” to be big or small from a particular perspective chosen by the speaker.

8

Introduction

Chapter 8 discusses the licensing condition and the semantics of the post-classifier de. I argue that Num-Cl-de-N always has a measure reading in that Num-Cl denotes the quantity of entities represented by N and it has the syntactic structure [[[Num-Cl](-de-)]N]. Both measuring and counting classifiers can be incorporated in the measure phrase marked by de, but they express two types of measure readings: the as much as Num+Cl type and the as many as Num+Cl type. Measuring classifiers have the as much as… interpretation, and counting classifiers have the as many as… reading, in which the counting classifier is shifted with a measuring reading. I argue that the particle de subordinates the constituent of Num-Cl to the head noun as a modifier. It shifts Num-Cl of type to a modifier of type . Part III discusses the realization of DP structure and the semantics of definiteness in Chinese, in particular, in southern Chinese languages like Wu and Cantonese. Chapter 9 discusses bare classifier phrase “Cl+N” in Mandarin, Wu and Cantonese. In Mandarin Chinese, the “Cl+N” construction is only found in postverbal positions and has an indefinite reading. In Cantonese and Wu, this construction is available in both preverbal and postverbal positions. In Wu “Cl+N” has a definite reading when appearing preverbally, and indefinite when appearing postverbally (Li and Bisang 2012). In Cantonese, preverbal “Cl+N” has a definite reading and postverbal “Cl+N” is either definite or indefinite (see Cheung 1972, Cheng and Sybesma 1999, 2004, Simposon et al 2011). The following questions will be addressed concerning the distribution and (in)definiteness of “Cl+N”: (i) What are the factors that constrain the distribution of indefinite and definite “Cl+N”? (ii) What is the syntax of indefinite and definite Cl+N phrases? Specifically, is indefinite “Cl+N” a classifier phrase or a numeral phrase? Is definite “Cl+N” a definite phrase? (iii) Is the “Cl+N” construction derived from the counting reading or the measure reading of the classifier? (iv) What is the semantic function of the classifier in indefinite and definite “Cl+N” constructions? Chapter 10 focuses on modified “Cl+N”, namely, a complex form of “Cl+N” preceded by adjectives, relative clauses, demonstratives, possessors etc. In section 2, I claim that modified “Cl+N” are unambiguously definite. I propose a unified DP structure for bare and modified “Cl+N”, in which the classifier heads DP. The preceding elements fall into two groups in terms of their syntactic positions: demonstratives are specifiers of DP, and adjectives/relative clauses and possessors are DP modifiers. In section 3, a compositional semantics is proposed à la Bach and Cooper (1978), namely, DPs can optionally take an extra property argument, which is satu-

Structure of the book

9

rated by the denotation of a high-adjoined modifier and intersected with the property contributed by the content of the noun phrase.

Part I: The debate on a count/mass distinction in Chinese

Chapter 2 Defining classifiers

1. Chinese classifiers: an illustration 1.1. Identifying classifiers syntactically This chapter defines classifiers. In a broad sense, “classifier” is used as a general cover term for noun classification devices, which include noun class markers, numeral classifiers, possessive classifiers, locative classifiers etc., as discussed in Allan (1977), Craig (1992) and Aikhenvald (2000). However, in this study, the term classifier is used to refer to numeral classifiers in a narrow sense. Numeral classifiers are an essential part of the grammar of East and Southeast Asian languages, such as Chinese languages, Korean, Japanese, Lao, Hmong, Vietnamese etc. According to Greenberg (1974) and Bisang (1999), the existence of numeral classifiers is an “areal feature” of East and Southeast Asian languages. To illustrate, in languages like English, nouns with ‘high countability’ like woman, table, cat etc. can be directly combined with a numeral, such as two women, three tables, one cat respectively. However, there are also languages whose “nouns in construction with numerals may occur with an additional grammatical element even when such nouns are of high countability” (Gil 2005). For instance, in Mandarin Chinese, numerals cannot modify nouns directly and it is obligatory to have a mediating element inbetween, such as ge in (1b) and ke in (2b). They are the so-called numeral classifiers. (1)

a.* liang xuesheng two student b. liang ge xuesheng two CL student ‘two students’

(2)

a.*san

shu

[Mandarin]

14

Defining classifiers

three tree b. san ke three CL ‘three tree’

shu tree

In Chinese, the term “classifier” is called liàng-cí ‘quantity word’ or dƗnwèi-cí ‘unit word’ (Lü 1942). This suggests that its function is to help to express quantity or to give a unit for entities. The morpheme ge is a general classifier for individuals. In the example of liang ge xuesheng in (1b), the numeral liang ‘two’ requires the presence of ge, which provides a counting unit for the animate noun xuesheng ‘student’. It means ‘two students’. In (2b), ke is a specific classifier for plants. It expresses the unit of tree or flower. The numeral three has to combine with ke to modify the noun shu ‘tree’. The phrase means ‘three individual trees’. As the term itself suggests, a numeral classifier typically goes with numerals. In languages like Mandarin, it is an obligatory syntactic requirement that numerals take a classifier when modifying nouns. The examples in (1) and (2) characterize one of the most prototypical syntactic contexts where numeral classifiers may occur, i.e. “Numeral + Classifier + Noun” (Num-Cl-N for short). In other classifier languages, nouns are not preceded but followed by “Num+Cl”. For instance, Thai has the word order “N+Num+Cl”, in which the classifier is obligatory too. Look at (3) for an illustration. (3)

a.*thúrian sǎam durian three b. thúrian sǎam durian three ‘three durians’

[Thai] luû k CL (Jenks 2011: 77)

Nonetheless, numeral classifiers are not merely restricted to the cooccurrence with numeral. They also occur with determiners in these classifier languages. “Det+Cl+N” (or “N+Det+Cl”) is the second possible syntactic context for numeral classifiers. I use the example from Mandarin and Lao to illustrate. In Mandarin, it is obligatory for some determiners to take a classifier when modifying nouns, such as the universal quantifier mei ‘every’. Look at (4) as an illustration. (4)

a.*mei

shu

[Mandarin]

Chinese classifiers: an illustration

15

every book b. mei ben shu every CL book ‘every book’ According to Enfield (2007: 122), a number of quantifiers in Lao also require numeral classifiers, appearing in the same constructional pattern as numeral classifier expressions: (5)

a. kuu3 sùù4 (paa3) baang3 too3. [Laos] I buy fish some CL ‘I bought some (of the fish).’ b. kuu3 sùù4 (paa3) thuk1 too3. I buy fish every CL ‘I bought every one (of the fish).’

Examples from (1) to (5) characterize two prototypical syntactic environments for numeral classifiers: (i) “Numeral-Classifier-Noun” (or “Noun-Numeral-Classifier”) (ii) “Determiner-Classifier-Noun” (or “Noun-Determiner-Classifier”). Therefore, from the syntactic perspective, the term numeral classifier can be understood as the mediating element occurring contiguous to numeral or determiner when modifying nouns. Semantically, it has the function of counting or measuring entities, namely, providing counting or measuring units. There are two issues arising immediately. First, the examples I showed so far are all concerned with classifiers modifying “nouns with high countability” in Gil’s term (2005). They are often called ‘sortal’ or individual classifiers, such as ben ‘volume (for book)’ in Mandarin, lûuk in Thai and too3 in Lao. However, there are also elements modifying “nouns with low countability”, such as cup in ‘one cup of coffee’, pound in ‘two pounds of sugar’, plume in ‘three plumes of smoke’. They are called ‘mensural’ or non-individual classifiers. Should I consider them to be classifiers too? My answer to this question is positive. I take the position that as long as a morpheme is able to satisfy the syntactic and semantic requirements for classifiers as stated above, they can be categorized as classifiers, including both individual classifiers and non-individual classifiers. Second, non-individual classifiers are found in almost every language (“universally available” Croft 1994, Bisang 1999), whereas individual

16

Defining classifiers

classifiers are exclusively found in languages like Mandarin, Thai, Lao, Vietnamese. Languages in the world can be classified into typologically different types, depending on whether a language has sortal classifiers or not. The term “classifier language” is used here to refer to languages with sortal classifiers. Therefore, Chinese languages like Mandarin are representative classifier languages, while Indo-European languages like English are non-classifier languages. According to WALS (the World Atlas of Language Structures Online 2005), among the 400 languages investigated, 260 languages have no sortal classifier, 62 languages allow an optional use of sortal classifiers, and 78 languages uses sortal classifiers in an obligatory manner. Therefore, in addition to classifier and non-classifier languages, there are also optional classifier languages. In optional classifier languages, there are individual classifiers, but their occurence in “Numeral-Classifier-Noun” is optional. One example of such a language is Minangkabau, in which classifiers such as ikue in (6) are sometimes present but in other cases absent. (6)

duo (ikue) anjiang two CL dog ‘two dogs’

[Minangkabau] (Gil 2005)

In brief, here, I investigate numeral classifiers in Chinese, that is, the grammatical morpheme occurring between numeral/determiner and noun.

1.2. Chinese classifiers: a heuristic classification According to the syntactic criterion that a classifier refers to the element occurring between numeral/determiner and noun in Chinese, elements from different sources may fall into this category. In what follows, I will show how different lexical types of classifiers can be distinguished in a heuristic way à la Chao (1968). Chao (1968) makes a classification of six lexically different types of classifiers (‘measure’ in his terms)1: individual classifiers, group classifiers, 1

In earlier descriptive works, the element between numeral/determiner and noun is called classifier by some and measure by others. These two terms are not clearly distinguished and one is often subsumed under another. For example, Chao (1968: 584) treats all Chinese classifiers as “measures” in the sense that “a measure is a

Chinese classifiers: an illustration

17

partition classifiers, container classifiers, temporary classifiers and standard measures.2 The relevant Mandarin examples are given from (7) to (12): Individual classifiers: “modify nouns according to the entity’s shape, or other properties”. (7)

a. liang ke two CL ‘two trees’ b. yi tiao one CL ‘a river’

shu tree he river

Individual classifiers “individualize a given count noun by designating its semantic boundaries” (Bisang 1999: 118-119) or by designating its “natural unit” (Croft 1994: 163). The classifier ke in (7a) is a specific individual classifier for plants, such as shu ‘tree’ and cao ‘grass’. The classifier tiao in (7b) modifies nouns denoting long-shaped entities, including he ‘river’, bahen ‘scar’, shengzi ‘rope’ etc. The lexical meaning expressed by individual classifiers usually has to be topologically compatible with the entities denoted by noun, e.g. their shape, size etc. Group classifiers: “used for a group or collection of individuals”. According to Lehere (1986: 117), it expresses “numerosity”. (8)

a. san qun xuesheng three CLgroup student ‘three groups of students’ b. yi kun daocao one CLbundle straw ‘a bundle of straws’ The classifier qun ‘group’ in (8a) modifies [+animate] nouns, such as ren ‘people’, xuesheng ‘students’ or zhu ‘pig’ etc. It represents an aggrebound morpheme which forms a Determinative-Measure compound”, where the Determinative includes demonstratives, numerals, or quantifiers. In contrast, Li and Thompson (1981: 106) subsume measures under classifiers and say that “any measure word can be a classifier”. In the current research, I use the term classifier. 2 Chao (1968) listed out nine types of classifiers: seven types of nominal classifiers and two subtypes of verbal classifiers. I ignore the seventh class of nominal classifiers, i.e. quasi-measure expressions, because they behave more like nouns than like classifiers.

18

Defining classifiers

gate or a gathering of animated entities. The group classifier kun in (8b) is similar to the meaning of bundle in English, referring to the collection of entities tied together with strings. Classifiers in this group include dui ‘pile’ in yi dui pingguo ‘a pile of apples’, cuan ‘string’ in yi cuan lajiao ‘a string of chili peppers’, ba ‘handful’ in yi ba douzi ‘a handful of beans’. Partition classifiers: “represent portions of things”. What is speical about partition classifiers is that they represent some particular part of entity taken from a large part or a whole individual entity. In other words, a part-whole relation is always implied. (9)

a. yi jie shengzi one CLsection rope ‘a section of rope’ b. yi pian dangao one CLpiece cake ‘a piece of cake’

The noun shengzi ‘rope’ can be modified by the individual classifier tiao, as in yi tiao shengzi ‘a rope’, which represent a length of rope. Contrastively, in (9a), yi jie shengzi simply means a small section of rope, which is cut off from a long one. The partitive classifier phrase in (9a) presupposes the existence of a long rope. The example (9b) has the similar presupposition that a piece of cake is partitioned out of a large piece. Container classifiers: “container nouns used as measures”. (10) a. yi ping jiu one CLbottle wine ‘a bottle of wine’ b. san che chengke three CLbus passenger ‘three busloads of passengers’ There are two points worth noting about container classifiers. First, the container referred to by the container classifier does not have to exist physically in every case. Yi ping shui in (10a) can either refer to the scenario that there is a physical bottle which contains wine or that there is as much wine as one bottle, say, 750ml. In the latter case, the container is used as a standard measure. Second, container nouns are an open class, but container classifiers are not. Not every container noun can be used as container clas-

Chinese classifiers: an illustration

19

sifiers. There are some general constraints when deriving container nouns into container classifiers. This point will be elaborated in section 3. Temporary classifiers: “use the outside extent of objects to measure quantity”. (11) a. yi shen xue one CLbody snow ‘a bodyful of snow’ b. yi bizi hui one CLnose dust Lit:‘a noseful of dust’ An idiom meaning: ‘being refused’ In Lehrer (1986), temporary classifiers are treated as a subtype of container classifiers. “The concept ‘container’ must be construed very generally to include not only objects for putting other objects and substances in, but also on and even under” (Lehrer 1986: 120). Examples include ‘a ceiling of posters’, ‘a wall of pictures’, and ‘a shelf of books’ in English. However, I think that there are some crucial semantic differences between container classifiers and temporary classifiers. Container classifiers can be easily used as standard measures (by convention), while generally speaking, temporary classifiers can only be inexact measures. Standard measures: “they are measures proper”. The set of standard measures is small and closed in Chinese. It is also true in other languages (see Allan 1977). Standard measures range from measure units for weight, length, volume and so on. (12) a. wu mi bu five CLmeter cloth ‘five meters of cloth’ b. liang gongjin pingguo two CLkilo apple ‘two kilos of apples’ These are the six types of classifiers discussed in Chao (1968). One particular type of classifier that is not discussed by Chao (1968) is kind classifier. They are zhong ‘kind/species’ and lei ‘type’ in Chinese. They are used in the same syntactic contexts as the classifiers shown above, namely, they can be used in “Num/Determiner+Cl+N”, as shown in (13). (13) a. zhe

zhong dongwu

20

Defining classifiers

this CLkind animal ‘this kind of animal’ b. liang lei butong-de ren people two CLtype different ‘two different types of people’ In this research, I will also take into account kind classifiers. The classification of these six subtypes of classifiers made by Chao (1968) is heuristic. It is based on the different origins and lexical meanings of classifiers. From examples (7) to (13), it appears that Chinese classifiers do not constitute a semantically homogeneous class, although they can be identified consistently according to the syntactic criterion, i.e. the syntactic contexts in which they are allowed. Different subtypes of classifiers emphasize different ways of quantifying entities, such as the natural unit of entities, the quantity of aggregated entities, or standard measurement of entities. In the rest of the chapter, I will examine whether the different subtypes of classifiers in Chinese constitute a uniform category in terms of their syntactic properties. Specifically, I am interested in finding out whether the classifiers have the same categorical feature, namely, having the same degree of lexical/functional make-up. I argue that while Chinese classifiers come from different sources, they constitute an independent category, to be distinguished from nouns or numbers. They are functional and belong to a closed class. The remainder of the chapter is structured as follows. From section 2 through 5, I will spell out the argument that Chinese classifiers constitute a “functional category” à la Abeny (1987). Section 6 offers a contrastive look at classifiers in English. The chapter is concluded in section 7. Before proceeding to justify our arguments, I summarize Abeny’s (1987: 64-65) five criteria for functional elements (not in the original order): a. Functional elements constitute closed classes. b. Functional elements lack … “descriptive content”. Their semantic contribution is second-order, regulating or contributing to the interpretation of their complement. They mark grammatical or relational features, rather than picking out a class of objects. c. Functional elements permit only one complement, which is in general not an argument. The arguments are CP, PP and DP. Functional elements select IP, VP, NP. d. Functional elements are usually inseparable from their complement.

Classifiers as a closed class

21

e. Functional elements are generally phonologically or morphologically dependent. They are generally stressless, often affixes or clitics, and sometimes even phonologically null.

2. Classifiers as a closed class The first issue I am interested in is whether classifiers belong to an open or a closed word class. I will show that Mandarin classifiers belong to a closed class. Greenberg (1972), Allan (1977), Denny (1976, 1979), and others, all point out that classifier languages have a small, closed, paradigmatic contrasting set of morphemes (cf. Lehrer 1986: 110). The number of classifier varies in each classifier language. In Mandarin Chinese, ‘one classifier dictionary lists 199 classifiers, 76 of them sortal (38%)’, while a teaching grammar of ‘the 143 most commonly used classifiers’ lists 66 sortal (46%)” (cf. Erbaugh 2002:39). I counted the numbers of each type of classifiers listed in Chao (1968), as shown in the following Table 1. According to this table, there are around 50 individual classifiers in Mandarin. Roughly speaking, the number of the most frequently used individual classifiers in Mandarin ranges from fifty to seventy, depending on factors like register and regional differences etc. Table 1. Numbers of classifiers in each subtype

A

Classifiers Individual Cls

Numbers 51

B C D E F

Group Cls Partition Cls Container Cls Temporary Cls Standard measures

46 39 36 14 46

Examples ge (the general classifier), ben ‘volume’, tou ‘head’ (classifier for animials)… qun ‘group’, lie ‘series’, kun ‘bundle’... pian ‘piece’, jie ‘section’, si ‘slice’ … he ‘box’, hu ‘kettle’, wan ‘bowl’ … shen ‘body’, lian ‘face’, di ‘floor’… mi ‘meter’, shen ‘liter’…

Table 1 does not represent an exhaustive list of the number of classifiers, since what Chao lists only represents the most frequently used classifiers in each type. Among the six types of classifiers in Chinese discussed in Chao (1968), members of individual classifiers, group classifiers, partition classifiers and standard measures are relatively stable. It is rare to see new

22

Defining classifiers

members join in, though this possibility cannot be ruled out absolutely. However, those of container and temporary classifiers seem to be open to a great extent. Intuitively, the number of container and temporary classifiers should be much larger than what is listed in Table 1. This is because nouns referring to containers can be easily used as container classifiers, such as yi dai laji ‘a bag of rubbish’, and nouns referring to objects whose surface or outer area is able to measure quantities of entities can be used as temporary classifiers in many cases, such as yi lian hanshui ‘a faceful of sweat’. These two types of nouns belong to an open class, so it is very easy for many to make the analogy that these two types of classifiers, i.e. container and temporary classifiers, are also open. However, I do not think that this kind of analogy withstands scrutiny. I use container classifiers to illustrate some of the problems with this kind of analogy. In many cases, nouns expressing typical containers cannot be used as container classifiers. For example, jiaoshi ‘classroom’ can be seen as a perfect “container” for xuesheng ‘student’ in a metaphorical sense, as in the example “many students sat in the classroom”. However, the expression of #yi jiaoshi xuesheng ‘#a classroom of students’ is not felicitous in Mandarin. At least, it is not as natural as yi ban xuesheng ‘a class of students’ or yi wu xuesheng ‘a room of students’. A similar example is about the use of qianbao ‘wallet. We usually put money in a wallet, so it is reasonable to consider wallet to be a prototypical container for money. However, it is not common to use qianbao as a container classifier for money and the expression #yi qianbao qian ‘#a wallet of money’ is unacceptable, though the meaning of the expression is understandable to native speakers. Many would use yi bao qian ‘a bag of money’ instead. This shows that container nouns can express a relation of containment, but they cannot be used as container classifiers freely. There are some underlying constraints for such a category shift. It is a conventionalized practice to choose a certain classifier to modify a certain group of nouns. There are some selectional constraints between the classifier and the noun, which may be semantic or conventional. One of the constraints for the container noun-to-container classifier-shifting is conventionalization. For example, to talk about cherries, it is common to say ‘a basket of cherries’ or ‘a plate of cherries’ but it is not as common to say ‘a mug of cherries. This expression is understandable to the addressees, but mug is not a conventional container to cherries or it is not a conventional practice to use mug to carry cherries. Certainly, in this special context, mug can be (non-conventionally) analyzed as a special container clas-

Classifiers without “descriptive content”

23

sifier for cherries, but this use will not be conventionalized or accepted in a general way in the linguistic community. To sum up, there are conventional and non-conventional uses of classifiers. The members of conventional classifiers are stable to a great extent, while the innovative use of classifiers may introduce new classifiers into the system, but innovative classifiers do not change the membership of classifiers in nature. Historically speaking, some of the core members of conventional classifiers developed from innovative classifiers, but this kind of development or conventionalization takes a fairly long process. I conclude that Mandarin classifiers belong to a closed class. Each subtype of classifier has stable and conventionalized members.

3. Classifiers without “descriptive content” This section teases out the relation between lexical meaning and descriptive content of classifiers. The important questions to be pursued are: (i) are classifiers or some of the classifiers (e.g. mensural classifiers) nominal in nature? (ii) does the fact that a classifier expresses some lexical meaning mean that they belong to a lexical category? Our answers to these two questions are in the negative.

3.1. Classifiers are not nominal Many hold the opinion that Mandarin classifiers are lexical, or more precisely, being nominal. For example, Zhu ([1982] 1990: 50) considers classifiers to be content words, on a par with nouns. A similar idea dates back to Wang (1943), who defines classifiers as a special type of noun. They are called “unit noun” (danwei mingci in Chinese). A recent account in support of this view is found in Wu and Bodomo (2009: 488), who claim that Mandarin classifiers are “contentful morphemes” which are “used to indicate the semantic classes of nouns; hence, they often carry information beyond that carried by their associated noun” (cf. Allan 1977). Another viewpoint is that different types of classifiers have different lexical/functional make-ups. According to Cheng and Sybesma (1998: 1417), there are ‘count’ and ‘mass’ classifiers in Chinese, which have different categorical features. Assuming that all classifiers have nominal orgins, they claim that count classifiers are fully grammaticalized classifiers and

24

Defining classifiers

cannot occur as independent nouns, while “massifiers are really nouns” , as such are an open class. “One group of classifiers consists of elements which are completely grammaticalized as classifiers. They form a closed class, and they cannot occur as independent nouns.” “The other group of classifiers do not constitute a closed class in the sense that any noun which can be seen to create a unit for measuring mass nouns can be used (notably all sorts of container words or words that can be interpreted as containers; e.g. wan ‘bowl’, bei ‘cup’). So the latter group consists of elements which also occur as independent nouns”.

I first argue against the view that Mandarin classifiers have a nominal origin. Classifiers in Mandarin grammaticalize from different categories, which can be nouns, verbs or adjectives. A majority of classifiers have a nominal origin, but some of them are evolved from verbs and adjectives. See the illustration in (14) and (15). The classifiers in (14) are derived from verbs historically. For example, on its verb use, gua in (14a) originally means ‘hang’. It has an extended use as classifier, meaning ‘string’. The morpheme peng in (14b) has the lexical meaning ‘scoop with hand’; in classifier use, it means ‘handful’. In (14c), the morpheme cuo, as a verb, means ‘take up with fingers’ literally. Used as a classifier, it means ‘pinch’. (14) a. yi gua bianpao [classifiers derived from verbs] one CLstring firecrackers ‘a string of firecrackers’ b. yi peng xiangtu one CLhandful soil:from:homeland ‘a handful of soil from homeland’ c. yi cuo yan one CLpinch salt ‘a pinch of salt’ In contrast, those in (15) are adjectives: wan means ‘curved’ and fang means ‘square’. When they are used as classifiers, they refer to entities with the shape of being crescent or square respectively.

Classifiers without “descriptive content”

25

(15) a. yi wan mingyue [classifiers derived from adjectives] one CLcurved moon ‘a cresent of moon’ b. yi fang yantai one CLsquare ink stone ‘a piece of ink stone’ In the two groups of examples in (14) and (15), the element between numeral and noun cannot be treated as verbs or adjectives any more. They are reanalyzed as classifiers, which provide units to measure or count entities referred to by noun. Specifically, those in (14) are non-individual classifiers and those in (15) are individual classifiers. If the examples in (14) and (15) are taken into account, then, surely, it is incorrect to say that all classifiers are originally nouns. Second, I show that it is not correct either to treat a subgroup of classifiers as nouns, such as mass classifier or non-individual classifiers. Among the different types of non-individual classifiers, container classifiers have the highest degree of nominal properties and they have noun uses, but group classifiers and most partition classifiers have a rather low degree of nominal properties and they cannot be used as nouns. The first column of (16) illustrates the classifier use of the morphemes. In the second column, the corresponding morphemes are modified by the general classifier ge, as in the construction “Num-ge-N”. This suggests that container classifiers have a high degree of nominal properties and they have noun counterparts. (16)

container Cl a. yi ping shui one CLbottle water ‘one bottle of water’ b. yi xiang pingguo one CLbox apple ‘one box of apples’ c. yi dai binggan one CLbag biscuit ‘one bag of biscuits’

Æ a’. yi *(ge) one CL ‘one bottle’ b’. yi *(ge) one CL ‘one box’ c’. yi *(ge) one CL ‘one bag’

N ping bottle xiang box dai bag

In contrast, group classifiers show a low degree of nominal properties in that they cannot function as nouns independently. As shown in the second column of (17), they cannot be modified by the general classifier ge and

26

Defining classifiers

they are not allowed in Num-ge-N. However, they can be a part of a noun compound, which can be modified by the general classifier ge, as in the third column. (17)

group Cl Æ N Æ N-compound a. yi kun daocao a’.*yi ge kun a’’.yi ge cao-kun one CLbundle straw one CL bundle one CL straw-bundle ‘a bundle of straws’ ‘a bundle’ ‘a straw-bundle’ b. yi huo liumang b’.*yi ge huo b’’. yi ge tuan-huo one CLgroup hooligan one CL group one CL gang-group ‘a group of hooligans’ ‘a group’ ‘a gang’ c. yi dui huo c’.*yi ge dui c’’. yi ge huo-dui one CLpile fire one CL pile one CL fire-pile ‘a pile of fire’ ‘a pile’ ‘a bonfire’

Most partition classifiers have an even lower degree of nominal properties. They can neither be used as nouns nor can they form noun compounds, though originally they are nouns. Partition classifiers such as luo ‘pile’ or duan ‘section’ in (18) cannot be formed into noun compounds. (18)

partition Cl Æ a. yi luo wenjian one CLpile document ‘one pile of documents’ b. yi duan ganzhe one CLsection sugarcane ‘one section of sugarcane’ c. yi zhang zhi one CLpiece paper ‘one piece of paper’

N luo pile

a.’* yi ge one CL ‘one pile’ b’.* yi ge duan one CL section ‘one section’ c’* yi ge zhang one CL piece ‘one piece’

Therefore, it is not entirely true to say that non-individual classifiers are nouns. They exhibit different degrees of nominal properties: some have noun counterparts, some can only be part of noun compounds and others can simply be classifiers. Importantly, individual classifiers do not form a unified class either in terms of their nominal properties. There are indeed a large number of individual classifiers that can be used as independent nouns. For example, in (19), the count classifiers are as lexical as container classifiers are. As

Classifiers without “descriptive content”

27

shown in the second column in (19), they, as nouns, must themselves be preceded by classifiers in order to be modified by numerals. (19)

count CL a. yi tou niu one CLhead bull ‘a bull’ b. wu shan men five CLfan door ‘five doors’ c. san ben shu three CLvolume book ‘three books’

Æ N a’.* yi ge tou one CL head ‘one head’ b’.* wu ba shan five CL fan ‘five fans’ c’.* san ge ben three CL exercise-book ‘three exercise books’

In contrast, some individual classifiers have a low degree of nominal properties. They cannot be used as nouns independently, but they can be used in noun compounds, as in (20). count CL Æ N Æ N-compound a. yi ba yizi a’.* yi ge ba a’’. yi ge che-ba one CL chair one CL grip one CL bicycle-grip ‘a chair’ Intended: ‘a grip’ ‘a bicycle-grip’ b. yi duo hua b’.* yi ge duo b’’. yi duo hua-duo one CL flower one CL bud one CL flower-bud ‘a flower’ Intended: ‘a bud’ ‘a bud’ c. yi zhi hua c’.*yi ge zhi c’’. yi gen shu-zhi  one CL flower one CL twig one CL tree-twig ‘a branch of flower’ Intended: ‘a twig’ ‘a twig’

(20)

There are also individual classifiers that have an even lower degree of nominal properties in that they can only be used as classifiers, as given in (21)3.

3

According to Hanyu Dazidian [Comprehensive Chinese Dictionary], the classifiers in (21) were all nouns in origin. For example, the general classifier ge means ‘bamboo branch’, zhi means ‘bird’ and mei ‘trunk’ in classical Chinese. However, in modern Chinese, the lexical meanings of this group of classifiers are bleached to such a degree that they cannot be used independently anymore.

28 (21)

Defining classifiers

count CL Æ a. yi ge ren one CL man ‘a man’ b. yi zhi dou one CL dog ‘a dog’ c. yi mei tongqian one CL copper coin ‘a copper coin’

a’.* yi ge one CL

N ge CL

b’. *yi ge one CL

zhi CL

c’.* yi ge one CL

mei CL

Until now, I have answered the first question raised at the beginning of this section. I make two claims concerning the question whether classifiers are nominal. First, Mandarin classifiers are derived from different categories, such as nouns, verbs and adjectives, but most of them have a nominal origin. Second, among those classifiers with a nominal origin, they exhibit different degrees of nominal features. This holds true for both individual and non-individual classifiers. Among the individual classifiers, there are classifiers with a high degree of nominal properties, and also classifiers with a low degree of nominal properties, and the same is true for nonindividual classifiers. Therefore, it is inappropriate to claim that all Mandarin classifiers are nominal or that non-individual classifiers are nominal.

3.2. Classifiers have no ‘descriptive content’ As for the second question, I argue that classifiers have lexical content, but they are not content words. It is important to distinguish between lexical meaning and descriptive content of classifiers. Wu and Bodomo (2009) argue that Chinese classifiers are “contentful morphemes”. They add extra semantic information about the entities expressed by the noun. Specifically, they are “used to indicate the semantic classes of nouns; hence, they often carry information beyond that carried by their associated noun”. According to them, due to their content, different classifiers can be used with the same noun to create distinct cognitive effects. The examples in (22) are taken from them, where the noun shu ‘book’ can be modified by different classifiers, such as ben ‘volume’, bao ‘bag’, luo ‘pile’ and xiang ‘box’.

Classifiers without “descriptive content”

29

(22) a. yi ben shu one CLvolume book ‘one book’ b. yi bao shu one CLbag book ‘one bag of books’ c. yi luo shu one CLpile book ‘one pile of books’ d. yi xiang shu one CLbox book ‘one box of books’ That some element expresses lexical meaning does not imply that it is a lexical item or a content word. Let’s take auxiliary verbs for example. Both in English and Chinese, auxiliary verbs give further semantic or syntactic information about a main verb, such as modality, attitude or temporal references. However, it is generally agreed that they are functional words in both languages. Another similar case regards prepositions. Prepositions are functional words but express semantic content, such as spatial (or temporal) meaning. Therefore, the fact that classifiers are able to add extra information about the denotation of nouns does not necessarily lead to the conclusion that they are content words. As said earlier, a single lexical item may be used as a noun or as a classifier, such as the dual use of bao ‘bag’. However, the meaning expressed by its classifier use is distinctive from what is expressed by its noun use. Each use has a different meaning. When the lexical item bao ‘bag’ is used as a noun, it refers to a certain bag, say, a school bag or a plastic bag. However, when it is used as a classifier, as in (22b), it is used in a relational way as a container to hold books. In this case, the main function of bao ‘bag’ is to express a containment relation. It is even possible that there is no physical bag in the actual scene. The phrase yi bao shu may simply mean a package of books, which are wrapped up with craft paper. Therefore, it seems that a single lexical item can be used in two different syntactic contexts, in which they express different semantic meanings. It is possible that there are two different lexical entries for a single morpheme in this case: a noun entry and a classifier entry (a ‘sortal noun’ use and a ‘relational noun’ in Löbner 1985 and Partee and Borschev 2012).

30

Defining classifiers

This provides further evidence in support of the view that classifiers should be categorically distinguished from the word class, from which they are derived, which are content words and can be nouns, verbs or adjectives. What is meant by saying that the classifiers are functional is that they do not have “descriptive content” (Abeny 1987: 65), and they express the grammatical function of counting or measuring entities, as will be defined later in chapter 6.

4. Classifiers are complement-taking I now look at Abeny’s (1987) criterion (c) and (d). Criterion (c) states that functional elements permit only one complement, which is in general not an argument. Criterion (d) says that functional elements are usually inseparable from their complement. It is impossible to use classifiers alone in Mandarin Chinese. They must always be adjacent to some other element, either following determiners/numerals or preceding nouns. The examples from (23) to (28) illustrate the possible syntactic contexts for classifiers in Mandarin.4 4

Tang (1990) examines the possible contexts of classifiers in Mandarin as well. According to her, the demonstrative or the numeral must co-occur with the classifier. According to Tang, the examples in (i) are ungrammatical. (i) a.*na shu (Tang 1990:398) b.*ben shu (Tang 1990: 400) that book CL book However, Tang’s observation is not complete. Both “Dem+N” and “Cl+N” are possible in Mandarin, but they are constrained by some restrictions. Generally speaking, “Dem+N” is usually found in subject positions and not in object position in Mandarin, as exemplified in (ii). (ii) a. zhe shu shi wo- de. b. ???wo mai le zhe shu. this book be mine I buy PFV this book ‘This book is mine.’ ‘I bought this book.’ As for “Cl+N”, Zhu (1982: 52) points out that in Mandarin, “Cl+N” can appear in object positions and not in subject positions. Cheng and Sybesma (1999) argue that indefinite “Cl+N” are restricted in lexically governed positions, such as postverbal positions. Nevertheless, Lin (1997) said that “Cl+N” can be used after verb as object, but it cannot appear as the complement of a preposition, as in (iii). (iii) Ta gen *(yi) jia chubanshe you heyue. he with one CL publisher have contract Intended: ‘He has a contract with a publisher.’

Classifiers are complement-taking

31

Firstly, classifiers are complement-taking, and noun phrases are the only possible constituent that can be taken as complement to classifiers. (23) [Cl+N] wo gei ni pao 1SG give you make ‘I made you a cup of tea.’

le PFV

[bei CL

cha]. tea

“Cl+N” can only have a singular reading, so bei cha in (23) only means a cup of tea, but not cups of tea. Some believe that in the case of (23), there is a covert numeral yi ‘one’ before “Cl+N”. I will discuss this issue in chapter 9. A second context is that the constituent of “Cl+N” can be modified by numerals, as the sequence of “Num+Cl+N” in (24). (24) [Num+ Cl+N] ta qing le [liang ge he invite PFV two CL ‘He invited two students. ’

xuesheng]. student

Thirdly, “Cl+N” can be directly modified by determiners and “Dem+ Cl+N” has a singular interpretation, as in (25). In order to have plural readings, numerals larger than one can be inserted between Dem and Cl, as in the sequence “Dem+Num+Cl+N”, as in (26). (25) [Det+Cl+N] wo yao [na I want that CL ‘I want that book.’

ben book

shu].

(26) [Det+Num+Cl+N] [na san ben shu] shi wo-de. that three CL book be mine ‘Those three books were bought by me.’ Fourthly, when the classifier is modified by numerals and/or determiners, the NP can be elided. “Num-Cl” and “Dem-(Num)-Cl” are both legitimate constructions. The relevant examples are given below, where the NP is either elided, which can be recovred from the context, as in (27) or topicalized, as in (28).

32

Defining classifiers

(27) [Det+Cl] wo yao [na ben shu]. I want that CL book ‘I want that volume (of book).’ (28) [Num+CL] pingguo, wo zhi chi apple I only eat ‘Apples, I only ate five.’

le PFV

[wu five

ge]. CL

Nevertheless, as I mentioned earlier, a classifier cannot be used by itself. For example, the example in (29) is ungrammatical, since there is no numeral preceding it or noun following it.5 (29) *[Cl] * cha, wo pao le bei. tea I make PFV CLcup Intended: ‘As for tea, I made a cup.’ It is clear from examples (23) to (29) that classifiers are complementtaking and they take an NP as complement.

5. Classifiers as stressless Classifiers are usually stressless in Mandarin. As Tao (2006) said that in Beijing Mandarin, “…there is often one accent on the phrase; it falls on the numeral while leaving the classifier unstressed”. Chen (2000:321) also 5

Classifiers can be reduplicated and express distributive meaning. The reduplicated classifiers behave more like floating quantifiers and they usually requires a plural nominal phrase as antecedent, as in (i). However, reduplicated classifeirs cannot be used in argument positions alone, such as subject or object, as in (ii). This distinguishes reduplicated classifiers from other classifier phrases, which are argumental, such as Num-Cl-N or Dem-Num-Cl-N. (i) ta de xuesheng ge-ge dou hen congming. He Mod student Cl-CL all very clever ‘His students all are clever.’ (ii) # ge-ge dou hen congming. CL-CL all very clever Intended: ‘Each is clever.’

Classifiers in English: a contrastive look

33

points out that classifiers in Beijing Mandarin and many other Chinese dialects usually bear a neutral tone (toneless). The example Chen (ibid) gives is that in the phrase liang ge ren ‘two Cl person’, the classifier ge is stressless, as indicated by the underline. This generalization applies to standard Mandarin as well (see Chao 1968). The exception is that classifiers can be contrastively focused by stress placement. As in (30), the classifier wan ‘bowl’ and guo ‘pot’ are stressed, as indicated by letters in bold. It expresses the contrastive meaning that two individuals drank two different quantities of soup, say a large quantity, as expressed by wan, versus a small quantity, as expressed by guo. (30) wo he le yi wan tang, ta he le yi guo. I drink PFV one CLbowl soup he drink PFV one CLpot ‘I drank a bowl of soup, and he drank a pot.’ Intermediate summary: To summarize section 2 to 5, I showed that Mandarin classifiers pass Abeny’s (1987) tests: (i) belonging to a closed class, (ii) lacking descriptive content, (iii) being syntactically dependent, (iv) being phonologically weak. Accordingly, classifiers in Mandarin are considered to be functional and not lexical (also see Muromatsu 1998 for a similar view on classifiers in Japanese). It is a standard assumption that Chinese classifiers head an independent functional projection of classifier phrase (ClP for short) (Tang 1990 a, b; A. Li 1999; Cheng and Sybesma 1999, among others). Applying Abeny’s (1987) DP hypothesis to Chinese, Tang (1990a, b) argues that in Chinese, there is an extra projection between the determiner phrase, i.e. DP and the noun phrase, i.e. NP and this projection is realized by a classifier phrase, i.e. ClP. Tang (1990) thus proposes a DP structure like [DP D [NumP Num [ClP CL [NP N]]]] for nominal phrases in Mandarin. I will discuss in chapter 6 what are the possible syntactic structures for the sequence of Num-Cl-N.

6. Classifiers in English: a contrastive look This section makes a comparison of classifiers between Mandarin Chinese and English by focusing on their categorical differences. I said earlier that Mandarin is a classifier language, whereas English is a non-classifier lan-

34

Defining classifiers

guage. When talking about classifiers in English, I refer to non-individual classifiers but not the individual classifiers. The construction which allows these classifiers are usually called “pseudo-partitives” (Selkirk 1977). I propose that classifiers in non-classifier languages are borrowed from nouns and do not have an independent categorical status as classifiers (see Jackendoff 1977 for English, Riemsdijk 1998 and Corver 1998 for Dutch, Rothstein 2009 for the analysis of classifiers in English and Modern Hebrew), and that classifiers in Chinese constitute an independent category, and they are distinguished from nouns. According to Allan (1977), the following five types of classifiers are distinguished in English (cf. Lehrer 1986: 111).6 Note that ‘measure classifiers’ in Allan’s terminology actually corresponds to three different types of classifiers in Chao’s taxonomy, i.e. standard measures, container classifiers and temporary classifiers. (31) Unit counters a. a piece of equipment b. a head of cabbage c. an ear of corn (32) Collective classifiers a. two clumps of grass b. a herd of animals. (33) Varietal classifiers a. two species of wheat b. all kinds of flowers (34) Measure classifiers a. two pounds of cabbage b. one liter of wine c. a box of candy d. a bowl of sugar.

6

Allan (1977) considers ‘fractional classifiers’, such as three quarters of the cake and ‘number set of classifiers’, such as many hundreds of people and dozens of bird, to be classifiers as well. In many languages, these expressions are expressed by quantifiers. For example, Lehrer (1986: 112) did not consider them as classifiers and said that the syntax and semantics for quantifiers will handle most of them.

Classifiers in English: a contrastive look

35

(35) Arrangement classifiers a. two rows of beans b. three stacks of books. There are striking differences between English and Chinese classifiers with respect to their grammatical properties and categorical features. To start with, it is important to make a distinction between unit counters in English and individual classifiers in Chinese. At first glance, unit counters in (31) seem to be very much like individual classifiers in Chinese, on the ground that they both provide a counting unit for discrete entities, such as a head of cabbage in (31b) and an ear of corn in (31c). However, unlike Chinese individual classifiers, these unit counters in English are not required between numeral and noun in an obligatory manner. This is one of the crucial differences between them. Moreover, most of these expressions were “codified in the fifteenth century” (Lipton 1968), but they are not productively used in modern English. English employs “Numeral + Noun” as a dominant syntactic structure to quantify count nouns. I thus generalize that in English, unit counters do not constitute an independent class, nor are they used productively. Next I am going to show how non-individual classifiers in English are different from their counterparts in Chinese. Non-individual classifiers are found in both languages, but those in English are nouns in nature. Firstly, English classifiers, like other nominals, are marked for number (i.e. singular/plural); whereas Chinese classifiers are always used bare and no plural marking is available. English makes a distinction between mass and count nouns. Count nouns have a singular/plural distinction, and plural nouns can be marked overtly by the plural marker ‘-s’. The singular/plural distinction is also reflected on classifiers when they modify nouns, such as a bottle of water versus three bottles of water in (36). (36) a. I bought a bottle of water. b. There stand three bottles of water on the table. When the noun to be modified is also a count noun, both the classifier and the noun can be marked by the plural marker. The example of (37b) not only emphasizes the plurality of bags but also that of oranges. (37) a. a bag of oranges b. two bags of oranges

36

Defining classifiers

The number-marking exhibited in (36) and (37) suggest strongly that English classifiers are nouns (e.g. borrowed from container nouns and other types of nouns), assuming that the plural marker –s only attaches to nouns. Chinese has no plural marker like English. The classifier ping ‘bottle’ does not show the alternation between bottle and bottles, as in (38). It is always used in bare form without any suffix. Therefore, this is not a good test itself to to be employed to argue for or against the thesis that Mandarin classifiers are nominals or not. (38) a. yi one b. san three

ping CLbottle ping CLbottle

shui water shui water

Nouns in Mandarin can be monosyllabic, disyllabic or polysyllabic. One of the devices to derive a disyllabic noun from a monosyllabic noun is to use the nominalization marker zi. As in (39), the morpheme ping ‘bottle’ can either be used alone as a noun (39a) or be suffixed with a nominalizer marker zi, i.e. ping-zi (39a’). The nominal nature of ping and ping-zi is demonstrated by the fact that they can be modified by the general classifier ge. (39) a. yi ge ping one CL bottle a’. yi ge ping-zi one CL bottle-NMLZ BOTH: ‘a bottle’ b. liang ge lan two CL basket b’. liang ge lan-zi two CL basket-NMLZ BOTH: ‘two baskets’ Although both ping and ping-zi are container nouns, only the monosyllabic ping can be used as a container classifier felicitously, but not the disyllabic ping-zi, as shown in (40a). Some may accept that both ping and

Classifiers in English: a contrastive look

37

pingzi can be used as classifiers, but the monosyllabic one shows a high degree of acceptance than the dysyllabic one.7 (40) a. yi ping(#-zi) one CLbottle ‘one bottle of water’ b. yi xiang(#-zi) one CLbox ‘one box of books’

shui water shu book

If container classifiers in Chinese are borrowed from container nouns, as in English, then there is no explanation for the asymmetry between monosyllabic and disyllabic container nouns in (40). The majority of classifiers in Chinese are monosyllabic. One of the possible explanations is that (container) classifiers in Chinese have a higher degree of grammaticalization than those in English and they are required to be more functional than lexical, e.g. being phonologically light (i.e. monosyllabic) and semantically bleached (i.e. no nominalizer). Secondly, a wide range of adjectives can appear before English classifiers, which exhibit complex modification relations, as in (41), while it is generally impossible to use adjectives before classifiers in Mandarin (except for dimensional adjectives such as da/xiao ‘big/small’), as in (42). (41) a. three blue bottles of water b. a tasteless cup of coffee c. an expensive cup of coffee (adapted from Jackendoff 1977) In English, pre-classifier adjectives can modify classifiers, as in (41a), where what is expressed is that the bottle itself is blue, not that the water is blue. In a second case, pre-classifier adjectives cross the measure words to modify nouns, as in (41b), where the coffee but not the cup is ‘tasteless’. 7

According to Shen (2013), when ping-zi and xiang-zi are used as classifiers, as in our examples (40), the phrases are interpreted as ‘a full bottle of water’ or ‘a full box of books’. The numeral yi ‘one’ is preferred over others, like er ‘two’ or san ‘three’. In this case, it seems that these monosyllabic classifiers with the nominalizer -zi provide as a measure unit, like kilo, but not a counting unit. In any case, even if these examples in (40) are acceptable for some, they have a different reading from the counterparts in (38) with monosyllabic classifiers.

38

Defining classifiers

This is called a “transparent phenomenon” by Jackendoff (1977). It is also possible that the adjective modifies the entity denoted by “Cl+N”. For example, in (41c), both the cup and the coffee themselves can be cheap, but when the coffee is served in that cup (say, in a Beach Hotel), the coffee-inthe-cup can be expensive. The Chinese counterparts of (41) are not grammatical, as shown in (42). Chinese classifiers reject those attributive adjectives such as lan ‘blue’, anggui ‘expensive’ or wuwei ‘tasteless’, even though they are semantically compatible with the classifier or the noun. (42) a.* yi one b.* yi one c.* yi one

lan ping shui blue CLbottle water wuwei bei kaifei tasteless CLcup coffee anggu bei kafei expensive CLcup coffee

The only exception is that Chinese classifiers allow a few adjectives, mainly dimensional adjectives, to appear before them, including da/xiao ‘big/small’, chang ‘long’ or zheng ‘whole’ (see Chao 1968, T’sou 1976, Paris 1981). The examples are given in (43). (43) a. yi da ping shui one big CLbottle water ‘a big bottle of water’ b. yi xiao bei kafei one small CLcup coffee ‘a small cup of coffee’ c. yi chang tiao xianglian one long CL necklace ‘a long necklace’ d. yi zheng bei shui one whole CLcup water ‘a whole bottle of water’ Even though a small set of adjectives can appear before classifiers in Mandarin (43), I cannot get the possible readings that are observed in English, illustrated in (41). In Mandarin, it is neither possible to interpret (43) with a transparent reading, where the pre-classifier adjectives modify the noun, nor a reading where pre-classifier adjectives modify the classifier.

Classifiers in English: a contrastive look

39

Pre-classifier adjectives cannot cross the classifier to modify the noun. For example, if yi da ping shui in (43a) had a transparent reading, it would be expected to get something like ‘#big water’. But expressions like “big water” are infelicitous, since shui ‘water’ denotes homogeneous entities and which cannot have the property of being big or small. It is also impossible for pre-classifier adjectives to modify the classifier. Assume that in a restaurant, a basketball player and a five year-old boy each were served a bowl of rice (the bowls are the same size and the quantity of rice in each bowl is the same). After serving the rice, I get two different responses from them, as in (44). (44) a. The basketball player says: zheme yi xiao wan fan zenme gou wo chi? such one small CLbowl rice how enough I eat ‘How can such a SMALL bowl of rice be enough for me? ’ b. The five-year old boy replies: zheme yi da wan fan zenme chi-de-xia? such one big CLbowl rice how eat-up ‘How can I eat up such a big bowl of rice?’ If pre-classifier adjectives modify classifiers giving a property of the unit denotes by the classifier, in this case its size, then it would seem that I had to interpret the adjective as a qualifying either the size of the bowl or the size of the measure in each case in (44). On the strict ‘container’ reading of the classifier, (44a) asserts that the bowl is big and (44b) asserts that the bowl is small. If the classifier is taken as expressing a measure, then (44a) asserts that the quantity of rice is big, while (44b) expresses that the quantity of rice is small quantity. However, such intepretations are contradictory, given the fact that the size of the bowls is the same and the quantity of rice is the same. So I conclude that it is impossible that pre-classifier adjectives do not directly modify the classifier. I will not pursue further the exact modification relation of pre-classifier adjectives in Mandarin here, I will return to this issue in chapter 7. This contrast between pre-classifier adjectival modification in English (41) and Mandarin (42) suggests that English classifiers are nouns which can be directly modified by adjectives, whereas Mandarin classifiers are not nouns and they reject direct modification by adjectives. Even if Mandarin classifiers allow pre-classifier adjectives (42), their interpretations are different from those of the English counterparts.

40

Defining classifiers

A third difference between English and Mandarin is that in NP-deletion in coordinated clauses, I can either delete CL-N or N in English, as in (45), while in Mandarin, I can only delete N, as in (46). Note that according to some native English speakers, (45a) sounds better than (45b). (45) a. I bought three bottles of water, and he bought two. b. I bought three bottles of water, and he bought two bottles. (46) a. wo mai le san ben shu, ta ye mai le san *(ben). I buy PFV three CLvolume book, he also buy PFV three CLvolume ‘I bought three books; he also bought three.’ b. wo you wu ping shui, ta zhi you liang *(ping). I have five CLbottle water he only have two CLbottle ‘I have five bottles of water; he only has two (bottles).’ The contrast between (45) and (46) tells us that in counting contexts, the numerals in English can be used independently without the classifiers or ‘classifier + N’, but in Mandarin, numeral goes hand-in-hand with classifier. Assuming that only the maximal projection of NP, i.e. phrasal category, can be elided in NP ellipsis (Lobeck 1995), then Cl-N in English can be considered as a complex nominal constituent, but Cl-N in Chinese cannot be treated a complex noun. It is a standard assumption by now in generative syntax on Chinese noun phrases that a classifier heads its own projection and takes an NP complement (Tang 1990, Cheng and Sybesma 1999, A. Li 1999, among others). But there are two possibilities for the position of numerals, either in the specifier position of the classifier phrase (Tang 1990), or heading a Numeral Phrase, which takes ClP as complement (Cheng and Sybesma 1999, A. Li 1999). However, under either analysis, numeral and classifier do not form a constituent (Saito et al 2008: 260). According to this view, the impossibility of eliding Chinese classifiers in (29) is understandable, since Chinese classifiers are heads and they are not phrasal. The classifiers in English are always treated as ‘relational nouns’, i.e. “a noun which presupposes a noun that can be quantified”, they project into NP (Selkirk 1977, Abeny 1987; cf. Corver 1997: 219). For example, Abeny (1987: 296) postulates the following structure for pseudo-partitives: [DP a [NP bottle [PP of water]]], in which the classifier bottles has the maximal projection NP. To sum up, the three differences I have demonstrated here are sufficient to show that classifiers in Mandarin and English are different in terms of

Conclusions

41

their categorical features. Specifically, English classifiers share a lot of properties with nouns: (i) being number-marked, (ii) being modified by adjectives, and (iii) being elided like nouns. On the contrary, Mandarin classifiers, though most of them have nominal origins, share none of these features of English classifiers. They are better treated as a distinctive category from nouns.

7. Conclusions In this chapter, I defined the syntactic and semantic criterion to identify classifiers as a separate word class. In prototypical cases, the classifier occurs adjacent to numeral or determiner, as in “Numeral-Classifier-Noun” or “Determiner-Classifier-Noun” in Mandarin. Classifiers have the semantic function of counting or measuring entities. I also discussed the categorical properties of classifiers in Mandarin. They belong to a functional category: forming a closed word class, lacking syntactic independence, lacking descriptive content, being phonologically weak. They are distinctive from classifiers in English. Classifiers in nonclassifier languages like English are intrinsic nouns. They are derived from sortal nouns into relational nouns.

Chapter 3 The count/mass distinction in Chinese revisited

1. Introduction In English, table and water represent two different types of nouns, count nouns and mass nouns respectively. The noun table can be preceded by numeral directly, such as three tables, and it is a count noun, while water 1 cannot, such as *‘three water’ , it is a mass noun. The first question to ask when looking at the mass/count distinction is what we mean by the notions, mass and count. Is the mass/count distinction a “linguistic” (stemming from grammar) or an “extra-linguistic” issue (e.g. a cognitive or an ontological issue) (see Joosten 2003 for a comprehensive review, also see Chierchia 2010:143)? I take the position that the mass/count distinction is a grammatical distinction and it is independent of cognitive systems and reality, though they may be correlated with each other to some extent. From a cross-linguistic perspective, languages may differ from each other in having this distinction or not. In languages with this distinction, different grammatical mechanisms may be employed to realize this grammatical notion. According to Chierchia (2010), there is a “signature property”, with which we are able to tell whether a certain language has mass nouns or not. That is, in general, mass nouns do not allow direct modification of numerals, “*[Num +NMASS]”.2According to this criterion, all nouns in Mandarin are 1

Nouns like water and beer are mass nouns, but they can sometimes be directly modified by a numeral (with a noun that agrees in plural with the number), such as three waters and two beers. These expressions are often used in restaurant to represent a certain portion of water or beer which is contained in some container. These examples will not be discussed. 2 Perhaps the most steady grammatical property associated with mass nouns in general is the marked status of their direct combination with a numeral expression: regardless of word order, constituents of the form] are either outright ungrammatical or are felt as requiring a reinterpretation of sorts (‘coercion’ or ‘type-shifting,’ on which more below, under the rubric ‘elasticity’).

Introduction

43

mass nouns, since, as already seen in chapter 2, Mandarin nouns cannot be modified by numerals without a classifier (Krifka 1995, Doetjes 1997: “syntactically mass”, Chierchia 1998a, Borer 2005: “mass reading as default cross-linguistically”). In contrast, Cheng and Sybesma (1998) claim that there is a mass/count distinction in Mandarin nominal phrases, but it is reflected at the level of classifiers but not of nouns. They make a distinction between two types of classifiers in Mandarin, “count classifiers” and “mass classifiers” (or “massifiers”), which modify “count nouns” and “mass nouns” respectively. This argument requires Cheng and Sybesma to commit themselves to the position that there are two lexically different types of nouns in Chinese, count and mass nouns. Notice that researchers like Tai and Wang (1990), Tang (2005) also make binary distinctions of classifiers (e.g. classifiers versus measures for Tai and Wang, sortal versus mensural classifiers for Tang), but they are silent on the question whether Chinese nouns are count or mass. In this chapter, I examine Cheng and Sybesma’s syntactic analysis of the count/mass distinction in Mandarin. Cheng and Sybesma (1998) propose that count and mass classifiers are structurally different. According to them, count classifiers belong to a functional class and mass classifiers belong to a lexical class (derived from nouns). Count classifiers are base-generated as the head of classifier phrases, while mass classifiers start out in N and then undergo N-to-Cl movement. They suggest that the distinction between mass and count classifiers can be diagnosed by two syntactic tests: (i) the presence of adjectives before classifiers and (ii) the optionality of the particle de after the classifier. However, a further empirical examination of the data (examples taken from early descriptive works done by Lu 1987 and Luo 1988) shows that there are many counterexamples against the two syntactic diagnostics suggested by Cheng and Sybesma (1998) (see Tang 2005, X.P. Li 2007, Hsieh 2007, 2008, Li and Rothstein 2012 for relevant criticisms). According to our observation, pre-classifier adjectives are possible both before count classifiers and before mass classifiers, i.e. “Num-Adj-Clcount/mass-N”, and the particle de is found both after count classifiers and after mass classifiers, i.e. “Num-Clcount/mass-de-N”. Therefore, these two tests are unable to distinguish mass classifiers from count classifiers in a clear-cut way, as Cheng and Sybesma suggest. I thus claim that these two diagnostics are insufficient to establish the presence of a mass/count distinction in Mandarin. Since the distinction between mass and count nouns rests on there being a

44

The count/mass distinction in Chinese revisited

distinction between mass and count classifiers, I conclude that there is no basis for a mass-count nominal distinction. This rest of the chapter is structured as follows. In section 2, I will lay out Cheng and Sybesma’s (1998) syntactic proposal about the distinction between mass and count classifiers. Section 3 and 4 re-examine the test of the presence of pre-classifier adjectives and the test of the possibility of post-classifier de respectively. A sample of counterexamples will be presented in each section to show that the two syntactic diagnostics are not legitimate criteria for distinguishing between mass and count classifiers. Section 5 briefly summarizes the arguments made in this chapter.

2. Syntactic distinction between count and mass classifiers This section examines Cheng and Sybesma’s arguments about count/mass classifiers in Mandarin. In section 2.1, I will introduce the two lexically different types of classifier, namely, mass classifiers and count classifiers. Section 2.2 introduces the lexical/functional distinction of classifiers. Section 2.3 gives an overview of the two syntactic diagnostics for the distinction between count and mass classifiers.

2.1. Introduction to count/mass classifiers At first glance, Mandarin bare nouns behave grammatically like mass nouns in English in many respects. First, Mandarin bare nouns and English mass nouns cannot be modified by numerals without the assistance of classifiers. As shown in (1), the Mandarin noun shu ‘book’ occurs in the same syntactic context as that of the English mass noun ink in that a classifier is needed between Num and N (Note: ignore the presence of of in English, since it is required for some independent syntactic reason, see Landman 2004). (1)

a. san *(ben) shu three CLvolume book ‘three books’ b. two *(drops) of ink

Second, Mandarin bare nouns are on a par with English mass nouns in being able to act as bare arguments (Chierchia 1998b). As shown in (2a),

Syntactic distinction between count and mass classifiers

45

Mandarin bare nouns xuesheng and shu fill in the argument positions, being subject and object respectively. (2)

a. xuesheng dou mai shu le. student all buy book PRF ‘Students all bought some book(s).’

In contrast, in English, only mass noun but not count noun can function as bare argument, as contrasted between water and book in (2b-c). b. I finished drinking water. c. * I finished reading book. Thirdly, neither Mandarin nouns nor English mass nouns can be inflected with number morphology. Mandarin nouns have a “general number”, i.e. unspecified with respect to the feature [+/-plurality] (Rullmann and You 2006). As in (3a), hua ‘flower’ can either have a singular instantiation, i.e. ‘one single flower’, or a plural instantiation of ‘three flowers’. The English expression in (3b) is judged to be ungrammatical (the form of waters is acceptable only with an “abundant plurality” (cf. Corbett 2000)) unless it is interpreted with the “universal packaging” reading in the context of restaurant (see Bach 1986). (3)

a. yi / san duo one/three CL ‘one/three flower(s)’ b. *three waters

hua flower

In view of these similarities between Mandarin bare nouns and English mass nouns, some linguists, notably Krifka (1995) and Chierchia (1998b), make the explicit claim that all the Mandarin bare nouns have the semantics of mass nouns. For example, Chierchia (1998b) suggests that Mandarin is characterized as a [+argument, -predicate] language, whose nouns are mapped onto arguments and denote mass entities, referring to kinds. Contra Chierchia (1998b), Cheng and Sybesma (1998) argue that there is a count/mass distinction in Mandarin nominal phrases, but that this distinction is reflected at the level of classifiers, not of nouns. They suggest that there are two types of classifiers in Chinese, “count classifiers” and “mass classifiers”, which select “count nouns” and “mass nouns” respectively. Semantically, count classifiers simply name the unit in which the

46

The count/mass distinction in Chinese revisited

entity denoted by the noun naturally occurs, and mass classifiers create a unit of measure (also see Lyons 1976: 463, Tai and Wang 1990, Croft 1994). This implies a semantic distinction between two types of nouns. Count nouns come with a natural unit of counting, while mass nouns do not have an intrinsic unit of counting associated with them, and they are still mass nouns when they are modified by mass classifiers. Nouns like child, flower and fish all denote discrete entities, which exist in our world as naturally discrete individuals. Classifiers modifying those nouns simply spell out the units intrinsic to them, but do not create any external units. For example, duo ‘bud’ is the natural unit for hua ‘flower’ and wei ‘tail’ for yu ‘fish’. These classifiers in (4) are individual classifiers, or “count classifiers” in Cheng and Sybesma’s (1998) terminology. (4)

a. san duo three CLbud ‘three flowers’ b. yi wei one CLtail ‘one fish’ c. liang ge two CL ‘two apples’

hua flower

[individual classifier]

yu fish pingguo apple

In contrast, some classifiers express external units of entities referred to by nouns. Consider the examples in (5). (5)

a. yi shu hua one CLbouquet flower ‘one bouquet of flowers’ b. liang xiang pingguo two CLbox apple ‘two boxes of apples c. yi di shui one CLdrop water ‘one drop of water’

[group classifier]

[container classifier]

[partition classifier]

The natural unit for hua ‘flower’ is duo ‘blossom’, but hua can also have an external unit such as shu ‘bouquet’ in (5a), which indicates how the discrete flowers are formed into a plural entity such as ‘a bouquet of flowers’. The use of the container classifier xiang ‘box’ in (5b) is similar to

Syntactic distinction between count and mass classifiers

47

shu ‘bouquet’ in (5a). The noun shui ‘water’ in (5c) denotes homogeneous entities, which itself has no atomic structure, so the classifier di ‘drop’ imposes an external unit on it. The classifiers in (5) are non-individual classifiers or “mass classifiers”, which impose external units on the stuff in the denotation of the noun they modify. To sum up, according to Cheng and Sybesma (1998), individual classifiers, such as duo ‘bud’, wei ‘tail’ and the general classifier ge (as exemplified in (4)), are count classifiers, while container classifiers, group classifiers, partition classifiers etc. (as exemplified in (5)) are mass classifiers or massifiers. However, the examples in (5) are actually counterexamples against Cheng and Sybesma’s argument that count classifiers select count nouns and mass classifiers select mass nouns, since the complement of mass classifiers like hua ‘flower’ in (5a) and pingguo ‘apple’ in (5b) are lexically listed as count but not mass. This goes against the selectional constraint of these two types of classifiers imposed by Cheng and Sybesma. Cheng and Sybesma’s mass/count distinction implies that there is a lexical distinction between two types of nouns. In other words, in Mandarin, there are lexically marked count and mass nouns, which go with count and mass classifiers respectively. However, Borer (2005: 99) argues that if a noun is lexically determined to be mass or count in Mandarin, then the distinction is rather arbitrary rather than lexico-semantically determined. Really and truly, they are “ontological count nouns” and “ontological mass nouns” (Borer 2005: 98). The former refers to discrete entities, i.e. the boy type of nouns and the latter homogeneous entities, i.e. the water type of nouns. I argue in chapter 4 that it is more appropriate to characterize boy and water types of nouns in Mandarin as from an ontological perspective, and that this ontological distinction between discrete and homogeneous entities is not directly encoded as a grammatical distinction between mass and count nouns.

2.2. Lexical/functional distinction of classifiers Not all Chinese classifiers are available in other languages. In nonclassifier languages like English and Dutch, it is only possible to find the so-called mass classifiers but not the count classifiers (see Lehrer 1986 for English data, Riemsdijk 1998 for Dutch data, cf. chapter 2: section 1.1). According to Croft (1994: 151-152), container classifiers, partitive clas-

48

The count/mass distinction in Chinese revisited

sifiers, group classifiers and standard measures are “universally available” (cf. Zhang 2012: 24). It is a controversial issue whether these classifiers are functional or lexical. Riemsdijk (1998: 13) says that most of these classifiers in Dutch are semi-lexical, except that standard measures are functional (also see Stavrou 2003 for a similar conclusion reached for the Greek data). However, the classifiers in Chinese may have different lexical-functional make-ups from the counterparts in non-classifier languages like Dutch and Greek. Cheng and Sybesma (1998) suggest that count classifiers and mass classifiers belong to different categories: count classifiers form a closed class and mass classifiers belong to an open class. According to them, count classifiers, such as the general classifier ge and specific classifiers of wei ‘tail’, duo ‘blossom’ in (4), are grammaticalized classifiers and they cannot be used independently as nouns, whereas mass classifiers are full nominal elements and any noun which can be seen to create a unit for measuring can be used as a mass classifier. For example, this applies, they assume, to the container classifiers of xiang ‘box’ in (5). Relying on the above assumption, Cheng and Sybesma (1998) argue that count classifier phrases and mass classifier phrases have different syntactic structures, though both have the same sequence “Num-Cl-N” at the surface level. In the case of count classifier phrases, the classifier is basegenerated in the head of the ClP which takes NP as its complement, as in (6a). For mass classifier phrases, the classifier starts in N and then undergoes N-to-Cl movement, as in (6b). (6)

a.

ClP

liang ‘two’ Cl0 duo ‘bud’

b. Cl’ NP hua ‘flower’

ClP

san ‘three’

Cl’

Cl0 N wan ‘bowl’

NP NP tang ‘soup’

They also mention that the motivation for the N-to-Cl movement of nouns lies in the fact that mass classifiers are of a different type from count classifiers. They are measure expressions that can select another noun as complement, and in order to realize this property, they must move from N to Cl position. As Cheng and Sybesma (1998: 17) write: “although they (mass classifiers) are nouns, they are nouns of a certain type: they can be

Syntactic distinction between count and mass classifiers

49

used as a measure and in that capacity they select another noun. One way to formalize this is by appealing to an idea proposed by Hoeskstra (1988), who argues that nouns of this type have a feature, let’s call it CONT of ‘content’, and this feature enables the noun to thematically select (and Case-mark) another noun: the content. At some stage during the derivation, the measure noun moves to fill the head of ClP.” I have made a careful examination of the lexical/functional make-up of classifiers in Chinese in chapter 2. I claimed that count and mass classifiers cannot be characterized with the functional/lexical (nominal) distinction. Firstly, this is because I showed that Chinese classifiers do not always have a nominal origin and they come from different categories, which can be nouns, verbs or adjectives. Secondly, I also showed that for those with a nominal origin, both count and mass classifiers fall into different subtypes of classifiers which have high, medium and low amounts of nominal properties. I thus argued that there doesn’t seem to be a binary distinction between lexical classifiers and functional classifiers, and that distinction cannot be used to argue for a binary distinction between mass classifiers and count classifiers.

2.3. Two syntactic diagnostics Cheng and Sybesma (1998) propose two syntactic criteria to distinguish mass classifiers from count classifiers: (i) the availability of adjectives before classifiers and (ii) the possibility of the particle de after classifiers. The first criterion Cheng and Sybesma suggest is that mass classifiers can be preceded by adjectives like da/xiao ‘big/small’, but count classifiers cannot (also see Chao 1968, Paris 1981 for the use of the da/xiao test). Compare (7) with (8): (7)

a. yi da zhang zhi one big CLpiece paper ‘a big piece of paper’ b. na yi xiao xiang shu that one small CLbox book ‘that small box of books’

[mass classifiers]

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The count/mass distinction in Chinese revisited

(8)

a.* yi da wei laoshi one big CL teacher Intended: ‘a big teacher’ b.* yi da zhi gou one big CL dog Intended: ‘a big dog’

[count classifiers]

(7) shows that mass classifiers like zhang ‘piece’, xiang ‘box’ are felicitous with pre-classifier adjectives; (8) shows that individual classifiers like wei (an honorific classifier for people) or zhi (a classifier for animals) cannot have pre-classifier adjectives. Cheng and Sybesma explain this difference in terms of differences in lexical properties of mass classifiers and count classifiers. Assuming that pre-classifier adjectives have a direct modification relationship with the classifier, they argue that mass classifiers are nouns in nature and can be modified by pre-classifier adjectives. Count classifiers, on the other hand, are grammaticalized classifiers, and as such, they are functional elements that cannot be modified by adjectives. The second criterion that Cheng and Sybesma suggest is that mass classifiers can be followed by the particle de (as in 9)), but count classifiers cannot (as in (10)) (also see T’sou 1976 for the use of the de test). (9)

a. san wan de three CLbowl DE ‘three bowls of soup’ b. liang xiang de two CLbox DE ‘two boxes of books’

(10) a. ba tou (*de) eight CLhead DE ‘eight heads of cows’ b. jiu gen (*de) nine CL DE ‘nine tails’

tang soup

[mass classifiers]

shu book

niu cow

[count classifiers]

weiba tail

The marker de in (9) is not syntactically redundant. Num-Cl-N and Num-Cl-de-N are two distinctive structures. In order to account for their structural difference, Cheng and Sybesma (1998) claim that Num-Cl-de-N is not a classifier phrase but a noun phrase. They argue that Num-Cl-de-N is a relativized noun, in which the head N is modified by Num-Cl-de,

Syntactic distinction between count and mass classifiers

51

which is treated as a relative clause and denotes the amount of entities referred to by N. Put explicitly, Cheng and Sybesma suggest that the sequence of Num-Cl-de-N is derived from the deep structure [N[Num-Cl]], which is argued to be a nominal small clause (NC), in which N is the subject and Num-Cl is a predicate. Note the modification marker de is argued to be a complementizer, which heads the CP. Hence, they propose deriving (11b) from (11a). The corresponding syntactic structures for the derivation are given in (12). (11) a. wo he le tang san I drink PFV soup three Lit.: ‘I drank soup three bowls.’ b. wo he le san wan I drink PFV three CLbowl ‘I drank three bowls of soup.’ (12) a.

wan. CLbowl de tang. DE soup

NC (nominal clause)

ClP ClP tang ‘soup’ san ‘three’ Cl’ Cl

NP N wan

b.

ClP CP

OPi

ClP tang ‘soup’ C’

NC ti

C de ClP

sanwan proi ‘three bowls’

NP proi

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The count/mass distinction in Chinese revisited

Cheng and Sybesma (1998) assume that Mandarin bare noun phrases are structurally not bare, but are fully-fledged ClPs. So in (12a), the bare noun tang ‘soup’ is projected into a ClP and it is the subject of the nominal clause, and the ClP san-wan ‘three bowls’ is its predicate. They further propose that the subject tang ‘soup’ can undergo subject relativization, i.e. tang ‘soup’ is modified by a relative clause, as realized by Num+Cl. This relative clause is taken as a complement by the CP, headed by de, on the left side. In addition, there is an operator OP, which is generated in the Spec position of CP and binds the trace left by the subject tang ‘soup’ in the relative clause. 3 However, according to Cheng and Sybesma, this subject relativization is only possible for mass ClPs and not for count ClPs, even though count ClPs can be used as predicates in nominal small clauses. Let us consider the examples in (13). (13) a. ta mai le shi zhi he buy PFV ten CL ‘He bought ten pens.’ b. ta mai le bi shi he buy PFV pen ten ‘He bought pens, numbered ten.’ c. * ta mai le shi zhi he buy PFV ten CL Intended: ‘He bought ten pens.’

bi. pen zhi. CL de DE

bi. pen

(13a) illustrates the use of the count classifier zhi in a standard Numeral Classifier Phrase. (13b) shows that count classifiers like zhi, along with Num shi ‘ten’, can constitute the predicate of the nominal small clause, i.e. the count ClP shi zhi ‘ten Cl’ can be predicated of the subject bi ‘pen’. However, Cheng and Sybesma (1998) argue that the nominal small clause

3

Tang (1996) argues that in the construction of [N [Num-Cl]], N and the [Num-Cl] stand in a predication relation. For her, these are not small clauses, however, because verbs like drink in (11) are not subcategorized to take a small clause as complement. Instead, she (1996: 471) proposes that [Num-Cl] is better treated as the lowest argument of the verb and N as the next lowest argument, where semantically they stand in a predication relation. She also argues that [Num-CL-N] and [N [Num-Cl]] are two distinctive constructions and that [N [Num-Cl]] should not be transformationally derived from [Num-CL-N].

Syntactic distinction between count and mass classifiers

53

of (13b) cannot be relativized as in (13c) and that the syntactic derivation from (14a) to (14b) via subject relativization is impossible. (14) a.

NC (nominal clause) ClP bi ‘pen’

ClP shi ‘ten’

Cl’

Cl zhi ClP

b. CP OPi

ClP bi ‘pen’ C’

NC ti

NP proi

C de ClP

shi ‘ten’ Cl zhi

Cl’ NP proi

Cheng and Sybesma (1998: 15) assume that “Chinese noun phrases, including regular overt and null pronouns, are really full-fledged ClPs. Though generated in NP, Chinese nouns undergo N-to-Cl movement. As a consequence, in the regular case of pronominal, the binding domain of a pronominal is outside ClP.” After relativization, as in (12b) and (14b), pro is in a configuration that leads to a bound variable interpretation (since pro cannot have independent reference). It is co-indexed with the subject of the predicate, which in turn is bound by an operator. Cheng and Sybesma argue that this kind of binding is only possible for mass classifiers, as in (12b), but not for count classifiers, as in (14b). They argue that “mass classifiers undergo N-to-Cl movement and the pro in mass ClPs is a ClP, whereas count classifiers are base-generated as classifiers and they must take NPs as complement”, so “pro is not a full-fledged pronoun and it stays in

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The count/mass distinction in Chinese revisited

the NP rather than moves to Cl” (Cheng and Sybesma 1998: 16). Therefore, the pro in (14b) cannot have a proper binding domain. It is difficult to see how this argument really works, since the pro in each case is in NP position.4 The difference between the two structures is that in (12a) pro is the complement of a nominal head which raises to classifier position, while in (14) it is directly the complement of the functional head. But it is unclear why this difference has the grammatical consequences that Cheng and Sybesma propose. Presumably, if pro is a real problem for count ClPs, then the problem also remains for mass ClPs. No matter how mass classifiers move, e.g. N-to-Cl, the pro always stays in N and is the complement of Cl, exactly like its counterpart in count ClPs. As shown by their syntactic tree, the pros in both cases in (12b) and (14b) are in NP position. There doesn’t seem to be any independent evidence for the syntactic distinction of pro as ClP and pro as NP that they propose. As a consequence, the analysis stipulates a lot of abstract structure and special rules for interpreting pro in each of the two structures. Cheng and Sybesma’s (1998) syntactic proposal, as presented here, can thus be summarized as the conjunction of the following three claims: (i) there is a nominal mass/count distinction in Chinese, as reflected in count/mass classifiers; (ii) count classifiers are fully grammaticalized classifiers while mass classifiers are nouns in nature; and accordingly they have different syntactic structures; (iii) the distinction between mass and count classifiers is supported by the syntactic evidence of (a) the possibility of pre-classifier adjectives and (b) the optionality of the post-classifier de. Cheng and Sybesma’s (1998) mass/count proposal is based on the facts presented in (7) to (10). These facts have been noticed earlier by other Chinese linguists such as Chao (1968), T’sou (1976), Paris (1981), Tang (1990) etc. They note that not all classifiers show the same degree of grammaticality with respect to the tests of pre-classifier adjectives and of post-classifier de. However, these earlier scholars do not use these diagnostics to make a dichotomy of classifiers as Cheng and Sybesma (1998) do, rather they correlate different types of classifiers with the count/mass distinction.

4

I am grateful to Gabi Danon and Victor Pan for going thorough and discussing with me about the syntax part of Cheng and Sybesma (1998) on several occasions.

Possibility of pre-classifier adjectival modification

55

There are two questions raised by Cheng and Sybesma’s syntactic analysis of mass and count classifiers: (i) does the contrast between two different types of classifiers proposed by them really hold? (ii) does the contrast between the two types of classifiers or nouns really reflect the mass/count distinction?

3. Possibility of pre-classifier adjectival modification In this section, I examine the first syntactic diagnostic used by Cheng and Sybesma (1998), i.e. the possibility of adjectives before classifiers. Section 3.1 presents data from previous descriptive works and corpora, showing that this diagnostic has many counterexamples. It is empirically inadequate. Section 3.2 looks at this diagnostic from the theoretical perspective. I show that the proposal of attributing the pre-classifier adjectival modification to the nominal nature of mass classifiers is problematic. This is particularly true if the conclusions reached in chapter 2 that not all mass classifiers are derived from nouns, are taken into account that. I suggest that as a consequence, this diagnostic cannot be taken as a legitmate criterion for the distinction between count and mass classifiers.

3.1. Adjectives before count and mass classifiers Attributive adjectives, acting as nominal modifiers, usually occur adjacent to nouns. In English, they either directly precede or directly follow nouns, as exemplified in (15a-b). In other words, Adj-N and N-Adj are the only possible combinations of modified nouns, although their semantic interpretations are distinctive from each other (Bolinger 1967). It is impossible to put adjectives before a quantified nominal phrase, as in (15c). (15) a. an invisible star b. a star invisible c.* invisible a star However, expanded nominal phrases, e.g. pseudo-partitives, illustrates another possibility for adjectival modification. In pseudo-partitives like Num-N1-of-N2, adjectives can either occur before N1 or N2. When adjectives appear before N1, they semantically modify N1 or N2. Examples in (16) illustrate that an adjective preceding N1 modifies N1.

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The count/mass distinction in Chinese revisited

(16) a. a lovely picture of his father ‘the picture is lovely, her father need not be’ b. an expensive painting of the house ‘the painting is expensive, the house need not be’ [Alexiadou et al 2007:398] In examples in (17), adjectives preceding N1 can enter into a modification relation with N2 by crossing N1. This is the “transparent phenomenon” discussed in Jackendoff (1977). (17) a. a useless couple of days ‘the days were useless’ b. a marvelous glass of wine ‘the wine is marvelous’ c. a nice box of cigars ‘the cigars are nice’ [Jackendoff 1977, cf.Alexiadou et al 2007] What is relevant for our discussion on classifiers is the adjectival modification in pseudo-partitive constructions, as just shown above. In what follows, I will discuss two issues: (i) what types of classifiers can be preceded by adjectives in Mandarin? and (ii) what are the possible interpretations of adjectives in Num-Adj-Cl-N? Recall Cheng and Sybesma’s (1998) argument about pre-classifier adjectival modification. They argue that mass classifiers can be preceded by adjectives, while count classifiers cannot. In their analysis, mass classifiers are nouns in nature, and they can thus be directly modified by adjectives, while count classifiers belong to a functional category, and cannot be modified by adjectives. I am going to show below that these two observations are not accurate. Cheng and Sybesma (1998) argue that examples like (8) (as repeated in (18a-b)) are not acceptable. They argue that it is odd to put an adjective like da ‘big’ before a count classifier. I agree that (18a) is impossible, but I do not think (18b) is inappropriate. If it is put in an appropriately constructed context, it becomes completely acceptable, as in (18c). (18) a.* yi one b.* yi one

da big da big

wei CL zhi CL

laoshi teacher gou dog

Possibility of pre-classifier adjectival modification

c. na tou shizi bu-dao ban ge xiaoshi that CL lion less than half CL hour jiu ba yi da zhi gou gei chi FOC OM one big CL dog give eat ‘That lion ate up a BIG dog within half an hour.’

57

le. PRF

There are many cases where count classifiers are felicitous with preclassifier adjectives. It has been noted in the literature that many count classifiers go naturally with adjectives (e.g. Lu 1987, Luo 1988, and X.P.Li 2007). Lu (1987) studies the possibilities of adjectival modification of classifiers in great detail. According to his study, 24 individual classifiers can be preceded by an adjective. Some of Lu’s examples are illustrated in (19) (see Lu 1987: 54-57 for more examples). (19) a. Xiaoling chi le yi da/xiao ge mantou. Xiaoling eat PFV one big/small CL steamed bum ‘Xiaoling ate a BIG/SMALL steamed bum.’ b. zhe yi xiao fu hua hua le ta bannian shijian. this one small CL picture take PFV him half year time ‘It took him half a year to paint this SMALL painting.’ c. ta jian-shang kang le yi da/xiao jian xingli. he shoulder-on carry PFV one big/small CL baggage ‘He carried a BIG/SMALL baggage on his shoulder.’ Ge in (19a) is a ‘general classifier’ in Chinese, which modifies nouns denoting discrete entities in general. The other two classifiers, fu in (19b) and jian in (19c), are also typical individual classifiers, which modify hua ‘painting’ and xingli ‘baggage’ respectively. As shown in (19), those individual classifiers can all be preceded by da ‘big’ or xiao ‘small’. Cheng and Sybesma (1998) are aware of some of the examples mentioned by Lu (1987), but they treat them as exceptions, as stated explicitly in footnote 4 in their paper. However, if 24 individual classifiers out of 54 are compatible with pre-classifier adjectives, it is not appropriate to consider those examples as exceptions. More examples like those in (19) can be freely generated. Examples in (20) are from X.P. Li (2007). (20) a. wu-mao-qian mai le yi da gen huanggua. fifty-cent buy PFV one big CL cucumber. ‘Fifty cents bought me a cucumber, which is a big quantity (w.r.t. the money spent).

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The count/mass distinction in Chinese revisited

b. ta chi le yi da tiao huanggua. he eat PFV one big CL cucumber ‘He ate a cucumber, which is a lot for him.’ c. yi ge yue ta juran ba yi da ben one CL month he unexpectedly OM one big CLvolume zidian quan bei le. dictionary all recite PRF ‘Surprisingly, in only one month, he recited the whole dictionary, which is a lot (a large vocabulary w.r.t. the short time spent).’ As a supplementary study to Lu’s (1987), Luo (1988) argues that many of the individual classifiers that are thought to be incompatible with preclassifier adjectives in Lu (1987) are actually acceptable, if appropriate contexts are provided. Consider the examples in (21). The phrases of yi da zhang chuang ‘one big Cl bed’ and yi da tou yeniu ‘one big CLhead wild cow’ are listed as unacceptable in Lu (1987). But Luo (1988) illustrates the following two contexts in which they are felicitous: (21) a. ta wu-li jiaju taiduo, baifang-de ye bu jiangjiu, he house-in furniture too:much arrange also not carefully yi jinmen youbian jiu-shi yi da zhang jiushi once enter right FOC-be one big CL old-style muchuang, zuobian yi ge da-ligui, zhuozi, yizi, wooden bed left one CL big:wardrobe table chair shafa ba wuzi gao-de yongjiubukan. sofa OM house make crowed ‘He has too much furniture at home. Once entering, on the right is a BIG old-style wooden bed, and on the left is a big wardrobe, a table, a chair and a sofa. They are packed like sardines.’ b. feizhou shi hen xiong. Liang zhi shizi jiu African lion very cruel two CL lion Foc neng ba yi da tou yeniu chiwan. can OM one big CL wild cow eat up ‘African lions are very cruel. Two lions can eat a BIG wild cow in a short time.’ Another empirical problem pertaining to Cheng and Sybesma’s observation is concerned with the correlation between the count/mass distinction and the lexical/functional distinction. According to them, the underlying reason why massifiers can be modified by adjectives like da/xiao is be-

Possibility of pre-classifier adjectival modification

59

cause mass classifiers can be used as independent nouns. This also implies a direct modification relation of the adjectives with the classifier. However, as shown in chapter 2, some non-individual classifiers are derived from verbs and not from nouns. The relevant examples are repeated in (22). (22) a. yi (chang) gua bianpao one long hang firecrackers ‘a string of firecrackers’ b. yi (da) peng xiangtu one big scoop-in-both-hands soil:from:homeland ‘a handful of soil from homeland’ c. yi (xiao) cuo yan one small pinch salt ‘a pinch of salt’ As shown in (22), it is completely possible to insert an adjective before the classifier, such as chang ‘long’, da ‘big’, xiao ‘small’. If the presence of adjectives before classifiers is really due to the nominal feature of classifiers, these examples are left unexplained. Additionally, as shown in (19), some of the individual classifiers that are subject to adjective modification have low degree nominal properties and they cannot be used as nouns independently, such as the general classifier ge in (19a), (recall the relevant argument in chapter 2). Cheng and Sybesma’s account cannot explain these examples either. The examples from (19) to (22) are obvious counterexamples to the generalization made by Cheng and Sybesma (1998) that pre-classifier adjectives are only allowed before mass classifiers. Thus, our empirical examination of the data suggests that adjectives like da/xiao ‘big/small’ are not only possible before mass classifiers but also before count classifiers. In addition, I also showed that the nominal property of classifiers may not be the decisive factor to license adjectives before classifiers.

3.2. Two constraints on pre-classifier adjectives Pre-classifier adjectival modification is conditioned by the following two constraints (Paris 1981, Lu 1987, Tang 1990, Cheng and Sybesma 1998). The first constraint is that only a small number of adjectives, such as

60

The count/mass distinction in Chinese revisited

da/xiao ‘big/small’, can be inserted in pre-classifier position. The second is that the element de, which typically links the modifier and the modifiee, cannot follow pre-classifier adjectives. Let us look at the first constraint. The fact that only a small subset of adjectives can precede classifiers weakens Cheng and Sybesma’s claim that mass classifiers can be preceded by adjectives because they are nominal. If this claim were correct, then I would expect to get a wider range of adjectives. However, in Chinese, pre-classifier adjectives are restricted to dimensional adjectives, such as da ‘big’, xiao ‘small’, chang ‘long’ etc. This is different from English. In English, in psuedopartitive constructions (as in (17)), N1 can be preceded by different types of attributive adjectives, such as useless, tasteless, expensive etc (Jackendoff 1977). With regard to this problem, Cheng and Sybesma suggest that the adjectival modification of the classifier is allowed only in its ‘abstract function as a container’. They claim that, in He carted four wheelbarrows of dung into the fields (from to Hoeskstra 1988), it is possible to modify the noun wheelbarrow with adjectives like big but not with modifiers like wooden, because (they claim) big modifies wheelbarrow in its abstract function as a container, while wooden would modify the concrete thing. The examples of mass classifiers that Cheng and Sybesma discuss and analyze are restricted to container classifiers. However, there are other types of massifiers, including group classifiers, e.g. qun ‘group’, dui ‘pile’, and partition classifiers, e.g. duan ‘section’, pian ‘piece’ etc. These three types of massifiers show different lexical or grammatical properties and it is not straightforward to extend Cheng and Sybesma’s analysis of container classifiers to them. However, there are some flaws with this claim. In Cheng and Sybemsa’s (1998) paper, there are two examples which are not container mass classifiers, as illustrated in (23): (23) a. yi da zhang one big CLpiece ‘a big piece of paper’ b. yi da qun one big CLgroup ‘a big group of people’

zhi paper ren people

The two mass classifiers in (23), zhang ‘piece’ and qun ‘group’, are not like container classifiers, such as ping ‘bottle’ and wan ‘bowl’, in several important aspects. One of the important aspects is that mass classifiers like qun ‘group’ and zhang ‘piece’ do not involve the feature of CONTENT.

Possibility of pre-classifier adjectival modification

61

From the syntactic perspective, if I follow Cheng and Sybesma’s reasoning, they would not undergo N-to-Cl movement and be raised to Cl0 in order to express “the thematic selection of another noun which expresses the content”. In contrast, they are expected to be base-generated under the node of Cl0, and hence they are expected to pattern with count classifiers. With this, it would be expected that they cannot have pre-classifier adjectives, and this, of course, is not the case. Semantically, these classifiers like zhang ‘piece’ and qun ‘group’ do not denote “container”, as container classifiers do. Cheng and Sybesma’s argument that pre-classifier adjectives in Chinese modify “abstract function as a container” is too narrow to cover these two subtypes of mass classifier. Thus, Cheng and Sybesma‘s syntactic analysis may correctly capture some properties of container classifiers, but it seems difficult to extend it to the more general category of “mass classifiers”, which includes group classifiers and partition classifiers etc. The second constraint is that pre-classifier adjectives do not take the modification marker de. The marker de can optionally appear after the adnominal modifier piaoliang ‘pretty’, e.g. yi ge piaoliang (de) nühai ‘a beautiful (de) girl’, but it is disallowed after a pre-classifier adjective da ‘big’, e.g. yi da (*de) ping jiu ‘a big bottle of wine’. Cheng and Sybesma (1998) argue that N-to-Cl movement is an instance of head movement in which the combination of the adjective and the N forms a complex head. As a consequence, this structure does not allow the insertion of the modification marker de. This explanation is due to Tang (1990: “lexical integrity”). Given that Cheng and Sybesma (1998) argue that mass classifiers are nouns in nature and pre-classifier adjectives have a direct modification relation with the classifiers, the complex head “Adj+Cl” should be seen as a complex noun head. However, the proposal of lexical integrity is unsatisfied for two reasons. First, it cannot explain why this kind of lexicalization happens only with adjectives like big/small. Secondly, it is unable to account for the possibly unified meaning of Adj-Cl, such as the “evaluative” meaning, to be proposed in chapter 9. In view of the empirical and theoretical problems discussed in sections 3.1 and 3.2, the presence of adjectives before classifiers cannot be considered as a legitimate criterion to distinguish count and mass classifiers.

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4. Optionality of post-classifier de This section examines Cheng and Sybesma’s second criterion for the distinction between count and mass classifiers, namely, the possibility of postclassifier de. I will investigate the question: under what condition are we able to build up the phrase “Num-Cl-de-N”? Presumably, this not only has something to do with the lexical meaning of classifiers but also with the proper interpretation induced by the insertion of de. Before starting, I want to clarify that the particle de after a classifier is not semantically vacuous or syntactically redundant. It is commonly agreed that the particle de is a modification marker which is able to turn different syntactic elements into modifiers (Zhu 1961, Paris 1979, Li and Thompson 1981, among others). Namely, [XP [de]] has the function of modifying the noun it is a sister of. (24) a. congming de haizi clever DE childred ‘clever children’ b. wo mai de shu I buy DE book ‘the book(s) that I bought’ c. ta de shu he/she DE book ‘his/her book(s)’

[Adj-DE]

[RC-DE]

[Pron-DE]

In addition to the use of de in the contexts in (24), it can also follow classifiers, as in (25). (25) san xiang de three CLbox DE a. three-box books b. three boxes of books

shu book

The example (25) has two readings: an attributive reading and a pseudopartitive reading (Jiang 2008). On the attributive reading, the phrase in (25) refers to a particular collection of books, e.g. the books that are packed in three boxes (to be distinguished from other collections, e.g. those packed in five boxes) and this particular property is expressed by Num-Cl-de. On the pseudo-partitive reading, the phrase simply has a quantity reading, meaning ‘three boxes of books’ and Num-Cl-de is quantity-denoting.

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I only concentrate on the licensing condition of de after classifiers on the pseudo-partitive reading and leave aside the attributive reading. It is not immediately clear whether or not the particle de is still a modification marker on this reading. I will discuss this issue in Chapter 8. Cheng and Sybesma (1998) argue that mass classifiers can be followed by the particle de, but count classifiers cannot. This observation is not accurate. Firstly, not all mass classifiers goes with de. It is easy to find mass classifiers that cannot go with the marker de, especially partition classifiers (26) and group classifiers (27). (26) a. yi kuai (*de) one CLpiece DE ‘a piece of meat’ b. yi duan (*de) one CLsection DE ‘a section of distance’

rou meat

(27) a. yi qun (*de) one Clgroup DE ‘a group of students’ b. yi chuan (*de) one CLstring DE ‘a string of chilis’ c. yi dui (*de) one CLpile DE ‘a pile of books’

xuesheng student

juli distance

lajiao chili shu book

Further, researchers such as Tang (2005) and Hsieh (2007, 2008), point out that it is possible for individual classifiers to be followed with de in some cases. Examples in (28) are taken from Tang (2005), which are counterexamples against Cheng and Sybesma (1998).5 5

Tang (2005) attempted to take the examples in (i) and (ii) as counterexamples against Cheng and Sybesma (1998). She argued that the particle de not only follows mass classifiers (i), but also count classifiers in examples (ii): (i) a. liang mi de bu [mass classifiers] two meter DE cloth ‘cloth that is sorted in accordance with two meters’

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(28) a. mei chao yue sheng-xia ershi-si mei de luan. every nest about give:birth:down twenty-four CL DE egg ‘Every nest has about twenty-four eggs.’ b. yi nian yue zhongzhi le one year about plant PFV yi-bai-sishi-duo-wan ke de shumu. one-hundred-forty-more-million CL DE tree ‘(They) planted more than 1,4million trees a year.’ In the examples in (28), “Num+Cl” expresses overall quantities of entities: (28a) means that the total number of eggs (per nest) is 24, while (28b) means that the number of individual trees planted is more than 1,400,000. (Note that while Tang accepts (28a), other native Mandarin speakers I consulted do not.) Tang suggests that the insertion of post-classifier de in the examples of (28) is related to the ‘information weight’ of the modifiermodifiee relation: she assumes that if the Num-Cl is a heavy and complex constituent, it is possible for de to follow the classifier. Following Tang’s observation about (28), Hsieh (2007, 2008) presents some more counterexamples (from the Academia Sinica Corpus). According to Hsieh, de can be licensed in this position if the Num-count Cl expresses non-fixed quantities or if a massifier is used. Note that her exam-

b. liang bang de rou two pound DE meat ‘meat that is sorted in accordance with two pounds’ (ii) a. liang ben de shu [count classifier] book two CLvolume DE ‘books that are sorted in accordance with two in number’ b. wu ge de pingguo five CL DE apple ‘apples that are sorted in accordance with five in number’ Although Tang’s examples in (i) and (ii) bear great similarity to those in Cheng and Sybesma (1998), they are characterized with two different phenomena. For Cheng and Sybesma (1998), Num-Cl-de still expresses quantity information about the entities denoted by N, while for Tang (2005), Num-Cl-de is like an attributive modifier, which behaves like a classifying adjective. They are also structurally different. For Cheng and Sybesma (1998), Num-Clde-N is a classifier phrase, as headed by the classifier, while for Tang (2005), NumCl-de-N is a complex noun phrase andNum-Cl-de is projected as an adjunct to the NP. I will make a detailed discussion Tang’s argument about de in chapter 8.

Optionality of post-classifier de

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ples of count ClPs have the adverbial jin ‘close to’ before the classifier phrase. (29) a. jin yi-bai wei de qianjiu close one-hundred CL DE rescue ‘close to one hundred rescue workers’ b. hao ji bai tiao de quite several hundred CL DE ‘quite several hundreds of sea snakes’

renyuan worker haishe sea snake

More counterexamples are given by X.P. Li (2007), as illustrated in (30). He argues that de can only be found in a context of quantification of “aboutness”, not “exactness”, as evidenced by yue ‘about’ or duo ‘more’. Hence Cl+ duo” expresses “approximative values. (30) a. ta peng-zhe shi duo ben de shu. he carry-PROG ten more CL DE book ‘He was carrying more than 10 books.’ b. ta yilian xie le liang-bai duo feng de xin. she continuously write PFV two-hundred more CL DE letter. ‘She continuously wrote letters, more than 200 letters.’ Li and Rothstein (2010, 2012) observe independently that if the numeral is a (high) round number (31) or a fraction, such as ½, ¼, ¾ etc (32), de can also follow a count classifier (also see Her and Hsieh 2010 for a similar observation). In these two cases, adverbials like yue ‘about’ or duo ‘more’ are not needed. (31) a. cunchu-ka man le, wo pai le memory card full PRF, I take PFV you yi-qian zhang de zhaopian. have 1000 CL DE photo ‘The memory card is full. I took one thousand photos.’ b. zhe-ci women qing le yibai wei de tuixiu jiaoshi. this time we invite PFV 100 CL DE retired teacher ‘This time, we invited 100 retired teachers.’

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(32) a. yi ge yi sui de yin’er mei-ci one CL one year DE baby every time zhi neng chi 1/3 li de ganmao-yao. only can eat 1/3 CL DE cold pill ‘A one year old baby can only take 1/3 of a cold pill every time.’ b. mei wan tang pingjun you 1/4 ge de yancong. each CLbowl soup equally have 1/4 CL DE onion ‘There is ¼ of an onion in each bowl of soup on average.’ The problems exposed above indicate that post-classifier de cross-cuts the distinction between count and mass classifiers and that the presence of the marker de after classifiers is not a legitimate criterion to tell mass classifiers apart from count classifiers. If we investigate precisely, we will find that the two tests do not give consistent result. Recall the examples between (23) and (26-27). Classifiers like qun ‘group’ and kuai ‘piece’ can be preceded by adjectives but they cannot be followed by the marker de. Some may wonder whether it is possible to impose an even stricter condition using these two criteria that these two criteria have to be satisfied at the same time, namely, co-occurrence of pre-classifier adjective and postclassifier de. However, the combined use of the two diagnostics does not give us a satisfactory result either. It is possible for container classifiers to have pre-classifier adjectives and post-classifier de, as in (33), but it is not plausible for mass Cls like qun ‘group’ and duan ‘section’, as in (34). (33) a. yi xiao xiang de one small CLbox DE ‘a small box of books’ b. yi da ping de one big CLbottle DE ‘a big bottle of water’

shu book

(34) a.* yi one b.*yi one

xuesheng student shengzi rope

da big xiao small

qun de CLgroup DE duan de CLsection DE

shui water

In summary, both tests of pre-classifier adjectives and post-classifier de face counterexamples and neither provides a clear-cut distinction between mass classifiers and count classifiers. The tests, hence, do not establish

Conclusions

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Cheng and Sybesma’s (1998) claim that Chinese shows a mass/count distinction. The exact semantics of pre-classifier adjectives and post-classifier de will be discussed in depth in chapter 7 and 8.

5. Conclusions In this chapter, I have examined Cheng and Sybesma’s (1998) arguments about the distinction between count and mass classifiers. I presented some new data to test the two syntactic diagnostics for the distinction between count and mass classifiers. This data shows that pre-classifier adjectives are available for both count and mass classifiers, and so is post-classifier de. Therefore, I suggest that these two syntactic diagnostics cannot be used as legitimate criteria for making distinction between two types of classifiers, as proposed by Cheng and Sybesma (1998).

Chapter 4 Natural atomicity

1. Introduction The last chapter examined the syntactic approach to the mass/count debate in Chinese. I showed that no legitimate syntactic criterion is available to draw a distinction between count and mass classifiers in Chinese. The main task of this chapter is to examine the lexicalist approach to the mass/count thesis. It is notably represented by Doetjes (1997) and Cheng et al (2008). While admiting that Mandarin nouns are syntactically mass, Doetjes (1997) claims that a semantic distinction between “count mass nouns” and “mass mass nouns” can still be made. Count mass nouns refer to entities with ‘minimal parts’ and the referents of mass mass nouns have no ‘minimal parts’. A recent argument in support of this view is that count nouns come out of lexical as count, and there is no ‘universal grinding’ in Chinese (Cheng et al 2008). The core question to be addressed in this chapter is how we should characterize the contrast between shui ‘water’ and nanhai ‘boy’ in Mandarin. Is it appropriate to correlate it with a mass/count distinction at the lexical level, as suggested in Doetjes (1997) and Cheng et al (2008)? (1)

a. san *(ge) nanhai three CL boy ‘three boys’ b. liang *(di) shui two CLdrop water ‘two drops of water’

With respect to this question, I make two main claims. First, it is more appropriate to recast the contrast between mass mass nouns and count mass nouns as an ontological distinction between discreteness and homogeneity. Second, there is no grinding (mass-count shifting) or count-mass shifting in Chinese. Chinese nouns have a genuine ambiguity between object reading and stuff reading, or even a partial object reading in some occasions.

Countability and individuation

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This chapter is planned as follows. In section 2, I define the mass/count distinction from a grammatical perspective and separate the notion of countability from individuation. Section 3 gives an overview over Doetjes’s lexical account about the mass/count distinction in Chinese. In section 4, I argue that Chinese bare nouns have a genuine ambiguity between individual and stuff readings, which is to be distinguished from the mass/count distinction. In section 5, I suggest that the ontological distinction between homogeneity and discreteness is a grammatically relevant phenomenon in Chinese. Section 6 concludes this chapter.

2. Countability and individuation It is much easier to judge whether some languages have a mass/count distinction than other languages. For example, it is never an issue with respect to this question in number-marking languages, such as English and French, but it is less transparent in bare-argument languages like Mandarin, Halkomelem Salish (Wiltschko 2012), Dëne Suliné (Wilhelm 2008), Yudja (Lima 2012), and Brazilian Portuguese (Müller and Oliveira 2004, de Oliveira and Rothstein 2011) etc.1 This is partially because in bare argument languages, there is no plural marker available to mark count nouns if they exist at all. Additionally, the long-standing difficulty of defining the mass/count distinction in these languages is reflected by the term itself. The mass-count distinction is a misleading term: It incautiously takes together a primarily grammatical criterion (the (non-) countability of nouns) with a non-grammatical, ontological criterion (the denotation of mass vs. discrete entities). (Joosten 2003: 216)

This boils down to the question what criterion we should adopt to judge whether a language has a mass/count distinction or not. The term countmass distinction is interwoven with two different notions, “countability” and “individuation”. Countability is a grammatical notion. It refers to whether nouns can be directly counted by numerals or not. Individuation is a cognitive or ontological notion and it refers to whether the referents de1

Brazilian Portuguese has a count/mass distinction and its count nouns can be pluralized with plural markers. However, what is controversial is the grammatical status of bare singular nouns in this language. According to de Oliveira and Rothstein (2011), bare singular nouns are mass nouns.

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noted by nouns are (discrete) individuals or not. These two notions should be treated separately and they cannot be applied at the same time to judge whether a language has a mass/count distinction. The grammatical criterion of “countability” is independent of the nongrammatical, ontological criterion for “individuation”, though they are somehow correlated with each other (Krifka 2008, Rothstein 2010, also see Bunt 1985). As Krifka (2008) points out, in some cases, the semantic criterion is consistent with the cognitive criterion when judging the mass/count distinction. Consistency is found in the following three scenarios. (a) Liquids and substances are lacking a defined boundary and they are mass, such as milk, water and gold. (b) Small objects tend to be mass, because their defined boundary is usually irrelevant, as contrasted between rice and beans, between sand and pebbles. (c) Entities high on the animacy scale tend to be count (cf. Smith-Stark 1974). However, in other cases, semantic and cognitive criteria might diverge. There are mass nouns that denote entities one would expect to be denoted by count nouns: jewelry, silverware, furniture, drapery. These nouns are called “fake mass nouns” by Cherchia (2010). Rothstein (2010) argues explicitly that the mass/count distinction is not based on an atomic/non-atomic nor on a homogeneous/non-homogeneous distinction. “The mismatch between form and denotation is two-way: as well as mass terms such as furniture and jewellery that denote sets of inherently individuable objects, there are also count terms that denote sets of entities that do not have spatial properties constant across time. Examples are fence, wall and bouquet” (ibid: 346). Wiltschco (2012) argues that there are two sources of mass/count distinction: it can either be seen as a property of grammatical structure (fproperty) on the one hand, or as an ontological/perceptual property on the other. These two properties are realized at two distinctive syntactic levels. The ontological property is realized as the root level, while the f-property is categorical and is suggested to be a “nominal inner aspect”: the locus of grammaticalized mass/count distinction. (2)

D D

F F

Æf-properties: categorical √nominal root Æ√R-properties: ontological

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In this research, we take the position that the mass/count distinction is a grammatical phenomenon. When judging whether a language has count nouns or not, it should be based on the grammatical notion of countability but not the ontological notion of individuation. According to Chierchia (2010), the impossibility of directly combining a numeral with a mass noun is universal. This is a signature property for mass nouns. In other words, to define a count noun, it must be able to be directly combined with numerals, and mass nouns reject number modification. At least three types of languages can be distinguished according to the “signature property”: the mass/count language, the count language and the mass language. Type 1: Mass/count languages (a) Germanic and Romance languages are representative mass/count languages, whose count nouns are subject to number-marking. As in (3), English count nouns can be pluralized with the marker -s, while its mass nouns cannot. (3)

a. three students b. * three waters

[Count] [Mass]

(b) Dëne Suliné is a bare argument language. There is no numbermarking strategy available to distinguish different types of nouns, but the mass/count distinction can still be made. According to Wilhelm (2008), the mass/count distinction in Dëne Suliné is dependent on the “natural atomicity” of nouns. Nouns like table in (4a) denote discrete entities and they can be directly modified by numeral. They are count nouns. In contrast, nouns like milk in (4b) denote homogeneous entities and they cannot be modified by numerals. They are categorized as mass. (4)

a. Ҍiłághe/solághe bek’eshchíelyi one / five table ‘one table/ five tables’ b. #Ҍiłághe/solághe Ҍejëretthúé one / five milk

[Count]

[Mass]

Type 2: Count languages In Yudja, bare nouns can be used as arguments, and there is neither a general plural marker nor classifiers. In this language, all the nouns can be directly modified by numerals. In other words, all the nouns have the count syntax (Lima 2012). Nouns like amï ‘monkey’ in (5a) and y’a ‘water’ in

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(5b) are used in the same syntactic context. Interestingly, (5b) can either mean ‘three glasses of water’ or ‘three drops of water’, or ‘three puddles of water’ etc. The exact counting unit is context-dependent. (5)

a. txabïu amï three monkey b. txabïu y’a three water

Type 3: Mass languages Mandarin represents a different type of bare argument language, in which there is no plural marker but there is a general classifier system. Nouns can never be modified by numerals unless a classifier is used between numeral and noun. For example, the omission of the general classifier ge in (6a) led to the ungrammaticality of the phrase. Therefore, all the nouns in Mandarin behave like mass nouns. It is a mass language. (6)

a. san *( ge) beizi three CL cup ‘three cups’ b. yi *(bei) jiu one CLglass wine ‘a glass of wine’

I make three generalizations concerning the possibility of having a mass/count distinction in a certain language. First, number marking is not a reliable test to tell whether a language has a mass/count distinction or not. Relying on the data from English and Dëne Suliné, we generalize that in number-marking languages, there is always a mass/count distinction, but not vice versa. Second, bare argument languages are not always deprived of a mass/count distinction. Bare argument languages can be a count language, such as Yudja, a mass language, such as Mandarin, or a mass/count language, such as Dëne Suliné. Third, bare-argument languages are not bound to have classifiers, such as Yudja. If we assume that classifiers are to provide a relevant unit for counting or measuring, then the difference between Mandarin and Yudja boils down to whether the unit needs to be expressed overtly or can be inferred from the contexts only.

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3. A lexical distinction between mass and count nouns In this section, I will review Doetjes’s (1997) lexicalist approach to the mass/count distinction in Chinese. Doetjes claims that there is a lexical distinction between count and mass nouns in Chinese, which hinges on the denotation of nouns, that is, whether the referents of nouns come with a count structure (minimal parts) or not. I am going to show that this claim is not tenable from both the theoretical and the empirical perspectives. I argued in section 2 that Chinese is a mass language, in which nouns cannot be modified by numerals in a direct way, unless a classifier is used. In other words, Chinese nouns have a mass noun syntax. However, Doetjes (1997) argues that the syntactic mass nature of nouns does not conceal the semantic distinction between mass and count nouns. She argues that two semantically different types of nouns can be distinguished in Chinese, namely, nouns that provide us with minimal parts and those which do not have minimal parts. The former are called ‘count mass nouns’ and the latter ‘mass mass nouns’. Such a distinction implies that there is a lexical distinction between mass and count nouns in Chinese. According to Doetjes (1997:31), nouns like haizi ‘child’ provide us with the information about what unit can be considred as a single child. Therefore, it is a count mass noun, which comes with a count structure (with minimal parts). In contrast, nouns like shui ‘water’ have no “minimal parts” in the denotation, so that we are unable to directly count this noun by saying ‘*one water’. It is thus treated to be a mass mass noun. Doetjes suggests that the compatibility of a noun with the general classifier ge be one of the diagnostics for the presence of count structure. As she (1997: 34) says, if “a noun can be combined with ge, it must have a count structure…” For example, in (7), a count mass noun like haizi ‘child’ is compatible with the classifier ge, as contrasted with the mass mass noun shui ‘water’. (7)

a. yi ge one CL ‘one child’ b.* yi ge one CL

haizi child shui water

Doetjes (1997) assumes that count nouns always have a counting structure and that “individual classifier + N” in Chinese is equivalent to English count nouns, both of which imply the existence of minimal parts in the

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denotation of nouns. In English, a count noun can be preceded directly by an indefinite article. The indefinite article a/an has no concrete lexical meaning, so the mininal parts must come from the count noun itself. However, in Chinese, nouns are either modified by specific classifiers or the general classifier ge. According to Doetjes (1997: 33), only those specific classifiers contain information of how the partition of entities is made. For example, the classifier ben is a counting unit exclusively for books, as in the phrase yi ben shu ‘one volume book’; it “signals that we are talking about book-volumes”. However, “the general classifier ge does not contain any information about what counts as a ‘unit’ and its use depends on the presence of minimal parts in the denotation of the noun it combines with”. The general classifier ge behaves like the indefinite article in English in this regard. Doetjes (1997) suggests that the compatibility of group classifiers, such as da ‘dozen’ and qun ‘crowd, flock’, be another piece of evidence to show that there are count nouns in Chinese. She (1997: 34) says that these classifiers are “semantically used for a group or a collection of individuals”. The examples in (8) are taken from Doetjes (with slight modification). (8)

a. yi da baima one CLdozen white horse ‘a dozen of white horse’ b. yi qun baima one CLgroup white horse ‘a group of white horse’

Doetjes says that group classifiers da ‘CLdozen’ and qun ‘CLflock’ are similar to plural morphology in the sense that they indicate that there is a plurality of individuals. However, neither the plural marker in English nor the group classifier in Chinese indicates the minimal parts in the denotaiton of nouns. This information is provided by the noun. In other words, in (8), the noun ma itself provides us with a criterion for counting. The lexical meaning of ma decides what counts an individual horse. Doetjes’ lexicalist approach to the mass/count distinction in Chinese is incorrect in several regards. First of all, Doetjes attempted to make an analogy between group classifiers in Chinese and the English plural marker –s, and between the general classifier ge in Mandarin and the indefinite article in English, in terms of their semantic function. Unfortunately, the basic assumption Doetjes (1997) adopts about English count nouns is not correct: that count nouns are lexically count and the plural marker and the indefinite article simply mark but do not make the countability.

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The plural ending in [the books] indicates that there is more than one book. It does not give information about what unit could be considered to be a singular book, and therefore we know that this information must somehow be present in the denotation of the count noun [book] … Similarly, when we use one N or another N, we know what unit is intended. … the information about what counts as a unit must be present in the singular noun. (Doetjes 1997: 32)

The incorrectness of this assumption is two-fold. First, count nouns are unable to mark countability. This is because count nouns do not always refer to entities with minimal parts. Count nouns are not dependent on the ontological property of the referents in the denotation of nouns (Krifka 2008, Rothstein 2010). Second, “if a noun is lexically determined to be mass or count in Chinese, then the distinction is rather arbitrary than lex2 ico-semantically determined” (Borer 2005). 2

Borer (2005) assumes that it is crosslinguistically true that all noun extensions are mass. She proposes that both mass and count represent properties of functional structures (or the absence thereof). Specifically, “count is crucially a grammatically construed notion, corresponding to a piece of structure” and mass nouns is absent of such a structure (Borer 2005: 88). Like Doetjes (1997), Borer (2005) proposes that number marking is a sort of classifier, but they are able to create partition or division of stuff, as opposed to Doetjes’s view of marking countability. The exact differences between Borer (2005) and Doetjes are discussed in footnote 7 in Borer (2005: 93-94). First, for Doetjes, the mass/count distinction is a lexical distinction, namely, nouns are lexically marked as count or mass (specifically count mass,and mass mass), and the grammatical marking of divisions, through either classifiers or plural marking, is a form of agreement with such lexical marking. It does not, in and of itself, determine the mass-count distinction. In the account proposed by Borer, both plurals and classifiers create, so to speak, count nouns from unstructured stuff. It is a syntactic operation to realize mass or count nouns. Secondly, for Doetjes, the similarity of function between plurals and classifiers is not structurally reflected. Plural marking remains number marking (rather than classifier marking), while classifiers project as classifiers. In Borer (2005), it is specifically argued that plurality is not a number specification, and that plurals are, morphologically and otherwise, classifiers. Finally, Doetjes assumes that both classifiers and plural morphemes mark sets of semantically pre-existing “minimal parts”, while Borer argues that they create divisions of stuff, which may be singular or plural. In fact, for Borer, singulars are created by the counting function, that is, by the Quantity Phrase.

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Empirically speaking, the two diagnostics Doetjes used cannot be justified as legitimate criteria for the mass/count distinction. Concerning the first diagnostic, it is not accurate that the general classifier ge only goes with nouns with inherent minimal parts. Ge cannot only modify nouns denoting discrete entities, but also modify abstract nouns, such as xinqing ‘mood’ in (9a) or nouns denoting entities without minimal parts, such as pi ‘fart’ in (9b). Note that these classifier phrases do not express individual events, as construed by the contexts in (9). (9)

a. zhu ni you yi ge wish you have one CL ‘Wish you have a good mood.’ b. ta yi jie ke wen le he one CL class smell PFV ‘He smelled three farts during a class.’

hao good

xinqing. mood

san three

ge CL

pi. fart

Secondly, it is true that group classifier phrases express aggregates of entities. However, this kind of aggregation is not necessarily related to count nouns. There are both aggregates named by count nouns and aggregates by mass nouns (Wierzbicka 1988, cf. Wisniewski 2010). As shown in (10), English nouns like rice and furniture are mass nouns but they can be modified by group classifiers, such as handful or pile. (10) a. a handful of rice b. a pile of old furniture The problem is shared in Chinese. Nouns like jiuzai-wuzhi ‘relief supplies’ and qian ‘money’ are mass-like nouns in Mandarin. They cannot be modified by any individual classifiers, including the general classifier ge, as shown in (11a) and (12a). Usually, they are quantified by measure phrases like dun ‘ton’ (11b) or quantifiers like yixie ‘some’ and xuduo ‘much’ (12b). (11) a.# liang ge jiuzai-wuzhi two Cl relief supplies b. yi dun jiuzai-wuzhi one ton relief supplies ‘a ton of relief supplies’

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(12) a.# san ge qian three CL money b. yixie /xuduo qian some/a lot money ‘some/ much money’ As in (13), these two nouns, i.e. qian ‘money’ or wuzhi ‘supplies’, can be taken as complement to group classifiers, though they are ‘mass’. (13) a. yi ba qian one CLhandful money ‘a handful of money (coins, notes…)’ b. yi pi jiuzai-wuzhi one CLbatch relief supplies ‘a batch of relief supplies’ To sum up, it is wrong to assume that count nouns have minimal parts and mass nouns have no minimal parts. As argued in section 2, the mass/count distinction is not based on the ontological distinction, e.g. with or without minimal parts in the denotation. Moreover, neither of the diagnostics provided by Doetjes can be justified to show that the noun that the general classifier ge or the group classifier modifies has minimal parts. They cannot be used to support the view that there are count nouns in Chinese at the syntactic level.

4. Individual, stuff and partial-object readings According to Cheng et al (2008), “in all languages one can find nouns with mass denotations and nouns with count denotations at the lexical level”. Chinese is no exception to this generalization. There are lexical count nouns and lexical mass nouns in Chinese. In English, a count noun can be shifted into mass by depriving its count syntax. For example, the noun apple in the sentence “there is apple all over the floor” is used as arugment in its bare form. It has a mass noun syntax and it is interpreted as “apple stuff” but not as ‘individual apples’. The sentence means that ‘there is apple stuff all over the floor’. In other words, the count noun is grouned into mass by a “universal grinder” (Pelletier 1975). In English, the count-to-mass shifting is triggered by the morphsyntax mismatch.

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In contrast, the count-to-mass shifting in Chinese is not as easily achievable as in English. Cheng et al (2008) report that the Mandarin sentence (14) only has a count noun interpretation. The noun gou ‘dog’ refers to individual dogs only but not dog stuff. And (14) is only able to describe a situation in which a wall has been docorated with numerous little dogs. They call it a “wall-paper reading”. It is impossible for gou to have a shifted reading by the mechanism of “universal grinding”. (14) qiang shang dou shi gou. wall on all be dog WALL PAPER READING: ‘There are dogs all over the wall.’ NOT: ‘There is dog all over the wall.’ Example (15) is different from (14) in that it not only has a wall paper reading (15a) but also a mass noun reading (15b). Among these two readings, the count reading is a basic one, from which the mass reading is derived. In Chinese, the count-to-mass shifting is not due to morpho-syntactic factors but is context-driven, e.g. due to world knowledge factors. (15) qiang shang dou shi pingguo. wall on all be apple a. WALL PAPER READING: ‘There are apples all over the wall.’ b. MASS READING: ‘There is apple all over the wall.’ In view of the examples in (14) and (15), Cheng et al (2008: 54) propose that in Chinese, “count nouns come out of the lexicon as count, and a mass interpretation of a count noun is the result of coercion.” If my argument is correct that Mandarin nouns have a mass noun syntax, then there is no syntactic-driven count-mass or mass-count shifting in general. The Mandarin bare noun pingguo can be equally interpreted with a count reading or a mass reading in the appropriately construed contexts. I wonder why pingguo in Chinese should be treated as a count noun (by default). Is it possible that the stuff reading is (one of) its basic reading(s)? Contra Cheng et al (2008), I argue that the so-called wall paper reading and the mass reading of pingguo ‘apple’ in (15) is not an issue between count and (shifted) mass nouns at the grammatical level but a genuine ambiguity between individual and stuff readings of Chinese bare nouns at the ontological level.

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I claim that Chinese bare nouns are unspecified with individuation and that they have an ambiguity between an individual and a stuff reading, or even a partial-object reading (also see Huang and Lee 2009). I give an illustration of four different types of nouns, i.e. fruit-vegetable, animate entities, liquid and artifacts, with respect to the availability of individual, stuff and partial-object readings. [Fruit-vegetable]: food nouns, such as those referring to fruit and vegetables, freely alternate between the individual and the stuff reading. Additionally, a partial-object reading is also possible. These three readings for pingguo ‘apple’ are illustrated in (16). (16) zhuo shang you pingguo. table on there:be apple a. ‘There are apples on the table.’ OR ‘There is an apple on the table.’ b. ‘There is apple on the table.’ c. ‘There is part of an apple on the table.

[Individual reading] [Stuff reading] [Partial-object reading]

In the individual reading, pingguo can either have a singular or plural reading, as in (16a). In the stuff reading, pingguo does not have to satisfy the requirement of being an apple in terms of its shape, as in (16b). In addition, Chinese bare nouns also have a partial object reading. The partialobject reading is different from the stuff reading. In the partial object reading, the noun pingguo ‘apple’ may refer to some part of an apple, e.g. half an apple or one third of an apple, as in (16c). In English, it is impossible for the bare nouns to have the partial object reading, which is expressed by the (partitive) quantifier some, such as ‘There is some apple on the table.’ [Animate nouns]: Most animate nouns in Chinese only have an individual reading. They refer to naturally atomic entities, such as student, dog, pig, cow etc. This is very much different from the English counterparts. The English noun dog either refers to individual dogs or dog stuff. Recall the example (14). In Chinese, the stuff reading is expressed by the lexical device -rou ‘flesh’, such as gou-rou ‘dog-flesh’, as in (17). (17) qiang shang dou shi wall on all be ‘There is dog all over the wall.’

gou-rou. dog-flesh

However, some animate nouns, such as livestock or seafood, can have partial-object and stuff readings, in addition to the individual reading. Size

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might be relevant factor and it is much easier for small-sized animals to have the three-way ambiguity. For example, in (18), the bare noun ji ‘chicken’ can either refer to a whole chicken (18a), chicken stuff (chopped into pieces) (18b), or half a chicken (18c). (18) guo li you ji. pot in all chicken a. ‘There are chickens in the wok.’ ‘There is a chicken in the wok.’ b . ‘There is chicken in the wok.’ c. ‘There is part of a chicken in the wok.’

[Individual reading] [Stuff reading] [Partial-object]

[Liquid]: nouns referring to liquid, such as shui ‘water’, have a stuff reading as default. (19) zhuo shang you shui. table on there:be water ‘There is (splashed) water on the table’

[Stuff reading]

[Artifact]: nouns referring to artifacts are stubbornly naturally atomic entities and can only have an individual reading. As shown in (20), the Chinese noun zixingche ‘bicycle’ cannot refer to parts of bicycle, so it cannot have a stuff reading. (20) di-shang dou shi zixingche. floor-on all be bicycle ‘There are bicycles all over the floor.’ [Individual reading] NOT: ‘There is bicycle all over the floor.’ I claim that there is no grinding in general in Chinese and that Chinese nouns are unspecified with individuation. Specifically, Chinese bare nouns may refer to entities existing in different ontological forms, including naturally atomic entities, partial object or stuff. The interpretational variability of Mandarin bare nouns cannot be captured by the binary distinction between mass and count nouns. As shown from (16) to (20), these four types of nouns vary with respect to the possibility of referring to different ontological forms of entities. Artifacts and animate nouns on the one hand and liquid on the other represent two ontologically different types of nouns: nouns denoting discrete entities and nouns denoting homogeneous entities respectively. Food nouns, in-

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cluding [fruit-vegetable] and a small set of [animate] nouns (e.g. poultry or seafood like crab, shrimp), have a three-way ambiguity between individual, stuff and partial-object readings. According to our understanding, the wall-paper reading of gou in (14) is not because dog is a lexical count noun which rejects a mass (grinding) reading, but rather, it is an animated noun, which is stubbornly naturally atomic. The two readings of pingguo in (15) are not an ambiguity between count and mass nouns, but a genuine ambiguity between individual and stuff reading, which is generally available for Chinese bare nouns. The “underspecification of individuation” hypothesis is also supported by experimental studies. Huang and Lee (2009) argue that older Chinese children (5.0-6.6 years old) and Chinese adults are sensitive to distinct linguistic contexts in their interpretations of partial object situations, such as the contrast between bare noun and “Cl-N”. For them, it is possible for bare nouns to have a partial object reading, in addition to individual and stuff readings, while Cl-N can only have an individual reading. However, younger children (3.65.0 years old) antithetically accepted partial object situations across linguistic contexts. They propose that Chinese children are not born with noun individuation based on ontological/semantic properties of nouns; instead, they come to learn noun individuation through the learning of the individuation function of linguistic forms (for Chinese children, the individual classifiers). This indicates that noun individuation is not an inherent part of lexical meaning (even for the ‘count’ nouns in Cheng et al‘s term or ‘count mass nouns’ in Doetjes’ term). A portion/part of individuals could be an instance of that kind of individuals as long as the portion/part could be used to identify the kind of individuals it belongs to.

5. Natural atomicity as a grammatically relevant phenomenon In section 3 and 4, I reviewed two lexicalist approaches to the mass/count distinction in Chinese. Doetjes (1997) claims that Chinese nouns fall into two basic types, “count mass nouns” and “mass mass nouns”, on the basis of having or not having minimal parts of the entities in the denotation of nouns. Cheng et al (2008) argue that nouns come out of the lexicon as count or mass and this is true of all languages in the world. In contrast with them, I argue that the mass/count distinction distinguished at the lexical level is a real world difference about the properties of entities in our world.

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It is different from the mass/count distinction distinguished at the grammatical level, as is found in English. In what follows, I will recast Doetjes’s (1997) distinction between count mass and mass mass nouns, or Cheng et al’s (2008) distinction between count and mass nouns, into an ontological distinction between discreteness and homogeneity in terms of the property of denotation of nouns. I will be assuming the position that although Chinese nouns are all mass nouns, two ontologically different types of nouns can be distinguished: nouns denoting discrete entities and nouns denoting homogeneous entities. The characterizing property of the first group of nouns is that the entities denoted are conceived as spatially bound or delimited and are straightforward identified as being a “one”. Nouns in this group include xuesheng ‘student’, dianshi-ji ‘TV set’, shu ‘tree’ etc. In contrast, the referents of nouns in the second group do not have well-defined or stable spatial configuration. Nouns in this camp include shui ‘water’, yun ‘cloud’, lu ‘road’ etc.3 I will present evidence below to show that the ontological distinction of nouns between homogeneity and discreteness is a grammatically relevant distinction in Mandarin. The first piece of evidence comes from the use of size adjectives as adnominal modifiers, such as da ‘big’ and xiao ‘small’ (Rothstein 2010, Zhang 2012). Rothstein (2010) notes that in English, nouns denoting entities with salient individual units can be be modified with adjectives like big or small, and those denoting homogeneous entities reject adjective modification of big and small. Such a contrast cross-cuts the distinction of mass and count nouns. (21) a. Do not buy big furniture. The stairs are too narrow to carry it up. b. * a glass of big water This generalization is also applicable to Chinese. Although nouns like pingguo ‘apple’ cannot be directly counted without a classifier in Mandarin, it denotes entities whose unit structure can be modified, as in (22). In

3

These two types of nouns don’t correspond to the distinction between individual and non-individual classifiers. In other words, it is not completely true that individual classifiers can only modify nouns with discrete referents and non-individual classifiers modify nouns with homogeneous referents.

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contrast, those denoting homogeneous entities like shui and kongqi cannot be modified by dimensional adjectives, as in (23). (22) a. yi ge hen one CL very ‘a very big apple’ b. yi ke hen one CL very ‘a very big tree’ (23) a. * yi bei hen one CLglass very b. * yi ge hen one CL very

da big

de Mod

pingguo apple

da big

de Mod

shu tree

da big da big

de Mod de Mod

shui water kongqi air

According to Zhang (2012), in addition to [±numerablity], nouns are also parameterized with the feature [±dimensionality]. Namely, there are dimensional and non-dimensional nouns. Dimensional nouns, such as he ‘river’, are subject to modification of dimensional adjectives, and nondimensional nouns, including material nouns like jin ‘gold’ and you ‘oil’ and immaterial nouns, such as minzhu ‘democracy’ and yinyue ‘music’, cannot be modified by dimensional adjectives. The contrast between these two types of nouns suggested by Zhang corresponds to the contrast between discrete and homogeneous entities, as contrasted in (22) and (23). I thus will not provide further examples. Zhang (2012) also suggests that the contrast between these two types of nouns with respect to dimensional adjectives also shows up in predicative positions. Look at her examples in (24) and (25). (24) a. he hen chang. river very long ‘The river is long.’ b. qiqiu hen da. balloon very big ‘The balloon is big.’

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(25) a.* you hen oil very b.* zhengqi hen steam very

chang. long da. big

The modification of adjective as a legitimate test is understandable if we take into account that discrete entities denoted by nouns have an inherent structure, which can be measured along a certain dimension, while homogeneous entities have no such structure. The second piece of evidence is that in Chinese, some classifiers and quantifiers are sensitive to the natural atomicity of nouns: some modify nouns denoting naturally atomic entities only and others non-naturally atomic entities. Doetjes (1997:34) said that group classifiers, such as da ‘dozen’, are “semantically used for a group or a collection of individuals”, as in the example of yi da baima ‘a dozen of white horses’. We said earlier that not all group classifiers take nouns with atomic referents, but it is true for the specific classifier da ‘dozen’, since it expresses the special meaning of a collection or package of individuals (for sale). Interestingly, when saying yi da shui, it means ‘a dozen of packs of water’ only, in which the noun water are forced to denote atomic entities. (26) yi da shui one dozen water ‘a dozen of packed water’ In contrast, the quantifier yi dian-er ‘a bit’ takes nouns denoting homogeneous entities, such as shijian ‘time’ and shengyin ‘sound’, as in (27a-b). (27) a. yi dian-er shijian one bit time ‘a bit of time’ b. yi dian-er shengyin one bit sound ‘a bit of sound’ It is inappropriate for yi dian-er to modify naturally atomic nouns like ren ‘people’, as in (28a). This kind of shifting happens only under some circumstance. For example, the naturally atomic denotation, such as ping-

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guo ‘apple’ can be shifted into a non-naturally atomic reading as triggered by yi dian-er, as in (28b). (28) a. #yi dian-er ren one bit people b. yi dian-er pingguo one bit apple ‘a bit of apple(*s)’.

6. Conclusions In this chapter, I argued against the view that there is a lexical distinction between count and mass nouns in Chinese. By separating the grammatical notion of countability from the ontological/cognitive notion of individuation, we claim that the mass/count distinction is independent whether the referents in the denotation of nouns are individuals or not. Shui ‘boy’ and nanhai ‘boy’ are both mass nouns, but they represent two ontologically different types of nouns: nouns referring to discrete entities and nouns referring to homogeneous entities.

Chapter 5 Chinese bare nouns

1. Introduction Having made the claim in chapter 3 and 4 that the count/mass distinction of nominals cannot be established in Chinese, I now explore the KrifkaChierchia proposal that all Chinese nouns are mass nouns (see Krifka 1995, Chierchia 1998a, b). Krifka assumes that “every language which allows for bare NPs at all uses them as expressions referring to kinds (see GerstnerLink 1988)”. Chierchia (1998b) makes the explicit claim that Chinese is an argumental language, in which (i) all the nouns are born as arguments, and (ii) they denote kinds, as do English mass nouns. Though Chierchia’s hypothesis has been very influential, it is, as he admits himself rather “speculative” (Chierchia 1998a: 92). Our first and foremost goal in this chapter is to examine the plausibility of Krifka-Chierchia hypothesis. We show that there is good evidence to accept it. It has been widely observed in the literature that Chinese bare nouns have, besides kind readings, object-level interpretations, which can be both definite and indefinite (see Li and Thompson 1981, R. Yang 2001, H. Yang 2005, Rullman and You 2006, among others). For example, in (1a), the bare noun shu ‘book’ is a kind term, meaning ‘the kind book’, and shu ‘book’ in (1b) can either mean ‘the book(s)’ or ‘some book(s)’. (1) a. shu shi renlei de jingshen shiliang. book be human Mod spirit food ‘Books are food for the human soul.’ [Generic] Lit: ‘Books are to our mind, as food to our body b. wo mai le shu. I buy PFV book ‘I bought some book(s).’ [Indefinite] OR ‘I bought the book/the books.’ [Definite] The second goal of this chapter is to answer the question: what is the relationship between the kind reading and the (in)definite reading, of bare

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nouns? There are two possibilities. The first one is that Chinese bare nouns are ambiguous between a kind reading and object-level reading (Wilkinson 1991, Gerstner and Krifka 1993, Kratzer 1995, and others) The second possibility is that the kind interpretation is the default reading for Chinese bare nouns and that the object-level readings are derived from the kind reading (see Carlson 1977, Chierchia 1998b, R. Yang 2001, Dayal 2004). In this chapter, we take the neo-Carlsonian approach and argue for the second possibility. The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 briefly introduces the Krikfa-Chierchia hypothesis that Chinese bare nouns are kind terms. In section 3, we justify the Krifka-Chierchia hypothesis with various pieces of evidence. In section 4, we represent the semantics of bare nouns in formal terms. Sections 5 and 6 look at the object-level interpretations of Chinese bare nouns. In section 5, we study the predicative use of bare nouns, e.g. in post-copula positions (see Higgins 1976, Partee 1986). Section 6 looks at definite readings of bare nouns in argumental positions, e.g. topic positions. We argue that Chinese nouns are kind-denoting by default, and that the existential and the definite reading are derived (also see R. Yang 2001, H. Yang 2005).

2. The Krifka-Chierchia hypothesis Krifka (1995) is among the first to note that Chinese nouns are ambiguous between a kind-level reading and an object-level reading. Take as an example the noun xiong ‘bear’. It can refer to (2a) the kind Ursus or (2b) some specimens of this kind. There is also a measure construction which applies to (2c) a specified number of realizations of Ursus. (2) a. xiong juezhong le. bear become:extinct PRF ‘Bears become extinct.’ b. wo kanjian xiong le. I see bear PRF ‘I saw (some) bears.’ c. san qun xiong three CLherd bear ‘three herds of bears’

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Krifka (1995: 399) assumes that “the bare noun xiong is basically a name of the kind Ursus, and that the other uses have to be derived from that” (also see Dolling 1992). One reason to take the kind-referring use in (2a) as basic is that it seems that “every language which allows for bare NPs at all uses them as expressions referring to kinds (see Gerstner-Link 1988)”. Chierchia (1998b: 353-4) develops a typology of noun reference. He assumes that nouns are either classified as predicates or as arguments, and he introduces the features [±argument] and [±predicate] as parameters constraining the way in which the syntactic category N (and its phrasal projection NP) is mapped onto its denotation in different languages. [+argument] means that N can be mapped onto denotations of the argumental type and [-argument] cannot. The determiner D denotes a function from predicates to arguments. In a language where N is a predicate, N must combine with a D to form an argument. In a language where N is born at the argument type, this is not necessary and we get so-called “bare NP arguments”. French is argued to be an [-argument, +predicate] language, in which every noun is a predicate, and nouns cannot be made into arguments without projecting D. English is a language parameterized with the setting of [+argument, +predicate]. This means that nouns in English can be either predicative or argumental. In English, mass nouns are [+argument], while count nouns are [+predicate]. This means that count nouns must combine with a determiner to denote an argument, and hence count nouns cannot occur in their bare singular form. Chierchia proposes that Chinese is an argumental language, where the nouns have the [+argument, -predicate] setting. This means that nouns can be mapped onto denotations of the argument type but not of the predicate type. He assumes that in a language with this setting, nouns and their phrasal projections are mass nouns that uniformly denote kinds. (We refer to Chierchia (1998b: 355-357) for the detailed discussion of each type of language.) To synthesize, the Krifka-Chierchia hypothesis goes as follows: Chinese bare nouns are mass expressions and denote kinds as default.

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3. Bare nouns as kinds The Krifka-Chierchia hypothesis has been very influential, but it has not been carefully justified. Especially, under his nominal mapping hypothesis, Chierchia makes the following predictions concerning properties of nouns in [+argument, -predicate] languages like Chinese: a. There is no plural marker;1 b. Bare nouns cannot be modified by numerals without the assistance of classifiers;2 c. There is no indefinite article. These three morphosyntactic predictions are borne out in Chinese. However, this by itself does not entail Chierchia’s assumption that Chinese nouns denote kinds. In what follows, I use the tests of generic contexts (Section 3.1), appositives (Section 3.2) and scope behaviors (Sections 3.3 and 3.4), to examine the nature of bare nouns. As we will see, these tests provide evidence for Chierchia’s hypothesis that Chinese bare nouns denote kind terms.

3.1. Strong kind-inducing contexts Kind-reference generic sentences express properties that are true of kinds, species or classes of objects, but not of individual objects (Krifka et al 1995). In English, bare plural nominals and definite singular nominals have kind interpretations. They can take kind-level properties denoted by kindlevel predicates, such as being extinct, as exemplified in (3a-b): 1

Note that in Chinese, there is a seeming plural marker –men (A. Li 1999). However, this marker is not exactly the same as the English plural morpheme –s. Firstly, it carries definiteness; secondly, it can only be attached to Ns denoting humans. According to Iljic (1994), it is a collective marker but not a plural maker. Though A. Li (1999) argues -men in Mandarin Chinese is best analyzed as a plural marker, she accepts the difference between the Chinese –men and the English –s. She assumes that -men is realized on an element in D, in contrast to plurality on N, which is what we find in English. We thus do not think that Chinese –men can be treated as a true plural marker. 2 Not all languages with bare arguments are bound to have classifiers. For example, in Indonesian, classifiers are optional between numeral and noun, although it is an argumental language (Chung 2000).

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(3) a. Dodos are extinct. b. The dodo is extinct. In contrast, indefinite singular nominals are individual-denoting only, and cannot take kind-level predicates, as in (3c).3 c. * A dodo is extinct. In Mandarin Chinese, there is neither a plural marker nor are there articles, so we cannot find expressions like bare plurals or (in)definite singulars headed by articles. The closest we can come to English bare plurals is with Chinese bare nouns, and the closest we can come to the singular definite is with the Chinese Demonstrative+N construction, while the closest we can come to singular indefinites is with Chinese “one+CL+N”.4 As (4) shows, only Chinese bare nouns can be used as subjects of kind-level predicates in kind reference generics (4a), while demonstratives phrases (4b) and indefinite singular phrases (4c) cannot: (4) a . jing kuai juezhong le. whale soon be:extinct PRF ‘Whales will soon be extinct.’ b.#na jing kuai juezhong le. that whale soon be:extinct PRF Intended: ‘That whale will soon be extinct.’ c.# you yi tiao jin kuai juezhong le. there-be one CLtail whale soon be:extinct PRF Intended: ‘A whale will soon be extinct.’ The predicate of jue-zhong ‘be extinct’ in (4a) has the literal meaning ‘vanish-kind’ in Chinese, so it clearly is a kind-level predicate. It requires a 3

The indefinite singular nominals can have a subkind reading. On the subkind reading, a dodo means ‘a subkind of dodos’. We ignore this reading for the time being. 4 In Mandarin, demonstratives can either be used in the construction of Dem+Cl+N or in Dem+N. But, as mentioned in Chapter 3, Dem-N is usually found in preverbal positions, e.g. the subject position, and not in postverbal positions, e.g. object positions. Note that Dem-N can only have an object-level interpretation and not a kindlevel interpretation. For example, zhe yu ‘this fish’ means ‘this individual fish’ and not ‘this kind of fish’.

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kind term to be its argument, so the bare noun in (4a) is interpreted as: the whale kind. The examples of (4b) and (4c) show that this kind-level predicate cannot take as argument a nominal phrase that refers to individuals, such as na jing ‘that (individual) whale’ or yi tiao jing ‘an (individual) whale’. A second point is that Chinese bare nouns can occur in the post-copula position as a kind-level predicate. The sentence, in that case, is a generic sentence, as in (5a). (5) a. haitun he lanjing dou shi jing. dolphin and blue whales all be whale ‘Both dolphins and blue whales are whales.’ b. haitun he lanjing shi liang zhong jing. dolphin and blue whale be two CLkind whale ‘Dolphins and blue whales are two kinds of whales.’ c.# haitun he lanjing shi liang tiao jing. dolphin and blue whale be two CLtail whale ‘Dolphins and blue whales are two (individual) whales.’ (5a) expresses a taxonomic relation between the kind of entities denoted by the subject, i.e. haitun he lanjing ‘dolphins and blue whales’, and the denotation of the post-copula NP, i.e. jing ‘whales’. That is, the kind Dolphin and the kind Blue Whale stand in a subkind relation to the kind Whale. The subkind relation can be overtly realized by the kind classifier, zhong ‘kind’ as shown in (5b); the sentence is infelicitous with the individual classifier tiao ‘tail’, as in (5c). The use of bare nouns in Chinese to refer to kinds has been neglected in Chinese linguistics, despite attested examples like the following in (6) from high school textbooks used in mainland China. These examples illustrate strong kind-inducing contexts, such as discussions of biology, invention, taxonomy. The kind terms are given in boldface. (6) a. niao shi you konglong jinhua lai de. bird be from dinosaur evolve come PRT ‘Birds evolved from dinosaurs.’ b. aidisheng faming le dianhuaji. Edison invent PFV telephone ‘Edison invented the telephone.’

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3.2. Appositives In this section we discuss appositives as a test for the kind referring nature of Chinese bare nouns. Bare nouns easily take appositive nominals, e.g. “Demonstrative+Cl+N”. Note that demonstratives before Cl-N are usually unstressed in the above cases. They lose their deictic function and end up working like “determinate article”, in the sense that they yield definiteness. This phrase, when it follows an anchor noun, can be interpreted appositively or restrictively (Del Gobbo 1999). We are only interested in the appositive use here. In kind-reference generics, the appositive phrase can be a kind ClP, headed by the kind classifier zhong ‘kind’, as in (7), but not an individual ClP headed by individual classifiers such as zhi or ge, ‘individual unit’, as in (8). (7) a. niao, zhe zhong dongwu, you konglong, bird this Clkind animal from dinosaur na zhong dongwu jinhua er lai. that CLkind animal evolve thus come ‘Birds, this kind of animal, evolved from dinosaurs, that kind of animal.’ b. aidisheng faming le dianhuaji zhe zhong shebei. Edison invent PFV telephone this CLkind equipment ‘Edison invented the telephone, this kind of equipment.’ (8) a. #niao, zhe zhi dongwu, you konglong, bird this CL animal from dinosaur na zhi dongwu jinhua er lai. that CL animal evolve thus come ‘The bird, this individual animal, evolved from the dinosaur, this individual animal.’ b.# aidisheng faming le dianhuaji zhe ge shebei. Edison invent PFV telephone this CL equipment ‘Edison invented the telephone, this equipment.’ The verbs of jinhua ‘evolve’ in (7a) and faming ‘invent’ in (7b) can only take kind terms as arguments, so the arguments only allow kind classifier phrase as appositive phrases, as in (8) and not individual classifier phrases, as in (8).

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Moreover, kind ClPs can even function as appositive phrases of bare nouns in episodic sentences, forcing a kind reading of the bare noun. Consider (9). (9) a. wo chi le liulian, zhe zhong / # ge I eat PFV durian this CLkind / CL ‘I ate durians, this kind of fruit.’ b. wo kan guo jing, zhe zhong /# zhi I see EXP whale this CLkind / CL ‘I have seen whales, this kind of animal.’

shuiguo. fruit dongwu. animal

Take (9a) for instance. Without the appositive phrase, the sentence of wo chi le liulian can either mean that ‘I ate the durian(s)’ or ‘I ate some durian(s)’, where the bare noun durian has a definite or an indefinite reading, but not a kind reading. However, with an appositive like zhe zhong shuiguo ‘this kind of fruit’, the bare noun liulian ‘durian’ is interpreted as a kind term, referring to the kind durian. As a result, (9a) means that I had a durian-eating experience. (Note that the phrase zhe ge shuiguo ‘this Cl fruit’ can never be used as an appositive on the bare noun, regardless of whether the bare noun liulian is kind or individual denoting.)

3.3. Scope with respect to opacity In this section, I will use Carlson’s (1977) scope tests in opacity contexts to investigate the scope behavior of Chinese bare nouns. I will show that in the object-level interpretation, Chinese bare nouns are ambiguous between an opaque reading and a definite reading. Carlson (1977) shows that in English, in opaque contexts, indefinite singular NPs like a policeman are ambiguous between an opaque and a transparent reading (10a). In the transparent reading of (10a), there is some particular person that Paul is looking for, who happens to be a policeman (a fact that Paul may be unaware of). In the opaque reading, Paul is not looking for a particular person, but would be satisfied by anyone who can show him his Police Badge. Indefinite plural NPs, like some policemen in (10b), show the same ambiguity. However, as Carlson argues, bare plural NPs, like policemen in (10c), only have the opaque reading.

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(10) a. Paul is looking for a policeman. (opaque or transparent) b. Paul is looking for some policemen. (opaque or transparent) c. Paul is looking for policemen. (opaque) The opaque and transparent readings of indefinite phrases, such as a policeman and some policemen, have the following two semantic structures associated with them (following Zimmermann 1993 for the intensional one), in (11). In the opaque reading, look for relates Paul to the property of policeman, meaning that he is trying to find an instantiation of that property in the real world. In the transparent reading, look for relates Paul to an individual x, meaning that he is trying to find that person x, and x happens to have the property of being a policeman. (11) a. look for (paul, ∧policeman ) b. ∃x[ policeman(x) ∧ look for (paul, x)

(opaque) (transparent)

Carlson (1977) argues that if the bare noun is ambiguous between a kind reading and an indefinite reading, the bare plural in (10c) should have the opaque and transparent readings, just as the indefinites (10a) and (10b), but does not. Carlson (1977) argues that English bare plurals only denote kinds and that the existential reading of the bare noun is derived from the basic kind reading by a type-shifting operation on the verb or predicate which introduces an instantiation relation between the kind and its individual instances. Thus, even if the intensional context allows an existential reading, the existential quantifier is introduced locally by the type shifting operation, i.e. in the scope of the intensional operator: no transparent readings are generated. Thus, we can interpret (11a) as (11c), meaning: Paul tries to bring himself into a world where he has found an instantiation of the kind Policeman (Note: INST stands for INSTANTIATE). c.Try (paul, λw.∃x[INST (x,Policeman,w) ∧ FIND (paul,x,w)]) (opaque) As mentioned above, “one+Cl+N” is the closest we can come in Chinese to English indefinite singulars and Chinese bare nouns are the closest we can come to English bare plurals. In what follows, we will check whether Carlson’s observation about the contrast between English bare

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plural NPs and indefinite singular NPs in (10) carries over to bare nouns and “one+Cl+N” in Mandarin: (12) a. ta zai zhao yi ge baomu. he PROG seek one CL maid ‘He is looking for a maid.’ (opaque or transparent) b. ta zai zhao baomu. he PROG seek maid ‘He is looking for a maid/maids.’ (opaque reading) OR ‘He is looking for the maid(s).’ (definite reading) In (12a), the singular phrase of yi ge baomu either refers to anyone who has the property of being a maid, which leads to an opaque reading, or refers to a particular person, who is a maid, in which case we get a transparent reading. In (12b), the bare noun baomu either refers to anyone who is a maid/are maids, and the reading we get is the opaque reading, or it refers to the maid(s) familiar to the subject, in which case the sentence gets a definite reading. In short, “one+Cl+N” pattern with English indefinite singular NPs, and (12a) is ambiguous between an opaque reading and a transparent reading. Chinese bare nouns, like English bare plurals, allow an opaque reading, but not a transparent indefinite reading. However, Chinese bare nouns have an extra reading, a definite reading, which English bare plurals do not have. The extra reading was also observed by R. Yang (2001:26-28), who argues that it should be distinguished from the transparent reading and is a phenomenon unique to Chinese. Yang’s arguments for distinguishing transparent and definite readings will be discussed in section 2.4. I here discuss a different test which distinguishes definite from transparent readings: the test of relative clauses. Chinese relative clauses (RCs) are left-branching. In numeral phrases like “Num+Cl+N”, the relative clause can modify the head noun, as in the form “Num+Cl+RC+N”, or the whole numeral phrase, as in the form “RC+Num+Cl+N”. We use our examples in (13) to illustrate these two types of relative clauses. (13a) has the form “Num-Cl-RC-N” and (13b) has the form “RC-Num-Cl-N”.

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(13) a. ta zai zhao yi ge [RC ta bu renshi de] baomu. he PPOG seek one CL he not know Mod maid ‘There is a maid that he is not familiar with that he is looking for.’ [transparent] OR: ‘He is looking for a maid [and wants her to be one] that he is not familiar with.’ [opaque] b. ta zai zhao [RC ta bu renshi de] yi ge baomu. he PROG seek he not know Mod one CL maid ‘There is a maid that he is not familiar with that he is looking for.’ [transparent] Zhang (2006) claims that Num-Cl-RC-N is ambiguous in specificity, whereas RC-Num-Cl-N is unambiguously specific, and that this contrast results from the difference in scope possibilities. We agree with Zhang’s observation about the correlation between the modification of relative clauses and specificity of numeral classifier phrases. We suggest that (13a) either means that there is a certain maid that the subject is not familiar with, and she is the one that is being looked for, which is a transparent reading, or that he is looking for a maid and anyone will be fine, as long as he is not familiar with her, which is an opaque reading. The example (13b) only has the transparent reading. The relative clause—that he is not familiar with— specifies the property of the individual denoted by the ClP, which helps to identify the individual and thus makes the transparent reading more salient. Now, when we replace the numeral-classifier phrase in (13) with a bare noun, and modify it with the same relative clause as the one used, we only get an opaque reading, as in (14). (Note that strictly speaking, wide-scope and specificity are independent phenomena, but the difference is not relevant here, what is important is that only the opaque reading is available.) (14) ta zai zhao [RC ta bu renshi de ] baomu. [opaque] he PROG seek he not know Mod maid ‘He is looking for maids [and wants them to be ones] that he is not familiar with.’ It is impossible in (14) to get a transparent reading. The interpretational variability of the modified N in (14) parallels neither that of (13a) nor of (13b). This strongly suggests that the indefinite readings of bare nouns must be distinguished from the scopally active indefinite readings of “Num+Cl+N”.

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Now, I would like to know why the second definite reading that is available in (12b) is not available in (14). According to Lyons (1999), in English, definiteness presupposes ‘familiarity’ and implicates ‘uniqueness’. Li and Bisang (2012) argue that definiteness in Chinese is characterized by ‘familiarity’ and does not presuppose ‘uniqueness’. This means that the referent of a Chinese definite phrase is an individual that is familiar to the interlocutors or identifiable in a relevant context, but it may not be a unique individual (see Li and Bisang 2012 for details). Now, in (15) the semantic content of the relative clause expresses unfamiliarity, which causes an obvious clash with the presupposition of familiarity associated with the bare noun in the definite reading. We assume that the lexical content in this case overrides the presupposition. That is why the definite reading is not available in this case. If we change the relative clause to ‘that I am familiar with’, the definite reading comes back. So (15) is ambiguous: (15) ta zai zhao [RC ta renshi de ] baomu. [definite/opaque] he PROG seek he know Mod maid ‘He is looking for the maids that he is familiar with.’ The stone of the relative clause kills two birds in one. On the one hand, it shows that the indefinite reading of bare nouns is not that of true indefinite NPs like “one+Cl+N”. On the other, it shows that Chinese bare nouns indeed can get opaque or definite readings, but not transparent readings. When the definite reading is unavailable for independent reasons, the opaque reading is the only possible interpretation available. With Carlson (1977) and Chierchia (1998), we assume that this means that the default reading of Chinese bare nouns is the kind reading, and their indefinite reading is derived.

3.4. Scope with respect to quantifiers Carlson (1977:11) shows that English bare plurals and indefinite singulars also behave differently with respect to the scope of quantified noun phrases like everyone. While indefinites can take wide and narrow scopes, bare plurals have narrow scope only: (16) a. Everybody is reading a book about giraffes. [∀> books or books>∀] b. Everybody is reading books about giraffes. [∀>books]

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The indefinite phrase a book about giraffes in (16a) can have wide scope over the universal quantifier everybody, meaning that there is a book about giraffes that everybody is reading. It can also have a narrow scope with respect to everybody, meaning that everybody is reading a book about giraffes, possibly different books. In contrast, the bare plural books about giraffes in (16b) can only have a narrow scope reading: everybody is reading a book about giraffes, possibly different books. In Chinese, a group of linguists (S.F.Huang 1981, Huang 1982 among others) believe that Chinese sentences with two quantifiers, which function as subject and object respectively, shows no scope ambiguity in that the subject quantifier scopes over the object quantifier. According to them, the only possible interpretation of (17) is that the quantifier mei ge ren ‘every’ scopes over yi ge ren ‘someone’. In other words, (17) implies that everyone likes a different person. (17) Mei ge ren dou xihuan yi ge ren. every CL person all like one CL person ‘Everyone likes a person (someone).’ (everyone > someone) However, this observation has proven to be wrong. Some later studies show that quantifiers in Chinese indeed exhibit scope ambiguity, but different types of verbs may exhibit different levels of prominence in this kind of scope ambiguity (see Lee 1986, Tsai 1994, Zhou and Gao 2009, among others). For example, Zhou and Gao (2009) conduct an offline judgment task, which examines the scope relations of quantifiers with respect to three types of verbs, including “action verbs”, “locative verbs” and “psych-verbs”. They show that their thematic information does affect quantifier scope interpretation. For the action verb and the locative verb, the S>O reading is more readily accessible than O>S reading, whereas for the psych-verb, the S>O interpretation and O>S interpretation are equally accessible, but its S>O interpretation is not as preferably accepted as those of the former two. This study shows that O>S interpretation is available if appropriate contexts are provided but it is not as accessible as S>O interpretation. In other words, doubly quantified sentences in Chinese are ambiguous, though the two readings are not equally accessible. In the current study, I take the viewpoint that both indefinite singulars and bare nouns show scope ambiguity in Chinese. As in English, the indefinite singular is ambiguous between a narrow scope and a wide scope reading with respect to the universal quantifier as in (18).

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(18) mei-ge ren dou zai kan yi feng every-CL man all PROG read one CL guanyu jiaxin de xin. about add-wage Mod letter ‘Everybody is reading a letter about raising salaries.’ [∀>xin or xin>∀] (18) either means that everyone has a different letter about salary-raises to read or that there is a letter about salary-raises that everyone reads. A natural scenario for the first reading is one where each employee gets a different raise, and hence they all read different letters. A natural scenario for the second reading is where they all get a 5% raise and the accounting department sends a standard letter to all. The Chinese bare noun is also ambiguous, but between a narrow scope reading and a definite reading, as in (19). (19) mei-ge ren dou zai kan guanyu jiaxin de xin. every-CL man all PROG read about add-wage Mod letter ‘Everybody is reading letters about raising salaries.’ [∀>xin] ‘Everybody is reading the letter about raising salaries.’ [definite] (19) has the same narrow scope reading, but the definite reading is different from the wide scope reading in (18): on the definite reading, there is one and only one letter involved in the situation and everyone reads it. It can be the case that a letter is pasted next to the entrance to the office, so everyone reads it when entering the office. R. Yang (2001) suggests the following scope test to support the argument that the definite reading for Chinese bare nouns is different from the transparent reading. Look at the examples in (20). (20) dabufeng xuezhe dou kanguo mei-ge most scholar all read every-CL a. [jiejue na-ge wenti de] fenxi fangfa. solve that-CL problem Mod analysis method ‘Most scholars have looked at every analysis that solves that problem.’ b. [jiejue mou-ge wenti de] fenxi fangfa. solve certain-CL problem Mod analysis method ‘Most scholars have looked at every analysis that solves a certain problem.’

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c. [jiejue wenti de] fenxi fangfa. solve problem Mod analysis method ‘Most scholars have looked at every analysis that solves problems.’ OR ‘Most scholars have looked at every analysis that solves the problem.’ Following Reinhart (1987), R. Yang (2001) argues that the definite NP, such as na-ge wenti ‘that problem’ in (19a), takes highest scope relative to other scope operators, i.e. it scopes over both the universal quantifier meige ‘every’ and the quantifier dabufeng ‘most’. (20a) means that there is a particular problem for most scholars and they have looked at every analysis to solve that problem. In contrast, the specific indefinite NP, such as mou-ge wenti ‘a certain question’ in (20b), not only has a wide scope reading, but also allows for intermediate scope. On the intermediate reading, mou-ge ‘a certain’ scopes over the universal quantifier meige ‘every’ but remains in the scope of quantifier dabufen ‘most’. So (20b) means that for most scholars, there is a problem such that he/she has looked at every analysis that solves that problem, possibly different problems for different scholars. Now, when we look at the bare noun, such as wenti ‘problem’ in (20c), I observe that there is no intermediate reading: (20c) has only a narrowest scope meaning or a widest scope meaning, i.e. “anything that is problem” or “a particular problem that is known to both the speaker and the listener”. The first reading is derived from the kind interpretation of the bare noun (which is equivalent to the narrow scope indefinite reading), while the second is a definite reading, where definiteness is defined in terms of familiarity in Mandarin Chinese. This definite reading gives the semantic effect of a widest scope reading. We see that definite readings are to be distinguished from transparent readings, and the scope behavior of the bare noun with respect to quantifiers is similar to the scope behavior with respect to opaque contexts. To summarize so far, I have discussed two pieces of evidence to prove that Chinese bare nouns are kind denoting. I showed that bare nouns appear naturally in kind-referring sentences. I demonstrated that Chinese bare nouns do not have the same scope behavior as true indefinites. Chinese bare nouns allow a definite reading which is independent of the scopal readings I am concerned with here. Ignoring the definite reading, bare nouns always have narrow scope with respect to quantifiers and opacity and cannot get intermediate or wide scope readings. The data discussed

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here strongly supports the Krifka-Chierchia hypothesis that Chinese bare nouns are kind referring.

4. Semantics of bare nouns I now specify the interpretation of Chinese bare nouns. Link (1983) proposes that there is a structural difference between the denotation of count nouns and of mass nouns in English. Count nouns have their denotation in an atomic Boolean domain and mass nouns have their denotation in a non-atomic Boolean domain. So mass nouns denote different kinds of objects from count nouns. In contrast to this, Chierchia (1998a, b) argues that all the nominals are interpreted with respect to an atomic Boolean algebra. We follow Chierchia (1998a, b) and assume that all nominals are interpreted in a complete atomic Boolean domain D, generated by a partially vague set of atoms. We assume a ‘part-of’ relation YD and a sum operation WD such that for every X⊆D: WDX∈D. WD is the operation of complete join with respect to YD, which means that for every X⊆D: WDX is the smallest element of D such that for all d∈X: d⊆D WDX. For example, a domain with three individuals has the structure in (21). A singular noun denotes a set of atoms, where atoms are the individuals at the bottom of the structure, a, b, and c; the other entities are pluralities, which are derived from the atoms via the sum operation W. A plural noun denotes the closure of a set of atoms under sum. From singular noun interpretation {a, b, c} we get plural noun interpretation: {a, b, c, aWb, bWc, aWc, aWbWc}. (21)

aWbWc aWb

a

aWc

b

bWc

c

Crucially, Chierchia (1998a) argues that count nouns distinguish lexically between the set of atoms and the set of plural elements in the Boolean algebra, while mass nouns do not. He suggests that mass nouns are grammatically singular but lexically plural: ‘mass nouns come out of the lexicon with plurality already built in, and… that is the only way they differ from

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count nouns’ (Chierchia 1998a: 53). So for Chierchia, a grammatically singular count noun denotes a set of atomic individuals, the plural of a count noun denotes the closure of that set of atoms under the sum operation, minus the set of atoms, while the grammatically singular mass noun denotes just the closure under sum. If there are three dogs in our world, including Fido, Barky and Spotty, the singular noun dog will be true of them, i.e. dog denotes the set {Fido, Barky, Spotty}. The plural noun dogs will be true of Fido and Barky, Barky and Spotty, and any other plural combination of these three individual dogs, i.e. dogs denotes the set: {FidoWBarky, BarkyWSpotty, FodoWSpotty, FidoWBarkyWSpotty}. However, a mass noun like furniture will not differentiate between singular pieces of furniture and plural pieces of furniture. The denotation of furniture is lexically plural and it includes all the possible instantiations of furniture, both singularities and pluralities. Chierchia (1998a, b) maintains that mass nouns differ from count nouns in that the former do not have access to the basic atoms at the bottom of the Boolean structure, while the latter do. According to Chierchia, the atoms in the denotation of the mass noun are vague or underdetermined for mass nouns, but the atoms in the count noun denotation are specified or determined. Extending this work to genericity, Chierchia (1998b) further argues that mass nouns denote kinds. Kinds are defined via the maximal entity in the denotation of mass nouns in each world. Chierchia (1998b:349) assumes that we can model kinds as individual concepts of a certain sort: functions from worlds (or situations) into the maximal entity in P, i.e. the sum of all instances of the kind in each world. Kind terms are thus expressions denoting individual entities of type k. (22) For any property P associated with the kind and the world of evaluation w, ?P=λw.WD(Pw) Since I will look only at extensional contexts, we can assume that the denotation of a kind term is: ?P, i.e. WDP. In chapter 3 and 4, I showed that there is no evidence to show that there is a mass/count distinction in Chinese, and that all nouns behave morphosyntacially like mass nouns. Earlier in this chapter, I argued that Chinese bare nouns directly denote kinds in various contexts. I now propose that Chinese bare nouns are interpreted in the same way as English mass nouns: both denote kinds. Following Chierchia’s semantics for English mass nouns, I propose the following semantics for the bare noun jing ‘whale’:

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(23) a. jing kuai juezhong le. whale soon be:extinct PRF ‘Whales will soon be extinct.’ b. NjingN=?whale =WD(whale) [Kind] c. NjuezhongN=λk.be extinct(k) [Predicate of kinds] d. NjuezhongN(NjingN) = λk.be extinct(k)(?whale) = be extinct (?whale) The bare noun jing ‘whale’ denotes the kind WHALE, which can (ignoring intensionality) be modeled as sum of all the individual whales. This kind term can be directly taken as argument of a kind-level predicate like juezhong ‘be extinct’, in (23c), giving the predication in (23d).

5. Bare predication Besides kind interpretations, Chinese bare nouns allow object-level interpretations, both indefinite and definite. In this section, we will focus on predicative uses of Chinese bare nouns, e.g. their uses in post-copula positions in the spirit of Higgins (1973) and Partee (1986). The first goal of this section is to study the interpretational variability of bare nouns in predicative positions. We will make a distinction among three types of interpretations of the bare noun jing ‘whale’ in a post-copula position: -the bare noun can denote a set of individuals (24a) -the bare noun can denote a set of subkinds (24b) -the bare noun can denote a kind (24c). (24) a. Moby Dick shi jing.  Moby Dick be whale ‘Moby Dick is a whale.’ b. lanjing shi jing. blue whale be whale ‘Blue whales are whales.’ c. jing shi jing. whale be whale ‘Whales are whales.’

[Individual-denoting]

[Subkind-denoting]

[Kind denoting]

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The second goal of this section is to specify the semantics of predicative bare nouns on the kind reading and the set reading and specify the derivational relation between them. Since I have argued that the kind interpretation is basic, I will derive the set interpretations from it. In section 5.1, I discuss some basic properties of copula clauses. In sections 5.2-5.4, I discuss the three types of Chinese copula sentences.

5.1. Some analyses of copula clauses 5.1.1. Ambiguous BEs While analyzing pseudoclefts like (25), Higgins (1973) argues that there are at least two copulas in English: predicational BE and specificational BE. (25) What John is is unusual. In one reading, (25) is a “predicational” pseudocleft: it predicates the property of being unusual to the referent of what John is. If what John is is a scuba diver, then being a scuba driver is unusual. On the other reading, (25) is a “specificational” pseudocleft. It identifies the property of being unusual as the referent of what John is. Higgins points to the “list-like” quality of specificational sentences and offers the following paraphrase: John is the following: being unusual. Higgins (1973: 264) extends the study of pseudoclefts to copula clauses in general and identifies two more types of copulas. All together he identifies four types of copula sentences, as shown in Table 2: Table 2. Classification of copula sentences Sentence types Predicational Superscriptional Identificational Identity

Subject Referential Superscriptional Referential Referential

Predicate Predicational Specificational Identificational Referential

According to Table 2, the copula BE is at least four-way ambiguous: Predicational sentences: the subject is usually referential, and the predicate is predicational. In other words, a particular object is picked out

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by the referential NP and this object is ascribed the property expressed by the predicate (Higgins 1973:212). For example, in (26a), the entity I am pointing at has the property of “cathood”. In this reading, one can conjoin the predicate with another predicational predicate, e.g. “What I am pointing at is a cat and is called Jemima.” (26) a. What I am pointing at is a cat. b. That is heavy. c. He is a student. Superscriptional sentences: neither the subject nor the predicate is referential. The subject merely delimits a domain and the predicate identifies a particular member of that domain (Higgins 1973:213). Look at (27). (27) a. What I am pointing at is a cat. b. What John is is unusual. For example, on the superscriptional reading of (27a), a cat is one of the items that I am pointing at. (27a) has the interpretation that ‘what I am pointing at is the following: a cat’. In this case, it is impossible to coordinate the predicate ‘is a cat’, with other predicates, such as “is called Jemima”. But we can add other items to the list, e.g. ‘what I am pointing at is a cat and a dog.’ Identificational sentences: the subject is usually that in its “common gender” use (in contrast to its “inanimate uses”). And that can usually be replaced with ‘that N’. The predicate is usually realized as a proper name. This construction is typically used for teaching the names of people or of things. See (28). (28) a. That (man) is Joe Smith. b. That (building) is the house that I mentioned. c. That (metal) is alumina. Identity sentences: Identity sentences are close to identificational sentences. But the subject and the predicate of identity sentences are both referential and both make ‘genuine references’. The copula BE expresses a relation of equation between the two referents.

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In (29a), the individual that the name ‘Cicero’ refers to is identified as the same as what the name ‘Tully’ refers to. (29) a. Cicero is Tully. b. Hesperus is Phosphorus. In the following section, I will focus on predicational and identity uses of the copula.

5.1.2. Unambiguous BE In contrast to Higgins, Partee (1986) argues for an analysis of be, in which it is not ambiguous. Partee suggests that the copula be is not ambiguous, and that it is always predicational, meaning that its complement is required to be a predicate. Other analyses along these lines are those by Williams (1983), Rothstein (2001) and others. The question for these analyses is how to treat identificational sentences like (26) and identity sentences like (27)? Partee’s unambiguous analysis of be is built upon her theory of “typeshifting principles”. Partee (1986) argues that NPs have interpretations as a family of semantic types rather than as a single type, and that natural typeshifting operations map between these types. (Note that she does not distinguish between DP and NP, and uses NP to cover all nominal projections.) She proposes that NPs have three basic semantics types: d (referential), (predicative) and (quantificational). Those basic types are lexically assigned to different NPs, but following the general type-shifting principles, NPs may be shifted from the basic types to others. Figure 1 gives a schematic representation of a number of type-shifting principles and their interrelation. In the figure, the circles represent the three model-theoretical domains: Dd, D and D and the arrows represent mapping relations between these domains.

d

Figure 1. Type shifting principles

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I refer readers to Partee ([1986] 2004:193) for details about how these type-shifting principles work exactly. Here, I give an illustration of the central type shifting principle used in Partee’s analysis of unambiguous be: the principle shifting entities of type d to entities of type . The basic type for proper names is type d. In order to occur in a predicative position, such as a post-copula position, proper names must be type-shifted from d to . Thus, the copula itself doesn’t do anything semantically, it can be treated as the identity function on predicates: λP.P of type . The requirement that its complement is of type triggers the typeshifting operation which lifts the DP from type d to . Partee proposes the type shifting operation IDENT: IDENT(a)=λx.x=a. Namely, IDENT maps each entity a of type d onto the set of entities identical to a, that is, the singleton set {a} (or the property of being a). Look at the derivation in (30): (30) a. Cicero is Tully. b. NTullyN= tully, NCiceroN= cicero, NbeN= λP.P c. IDENT(tully)=λx.(x=tully) d. Nbe TullyN=NbeN( IDENT(NTullyN))  = λP.P( λx.(x=tully) ) =λx.(x=tully) e. NCicero is TullyN=Nbe TullyN(NCiceroN) =λx.(x=tully) (Cicero) =(cicero=tully) (30) illustrates how identity sentences can be treated as predicational constructions, where definite NPs are assigned predicative readings through type lifting. According to Partee (1986), specificational be can be treated in the same way as the “identity be”. She assumes that specificational sentences are some kind of ‘identity sentence’ in the sense that specificational sentences like (27b) “perhaps assert identity of properties: the property that is what John is is the property of being unusual”(Partee 1986/2004: 198). In short, in Partee’s account, there is a single be, predicational be, which takes two arguments, one of type d and one of type . The examples of identificational be in (28) and identity be in (29) both involve the be of predication, but one of the argument is shifted from its basic entity-denoting interpretation to an “identity predicate” of the form λx.(x=a) (cf. Partee 1998:370).

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In sections 5.2 to 5.4, I will discuss three types of copula sentences in terms of the denotation of the post-copula nominal: sets of individuals, sets of subkind entities, and kinds.

5.2. Post-copula bare nouns as predicates of individuals In the first type of copula clauses, the subject must denote an individual of type e, which can be a proper name, a pronoun or a demonstrative, and the post-copula bare noun is predicative and denotes a set of individuals, as shown in (31). (31) a. Xiaowang shi zhongguo-ren. Xiaowang be Chinese-man ‘Xiaowang is a Chinese.’ b. tamen shi xuesheng. they be student ‘They are students.’ c. zhe-xie shi xiangjiao. those be banana ‘Those are bananas.’ In (31a), the bare noun zhongguo-ren ‘Chinese-man’ does not denote the kind ‘Chinese’ but the property of being an individual Chinese person. (31a) means that the individual Xiaowang has the property of being a Chinese, i.e. an instantiation of the kind Chinese. The bare nouns in (31b) and (31c) can be interpreted in a similar way. I can unproblematically coordinate predicates denoting properties of individuals, such as hen nianqing ‘very young’ or hen reqing ‘very enthusiastic’, with these bare noun predicates: (32) a. Xiaowang shi zhongguo-ren erqie hen nianqing. Xiaowang be Chinese and very young ‘Xiaowang is a Chinese and very young.’ b. tamen shi xuesheng erqie hen reqing. they be student and very enthusiastic ‘They are students and very enthusiastic.’ Chinese bare nouns can be taken as a complement by a classifier, and the classifier phrase of Num+Cl+N can be used as a predicate in the copula

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clause. However, in this case, the bare noun can only be the complement of an individual classifier and not of a kind classifier, as shown by the contrast between (33a) and (33b). (33) a. Xiaowang shi yi ge zhongguo-ren. Xiaowang be one CL Chinese ‘Xiaowang is a Chinese.’ b.# Xiaowang shi yi zhong zhongguo-ren. Xiaowang be one CLkind Chinese As (33a) and (33b) show, bare nouns in predicative positions in (31) denote sets of individuals, not kind terms or sets of subkind entities. However, the fact that (31a) and (33a) are synonomous, does not mean that the bare noun has a classifier predicate as part of its structure. I argued in Section 3 that bare nouns with an indefinite interpretation should be distinguished from true indefinite phrases such as NumPs, because they exhibit different scope behavior with respect to intensional operators and quantifiers. I now show another difference between bare nouns with an indefinite interpretation and true NumPs, a difference which shows up in predicative position. According to Aoun and Li (2003), two bare nouns can be conjoined to become a complex bare predicate expressing a complex property of individuals, whereas two NumPs cannot be coordinated to form a complex predicate. The examples in (34) are from Aoun and Li (2003). (34) a. Laowang shi fu-xiaozhang jian mishu. Laowang be vice-President and secretary ‘Laowang is vice President and secretary.’ b.*Laowang shi yi ge fu-xiaozhang jian mishu. Laowang be one Cl vice-President and secretary Intended: ‘Laowang is a vice president and secretary.’ c.*Laowang shi yi ge fu-xiaozhang jian yi ge mishu. Laowang be one Cl vice-President and one Cl secretary Intended: ‘Laowang is a vice President and a secretary.’ In (34a), the subject Laowang has the property of both being a vice President and being a secretary. In other words, a single individual instantiates two different properties or two different roles at the same time. However, such dual properties or dual-roles cannot be expressed by coordinating two NumPs (34b) or coordinating a NumP with a bare noun (34c).

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Aoun and Li (2003:143) propose that the connective jian ‘and’ can only coordinate “property- denoting nominals”. I show now that the copula shi ‘be’ in Mandarin is at type , which requires a predicative interpretation of bare nouns, e.g. an interpretation at type . When taking a broad look at Chinese copular constructions, one observes that Chinese copula shi ‘be’ can not only take nouns as complements, as in (35), but also adjectives, as in (36a). In these cases, the copula cannot be omitted.5 (35) a. Moby Dick *(shi) jing. Moby Dick be whale b. Moby Dick *(shi) yi tiao jing. Moby Dick be one CL whale Both: ‘Moby Dick is a whale.’ (36) a. tian *(shi) lanse-de. sky be blue ‘The sky is blue.’ In contrast with (36a), adjectives can appear in predicative positions without the copula if they are modified by a degree modifier, such as hen ‘very’, as in (36b). b. tian hen lan. sky very blue ‘The sky is blue.’ The difference between (36a) and (36b) with respect to the presence of the copula does not concern us here. The fact of (36a), in connection with the other facts, suggests that the interpretation of the copula shi ‘be’ is like that of be in English: the identity function λP.P of type . Given that the copula shi is of type and that Chinese bare nouns denote kind terms, I suggest that the bare noun, when it occurs in post-copula position must be type-shifted from its basic kind reading at

5

Note that the adjective blue can either be expressed by lan or lanse-de in Mandarin. The sentence in (36a) is not a cleft sentence, which is usually expressed by shi …de.

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type k to the predicative reading, at type , to fit into the predicative position in copula clauses. According to Chierchia (1998a, b), the kind denotation of nouns has a corresponding predicative counterpart. Chierchia (1998a, b) argues that this predicate is recoverable from the kind via a version of the Carlsonian instantiation relation. He proposes that the predicate formation operation > maps each kind onto a denotation of type : the set of instantiations of the kind. Chierchia (1998b) defines the >operator as follows: (37) > is the function from kinds to sets of individuals, such that for every kind > ? ( Pw) = {x: x YDPw} = Pw Let k be a kind. Then >k = λx.x Y k. This means that >k is the set of parts of k. Since the kind ?P is identified with the maximal entity in Pw: >? Pw is the set of parts of WDPw, λx.x YD WDPw, which is just Pw. Hence, >? Pw=Pw. Kinds and predicates can be seen as two modes of packaging the same information. The working of > and ? is visualized in the picture below. I assume that the property is interpreted in the actual world w. (38)

Properties {a, b, c}

Kinds ?

Pw

{a,b}{b,c} {a,c} a b c

>

aWbWc

Pw

Following Chierchia (1998b), I propose that the type shifting operation is used to shift kind denoting bare nouns in post-copula positions from the kind denotation to the predicative interpretation, as the set of instantiations of the kind.

>

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(39) a. Moby Dick shi jing. Moby Dick be whale ‘Moby Dick is a whale.’ b. NjingN= ?whale [Kind interpretation] NMoby-DickN= moby-dick c. SHIFT(NjingN)= >?whale [Shifted predicative reading] =λx. x Y W(WHALE) =WHALE d. NshiN(SHIFT(NjingN)) = λP.P(WHALE) =WHALE e. NshiN(SHIFT(NjingN)) (NMoby-DickN)=WHALE(moby-dick)

5.3. Post-copula bare nouns as predicates of subkinds I now discuss the second type of copula clause, in which the post-copula bare noun denotes a set of subkinds and its subject denotes a kind. The characteristic feature of this type of copula clause is that the subject and the predicate stand in a taxonomic relation, as exemplified in (40). (40) a. haitun shi jing. dolphin be whale ‘Dolphins are whales.’ b. jing shi dongwu. whale be animal ‘Whales are animals.’ In a biological taxonomy, the kind Dolphin is a subkind of the kind Whale. The kind whale includes different subkinds of whales, like Blue Whales, Dolphins, Sperm Whales, Porpoises etc. So the kind Dolphin instantiates a subkind of Whales (also see Krifka et al 1995).I propose that (40a) expresses this kind of instantiation relation, where the predicative noun jing denotes a set of subkinds of whales and the dolphin kind expressed by the subject haitun is a member of that set. In other words, the whale kind is instantiated by the haitun , which represents itself as a subkind of whale.

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The subkind instantiation interpretation of (40) is further supported by the contrast in (41), where the bare noun can only be preceded by a kind classifier zhong ‘kind’ but not an individual classifier, tiao ‘tail’. (41) a. haitun shi yi zhong jing. dolphin be one CLkind whale ‘Dolphins are whales.’ b.# haitun shi yi tiao jing. dolphin be one CL whale Again, I do not assume that the bare noun jing ‘whale’ in (40a) includes a null classifier phrase as part of its structure, I am just concerned with evidence for the subkind instantiation relation, and use the synonymy between (40a) and (41a) and the infelicity of (41b) as evidence for that. This type of copula clauses is in many respects like the first type, discussed above. Both types can be characterized as “predicational sentences” according to Higgins’s (1973) classification. In other words, in both types, bare nouns express properties of the entity referred to by the subject. What is different is that in the first type, the subject denotes an individual and the post-copula bare noun denotes a set of individuals of type , while in the second type the subject denotes a subkind in a taxonomic classification, and the post-copula bare nouns denote sets of subkinds of a kind of type . Above I gave Chierchia’s predicate formation operation >which maps a kind ?Pw of type k, onto the set of individual instantiations of the kind of type , i.e. >?Pw, which is Pw. I propose that the subkind predicate interpretations are derived through a similar operation W mapping a kind ?Pw of type k, onto the set of subkinds of type < k, t>, i.e. W?Pw. To put it explicitly, I propose that the set of subkinds denoted by a bare noun is derived via the W operator from non-overlapping subsets of Pw. (This means that I am here only dealing with relating a kind to a single level of nonoverlapping subkinds.) Let π(Pw) be a partition of the set of atoms in Pw. In the case of natural kinds like whales, I assume that π is derived from real world knowledge about biology. Let SKπ(?Pw)={WDX:X∈π(Pw)}, the set of sums of the blocks of the partition π. These sums are (extensionally) the subkinds of ? Pw, as illustrated in (42). (42)

W?

Pw = SKπ(?Pw)

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Thus, W applies to a kind ?P and gives you the set of subkinds of ?P according to partition π. Note that by the partition, any two subkinds k and k’ in the set W?P are non-overlapping. I can introduce the subkind relation itself, as given in (43): (43) k1Yπk2 iff k1∈SKπ( k2) (44) illustrates the derivation of the subkind predicative interpretation. (44) a. haitun shi jing. dolphin be whale ‘Dolphins are whales.’ b. NjingN=?whale [kind interpretation] NhaitunN=?dolphin c. SHIFT(NjingN)=W ?whale [subkind shifted predicative reading] =SKπ(?whale) = λk.kYπ?whale d. NshiN(SHIFT(NjingN))= λP.P(λk.k Yπ?whale) = λk.kYπ?whale e. NshiN(SHIFT(NjingN)) (NhaitunN)=λk.kYπ?whale (?dolphin) =?dolphinYπ?whale 5.4. Post-copula bare nouns as predicates of kinds I now proceed to the third type of copula clauses, where both the subject and the post-copula bare noun are interpreted as kind terms, as in (45). (45) a. xihongshi jiu shi fanqie. love apple FOC be tomato ‘Love apples are tomatoes.’ b. fanqie jiu shi xihongshi. tomato FOC be love apples. ‘Tomates are love apples.’ This type of copula sentence is unlike the types of the copula clauses that were discussed above. The post-copula bare noun denotes neither a set of individuals, nor a set of subkinds of entities. To see the difference, note

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that in this case I can neither insert an individual classifier nor a kind classifier before the post-copula bare noun: (46) a.# xihongshi love apple b.# xihongshi love apple

shi yi zhong fanqie. be one CLkind tomato shi yi ge fanqie. be one CL tomato

I claim that copula clauses like in (46) are identity sentences, in which the copula shi ‘be’ takes two kind terms as arguments, i.e. k1= k2. As Wiggins (1965) says, “for a sentence to express an identity, ‘is’ or ‘=’ must stand between two noun-phrases which, if they are distinct, are serving independently of one another to make genuine references” (see Higgins 1973:262). By this criterion, ‘the evening star is the morning star’ and ‘Hesperus is Phosphorus’ do express genuine identities. Along this line, I suggest that kind terms, being names of kind entities, are also able to make genuine references and to establish an equational relation. The question is how the kind term at type k can fit into a predicative position, i.e. the post-copula position. As I saw above, Partee (1987) discusses proper names in copula sentences and proposes lifting with the type shifting rule: IDENT: d→, where IDENT[α]=λx.(x=α). In our case I am dealing with bare nouns of type k. The only assumption I need to make is the plausible assumption that IDENT can lift expressions from type k to type . Namely, IDENT: k → , where IDENT[α] = λxk.(xk=α). In this case, I assume that the copula is λP.P, of type . (47) a. xihongshi jiu shi fanqie. love apple Foc be tomato. ‘Love apples are tomatoes.’ b. N fanqieN= ?tomato N xihongsiN= ?love-apple NshiN= λP.P c. IDENT(?tomato) = λxk.(xk =?tomato) d. Nshi fanquiN= NshiN( IDENT(NfanguiN) ) =λP.P( λxk.( xk =?tomato) ) =λxk.(xk =?tomato) e. Nshi fanquiN(N xihongshi) = λxk.(xk =?tomato) (?love-apple) = (?love-apple = ?tomato)

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(47) expresses that the kind love apple is identical to the kind tomato. It is an identity sentence, where the copula shi ‘be’ connects two kind terms. The two bare nouns are interchangeable with each other: the kind love apple is identified with the kind tomato in (45a) and the kind tomato with the kind love apple in (45b). This type of copula clauses is commonly used to introduce new things or new names of entities to people who do not know them. For example, people may know what fanqie is but they do not know xihongshi, so by saying (45a), the two are identified. To summarize so far, in this section, I have examined the interpretational variability of Chinese bare nouns in post-copula positions. They have at least three different interpretations: sets of individuals, sets of subkinds or kinds. I argued that the kind reading is the basic reading of Chinese bare nouns, and that in all three cases, predicative interpretations are derived from the kind interpretation by natural type-shifting operations. I formulated these three operations. The copula shi is just interpreted as the identity function. Its only semantic function is to trigger the appropriate type shifting operation.

6. Definite bare nouns In sections 4 and 5, I discussed the kind reading and the predicative use of bare nouns. I now move on to the third reading of bare nouns discussed above, the definite reading. I will not offer a semantic analysis of definite readings of bare nouns because this would take us too far beyond the research questions I am dealing with in this book, namely, the syntax and semantics of classifiers. But to complete my survey of bare noun readings, I will try to show that definite readings of bare nouns are contextually determined. They occur in topic positions and in canonical object positions, where, for example, they can have an anaphora use or an immediate situation use. I will suggest that definite readings of Chinese bare nouns are derived by intersecting a predicate derived from the kind term with a contextually determined predicate C, which expresses familiarity.

6.1. Topic-hood and definiteness The definite reading of Chinese bare nouns has been discussed extensively by Chinese linguists in the past decades, including Chao 1968, Li and Thompson 1976, 1981, Paris 1981, D.X. Zhu 1982, Huang 1982, L. D. Li

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1985, D.X. Shi 1992, Tsai 1994, Yuan 1996, Xu and Liu 1998, Cheng and Sybesma 1999, R. Yang 2001, Y.Z. Shi 2002 and many others. It is beyond the scope of the book to review all the relevant literature. In what follows, I will synthesize some of the findings made by those linguists to give us some idea under what condition or in what contexts the definite reading of bare nouns is available. Assuming that the grammatical meaning of subject and predicate in a Chinese sentence is topic and comment, Chao (1968: 76) claims that “there is a very strong tendency for the subject to have a definite reference and the object to have an indefinite reference”. “Since the subject sets the topic of the talk and the predicate gives the information by adding something new, the subject is likely to represent the known while the predicate introduces something unknown…” (ibid). The following pattern exhibited in (48) and (49) is noted by Chao (1968: 76). (48) a. wo yao qing ke. I want invite guest ‘I want to invite guests.’ b. ke lai le. guest come PRF ‘The guest has come. OR ‘The guests have come.’ (49) a. nar you shu? where there-be book ‘Where are there books? / where is there a book?’ b. shu zai nar? book at where ‘Where are the books?/ where is the book?’ As we can see from (48a) and (49a), when the bare noun is a postverbal position, it has an indefinite reading, but when the bare noun is in a preverbal position, it has a definite reading, as in (48b) and (49b). Li and Thompson (1981: 86) argue that “nouns that are unmarked for definiteness are always interpreted as definite or generic when they are topics...” In (50), the bare noun gou ‘dog’ is the syntactic object of the verb kan ‘see’, and it is also the topic of the whole sentence. It can either have a definite reading (50a) or a kind reading (50b), but not an indefinite reading (50c).

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(50) gou wo kan guo le. dog I see EXP PRF a. The dog I have already seen. b. Dogs (generic) I have already seen. c. Impossible: A dog I have already seen. Note that Chao’s notions of topic and subject are different from Li and Thompson’s. For Chao (1968), most Chinese sentences consist of a subject (the first NP) and a predicate, but the meaning or the function of the ‘subject’ and the ‘predicate’ is ‘topic’ and ‘comment’ respectively. According to Li and Thompson, subject and topic are two distinctive syntactic elements in a sentence, though subjects are in many cases topics (see Li and Thompson 1981: 94). I adopt Li and Thomson’s uses of the notions topic and subject, and I consider them to be two different syntactic positions in a sentence (cf. (50). Accordingly, in Chao’s examples, the topic position happens to be the subject position of the sentence. So the first nominal phrase in (48b) and (49b) are not only subjects but also topics, where the bare noun has a definite reading. Therefore, the definite reading of the subject can be attributed to its topic use. In Li and Thompson’s examples in (50), the first NP is the sentential topic but it is the object, and not the subject of the sentence, and it also has a definite reading. The definite reading of bare nouns is not restricted to default sentential topic position. It is also available in secondary topic positions, as in (51) (Y.Z. Shi 2002: 27). (51) a. wo shu yijing kanwan I book already read-finish ‘I have finished reading the book.’ b. ta yifu yijin maidao le. she clothes already buy PRF ‘She has already bought the clothes.’ c. women fan yijin zhunbei hao we meal already prepare well ‘We have prepared the meal.’

le. PRF

le. PRF

The first nominal phrase in the examples in (51), wo ‘I’, ta ‘she’ and women ‘we’ are the subjects of the sentences. If I assume that the sentential initial element is the topic, then the subjects in (51) are also the default topics of the sentences. The nominal phrase immediately following the

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subject, shu ‘book’, yifu ‘clothes’ and fan ‘meal’, are objects of the sentence, but they move from their base-generated postverbal object positions to preverbal positions, such as the position between subject and verb. This movement is a form of topicalization of the object. Semantically, these objects are presupposed by the interlocutors to be known and they have a definite interpretation. For example, the bare nouns shu, yifu and fan in (51) mean ‘the book’, ‘the clothes’ and ‘the meal’ respectively. These expressions are called ‘secondary topics’, which stand in a certain relation with the ‘primary topic’, like a possessive relation. The examples in (52) illustrate the ba construction in Mandarin Chinese, where bare nouns following ba have a definite reading. (52) a. ta yijin ba zuoye zuowan she already OM homework finish ‘She has finished her homework.’ b. ta you ba yifu mai le. she again OM clothes sell PRF ‘She sold her clothes again.’ c. women yijin ba fan zuohao we already OM meal make ‘We have made the meal.’

le. PRF

le. PRF

The ba construction is a construction found in Mandarin Chinese (similar constructions are found in other Chinese languages). Chinese is a SVO language, in which objects usually follow the verb. Sometimes, if the sentence expresses a causative meaning and the object is definite, the object can be preposed to a preverbal position and marked by the object maker ba , which originally means ‘take’ or ‘hold’. For example, the objects after ba in (52), zuoye, yifu and fan mean the homework, the clothes and the meal respectively. The ba-construction is similar to the construction shown in (52), in which the preposed object functions like a secondary topic (Li and Thompson 1981). I can thus make the following generalization: when a bare noun in Chinese functions as a primary topic (sentential initial position) or secondary topic (including BA constructions), it always has a definite reading.

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6.2. Definite bare nouns in object positions Even though definite bare nouns are frequently found in the (secondary) topic positions, it is also possible to find definite bare nouns in canonical object positions, where they are not topics or secondary topics. For example, as we saw in (18) (repeated as in (53)), the bare noun xin is the object of the verb kan ‘read’ and can either be interpreted with a narrow scope reading with respect to every, meaning “letters”, as in (53a) or with a definite reading, meaning “the letter”, as in (53b). (53) mei-ge ren dou zai kan guanyu jiaxin de xin. every-CL man all PROG read about add-wage Mod letter a. ‘Everybody is reading letters about raising the salary.’ b. ‘Everybody is reading the letter about raising the salary.’ Some more examples of definite bare nouns are given in (54). (54) a. wo yijin xie le xin le. I already write PFV letter PRF ‘I wrote the letter already.’ b. ta he-wan yao le. he drink-finish medicine PRF ‘He finished drinking the (Chinese herb) medicine.’ According to Li and Thompson (1981:86), “nouns that are unmarked for definiteness are always interpreted as definite or generic when they are topics...” and definite bare nouns in object positions, as those in (53) and (54), are a marked case. In contrast, I assume that there are two types of definiteness involved here, or rather the definiteness of bare nouns comes from two different sources. I propose that the definiteness of bare nouns in topic positions is due to their topic status (a syntactic position for R. Yang 2001), where they refer to the entity to be talked about or commented on. As definite objects, the bare nouns usually refer to entities that are (perceptually) visible in an immediate situation or particularly salient or familiar in the discourse context. For example, the definite interpretation of (53) would be appropriate if the bare object xin ‘letter’ is used to refer to some particular letter, which is particularly salient in the local context, or which had been the topic of previous discourse. The English equivalent might be “Did you see/write that letter”, using the demonstrative. Here that letter has an almost anaphoric use.

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It is important to distinguish these two types of definite bare nouns, i.e. definite bare nouns as topics versus definite bare nouns in canonical object positions. In the case of topics, the definiteness follows because the topic is assumed to be part of the background knowledge of the discourse participants, and in the less frequent case of direct objects, the definiteness relies on the discourse or perceptual salience in the immediate situation. I thus propose that in both cases, the bare noun in the definite reading refers to a familiar and salient individual under discussion in the context.

6.3. Semantics of definite bare nouns As argued earlier, Mandarin bare nouns denote kinds. Their indefinite readings in object/predicative position are derived from a local Carlsoniantype shift reading, as shown by the scope facts in section 3. I have just showed that Mandarin bare nouns also have a definite reading, when they denote a specific, salient and contextually familiar entity. This occurs mainly when a bare NP is in topic position, as in section 6.1 and occasionally when it occurs in direct object position, as in section 6.2. In this subsection, I will not discuss in detail how these readings are derived, but merely suggest some possible semantic derivations. Chapter 9 will discuss definite classifiers in “Cl+N”. I will argue, following Li and Bisang (2012), that definite interpretations of Cl+NP in Chinese are not entities postulated to be unique, but are ‘familiar entities’ approximately in the sense of Roberts’s (2003) of “weak familiarity”. I will argue there that the “Cl+N” in Wu and Cantonese, in the definite reading, denotes a generalized quantifier with existential force à la Landman (2004). I assume that the definite interpretation of bare nouns is derived in more or less the same way. I assume here that in their definite reading, bare nouns shift from the kind denotation to an indefinite reading in the normal way, but that discourse constraints on NPs in topic positions or NPs used anaphorically/situationally force a familiarity constraint in the interpretation of the bare noun, which leads to the definite or familiar interpretation. Thus the predicate interpretation of the N is not merely a set of instantiations of the N-kind, but a set of contextually familiar and salient instantiations of the kind denoted by N. This is supported by R.Yang’s observation about definite and indefinite interpretations of bare nouns in the subject position. She claims that bare nouns in subject position usually have a definite interpretation, because subject position is usually also topic position, and topics are required to be

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salient or familiar. However, if subject position is a position which cannot be topic, the indefinite reading ‘peeks out’, that is, it is available when the definite reading is not induced. She offers the following as examples. Firstly, indefinite readings become immediately available for preverbal bare NPs, once they occur in the context of left peripheral locatives, as shown in (55): (55) waimian / yuanchu gou zai-jiao. outside far-away dog PROG-bark a. ‘Outside/Far away, dogs are barking.’ b. ‘Outside/Far away, the dog(s) is/are barking.’ Secondly, indefinite readings seem to ‘peek out’ in the context of leftperipheral temporal phrases, in addition to a definite reading, as in (56): (56) a. jintian jingcha zhua ren le. today cop arrest man PRF i. ‘Today cops arrested some people.’ ii. ‘Today the cop(s) arrested some people.’ b. haoxiang jingcha zhua ren le. apparently cop arrest man PRF i. ‘Apparently cops arrested some people.’ ii. ‘Apparently the cop(s) arrested some people.’ Thirdly, as shown in (57), in the context of a universal quantifier ‘in everyone’s backyard’, the subject bare NP ‘dog’ unambiguously gets an indefinite reading: (57) gou zai meigeren-de houyuan-li jiao. dog at everyone-Mod backyard-inside bark a. ‘Dogs are barking in everyone’s backyard.’ b. # ‘The dog is barking in everyone’s backyard.’ In Yang’s account of the distribution of definite and indefinite readings in subject position, the definite reading is induced by topic position and the indefinite reading is possible only when the definite reading is not induced. This is predicted by our tentative suggestion that definiteness is induced via a contextually introduced salience-and-familiarity constraint on the interpretation of the N: when context does not introduce this constraint, a pure indefinite interpretation is possible.

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Within the scope of this book, I am not going to take the issue any further, and I leave further discussion of definite interpretations of bare nouns for further research.

Part II: Functions of classifiers: counting and measuring

Chapter 6 Counting and measure functions of classifiers

1. Introduction In this chapter, I discuss the semantics of classifiers in Chinese. I am not concerned with the lexical meanings of different classifiers, but with the properties that characterize the interpretation of classifiers as a class, or put differently, the interpretative function of classifiers as an independent category. Concerning the semantics of classifiers, I develop two arguments. First, I propose that classifiers have two basic functions, counting and measuring. Secondly, I claim that the counting function and the measure function of classifiers are distinguishable at the level of syntax in Chinese. In chapter 2, I introduced several lexical classifications of classifiers, e.g. a distinction between classifiers and measure words (Tai and Wang 1990), between sortal and mensural classifiers (Lyons 1977, Tang 2005), and between count and mass classifiers (Cheng and Sybesma 1998). I argue here that the semantic distinction between the counting use and the measure use of classifiers is a more crucial and fundamental distinction within the Chinese classifier system. Previous lexical analyses of classifiers in Chinese assumed that it is the semantic role of all classifiers to make explicit a set of relevant units in the denotation of the noun in terms of which to count. In this, two groups of classifiers are distinguished, based on two different ways in which those units are determined: count classifiers or sortal classifiers are assumed to pick out a set of units based on the inherent properties of the entities in the noun denotation; mass classifiers or mensural classifiers are assumed to impose a unit structure on the noun denotation (for discussion, see the literature cited above). Against this, I assume, following Rothstein (2009, 2010), that counting and measuring are two very different semantic operations, associated with two different syntactic structures, and that the crucial distinction between classifiers is which of the operations they naturally take part in. This distinction cuts across the lexical subclasses of classifiers, although it is not unrelated to that classification, since some lexical classes

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of classifiers have primarily the counting use, others have by default the measure use, some have both, and some have neither. To my knowledge, Krifka (1995) is the only published paper discussing the formal semantics of classifiers in Chinese in a detailed way. Krifka (1995:400) proposes that Chinese classifiers denote functions that map a kind onto a measure which measures the quantity of specimens of that kind by counting them. Using the rule of functional application, he represents the semantics of classifiers as follows. For Krifka, a classifier is a measure expression M which denotes a function that applies to a number (the denotation of a Num phrase) to form the interpretation of a measure phrase MP: (i) N[MP[Numα][Mβ]]N = N[Mβ] N (N[Numα]N) The measure phrase applies to a noun to form a noun phrase: (ii) N[NP [MP α] [Nβ]]N =N[MPα]N (N[Nβ]N) Hence, on this analysis, the classifier combines first with the number to yield a Measure Phrase, and then in stage two, the Measure Phrase, Num+ Cl, applies to the Noun. Thus, in san tou daxiang ‘three heads of elephants’, the classifier tou ‘head’ is a measure head which combine first with the number san ‘three’ to give the measure phase san tou ‘three head’, which then combines with the nominal head daxiang ‘elephant’, to give ‘three head of elephants’. On this analysis, counting is a special kind of measuring, and classifiers are unambiguously measures. In this book, I will argue for a semantics on which counting and measuring are different semantic functions of classifiers. Rothstein (2010) proposes that English count nouns are derived from root nouns Nroot via an operation COUNTk, which maps Nroot onto a set of atomic entities of type d×k, which count as one in the context k. I propose that Chinese classifiers, on the counting interpretation, are the lexical realization of the operation COUNTk. For the measure reading, I will use the work of Krifka (1995), Chierchia (1998a) and Landman (2004) to formulate a semantics of measures in which measures are functions from kinds to sets of instantiations of the kinds that have a certain measure value. I take the features [±Counting] and [±Measure] as features constraining the default interpretations of classifiers. Four types of classifiers can be distinguished: [+C, -M] are classifiers that are by default counting operators; [-C, +M] are classifiers that are by default measuring operators; [+C, +M] are classifiers that can naturally be used as either operation;

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[-C, -M] are kind classifiers, whose interpretation falls outside the operations of counting and measuring in the domain of individuals. In this chapter, these features are still purely classificatory. Later in the book, we will see that the features reflect information in the lexical entry of the classifier. In section 2 of this chapter, I introduce the counting and the measure functions of classifiers with some cross-linguistic data. In sectin 3, discusses the counting and measure functions of container classifiers in Mandarin. A syntactic distinction of these two readings will also be offered. In section 4, I propose the feature system [±Counting, ±Measure] for classifiers. Section 5 gives the semantics of the counting and measure functions of Chinese classifiers. Finally, this chapter is summed up in section 6.

2. Counting and measuring readings: a crosslinguistic perspective This section discusses the two basic funcitions of classifiers, counting and measuring. I will show that the distinction between counting and measuring readings of (container) classifiers is a grammatically relevant phenomenon cross-linguistically. Section 2.1 presents crosslinguistic facts about the contrast between counting and measuring readings. Section 2.2 proposes the possible syntactic structures for these two readings.

2.1. Introducing counting and measuring readings Many scholars (e.g. Selkirk 1977, Jackendoff 1977, Corver 1998, Doetjes 1997, Landman 2004, Rothstein 2009, Partee and Borschev 2012, among others) have observed that container classifier phrases, such as three bottles of water in English, are ambiguous between a counting reading and a measure reading (or between a container and a quantity/pseudo-partitive reading in Selkirk’s 1977 or Jackendoff’s 1977 terms). For example, on the counting reading, the word bottle in (1) refers to concrete bottles, while on the measure reading, bottle denotes an abstract measure unit and the concrete container does not have be present: (1)

English a. John carried three bottles of water home. b. I poured three bottles of water into the soup.

[Counting] [Measure]

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The verb carry in the example of (1a) forces a counting reading: carrying requires the water to be carried in something, a container, hence (1a) involves three concrete bottles, which are filled with water. On the other hand, the preferred reading of (1b) is a measure reading, where what is poured in the soup is not three bottles, but a quantity of water amounting to three bottles, and it is irrelevant whether the pouring is done from three concrete bottles of water or whether the same amount is poured from a jug. Pustejovsky (1993) introduced the notion “dotted type” to represent “the sort of an expression that simultaneously incorporates two distinct sorts: in a case like this, one might argue that we can refer simultaneously to the container and the substance contained in it” (cf. Partee and Borchev 2012: 458). In the current research, I do not treat the dotted type as a seprate type, but as a counting reading. The phrase refers to a complex entity, i.e. a container contained with stuff. It is a counting reading. The two-way contrast of container classifiers between counting and measuring readings is found crosslinguistically. The examples in (2) and (3) give an illustration of the Russian and the Hebrew cases respectively. According to Partee and Borschev (2012), in Russian, the noun butylku ‘bottle’ can either refer to the container itself or an abstract measure unit. Speficially, accompanying verbs may select for one or the other, as in (2): (2a), with ‘break’, is most likely understood as referring to the container, and example (2b), with ‘drink’, favors reference to the content and the container bottle does not have to show up physically. The modifier pol ‘half’ also forces a measure reading, in that it only refers to half of a designated quanity but not a broken bottle. (2)

Russian (Partee and Borschev 2012: 458-459) a. My razbili butylku šampanskogo. we broke bottle-ACC.SG champagne-GEN.SG ‘We broke a bottle of champagne.’ b. My vypili pol-butylki šampanskogo. we drank half-bottle-ACC.SG champagne-GEN.SG ‘We drank half a bottle of champagne.’

Rothstein (2009) argues that the counting and measure readings are expressed by two different constructions in Modern Hebrew. The Free Genitive construction only has a counting reading (as in 3a), while the Construct State construction is ambiguous between a counting reading and a measure reading (3b). This suggests that in Hebrew, the contrast between counting and measuring readings is syntactically encoded.

Counting and measuring readings: a crosslinguistic perspective

(3)

a. (šaloš) kosot šel mayim (three) cup(f.pl.) of water b. (šaloš) kosot mayim (three) cup(f.pl.) water Both: “three cup s of water”

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[Free Genitive: Counting] [Construct Strate: Count or Meas]

As Rothstein argues, if only the the measure reading is appropriate, only the construct state construction can be used. Thus in recipes, where only the measure reading is appropriate, the free genitive construction with šel/of is impossible: (4)

mosifim štey kosot (#šel) kemax ve-šaloš kapiot (#šel) add 2-f cup(f.pl.) ( #of ) flour and 3(f ) teaspoon(f.pl) (#of ) sukar la-batzeku-mear-be-vim. sugar to-DEF-dough-and-mix ‘Add two cups of flour and three teaspoons of sugar to the dough and mix.’

Back to the English case. Rothstein (2009) argues that, even though there is no grammatical encoding of the distinction between counting and measure readings in English, it is a real semantic distinction. There is enough morphosyntactic evidence to draw these two readings apart. The following observations are due to Rothstein (2009: 110-111). Measure suffix: On the measure reading, the suffix -ful can often be added to the classifier; with the suffix, the classifier cannot express an individuating reading. (5)

a. Add two cup(ful)s of wine to the soup. b. Bring two cup(#ful)s of wine for our guests. c. We needed three bucket(ful)s of cement to build that wall. d. Three bucket(#ful)s of mud were standing in a row against the wall.

Pronominalization: Plural individuating classifiers can naturally be antecedents for individuating pronouns; measure classifiers cannot: (6)

There are two cups of wine on this tray. a. They are blue. b. They (each) contain 100 milliliters. c. They (each) cost 2 Euros.

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There are two cups of wine in this soup. a. #They are blue. b. #They (each) contain 100 milliliters. c. #They (each) cost 2 Euros. d. It adds flavour/??They add flavour.

Another relevant fact is concerned with number agreement between number and noun. Corver (1998) argues that in the construction of NumN1-of-N2, under the counting readings, the verb agrees with N1 and on the measuring reading, the verb agrees with N2. The example in (8) can only be interpreted with a counting reading, the copula must be used in its plural form to agree with the noun cups. (8)

a. Two cups of wine are emptied. b.# Two cups of wine is emptied.

Taking into account the fact of number agreement, the infelicity of (7) may be partly due to that the plural pronoun they used. They in the second clause is supposed to be anaphoric with the plural noun cups but not with wine in the first clause, which forces a counting reading. It is thus contradictory with the measure context construed in the first clause. Distributivity: the distributive operator each can distribute to the individuals in the denotation of individuating classifier expressions, as in (9a), but is infelicitous with measure phrases, as in (9b-c). (9)

a. Two packs of flour cost 2 euros each. b. #Two kilos of flour cost 2 euros each. c. The two cups of wine (#in this soup) cost 2 euros each.

To sum up, the semantic distinction between counting and measure readings of classifiers is attested across a wide spectrum of typologically different languages, which obviously can differ considerably in how the distinction is reflected in the language. The relevant facts about the ambiguity of Chinese container classifiers will be discussed separately in section 3.

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2.2. Structures for counting and measuring readings It is controversial whether the ambiguity of container classifiers between counting and measure readings is purely a lexical ambiguity or a syntactic issue. Stavrou (2003) attributes this contrast to the “semi-lexical” status of container classifiers. Specfically, on the container reading, it is lexical, while on the quantity reading, it is (semi-)functional. However, for most researchers, the counting reading and the measure reading of classifier phrases in English are two distinctive semantic functions, which are assocaited with different syntactic structures (Rothstein 2009, also see Selkirk 1977, Löbel 1989, Corver 1998, Landman 2004). Selkirk (1977) is among the first to recognize the two readings of constructions like a bottle of water in English and posits two distinctive structures for these two readings. On the pseudo-partitive reading (i.e. quantity reading), a bottle is base-generated in the lower specifier position within the noun phrase, as illustrated in (10a). On the container reading, bottle is projected into the head of the nominal phrase and takes the preposition phrase of water as its complement, as shown in (10b). (10) a. [NP [N’’ [NP a bottle] of [N’ water]]] b. [NP a [N’’ [N’ bottle] [PP of [NP water]]]]]

(quantity reading) (container reading)

In the post-Abenian syntactic framework, the two structures given by Selkirk in (10) have to be represented in terms of functional projections, such as DP structures. Abeny (1987) did not recognize the ambiguity of the pseudo-partitive construction and proposed a single DP structure for the phrase a bottle of water: [DP a [NP bottle [PP of water]]]. In fact, Abeny’s structure only corresponds to (10b) on the container reading, but not to (10a) on the quantity reading. Corver (1998) proposes two structures for the counting and the measuring readings of container classifiers. On both counting and measuring readings, the pseudo-partitive construction is involved with “predicate movment”. To put it in a simpe way, the phrase a box of apples has the the deep structure [DP D [SC apples [Pred box]]], in which apples and box instantiate a subject-prdicate relation in a small clause. The surface order is realized by predicate movement, such as to raise the predicate box via XP-movment (in English) or head movement (in Dutch). The crucial difference between counting and measuring readings lies in the the predicative relation holding between the subject and the predicate in the small clause: on the measuring reading, the subject and the predicate is construed as a copula clause, and

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their relation is represented by the copula BE, while on the counting reading, they embody a containment relation HAVE, which can be decomposed into an incorporation of a preposition and be. That is, P+BE = HAVE. This syntactic approach nicely captures the interpretational difference between counting and measuring, but it fails to reflect the constituent relations between numeral and classifier. In Corver (1998), the numeral (or determiner) always taken to be the head of an independent projection, e.g. D0 and it does not form a single consitutent in either case. I think that this cannot be correct. More recently, Rothstein (2009), following Landman (2004), assume that (11a) is the correct structure for the counting reading and (11b) is the correct structure for the measure reading. Note that of insertion is presumed to be a late phenomenon taking place to satisfy surface constraints and projecting no PP node. (11) a. Counting reading DP D threei

b. Measure reading DP

NumP Num ti N bottles (of)

NP

NP NP water

MeasP

N

Num NMeas three bottles (of) water

The constituent relations represented in the structures in (11) are the same as those encoded in (10). Therefore, they can be seen as a postAbenian version of Selkirk’s structures. As reflected in the different syntactic structures for counting and measure readings in (11), Rothstein (2009) explicitly argues that on the counting reading, bottles is a relational noun which denotes a relation between entities which are bottles and the substance they contain. So the classifier bottles is the head of the NP and it takes the noun water as its complement; the whole structure is the complement of the numerical Num, as in (11a). In contrast, on the measure reading in (11b), bottles is a modifier which combines with the numerical three to form a complex modifier three bottles, which then modifies the nominal head water. According to Partee and Borschev (2012), the counting and measuring readings of elements like bottle can be seen as a sort of semantic shifts. “Container nouns have a basic sortal meaning, but they shift productively

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to a relational reading when used in the Genitive of Measure construction and may shift to a functional reading over time to gain an abstract measure reading analogous to litr ‘liter’” (ibid: 446). Along this line, bottle in the structure (11a) can be seen to be shifted from a sortal noun into a relational noun, and in (11b), shifted from a relational noun to a functional noun (e.g. a unit of measure corresponding to the volume of the containee that the container can hold). In this research, I take the Selkirk-Rothsteinien structure, as shown in (10) and (11), to be the correct structure for counting and measuring readings of classifiers.

3. Ambiguity of container classifiers in Chinese In this section, I discuss container classifiers in Chinese. I present different syntactic evidence to show that the distinction between counting and measuring readings shows up with Chinese container classifiers. Two different syntactic structures for Chinese container classifiers on the counting and measure readings will also be posited à la Selkirk (1977) and Rothstein (2009).

3.1. Counting and measuring readings for Chinese container classifiers I now discuss container classifiers in classifier languages like Chinese. I show that container classifiers in Chinese also express both counting and measure readings in different contexts. Look at (12):   (12) a. wo ling le liang ping jiu, zuo shou yi ping, I lift PFV two CLbottle wine left hand one CLbottle you shou yi ping. right hand one CLbottle ‘I carried two bottles of wine, one in the left hand and the other in the right hand.’ b. ta-de jiuliang shi liang ping hongjiu. his drinking-capacity be two CLbottle red wine ‘His drinking-capacity is two bottles of red wine.’  The classifier phrase liang ping jiu ‘two bottles of wine’ in (12a) has a counting reading which involves two concrete bottles, one in the left hand

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and one in the right. In contrast, in (12b), liang ping jiu can only be interpreted with a measure reading, which means that the maximal amount of red wine that he can drink is two bottles. It means that he can drink 1500ml of red wine if I assume each bottle is 750 ml. In this case, the real bottles are not required to be present and the counting reading is not available. The two readings of container ClPs are sensitive to different syntactic contexts in Chinese. In other words, in some contexts some classifiers strongly prefer one reading over the other and different classifiers in some syntactic contexts prefer to have one reading over another. I discuss four kinds of syntactic contexts. First, the ‘Cl+N” construction is the construction where the classifiernoun phrase is used without a numerical. In this construction the classifier can have a counting interpretation, but not a measure interpretation. Yip (2008) uses this test to distinguish classifier like ge from true measure words like mi ‘meter’. I extend Yip’s argument to distinguish between the counting and the measure reading of [+Counting, +Measure] classifiers. (13) a. wo ling le ping jiu. [Mandarin] I carry PFV CLbottle wine ‘I carried a bottle of wine.’ b.* ta-de jiuliang shi ping hong-jiu. his drinking-capacity be CLbottle red wine Intended: ‘His drinking capacity is a bottle of red wine.’ As shown in (13), the “Cl+N” construction is only possible in the counting context, as forced out by the verb ling ‘carry’ in (13a), but not in the measure context of (13b). Moreover, in Mandarin, “Cl+N” is used in postverbal position and has an indefinite reading. Ping jiu in (13a) can only mean ‘a bottle of wine’. However, in some Chinese languages, the “Cl+N” construction can have a definite interpretation (see Shi and Liu 1985, Li and Bisang 2012 for Wu; see Cheung 1972, Cheng and Sybesma 1999 for Cantonese). The data from Wu in (14) show that the definite “Cl+N” construction is possible only when container classifiers have a counting reading, as in (14a) and not a measure reading, as in (14b). This holds for the “Cl+N” construction in Cantonese (Yip 2008).

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(14) a. ƾo tюhiҌ koҌ phiƾ tюiu iƾ-kuoҌ tюinkhiu koҌ. [Wu:Fuyang] I eat Mod CLbottle wine England import PRT ‘The bottle of wine that I drank was imported from England.’ b.* ƾo tюhiҌ koҌ phiƾ tюiu te-le uѓ-li ta sao la. I eat Mod CLbottle wine at stomach-in PROG burn PRT Intended: ‘The bottle of wine that I drank is burning in my stomach.’ The second context concerns the the additive modifier duo ‘more’. If duo occurs between the the numeral and the classifier, as in “Num+duo+Cl+N”, the classifier can have both a counting and a measure reading; if duo occurs between the classifier and the noun, as in “Num +Cl+duo +N”, the classifier only has a measure interpretation. The observation that duo can follow either the numeral or the classifier was made in Lü (1980). The construction where duo precedes the classifier prefers the numeral to express a round number like shi ‘ten’, bai ‘hundred’, qian ‘thousand’ etc., as in (15a). In the construction where duo follows the classifier, the classifier is usually a container classifier, a standard measure, and it is preferable for the numeral to be a cardinal below ten, as in (15b) (Lü 1980/1999: 184, also see Zhu 1984). (15) a. shi duo feng xin ten more CL letter ‘more than ten letters’ b. liu chi duo bu six CLinch more cloth ‘more than six inches of cloth’ (16) shows that when duo comes between the numeral and the classifier, the counting and the measure readings are equally available for the classifier phrase, as in (16a) and (16b) respectively. (17) shows that when duo follows the classifier, the sentence strongly prefers a measure reading. Compare (16) with (17). (16) a. ta ling le shi duo ping hongijiu. [counting] he carry PFV ten more CLbottle red wine. ‘He carried more than ten bottles of red wine.’ b. ta zhishao neng hexia shi duo ping hongijiu. [measure] he at least can drink ten more CLbottle red wine ‘He can at least drink more than ten bottles of red wine.’

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In (16a), duo expresses that the number of individual bottles (filled with red wine) is more than ten, i.e. (16a) has a counting reading. (16b) has a measure reading: it expresses that the overall quantity of wine that his stomach can hold is more than ten bottles: here ping is understood to mean bottleful, i.e. it has a measure reading. (17) a. ta zonggong he le you san ping duo hongjiu. [measure] he altogether drink PFV have three CLbottle more red wine ‘He drank more than three bottles of red wine.’ b. # ta ling le shi ping duo hongjiu. he carry PFV ten CLbottle more red wine Intended: ‘He carried more than ten bottles of red wine.’ In (17a), the most natural reading is the measure reading. It means that the overall quantity of wine is larger than a certain value, e.g. three bottles. The concrete bottles are irrelevant. Similarly, (17b) is infelicitous unless you force it into the measure reading: pour the wine in a big container and then carry it. Thus ‘Cl duo N’ forces a measure interpretation on the classifier phrase. The third context concerns the particle de. While Num-Cl-N can be ambiguous between a counting and a measure reading (as in 18a), the particle de can induce a measure reading for some classifiers, in particular container classifiers, as Cheng and Sybesma (1998) argue (as in 18b). However, the particle de can not occur between Num and Cl, as (18c) shows. (18) a. san ping shui [Counting or Measure: our observation] three CLbottle water ‘three bottles of water’ b. san ping de shui [Measure: Cheng and Sybesma 1998] three CLbottle DE water ‘three bottles of water’ c.* san de ping shui three DE CLbottle water (19a) is a typical counting context, in which the verb kai ‘open’ requires concrete containers. It is impossible to have de after the classifier in this case. In contrast, (19b), with the verb zhuang-xia ‘contain’/‘hold’, talks about the volume of the container and it is thus concerned with quantity of wine only. It is a measure context and it can have an optional de.

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(19) a. fuwuyuan kai le san ping (#de) jiu. [Counting] waiter open PFV three CLbottle DE wine ‘The waiter opened three bottles of wine.’ b. zhe ge peng keyi zhuan san ping (de) jiu. [Measure] this CL basin can contain three CLbottle DE wine ‘This basic can contain three bottles of wine.’ The fourth context concerns reduplication of the container classifier. In Chinese the container classifier can be reduplicated on the counting reading, as in (20), but not on the measure reading, as in (21). (20) a. wo mai le liang ping jiu, ping-ping dou hen gui. I buy PFV two CLbottle wine CLbottle-CLbottle all very expensive ‘I bought two bottles of wine, each of which is expensive.’ b. wo he le liang ping jiu, ping-ping dou hen haohe. I drink PFV two CLbottle wine CLbottle-CLbottle all very delicious ‘I drank two bottles of wine, each of which tastes good.’ (21) a.# zhe ge tong zhuang le san ping jiu, this CL bucket contain PFV three CLbottle wine ping-ping dou hen gui. CLbottle-CLbottle all very expensive ‘This bucket holds three bottles of wine, each of which is expensive.’ b.# zhe ge tong zhuang le san ping jiu, this CL bucket contain PFV three CLbottle wine ping-ping dou hen haohe. CLbottle-CLbottle all very delicious ‘This bucket contains three bottles of wine, each of which tastes good.’ As often noted in the literature, reduplicated classifiers in Chinese of the form of Cl-Cl have distributive readings; they are usually translated as “each” or “every”. Reduplicated classifiers obligatorily occur with the distributive marker dou “all” (J.-W. Lin 1996, Cheng 2009). The reduplicated classifier, ping-ping ‘bottle-bottle’, is co-referential with the classifier phrase in the preceding clause. This means that in (20) the antecedent ClP ling ping jiu ‘two bottles wine’ must refer to concrete bottles of wine. As a result, the distributive predicate, hen gui ‘very expensive’ in (20a) and hen hao-he ‘taste good’ in (20b), applies to each bottle of wine (cf.

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Schwarzschild 2009 “stubbornly distributive predicates”). In the measure context of (21), the plural classifier phrase cannot act as an antecedent for the reduplicated classifier, since the plural classifier phrase on the measure reading expresses quantities of entities, and does not refer to a sum of atomic entities. We see then that the distinction between counting and measure readings is a grammatically relevant phenomenon in Chinese, which shows up in a variety of different syntactic environments.

3.2. The syntax of counting and measuring readings In this subsection, I will argue that the syntactic structures assumed in Rothstein’s (2009) for counting and measure readings of classifiers in English are appropriate for Chinese classifier constructions as well. I will argue that on the counting reading, Chinese container classifier phrases have the structure [Num [Cl+N]], and on the measure reading, they have the structure [Num+Cl [N]]. What came out of the discussion of the different contexts in the previous section is that on the counting readings, Num and Cl behave like a single constituent, while they do not, on the measure reading. Hence, we propose the following two structures for the counting and the measure reading for Chinese ClPs: (22) a. Counting reading NumP Num santhree

ClP

b. Measure reading NP ClP

ClCounting NP Num pingbottles shuiwater santhree

ClMeasure pingbottle

N

shuiwater

There are two differences between our structures in (22) and those in (11). First, I do not analyze ping ‘bottle’ as a noun but as a classifier. In chapter 2, I argued that Chinese classifiers constitute a category separate from nouns, and that they have an independent projection of ClP. In this, Chinese classifiers differ from English ones which still retain nominal features. Hence, in Chinese, the classifier always projects into be the head of the

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functional projection ClPs, both in the counting and in the measuring structure. Second, I do not posit a DP structure for Numeral Classifier phrases in Chinese. There are obvious syntactic differences in NumPs between English and Chinese. Chinese NumPs cannot be used in argument positions like the subject position, while English NumPs occur unproblematically in subject position (cf. the discussion in Chapter 5): (23) a. Three bottles of water stand on the table. b.* san ping shui zai zhuo shang. three Cl-bottle water at table on Intended: ‘Three bottles of water are on the table.’ The ill-formed sentence (23b) can be made grammatical by inserting an existential quantifier you ‘there be’ at the beginning of the sentence, as in (23c): c. you san ping shui zai zhuo shang. there-be three Cl-bottle water at table on ‘There are three bottles of water on the table.’ In view of these differences, I propose that NumPs in Chinese are always predicates, while NumPs in English can be arguments or predicates. This means that it is possible for English NumPs but not Chinese NumPs to have a DP level. I now show how these two different structures in (22) are justified by the four contexts I presented in Section 3.1. The first fact presented was that in the Cl+N” construction, the classifer could only have a counting interpretation (as illustrated by the examples in (13) and (14)). The structure in (22) accounts for this fact, because on the counting reading the classifier heads the projection of ClP, which can then be a complement of a higher functional projection NumP. But the projection NumP does not have to be projected in all cases. (I will argue in Chapter 9, that the indefinite phrase “Cl+N” has a maximal projection ClP and has no NumP above it.) In this case, the cluster “Cl+N” is interpreted as semantically atomic, and the singularity is implied by the semantics of the cluster and not by an explicit number. In contrast, on the measure reading, the numeral is part of the complex modifier of Num-Cl; it is impossible to drop any internal element of the complex modifier, and the whole constituent including the lexically rea-

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lized Num is adjoined to NP. Num +Cl modify the NP, thus a string containing “Cl+N” as a constituent cannot be a realization of the measure structure. The second fact is that Num+duo+Cl+N has both counting and the measure readings, while Num+Cl+duo+N has measure reading only, as shown in (15)-(16). The structures proposed readily provide an account for these facts. The modifier duo is an additive modifier which means “more” and can only modify constituents that express quantity (or degree). Numbers are obviously quantity expressions, but classifiers express units of counting or measuring and do not themselves express quantity. NPs do not express quantity either. I assume that this means that duo can be adjoined to Num in both counting and measuring readings. Thus, when the word order is Num+duo+Cl+N, with duo as a modifier of the Num, I can treat Num-duo as the head of a counting structure: [[Num Num-duo] [Cl+N]], which leads to a counting reading. Alternatively, I can let Num-duo form a modifier with the classifier: [[[Num Num-duo] +Cl] N], which leads to a measure reading. When duo occurs after the classifier, that is when the word order is Num+Cl+duo+N, it can only be interpreted as a modifier of the complex NumP [NumP Num Cl], since by assumption it cannot modify the classifier, and anyway nothing can intervene between the classifier and its complement. Hence, only the measure structure allows duo to be realized in this position: [[NumP[Num+Cl] duo ] N]. The third fact was that Num-Cl-N is ambiguous between a counting and a measure reading, while Num-Cl-de-N only has a measure reading (as discussed in (19) and (20)). The explanation is similar to the previous case. The Mandarin modification marker de can, as the descriptive name suggests, only occur with modifiers, not with other syntactic constituents. If so, it follows that de can occur after the classifier in the measure structure (22b), since there the classifier is part of a modifier phrase, but not in (22a), because there the classifier is not part of a modifier phrase. Hence when de is inserted, only the measure structure is available. The fourth fact discussed was that classifiers can be reduplicated on the counting reading, but not on the measure reading (as shown in (20)-(21)). I point out here a related fact. The measure classifier cannot be reduplicated and have an anaphoric relation to antecedent Num-Cl-N, as repeated in (24a). But if the reduplicated classifier is followed by the noun, then the acceptablity of the sentence is improved, as in (24b). 1 1

This observation is due to Victor Pan (p.c.).

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(24) a.# zhe ge tong zhuang le san ping jiu, this Cl bucket hold PFV three CLbottle wine ping ping dou hen gui. CLbottle CLbottle all very expensive ‘This bucket holds three bottles of wine, each of which is expensive.’ b. zhe ge tong zhuang le san ping jiu, this CL bucket hold PFV three CLbottle wine ping-ping jiu dou hen gui. CLbottle CLbottle wine all very expensive ‘This bucket holds three bottles of wine, each of which is expensive.’ The contrast between (24a) and (24b) suggests that the real generalization is that if the antecedent of the reduplicated classifier has a measure reading, the sentence is felicitous if the reduplicated classifier is followed by a NP, while if the antecedent of the reduplicated classifier has a counting reading, adding an NP after the classifier is not necessary. This difference can be explained in terms of the structures in (22). In the counting structure of (24a), the NP is the complement of the ClP and can be easily deleted as an instance of NP ellipsis. In the measure structure of (24b), the NP is the head of the structure and the ClP is its specifier, and a similar deletion is impossible. In sum, the two syntactic structures I propose for counting and measure classifiers in (22) elegantly account for the differences discussed.

4. A feature analysis of classifiers: [±Counting, ±Measuring] Container classifiers allow us to observe the two different uses of classifiers, since they move easily between a measure use and a counting use. Chinese, as a classifier language, has other types of classifiers, though. According to Chao (1968)’s classification, Chinese classifiers at least include the following subclasses: individual classifiers, container classifiers, group classifiers, partition classifiers, standard measures, and temporary measures (recall Table 1 in chapter 2). In this section, I analyze Chinese classifiers in terms of the availability of counting and measure readings. I show that not all classifiers easily allow both counting and measure readings and I propose a feature analysis of classifiers in terms of the availability of these two functions.

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Assuming that counting and measure are the two basic functions of classifiers, I propose to take [±Counting] and [±Measure] as features constraining the way classifiers can be interpreted and syntactically realized. With these two features, we predict four types of classifiers: [+C, -M] classifiers are by default counting classifiers, [-C, +M] classifiers, which are by default measure classifiers, [+C, +M] classifiers for which measure and counting readings are equally available, and [-C, -M] classifiers, which can neither count nor measure individuals. I show that all the four types of classifiers are instantiated in the language.

4.1. Four types of classifiers 4.1.1. Type 1: [+C, -M] classifiers [+C, -M] classifiers have by default only a counting reading, not a measure reading. They can be called counting classifiers. The core instances of [+C, -M] classifiers are the so-called ‘individual classifiers’ as a lexical class. Generally speaking, individual classifiers are those classifiers whose complements are nouns denoting naturally discrete entities. The class includes the general classifier ge, the classifier for individual animals zhi, and duo ‘blossom’ etc. I propose that for their core use, [+C, -M] classifiers spell out the inherent counting unit intrinsic to sets of discrete entities (see also Allan 1977, Tai and Wang 1990, Cheng and Sybesma 1998). For example, as shown in (25), hua ‘flowers’ are counted as duo ‘blossoms’, mi ‘rice’ is counted as li ‘grains’, and shu ‘book’ are counted as ben ‘volumes’: (25) a. san duo hua three CLblossom flower ‘three blossoms of flower’ b. yi li mi one CLgrain rice ‘a grain of rice’ c. liang ben shu two CLvolume book ‘a volume of book’

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In these classifier phrases, the classifier and the noun stand in a relation that is constrained by selectional restrictions. The property expressed by the classifier, e.g. shape, dimension etc., must be semantically compatible with the shape of entities in the denotation of N. I suggest that the classifiers make available the atomic structure of the entities in the denotation of the N and specify a natural counting unit for these entities. This idea about the semantics of [+C, -M] classifiers is close to the function of what Lyons (1976) calls “sortal” classifiers, or classifiers that go with counting or atomic predicates. It is important to stress, however, that in the present account the [+C, -M] feature characterizes the semantic function of the classifier, and not the kind of noun it combines with. Although nouns denoting discrete atomic entities naturally occur as the complements of [+C,-M] classifiers, the classifier does not require the noun complement to denote a set of discrete entities. Thus, individual classifiers can also take as complements abstract nouns, or nouns denoting homogeneous entities. In this case, the classifier picks out a set of contextually relevant minimal entities which instantiate the kind denoted by the noun. For instance, the classifier duo ‘blossom’ can not only modify nouns like hua ‘flower’, but also nouns which have some flower-like characteristics like yun ‘cloud’ or mogu ‘mushroom’: (26) a. yi duo yun one CLblossom cloud ‘a blossom of cloud’ b. yi duo mogu one CLblossom mushroom ‘a blossom of mushroom’ The noun cloud is homogeneous in the sense that it does not have an inherent unit of counting associated with it. For speakers of English, the idea that a noun like cloud is homogeneous is perhaps counterintuitive, since in English, cloud is a count noun, and we are used to think of singular count nouns in English as denoting sets of inherently atomic entities. However, as showed earlier in Chapter 4, nouns like boy or furniture denote discrete entities, and those like water and fence denote homogeneous entities. I argued that the grammatical distinction between count and mass nouns is independent of the ontological distinction between discreteness and homogeneity. Rothstein (2010) argues explicitly that “the naturally atomic/nonnaturally atomic distinction is orthogonal to the count/mass distinction”. Although cloud is a count noun in English, it does not imply that the noun

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denotes a set of inherently individuable atomic clouds, which can be directly counted. The boundaries of clouds are often not clearly defined, and there will be no absolute agreement as to how they are to be counted. In Rothstein’s terms, a context-dependent decision must be made as to what counts as one cloud before they can be counted one by one. The interpretation of the plural form clouds is dependent on the choice of the denotation of the singular. The apparent atomicity of nouns like fence (and cloud in our discussion) is context dependent (Rothstein 2010). Another example is concerned with the individual classifier tiao. It usually modifies thin, long-shaped entities. (27a) and (27b) illustrate the prototypical cases, in which it modifies three-dimensional entities like chong ‘worm’ and two-dimensional entity, like he ‘river’, while in (27c), it modifies an abstract noun, shengming ‘life’. (27) a. yi one b. yi one c. yi one

tiao chong CL worm tiao he CL river tiao shengming CL life

What is important here is that [+C, -M] classifiers combine with nonnaturally atomic predicates like yun ‘cloud’ or abstract entities like shengming ‘life’, in addition to naturally atomic predicates as a more general case. I thus suggest that the individuation function of [+C, -M] classifiers are crucially derived from the semantics of the classifier itself, and not from the structural properties of the denotation of the complement noun. Note also that on the individuating or counting function, the classifier does not imply any information about the quantity, weight, length or volume of the entities it counts. We do not know how heavy a blossom of cloud is when we say yi pian yun ‘a piece of cloud’. Thus [+C, -M] classifiers simply provide a counting unit, and make available a set of atomic countable entities, but do not give a way of measuring them along any other dimension. Even when they combine with homogeneous expressions, these classifiers allow us to say “how many” but not “how much”. As we will see later, [+C,-M] classifiers can occur in some measure contexts. But these cases are highly restricted, mainly recipe contexts. I regard such uses as highly context-dependent, non-default uses. I discuss them in section 4.3 and in chapter 8.

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4.1.2. Type 2: [-C, +M] classifiers [-C, +M] classifiers only have by default a measure reading, not a counting reading. This category includes only the classifiers that are pure measure words. This group of classifiers includes standard measures and temporary measures in Chao’s system. As Chierchia (1998a) points out, standard measure words like kilo, pound, meter do not impose any atomic structure on entities, and they simply measure the size of entities along a certain dimension, e.g. weight, length. Chinese standard measure words, such as gongjin ‘kilo’, mi ‘meter’, behave semantically like their counterparts in English. Look at (28): (28) a. san gongji pingguo three kilo apple ‘three kilos of apples’ b. wu mi dianxian five meter cable ‘five meters of cable’ For example, in (28a), san gongjin tang ‘three kilos of sugar’ does not imply that there are three distinctive packs of apples, each of which weighs exactly one kilo. It can be the case that there are six packs of apples, and each of them weighs half kilo. This is exactly the opposite of what we find for individual classifiers. Another type of measure words are “temporary classifiers” in Chao’s (1968) term, like shen ‘body’, lian ‘face’, di ‘floor’. Consider (29). (29) a. yi lian hanshui one CLface sweat ‘a faceful of sweat’ b. yi di mi one CLfloor rice ‘a floorful of rice’ c. yi shen xue one CLbody snow ‘a bodyful of snow’ There are two differences between standard measure words and temporary measure words. First, unlike container classifiers, temporary measures are usually realized by body parts or objects that are able to express at-

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tachment or spreading relations. For example, in (29a), the expression yi lian hanshui ‘a faceful of sweat’ means that one’s face is covered with sweat, not that one’s face contains sweat. Secondly, unlike standard measure words, temporary measures express inaccurate measure values. For instance, yi lian hanshui ‘a faceful of sweat’ in (29b) doesn’t tell you how much sweat there is. This is not only because the measure unit expressed by the classifier itself is vague, but also because the whole classifier phrase is a hyperbole. In this example, the numeral yi ‘one’ does not behave like numbers in normal classifier phrases. It cannot be replaced by other numerals, such as liang ‘two’, as shown in (30a). However, it can be replaced by degree modifiers like man ‘full’ or zheng ‘whole’, as shown in (30b) and (30c) (as mentioned in Chao (1968). (29a) expresses in a hyperbolic way that one’s face is coverd with sweat (as in the English, ‘I was bathing in sweat’). This interpretation makes degree modifiers natural. (30) a. #liang lian hanshui two CLface sweat ‘two facefuls of sweat’ b. man lian hanshui full CLface sweat ‘a full face of sweat’ c. zheng lian hanshui whole CLface sweat ‘a whole face of sweat’ We see that temporary measure words like lian ‘face’ provide measure units to measure the quantity of entities, in particular, that they emphasize that the measure values involved are big: in (29b), by its covering meaning the classifier expresses that the quantity of sweat on the face is large. Temporary measures are by default measuring classifiers. As I will discuss in section 4.3, some measure words can shift their meaning to a counting interpretation, but, as will be shown, such interpretations are highly context restricted and conventionalized.

4.1.3. Type 3: [+C, +M] classifiers The third type of classifiers has both the features of [+C] and [+M]. This means that unlike [+C,-M] or [-C,+M] classifiers, both counting and meas-

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ure readings are equally available for [+C, +M] classifiers, although context may favor one or the other. [+C, +M] classifiers include container classifiers, group classifiers and partition classifiers. For example, the container classifier ping ‘bottle’ in (31) can either mean a concrete bottle or an abstract measure unit. (31) wo he le yi ping hongjiu. I drink PFV one CLbottle red wine ‘I drank a bottle of wine.’ In the counting reading, (31) means that I drank (some of) wine out of a particular bottle. Note that perfective markers in Chinese do not express telicity in the way such markers do in other languages. Here, the perfective marker le (31) does not imply a telic event (see Soh and Kuo 2005): (31) does not express that the bottle of wine got finished. In the measure reading, I drank the quantity of a bottle, i.e. 750 ml of red wine. In this case, the event is a telic event. It doesn’t mean that I drank some of 750 ml, but the full amount. Since I have already discussed the ambiguity of container classifiers in the sections 3, I here discuss partition classifiers (as in 32) and group classifiers (as in 33). I show that they too are ambiguous between a counting and a measure interpretation. (32) a. ta di le san di Estée Lauder, she drip PFV three CLdrop Estée Lauder, e-tou, liang jia ge yi di. forehead, two-cheeks each one CLdrop ‘She dripped three drops of Estée Lauder essense: one on the forehead and two on the cheeks.’ b. jiu nongdu eryan, san di xin de Estée Lauder FOC concentration as:for three CLdrop new Mod Estée Lauder xiangdang yu jiu de yi di. equivalent to old Mod one CLdrop ‘As for the intensity, three drops of the new Estée Lauder essence is equivalent to one drop of the old Estée Lauder.’

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(33) a. you liang pai xuesheng chao wo zou-lai, there-be two CL student toward me walk-come qianmian yi pai, houmian yi dui. front one CLrow back one CLrow ‘Two rows of students are walking toward me. One in the front and on in the back.’ b. zhe-ge jiaoshi zhi neng rongxia liang pai xuesheng. this-CL classroom only can contain two CLrow student ‘This classroom can only hold two rows of students.’ (32a) and (33a) show counting readings of partition classifiers and group classifiers. The classifier di ‘drop’ in (32a) partitions the Estée Lauder essense into a plural entity composed of three drops. There must be three separate drops on the face. In (33a), the expression that “one on the front and one on the back” forces a count reading: there must be two distinctive rows of students. In contrast, (32b) and (33b) express the measure reading. For example, (32b) requires the amount of Estée Lauder essense to be as much as three drops, but it is not required that essense comes in three individuated drops. Similarly, (33b) only requires the number of students to be as many as two rows, though they may be sitting together. Hence, container Cls, group Cls and partition Cls indeed are equally open for counting and measure readings in different contexts. On the counting reading, the classifiers indicate how the plural entities or mass entities are packed or accumulated into single units. On the measure reading, they express the quantity of plural entities or mass entities along a certain dimension, e.g. weight or length.

4.1.4. Type 4: [-C, -M] classifiers At first glance, it looks a bit strange that there could be classifiers that neither count nor measure individuals. But there is such a type of classifiers, the kind classifiers that denote predicates of subkinds and not of individuals. In Chinese, kind classifiers include zhong ‘kind’ and lei ‘class’: (34) a. yi zhong yu one CLkind fish ‘one kind of fish’

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b. san lei shu three CLclass book ‘three classes of books’ Individual classifiers (and other types of non-kind classifiers) denote sets of individuals. However, kind classifier phrases denote sets of entities of a different type. They denote sets of subkind entities. I showed in Chapter 5 that bare nouns in Mandarin denote kinds. I assume that the kind classifier turns the kind into a set of well-established subkind entities (see Krifka 1995 for the semantics of kind classifiers in Chinese). This means that kind classifiers neither count nor measure individuals, which is what makes them [-C, -M]. The numeral before the kind classifier can only count the number of subkinds of entities, not the number of individuals constituting the subkind. For example, (34b) shows that the cardinalty of subkinds of book is three. It does not matter how many books are in each type or how much book is in each type. Subkinds can be seen as plural entities (i.e. sums of the atoms) whose members of a subkind must share the same natural properties. Crucially, kind classifiers are sensitive to the (natural) properties of individuals but not to their quantity, while other types of classifiers, like individual and group classifiers, are sensitive to quantities. This difference is seen in (35) and (36): (35) a. yi ge ershi ke de pingguo one CL twenty gram DE apple ‘an apple of twenty grams’ b. yi qun ershi ge de xuesheng one CLgroup twenty CL DE student ‘a group of twenty students’

[+C, -M]

[+C, +M]

(36) a.# yi zhong ershi tiao de yu one CLkind twenty CL DE fish Intended: ‘a kind of fish of twenty individuals’ b.# san lei wu ben de shu three CLkind five CLvolume DE book Intended: ‘three classes of books of five volumes’ As shown in (35), in ClPs with the features of [+C –M] and [+C, +M], we can insert modifiers expressing number or quantity. For example, in

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(35a), the apple weighs 20 gram and in (35b), the group entity is composed of twenty students. However, kind ClPs cannot take such modifiers to specify the numbers or the quantity of the instantiations of the relevant kinds, as shown in (36). The difference between kind classifiers and other types of classifiers is also evidenced in (37). For example, yi qun dongwu ‘a group of animals’ and yi zhong dongwu ‘a kind of animal’ are both instantiated by individual animals, but the former requires enough instances for the animals to form a group, while the latter, as a subkind, simply requires some instance which is an animal. Look at the difference between (37a) and (37b). (37) a.#wo kandao le liang qun dongwu, yi zhi mao he yi zhi gou. I see PFV two CLgroup animal one CL cat and one CL dog ‘I saw two groups of animal: one (individual) cat and one (individual) dog.’ b. wo kandao le liang zhong dongwu: yi zhi mao he yi zhi gou. I see PFV two CLkind animal one CL cat and one CL dog ‘I saw two kinds of animals: one (individual) cat and one (individ ual) dog.’ Liang qun dongwu “two groups of animals” in (37a) postulates the existence of a lot of animals, two different groups, each containing a large enough number of animals. In contrast, (37b) with “two kinds of animals” can be two animals, one of each kind. I thus conclude that kind classifiers are not sensitive to quantity information of the entities. They have a categorization function, i.e. to categorize entities into different sorts or types. They neither count nor measure individuals. They are [-C, -M] classifiers.

4.1.5. Concluding remarks I categorized classifiers in Chinese into four types in terms of their semantic functions. The present classification differs from previous accounts in the following ways. Previous accounts typically make a distinction between the types of lexical information conveyed by different types of classifiers, like sortal and mensural classifiers, etc. My classification of classifiers is based on the basic semantic functions of counting and measuring. It has the following advantages over the other approaches:

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First, our classification of classifiers is built upon the semantic function of classifiers themselves, but not on the properties of their complements. For example, Lyons (1976) defines ‘sortal classifiers’ in terms of the properties of the noun being sortal or not. I argued in 4.1.1 that while [+C, -M] classifiers naturally modify nouns denoting discrete entities, they can also modify nouns denoting homogeneous entities, such as yun ‘cloud’ or even abstract entities. My approach can also avoid the difficulty of categorizing the seeming dual use of certain classifiers, such as ba ‘handful’ in yi ba mianfen ‘a handful of flour’ and yi ba yizi ‘a chair’. For us, it is not an issue whether ba is a group classifier or an individual classifier in these two cases, but what is important is that they can express counting or measuring functions in both cases. In our classification, nouns are not decisive in interpreting the function of classifiers or categorizing classifiers. Second, the feature system expresses the fact that container, group and partition classifiers are semantically both like [+C, -M] and [-C, +M] classifiers. Instead of either focusing only one of the readings or postulating an ambiguity for some classifiers, the classification tells us that the fact that a large group of classifiers falls into both categories is not an exception to be dealt with, but something to be expected. Third, in my analysis, both left-braching and right-branching structures are possible for classifier phrases in Chinese. Unlike previous syntactic analysis, lexically different subtypes of classifiers do not go randomly for a certain structure and different syntactic structures are chosen to represent different semantic functions of classifiers. I will below give a semantic intepretation for the feature combinations. What is left open is how to represent the basic lexical meaning of the classifiers in such a way as to explain why some classifiers have both uses and some have only one. This is not a question I will deal with in this book.

4.2. Syntactic support for the counting and measuring readings I have argued so far that there are good semantic reasons for making a classification on the basis of the features of [±Counting, ±Measure]. In this section I discuss some syntactic evidence for the classification. I gave four syntactic tests for distinguishing the syntactic differences between the counting and the measuring functions of [+C, +M] classifiers in section 3. I now show that the syntactic properties of [+C, -M] classifiers are on a par with [+C, +M] classifiers on counting contexts and that of

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[-C, +M] classifiers patterns with [+C, +M] classifiers on the measure contexts. First, the Cl-N construction only allows counting classifiers. This predicts that [+C, -M] classifiers, i.e. individual classifiers, can be used in “Cl+N” construction, as shown in (38a-b), and that [-C, +M] classifiers, i.e. true measure words, must always be accompanied by a lexically realized Num, as shown in (38c-d). Note that “Cl+N” in Mandarin is indefinite, as in (28a), and the one in Wu is definite, as in (38b). (38) a. wo xiang mai ba dao. [Mandarin] I want buy CL knife ‘I want to buy a knife.’ b. ҞΩҌ kiu ti khunkэ. [Wu: Fuyang] CL dog PROG sleep ‘The dog is sleeping.’ c.* wo xiang zou gongli lu. [Mandarin] I want walk kilometer road Intended: ‘I want to walk one kilometer.’ d.* di lu ƾo Ҟѓu fΩҌ uan. [Wu: Fuyang] mile road I walk not finish Intended: ‘The mile of road, I cannot walk to the end of it.’ Secondly, in the classifier phrase of [+C, -M] classifiers, the modifier duo ‘more’ can occur between Num and Cl, but not between Cl and N. This is shown in (39). In the classifier phrase of [-C, +M] classifiers, the element duo ‘more’ occurs either between Num and Cl or between Cl and N, as shown in (40). (39) a. shi duo ge pingguo ten more CL apple ‘more than ten apples’ b.#/???shi ge duo pingguo ten CL more apples (40) a. na ge tong zhuang le shi duo gongjin pingguo that CL bucket contain PFV ten more CLkilo apple ‘That bucket contains more than ten kilos of apples.’ b. na ge dong zhuang le san gongjin duo pingguo that CL bucket contain PFV three CLkilo more apple ‘That bucket contains more than three kilos of apples.’

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Note that both examples of (40) have the measure reading. Since gongjin is a true measure word, the counting reading for Num-duo-Cl-N that I observed for container classifiers is impossible in (40a). Thirdly, [+C, -M] classifiers cannot be followed by the marker de, while [-C, +M] classifiers can be naturally followed by the marker de. (41) a.# you san ge de pingguo cong louti shang gun xialai. there-be three CL DE apple from stair on roll down Intended: ‘Three apples rolled down from the stairway.’ b. wo mai le san gongjin de pingguo. I buy PFV three CLkilo DE apple ‘I bought three kilos of apples.’ Fourthly, [+C, -M] classifiers can be reduplicated, as in (42a), but [-C, +M] do not. This is shown in (42b). (42) a. ge-ge pingguo duo hen tian. CL-CL apple all very sweet ‘Each apple is sweet.’ b.# gongjin-gongjin pingguo dou hen tian. kilo-kilo apple all very sweet ‘Each kilo of apples is sweet.’ Next I look at group classifiers and partition classifiers, and study whether they behave in the same way as container classifiers in the relevant syntactic contexts. First, group and partition classifiers can be used in the form of “Cl+N” only in the counting reading, not in the measure reading, as shown by the contrasts in (43) and (44): (43) a. you pai xuesheng chao wo zoulai. [group Cl] there-be CLrow student toward me walk. ‘A row of students are walking toward me.’ b.# zhe-ge jiaoshi zhi neng rongxia pai xuesheng. this-Cl classroom only can contain CLrow student Intended: ‘this classroom can only hold a row of students.’ (44) a. wo-de bai tixu shang you di moshui. my white T-shirt on there-be CLdrop ink ‘There is a spot of ink on my white T-shirt.’

[partiton Cl]

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b.# xie zhe pian wenzhang yong le wo di moshui. write this Cl article use PFV I CLdrop ink ‘It took me one drop of ink to write this article.’ Secondly, group and partition classifiers can be reduplicated only when they are read with a counting reading, but not with a measure reading: (45) a. ta di le san di Estée Lauder, e-tou, she drip PFV three CLdrop Estée Lauder, forehead, liang jia ge yi di. Di-di dou hen da. two-cheeks each one CL-drop Cl-Cl-drop all very big ‘She dripped three drops of Estée Lauder essense: one on the forehead and two on the cheeks. Each drop is big.’ b.#jiu nongdu eryan, san di xin de Estée Lauder as for concentration say three CLdrop new Mod Estée Lauder xiangdang yu jiu de yi di. Di-di dou hen da. equivalent to old Mod one CLdrop Cl-Cl-drop all very big ‘As for the intensity, three drops of the new Estée Lauder essence is equivalent to one drop of the old Estée Lauder. Each drop is big.’ (46) a. you liang zu xuesheng chao wo zoulai. there-be two CLgroup student toward me walk. zu-zu dou hen zhengqi. CL-CLrow all very in order ‘Two groups of students are walking toward me. Each group is in good order.’ b.#zhe-ge jiaoshi zhi neng rongna liang zu xuesheng. this-CL classroom only can contain two CL student zu-zu dou shi shiwu ren. CL-CL all be fifteen people Intended: ‘This classroom can only hold two groups of students. Each group has fifteen people.’ We cannot use the insertion of de/duo test for group and partition classifiers, since native speakers do not accept de/duo for either interpretation: (47) a.# yi one b.# yi one

qun CLgroup kuai CLpiece

de haizi DE children de xigua DE watermelon

[group Cl] [partition Cl]

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(48) a.# yi one b.# yi one

qun CLgroup kuai CLpiece

duo more duo more

haizi children xigua watermelon

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[group Cl] [partition Cl]

There are two different ways to account for these facts. One possibility, based on the data in (47) and (48) is that we should treat container classifiers on the one hand and group and partition classifiers on the other as two different types of classifiers. The other possibility is that they are the same type of classifiers, but that there are extra constraints on the use of de and duo which mean that they do not occur with group and partition classifiers. I think that the second possibility is more plausible, because of the similarities between all three types of classifiers as shown in (43) to (45). However, despite these similarities in behaviour, container classifiers nonetheless differ semantically from group and partition classifiers. On the counting function they make use of actual entities in the world to classify (and thus count), while on the measure reading they assume that the volume of the container can be treated as directly analogous to a standard unit of measure such as kilo or liter. I will give interpretations for container classifiers in section 5 below. However, group and partition classifiers are more complex. Group classifiers require constructing abstract entities (see e.g. Landman 1989 and also the discussion in Rothstein 2010) and partition classifiers require doing the inverse, i.e. imposing a part of structure on instantiations of the kind (whether the instantiations are naturally atomic or not). Giving a precise interpretation for these classifiers on both the counting and the measuring reading is thus considerably more difficult than giving an interpretation for container classifiers. We will not attempt it here, but we do assume that the difficulty of using de and duo with group and partition classifiers is related to the complexity of their interpretation. I draw two conclusions: (i) the counting reading and the measure reading can be distinguished syntactically; (ii) the tests support the classification which associates [+C,-M] with the default interpretation of counting, [-C, +M] with the default interpretation of measuring, and [+C, +M] with classifiers that allow both counting and measuring interpretations. Since [-C, -M] classifiers are not associated with counting and measuring interpretations, the present tests are not relevant for this class.

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4.3. Semantic shifting between counting and measuring readings In this section I stress that the features of [±Counting, ±Measure] are characterizations of the default interpretations of the classifiers. As I will show in section 5, the features [+C] and [+M] associate lexical entries of different types to the classifiers, hence what the parameter setting indicates is which lexical entries are naturally available. In this, I do not rule out the possibility that some types of classifiers can have derived readings in certain contexts via type-shifting operations. I will discuss this in detail in Chapter 7 and 8. In the present section, I show that in appropriate contexts, [+C, -M] classifiers can have a derived measure interpretation and similarly, that [-C, +M] can have a derived counting reading. In the default use, [+C, -M] classifiers modify nouns denoting individuable entities and spell out the atomic structure of those entities, i.e. they indicate the inherent (or imposed) counting units for these entities. However, in the contexts of recipes or menus, the counting units of [+C, -M] classifiers can be coerced into measure units. Look at (49). (49) zhe ge dangao wo zonggong yong le yi ge pingguo, this CL cake I altogether use PFV one CL apple ban ge zuotian shengxia de, ban-ge shangwu shengxia de. half CL yesterday left Mod half-Cl morning left Mod ‘To make this cake, I altogether used an apple, half of yesterday’s leftover and half of morning’s leftover.’ (49) provides a context of measurement, where one is told to use as much as one apple in a cake. A counting reading is not salient in this context, because it is more natural to put chopped apple slices in a cake than a whole apple. We see then that appropriate measure contexts can be constructed, where the [+C, -M] classifiers gets a measure interpretation. Fractions are another device that triggers measure readings for [+C, -M] classifiers, because they, by their nature, express proportions. Consider (50): (50) a. ta meitian zuiduo zhi neng chi san-fen-zhi-yi ge xigua. he every day at most only can eat one-third CL watermelon ‘He only eats at most one third of a watermelon every time.’ b. zhe zhi fengbi wo zhi yong le ban-zhi. this CL chalk I only use PFV half-zhi ‘This chalk, I only used half.’

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In (50a), the classifier phrase specifies the quantity of the watermelon to be 1/3 of a watermelon in the context. It does not matter whether this part of watermelon is cut into small slices or is made into juice. Similarly, the natural reading in (50b) is a measure reading. The first zhi in the Dem-Cl phrase is used as a counting unit which refers to a particular individual piece of chalk in the context, but the second zhi in half-zhi refers to the length of the chalk, it tells us that half of the chalk is used, which leads to a measure reading. However, not every individual classifier phrase can get a measure reading. The examples in (51) are not felicitous, because it is extremely hard to find a natural context in which entities like people allow a partition that allows the measure reading. (51) a.# ban half b.# ban half

ge CL tai CL

xuesheng student diannao computer

One of the possible contexts in which (51b) can be used as a legitimate measure phrase is in (51c). But, here, ban tai diannao ‘half a computer’ does not denote an object which is half a computer, but measures the quantity of computer that Susan and Fred each owns. c. Susan he Fred yiqi mai le yi tai diannao. Susan and Fred together buy PFV one CL computer. Tamen meiren yongyou ban tai diannao. they each possess half CL computer ‘Susan and Fred bought a computer together. Each of them pos sesses half of a computer.’ Note that in (49) and (50), I find two different types of coercion into measure readings. In (49), the coercion is triggered by the context, while in (50) the coercion is triggerd by a type mismatch between numeral and classifier. I will return to these two types of coercion in our discussion of the particle de in Chapter 7 and 8. Now I look at shifts of measure words, i.e. [-C, +M] classifiers, into counting classifiers. In their default measure interpretation, measure words measure quantities but do not impose any atomic structure onto the entities they measure.

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In some contexts, we can derive a counting reading. For instance, when the quantity expressed by the measure phrase refers to some individuable quantities in the context. For instance, the standard measure word jin ‘pound’ is a very old and frequently used measure unit. In contrast, gongjin ‘kilo’ is a relatively new measure unit and has been generally accepted in everyday use in some parts of China only in the past two decades. Due to the frequent use of jin ‘pound’ in daily life, it has developed a counting use, in addition to its original measure use. San jin rou ‘three pounds of meat’ can have a counting reading if the meat is individually packaged into 500 gram quantities. In contrast, the new measure unit gongjin ‘kilo’ does not have this use. If we consider the measure jin ‘pound’ to be able to denote individual packages, then we expect, that on that reading it patterns syntactally with the [+Counting] classifiers, and in this respect it contrasts with the measure phrase of Num-gongjin-N, which doesn’t ever have the packaging reading. The examples from (52) to (54) show that this is indeed the case. Note that it does not matter whether the noun denotes entities that are more discrete, such as apple, or less discrete, such as meat. (52) a. wo mai le jin pingguo/rou. I buy PFV CLpound apple/meat ‘I bought a pound of apples/meat.’ b. * wo mai le gongjin pingguo/rou. I buy PFV CLkilo apple/meat Intended: ‘I bought a kilo of apples/meat.’

[Mandarin]

(53) a. jin jin pingguo/rou dou hen xinxian. CLpound CLpound apple /meat all very fresh ‘Each pound of apples/meat is fresh.’ b.*gongjin gongjin pingguo/rou dou hen xinxian. CLkilo CLkilo apple meat all very fresh Intended: ‘Each kilos of apples/meat is fresh.’

[Mandarin]

(54) a. tюin phiƾku /࠺ioҌ man юinюin. [Wu: Fuyang] CLpound apple / meat very fresh ‘The kilo of apples/meat is very fresh.’ b.* kuƾtюin phiƾku/࠺ioҌ man юinюin. CLkilo apple/ meat very fresh Intended: ‘The kilo of apples/meat is very sweet.’

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In (52a), jin pingguo/rou ‘pound of apples’ implies singularity, i.e. a pound of apples/meat. In (53a), tюin phiƾku/࠺ioҌ ‘pounds of apples/meat’ refers to a particular pound of apples/meat that is assumed to be familiar to the interlocutors in the context. I summarize the classification of classifiers in the following table. Table 3. A four-way distinciton of classifiers: [±Counting, ±Measure] Classifier types [+C, -M] classifiers [-C, +M] classifiers [+C, +M] classifiers [-C, -M] classifiers

Default reading Counting Measure Counting or Measure

Possible derived reading Derived measure reading Derived counting reading

5. Semantics of classifiers: counting and measuring In this section I formulate a proposal for the semantics of classifiers on the counting interpretation and on the measure interpretation. There are only a few papers in the literature on the semantics of classifiers, namely, Krifka (1995), Chierchia (1998a), Landman (2004) and Rothstein (2010). Of these Krifka is the only paper that explicitly discusses the semantics of Chinese classifiers. Krifka proposes that Chinese classifiers map kinds onto measure functions that measure the number of specimens of that kind. Krifka’s analysis treats all classifiers as measures. In contrast, Chierchia (1998a) and Rothstein (2010) argue for a counting-based approach to classifiers in English. They propose that English classifiers have an ‘atomizing’ function. Chierchia proposes that classifiers map mass noun denotations onto sets of atoms. Rothstein (2010) proposes that English classifiers such as unit and piece explicitly denote a COUNTk function, which applies to root noun denotations and picks out a context-dependent set of atoms, the set of entities which count as one in the relevant context k. In what follows, I will review the measure-based approach and the counting-based approach, and then formulate a proposal for the semantics of Chinese classifiers on both the counting and measure readings.

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5.1. Krifka’s (1995) semantics for Chinese classifiers Krifka (1995) was one of the first papers to argue that Chinese bare nouns are kind denoting. Krifka assumes that Chinese bare nouns are basically names of kinds, and he assumes that other uses of bare nouns, like the indefinite use or the predicative use, are derived from the kind interpretation. (55) a. xiong jue-zhong le. bear vanish kind PRF ‘Bears are extinct.’ b. wo kanjian xiong le. I see bear PRF ‘I saw (some) bears.’ According to Krifka, the object-level indefinite interpretation of xiong ‘bear’ in (55b) is derived from the kind interpretation in (55a), though an operation R, which is in essence Carlson’s (1977) instantiation relation. The operator R applies to a kind term and returns “specimens or individual sums of subspecies of the kind”. Krifka’s operator R is similar to Chierchia’s (1998b) operator ‘>’, which shifts kinds into properties. The R relation is given in (56a) and the semantics of the two uses of the bare noun are given in (56b-c). (56) a. If x is an individual and k a kind then R(x, k) holds if x is an instantiation of kind k. b. NxiongN=BEAR [kind denoting] c. NxiongN=λx.R(x, BEAR) [object denoting] For measure phrases (classifier phrases in our terms) like (57), Krifka (1995) proposes that classifiers are expressions of the lexicalized R operators. The measure words, e.g. qun ‘group’ and zhi (individual classifier for animal) take a kind and yield a measure function that measures objects instantiating that kind. (57) a. san qun xiong three CLgroup bear ‘three groups of bear’

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b. san zhi xiong three CL bear ‘three (individual) bears’ As we have seen at the beginning of this chapter, for Krifka a classifier is a measure expression M which combines with a number phrase to form the interpretation of a measure phrase MP: (i) N[MP[Numα][Mβ]]N = N[Mβ]N(N[Numα]N) And the measure phrase applies to a noun to form a noun phrase: (ii) N[NP [MP α] [Nβ]]N =N[MPα]N (N[Nβ]N). The semantics for the measure phrases in (57a) and (57b) are given in (58) and (59) respectively (Note that Krifka gives an intensional semantics, which I have simplified here into extensional semantics.) (58) a. NqunN =λnλkλx.R(x, k) ∧ herd(x)=n b. Nsan qunN =λkλx.R(x, k) ∧ herd(x)=3 c. Nsan qun xiongN =λx.R(x, BEAR) ∧ herd(x)=3 (59) a.Nzhi N=λnλkλx.R(x, k)∧NATURAL-UNITk(x)=n b.Nsan zhi N=λx. R(x, k) ∧ NATURAL-UNITBEAR (x)=3 c.Nsan zhi xiongN =λx.R(x, BEAR)∧ NATURAL-UNITBEAR(x)=3 There is a fundamental difference between (58) and (59). (58) is a straightforward measure reading, where the classifier n herd applies to a kind and yields a set of instantiations of the kind which measures n herds. In this semantic statement, (58c) is true of an object if it is a plurality consisting of three herds of bears. (59), on the other hand, is the equivalent of our counting reading, in which the classifier counts the number of individual bears. This is encoded by the ‘natural unit’ operation which takes a kind and yields a measure function that measures the number of specimens of that kind. In this semantic statement, (59c), is true of an object if it is a plurality of three individual bears. Krifka does not discuss the dual functions of classifiers beyond positing the Natural Unit function, nor does he discuss the fact that a single classifi-

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er can have both a counting and a measure reading. According to the syntax he adopts and the semantics he proposes in (58) and (59), he treats the counting reading as a particular kind of measure reading. The structure and interpretation that Krifka gives, where the classifier combines with the Num, and the whole modifies the noun, fits the structure that I am proposing for the measure reading. I have argued, however, that the counting reading of classifiers is built from a different syntactic structure. On the counting reading, the classifier takes the noun as a complement, and this structure is the complement of the NumP. From this perspective, the analysis in Krifka (1995) cannot account for the syntactic facts that I have discussed in this chapter.

5.2. Rothstein’s (2010) semantics for English classifiers In contrast with Krifka’s (1995) measure-based account, Chierchia (1998a) and Rothstein (2010) claim that classifiers have an individuating/atomization function (a “counting function” in our terms). In this section, I will focus on the proposal in Rothstein (2010). Rothstein (2010) argues that counting is a grammatical operation of putting entities in one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers, which requires a decision as to what counts as one entity. She assumes that all nouns are interpreted with respect to a domain D, which is a complete atomic Boolean algebra generated by a (possibly vague) set of atoms. All lexical nouns N are associated with an abstract root form Nroot, the interpretation of which is a subset of D. As predicates, mass expressions have the same interpretation as Nroot. As kind denoting expressions, the kind interpretation is derived from the interpretation of Nroot via Chierchia’s kind forming operation ?. Thus the denotation of a mass noun, Nmass, MASS(Nroot)=?Nroot. For count nouns, Rothstein argues that their interpretation is relativized to a counting context k, which is a subset of D, and taken to be the set of entities that in this context count as one. I associate with the model a set K of such counting contexts on D. In context k, the set of atomic N-entities is the set Nroot∩ k. Rothstein assumes that in a normal context k, the objects in Nroot∩ k are non-overlapping: they are the N-entities that count as one in k. Technically, the non-overlap requirement for normal contexts can be made part of a counting function COUNT:

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{: d ∈Nroot ∩ k} if the objects in Nroot ∩ k do not overlap (60) a. COUNTk(Nroot)= undefined otherwise b. the interpretation of a count noun Ncount in context k is Nk, where Nk=COUNTk(Nroot). As can be seen in (60b), Rothstein assumes that a singular count noun denotes a set Nk, which is a set of ordered pairs, where the first projection of the ordered pairs in Nk are the entities in Nroot ∩ k, and the second projection of the ordered pairs is k. So a singular count noun denotes a set of indexed atomic N entities, where the index indicates the context with respect to which the entity counts as atomic. The set Nroot ∩ k is a set of nonoverlapping N-entities which count as 1 in context k. Such sets Rothstein calls “semantically atomic sets”, which are grammatically accessible and can be counted directly by the numerals (Rothstein 2010). I define the obvious notions of projection: (61) ʌ1(Nk) = {d: ∈ Nk} ʌ2(Nk) = k and: (62) ʌ1() = d ʌ2() = k Plural count nouns are derived by lifting Link’s pluralisation operation from D to the denotations of count noun. Link’s plural operation * is defined as follows: *(P)={d ∈ D: ∃Y ⊆ P: d = WY} Lifting this to the domain D×{k} gives: (63) *(P) = { ∈ D×{k}: d∈ *(ʌ1(P) } Hence, the plural of a singular count noun is the set of ordered pairs, where the first projection is an entity in *(Nroot ∩ k), the closure of Nroot ∩ k under sum, and the second element is k.

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I see that, according to Rothstein (2010), count nouns are of a different type from mass nouns: mass nouns, as predicates, are of type , set of individuals, and as kind denoting expressions, they are of type k; count nouns are of type , sets of ordered pairs, objects indexed by k. I will use x as a variable over individuals of type d and x (in bold italics) as a variable over objects of type d×k. Rothstein claims that this way of distinguishing mass nouns from count nouns directly captures the fact that count nouns can be directly modified by numerals, while mass nouns cannot. Count nouns allow direct grammatical counting, since they have been derived via the implicit lexical COUNT operator; mass nouns cannot be directly modified by numerals, since they are derived via COUNT. If we want to count the elements of Nmass, we introduce the COUNT operation in the syntax, and this requires a classifier. The most neutral classifiers are unit of and piece of and they can be thought of as a direct explicit expression of the operation COUNT: (64) I bought a unit of furniture/ one piece of furniture.

(65) a. Nunit ofNk = ȜPȜx.

ʌ1(x)∈(Pŀk)∧ʌ2(x) =k if the objects in P ∩ k do not overlap

undefined otherwise b. Nunitk of furnitureN=Nunitk of N(NfurnitureN) = Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈(FURNITURE ŀk)∧ʌ2(x)=k Hence, the interpretation of unit of in k is like the function COUNTk, it takes a set like FURNITUREroot and maps it onto the set of pairs of objects , where x is in FURNITURE ∩ k, on the assumption that k is a normal context where FURNITURE∩k is a set of non-overlapping objects. Some classifiers add more lexical information than unit e.g. strands of hair, cups of coffee and so on. Rothstein assumes that these add further properties specified of the semantic atoms (66) (suppressing the definedness condition). (66) a.NstrandkofN=ȜPȜx.ʌ1(x)∈(Pŀk)∧LONG-AND-THIN(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k b.Nstrandk of hairN = Nstrandk ofN(NhairN) = Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈(HAIR ŀ k)∧LONG-AND-THIN (ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x) = k

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As far as classifiers are concerned, Rothstein (2010) explicitly notes that this account of English count nouns is only relevant for the individuating (counting) function of classifiers: she assumes that measure classifiers will have to be treated differently.2

5.3. Semantics of Chinese classifiers In this section, I will work out the semantics of classifiers in Chinese in their counting reading and in their measure reading. I will extend Rothstein’s semantics of English classifiers to the counting function of classifiers in Chinese. Then I will give a semantic account for the measure function of Chinese classifiers, following Krifka (1995), Chierchia (1998a), Landman (2004) and Rothstein (2009).

5.3.1. Semantics of classifiers in counting readings Rothstein’s (2010) theory is worked out for classifiers in English. In applying it to Chinese classifiers, it is necessary to make some adaptations so that it reflects the peculiar properties of Chinese bare nouns and classifiers. First, in Rothstein’s analysis, mass nouns are treated as denoting sets, with the same interpretation as root nouns, rather than as kinds.3 However, as I argued in Chapter 3, Chinese bare nouns are mass nouns that denote kinds. I assume that Chinese classifiers apply directly to kind denoting expressions, and denote functions from kinds into sets of k-indexed atomic instantiations of the kind, i.e they are functions of type . I assume that this difference in interpretation reflects the fundamental difference between English-type classifiers and Chinese-type classifiers: English classifers are essentially nominal, while Chinese classifiers are functional heads which have the function of deriving sets from kinds. Secondly, for the semantics of classifiers, I want to make explicit how and where the context k comes in. For Rothstein (2010), the COUNTk function is either realized by an implicit lexical operator, which is applied to root nouns to derive count nouns, or by an overt operator, such as piece, unit etc, which is applied to root nouns to derive Classifier Phrases. 2

Rothstein (2009), discusses the measure function of classifiers in Modern Hebrew. Rothstein (2010ms) adapts the analysis to an account in which mass nouns denote kinds. 3

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If I adapt Rothstein’s proposal for English directly as an operation of the type I want for Chinese, I can assume the following: (67) NClassifier (NP)N=NClassifierN(∪NNPN) =COUNTk(∪NNPN) = {:d∈>NNPN ∩ k}. The noun denotes a kind; the classifier is interpreted as COUNTk. Applying the classifier to the noun is the result of applying COUNTk to the set of instances of the kind. The classifier applies to the set of instantiations of the kind and gives the set of k-indexed entities which are atomic instances of the kind in context k. However, the classifier system in English is not very productive, and most of the classifiers like piece or unit, have very general meanings. Specific classifiers like strand in strands of hair are rare. This makes it difficult to see how the classifier expresses constraints on which elements in the context k are relevant, and, since more than one counting context can be invoked in one background context, which context k is relevant. Mandarin has a productive classifier system, and most of the classifiers have very specific lexical meanings, like duo ‘blossom’, ben ‘volume’, tiao ‘branch’ etc. Because of this, Mandarin classifiers are very suited to illustrate what sorts of constraints on contexts classifiers can introduce. Counting context k is a set of entities of D, which will be interpreted as the set of entities that count as atoms in k. The Chinese classifier applies the COUNT function in k, but simultaneously adds information which constrains the choice of the atomic entities in k (and possibly the relevant choice of k). Let us take the [+Counting] classifier duo ‘blossom’ as an illustration. The classifier duo ‘blossom’ can modify flowers, but also flower-like entities such as yun ‘cloud’, as in yi duo yun ‘a blossom of cloud’. We know that the referents of cloud are homogeneous entities, i.e. they do not come in natural units. On the predicative use, the bare noun yun denotes the set of instantiations of the kind cloud. In this set, a cloud can have any shape, flower-like, animal-like, blanket-like etc. When applying the classifier duo ‘blossom’ to the noun yun ‘cloud’, only flower-like clouds are picked out to be included in the set of what will be atomic clouds, as denoted by duo yun ‘blossom cloud’. In other words, the classifier duo ‘blossom’ adds lexical information, which constrains the set of atomic clouds to be to be those which are in k and flower-like. Pragmatically, this may constrain the

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choice of relevant context k to be one in which there are enough flowerlike atomic clouds, as Rothstein (2010) implies. I propose the interpretation schema in (78.a) as the general [+C, -M] classifier interpretation schema. In this schema α is the particular lexical meaning of the classifier. Thus, the meaning of the classifier duo is the one given in (78.b): The semantic template for the counting function of a classifier is given in (68a). As for the semantics of duo, I propose to compose the classifier template with the nominal predicate duo ‘blossom’, in the lexicon to construct the classifier, which is then applied to the NP meaning. Remember that k is a variable for kind and k is a variable for context. (68) a. NClN=λkȜx.ʌ1(x)∈( >k ŀ k)∧α α(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k b. NduoN=λkȜx.ʌ1(x)∈( >k ŀ k)∧Blossom-form(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k c. NyunN=?CLOUD d.Nduo yunN =λx.ʌ1(x)∈(>?CLOUD)ŀk)∧Blossom-form(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)= k I propose that the property that the general classifier ge contributes to the interpretation schema is the trivial property pow(D), which means that the restricting conjunct is vacuous. This gives the following semantics to the general classifier: (69) a. NgeN= Ȝk Ȝx.ʌ1(x) ∈ (>kŀ k) ∧ ʌ2(x)= k b. NgeN(NpingguoN) = NgeN(?APPLE)=Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈(>?APPLEŀk)∧ ʌ2(x)=k I illustrate the counting reading of [+C, +M] classifiers with container classifiers. In fact, their semantics is much easier to specify than that of partition and group classifiers, since the latter involve second order individuation (see Landman 1989a, b, and discussion in Rothstein 2010). I leave the semantics for future research. The semantics of [+C, +M] works a bit differently from that of [+C, -M] classifiers. I propose that [+C, +M] classifiers impose an external unit on the instantiations of the kind denoted by N, when these instantiations N do not come in inherent atomic units or inherent atomic unit are not relevant. The difference is the following: in a [+C, -M] case like ge pingguo, the noun phrase denotes an atomic set of apples, derived through the COUNT function from k: the only thing you need to do in k is pick out the relevant

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k entities that are apples. So, the constraint on ʌ1(x) is that it belongs to >? APPLEŀk. With container classifiers, the relevant k-units are determined by the semantics of the classifier and not by that of the noun. That is, for [+C, +M] ClPs, the semantic atom to be counted by the Num is determined by the lexical property expressed by the classifier. I propose that there is a relation CONTAIN for container classifiers on the counting reading, such as ping ‘bottle’. I assume here a classifier schema as (70a), in which the classifier determines what entities will count as atoms, and the kind complement only determines what the container contains: (70) a. NClN=ȜkȜx.ʌ1(x)∈(α α ŀ k)∧CONTAIN(ʌ1(x),k)∧ʌ2(x) = k b.NpingN=ȜkȜx.ʌ1(x)∈(BOTTLEŀ k)∧CONTAIN(ʌ1(x),k)∧ʌ2(x) = k c. Nping shuiN=NpingN(NshuiN) =NpingN(?WATER) =Ȝx.ʌ1(x) ∈ (BOTTLEŀk)∧CONTAIN(ʌ1(x),?WATER)∧ʌ2(x)=k (In this, it needs to be specified what CONTAIN(x, k) means. I will not be concerned with that here.) Note that on the counting use, “Cl+NP” always denotes a set of atomic entities, a set of singularities. As I will discuss in chapter 9, “Cl+NP”, like duo hua ‘CLblossom flower’ can indeed only refer to singular flowers, but “Cl+NP” can be modified by a plural numeral, to express a plurality, as in wu duo hua ‘five Cl-blossom flowers’. Following Rothstein (2010), O assume that the numeral wu ‘five’ denotes a function from count noun denotations into count noun denotations of type which requires a semantically plural input: (71) NwuN(Nk) =ȜPȜx.P(x)∧|ʌ1(x)|k = 5 Wu denotes a function which applies to a count predicate Nk and gives the subset of ordered pairs in Nk, where the first projection of each ordered pair has five parts which count as atoms in k. I assume that this semantics triggers semantic pluralization on the complement of wu. I give the semantic derivation of the plural classifier phrase of wu duo hua ‘five CLblossom flowers’ in (72) and (73): (72) a. NhuaN=?FLOWER b. NduoN=ȜkȜx.ʌ1(x)∈(?k ∩ k)∧BLOSSOM(ʌ1(x)) ∧ ʌ2(x) =k c. Nduo huaN = Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈(>?FLOWER ∩ k)∧BLOSSOM(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x) =k

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The meaning of wu should apply, but it cannot since it requires a set of pluralities as input, but (72c) is a set of atoms in k. This is a mismatch which is resolved by semantic pluralization: (73) a. *Pluralization applies to the denotation of duo hua NduohuaN =*(Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈(>?FLOWER∩k)∧BLOSSOM(ʌ1(x)))∧ʌ2(x)=k = Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈*(>?FLOWER∩k)∧*BLOSSOM(ʌ1(x)))∧ʌ2(x)=k b. Nwu duo huaN =Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈*(>?FLOWER ∩k)∧*BLOSSOM(ʌ1(x)))∧|ʌ1(x)|k=5∧ʌ2(x)=k That is, it denotes the set of plural entities in the pluralization of the set FLOWER∩k which are blossoms and which have five parts that count as atoms in k.

>?

5.3.2. Semantics for classifiers on the measure reading I now give a semantics for the measure function of classifiers, including [C, +M] and [+C, +M] classifiers. Let us first look at the semantics of true measure words, i.e. [-C, +M] classifiers. Chierchia (1998a) claims that measure words, i.e. [-C, +M] classifiers, do not individuate or atomize entities. For example, a pound of rice is not individuated into naturalistic objects like piles or packs to be measured. Krifka (1989, 1995), Chierchia (1998a), and Landman (2004) all treat measure expressions as complex modifiers constructed out of a measure head and a number expression which denotes a number and is of type n. The measure word, e.g. kilo, is of type and combines first with the numeral to form a complex modifier which modifies N (or NP). It expresses the quantity of entities or stuff which is a property of the relevant instantiations of the head noun. Following this approach, Rothstein (2009) proposes the following semantics for measure classifiers: (74) a. NbottleN =ȜnȜx.BOTTLE-FUL(x)=n b. None bottleN=NbottleN(NoneN) =ȜnȜx.BOTTLE-FUL(x)=1 =ȜQȜx. Q(x) ∧ BOTTLE-FUL(x)=1 (modifier interpretation) c. None bottleN(NwaterN)= Ȝx.WATER(x) ∧ BOTTLE-FUL(x)=1 The set of quantities of water which equal one bottleful.

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Again I need to adapt this to Chinese, since I assume that Chinese measure classifiers are true classifiers and hence take kinds as input. In fact, what I assume is that measures are functions from numbers to classifier interpretations: they map a number and a kind onto a set of instantiations of the kind, the instantiations with a certain measure property. This means that I treat measure classifiers as expressions of type , and measure expressions “Num + Cl” as expressions of type of , i.e. functions from kinds into sets of instantiations of the kinds. For example, in the measure phrase thirty kilos of apples, the measure word kilo denotes an expression which combines with the thirty to give thirty kilos. The modifier thirty kilos denotes a function that maps kinds, like the kind apple, onto instantiations of the kind, which weigh thirty kilos. I assume that in Chinese, classifiers with the function of [+Measure] are interpreted as follows. Both [+C, +M] classifiers in the measure reading and [-C, +M] classifiers in Chinese are measure heads, which combines with Num to form a modifier, which in its turn applies to the head noun, a kind-denoting expression. The semantics of the Chinese measure unit jin ‘pound’ (i.e. 500 grams) in the measure phrase of yi jin mi ‘a pound of rice’ is given as in (85). (75) a. NjinN =ȜnλkȜx.x∈>k ∧ POUND(x)=n b. Nyi jinN =λkȜx.x∈>k ∧ POUND(x)=1 c. Nyi jin miN=Ȝx.x∈>?RICE ∧ POUND(x)=1 Similarly, [+C, +M] classifiers like container classifiers can denote measure functions. For example, the container classifier ping ‘bottle’ can be used in the measure phrase yi ping jiu ‘a bottle of wine’, in which it denotes a measure unit, e.g. bottleful, as equivalent to 750 ml. (76) a. NpingN =ȜnλkȜx.x∈>k∧BOTTLE-FUL(x)=n b. Nyi pingN =λkȜx.x∈ >k∧BOTTLE-FUL(x)=1 c. Nyi ping jiuN =Ȝx.x∈>?WINE∧BOTTLE-FUL(x)=1

6. Conclusions In this chapter, I showed that classifiers can have a count function or a measure function, according to the classification system [±Counting, ±Measure]. I showed that the measure and the counting functions of clas-

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sifiers are associated with different syntactic structures. I argued that a Krifka style semantics is appropriate for measure words and classifiers on a measure interpretation, while a Rothstein style semantics is appropriate for counting interpretations. I have modified these analyses to formulate a semantic interpretations for classifiers of the type s [+C, -M] and [-C, +M] and for the container classifiers of type [+C, +M] on both counting and measure readings. A number of open questions remain: I have not yet given a semantic template for group and partition classifiers. I assume that the basic principles of counting and measure interpretation apply, but working out the semantics of groups and partitions is beyond the scope of this dissertation. I have not shown how non-default interpretations of [+C, -M] and [-C, +M] classifiers come about, i.e. the derived measure interpretation for [+C,-M] and the derived counting interpretation for [+M, -C]. It is quite straightforward to show how the default measure reading can shift into a count reading for [-C, +M] classifiers (Chierchia 1998a proposes an account), but it is more difficult to see how the counting reading shifts back into a measure reading for [+C,-M]. I discuss some aspects of this issue in chapter 8. I have not discussed how the counting and measure readings of [+C, +M] container classifiers are related to each other. All these issues must be left for further research.

Chapter 7 Adjectival modification in classifier phrases: pre-classifier adjectives

1. Introduction In Mandarin, at least three types of adjectives can be distinguished in terms of their syntactic positions in the nominal phrase, namely, adnominal adjectives, pre-classifier adjectives and “left-peripheral adjectives” (this term is due to Zhang 2012). Adnominal adjectives are those immediately preceding nouns, as in (1a), and pre-classifier adjectives refer to those occurring between numeral and classifier, as in (1b), and left-peripheral adjectives are those appearing on the left most of the nominal phrase, i.e. before the (demonstrative-)numeral-classifier-noun cluster, as in (1c). (1) a. yi ge [hen da de] xigua one CL very big Mod watermelon b. yi [da] ge xigua one big CL watermelon c. [hen da de] yi ge xigua very big Mod one CL watermelon ‘a very big watermelon’

[adnominal adj] [pre-classifier adj] [left-peripheral adj]

Among these three types of adjectives, adnominal adjectives are the most thoroughly explored (see Paul 2005 for a recent review), while the other two types receive relatively less attention. Intuitively, the meaning expressed by (1a) and (1c) are very close, expressing that the watermelon itself is big with respect to a certain standard. In contrast, (1b) with a preclassifier adjective has a different meaning, emphasizing that the quantity of watermelon is evaluated to be big from a certain perspective adopted by the speaker. In this chapter, I will concentrate on the properties of pre-classifier adjectives only. I will address some questions that were raised in Chapter 3. Specifically, (i) what are the distributional patterns of pre-classifier adjec-

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tives? That is, under what situation can they be used? (ii) What are their proper interpretations? Can they still be interpreted “intersectively”? In chapter 3, I showed that the presence of adjectives before classifiers cannot be taken to be one of the diagnostics to distinguish two types of classifiers, i.e.mass and count classifiers, as Cheng and Sybesma (1998) propose. In chapter 6, I argued for a distinction between the counting and measure functions of classifiers. In this chapter, following the discussion in chapter 6, I propose that it is more appropriate to use the distinction between counting and measure functions of classifiers to account for the distributions and the functions of pre-classifier adjectives. I make three points about the distribution and the semantics of preclassifier adjectives in Chinese: First, I argue that pre-classifier adjectives appear before classifiers in counting contexts: before [+C, -M] and [+C, +M] classifiers (on their counting interpretation), but not before [-C, +M] or [-C, -M] classifiers. Second, I argue that, while pre-classifier adjectives precede the classifier and the noun at surface structure, they do not stand in a direct modification relation to the classifier or the noun. I propose that pre-classifier adjectives modify the complex constituent “Cl+N” (also see Corver 1998 for the discussion on pseudo-partitives in Dutch). Since I argued that there is no “Cl+N” constituent in measure phrases, this gives a natural explanation for why pre-classifier adjectives do not appear in measure expressions. Third, I argue that pre-classifier adjectives like da/xiao ‘big/small’ have ‘expressive’ meanings à la Schlenker (2007): they express that the speaker regards the atomic entity in the denotation of “Cl+N” to be big or small from a particular perspective chosen by him or her. This chapter makes a systematic examination of the syntactic and semantic properties of pre-classifier adjectives. Section 2 discusses the situation where adjectives can be used before classifiers. In section 3, I examine the modification relation of pre-classifier adjectives. I rule out the possibility that pre-classifier adjectives modify the classifier or the noun. In section 4, I first present the relevant contexts in which pre-classifier adjectives can be used and then address the syntactic issue of what constituent preclassifier adjectives modify. In section 5, I discuss the semantics of preclassifier adjectives.

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2. Licensing pre-classifier adjectives 2.1. Pre-classifier adjectives before counting classifiers As we saw in chapter 3, Cheng and Sybesma (1998) argue that preclassifier adjectives are allowed only before a certain group of classifiers, namely, before ‘count’ classifiers but not before ‘mass’ classifiers. See the contrast in (2) and (3): (2) a. yi da zhang zhi one big CLpiece paper ‘a big piece of paper’ b. na yi xiao xiang shu that one small CLbox book ‘that small box of books’

[mass classifiers]

(3) a.# yi one b.# yi one

[count classifiers]

da big da big

wei CL zhi CL

laoshi teacher gou dog

Contra Cheng and Sybesma (1998), I showed in Chapter 3, it is possible for pre-classifier adjectives to appear before ‘count’ classifiers, such as the specific classifier dong for house in (4a) and the general classifier ge in (4b). (4) a. ta ziji ye gai le yi da dong fangzi. he himself also build PFV one big CL house ‘He also built a big house by himself.’ b. wumao-qian mai le yi da ge mangguo. fifty cents buy PFV one big CL mango ‘Fifty cents bought a big mango.’ My hypothesis is that adjectives can precede classifiers only when the classifiers are interpreted with a counting reading. Namely, pre-classifier adjectives are possible before [+C, -M] and [+C, +M] classifiers in appropriate contexts. Three things follow from this. First, it is predicted that [-counting] classifiers, that is, [-C, +M] Cls (measure classifiers) and [-C, -M] Cls (kind classifiers), are not acceptable

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with pre-classifier adjectives. Confirming this, the examples in (5) and (6) are judged to be completely unacceptable by the native speakers I consulted. (5) a.* ta he b.* ta he

he drink zou walk

le PFV le PFV

yi one yi one

(6) a.* yi da zhong one big CLkind b.* yi da lei one big CLkind

da big da big

jing baijiu. CLpound liquor gongli lu. CLkilometer road

dongwu animal 1 zhiwu plant

[-C, +M]

[-C, -M]

Secondly, [+C, -M] classifiers are by default counting classifiers, but can have coerced measure readings in some contexts. Pre-classifier adjectives can appear in front of [+C, -M] classifiers on the counting reading but not on the coerced measure reading. Look at (7). The classifier phrase yi ge pingguo ‘one Cl apple’ in (7a) refers to an atomic apple. It is a counting reading. The ClP in (7b) means that the quantity of apple put into the cake amounts to that of a normalsized apple. It is a coerced measure reading. (7) a. ta ba yi ge pingguo toutou shai dao ziji koudai li. [Counting] he OM one CL apple secretly put to self pocket in ‘He put an apple into his pocket secretly.’ b. zuo zhe ge pingguo-pai, wo zongong yong le you yi ge make this CL apple pie I in:total use PFV have one CL pingguo, ban ge zuotian-de, ban ge jintian-de. [Measure] apple half CL yesterday-Mod half CL today-Mod ‘To make this apple pie, I used an apple altogether, half of yesterday’s leftover and half of today’s leftover.’ I find that it is only possible to insert the adjective da ‘big’ before the classifier phrases in the examples in (7) on the default counting reading but not on the coerced measure reading. Look at the relevant examples in (8): 1

Note that the phenomenon I am interested in the presence of da/xiao ‘big/small’ before kind classifiers should be distinguished from the distribution of the lexical noun of da-lei ‘major kinds’.

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(8) a. ta ba yi da ge pingguo toutou shai dao ziji koudai li. he OM one big CL apple secretly put to self pocket in ‘He put a big apple into his pocket secretly.’ b.#zuo zhe ge pingguo-pai, wo zongong yong le you yi da make this CL apple pie I in:total use PFV have one big ge pingguo,ban ge zuotian-de, ban ge jintian-de. CL apple half CL yesterday-Mod half CL today-Mod Intended: ‘To make this apple pie, I used a big apple altogether, half of yesterday’s leftover and half of today’s leftover.’ As said earlier, the pre-classifier adjectives like da/xiao entail the existence of atomic entities. Therefore, in a measure context as in (8b), it is inappropriate to use preclassifier adjectives. Thirdly, I predict that when a [+C, +M] classifier phrase is preceded by a pre-classifier adjective, the classifier phrase can only have a counting reading. Look at (9): (9) ta he le yi da ping kele. he drink PFV one big CLbottle coke ‘He drank a big bottle of coke.’ (9) expresses that there was one and only one bottle and I drank one large quantity of coke from it. In other words, the classifier ping ‘bottle’ can only have a counting reading, referring to a concrete bottle, which is filled with coke. (9) is not true if you drank the same (large) amount of coke from two different bottles. Thus, (9) cannot have a measure reading. Predictably, when the [+C, +M] ClP with a pre-classifier adjective refers to a plural entity, it can be co-referential with a distributive determiner, which, as argued in Chapter 6, is a test for counting contexts. This is illustrated in (10): (10) ta gang he le san da wan yao. mei wan dou hen ku. he just drink PFV three big CLbowl medicine each CLbowl all very bitter ‘He just drank three big bowls of Chinese (herb) medicine. Each bowl of it was very bitter.’ The distributive determiner mei ‘each’ is co-referential with san da wan zhongyao ‘three big bowls of Chinese medicine’. The sentence means that there were three individual bowls of Chinese medicine, and he drank them one by one. And every time he drank one, he felt the bitterness of the med-

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icine. (10) is not true if he put the three bowls of medicine into a big container and drank it in one go. Clearly, then, container classifier wan ‘bowl’ has a counting reading.

2.2. “Concrete portion” reading (Partee and Borschev 2012) Some may wonder whether the examples in (9) and (10) are not true counting contexts. The pre-classifier adjectives da/xiao ‘big/small’ play two roles. On the one hand, it entails that there exist an atomic individual as expressed by the classifier, such as container. On the other hand, it emphasizes the quantity of the stuff. Therefore, it seems to be a blended case of counting and measure readings. This special reading as exemplified in (9) is similar to the “concrete portion” reading discussed in Partee and Borchev (2012). Look at their example in (11): (11) vypej èti dva stakana moloka. (Russian) drink-IMPER these two-ACC glass- GEN milk-GEN ‘Drink these two glasses of milk.’ The Russian example (11) is preferably interpreted with a concrete portion reading. It emphasizes the quantity of stuff, but meanwhile it requires the existence of two concrete containers, as expressed by the demonstrative èti. According to Partee and Borchev (2012:473), this concrete portion reading arises from the reference to the container by a form of metonymy which has become conventionalized for all container words, from container to contents. It is not immediately clear whether the concrete portion reading has a counting reading or a measure reading. In Partee and Borchev’s analysis (2012: 474), it is treated as a special kind of ‘counting reading’ in our terms. The Concrete Portion reading is close to the measure readings and involves the same syntax but does not express measure. We… think that it might be better to have an analysis in which the Concrete Portion reading could be subsumed under the Container+Contents reading (i.e. the counting reading: the author’s note).

I take the same position as Partee and Borschev (2012) in treating Chinese classifier phrases with pre-classifier adjectives with a counting interpretation. Different from them, I also will give them a counting syntax and a counting semantics in the latter discussion.

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The examples in (12) and (13) bring out the contrast clearly that preclassifier adjectives go with counting classifiers but not measure classifiers in Mandarin Chinese. (12) a. ta shou shang na zhe yi ping futejia. [Counting] he hand on carry DUR one CLbottle vodka ‘He carried a bottle of vodka in his hand.’ b. ta shou shang na zhe yi da ping futejia. he hand on carry DUR one big CLbottle vodka ‘He carried a big bottle of vodka in his hand.’ (13) a. ta-de jiu-liang shi yi ping futejia. [Measure] his capacity-for-liquor be one CLbottle vodka. ‘His capacity for liquor is one bottle of vodka.’ b.# ta-de jiu-liang shi yi da ping futejia. his capacity-for-liquor be one big CLbottle vodka. Intended: ‘His capacity for liquor is a large bottle of vodka.’ The classifier ping ‘bottle’ in (12a) has a counting reading: (12a) refers to a concrete bottle filled with vodka. In this case, we can insert a preclassifier adjective da/xiao ‘big/small’, as in (12b), which expresses that the bottle of vodka is a big entity from a perspective chosen by the speaker.2 However, in (13), the classifier phrase ping ‘bottle’ is interpreted with a measure reading and it denotes an abstract measure unit, say, 750mls, where the insertion of adjective da/xiao before the classifier is impossible, as in (13b). In sum, when pre-classifier adjectives precede classifiers, the classifier can only have a counting reading. Note that this does not mean that preclassifier adjectives are freely possible with [+Counting] classifiers in counting contexts. I discuss the question of which counting contexts are possible in section 3.

2

The claim made by the sentence that ‘the bottle of vodka is a big entity’ can be understood at least in two ways: it can mean that the weight of the vodka in the bottle is too much for someone to carry, or it can mean that the volume of vodka in the particular bottle is too much for someone to drink. More about this later.

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3. The modification relation of pre-classifier adjectives The question I ask in this section is: what does the pre-classifier adjective modify in the sequence “Num-Adj-Cl-N”: the classifier, the noun, or something else?

3.1. Adjectival modification in pseudo-partitives In pseudo-partitive constructions in English, i.e. Num-N1-of-N2, N1 can be modified by adjectives (Jackendoff 1977). This phenomenon is also found in Dutch, Greek and many other European languages (see Vos 1999, Alexiadou et al 2007, among others). I use the English examples to illustrate, as given in (14). (14) a. a blue bottle of water b. a delicious cup of coffee c. an interesting collection of LPs

(Alexiadou et al 2007:421)

The adjectives before N1 exhibit varied modification relations. In (14a), the adjective blue modifies N1, and the phrase means that the bottle itself is blue. The only possible interpretation of (14b) is that the coffee is delicious. In other words, N1 is ‘transparent’ and the adjective can cross it to modify N2. This is called “transparent phenomenon” (Jackendoff 1977). In (14c), the LPs themselves may be awful and the collection as such might be interesting in terms of size, range, period etc. So in this case, the adjective interesting modifies N1-N2 as a single constituent. According to Vos (1999: chapter 6), the modification of N1 by adjectives is dependent on the nature of N, as being lexical or functional. If N1 is functional, it rejects adjectival modification; if it is lexical it accepts it. As the Dutch example in (15) shows (Vos 1999: 168), the morpheme boel ‘lot of’ is functional and it cannot be modified by attributive adjectives such as nice, new etc: (15) een *leuke/*nieuwe/*grote/*rode/*houten/*Franse boel poppen a nice/ new /big /red /wooden/French lot (of) doll However, I think that this account is inadequate to explain two facts reflected by the examples in (14). First, it is unable to explain why container nouns can sometimes be modified by adjectives (14a) but sometimes can-

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not (14b), although they are used in the same syntactic context. Does that mean that container nouns are sometimes lexical and sometimes functional? This is not plausible. Second, it fails to give a clear answer whether N1 in (14c), i.e. collection, is lexical or functional. I think that size adjectives should be treated separately from other attributive adjectives. A more serious problem is concerned with the modification of size adjectives before N1. Morphemes like aantal in Dutch are functional, but they can be modified by an evaluative adjective like leuk ‘nice’ (which in this case has the meaning of a size adjective). (16a) has the same meaning as (16b). (16) a. een leuk aantal poppen a nice number dolls b. een grote aantal poppen a large number dolls ‘a large number of dolls’ (Dutch: Vos 1999: 169, cf. Alexiadou et al 2007: 418) I may find similar examples in English. For example, the noun number is more likely to be treated to be functional, but it can be modified by the attributive adjectives like decent or good (meaning ‘sizable’ in this case). Look at (17): (17) A decent/good number of students attended the lecture. It is clear from the examples of (16) and (17) that the nature of N1 being lexical or functional is not a decisive factor of using size adjectives like big/small before N1 in pseudo-partitive constructions. A more radical case regarding size adjectives is found in Greek. (18) shows that the noun kuti ‘box’ in Greek cannot be modified by the attributive adjective metaliko ‘metal’ (18a), but it can be modified by size adjectives, such as meghalo ‘big’ (18b). (18) a.*ena a/one b. ena a

metaliko kuti metal box meghalo kuti big box

sokolates chocolates sokolates chocolates (Greek: Alexiadou et al 2007: 419)

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If we follow Vos (1999), shall we treat kuti ‘box’ as functional? Alexiadou et al (2007: 419) emphasize that the proper reading of (18b) is “that of a big number of chocolates, not that of saying that the size of the box itself is big”. So the adjective meghalo ‘big’ does not modify the container as expressed by the noun kuti. In othe words, size adjectives, unlike other attributive adjectives before N1, which either express properties of N1 or N2, do not behave like attributive adjectives to express properties of N1 or N2. I suggest that size adjectives before N1 in pseudo-partitive constructions be treated as a separate phenomenon, to be distinguished from other attributive adjectives before N1. The presence of (size) adjectives has nothing to do with the lexical/functional make-up of N1.

3.2. Pre-classifier adjectives in Mandarin I said in chapter 3 that in Mandarin only size adjectives like da/xiao ‘big/small’ can be used before classifiers in (19), but not other attributive adjectives like lan ‘blue’, pianyi ‘cheap’, wuwei ‘tasteless’ in (20): (19) a. yi chang tiao xianlian one long CL necklace ‘a long necklace’ b. yi xiao kuai mianbao one small CLpiece bread ‘a small piece of bread’ (20) a. # yi wuwei bei kafei one tasteless CLcup coffee Intended: ‘a tasteless cup of coffee’ b.# yi lan ping shui one blue CLbottle water Intended: ‘a blue bottle of water’ c. # yi pianyi bei kafei one cheap cup coffee Intended: ‘a cheap cup of coffee’ Therefore, if there is any similarity between pre-clasifier adjectives in different languages, pre-classifier adjectives in Chinese are expected to behave like those in (16) but not like those in (14) in Dutch.

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In this section, I will show that any account based on the lexicalfunctional properties of the classifier is not able to capture the licensing condition of pre-classifier adjectives, since, as I said above, preclassifier adjectives do not express properties of N1 or N2. I will review Cheng and Sybesma (1998), Zong (2009) and Zhang (2012). Cheng and Sybesma (1998) argue that pre-classifier adjectives modify what they call mass classifiers, and take this as evidence that mass classifiers are inherently nouns, which are borrowed to be classifiers. In their view, pre-classifier adjectives cannot modify count classifiers, since these are inherently functional. In contrast, Zong (2009) claims that pre-classifier adjectives are available for both individual and non-individual classifiers, but pre-classifier adjectives modify the noun complement if the classifier is an individual classifier (“adjective lowering” in the sense of Zhang 2012), and the classifier itself if the classifier is a non-individual classifier, e.g. a container classifier or a group classifier. Here, I argue that (i) while pre-classifier adjectives appear in front of classifiers in surface structure, they do not stand in any direct modification relation to the classifier, and that (ii) pre-classifier adjectives cannot cross the classifier head to modify the noun in Chinese. In what follows, I will examine the modificational relation of preclassifier adjectives in [+C, -M] and [+C, +M] classifier phrases in section 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 respectively.

3.2.1. Rejecting pre-classifier adjectives modifying mass classifiers Example (21) contains a [+C, +M] classifier phrase (a container ClP): (21) a. ta zhen le yi xiao bei putaojiu. he pour PFV one small CLglass wine ‘He poured a small glass of wine.’ [from J.M. Lu 1987: 60] b. ta zhu le yi da guo fan. I cook PFV one big CLpot rice ‘I made a big pot of rice.’ According to Cheng and Sybesma (1998), classifiers like bei ‘glass’ and guo ‘pot’ are directly modified by the adjective xiao ‘small’ or da ‘big’, because these classifiers are inherently nouns. For them these adjectives “modify the mass classifier in its abstract function as a container”. To

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avoid ambiguity, I use the word container to refer to the concrete physical containers referred to by container classifiers, and the word volume to refer to the capacity of containers. So what Cheng and Sybesma call ‘container’, I call ‘volume’. (21a) expresses that there is a small quantity of wine contained in the glass and (21b) that there is a big quantity of rice contained in the pot. According to Cheng and Sybesma (1998), large containers imply large quantities: the quantity of stuff contained in the big or small containers depends on the actual volume of the container. Against this, I note that the pre-classifier da/xiao does not express a size property (i.e. actual volume) of the container, because, as shown in (22), xiao ‘small’ can be used, when the container is directly asserted to be big: (22) ta jingchang yong na ge da bei he jiu. he always use that CL big glass drink wine buguo meici dou zhi he yi xiao bei. but everytime all only drink one small CLglass ‘He always uses that big glass to drink wine, but every time he only drinks a small glass.’ The classifier phrase yi xiao bei ‘a small glass of wine’ can be used to describe a situation where the glass itself is very small, so that even if the whole glass is filled, there is only a small quantity of wine in it. But it can also describe a situation where a big glass was used, but only filled with a little bit of wine. And this is the situation described by (22). The word bei ‘glass’ occurs twice in (22). On the first occurrence, in da-bei, it is a noun, referring to a concrete big sized glass. On the second occurrence, it is in the classifier phrase yi xiao bei ‘a small glass’, where it does not refer to a concrete glass but to the quantity. And (22) means that the quantity of wine contained in the glass is small, not that the glass or its fixed volume, is small. In (23) I look at the abstract volume of containers. Suppose there are two bowls of the same size and they are filled with the same amount of rice, say, 200 grams. These two bowls of rice are served to a three-year old kid and a basketball player. Each of them gets one bowl of rice. Generally speaking, 200 grams of rice is a lot (too much) for a three-year old, but maybe not so much (not enough) for a basketball player. We can use the sentences in (23a) and (23b) to describe the kid’s and the athlete’s cases respectively (note that I ignore the case where the child is extremely hungry and the athlete has no appetite at all).

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(23) The stewardess in the airplane handed each passenger a bowl of rice: a. na ge san shui de xiaohai chi le yi da wan fan. that CL three-year Mod kid eat PFV one big CLbowl rice ‘That three-year old kid ate a big bowl of rice.’ b. na ge yundongyuan zhi chi le yi xiao wan fan. that CL athelete only eat PFV one small CLbowl rice ‘That athlete only ate a small bowl of rice.’ If pre-classifier adjectives modify the classifier as a concrete container, then there should be a big bowl in (23a) and a small bowl in (23b). But this is not the case. If pre-classifier adjectives modify the classifier as an abstract volume, then the two bowls should contain different quantities of rice, a large quantity for the kid, a small quantity for the basketball player. This is also not the case. What the relevant expressions, yi da/xiao wan fan ‘a big/small Cl-bowl rice’ in (23) mean is that the rice served in the big bowl is a large/small quantity for the relevant eater in view of his/her consumption ability in the context. This kind of quantity information is independent of the actual size or volume of the container as expressed by the classifier. Therefore, in [+C, +M] classifier phrases, pre-classifier adjectives do not modify the classifier, regardless of whether the classifier refers to a concrete container or an abstract volume.

3.2.2. Rejecting pre-classifier adjectives modifying nouns Unlike Cheng and Sybesma (1998), Zong (2009) and Zhang (2012) accept the examples with individual classifiers which go with pre-classifier adjectives. As for the modificational relation, they assume that pre-classifier adjectives modify the noun in the sequence Num-Adj-indiviudal Cl-N. It is similar to the ‘transparent phenomenon’ discussed in Jackendoff (1977), such as the example of ‘a delicious cup of coffee’. In (24) the classifier phrase has a [+C, -M] classifier (individual Cls) and it is preceded by the adjective xiao ‘small’: (24) ni bie xiaokan zhe ji xiao li huangdou, zhe shi you not belittle these several small CLgrain soybean this be women hua le duoda xinxue cai peiyu dedao de liangzhong. we spend PFV much effort Foc cultivate gain Mod selected seed ‘Do not belittle these small grains of soybeans. They are the selected seeds that were cultivated with painstaking effort.’ [J. Lu1987: 55-56]

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According to Zong (2009) and Zhang (2012), in (24), it is the soybeans themselves that are small. In other words, the two examples in (25) are equivalent to each other. Specifically, Zhang assumes that it is an operation of “adjective lowering”, that is, the sequence in (25a) is derived by lowering the adjective xiao ‘small’ from a pre-classifier position to an adnominal position (25b). (25) a. ji li xiao huanggou. several CLgrain small soybean b. ji xiao li huangou several small CLgrain soybean ‘several grains of small soybeans’ I disagree with them. The foremost reason to argue against the adjective lowering proposal is that adnominal adjectives and preclassifier adjectives express distinctive modificational relations and different interpretations. Speficially, it is only adnominal adjectives that are used to express the entity itself being big or small, but not pre-classifier adjectives. Adnominal adjectives can either have the bare adjective in (25a) or the adjectival form with the modification marker de in (26). (26) ji li hen xiao de huangou several CLgrain very small Mod soybean ‘several grains of very small soybeans’ The differences between (25a) and (26) between these two types of adnominal adjectives have been discussed in the literature (e.g. D.X. Zhu 1984, Sproats and Shih 1991, Duanmu 1997, Paul 2005). For instance, Paul (2005) argues that de divides the NPs into two different syntacticosemantic domains: a modifier outside the scope of de - the case of bare adjectives - has the meaning of a ‘defining charactistic’, whereas a modifier in the the scope of de - the case of Adj-de is interpreted as an ‘accessory property’. I take her term “defining property” to mean ‘classifying property’, a property which sorts out entities denoted by N into different subkinds. “Accessory property” for her means a property that is not instrumental in establishing a new (sub)type of N. Following up on this, I propose that the bare adjective xiao ‘small’ in (25a) combines with the noun huangdou ‘soybean’ directly into a single lexical/phonological item. As argued, I assume that Chinese nouns denote kinds, and I propose here that bare adjectives before N are classifying ad-

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jectives, and that the complex adj-N denotes a subkind. Hence, xiaohuangdou in (25a) refers to a subkind of soybean, the kind mini-soybean. On the other hand, I propose that complex adjectives, like the one in (25b), modify the set of instantiations of the kind, not the kind itself. So hen xiaode huangdou in (25b) means that the individual soybeans are small. In both cases the adnominal da/xiao ‘big/small’ specifies the physical size of the entity/ies in the denotation of the head N: the difference lies in what entities these are. Now, if I compare the ClP yi xiao li huangdou ‘several small Clgrain of soybeans’ in (27) with the ClPs in (25a) or (26), it is easy to see that the interpretations are completely different. (27) ni bie xiaokan zhe ji xiao li huangdou. you not belittle these several small CLgrain soybean ‘Do not belittle these small grains of soybeans.’ (27) does not mean that the actual size of the soybeans is small, but that, say, in view of the painstaking efforts you devoted to growing them, what you finally got was much smaller than should have been. Even if the soybeans that were cultivated are the biggest soybeans in the world, they might be considered as little given the effort put in. Thus pre-classifier adjectives before individual classifiers do not stand in a modification relation to the noun: they express personal evaluations of the denotation of “Cl+N”, personal evaluation that is independent of the actual size of the denotation of “Cl+N”. Note that for non-individual classifiers, it is also impossible that preclassifier adjectives cross the classifier to modify nouns. The example in (28) show that da/xiao ‘big/small’ cannot cross the [+C, +M] classifier head to modify the N complement: (28) a. yi da ping shui one big CLbottle water ‘a big bottle of water’ b. yi da xiang xiao pingguo one big CLbox small apple ‘a big box of small apples’ The referent of the N complement shui in (28a) is a homogeneous entity and it is impossible to say *da-shui ‘big water’ or *xiao-shui ‘small-water’ (see the discussion on natural atomicity in Chapter 4). (28b) is felicitous: it

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is the apples in the box that are small. Clearly, I cannot assume that preclassifier da ‘big’ modifies the N as well, because that would be infelicitous, like ‘*big small apples’. And that is not what (28b) means. More examples will be provided on the modificational relation of preclassifier adjectives with both [+C, -M] and [+C, +M] classifiers in section 4. I conclude this section by arguing that pre-classifier adjectives in Chinese modify neither the classifier nor the noun, no matter whether the classifier is lexical or functional, individual or non-individual Cls. I will show that pre-classifier adjectives modify “Cl+N” in section 4.

4. Pre-classifier adjectives modifying “Cl+N” In this section, I first introduce various contexts of using pre-classifier adjectives and then explicate the syntactic relation between pre-classifier adjective and classifier.

4.1. Contexts of using pre-classifier adjectives I now examine the different types of contexts in which pre-classifier adjectives can be used and what the modificational relation is in each context. There are (at least) three such types: the consumption context, the context of significance and the contrastive context.

4.1.1. Consumption contexts [+Counting] classifiers with pre-classifier adjectives can be used in consumption contexts, which involve verbs like chi ‘eat’, he ‘drink’. Consider the examples in (29). (29) a. Xiaoling chi le yi da ge mantou.   [+C, -M] Xiaoling eat PFV one big CL steamed bun ‘Xiaoling ate a big steamed bun.’ b. wucan ta chi le yi da ping suannai. [+C,+M] lunch she eat PFV one big CLbottle yogurt ‘She ate a big bottle of yogurt as lunch.’

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Given that the pre-classifier adjective requires a counting interpretation for the classifier, all the examples in (29) entail the existence of an atomic entity in the denotation of the “Cl+N”: (29a) entails the existence of an atomic steamed bun of which I ate part; (29b) entails that there is a concrete bottle, out of which I ate some yogurt. While the ClPs with pre-classifier adjectives entail the atomicity of entities in the denotation of “Cl+N”, the pre-classifier adjectives da/xiao ‘big/small’ in (29) do not express that the physical size of the relevant atomic entities is big or small. (29a) does not mean that the atomic steamed bun is big, but that the steamed bun I ate is a big quantity for me. (29b) does not mean that the concrete bottle filled with yogurt is big, but that the yogurt that she ate out of a bottle is a large quantity for her”. Thus preclassifier adjectives like da/xiao ‘big/small’ express that the quantity of the atomic entity referred to by “Cl+N” is big or small in relation to the appetite or the consumption-ability of the eater. Note that in the cases in (29), as long as what is consumed is a large quantity for the eater at the moment in question, it is felicitous to use one+da+Cl+N; it does not matter whether the subject finishes the whole atomic entity in the denotation or not. However, this is independent from the semantics of the pre-classifier adjective: when you say I ate one cucumber in Chinese, it doesn’t mean that you finished the whole cucumber. This is due to the special meaning encoded by the perfective le (Soh and Kuo 2005). Once again I use the three-year old and the athlete to illustrate the dependency of the pre-classifier adjective on the personal evaluation perspective .This time, we serve each of them a super-large steamed bun, the same size for each. When finished, the kid says (30a), the athlete (30b): (30) a. the kid told her mum: wo chi le yi da ge mantou, I eat PFV one big CL steamed bun xianzai shenme ye bu xiang chi. now what FOC not want eat ‘I just ate a big steamed bun, and I do not want to eat anything at the moment.’ b. the athlete told his wife: wo zhi chi le yi xiao ge mantou, xianzai hai e. I only eat PFV one small CL steamed bun now still hungry ‘I only ate a small steamed bun a moment ago, and I am hungry now.’

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The same item on the menu is considered to be a big entity by a three year old and a small entity by an adult basketball player. Again, da/xiao ‘big/small’ expresses an evaluation of the quantity as big or small with respect to the eater’s consumption ability.

4.1.2. Contexts of significance This section looks at the context of significance for pre-classifier adjectives. Consider (31): (31) a. yi ren fa le yi guan xiao yagao. one person give PFV one CLtube small toothpaste b. yi ren fa le yi xiao guan yagao. one person give PFV one small CLtube toothpaste ‘Each is given a small tube of toothpaste.’ [from J.M. Lu 1987: 60] (31a) and (31b) characterize two different types of nominal modifiers. In (31a), the adjective xiao ‘small’ directly precedes the head noun yagao ‘toothpaste’ and is an adnominal modifier, while in (31b), the adjective xiao ‘small’ is a pre-classifier adjective. (31a) means that the tube of toothpaste is small, of a small type. (31b) means that the tube of toothpaste is an insignificant thing that does not have much value. The following is a scenario for (31b). The boss wanted to award the excellent employees in the company. He finally awarded each of them with a tube of toothpaste, which comes in the biggest size tube in the world. The employees had expected a more interesting present (the hope was for a BMW automobile). One of them complained: “each person got yi xiao guan yagao as an award.” The use of the pre-classifier xiao ‘small’ highlights the fact that a tube of toothpaste is of low degree of significance or value etc. in this context. The actual size of the tube of toothpaste is irrelevant. (31) was an example with a counting classifier and a non-naturally atomic noun. (32) shows the same contrast with a naturally atomic noun: (32) a. mei-ge yuangong dou jiang le yi ge da zuanshi. every-CL employee all award PFV one CL big diamond b. mei-ge yuangong dou jiang le yi da ge zuanshi. every-CL employee all award PFV one big CL diamond ‘Every employee is awarded with a big diamond.’

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(32a) with adnominal da ‘big’ means that the diamond itself is big w.r.t. a certain standard, say, being 1.0 carats is considered to be a big diamond; (32b) with pre-classifier da ‘big’ means that the diamond is considered to be a significant award for the employees in the eyes of the speaker, but the diamond itself can be small, say, 0.3 carats. Thus, in the context of significance, pre-classifier da/xiao ‘big/small’ express the speaker’s personal evaluation of the entity denoted by “Cl+N” with regard to the significance of the entity in the context.

4.1.3. Contrastive contexts The examples in (33) illustrate the use of pre-classifier adjectives in contrastive contexts. (33) a. zhe yi xiao fu hua hua le ta ban-nian shijian. this one small CL painting cost PFV him half year time ‘This small painting cost him half year to finish.’ [from J. Lu 1987: 55] b. ta wuli jiaju tai duo, baifang-de ye bu jiangjiu. his home furniture too much arrange Foc not carefully Yi jin men youbian yi da zhang jiu-shi mu-chuang, once enter door right one big CL old-style wooden bed zuo-bian yi ge da ligui, zhuozi, yizi, left-side one CL big wardrobe table chair shafa ba wuzi gaode yongyubukan. sofa OM house made crammed ‘He has too much furniture at home and it was not arranged properly. Once entering, on the right side lies a big old style wood bed and on the left lies a big wardrobe, a table and chairs, which make the house look crammed.’ [from Y.L. Luo 1988: 8] In (33a), the pre-classifier adjective xiao ‘small’ in the ClP of yi xiao fu hua ‘a small Cl painting’ does not refer to the size of the painting as small in comparison to other paintings, but expresses that from a particular perspective it is small. For example, given that he spent three years painting it, one could have expected something bigger. Typically, we can choose to evaluate the painting from another perspective, and then it will be yi da fu hua ‘a big painting’. For example, realizing the complexity of the techniques used in the painting, we may regard it as a

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big painting. Thus, the adjective expresses a subjective evaluation from the perspective of the evaluator. In this context, the pre-classifier adjective highlights the contrast between the size of the painting and the evaluation norm. Similarly, in (33b), the pre-classifier adjective da ‘big’ highlights the contrast between the small space of the house and the big size of the bed. Given that there is not enough space for so much furniture, the bed is a gigantic object for such a small room, it makes the room look even more crowded. The pre-classifier adjective does comment on the bed’s actual size: in a study of 8 m2, a small bed is big (and (33b) can be used), and it makes the room look extremely crowded. To sum up, pre-classifier adjectives like da/xiao ‘big/small’ assign a low or high value to the atomic entity in the denotation of “Cl+N” on a certain scale like a scale of quantity, significance etc., from a particular subjective perspective. Such a subjective/personal choice of context implies that pre-classifiers will show great variability regarding what subjective dimension the pre-classifier relates to.

4.2. Syntactic structure Tang (1990) is one of the few to explicitly discuss the syntactic status of the adjective and the classifier. She notes that pre-classifier adjectives differ from attributive adjectives in adnominal or predicative positions in that they can only be used in bare form and cannot be followed by the modification marker de and modified by degree modifiers like hen ‘very’ (also see T’sou 1976, Paris 1981). Look at (34): (34) a. yi da xiang one big CLbox ‘a big box of books’ b. *yi da de one big Mod c. *yi hen da one very big

shu book xiang CLbox de Mod

shu book xiang shu CLbox book

Tang (1990:419) claims that adjective and classifier forms a single constituent, that function as a compound, a zero-level category, rather than as a phrase. Tang proposes that the ill-formedness of (34b-c) can be explained

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by the “Lexical Integrity Hypothesis” which says that no syntactic operation may affect only part of a lexical item. The Lexical Integrity Hypothesis successfully captures the property of the “Cl+N” phenomenon (the bare form in (34)), but it cannot explain another constraint of pre-classifier adjectives, since making Adj+Cl a compound has nothing to say about which adjectives can enter into this compound. More seriously, the proposal cannot account for the enriched meanings, and the interpretational variability of pre-classifier adjectives in the three contexts I discussed. If I treat Adj+Cl as a compound in (31b), xiaoguan would refer to ‘a small tube’. But, as we saw, (31b) does not refer to a tube, but a(n atomic) tube of toothpaste and the pre-classifier xiao ‘small’ makes the evaluative statement that a tube of toothpaste is a small (insignificant) thing. Given this, it is not plausible to assume that the pre-classifier adjective and the classifier form compounds, as suggested in Tang (1990). Given that pre-classifier adjectives in Chinese express properties of the atomic entity referred to by “Cl+N”, I suggest that they modify the whole constituent “Cl+N”, but not the classifier or the noun. It is shown in Section 2 that pre-classifier adjectives are only possible before [+counting] classifiers. I suggested in Chapter 6 that on the counting reading, the classifier first takes NP as complement to form ClP, which is then taken as complement by NumP. I suggest that pre-classifier adjectives are located in the Spec of the ClP3, as in (35). (35)

NumP Num ClP yi ‘one’ AdjP Cl’ da ‘big’ Cl NP ping ‘bottle’ N shui ‘water’

3

Liu (2010) discusses the use of ‘adj+Cl’ in post-copula positions in the southern Min dialect. He analyzes adj+Cl as an adjective compound. It is good to point out that Adj+Cl cannot be used in post-copula position in Mandarin, and that the Adj+Cl construction under discussion here differs syntactictically and semantically from the construction Liu discusses.

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I said earlier that the classifier phrase with pre-classifier adjectives in Chinese is similar to the concrete portion reading discussed in Partee and Borschev (2012). However, our structure in (35) is different from what they suggest for the concrete portion reading. It is a counting structure per se. According to Partee and Borschev (2012:474), “the concrete portion reading is close to the measure readings and involves the same syntax but does not express measure”. On the concrete portion reading, two glasses of milk is “a predicate true of milk that fills two glasses; unlike the two measure readings, on this reading there could be a big glass and a small glass”. Our counting structure proposed in (35) can account for the constraint that pre-classifier adjectives are restricted to dimensional adjectives like da/xiao ‘big/small’ (recall the examples in (19) and (20)). Intuitively, I may simply assume that atoms are by nature individuated entities and have size and quantity properties, this is why they can be expected to be modified da/xiao or other dimensional adjectives like chang, ‘long’ (James C.-T. Huang p.c.). From the theoretical perspective, on the counting reading, the classifier denotes a function from kind to a set of atoms. Sometimes, the classifier phrase is also called “atom Phrase” (Chierchia 2010). I may assume that the Cl0 has the head feature [+atomic], and the element in its specifier position may check atomicity (or the Spec feature and the Head feature have to agree).

5. Semantics of pre-classifier adjectives I now propose a semantics for pre-classifier adjectives making use of the notion of the “expressive” dimension discussed by Potts (2007) and Schlenker (2007).

5.1. Introduction to ‘expressives’ Potts (2007) identifies six characteristics of expressives: independence, non-displaceability, perspective dependence, descriptive ineffability, immediacy, and repeatability. Pre-classifier da/xiao ‘big/small’ have all these features, but I will here only concentrate on the first three properties. Independence: the expressive content contributes a dimension of meaning that is separate from the regular descriptive content.

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Nondisplaceability: the expressive content predicates something of the utterance situation. Perspective dependence: the expressive content is evaluated from a particular perspective, in general the speaker’s, but this can vary. I discuss these concepts in an example by Potts (2007). (36) That bastard Kresge is famous. The independence property means that we can change or remove the expressive content of a phrase without affecting its descriptive content (Potts 2005:§3.6.3): we can assent to the descriptive content of (36) — the proposition that Kresge is famous—without thereby assenting to the characterization of Kresge as a bastard. Nondisplaceability means that expression “bastard” is indexical to the utterance situation: the expressive proposition is valid for the utterer at the time and place of utterance” (Potts 2007). Perspective dependence means that the expressive is a predicate of personal taste. Such predicates depend on a contextual parameter of a judge (Potts 2007). Expressives express the judge’s personal attitude toward a certain individual or a current state of affair in the speech-act context. In (29) the speaker is also the contextual judge, bastard is evaluated from the speaker’s perspective, and the contextual judge is sharing his attitude toward Kresge with us, his personal dislike of Kresge. Schlenker (2007) proposes a propositional analysis of expressives. For Schlenker (2007:237), expressives are “indexical (evaluated with respect to a context), attitudinal (predicating something of the mental state of the agent in the context) and sometimes shiftable (in that the context of evaluation need not be the context of the actual utterance)”. The differences between Potts (2007) and Schlenker (2007) are not very important in the present context; I adopt here the basic assumptions concerning expressives that they share, assuming that Schlenker’s notion of ‘indexical’ is roughly equivalent to Potts’s notion ‘nondisplaceable’, and that Schlenker’s notions of ‘attitudinal’ and ‘shiftable’ are roughly equivalent to Potts’s notion of ‘perspective dependence’.

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5.2. Pre-classifier adjectives as expressives The three contexts where ClPs with pre-classifier adjectives appear are repeated in (37). (37a) is a consumption context, (37b) a context of significance, and (37c) a contrastive context. (37) a. ta na / he le yi da ping futejia. he carry/drink PFV one big CLbottle vodka ‘He carried/drank a big bottle of vodka.’ b. yi ren fa le yi xiao guan yagao. one person give PFV one small CLtube toothpaste ‘Each is given a small tube of toothpaste.’ c. zhe yi xiao fu hua hua le ta ban-nian shijian. this one small CL painting cost PFV him half year time ‘This small painting took him half year to finish.’ (37a) means that the wine in the bottle is a large quantity for the subject; (37b) means that the tube of toothpaste is an insignificant object in the eyes of the evaluator; (37c) means that the painting is considered to be small in view of the long time he spent painting it. I use (37a) to show that pre-classifiers satisfy the characteristic properties of expressives. In (37a), yi da ping futejia ‘a big bottle of vodka’ means that the vodka in the bottle has a large value on a quantitative scale. At least two different scales are natural possibilities here. The preclassifier da can mean that the bottle of vodka contains a heavy quantity of vodka. Suppose that a three-year old kid is trying to help his dad to carry a bottle of vodka, and he is staggering his way from the kitchen. Obviously, a bottle of vodka is too heavy for him. In this situation we can use (37a) (with carry, of course, and not with drink). The classifier in (37a) can also mean the bottle of vodka contains a voluminous quantity of vodka in relation to the subject’s capacity for liquor. Suppose that Tom is not a good drinker and he can only drink one glass of vodka maximally. But on the night that he was dumped by his girlfriend, he drank a whole bottle of vodka. Also in this situation I can use (37a). In this case, yi da ping vodka implies that Tom drank too much alcohol. Pre-classifier adjectives are shiftable. We saw above that the preclassifier da ‘big’ can express the speaker’s personal evaluation of the size of the bottle of vodka from two different perspectives, weight and capacity for liquor. In both cases, the speaker shifts the context of utterance to the context of personal evaluation.

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Pre-classifier adjectives are attitudinal. In the context of the drinking example, it is the speaker’s personal opinion that one bottle of vodka is a large quantity for Tom, exceeding his maximal capacity for liquor. Tom himself may feel different about that. We saw the same in the example of the steamed bun in (30) where the speaker thinks that the quantity of the steamed bun is big for a small child, but small for an athlete. Pre-classifier adjectives are indexical. The truth of (37a) depends on the utterance context. For example, in the drinking situation, the speaker thinks that a bottle of vodka is too much for Tom in that particular situation. This does not mean that a bottle of vodka is always too much for Tom. If Tom continues to drink, he will become a drunk who can drink 3 bottles of vodka easily. In that case, if Tom drank a bottle of vodka, I would say that he drank yi xiao ping vodka ‘a small bottle vodka’. Therefore, the personal evaluation expressed by pre-classifier adjectives is indexical to a particular context/situation. I conclude that pre-classifiers da/xiao ‘big/small’ are expressives. I will not try to fit pre-classifiers into Potts’s (2007) semantics of expressives. Our aim here is modest: I want to show how pre-classifier adjectives behave differently from attributive/predicative adjectives. When the adjective precedes the classifier, the classifier in ClPs has a counting interpretation. The semantics of classifiers in the counting reading, which I argued for in Chapter 6, is illustrated in (38): (38) NCl NN = Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈(∪kN ∩ k) ∧ α(ʌ1(x)) ∧ ʌ2(x) = k The set of pairs of type d×k whose first element is an atomic individual instantiation of kind kN in context k with property α and whose second element is k. Following Kennedy (1997), I assume that gradable adjectives denote measure functions from objects to abstract representations of measurement, is sets of degrees. I take the degree adjective of da ‘big’ in its normal interpretation to be a predicate of individuals of type as in (39). normBIG is the degree that is the norm for what counts minimally as big. (39) NdaN= Ȝx. MEAS(x) > normBIG the set of individuals that measure higher than the norm.

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In English, when the adjective big modifies NPs, it shifts to its modifier interpretation at type or , depending on whether it modifies mass or count nominals (see Rothstein 2010). In the case of pre-classifier adjectives, da/xiao ‘big/small’ syntactically modify the count Classifier Phrase “Cl+N”. Semantically, I take the preclassifier interpretation to be a count predicate of type . I represent the evaluative function of the pre-classifier adjectives by restricting the norm of comparison to be dependent on the perspective of the judge in context k. judgek,BIG is the minimal degree for what counts as big according to the contextually provided judge in context k. da-Ev is da in its evaluative function: (40) NdaEvN =λx.MEAS (ʌ1(x))>judgek, BIG I show how the semantics in (40) explains the interpretation of preclassifier da-Ev in (37a). The interpretation of big or small in (40) depends on judgek,BIG, the minimal value for what counts as big according to the evaluation perspective chosen by the judge. In one perspective we understand yi da ping futejia ‘a big bottle of vodka’ as concerning weight, from the other perspective we understand it as concerning volume. If we choose to evaluate the bottle of vodka from the perspective of weight, we have to further identify the norm of evaluation. In our example, the norm of evaluation is a three-year old’s carrying ability. If we choose to evaluate the bottle of vodka from the perspective of volume, the norm of evaluation will be different, in our example it was subject’s capacity for drinking liquor. I assume that all these decisions are encoded in the parameter judgek,BIG. I give the following semantics for (37a): (37) a. ta na / he le yi da ping futejia. he carry/drink PFV one big CLbottle vodka ‘He carried/drank a big bottle of vodka.’ (41) a. NpingN = ȜkȜx.ʌ1(x)∈(BOTTLE∩k)∧CONTAIN(ʌ1(x),k)∧ʌ2(x) = k b. Nping futejiaN=NpingN (NfutejiaN) =Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈(BOTTLE∩k)∧CONTAIN(ʌ1(x),vodka)∧ʌ2(x) = k c. Nda-Ev ping futejiaN=Nda-EvN(Nping futejiaN) =Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈(BOTTLE ∩ k)∧CONTAIN(ʌ1(x),vodka)∧ʌ2(x) = k ∧MEAS(ʌ1(x)) > judgek, BIG

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5.3. Pre-classifier adjectives and plurality Most of the examples with pre-classifier adjectives I have discussed so far have only yi ‘one’ as Num. However, ClPs with pre-classifier adjectives are also possible with other numerals. According to Lu (1987), of 328 examples, 88.1% take yi ‘one’. The next most frequent quantifier is ji ‘several’ (4.6%). The numerals together form 6.4%.4 I have also shown some examples with plural ClPs, namely (24), as repeated in (42). (42) ni bie xiaokan zhe ji xiao li huangdou, zhe shi this be you not belittle these several small CLgrain soybean women hua le duoda-de xinxue cai peiyu dedao de liangzhong. we spend PFV much effort Foc cultivate gain Mod selected seed ‘Do not belittle these small grains of soybeans. They are the selected seeds that were cultivated with painstaking effort.’ According to the semantics in (40), the pre-classifier da/xiao are predicated of a set of atomic individuals, which can be modified by numbers and be pluralized. This correctly predicts that in plural Adj+Cl+N, the preclassifier adjective has a distributive reading, in which it distributes over the individual entities in the denotation of Cl+N. (42) means that each soybean is an insignificant entity in the eyes of the speaker. Accordingly, I suggest that the pluralization operator, as notated PL*, scopes over the ‘adj+Cl+N’. I gave the semantics of pluralization in Chapter 4. Here I give pluralization for a predicate P of type : *(P) is given in (43): (43) *(P) = λx.π1(x)∈*ʌ1(P)∧π2(x)=k The semantic derivation of xiao li huangdou ‘small CLgrain soybean’ is given in (44) and (45). (44) Nli huangdouN = Ȝx.ʌ1(x) ∈ (>?SOYBEAN ∩ k) ∧ ʌ2(x)=k∧GRAIN (ʌ1(x))

4

Note that in these statistics, Lu (1987) did not distinguish between individual and non-individual classifiers.

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(45) Nxiao li huangdouN= Nxiao-EvN(Nli huangdouN) =Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈(>?SOYBEAN∩k)∧ʌ2(x)=k∧GRAIN(ʌ1(x)) ∧MEAS(ʌ1(x))> judgek, SMALL Pluralization applies to this predicate and gives the set of pluralities of atomic soybeans, where each member of the plural entity is counted as ‘an insignificant entity’: (46) Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈*(>?SOYBEAN∩k)∧ʌ2(x)=k∧GRAIN(ʌ1(x))∧MEAS(ʌ1(x))> judgek, SMALL This expression can be modified by numerical adjectives in the normal way.

6. Conclusions I examined the syntactic and semantic properties of pre-classifier adjectives. I showed that pre-classifier adjectives can only appear in the counting contexts, before [+C, -M] and [+C, +M] classifiers. I saw that preclassifier adjectives are not unrestricted and can only be used in certain contexts, most prominently: the consumption, the contrastive and the significance contexts. I argued that pre-classifier adjectives modify neither classifiers nor nouns, but Cl+N. Syntactically, they are the Spec of the ClP. I proposed a semantics of pre-classifier adjectives as ‘expressives’; with interpretations sensitive to a contextual judge’s personal evaluation or attitude in a situation to the entities in the denotation of Cl+N.

Chapter 8 Modification marker de in classifier phrases

1. Introduction It is commonly agreed that the particle de is a modification marker which takes a complement phrase and that [XP [de]] has the function of modifying the noun it is a sister of. Here, the variable X can be adjectives, relative clauses, possessors etc.. (1) a. yi ge [piaoliang de] one CL beautiful Mod ‘a beautiful girl’ b. [mai huoche de] xiao sell matches Mod little ‘the little girl who sells matches’ c. [xiaowang de] shu Xiaowang Mod book ‘Xiaowang’s book(s)’

nühai girl

[Adj-de-N]

nühai girl

[RC-de-N]

[Poss-de-N]

The syntactic status of de is under debate. Zhu (1961), Paris (1979) and Li and Thompson (1981) argue that de is a nominalizer and XP-de is a nominal phrase. A. Li (1990), Sproat and Shih (1991) and Den Dikken and Singhapreecha (2004) propose that [XP [de]] is best treated as a relative clause headed by de, while Paul (2007, 2010) argues that the particle de is a non-root complementizer and XP-de is CP, where the head de can take any phrase as a complement. I will not attempt to choose between these analyses here. What is important to us is that [XP [de]] is a modifier, that is, a predicate expression. In this chapter, I study the particle de occurring after classifiers, as in the sequence of Num-Cl-de-N. The phenomenon to be examined are illustrated in (2) and (3):

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(2) a. ta he le san ping (de) jiu. he drink PFV three CLbottle DE wine ‘He drank three bottles of wine.’ b. fuwusheng kai le san ping (#de) jiu. waiter open PFV three CLbottle DE wine ‘The waiter opened three bottles of wine.’ (3) a. yanchanghui lai le shang qian ge (de) guanzhong. concert come PFV above thousand CL DE audience ‘In the concert came more than one thousand audience.’ b. zhe ge xuexiao zhi you wu ge (#de) laoshi. this CL school only have five CL DE teacher ‘In this school, there are only five teachers.’ The modification marker de can follow both non-individual and individual classifiers, such as ping ‘bottle’ in (2a) and ge in (3a). However, the use of de is not without constraint. It is not appropriate to use de in (2b) and (3b), though they have the same classifiers as those in (2a) and (3a). In this chapter, I will address the following issues concerning the syntax and semantic interpretation of de after classifiers in Chinese: (a) What is the syntactic structure of Num-Cl-de-N? Can it be said to fit in with other occurrences of de, where de occurs roughly in the structure [XP de]? I will argue that indeed even on a pseudo-partitive interpretation, san ping de has the syntactic structure [[san ping] de], and that it is a predicate expression with a modificational interpretation. (b) Does the presence of de after Num-Cl have any interpretational effect? I will argue that it requires a measure interpretation of the classifier, and the predicate phrase [[san bang] de] denotes a measure or dimensional property. (c) What kind of classifiers does de appear with? Since it requires the classifier to be interpreted as a measure expression, de naturally follows explicit measure expressions such as gongjin ‘kilo’. I show that it can also occur with a counting classifier, but only in that it can induce a measure interpretation of the classifier. In section 2, I review three proposals about the licensing condition of de after classifiers, namely, Cheng and Sybesma’s (1998) massifier proposal, Tang’s (2005) “information weight” account and Hsieh’s (2008) ‘indeterminacy’ account. Section 3 reports the findings made in Li and Rothstein (2012). In Section 4 and 5, I formulate proposals for the semantics of de after measure and counting classifiers respectively. I propose that

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the post-classifier de forces the Num and the classifier into a constituent, with a modifier meaning, expressing measurement. Section 6 concludes this chapter by explaining the two puzzles pertaining to [+Counting] classifiers with de.

2. Licensing the post-classifier de This section reviews three proposals about the occurrence of de in NumCl-de-N: the ‘massifier’ account given in Cheng and Sybesma (1998), the ‘information weight’ proposal in Tang (2005), and Hsieh’s (2008) ‘indeterminacy’ account. Before reviewing these proposals, I make a distinction between two types of readings expressed by de-marked classifier phrases in Chinese, but I only focus on one of the readings, namely, the pseudo-partitive reading in this research. Jiang (2008) makes use of Schwarzschild’s (2006) characterization of the distinction between measure phrases in pseudo-partitives and in attributive modifiers and shows that the phrase Num-Cl-de-N in Chinese has two readings: the attributive reading (4a) and a pseudo-partitive reading (4b). (4) san bang de yingtao three CLpound MOD cherry a. three-pound cherry b. three pounds of cherries

[attributive reading] [pseudo-partitive reading]

In the attributive reading, san bang de is an adnominal modifier and behaves like a classifying adjective, modifying the head noun yingtao, with the paraphrase in (4a). Jiang argues that in this reading, (4) denotes a certain type of cherry, the ‘three-pound type of cherry’1. In this reading, [XP de] has the same syntactic position and functions as the adjectival modifier [AP de], illustrated in (1), and I assume that this is prima facie evidence that here [XP de] is a predicate with a predicative interpretation.

1

It is unclear whether for Jiang, this means that each individual cherry has to weigh three pounds, or whether ‘three-pound cherry’ is a more general name of a kind of cherry. While this is an important question semantically, it is not necessary for us to solve it here, since on either reading, san bang de is an attributive modifier in the sense of Schwarzschild (2006).

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The pseudo-partitive reading, expressed in English by (4b), is associated with the normal classifier use of san bang, and in this reading, the Num-Cl-de sequence expresses information about the quantity of entities. On this reading, (4) denotes a set of pluralities of cherries whose overall quantity is three pounds. Jiang (2008) claims that the two readings of san bang de yingtao as shown in (4) have two different syntactic derivations and structures. She proposes that on the attributive reading, Num-Cl is a degree phrase, which is treated as a relative clause, and which is taken as complement by the complementizer de, as in (5a), and that the pseudo-partitive reading of Num-Cl-de-N is derived by moving the degree phrase of Num-Cl to the specifier position of a null classifier phrase, as in (5b). While not necessarily accepting the details of her analysis, I will follow it in assuming that the attributive readings and the pseudo-partitive readings have two different structures. (5) a. attributive reading NP CP SC NP ti

N’ yingtaoi ‘cherry’

C de DegreeP san bang ‘three pound’

b. pseudo-partitive reading ClP san bang

Cl’

Cl

NP CP

SC NP ti

N’ yingtao de ‘cherry’

DegreeP

san bang ‘three pound’

In this research, I will not discuss the attributive uses of Num-Cl-de. I will focus on the pesudopartitive use of Num-Cl-de, the reading that is discussed in Cheng and Sybesma (1998), Tang (2005) and Hsieh (2008).

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2.1. De with mass classifiers (Cheng and Sybesma 1998) Cheng and Sybesma (1998) make two independent claims about postclassifier de. First, they claim that the post-classifier de only follows what they call ‘mass’ classifiers like ping ‘bottle’ and xiang ‘box’ in (6), but not ‘count’ classifiers like the general classifier ge and the classifier for animals tou ‘head’ in (7). (6) a. san bang (de) rou three CLpound DE meat ‘three pounds of meat’ b. liang xiang (de) shu two CLbox DE book ‘three boxes of books’ (7) a. jintian lai le san ge (*de) laoshi. today come PFV three CL DE teacher ‘Today three teachers came.’ b. women you ba tou (*de) niu. we have eight CLhead DE cow. ‘We have eight heads of cows.’ However, as shown in Chapter 3, as well as in Tang (2005) and Hsieh (2008), there are counterexamples to the claim that de only follows mass classifiers. For example, in (8), classifiers like ke and li are typical individual classifiers in Chinese, but they allow a post-classifier de: (8) a. yi nian yue zhongzhi-le yi-bai-sishi-duo-wan one year about plant-PFV one-hundred-forty-more-million ke de shumu. CL DE tree ‘(They) planted more than 1,400,000 trees a year.’ b. yi ge yi sui de yin’er mei-ci zhi neng one CL one year Mod baby every time only can chi 1/3 li de ganmao-yao. eat 1/3 CL DE cold pill ‘A one year old baby can only take 1/3 of a cold pill every time.’ The second claim made by Cheng and Sybesma (1998) about de concerns its semantics. They argue that the post-classifier de introduces a

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measure reading for mass classifier phrases. According to them, de-less mass ClPs have by default an individuating reading, and de-marked ClPs have a measure reading. The examples in (9) and (10) are taken from their paper. According to Cheng and Sybesma (1998), Num-Cl-N san wan tang ‘three bowls soup’in (9a) has a counting reading. It means that there are three individual bowls, each of which is filled with soup and stands on the table. (9b), with Num-Cl-de-N, i.e. san wan de tang ‘three bowls de soup’ has a measure reading. It means that the soup is spilled all over the table and there are no bowls. (9) a. zhuo-shang you san wan tang. table on there-be three CLbowl soup ‘There are three bowls of soup on the table.’ b. zhuo-shang you san wan de tang. table on there-be three CLbowl DE soup ‘There is enough soup on the table to fill in three bowls.’  As for the contrast in (10), they said that (10a), without de, is infelicitous, since bei ‘glass’ without de, induces the default reading that the wine is consumed from an actual glass. In (10) bei ‘glass’ is followed by de, and (10b) merely expresses that the quantity of the wine consumed was three glass-units. (10) a.# ta yong xiao-wan he le san bei jiu. he use small-bowl drink PFV three CLglass liquor b. ta yong xiao-wan he le san bei de jiu. he use small-bowl drink PFV three CLglass DE liquor ‘He used a small bowl to drink three glasses of liquor.’ I agree with Cheng and Sybesma that Num-Cl-de-N in (9b) and (10b) has a measure reading. However, I showed with ample evidence in Chapter 6 that Num-Cl-N, as those in (9a) and (10a), are ambiguous between counting and measure readings.2 The relevant examples are reproduced in (11). 2

I argued in chapter 6, that [+C, +M] classifiers are equally open for counting and measure interpretations, that [+C, -M] classifiers have by default a counting reading, and measure readings by coercion only, that [-C, +M] classifiers have by default a measure reading, and a counting reading by coercion, while [-C, -M] classifiers, i.e. kind classifiers, can neither count nor measure individuals.

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(11) a. wo ling le liang ping jiu, I carry PFV two CLbottle wine zuo shou yi ping, you shou yi ping. left hand one CLbottle right hand one CLbottle ‘I carried two bottles of wine, one in the left hand and the other in the right hand.’ b. wo zonggong he le you yi ping putaojiu, I altogether drink PFV have one CLbottle wine ban ping bai-de ban ping hong-de half CLbottle white half CLbottle red ‘I drank a bottle of wine in total, half bottle of a white wine and half bottle of a red wine.’ (11a) shows the counting reading of the classifier phrase liang ping jiu ‘two bottles wine’. And (11b) shows the measure reading in which the classifier ping ‘bottle’ measures the quantity of wine as one bottleful, say, 750 ml. According to the native speakers we consulted, (9a) and (10a) can have a measure interpretation. (10a) is not regarded as very bad, and, they claim, it is completely acceptable, if you know the volume of the bowl from the context. It seems, then, that whether the classifier phrase can get a measure reading, depends on whether the classifier is typically used as a standard measure unit for the kind of entities in the noun denotation, and whether enough information can be inferred from the context about the capacity of the container. Glass is a frequently used container for liquor, but it is not a standard or original measure unit for liquor, since we can think of glasses with different sizes. Therefore, when we use ‘a glass of liquor’ without any further contextual information, it is difficult to get a measure reading (cf. (10a)). But if we use the classifier ping ‘bottle’ (instead of bei ‘glass’) to modify the noun liquor, then we get a measure reading easily, as in (12a): (12) a. ta yong xiao wan he le san ping hongjiu. he use small bowl drink PFV three CLbottle red wine ‘He drank three bottles of red wine with a small bowl.’ This is because the classifier bottle is a prototypical package/container for liquor, like barrel for oil, cup for coffee, and volume for book. A conventional combination of classifier and noun facilitates measure readings. For example, the conventional combination of bottle and wine makes the

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quantity of 750 ml salient, because wine bottles conventionally take 750 ml. Accordingly, (12a) has a measure reading, and means that he used a small bowl to drink 3*750 ml of wine. Similarly, it is conventional to put bubble tea (a kind of popular beverage in China) in a plastic cup of 700 cc. Because of this, (12b) can have a measure reading, asserting that he uses a small bowl to drink 3*700 cc of bubble tea. b. ta yong xiao wan he le san bei nai-cha he use small bowl drink PFV three CLcup milk-tea ‘He drank three cups of bubble tea with a small bowl.’ Therefore, while de forces a measure interpretation, the absence of de does not force a counting interpretation.

2.2. “Information weight” (Tang 2005) In chapter 3, we discussed Tang’s (2005) criticism of Cheng and Sybesma (1998). We repeat some of her arguments here. Contra Cheng and Sybesma, Tang (2005) develops ideas set out first in Tang (1990) and argues that it is possible for de to follow both individual (13) and non-individual classifiers (14). (13) a. liang ben de shu [individual classifier] two CLvolume DE book ‘books that are sorted in accordance with two in number’ b. wu ge de pingguo five CL DE apple ‘apples that are sorted in accordance with five in number’ (14) a. liang mi de bu [non-individual classifier] two meter DE cloth ‘cloth that is sorted in accordance with two meters’ b. liang bang de rou two pound DE meat ‘meat that is sorted in accordance with two pounds’ However, the examples in (13) and (14) do not embody the same phenomenon as what Cheng and Sybesma (1998) discuss. According to the

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translation of (13) and (14) provided by Tang (2005), Num-Cl-de seems to behave like a classifying adjective, which expresses properties that are able to establish subtypes of entities. These classifier phrases seem to be of the kind which Jiang (2008) calls ‘attributive’. However, Cheng and Sybesma’s examples of Num-Cl-de-N concern the measure readings, which are similar to what Jiang calls ‘pseudo-partitives’. It is important to see that these pseudo-partitive and attributive uses of classifier phrases really are syntactically different and occur in syntactically different positions, as argued by Jiang (2008). Num-Cl-de-N in the attributive reading is generated within the NP (as shown in (5a)), while NumCl-de-N in the pseudo-partitive reading is generated outside the NP. This correctly predicts that a classifier can appear both in the attributive and the classifier head positions in the same NP, as illustrated in (15). (15) wo mai le yi xiang de liang ce (zhuang) de shu. I buy PFV one CLbox DE two CLvolume pack DE book ‘I bought a box of two-volume books.’ Impossible: ‘I bought a box with two books in it.’ In the possible reading here, we have no idea how many volumes are in the box, since it is a box of books-which-come-in-two-volumes (e.g. a box of dictionaries each consisting of two volumes, one English-Mandarin, and the other Mandarin-English). The impossible reading is the reading in which the pseudo-partitives are stacked: it is impossible to use (15) to assert that I bought a box containing two books. While Tang (2005) mainly discusses the attributive type of Num-Cl-deN, she also gives a couple of examples, in which Num-individual Cl-de-N do not have an attributive meaning, but a measure reading: (16) a. mingtian de huodong xuyao yi bai zhang de fangzuozi. tomorrow Mod activity need one hundred CL DE square talbe ‘Tomorrow’s activity needs one hundred square tables.’ b. yi nian yue zhongzhi le yi-bai-sishi-duo-wan one year about plant PFV one hundred forty more million ke de shumu. CL DE tree ‘(They) planted more than 1.4 million trees a year.’ In (16a), yi bai zhang-de ‘one hundred-Cl-de’ expresses that the number of individual tables is one hundred, and in (16b), yi-bai-sishi-duo-wan-zhi-

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de expresses that the number of individual trees is 1.4 million. The interpretations of these examples in (16) are similar to the cases discussed in Cheng and Sybesma (1998). But the classifiers in (16), such as zhang and ke, are uncontroversially individual classifiers, and the corresponding classifier phrases in (16) are uncontroversially pseudopartive. Thus, the examples in (16) are true counterexamples against Cheng and Sybesma (1998). Unfortunately, Tang (2005) does not distinguish the examples in (16) from the attributive ones in (14) and (15). She treats all of them as complex NPs with Num-Cl-de as modifiers. Tang suggests that the felicity of the examples in (16) is related to the information weight of the modifiermodifiee relation: weighty modifiers facilitate the measure interpretation. Num-Cl phrases like yi bai zhang ‘one hundred picees’ and yi-bai-sishiduo wanb ke ‘one million and forty hundred thousand Cl’ are complex and heavy modifiers, and they can have the particle de after the individual classifier. In contrast, wu ke ‘five Cl’ is, according to Tang, a simple modifier, and wu ke de shu ‘five Cl de trees’ is ungrammatical. Tang’s “information weight” account works for the examples in (16), but does not extend to the example in (17). In (17), the numeral yi bai lin yi ‘one hundred and one’ is a complex number, but it does not allow the modification marker de. (17) * mingtian de huodong xuyao yi-bai-lin-yi zhang de fang-zuozi. tomorrow Mod activity need 101 CL DE square table ‘Tomorrow’s activity needs one hundred and one square tables.’

2.3. The ‘indeterminacy’ account (Hsieh 2008) Hsieh (2008) takes the discussion much further. She gives more examples where de follows individual classifiers to get a pseudo-partitive reading. The examples provided by Hsieh in (18) and (19) are taken from the Academia Sinica Corpus. (18) a. jin yi-bai wei de qianjiu renyuan close one-hundred CL DE rescue worker ‘close to one hundred rescue workers’ b. hao ji bai tiao de haishe quite several hundred CL DE sea snake ‘quite several hundreds of sea snakes’

(A.S. Corpus)

(A.S. Corpus)

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(19) a. pai-le wu-qian zhang de yizi… (A.S. Corpus) put:in:order-Perf five-thousand CL DE chair ‘put 5 thousand chairs in order…’ b. wu-bai-wan zhi de yazi (A. S. Corpus) five-hundred-ten:thousand CL DE duck ‘5 million ducks’ c. tongshi you peiyang le 23 wei de zhongzi jiangshi … meanwhile again cultivate PFV 23 CL DE seed lecturer ‘at the same time 23 ‘seed’ lecturers were educated…’ (A.S. Corpus) According to Hsieh (2008), the examples in (18) and (19) are characterized with two different contexts. She proposes that in (18), the de-marked individual ClP expresses a non-fixed or indeterminate quantity, as marked overtly by approximators. In (18a) the NumP is modified by an approximation modifier jin ‘close to’, and in (18b), the Num is ji ‘several’, which expresses an unfixed or indeterminate quantity. The context in (18) is called an indeterminacy context. In contrast, the examples in (19) do not need an approximation modifier and the numeral can be precise. (Note that (19c) is not acceptable for me and for other native speakers I consulted with.) Hsieh calls the context in (19) an emphasis/contrastive context. By ‘emphasis’/‘contrastive’, Hsieh means that the de-marked ClP emphasizes large quantities as in ‘as many as Num N’. This account is in some respects similar to Tang’s (2005) account of information weight. Li (2007) observes independently that individual classifiers can be followed optionally by de in some cases, as shown in (20). He argues that de requires a context of quantification of “aboutness” or “approximation”, not a context of “exactness”. This is similar to Hsieh’s examples in (18). (20) a. ta peng-zhe shi duo ben de shu he carry-DUR ten more CL DE book ‘I was carrying more than 10 books.’ b. ta yilian xie le liang-bai duo feng de xin she continuously write PFV two-hundred more CL DE letter. ‘She wrote more than 200 letters continuously.’ Hsieh, following Lyons (1976) and Tang (2005), assumes that there are two lexically different types of classifiers in Chinese, ‘mensural’ and ‘sortal’ classifiers. Hence, according to Hsieh, the post-classifier de can be used in the following three contexts:

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(i) After a ‘mensural’ classifier (ii) After a sortal classifier, when the quantity is non-fixed (iii) After a sortal classifier, when there is emphasis or contrast. Hsieh (2008) proposes a unified syntactic account for these three contexts. She argues that Num-Cl in Num-Cl-N is a single constituent, which heads #P or NumP (Number Phrase). The NumP enters into a Spec-Head relation with the head noun. She also assumes that Numerals such as yi ‘one’ or ji ‘several’ are merged in NumeralP and that demonstratives such as zhe ‘this’ or na ‘that’ are merged in DemP. This is illustrated in (21). (21)

#P DemP

#’ NumeralP

#’

Num ge/ping

#

According to Hsieh (2008), the structure in (21) is a unified structure for individual and non-individual classifiers. In other words, ‘the NumP can be occupied either by classifiers or massifier’. In either case, the classifier combines first with the number to form a complex classifier and then Num+Cl modifies the noun. However, as we showed in Chapter 6, there is good reason to assme that this is not the case. In this, her proposal also differs from proposals that assume that mass and count classifier phrases have distinctive structures, i.e. Cheng and Sybesma (1998), and proposals based on that, like Borer (2004) and Watanabe (2006). Hsieh (2008) also proposes the feature taxonomy for the Num head in (18) in terms of the two features: [±PL], which is the singular/plural feature, and [±Ind] which is the indeterminite/determinite feature, which she assumes is a sub-feature of [+PL]. (22)

Num [-PL]

[+PL] [-Ind]

[+Ind]

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Modification marker de in classifier phrases

She proposes that de requires the feature of [+Ind], i.e. de is necessary to identify the [+Ind] feature under the node of [+PL]. This implies that in Hsieh’s analysis, the particle de is part of NumP and the presence or absence of the particle de after the classifier does not correspond to a difference in syntactic structure of the nominal phrase. There is a serious problem with this analysis. I agree that when de follows an individual classifier, the examples are better with approximators like jin ‘nearly’ or duo ‘more’. However, such modifiers are not needed when de follows a non-individual classifier. In that case exact quantities are unproblematic, as in three bottles de wine. If de requires [+Ind], these cases are a mystery. In addition, as we will show in section 3, when the Num is a fraction, it is also possible to use de after individual classifiers. Fractions are generally perceived as pretty exact, so they seem to invalidate Hsieh’s [+Ind] proposal again. We will deal with this issue below. To sum up, both individual and non-indiviudal classifiers can be followed by de in appropriately construed contexts, but not in all cases. It is impossible to associate the use of de after a classifier with a certain lexical class of classifiers.

3. Unsolved problems (Li and Rothstein 2012) Li and Rothstein (2012) make three new observations concerning the optionality of de after classifiers. None of the approaches we reviewed in section 2 is able to account for the constraints observed by Li and Rothstein. The three observations will be introduced respectively. First, the classifier ping ‘bottle’ is a mass classifier or a non-individual classifier, but it cannot be followed by de in all cases. As we showed in chapter 6, only in the measure context can de follow the classifier ping ‘bottle’, but not in the counting context, as contrasted between (23a) and (23b) (also see Li and Rothstein 2012). (23) a. wo kai le san ping (#de) jiu. [Counting] I open PFV three CLbottle DE wine ‘I opened three bottles of wine.’ b. wo-de wei neng zhuangxia san ping (de) jiu. [Measure] my stomach can hold three CLbottle de wine ‘My stomach can hold three bottles of wine.’

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(23a) is a counting or individuating context, in which the classifier phrase denotes three individual bottles of wine, each of which the waiter opened. In this context, de is impossible. In (23b) we have a measure context in which we indicated how much wine was drunk, and here de is allowed but not obligatory. An account which says that ping is lexically a mensural classifier or massifier, and that this lexical property is what licenses post-classifier de, cannot explain the contrast. Secondly, de can follow individual classifiers when the Num is a (contextually) high round number. Against Cheng and Sybesma’s (1998)’s claim about (7) (repeated here as (24)) that the ungrammaticality of the examples with de is not due to the classifiers, but to the Num. The Nums in these examples (wu ‘five’ and san ‘three’) are low numbers. If we change the number to a high round number, like wubai ‘five hundred’ or qian ‘thousand’, these sentences are grammatical with de, as in (25). (24) a. jintian lai le san ge (*de) laoshi. today come PFV three CL DE teacher ‘Today three teachers came.’ b. women you ba tou (*de) niu. we have eight CLhead DE cow. ‘We have eight heads of cows.’ (25) a. women qing le jin qian wei de laoshi. we invite PFV near thousand CL DE teacher ‘We invited nearly one thousand teachers.’ b. women you babai tou de niu. we have 800 CL DE cow ‘We have 800 cows.’ The real generalization seems to be that individual classifiers can be followed by the particle de if the Num is a (contextually) high round number or a fraction. Some more examples are given in (26). (26) a. sanshi duo ge de pingpangqiu-tai daduo dou 30 more CL DE pingpang table most all you ren zai da. have people PROG play ‘Most of thirty-some ping pong tables are being used by people.’ (from PKU corpus)

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b. nabian bian zhong le qi ba ke, there then plant PFV seven eight CL shi lai ke (de) juzi shu. ten around CL DE mandarin tree ‘On that side were planted seven or eight, or around ten mandarin trees.’ (from PKU corpus: prose by Yu Pingbo) Thirdly, de can also follow individual classifiers when the Num is a fraction. The examples in (27) show the other case where the Num slot is filled in by a fraction like ½, ¼, ¾. (27) a. san-fen-zhi-yi li de ganmao-yao one-third CL DE cold-pill ‘one third of a cold pill’ b. na zhi gou zhan le ban zhang de shafa. that CL dog occupy PFV half CL DE sofa ‘That dog occupied half of the sofa.’ The discussion so far shows that it is not possible to give a list of classifiers after which de is allowed. The examples in (23) above indicate that de is licensed after ping ‘bottle’ in a measure interpretation, but not in a counting interpretation, indicating that it is not the lexical classifier itself which licenses or does not license de, but the use to which the classifier is being put. De is also allowed after a count classifier with an approximative marker or with a high round number. Since, as we shall show, it is plausible to analyze these classifier constructions as occurring in measure contexts, we will argue that it is generally the measure context which allows de to follow the classifier.

4. Semantics of Num- measure Cl-de-N: as much as … 4.1. Measure classifiers and the particle de Cheng and Sybesma (1998) and Hsieh (2008) argue that ‘mass’ or mensural classifiers like xiang ‘box’, ping ‘bottle’ can be followed by the particle de. I propose here that the modification marker de always induces a measure reading in the classifier phrase. The following facts naturally follow.

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First, [-C, +M] classifiers like gongli ‘kilometer’, mi, ‘meter’ etc can have an optional de: (28) a. wo zou le san gongli (de) lu. I walk PFV three kilometer DE road ‘I walked three kilometers of road’ b. ta mai le liang bang (de) rou. she buy PFV two pound DE meat ‘She bought two pounds of meat.’ Measure words like gongli ‘kilometer’ and bang ‘pound’ do not have corresponding naturalistic objects like containers; they denote measure units only. For example, san gongli lu ‘three kilometers road’ does not refer to a particular section of road; it just means that the length of road is three kilometers. The insertion of de after the measure word does not result in a drastic reinterpretation of the phrase: san gongli de lu ‘three kilometers de road’ in (28a) has the emphasized meaning that the distance that I walked is as much as three kilometers. Secondly, [+C, +M] classifiers (with low precise numbers) can be followed by de when they denote measure units but not when they denote counting units, as in (29): (29) a. wo kai le san ping (de) jiu. [Counting] I open PFV three CLbottle DE wine ‘I opened three bottles of wine.’ b. wo-de wei neng zhuangxia san ping de jiu. [Measure] my stomach can hold three CLbottle DE wine ‘My stomach can hold three bottles of wine.’ In (29a), san ping jiu ‘three bottle wine’ has a counting reading; there are three individual bottles, which are opened one by one. In this case, it is possible to insert de after ping. In (29b), san ping jiu ‘three bottle wine’ has the measure reading: it is the amount of wine that my stomach can hold that is as much as three bottles. Ping cannot be followed by de here. Note that the insertion of the particle de after the classifier in (29b) does not affect the truth value of the sentence: (29b) means the same as (29a). As in (29b) de has an emphatic meaning: it emphasizes the quantity of three bottles: ‘as much as three bottles’.

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4.2. Semantics of Num-Clmeasure-de-N I argued in chapter 6 that for the measure reading, Num-Cl-N has the structure [Num-Cl [N]], in which Num and Cl form a complex modifier to modify the noun. Num-Cl expresses the quantity of entities in the denotaiton of N to be n units. Along this line, it is quite reasonable that de occurs optionally after Num-Cl on the measure reading, as in the sequence [[[Num-Cl] de] N], if we assume that the particle de is a modification marker, which either explicitly marks or makes [[XP] de ] as predicate modifiers. In what follows, I will provide a semantic account to explain why de can naturally follow [+Measure] classifiers. We assume that the basic meaning of a MEAS head is a measure function ȜnȜx. MEAS(x) = of type . A MEAS head combines with a number to give a predicate of type . We assume that [-C, +M] classifiers like gongjin ‘kilo’ and [+C, +M] classifiers like ping ‘bottle’ have interpretations as measure heads. In (30) we give their interpretations and combination with numerals. (30) a.N gongjinN =ȜnȜx.MEAS (x)= b. NpingN =ȜnȜx.MEAS (x) = c. N liang gongjinN = Ȝx.MEAS (x) = d. Nsan pingN = Ȝx.MEAS (x) = These Num-Cl measure predicates can be used in prototypical predicate positions, like after the verb zhong ‘weigh’ or you ‘have/reach’, as in (31): (31) a. zhexie pingguo zhong liang gongjin. those apple weigh two kilos ‘These apples weigh two kilos.’ b. ta he de jiu you san ping. he drink Mod wine have three CLbottles ‘The wine he drank reaches three bottles.’ This measure head, Num-Cl, shifts its basic measure reading when it is used in a classifier position, i.e. in Num-Cl-N. The reason for this is that classifiers map kinds onto sets of entities or quantities. Hence, in classifier position, the head gongjini and ping are of type . Namely, they apply to a number to give a complex classifier, which applies to a kind and gives a set of instantiations of the kind with the appropriate measure properties. This interpretation is given in (32b). Liang gongjin ‘two kilo’ is

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of type and its interpretation is given in (32c). The interpretation of (32a) is in (32d). (32) a. liang gongjin pingguo two kilo apple ‘two kilos of apples’ b. NgongjinN =ȜnȜkȜx.x∈∪k∧MEAS(x)= c. Ngongjin N(NliangnN) = Ȝk Ȝx.x∈∪k∧MEAS(x)= d. Nliang gongjinN(NpingguokN)= Ȝx.x∈>?APPLE∧MEAS(x)= I propose that [+C, +M] classifier phrases in their measure reading undergo the same process. We shift the measure interpretation of the [+C, +M] classifier to the right type as in (33b): (33) a. ta he le san ping jiu. he drink PFV three CLbottle wine ‘He drank three bottles of wine.’ b. Derivation I: san ping shui ‘three bottles of water’ Nping N = ȜnȜx. MEAS(x) = N pingcl N=ȜnȜkȜx. >k(x) ∧ MEAS(x) = Nsan pingN =ȜkȜx. x∈>k ∧ MEAS(x) = Nsan ping shuiN=Ȝx.x ∈>?WATER ∧ MEAS(x) = Now we come to the measure examples with de. When a basic measure reading is available, the particle de can be unproblematically inserted after the measure head, as in (34a) with gongjin ‘kilo’, and in (34b) with the non-individual classifier ping when it has its measure reading. (34) a. tamen chi le liang gongjin de pingguo. they eat PFV two CLkilo DE apple ‘They ate as much as two kilos of apples.’ b. ta he le san ping de jiu. he drink PFV three CLbottle DE wine ‘He drank as much as three bottles of wine.’ Semantically de applies to a predicate of type and turns it into a modifier of type . The particle de takes the meaning of liang gongjin ‘two kilos’, given (30c) as input, and turns it into a modifier of the

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head noun. Since the head noun denotes a kind, we shift it to the instantiations of the kind: (35) Derivation II: liang gongjin de pingguo ‘two kilos of apples’ Nliang gongjinN =Ȝx.MEAS(x) = < 2, KILO> Nliang gongjin deN=ȜPȜx.P(x)∧MEAS(x) = Nliang gongjin de pingguoN= Ȝx. SHIFT(?APPLE)(x)∧MEAS(x)= = Ȝx.>?APPLE(x) ∧ MEAS(x) = In san ping de shui, san ping is of type which is the wrong type for de to apply to. However, if ping is interpreted as a measure head of type and not as a classifier, it can apply to Num to give an expression of type , which de can take as a complement, as given in derivation III. (36) Derivation III: san ping de shui ‘three bottles of water’ NpingN= ȜnȜx.MEAS(x)= Nsan pingN=Ȝx.MEAS(x)= Nsan ping deN=ȜPȜx. P(x) ∧ MEAS(x) = Nsan ping de shuiN =Ȝx.SHIFT(?WATER)(x)∧MEAS(x)= = Ȝx.>?WATER(x) ∧ MEAS(x) = In other words, I derive the same meaning as in Derivation I and II, but from a different structure. These two derivation processes reflect the fact that Num-Cl-N and Num-Cl-de-N express the same meaning: the quantity of the denotation of N amounts to the value expressed by Num-Cl. The latter with de present focuses on the predicate phrase san ping and adds the pragmatic emphasis interpretation that the quantity of N is as much as the value of Num-Cl.

5. Num-count Cl-de-N: as many as … I am now concerned with constructions where de follows counting classifiers, [+C, -M] classifiers and [+C, +M] classifiers on the counting reading.

Num-count Cl-de-N: as many as …

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5.1. Counting classifiers in measure phrases I will argue here that when the classifier denotes a counting unit, it can be incorporated into a measure phrase forced by the particle de. However, in this measure reading, Num-Cl-de-N expresses the meaning of as many as… not as much as… This process affects [+C, -M] Cls and [+C, +M] on their counting interpretation. I first look at [+C, -M] classifiers followed by de. See the examples of (37), both of which are taken from the Peking University Corpus. (37) a. nabian bian zhong le qi ba ke, there then plant PFV seven eight CL shi lai ke de juzi shu. ten around CL DE mandarin tree ‘On that side were planted seven or eight, or around ten mandarin trees.’ (from PKU corpus: prose by Yu Pingbo) b. ge shengshi yue you shisi yu ge de wenyi tuanyi. each province-city about have forty more CL DE art troupes ‘Each province or municipality has about more than forty art troupes.’ (from PKU Corpus) Take (37a) for example. (37a) means that the number of mandarin trees planted is around ten. The presence of de emphasizes the value expressed by Num-Cl and stresses that the overall quantity of mandarin trees planted is estimated to be as many as ten. It is important to point out that the individual classifier ke denotes in (37a) a counting unit and not a measure unit. (37a) provides a tree-planting context, where individual trees are planted one after another, so the individual classifier ke can only refer to individual trees. However, in the example in question, the counting unit is not used in a counting context to count the numbers of trees one by one; the context is a measure context in which the total number of trees, the overall quantity, is ‘measured’. We relate the quantity of trees to a numerical value via a measurement mechanism like estimation. (37a) means that the overall number of trees planted is estimated to be equal to ten individuals. In this measure reading, the Num of the classifier phrase must be a (contextually) high round number. Compare the examples in (38) with (37).

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Modification marker de in classifier phrases

(38) a. tamen yi nian zhong le wu ke (*de) shu. they one year plant PFV five CL DE tree ‘They planted as many as five trees within one year.’ b. tamen yi nian zhong le wu-bai-lin-yi ke (*de) shu. they one year plant PFV five-hundred-and-one CL DE tree ‘They planted as many as five hundred and one of trees within a year.’ c. tamen yi nian zhong le wu-bai ke (de) shu. they one year plant PFV five hundred Cl DE tree ‘They planted (as many as) five hundred of trees within one year.’ When the Num is a precise number like wu ‘five’ in (38a) or wubai-linyi ‘five hundred and one’ in (38b), de is unacceptable. If the number is a high round number like wubai ‘five hundred’ in (38c), de can follow classifier ke. We propose that what goes on is similar to what we saw in the previous example: we use a high round number as a method of estimation or approximation. That is, we can use the high round numbers to let the ClP express a measure phrase expressing an estimated measure value. (For a general discussion of using high round numbers to express estimation, see Kadmon 1987). Next I show that [+C, +M] Cls can also be followed by de when denoting counting units. Also in this case, they express the measure meaning of as many as… I take the container classifier ping ‘bottle’ as an example. Look at (39): (39) a. na-ge fuwusheng kai le liu-bai ping de hong jiu. that-CL waiter open PFV six-hundred CLbottle DE red wine ‘That waiter opened as many as six hundred bottles of red wine.’ b.#na-ge fuwusheng kai le liu ping de hong jiu. that-CL waiter open PFV six CLbottle DE red wine Intended: ‘That waiter opened as many as six bottles of red wine.’ c.# na-ge fuwusheng kai le liu-bai-lin-yi ping de hong jiu. that-CL waiter open PFV 601 CLbottle DE red wine Intended: ‘That waiter opened as many as 601 bottles of red wine.’ When classifier ping denotes a counting unit, it refers to a concrete bottle as in (39a). (39a) means that the number of actual bottles the waiter opened is estimated to be approximately 600 bottles, it doesn’t mean that what he opened was as much as 600 bottles. In this case, although the classifier ping denotes a counting unit, it has been incorporated into a measure

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phrase, which measures the overall number of individual entities, as many as 600 bottles. The interpretation of ‘as many as …’ for [+C, +M] classifiers is subject to the same constraint as that for [+C, -M] classifiers: the measure reading of as many as…is available only when the Num of [+C, +M] classifier phrase is a (contextually) high round number as in (39a), but not in the cases of (39b) and (39c). Predictably, the measure interpretation of ‘as many as …’ is impossible for true measure words, [-C, +M] classifiers like gongjin, ‘kilo’ and gongli ‘kilometer’. This is because they are true measure words and denote intrinsic measure units; they do not correspond to actual naturalistic objects like bottle or cup. 500 gongjin (de) dami ‘500 kilos rice’ does not imply that there are five hundred individual kilo units of rice.

5.2. Semantics of Num-Clcount-de-N I start by specifying our syntactic assumptions about the construction. In section 4, I argued that, when the classifier denotes a measure unit, de takes “Num+Cl” as complement to form a modifier of the head noun. Since in the measure reading Num-Cl-N has the structure [[Num+Cl]N], the semantic interpretation is direct. However, when the classifier has a counting interpretation, the Cl and the N form a constituent which is modified by the Num. I propose that the presence of de after the classifier forces syntactic re-analysis of the counting structure into the measure structure. In other words, I assume that no matter whether the classifier denotes a counting unit or a measure unit, the presence of de after classifier always force Num and Cl to be a constituent. (40) shows that some modifiers like zhengzheng appear in front of the whole nominal phrase, and do not modify the whole phrase or the noun but Num+Cl. (40) a. ta zhong le zhengzheng wubai ke de shu. he plant PFV as-a-whole 500 CL DE tree ‘He planted 500 hundred trees in total.’ b.* ta zhong le wubai zhengzheng ke de shu. he plant PFV 500 as-a-whole CL DE tree c.* ta zhong le wubai ke de zhengzheng shu. he plant PFV 500 CL DE as-a-whole tree

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Modification marker de in classifier phrases

I now turn to the semantics of Num-Cl-COUNT-de-N. In chapter 6, I argued, following Rothstein (2010) that the basic interpretation of counting classifiers like ke is as function mapping kinds to sets of individuals that are atomic relative to counting context k, a function of type . We illustrate this in Derivation V: (41) Derivation V: wubai ke shu ‘five hundred trees’ NkeN =ȜkȜx. ʌ1(x)∈ (>k ∩ k) ∧ α(x) ∧ ʌ2(x)=k Nke shuN=Ȝx. ʌ1(x)∈(>?TREE∩k)∧UNITtree(x)∧ʌ2(x)=k Nwubai ke shuN =Ȝx. ʌ1(x)∈*(>? TREE ∩k)∧*UNIT-tree(x)∧ʌ2(x) =k∧|ʌ1(x)|k = 500 (pluralizing in the context of applying ke shu to wubai) When de follows the counting classifier, de forces Num and individual Cl to form a single constituent of type , which can then shift to the modifier type. Even though a measure reading is imposed, the counting meaning of the classifier is not discarded. I propose the following: de looks for a predicate meaning of type . The classifier shifts to a measure function of type . The meaning it shifts to is that of an estimation function, EST, which estimates the overall number of a plurality. I suggest that Num-ClCOUNT-de-N expresses the estimated value of a plurality, measured in terms of a ‘quantity of counting-units’. (42) a. Basic counting meaning of the classifier: ȜkȜx. ʌ1(x) ∈ (∪k ∩k) ∧ α(x) ∧ ʌ2(x)=k b. Shifted measure meaning of the counting classifier: ȜnȜx. x ∈ *k ∧ EST(x) = The function that maps number n onto the set of members of the pluralization of the context set k whose estimated value is n. c. This applies to the round number 500: Ȝx. x ∈ *k ∧ EST(x) = The set of pluralities in *k, whose cardinality is estimated to be approximately equal to 500 natural units. In (42c) ke denotes atomic plant units and the Num-Cl shifts to the set of pluralities of atomic plant-type entities whose estimated value is 500.

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Thus, estimation is a contextual operation introduced as a ‘counting measure’, and the numbers are round, because that is what they are in estimation. This measure phrase can be used as a predicate in copula position as in (43): (43) ta zhong de shu you wubai ke. he plant Mod tree have 500 CL ‘The trees he planted reached 500.’ When the measure head is used in a classifier position, as in (43), its interpretation is given in Derivation IV: (44) a. ta zhong le wubai ke de shu. he plant PFV 500 CL DE tree ‘He planted five hundred trees.’ b. Derivation VI: wubai ke de shu ‘five hundred trees’ Step 1: N500 keN= Ȝx.x∈*k∧EST(x) = Step 2: N500 ke deN= λPȜx.*P(x)∧x∈*k ∧EST(x) = Step 3: N500 ke de shuN =Ȝx. *>?TREE(x) ∧ x ∈ *k ∧ EST(x) = The set of pluralities that are sums of instantiations of the kind tree, whose estimated cardinality is around 500. The present semantics accounts for the constraint that in the readings discussed here the Num must denote a large round number. As Krifka (2002, 2009) argues, “round numbers in measuring contexts tend to have round interpretations”. Furthermore, according to Krifka (2002:446-447) “short expressions have a preference for vague interpretations, (…) long expressions have a preference for precise interpretations”. Given this, estimation will favor round numbers in short expressions. Moreover, it will favor high numbers, because, arguably, one normally doesn’t need to estimate a small number, one just checks. We saw that Hsieh proposed that de was sensitive to a feature of ‘indeterminateness’. I propose that the inderminateness is a by-product of the semantic reinterpretation of the counting classifier as an estimation measure.

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Modification marker de in classifier phrases

6. Conclusions: two puzzles about [+counting] classifiers So far, I have made use of the distinction between counting and measure operations to account for the licensing of de after classifiers. I argued that the use of de after a classifier cannot be correlated with a certain lexical type of classifier, but rather it depends on whether the classifier denotes a measure operation or a counting operation. I have made two claims concerning the licensing of de: (i) classifiers that can be interpreted with a measure reading can be followed by de, in which case the measure reading is obligatory; (ii) classifiers which are normally associated only with a counting interpretation can be followed by de if the numeral is a (contextually) high round number or the numeral is modified by approximative modifier. This is because approximation is a kind of measure operation, and in these constructions the counting classifier is reanalyzed as a measure expression, and Num-Cl-de-N always has the syntactic structure [[[Num-Cl]de] N]. I propose that de denotes a function from predicates to predicate modifiers (is of the type ). It combines with a predicate expression of type , and yields an expression which modifies another predicate. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to give a semantic analysis of other uses of de as a modification marker, my analysis suggests that a unified account of de modification is possible, one that incorporates both Num-Cl-de sequences as well as AP-de, de- marked relative clauses and so on. There are still two puzzles remaining. The first puzzle is that classifiers with a default counting interpretation can be coerced into a measure reading with low cardinals in recipe type contexts, but, nonetheless, de cannot follow the classifier in these contexts. The examples are given in (45). (45) zuo zhe ge pingguo-pai wo zongguo yong le make this CL apple-pie I altogether use PFV you yi/san ge (*de) ping. have one/ three CL DE apple ‘To make this apple pie, I used one/three apple(s) altogether.’ I assume that in this context, there is a pragmatic shift from the standard meaning of yi ge pingguo to a reading roughly paraphrasable as “to make this apple pie, I used one apple’s-worth of apple”. I assume that this pragmatic reanalysis occurs later in the derivation after the classifier has combined with the NP, and thus does not result in a structural reanalysis of the

Conclusions: two puzzles about [+counting] classifiers

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classifier phrase. Therefore, de cannot follow the classifier in this case. While this is a somewhat ad hoc explanation, it is supported by the fact that recipe contexts are crosslinguistically distinguished from standard counting and measuring contexts. Thus for example, in English, recipe contexts are the only context in which of can be dropped from a measure partitive, e.g. ‘two kilos flour’ versus ‘two kilos of flour’. Given that these exceptions are limited to a very specific and exceptional context, it seems to us clear that the distribution of de is generally associated with a measure interpretation of the classifier, which is reflected in the structural properties of the classifier phrase. The second puzzle is that when Num is a fraction, such as ½, ¼, ¾ or a decimal, such as 10%, 15%, it is possible to use de after the classifier to get a measure reading, as illustrated in (46) (examples from Li and Rothstein 2012). (46) a. yi ge yi shui de yin'er mei-ci one CL one year DE baby every time zhi neng chi 1/3 li de ganmao-yao only can eat 1/3 Cl DE cold pill ‘A one year old baby can only take 1/3 of a cold pill every time.’ b. 1/4 ge de xigua keyi zha ban bei guozhi zuoyou. 1/4 CL DE watermelon can crush half CLcup juice approximately ‘1/4 of a watermelon can be crushed into half cup of juice.’ Her and Hsieh (2010: 539-540) independently observe that “…fractions of a number, including those with a value smaller than one, drastically increase acceptability”. Their examples are given in (47a-b) and our own example is given in (47c). (47) a. ba-fen-zhi-yi ke de gaolicai one-eight CL DE cabbage ‘one-eighth of a cabbage’ b. si-fen-zhi-yi ke de yangcong one-fourth CL DE onion ‘one fourth of an onion’ c. ba-fen-zhi-san gongjin de dami eight-portion-Mod-three (three eighths) CLkilo DE rice ‘three eights of a kilo of rice’

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The syntax and semantics of fractional expressions has not yet been studied in any detail, but it is clear that crosslinguistically fractions have a different grammar from cardinal natural numbers. In English, they are necessarily partitive as in a third of a pill, a quarter of a kilo of flour, a half of an apple (although (a) half an apple is also acceptable), and in English, as in French, the fractional expression is based on the ordinal numeral. In Mandarin, the fraction is expressed by a complex expression using the word fen ‘portion’. Si fen zhi yi ‘one-fourth’ has the compositional structure in (48), and literally means ‘one of four portions’, with the classifier giving the unit which is divided into portions. (48) si fen zhi four portions Mod ‘one fourth’

yi one

An analysis of the semantics of fractions is beyond the scope of this paper, given that these constructions are highly complicated, both in Mandarin and crosslinguistically. However, it is clear that fractions have a different interpretation from natural number predicates. A natural number such as san ‘three’ can be interpreted either as a name for a number of type n, as in a measure context, or as a predicate of plural entities, in which case it modifies a Cl-N in a counting context (see discussion in Rothstein 2012). Fractions clearly cannot be predicates of plural entities, since they do not count atomic entities. Similarly, the classifier cannot have its usual interpretation, in which it denotes function from kinds into atomic instantiations of the kind. Instead, the role of the classifier is to give the name of the unit which the fraction divides into portions. I thus suggest that in these contexts, the fraction and the classifier combine to form a fractional predicate, and thus form a predicate constituent which can be the complement of de. Thus syntactically, we suggest, Num combines immediately with the classifier and the insertion of de is thus possible after the [N-Cl] constituent. This should not be taken as an analysis of these constructions, but a hypothesis to be explored in further research. Nonetheless, what does seem clear is that the role of the classifier in these fractional constructions is different from its role in counting constructions which use natural numbers. This can be seen in the contrast between (49a) and (49b). (49) a. ta chi le san-fen-zhi-yi ge de pingguo. he eat PFV san-portion-Mod-one CL DE apple ‘He ate one third of an apple.’

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b. ta chi le san-fen-zhi-yi de pingguo. he eat PFV san-portion-Mod-one DE apple ‘He ate one third of the apples.’ OR ‘He ate one third of an apple.’ In (49a), where the fraction is followed by ge, the sentence must mean ‘he ate one third of a single apple’. Thus the classifier does not have its usual use in which it combines with N and the resulting Cl+N denotes a set of atomic individual apples. Instead it indicates what is the single entity which is portioned by the fraction. In (49b) where there is no classifier, we see that the sentence means ‘he ate one third of some quantity of apples’, either a third of a plurality of apples or one third of a single apple. The examples in (49) are sufficient to show us that the use of fractions is very different from other numerical structures: unlike the natural numbers, the fraction does not require a classifier, and when the classifier is present it has a very different meaning from its usual one. So while we do not yet understand either the syntax or semantics of fractional constructions, we can see that these constructions are sufficiently different from normal counting contexts not to constitute a counterexample to the account that we have presented in this chapter.

Part III: Definiteness in classifier languages

Chapter 9 Definite classifiers in southern Chinese languages

1. Introduction In the present chapter, we study aspects of the meaning of classifiers beyond the counting and the measure readings, and beyond the language of Mandarin Chinese. It is found that in mainland Southeast Asian languages, like Vietnamese, Hmong, Thai etc, classifiers are able to mark definiteness (see Bisang 1996, 1999, Simpson et al 2011, among others). According to Bisang (1993), in Hmong, “Cl+N” can have a definite interpretation and the classifier works like a (quasi-) definite article. For example, “Cl+N” in (1a) means ‘the widow’ but not ‘a widow’. Löbel (1996, 2000) observes that in Vietnamese, the classifier in “Cl+N” can either express definiteness or indefiniteness in a sentence like (1b). Qu̫ cam in (1b) either means ‘the orange’ or ‘an orange’. (1) a. ces nyob nyob tus pij-ntsuag txawm then one day CL widow then yug tau ib tug me-tub give:birth PFV one CL son ‘Then one day, the wodow gave birth to a son.’ b. tôi mua qu̫ cam. I buy CL orange ‘I bought the/an orange.’

[Hmong]

[Vietnamese]

In many southern Chinese languages, such as Wu, Cantonese, Xiang, Gan etc., classifiers can also mark definiteness, especially in the “Cl+N” construction.1 Some of the examples are illustrated in (2). 1

Definite classifiers are rarely found in northern Chinese languages, like standard Mandarin. According to Wang and Gu (2006), Jianghuai Mandarin are the northern most dialect groups that have definite classifiers. Chinese languages to the north of Jianghuai Mandarin often do not have definite classifiers.

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(2) a. pun34 sy55 hou34 thыi35. [Cantonese: Guangdong] CL book good look ‘The book is interesting.’ b. pΩƾ53-55 sѷ53 hэ34 ࡣ53 pΩƾ53-55 vΩҌ12 liƾ23. [Wu: Shanghainese] CL book good that CL not good ‘This book is good, tht one is not good.’ c. thiэ35 Ωѧ35 ѓ55 thΩѧ3 1 tΩҌ lie. [Jianghuai Mandarin: Lianshui] CL ox PASS steal RVC PRT ‘The/an ox was stolen.’

ˈ

In these three languages, classifiers can be used independent of numerals, as in the construction “Cl+N”, to express definiteness. In Cantonese, pun3 sy55 in (2a) means ‘the book’, referring to some particular book that is familiar with the interlocutors. In Shanghainese, “Cl+N”, such as pΩƾ5355 53 sѷ in (2b) also expresses definiteness. It is used in contrast with the (distal) demonstrative phrase, so it also expresses proximal deixis. PΩƾ53-55sѷ53 can be interpreted ‘this book’ (Pan and Tao 1999: 33-34). In (2c), in Jianghuai Mandarin, “Cl+N” can be interpreted either as definite or indefinite, and thiэ35 Ωѧ35either means ‘an ox’ or ‘the ox’, depending on the context (Wang 2005). We consider classifiers in “Cl+N” that mark definiteness to be definite classifiers. In this chapter, I will discuss definite classifiers in Cantonese and Wu Chinese (the Fuyang variant), with a comparison with Mandarin. All the three languages I am to investigate are classifier languages, in which numerals cannot modify nouns without a classifier, as in the sequence “Num+Cl+N”. In all three, classifiers can be used independently of the Num, as “Cl+N”. The languages differ with respect to the distribution and interpretation of “Cl+N” construction. Look at (3): (3) a. (*ge) laoban mai le liang che. CL boss buy PFV CL car ‘The boss bought a car.’ b. kќ lэpan ma lΩ bu tshotsѷ. CL boss buy PFV CL car ‘The boss bought a car.’ c. go louban maai zo ga ce. CL boss buy PFV CL car ‘The boss bought a/the car.’

[Mandarin]

[Wu:Fuyang]

[Cantonese]

Introduction

235

As in (3a), in Mandarin, the “Cl+N” construction is only found in postverbal positions and has an indefinite reading. In Cantonese and Wu Chinese (the Fuyang dialect), the construction is available in both preverbal and postverbal positions. In Wu Chinese, as in (3b), “Cl+N” has a definite reading, when appearing preverbally; indefinite when appearing postverbally (Li and Bisang 2012). In Cantonese (the Hong Kong variant), in (3c), preverbal “Cl+N” has a definite reading, while postverbal “Cl+N” is either definite or indefinite (see Cheung 1972). “Cl+N” has been discussed intensively in the literature in many Chinese dialects (e.g. Cheung 1972, Shi and Liu 1985, Cheng and Sybesma 1999, 2004, Wu and Bodomo 2009, Simpson et al 2011, Li and Bisang 2012), without reaching agreement about the syntactic status and the semantic function of the classifier. Many questions are still left open. I am particularly interested in the following: (i) What are the factors that constrain the distribution of indefinite and definite “Cl+N”? (ii) What is the syntax of indefinite and definite Cl+N phrases? Specifically, is indefinite “Cl+N” a classifier phrase or a numeral phrase? Is definite “Cl+N” a definite phrase? (iii) Is the “Cl+N” construction derived from the counting reading or the measure reading of the classifier? (iv) What is the semantic function of the classifier in indefinite and definite “Cl+N” constructions? Concerning the first question, I argue that the interpretation of the classifier in “Cl+N” as definite or indefinite is pragmatically constrained by information structure. Since Chinese languages are topic-prominent languages, in which preverbal nominals tend to function as topics or secondary topics (Li and Thompson 1976, 1981), preverbal nominals are by default interpreted as definite. That is why definite “Cl+N” are prototypically found in preverbal positions. My answer to the second question is that in the indefinite reading of “Cl+N”, the classifier heads the maxiamal projection of ClP, and “Cl+N” is inherently predicative. In the definite reading, the classifier undergoes Cl-to-D raising and heads a definite DP. As for the third question, I claim that the “Cl+N” construction is only available when the classifier is interpreted with a counting function and not a measure function. The counting function of classifiers can be extended to mark (in)definiteness, since counting classifiers pick out a set of atomic

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individuals instantiating the kind denoted by the noun, rather than a set of quantities. If definiteness is analyzed in terms of old/new information, I make the plausible claim that individuals can be old or new relative to the information, but this distinction makes little sense for quantities. With respect to the semantic functions of classifiers, I propose that Cl+N has a predicative meaning, and that indefinite readings of Cl+N result from default existential closure over the VP interpretation. Definite interpretations of Cl+N result from Cl-to-D- raising. This is semantically interpreted as existential closure of Cl-N in the indefinite meaning. Following Landman (2004), definiteness is a semantic constraint added to the existential meaning derived in this way. Thus, though I use Landman’s rule of argument formation, I do not claim like Landman (2004) that definites in Chinese start out at type d. Instead, I argue that definites are derived by raising from predicates to the generalized quantifier reading, and that definiteness is a semantically expressed familiarity constraint, like the “exactly” effects in Landman (2004) or “weak familiarity” à la Roberts (2003). This chapter is structured as follows. Section 2 presents the distribution of indefinite and definite “Cl+N” in Mandarin, Wu, and Cantonese. In Section 3, I account for the distribution patterns of “Cl+N” in terms of (in)definiteness related to information structure. Section 4 and 5 discuss the syntax of indefinite and definite “Cl+N” respectively. Section 6 examines the semantics of “Cl+N”. Section 6 gives a semantic representation for indefinite and definite “Cl+N”, with a correlation with the counting function of classifiers. Specifically, a familiarity-based semantics for definite “Cl+N” is provided. The chapter is wrapped up in section 7.

2.

“Cl+N” in three Chinese languages

In the previous chapters, I discussed classifiers in the Numeral-Classifier construction “Num+Cl+N”. We saw that in Mandarin numerals cannot modify nouns directly without the assistance of classifiers. The same is true in Wu and Cantonese: (4) a. iҌ  *(tsΩҌ) kiu one CL dog ‘one dog’ b. ࠺ian *(kќ) ࠺in two CL man ‘two people’

[Wu: Fuyang]

“Cl+N” in three Chinese languages

(5) a. leuhng *(jek) gau two CL dog ‘two dogs’ b. yat  *(chaan) faahn one  CL meal ‘one meal’

237

[Cantonese]

(from Matthews and Yip 1994: 93-97)

On the other hand, all the three languages have “Classifier+Noun” constructions without a numeral. For example, Mandarin has postverbal “Cl+N”, Wu and Cantonese can have both preverbal and postverbal “Cl+N”. Recall the examples in (3). I start with my discussion with “Cl+N” in Mandarin.

2.1. “Cl+N” in Mandarin In chapter 5, I showed that bare nouns in Mandarin can occur in preverbal and postverbal positions. Bare nouns in preverbal positions have a definite reading, as in (6a); those in postverbal positions can either be definite or indefinite, as in (6b). Moreover, bare nouns are number-neutral, so shu in (6) have both singular and plural readings. (6) a. shu bujian le. book missing PRF ‘The book is missing.’ OR ‘The books are missing.’ b. wo mai le shu. I buy PFV book ‘I bought book(s)’. OR ‘I bought the book(s).’

[Definite]

[Definite or Indefinite]

Unlike bare nouns, the “Cl+N” construction in Mandarin is not possible in preverbal positions like the subject position in (7a), and it is only found in postverbal positions, as in (7b). The postverbal “Cl+N” in (7b) only has an indefinite reading, meaning ‘a book’. The speaker of (7b) simply asserts that he was engaged in an activity of book-buying.

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(7) a.* ben shu bujian le. CLvolume book missing PRF b. wo mai le ben shu. I buy PFV CLvolume book ‘I bought a book.’ In contrast to the examples with bare nouns in (6), there is an implication of singularity for “Cl+N”. As shown in (8), mei ben ‘each volume’ in the continuation clause requires a plural NP as antecedent: the bare noun shu ‘book’ can provide that, Cl+N cannot. (8) a. wo mai le shu. Mei-ben dou hen haokan. I buy PFV book each-CL all very interesting ‘I bought books. Each is interesting.’ b. wo mai le ben shu. # Mei-ben dou hen haokan. I buy PFV CLvolume book each-CL all very interesting # ‘I bought a book. Each is interesting.’ (7a) shows that “Cl+N” cannot be used as subject. One way of making it grammatical is to put existential you ‘there be’ before “Cl+N”, as in (9a): (9) a. you ben shu bujian le. there-be CLvolume book missing PRF ‘There is a book missing.’ In this case, ben shu ‘Cl book’ introduced by the existential you keeps its singular meaning, but gets an indefinite interpretation: it refers to a book, not books, and not the book. So, if there were ten books on my desk last night, but now I noticed that there are only nine books left and I am not sure which one is missing, I can report this event by using (9a) with “Cl+N” as an indefinite phrase. Huang (1982, 1987) calls the sentence initial you an existential verb. Semantically, it existentially closes the indefinite (see Cheng 1990, Tsai 1994). Since you is an existential verb, “Cl+N” in (9a) can be considered to be located in postverbal position as well. Besides canonical object positions (as in (7b)) and as the complement of you-sentences (in (9a)), “Cl+N” is also found in post-copula positions, as in (9b) and (9c), where “Cl+N” expresses properties like “studenthood” and “cathood”.

“Cl+N” in three Chinese languages

(9)

b. ta shi ge he be CL ‘He is a student.’ c. zhe shi zhi this is CL ‘This is a cat.’

239

xuesheng. student mao. cat

I can then make the generalization that “Cl+N” in Mandarin has an indefinite interpretation and appears in a lexically governed position. However, this generalization seems to be challenged by the ba construction. Mandarin is an SVO language, where the postverbal position is the base-generated position for objects (Li and Thompson 1974, Huang 1982, Sun and Givon 1985, Wu 2003). But when the object is definite or specific and the verb has a causative meaning, the object can be moved from the base-generated postverbal position to a preverbal position, and is marked by the object maker ba. This is called the ba construction. Generally speaking, only bare nouns and demonstrative phases are allowed to occur after ba, in which bare nouns have a definite reading, but indefinite expressions like Num-Cl-N are not allowed after ba. One of the few cases in which BA allows an indefinite object is the Cl-N construction. (10b) is assumed to be derived from (10a): (10) a. Jintian Lao Zhang mai le tou niu. [SVO] today Lao Zhang sell PFV CL cow ‘Lao Zhang sold a cow today.’ b. Jintian Lao Zhang ba tou niu gei mai le. [SOV] today Lao Zhang OM CL cow give sell PRF ‘The peasant had a cow sold today.’ Both in (10a) and (10b), the “Cl+N” phrase, i.e. tou niu ‘head cow’, has an indefinite reading, ‘a cow’. However, “Cl-N” in (10a) is preferably interpreted as a non-specific reading. In (10b), Cl-N tends to be understood as specific. The speaker of (10b) knows which cow of LaoZhang he talks about, but the hearer has no relevant information to identy which cow the speakers talks about. Therefore, it is specific indefinite. Therefore, my generalization still holds: in Mandarin Chinese, “Cl+N” is only possible in lexically governed positions, such as after the main verb, after the existential you, or after the object marker ba, in which it receives an indefinite reading. It cannot be used in preverbal positions like subject and topic.

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Definite classifiers in southern Chinese languages

2.2. “Cl+N” in Wu 2.2.1. Preverbal “Cl+N” In Wu,“Cl+N” can occur unproblematically in preverbal positions, like the subject position and the (sentential) topic position. The examples in (11) illustrate the use of “Cl+N” as subject. (11) a. tsΩҌ kiu sѷ-࠺iэ die. CL dog die PRT ‘The dog died.’ b. tsΩҌ kiu kuan m-poҌ thaҌ dzan. CL dog CL tail too long ‘The tail of the dog is too long.’ The “Cl+N” tsΩҌ kiu ‘the dog’ in (11a) refers to a particular dog that is identifiable in the context by the interlocutors, or some dog that is familiar to the interlocutors based on their shared background knowledge. In this case, “Cl+N” is read definite: the dog. The subject of (11b) is a complex noun phrase, in which the head noun “Cl+N”, kuan m-poҌ ‘Cl tail’, is modified by another “Cl+N” tsΩҌ kiu ‘Cl dog’.2 Both “Cl+N” phrases are interpreted with a definite meaning, so the phrase means: ‘the tail of the dog’. The preverbal “Cl+N” in (11) should be distinguished from the “Cl+N” construction that is introduced by the existential quantifier iu ‘there be’. Compare (11a) with (12a): (12) a. iu tsΩҌ kiu sѷ-࠺iҌ die. there-be CL dog die PRT ‘There died a dog.’ b. iu iҌ tsΩҌ kiu si-࠺iэ die. there-be one CL dog die PRT ‘There died one dog.’ 2

There are two nominal phrases before the main verb. The construciton is called “double nominative constructions” by some researchers (e.g. Teng 1974, Li and Thompson 1981). The two nominal phrases are called ‘big subject’ and ‘small subject’ respectively. Other researchers (e.g. Xu and Liu 1998) suggest that the first nominal phrase is a dangling topic and the second is the subject of the clause. We simply consider the two nominals be a single complex nominal phrase, in which the first nominal modifies the second.

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In (12a), tsΩҌ kiu ‘Cl dog’ can only have an indefinite meaning, meaning ‘a dog’. (12a) is similar to (12b), which has a NumP as subject. I assume that iu ‘there be’ is verbal, like you ‘there be’ in Mandarin, and hence “Cl+N” in (12a) is in a postverbal position. In contrast, the “Cl+N” subject in (11) can stand on its own in argument position, without requiring existential iu, and in fact it is read with a definite meaning. We now consider the topic use of “Cl+N”. (13) is an example of “Cl+N” in sentential initial position, the default position for the topic of the sentence. (13) kɤ biƾku, ƾќ tюhiҌ-ȵiэ  die. CL apple I eat-finish PRT ‘The apple, I ate it.’ In (13), the pronoun ƾќ ‘I’ is assigned with the theta-role of agent and it is the subject of the clause. The sentence initial nominal biƾku ‘apple’ is the syntactic object of the sentence, but it is also the topic of the sentence. The entity denoted by “Cl+N”, i.e. kќ biƾku ‘Cl apple’, is part of the proposition that is being talked about, so it must be interpreted as definite, ‘the apple’. Wu has a construction similar to the ba construction in Mandarin. In Wu (the Fuyang dialect), the object marker is khΩҌ ‘catch’, so I call this construction the khΩҌ construction. The most striking difference between the ba construction in Mandarin and the khΩҌ construction in Wu is that “Cl+N” after object marker khΩҌ gets a definite reading and not an indefinite reading. (14) a. lэ tsan khΩҌ tsΩҌ ࠺iu Lao Zhang OM CL cow ‘LaoZhang sold the cow.’ b. i khΩҌ pΩn юy m-࠺iэ he OM CL book lost ‘He lost the book.’

ma-࠺iэ die. sell PRT die. PRT

“Cl+N” in (14a-b) refers to a particular cow or a particular book identifiable or known by both the speaker and the hearer. Hence, it is definite. For example, tsΩҌ ࠺iu in (14a) may refer to the only cow that owned by Laozhang, i.e. Laozhang’s cow.

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Definite classifiers in southern Chinese languages

2.2.2. Postverbal Cl+N “Cl+N” is also found in postverbal positions in Wu, and there it has an indefinite reading, like in Mandarin. Two types of postverbal positions can be distinguished: base-generated object positions and post-copula positions. (15) is an example with Cl-N in object position: (15) a. ƾќ tюhiҌ lΩ kќ piƾku. юiuzѷ tюyoҌsaƾ laƾ kќ. I eat PFV CL apple just desk on CL ‘I ate an apple, the one on the table.’ b. ƾќ saƾ kќ yoҌ maҌ lΩ bu tshotsѷ. I last CL month buy PFV CL car h h h ƾ ts æ-ts a-k an zѷ go҈ tsoҌ ? you guess be what car ‘I bought a car last month. Can you guess what car it is? In (15), apple and car do not denote entities known or identifiable by the addressees: Cl car and Cl apple simply mean ‘a car’ and ‘an apple’ respectively. It is only continuation in (15a) that identifies the apple; similarly, in (15b) the question presupposes the indefiniteness of the car in the first part of the sentence. Post-copula nominals are predicational and express properties of the subject. Post-copula “Cl+N” are not referential in most cases.3 For example, tsΩҌ kiu ‘Cl dog’ in (16a) only expresses the doghood of the subject and it does not refer to a particular dog. (16) a. kΩҌ tsΩҌ zѷ tsΩҌ kiu. this CL be CL dog ‘This is a dog.’ b. ia ban-iu zѷ kќ ƾakuo࠺in. his/her friend be CL foreigner ‘His/her friend is a foreigner.’ In Wu, if you want to use a definite nominal as object, it must always be moved to a preverbal position, via the khΩҌ construction or by topicalization.

3

I leave aside copula sentences with definite NPs, such as “He is the student that I mentioned to you last time” or “He is Mr. Smith” (see Partee 1987).

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Thus, if I want to make definite reference to an apple or a car in (15a-b), I would use the sentences in (17) and (18) with the khΩҌ construction. (Note that the marker khΩҌ does not always have to be realized overtly, as shown in (18)). (17) ƾќ khΩҌ kɤ binku tюhiȵiэ die. I OM CL apple eat PRT ‘I ate an apple, the one on the table.’ (18) ƾќ saƾ kќ yoҌ bu tshotsѷ ma lə uɛlɛ die. I last CL month CL  car buy PFV back PRT ‘I went to buy the car last month.’ In sum, in Wu, the definiteness of “Cl+N” is closely related to its syntactic position being preverbal or postverbal. Preverbal “Cl+N” have a definite interpretation and postverbal “Cl+N” have an indefinite interpretation. More importantly, it is a syntactic requirement to prepose definite expressions from a postverbal position to a preverbal position in Wu.

2.3. “Cl+N” in Cantonese As noted in the literature (e.g. Cheung 1972, Hashimoto 1993, Matthews and Yip 1994, Cheng and Sybesma 1999, and many others), in Cantonese, ‘Cl+N’ can occur preverbally and postverbally: preverbal “Cl+N” is unambiguously definite, but postverbal “Cl+N” is ambiguous between an indefinite and a definite reading. (19) a. ji bat hou hou se. CL pen good good write ‘This/that pen is good to write with.’ b. keuih maai-zo gaa ce. he sell-PFV CL car ‘He sold a car/ the car. ’ [from Matthews and Yip 1994: 93] In (19a), ji bat is definite: “this/that pen” (an even better gloss may be “the pen”, since Cl+N has a definite reading, but not a deictic reading.). In (19b), Cl+N, i.e. gaa ce ‘Cl car’ occurs in object position. It can have a definite meaning, where it means: ‘a car identifiable for the addressee in

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the context, or an indefinite meaning, where we only express that a car selling event took place. There is in Cantonese a construction similar to the ba construction in Mandarin, with the marker jeung ‘take’, but it is not very productive. For instance, the two examples in (20) are ungrammatical, no matter whether we use bare noun or Cl+N after jeung. According to our Cantonese informants, they would use SVO sentences to express the same information. Note that the counterparts in Mandarin of the cases in (20) are totally grammatical with bare nouns, as in (21). (20) a.* ngo jeung (go) pingguo sik zo. I OM CL apple eat PRT Intended: ‘I ate the apple(s).’ b.* keuih jeung (go) yahn da zo. he OM CL man beat PRT Intended: ‘He beat the man/the men.’

[Cantonese]

(21) a. wo ba pingguo chi le. I OM apple eat PRF ‘I ate the apple(s).’ b. ta ba ren da le. He OM man beat PRF ‘He beat the man/men.’

[Mandarin]

Secondly, compared with the ba construction in Mandarin, the jeung construction has a narrower range of uses. I cite Matthews and Yip (1994: 144): “unlike ba, however, it is not used with all transitive verbs, but is primarily restricted to cases where the motion takes place” (as in (22a)). “It is also applicable in metaphorical cases of movement or removal, such as exchanging places” (as in (22b)). (22) a. keuih jeung di wujou saam jauwaih pehk. s/he take CL-PL dirty clothes around throw ‘He throws his dirty clothes all over my place.’ b. yiu jeung di mhoisam ge yeh gut-yat-seng tan-jo keuij. need put CL unhappy Mod stuff one-voice swallow-PFV it ‘You should take the unhappy things and swallow them in one gulp.’

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Thirdly, when the jeung construction with “Cl+N” is felicitous, the “Cl+N” only has a definite reading. For example, the plural classifier phrase di wujou in (22a) can only mean ‘the dirty clothes’ but not ‘some dirty clothes’. I will argue in section 3 that in Cantonese, the preferable position for definite “Cl+N” is in preverbal positions, but the lack of a productive jeung construction paves the way for the expansion of definite “Cl+N” interpretations into postverbal positions. So far, I have examined the syntactic distribution and the referential functions of [Cl+N] in Mandarin, Wu and Cantonese. The referential functions of [Cl+N] in terms of [±definite] in each of the four syntactic positions of topic, subject, preposed object (marked by prepositions, such as BA in Mandarin) and canonical object are summarized in the following table for each of the three Sinitic languages discussed: Table 4. Distribution of definite and indefinite “Cl+N” [Cl+N] Mandarin Wu (Fuyang) Cantonese

Topic – [+definite] [+definite]

Subject – [+definite] [+definite]

Preposed obj [-definite] [+definite] [±definite]

Canonic obj [-definite] [-definite] [±definite]

As can be seen from the above table, there seems to be a correlation between (in)definiteness and the syntactic position of [Cl+N] relative to the verb. Indefinite [Cl+N] is restricted to the postverbal position, i.e. the canonical object position, in all three languages, while definite [Cl+N] is usually found in preverbal positions (topic, subject and the preposed object position). These general positional rules need two specifications: (i) Mandarin does not allow definite [Cl+N] in topic or subject positions, and (ii) Cantonese allows postverbal definite [Cl+N]. The next section will show how this distributional pattern can be accounted for.

3. Information structure and (in)definite “Cl+N” In this section, I adopt a semantic-pragmatic approach to account for the distribution of the indefinite and definite readings of “Cl+N” phrases. I propose that these interpretations of “Cl+N” are constrained by pragmatic

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notions, following from the association between word order and information structure. Li Frances (1971) was one of the first to claim that word order reflects information structure in Mandarin. Following on this, Li and Thompson (1976, 1981) argue that Mandarin Chinese is a topic-prominent language in which the preverbal subject position represents an unmarked topic, while the postverbal position is associated with focus. In a more recent study, Xu (2004) shows that the sentence-final position is the default position for informational focus in Mandarin. Informally, the topic is ‘what is being talked about’, which implies givenness or high degree of identifiablity. As Lambrecht puts it (1994:262), “a topic constituent must have a referent, and this referent must be identifiable and have a certain degree of pragmatic salience in discourse…” Thus, nominals acting as topics tend to be definite. In contrast, the term focus refers to expressions that are either prosodically or syntactically prominent and convey new information: typically nominals acting as focus are indefinites, although definite NPs are not excluded from focus position. As Lambrecht claims, “a focus constituent is in principle free with respect to the question of identifiability and activation”. Chinese languages are topic prominent languages, in which preverbal nominals are usually topics and postverbal nominals are usually focus. As a consequence, the general tendency in Chinese is that, preverbal nominals have by default definite interpretations and postverbal nominals indefinite interpretations. Even though Chinese languages are all topic-prominent languages, they exhibit different degrees of topic-prominence. D. Liu (2001) claims that Wu is a more prototypical topic-prominent language than Mandarin and Cantonese: it is very easy to topicalize elements like objects, i.e. to move them to the sentence initial position or the position near the subject. In other words, Wu has SVO as the basic word order, but SOV and OSV orders can also be derived via topicalization. According to D. Liu (2001) and S. Tang (2006), Cantonese is the most prototypical SVO language, in which object-preposing (namely, topicalization) rarely happens; Wu Chinese is the weakest SVO language and it has an alternative OV word order; Mandarin is a mild SVO language, a language sitting between Wu and Cantonese in terms of topic-prominence. Therefore, these three languages can be ranked as follows, according to degree of topic prominence from high to low: Wu > Mandarin > Cantonese. I start with Wu. I propose that in Wu Chinese, as the strongest topicprominent language, the distribution of definite and indefinite “Cl+N”

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strictly follows the generalization about the correlation of word order and information structure. If so, I expect that in Wu, preverbal “Cl+N” has a definite reading and postverbal “Cl+N” has an indefinite reading, since the former falls into the topic domain and the latter into the focus domain. The sentence initial position is the default topic position in Chinese languages, and Wu is no exception. The preposed object occurring between subject and verb is characterized as “secondary topic” in Wu, which can be marked overtly or covertly. According to Hu, Pan and Lee (2003) and Tang (2006), in Wu Chinese (e.g. the Ningbo and the Shanghai variants), the secondary topic position is ‘grammaticalized’. It is a stable position in Wu syntax and it is a syntactic requirement to have a secondary topic for some structures in Wu. As in the case of Fuyang Wu, definite objects are required to be located in the secondary topic position. The Cantonese data reveals the same processes as in Wu, except for the possibility of having definite readings in post-verbal positions. So why are the latter possible? In the first place, I think that the frequent use of “Cl+N” in preverbal positions, such as subject, may help it to acquire the status of a quasidefinite marker, a use which then can be applied to it in other nonpreverbal positions. Secondly, I think that the most important reason for the possibility of expressing definiteness in postverbal positions is the lack of a productive object-preposing operation in Cantonese corresponding to the Mandarin ba construction that we saw above. I propose that because Cantonese does not have a productive mechanism for preposing definite objects from postverbal positions, it doesn’t have enough easy syntactic ways of expressing meanings with, say, definite objects, leading to the extension observed (see Li and Bisang 2012). Therefore, the lack of a productive disposal construction in Cantonese paves the way for the extension of definite “Cl+N” from preverbal positions to postverbal positions. In Mandarin, there is never definite “Cl+N”, but indefinite “Cl+N” only (in lexically governed positions). According to D. Liu (2001), Mandarin is a less prototypical topic-prominent language than Wu. I propose that, in contrast to Wu and Cantonese, the “Cl+N” construction in Mandarin is not fully grammaticalized: “Cl+N” is only found in base-generated postverbal object position, a focus position where “Cl+N” has an indefinite interpretation. There is the famous ba construction in Mandarin, but it does not guarantee a definite interpretation of “Cl+N”. What the disposal construction does is to arrange the object in a certain way according to a particular criterion (e.g. definiteness), but the construction itself does not impose a definite reading to the preposed object.

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The question that remains is: why does Mandarin not allow definite Cl+N as subjects or topics? Although this is currently an open question, one possibility is that it may be related to a typological difference between northern and southern Chinese languages with respect to D. Liu (2001) argues that northern Chinese languages like Mandarin are demonstrativeprominent languages in that they prefer to use “demonstrative + N” instead of “Cl+N” to express definiteness, while southern Chinese languages like Wu and Cantonese are classifier-prominent languages, in that they prefer to use “Cl+N” over “demonstrative + N”. This is still an empirically-driven typological observation, however, not a complete explanation. Tang (2006) offers a syntactic explanation to explain the lack of definite “Cl+N” in Mandarin from the perspective of “verb movement”, and I refer readers to him for further consideration of this issue. I now move from the distribution of these expressions to the syntax of “Cl+N”.

4. Syntax of indefinite “Cl+N” In this section I discuss the syntax of indefinite “Cl+N”. I address the following questions: (i) is the indefinite “Cl+N” a reduced form of “one+Cl+N” by eliding the numeral ‘one’? (ii) What is the syntactic projection of indefinite “Cl+N”? Is it a NumP (with an empty number) or ClP?

4.1. Indefinite “Cl+N” as a reduced form of “one+Cl+N” (Lü 1944) Lü (1944) derives the indefinite “Cl+N” from “one+Cl+N” in Mandarin. Lü claims that there are two variants of the numeral yi ‘one’ in Mandarin: a strong yi and a weak yi. The strong yi is stressed and it is the cardinal ‘one’. It emphasizes the singularity of entities, as illustrated in (23). (23) a. yitong bei bu de you *(yi) ge xuesheng, wu ge chefu. meantime PASS arrest Mod have one CL student five CL carter ‘Those who were arrested at the same time include one student and five carters.’ b. wo *(yi) ge ren qu. I one CL person go ‘I will go by myself.’

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The weak yi is not only phonologically weak, i.e. unstressed, but also semantically weak, i.e. it is not referential or quantity-denoting, shown in (24): (24) a. ta chi le (yi) wan fan jiu congcong zou le. he eat PFV one CLbowl rice then hurriedly leave PRF ‘He left in a rush after taking a bowl of rice.’ b. wo shi (yi) ge hen wangu de ren. I be one Cl very stubborn Mod man ‘I am a very stubborn man.’ Lü claims that the stressed yi cannot be omitted (as in (23)), but unstressed yi can be omitted in certain contexts (as in (24), and, importantly, omission of unstressed yi is only possible in postverbal position. Thus, according to Lü, “Cl+N” is a reduced form of “unstressed yi + Cl + N” in postverbal positions.4

4.2. Indefinite “Cl+N” as NumPs In their comparative study of Cantonese and Mandarin nominal structures, Cheng and Sybesma (1999:525-527) discuss the distinction between “Cl+N” and “yi+Cl+N”. They argue, against Lü (1944), that indefinite “Cl+N” cannot be regarded as a phonological reduction of “yi+Cl+N” by omitting the numeral yi ‘one’. They show that in Mandarin indefinite “Cl+N” only has a non-specific reading, while “one+Cl+N” is three-way ambiguous between a specific, a non-specific and a quantity reading. They use bounded predicates and secondary predicates as tests to distinguish “Cl+N” and “yi+Cl+N”. Cheng and Sybesma show that a Cl-N phrase cannot occur as the object of a bounded predicates, whereas a “yi-Cl-N” phrase can, as shown in (25): (25) a. Wo chi-wan-le yi-kuai I eat-finish-PFV one-CL ‘I finished a cookie.’ 4

binggan. cookie

Lü mentions that speakers tend to use “Cl+N” in the oral discourse, e.g. daily conversation, but when they are asked to write it down, they usually write it in the form of “yi+Cl+N”. I suggest that this phenomenon is to do with the teaching of prescriptive grammar and the use of Chinese in a formal register in schools.

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Definite classifiers in southern Chinese languages

b. *Wo chi-wan-le kuai binggan. I eat-finish-LE CL cookie According to Cheng and Sybesma, there is no phonological reason why yi ‘one’ could not be suppressed in (25). Huang (1987) shows that in secondary predicates the object NP (i.e. the subject of the secondary predicate) must be indefinite and specific. Cheng and Sybesma show that in this context, “yi+Cl+N” phrases cannot be replaced by “Cl+N”: (26) a. Wo jiao-guo yi-ge xuesheng hen congming. I teach-EXP one-Cl student very intelligent ‘I once taught a student who was very intelligent.’ b. *Wo jiao-guo ge xuesheng hen congming. I teach-EXP CL student very intelligent While Cheng and Sybesma argue against the reduction of Cl+N to “one+Cl’N’, surprisingly enough, later in the same paper they propose the same structure for both: they propose that when “Cl+N” is interpreted as an indefinite, it has an empty Num head, and the whole phrase projects into a NumP: (27)

NumP Num

ClP Cl

NP N

However, to posit a null numeral for “Cl+N” predicts that a numeral, i.e., yi ‘one’, can be recovered in “Num+Cl+N”, and this indeed echoes the one-deletion analysis of “Cl+N” which views that there is an omitted numeral yi ‘one’ in “Cl+N”. I think that Cheng and Sybesma’s arguments against the reductionist approach are convincing. “One+Cl+N” and “Cl+N” are not identical. Hence I think their syntactic analysis postulating a ‘null one’ numeral is not to be accepted.

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4.3. Indefinite “Cl+N” as ClP In this section, I study some more differences between “one+Cl+N” and indefinite “Cl+N”. With a different set of diagnostics, I reach the same conclusion as Cheng and Sybesma (1999) that indefinite “Cl+N” is nonspecific, and “one+Cl+N” can be quantity-denoting, specific, and nonspecific. I propose that the indefinite “Cl+N” is a classifier phrase, not a numeral phrase. Like Lü (1944), I distinguish weak yi from strong yi. I will show that indefinite “Cl+N” and “one+Cl+N” differ in distribution, regardless of whether the numeral yi is stressed or not. I look at stressed yi first. I show three differences between “stressed yi +CL+N” and “Cl+N”. First, “stressed yi+Cl+N” can be coordinated with other NumPs to express the accumulative quantity of different entities, as in (28a). In contrast, “Cl+N” cannot be coordinated with full NumPs, as in (28b). (28) a. wo chi le yi ge pingguo he liang I eat PFV one CL apple and two ‘I ate one apple and two oranges.’ b.* wo chi le ge pingguo he liang ge I eat PFV CL apple and two CL Intended: ‘I ate an apple and two oranges.’

ge juzi. CL orange juzi. orange

Secondly, true NumPs, including “stressed yi+Cl+N”, can occur in subject position with an indefinite interpretation, but, as we have seen, Cl+N can never be subject in Mandarin: (29) a. yi ge pingguo bu gou wo chi. one Cl apple not enough I eat ‘One apple is not enough for me to eat.’ b.*ge pingguo bu gou wo chi. Cl apple not enough I eat Intended: “An apple is not enough for me to eat.” A. Li (1998) argues that although Chinese generally only allows definite nominals as subject, NumPs can be used as subjects if they denote pure quantities: in (29a) the predicate being not enough forces a quantity denotation for the subject, “one Cl apple”. Such a quantity reading is impossible for “Cl+N”, and (29b) is ungrammatical.

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Thirdly, temporal expressions like xiaoshi ‘hour’ or yue ‘month’ are durational, and can only be used with “Num+Cl+N”, not with “Cl+N”: (30) a. wo hua le *(yi) ge xiaoshi chifan. I spend PFV one CL hour eat meal ‘I spent one hour eating meal.’ b. wo dai xainggang dai le *(yi) ge yue. I at Hong Kong stay PFV one CL month ‘I stayed for one month in Hong Kong.’ Next I discuss the differences between “Cl+N” and unstressed “yi+Cl+N”. “Unstressed yi +Cl+N” allows specific and non-specific readings, while “Cl+N” can only have a non-specific reading in Mandarin. I show this with examples involving relative clause modification and creation verbs. Modification by a relative clause: Zhang (2006) shows that when a relative clause (RC) modifies a NumP in the order “RC+Num+Cl+N”, the NP has a specific reading, while if a relative clause modifies a NP in the order “Num+Cl+RC+N”, the NP has both specific and non-specific readings. In (31) we see that “yi+Cl+N” allows modification with both types of relative clauses: (31) a. wo zai zhao [RC xue yingyu de ] yi ge xuesheng. [Specific] I PROG seek learn English Mod one CL student ta keneng zai tushuguan li. he maybe at library in ‘I am looking for a student who learns English. Maybe he is in the library.’ b. wo zai zhao yi ge [RC xue yingyu de ] xuesheng. I PROG seek one CL learn English Mod student shui dou keyi, danshi zuihao shi da-si de. [(Non-)specific] who all fine but best be senior Mod ‘I want to look for a student who learns English. Any one will do, but it is better to have a senior student.’ (31a) means that the speaker has a specific student in mind, a student that is not known by the addressee. (31b) allows the same reading, but also allows a non-specific interpretation, where the speaker has no particular individual in his mind, and anyone who learns English will be fine for him.

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In “Cl+N”, relative clauses can only modify the noun, not the whole “Cl+N” phrase, as in (32): (32) a.* wo xiang zhao [RC xue yingyu de] ge xuesheng. I want seek study English Mod CL student ‘I want to look for the student who learns English.’ b. wo xiang zhao ge [RC xue yingyu de] xuesheng. [Non-specific] I want seek CL learn English Mod student ‘I want to look for a student who learns English.’ When the noun of “Cl+N” is modified by the relative clause as in (32b), it only has a non-specific reading, where any student who learns English will do. Jiang (2012) points out that the test I used here is flawed. She suggested that it is possible for “Cl+N” to have a specific reading. She said that if an appropriate context is provided, “Cl+N” in (32) can have a specific reading. The example (c) is taken from Jiang (2012). c. Zhang jiaoshou zai zhao XiaoWang. [Non-specific] Zhang professor PROG seek Xiaowang Ta xiang zhao ge [RC xue yingyu de] xuesheng. he want seek CL learn English Mod student ‘Prof. Zhang is looking for Xiaowang. He wants to look for a student who learns English.’ According to Jiang (2012), the indefinite “Cl+N” has a specific reference and it refers to Xiaowang, the student Prof. Zhang is looking for. However, I do not think that this is correct. In fact, Xiaowang is only one of the candidates that suits the description expressed by “Cl+N”. The person that “Cl+N” refers to can be Xiaowang or anybody else who learns English. It is still non-specific. According to Fodor and Sag (1982), “a specific indefinite introduces a new discourse referent such that the speaker has a ‘unique individual in mind’” (cf. von Heusinger 2011:11). If “CL+N” in (32c) is specific and refers to the individual XiaoWang, then the individual is introduced twice and is not a new discourse referent. Moreover, as we said above, XiaoWang is not the only candidate that satisfy the description, so the uniqueness requirement for specific indefinite is also violated. We would thus still consider “Cl+N” to be non-specific indefinite.

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Creation verbs: “one+Cl+N” and “Cl+N” have different interpretations in contexts of creation. Diesing (1992) notices that some verbs place felicity restrictions on their objects that have to do with presuppositionality. In particular, verbs of creation are incompatible with objects whose existence is presupposed. Zhang (2006) reinterprets this constraint as a constraint disallowing specific interpretations of indefinites in creation contexts. In (33) “Cl+N” is acceptable. “One+Cl+N” is also acceptable, but not with a specific reading: yi ge dangao “one Cl cake” and ge dangao “Cl cake” cannot refer to a particular cake that is identifiable to the hearer, both talk about an unspecific cake-baking event. (33) a. wo kao le yi ge dangao. I bake PFV one CL cake b. wo kao le ge dangao. I bake PFV CL cake Both: ‘I baked a cake.’ We see that “stressed yi +Cl+N” has a quantity reading, “unstressed yi+Cl+N” a specific and a non-specific reading, while “Cl+N” only has a non-specific reading. I propose the structure in (34) for indefinite “Cl+N” in Chinese, where ClP is the maximal projection of the indefinite “Cl+N” and there is no other functional projection above it. (34)

ClP Cl NP beni ‘volume’ N shu ‘book’

5. Syntax of definite “Cl+N” In this section I discuss the syntax of definite ‘Cl+N’. Our main question here is: does the definite ‘Cl+N’ project into a ClP (Cheng and Sybesma 1999) or a DP (Simpson 2005)? In section 5.1 I review a phonological reduction approach to the definite “Cl+N” (Shi and Liu 1985). In section 5.2, I will examine Cheng and Sy-

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besma’s (1999) proposal that definite Cl+N are classifier phrases headed by classifiers. I make our own proposal in section 5.3.

5.1. From “Dem+Cl+N” to definite “Cl+N” The definite “Cl+N” construction has been discussed by many Chinese dialectologists in different Chinese dialects. Some Chinese dialectologists hold the view that definite “Cl+N” is derived from demonstrative phrases by omitting the demonstrative (e.g. Shi and Liu 1985, Wang 2005). Shi and Liu (1985) claim that in the Suzhou dialect of Wu, the definite “Cl+N” is derived by deleting the distance-neutral demonstrative /gԥ‫ݦ‬/ before “Cl+N”. ‘Distance-neutral’ demonstrative refers to that whose deixis is dependent on the context in which the expression is used and it can either be distal or proximal. For example, when /gԥ‫ݦ‬/ is contrasted with a distal demonstrative, it indicates the entity to be close to the speaker; when it is contrasted with a proximal demonstrative, it indicates the entity to be far from the speaker. When it is used by itself, it is neutral in terms of distance. According to Shi and Liu (1985), definite classifiers are quite similar to distance-neutral demonstratives in terms of their semantic function. On the definite interpretation, “Cl+N” simply refers to identifiable entities and it does not distinguish distance. To put it explicitly, ““Cl+N” does not emphasize quantity, and carries no contrastive meaning, and has a weak deictic function” (Shi and Liu 1985:160). Based on this similarity, Shi and Liu assume that “Cl+N” originates from the demonstrative phrase of “/gԥ‫ݦ‬/+one+Cl+N”. Shi and Liu (1985) also suggest that there is phonological evidence for this analysis. They observe that in the Suzhou dialect, when the Cl+N construction has a definite reading, the (monosyllabic) classifier has the tone sandhi from its base tone to a secondary high level tone (tone 44). This tone is consistent with that of the classifier after the neutral demonstrative /gԥ‫ݦ‬/. For example, the classifier bu has the same tone of 44 when it appears after the demonstrative, as in (35a) and when it is used in “Cl+N”, as in (35b).

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(35) a. ge44Ҍ bu44 tюh‘i ts‘o Dem CL car ‘this car’ b. bu44 tюh‘i t‘o CL car ‘the car’ There are two problems with this proposal. First, if definite “Cl+N” is derived from “Dem+Cl+N” by eliding the demonstrative, it is unclear how the definite meaning is transferred from the demonstrative to the classifier. Take the case of “Cl+N” in the Suzhou dialect discussed above. If “Cl+N” is derived from “Dem+Cl+N” as proposed above, they ought to have the same meaning. But this does not seem to be the case. In Shi and Liu’s paper, I find the examples from the Suzhou dialect in (36). (36) a. tsã tsı-d҇ sa zã-ho lE- gΩҌ ? CLpiece paper what place PRT ‘Where is the piece of paper?’ b. gΩҌ tsã tsã-d҇ sa zã-ho lE- gΩҌ ? this CLpiece paper what place PRT ‘Where is that piece of paper?’ (Note: that has a distance neutral use) While at a first glance, the subject tsã tsı-d҇ ‘piece paper’ in (36a) and gΩҌ tsã tsı-d҇ ‘this piece paper’ (36b) have the same meaning: both refer to a particular paper that is identifiable in the context. However, the sentences are in fact not synonymous. In (36a), the interlocutors know which paper is under discussion; the definiteness of “Cl+N” relies on the context and there is no contrastive (deictic) meaning involved. (36b), on the other hand, has a salient deictic meaning. It is quite possible that the referent wasn’t mentioned in the previous discourse, and expresses new information and a contrastive meaning. Secondly, languages that have definite “Cl+N” do not necessarily have a neutral demonstrative in their language system. For example, Cantonese has the definite “Cl+N” construction, but it does not have a neutral demonstrative. Based on the current literature on Cantonese, there was no such a distance-neutral demonstrative either in this history. This is unexpected based on Liu and Shi’s analysis. In view of these two problems, I assume that definite “Cl+N” and Dem+Cl+N are different constructions. It is impossible that there is any derivational relation between definite “Cl+N” and demonstrative phrases.

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More seriously, for language with both definite and indefinite “Cl+N”, such as Fuyang Wu, it is very unlikely that the bare classifier construction “Cl+N” has two different sources: indefinite “Cl+N” is derived from “one+Cl+N” by omitting the numeral one if we follow Lü (1944), and definite “Cl+N” is derived from “demonstrative+Cl+N” by omitting the demonstrative if we follow Shi and Liu (1986). We reject both reductionist approaches. The bare classifier construction “Cl+N” is a distinctive construction from “one+Cl+N” and “demonstrative+Cl+N”.

5.2. Definite “Cl+N” as ClP Cheng and Sybesma (1999) propose that in languages with articles/determiners, the deictic function in the nominal phrase is taken care of by the article/determiner (D0), while in languages without articles / determiners like Chinese, some of those functions are performed by the Cl0, including the deictic function. Specifically, Cheng and Sybesma (1998) assign the classifier in definite “Cl+N” the same meaning as the definite article in English, i.e. being an iota operator. Cheng and Sybesma propose (37) as the structure of definite “Cl+N” in Cantonese, where the classifier projects as the head of ClP and does not project any high nodes like NumP or DP. (37)

ClP Cl

NP N

Thus, they treat indefinite “Cl+N” as a NumP with an empty Num, and definite “Cl+N” as ClP without a Num projection. This proposal has been criticized in Simpson (2005). Simpson argues that the analysis of definite “Cl+N” as a lower projection than indefinite “Cl+N” gives the wrong interpretation of true numeral classifier phrases of “Num+Cl+N”. I use the Wu data to illustrate the problems pointed out by Simpson. (38) shows that “Cl+N” can be modified by numerals and that Num+Cl+N has an indefinite reading.

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(38) a. bu tshotsѷ phaҌ࠺iэ die. CL car broken PRT ‘The car is broken.’ b. ƾќ ma le ࠺iaƾ bu tshotsѷ. I buy PFV two CL car ‘I bought two cars.’

[Wu: Fuyang]

Simpson (2005:14) points out that if the classifier has the same interpretation as the definite article in English, i.e. being a genuine definiteness marker, one would expect (38b) to either have a definite interpretation, i.e. the two cars or a partitive reading, i.e. ‘two of the cars’. However, this is not the case, and neither reading is possible. We can only get an indefinite reading for (38b), i.e. two cars. For Cheng and Sybesma (1999), the definite reading is never available for Num+Cl+N. They stipulate that NumP is always indefinite, and that definite nominals are always projected into ClPs. The problem with that stipulation is that, with it, the analysis does not extend beyond Cantonese. In Wu (Shanghainese and the Fuyang dialect) the Num+Cl+N can have a definite reading (see H.Wang 2008 for a general discussion on definite numerals in Wu dialects). For example, in the Fuyang dialect, the morpheme ࠺ian is an imprecise quantifier meaning ‘several’ and can be used in the numeral phrase of ࠺ian+Cl+N. ࠺ian +Cl+N has an indefinite reading in postverbal position, as in (39), and a definite reading in preverbal position, as in (40). (39) ƾɤ ɕin ȵian kɤ ȵin lɛ paƾ ƾɤ. [Indef NumP] I search several CL people come help I ‘I am looking for some people to help me.’ (40) ࠺ian k߆ ࠺in tԥ ga-i ? several CL people at where ‘Where are the people?’ Impossible: ‘Where are some people?’

[Definite NumP]

Note that the morpheme ࠺ian has a high-level tone when it expresses an imprecise number ‘(the) several’; it has a low-rising tone, when it means the exact number ‘two’. The definite reading is possible only in the imprecise number use.

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In view of these issues, I think that it is problematic to assume that the definite Cl+N is a classifier phrase, with a less articulated projection than the indefinite Cl+N.

5.3. Definite “Cl+N” as DP I now propose a DP analysis for definite “Cl+N” (cf. Simpson 2005 for a similar proposal). A. Li (1999) argues that Chinese determiner phrases have the DP structure: [DP D[NumP Num[ClP Cl[NP N]]]. I propose that when “Cl+N” has a definite reading, the classifier heads the projection of DP. I propose that due to the lack of lexical elements in Num, and the lack of a lexical Delement, the Cl undergoes Cl-to-D raising and becomes the head of DP, as in (41): (41)

DP D pΩni ‘volume’

NumP Num

ClP Cl ti

NP N юy ‘book’

I discuss two arguments for assuming this structure. Argument 1: One piece of syntactic evidence that support the analysis is the fact that classifiers can modify proper names, as in (42b) (note that “Cl+proper name” (42b) refers to the same individual as the bare proper name does (42a)): (42) a. ɕiɔ-uaƾ kintsɔ mi lɛ zaƾpan. [Wu: Fuyang] XiaoWang today not come work ‘XiaoWang did not come to work today.’ b. kќ юiэ-uaƾ kintsэ mi lѓ zaƾpan. CL XiaoWang today not come work ‘The Xiaowang did not come to work today.’

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Longobardi (1999) argues with the data in (43) that in Italian proper names are generated in N and raised to D, except when the D is already filled by a determiner. (43) a.* Antica Roma b. Roma Antica c. L’antica Roma In the same spirit I propose that in (42a), the Chinese proper name XiaoWang is raised from N to D, whereas in (42b), the proper name must remain in the position of NP and cannot undergo N-to-D raising, because the D position is filled by the classifier kќ. Simpson (2005) gives a similar argument on the basis of data from Southeast Asian languages like Vietnamese, Thai and Cantonese. He shows that in Vietnamese a second general classifier element can occur preceding the regular classifier, resulting in sequences with clear definite interpretations. The examples in (44) are from Simpson (2005:15). (Note that we do not find a similar construction in Chinese languages.) (44) a. con dao [anh cho toi muon ], no that sac. [Vietnamese] CL knife you give me borrow, it real sharp ‘The knife you gave me is really sharp.’ b. cai con dao [anh cho toi muon ], no that sac CL CL knife you give me borrow, it real sharp ‘The knife you gave me is really sharp.’ In (44a), Cl+N has a definite interpretation; this definite interpretation is preserved in in (44b), where Cl+N is modified by the general classifier cai. This follows, if we assume with Simpson that in (44a) the classifier is raised by Cl-to-N, while in (44b), the general classifier is in the D0 position. Argument 2: I mentioned in Section 5.1 that in some dialects, like the Suzhou dialect, the classifiers in the definite “Cl+N” construction have tone sandhi. In the Fuyang dialect of Wu, I also observed tone sandhi for the definite use of classifiers as in (45): (45) a. ƾќ tюhiҌ lΩ iҌ I eat PFV one ‘I ate a bowl of rice.’

uan432 van. CLbowl rice

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b. uan432-55 van, ƾќ tюhiҌ-࠺iэ  die. CLbowl rice I eat- finish PRT ‘The bowl of rice, I finish it.’ When the classifier uan ‘bowl’ is used in normal classifier positions, it has its base tone of 432 (falling and rising). However, when it is used in the definite “Cl+N”, the CL changes its base tone 432 to a high tone 55. I suggest that the changed tone can be seen as an overt realization of D at the PF level. One of the advantages of the DP proposal for definite “Cl+N” is that it predicts that it is possible for NumP to have a definite reading if the Num can undergo Num-to-D raising. I propose that this is what happens in (40), repeated here: (40) ࠺ian kќ ࠺in tΩ ga-i ? several CL people at where ‘Where are the people?’

[Wu: Definite NumP]

I propose the following structure of the definite NumP in (40): (46)

DP D

NumP

Numti ClP ࠺iani ‘several’ Cl kќ

NP N ࠺in ‘people’

To sum up, in this section, I argued for a DP analysis of definite “Cl+N” where the classifier in “Cl+N” undergoes Cl-to-D raising to get the definite reading. This proposal can not only account for definite “Cl+N” but also definite “Num+Cl+N” in Wu (Num raises from Num0 to D0).

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6. Semantic interpretation of “Cl+N” In this section, I will argue that the classifier in the “Cl+N” construction is interpreted with a counting reading. I will use this to formulate a semantics for indefinite and definite “Cl+N”.

6.1. “Cl+N” with a counting reading I begin by examining in Mandarin and in Wu, which types of classifier can be used in the construction of “Cl+N”. I start with [-C, +M] classifiers like gongjin ‘kilo’, li ‘mile’, and bang ‘pound’, measure words that are by default only associated with measure interpretations. These classifiers require numerals (see also Yip 2008). As (47) shows, measure words cannot form a “Cl+N” construction in Mandarin: (47) a.* wo zou le li lu. I walk PFV mile road b. wo zou le yi li lu. I walk PFV one mile road. ‘I walked one mile.’

[Mandarin]

The Wu data in (48) show that [-C, +M] classifiers cannot form “Cl+N” in subject position either: (48) a. * di lu tso le ƾќ pan kΩҌ tюioƾdei. CLmile road walk PFV I half CL hour ‘The mile of road took me half an hour.’ b. */??? tюhiƾ sѓ ࠺ian kΩҌ. CLliter water cool PRT ‘The liter of water is cool.’

[Wu]

Next I check [+C, -M] classifiers, classifiers that are by default associated with counting readings. We have already seen many examples of these, they can be used without numerals in postverbal positions in Mandarin: (49) a. wo mai le ben shu. I buy PFV CL book ‘I bought a book/#books.’

[Mandarin]

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b. zhuo-shang fang-zhe ge pingguo. table-on put-DUR CL apple. ‘On the table lies an apple/# lie apples.’ In both examples, “Cl+N” refers to individual entities. (49a) means that there is an individual book that I bought, and (49b) means that there is a single atomic apple lying on the table, not apple stuff or a plurality of apples. The examples in (50) show that in Wu Chinese, “Cl+N” with [+C, -M] classifiers can be used in the subject position with a definite reading. (50) a. pΩn юy zѷ ƾќ-ko. CLvolume book be mine. ‘The book is mine.’ b. kќ piƾku lan࠺iэ die. CL apple rotten PRT ‘The apple is rotten.’

[Wu]

I next look at [+C, +M] classifiers like ping ‘bottle’, xiang ‘box’, qun ‘group’, dui ‘pile’ etc in Mandarin. Those classifiers are equally open to counting and measure interpretations. These classifiers can only be used in “Cl+N” when the classifier has a counting reading. Look at the following: (51) a. wo shou shang na zhe ping jiu. [Mandarin] I hand on take DUR CLbottle wine ‘I am carrying a bottle of wine in my hand.’ b.# ta-de wei neng zhuang xia ping jiu. his stomach can contain down CLbottle wine ‘His stomach can contain a bottle of wine.’ The container classifier phrase in (51a) has a counting reading, which implies the existence of a concrete bottle filled with wine. The Cl+N, i.e. ping jiu ‘bottle of wine’ can only be indefinite. (51b), on the other hand, talks about the capacity of the stomach or his drinking ability, which triggers a measure interpretation. The only available reading for (51b) is the absurd interpretation that he has a concrete bottle in his stomach, i.e. the reading where Cl+N ping jiu ‘bottle wine’ is interpreted with a counting reading, we are then forced to put a concrete bottle in his stomach. This is, of course, infelicitous.

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In Wu Chinese, [+C, +M] classifiers can appear in the definite “Cl+N” construction, when those classifiers are interpreted with a counting reading. See the contrast between (52a) and (52b). (52) a. ƾќ tюhiҌ ko biƾ tюiu iƾkuo tюinkhiu ko. [Wu] I eat Mod CLbottle wine England import PRT ‘The bottle of wine that I drank was imported from England.’ b.# ƾќ tюiҌ ko biƾ tюiu tele uѓ-li ta sэ la. I eat Mod CLbottle wine at stomach-in Prog burn PRT Intended: ‘The bottle of wine that I drank is burning in my stomach.’ The generalization is that a “Cl+N” construction is possible only when the classifier is interpreted with the counting function. According to Yip (2008), this generalization holds in Cantonese as well.

6.2. Semantics of indefinite “Cl+N” In section 5.2, we argued that the indefinite “Cl+N” construction has the maximal projection of ClP (as in (53)). This structure is consistent with our analysis of the structure corresponding to the counting reading, where the classifier first takes NP as complement and then the whole element can be taken as complement by NumPs (cf. chapter 6). (53)

ClP Cl beni ‘volume’

NP N shu ‘book’

The structure of (53) can form the basis of an indefinite NumP as in (54a), or a definite DP with a demonstrative D as in (54b), or be the complement of Num, and Num+Cl+N the complement of DP, as in (54c). (54) a. liang ben shu two CL book ‘two books’ b. zhe ben shu this CL book ‘this book’

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c. zhe liang ben shu these two CL book ‘these two books’ Following the observation that the classifier in “Cl+N” only has a counting reading, we propose that indefinite “Cl+N” denotes a set of atomic entities, a set of singularities. In Chapter 6, we proposed the following meaning for the [+Counting] classifiers: (55) ȜkȜx. ʌ1(x)∈(>k ?k)∧α(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k The classifier in (55) takes a kind as input and maps it onto set of the atomic instances of the kind in counting context k, that have the lexical property α expressed by the classifier. This is the basis for the indefinite reading of “Cl+N”: (56) a. NshuN =?BOOK (kind-denoting) >? b.Nben shuN=Ȝx. ʌ1(x) ∈( BOOK ŀ k) ∧Volume(ʌ1(x)) ∧ ʌ2(x)=k This semantics for “Cl+N” makes two predictions. First, it predicts that the indefinite “Cl+N” is available in postverbal positions in all the three Chinese languages. The semantics of “Cl+N” in (55) interprets “Cl+N” as a predicative nominal phrase of type . This is the right ‘indefinite’ semantics for noun phrases in post-copula positions (Partee 1987). For object position, I make the assumption, which is widely made in the literature following Heim (1982), that object position is in the scope of an operation of default existential closure, and I assume that it is this operation that gives the “Cl+N’ its indefinite interpretation. The interpretation is shown in (57): (57) a. Wo mai le ben shu. I buy PFV CLvolume book ‘I bought a book.’ b. Nben shuN=Ȝx.ʌ1(x) ∈(>?BOOK ŀ k) ∧Volume(ʌ1(x)) ∧ ʌ2(x)= k c. ∃x∃ ∃e[BUY(e) ∧ Ag(e)=I ∧ Th(e)=x ∧ ʌ1(x)∈(>?BOOKŀk)∧Volume(ʌ1(x)) ∧ ʌ2(x)=k] However, unlike in English, I assume that default existential closure has scope over the VP and not over the subject position (e.g. Diesing 1992).

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This explains why indefinite Cl+N cannot occur preverbally, unless they are under the scope of the explicit existential operator you as was shown in (9a). Secondly, the semantics in (55) predicts that “Cl+N” can only be interpreted as a singular indefinite, not a plural indefinite. “Cl+N” denotes a set of atoms, a set of singularities, and existential closure expresses that this set is not empty.

6.3. Semantics of definite “Cl+N”: from counting to definiteness-marking In this subsection, I propose a semantics for the definite interpretation of the classifiers Lyons (1999) claims that the semantic-pragmatic concept of definiteness exists in all languages, but that its grammatical realization may differ cross-linguistically. While languages pick their notion of definiteness from the family of concepts that relate to inclusiveness, identifiability and referentiality, they may differ in what element they choose. So the crucial question for us is: what does definiteness of classifiers mean in Chinese languages?

6.3.1. A uniqueness-based approach of definiteness Cheng and Sybesma (1999) assume that classifiers with a definite interpretation have the same meaning as the English definite article: “if we maintain that Chinese nouns are predicates, classifiers are like Ds in that (a) they are type-shifters, changing predicates into arguments, and (b) they yield the definite interpretation (comparable to an iota operator).” (Cheng and Sybesma: 1999: 520-521). Wu and Bodomo (2009) argue against this. They show that the definite reading of Cheng and Sybesma’s Cantonese examples has restrictions that English definite phrases headed by the do not have. Consider (58). (58) a. keoi maai-zo gaa ce. he sell-ZO CL car ‘He sold the car.’ (Cheng and Sybesma 1999:524, (25b)) b. Wufei jam-jyun wun /di tong la. Wufei drink-finish CLbowl /CLPL soup PRF ‘Wufei finished the soup.’ (Cheng and Sybesma 2005:270, (24b))

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Wu and Bodomo (2009:497) argue that (58a) is only appropriate when the hearer already knows that a third person owned a car (and only one car), and that (58b) requires that the hearer knows that a person called Wufei was served a particular bowl of soup or some particular soup. Without these assumptions, you do not get a definite reading, but an indefinite reading, where the bare classifier gaa ce in (58a) is understood as ‘a car’, and wun/di tong in (58b) as ‘a bowl of soup/some soup’. The definite interpretation of definite “Cl+N” depends on the context to a great exent. I will show here that definite classifiers in Wu shouldn’t be identified with English style determiners either. First, “the+N” in English obviously does not have the same distribution as definite “Cl+N” in Wu. As shown earlier, in Wu, definite “Cl+N” is restricted to preverbal positions, while “the+N” in English does not have such a restriction. Secondly, the definite classifier in Wu does not have a uniqueness presupposition. Uniqness is neither a necessary nor a suffcient condition for the use of definite classifiers in Wu. Following Sharvy (1980) and Link (1983), the English definite article the is interpreted as a sigma operation (generalizing Russell’s 1905 iota operation): an operation that maps a set on the sum of the elements in that set, if that sum is itself in the set, and is undefined otherwise. Now, I assume a predicative interpretation for “Cl+N’, and a DP interpretation for the whole phrase, so it is not the classifier itself that is interpreted as the sigma operation, but, presumably, the D position. But the sigma operation has a uniqueness presupposition built into its meaning. Li and Bisang (2012) argue that this is not appropriate for Wu. In the first place, note that uniqueness is found in Chinese languages like Wu in expressions that are not classifier phrases at all. Löbner (1985) proposes that across languages, there exists a special group of nouns which refers to unique entities, independently of the particular situation referred to, nouns like sky and sun. Those nouns tend to occur with the definite article in English: the sky and the sun. In Wu, these nouns occur as bare nouns, as in (59). (59) a. thiƾ zѷ lan ko. [generic] [Wu] sky be blue PRT ‘The sky is blue (in general).’ b. tha-ian iҌ-tin-vΩҌ-tin ko faҌ-kuaƾ-faҌ-࠺iҌ. sun non-stop Mod emit-light-emit-heat ‘The sun emits light and heat non-stop.’

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Note that the examples in (59) are generic: (59a) means that the sky is blue in general and (59b) means that the sun has the properties ascribed to it in a permanent way. Similarly, proper names referring to places or locations can also be used to make unique reference independent of context. Again, in English, they take the definite article: the Great Wall, the Capital. In contrast, the counterparts in Wu occur as bare nouns: (60) a. dzan tshən koʑ zѷkuaƾ zэ ko ? Great Wall what time build PRT ‘When was the Great Wall built?’ b. [Looking at the map of China] юiudo tΩ ga-i? Capital at where ‘Where is the Capital?’ Secondly, the examples with definite “Cl+N” in Wu that I have discussed do not generally presuppose uniqueness. Look at the examples in (61): (61) a. [In a room with three doors, one of which is open] юuan mΩn bΩҌ ƾќ kuan-ўэ i. CL door help me close it ‘Please help me close the door.’ b. kintsэ uѓlѓ pænlќ laƾ, tsΩҌ leƾthѓ tюhi phaҌ ࠺iэ die. today back halfway on Cl tyre go broken PRT ‘Today, on the way back, the tyre was flat.’ (61a) is an immediate situational use: three doors are part of the background, and I do not need to assume that “Cl+door“ must refer to a door that is presupposed to be unique. There is reference to a single door, because of the semantics of the classifier given, but the actual utterance will identify the correct one without presupposition requirements. In other words, if accommodation goes on here (as predicted by Kadmon 1987), it is so subtle that native speakers do not notice it. (61b) is an associative use or a bridging cross-reference use situation. A singular tyre is mentioned of a car which is known to the hearer and the speaker. Not enough information is given to determine which of the four tyres it is, i.e. not enough information is given to uniquely identify the tyre. And such information is not required either.

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These cases are not atypical for Wu at all, nor for Cantonese: mostly the uses of definite “Cl+N” are like the cases in (59), uniqueness plays no role.

6.3.2. A familiarity-based approach of definiteness While I have argued that uniqueness plays no role in the semantics of definite [Cl+N], familiarity does. Familiarity accounts of definiteness are given in the literature by Christopherson (1939), Hawkins (1978), Heim (1982), and many after that. The idea is that definites are used to pick out referents that are ‘in some sense’ familiar to the discourse participants. For example, Christophersen (1939) argues that the use of ‘the’ in English directs the hearer to the referent of a noun phrase, by indicating that this referent is familiar to hearer as well as speaker. Heim (1982) proposes that the use of a noun phrase is familiar if it links to a discourse referent about which there is already information in the local context of interpretation, which she formalizes as a file of information held in common by the interlocutors in the discourse. A recent proposal concerning familiarity is made by Roberts (2003). Roberts (2003) distinguishes two kinds of familiarity: “strong familiarity” and “weak familiarity”. “Strong familiarity” refers to discourse-anaphoric uses of definites, which essentially require a definite to be anaphoric to a preceding linguistic expression. In contrast, the notion of “weak familiarity” allows for a number of ways in which something can be familiar: by being perceptually accessible to the discourse participants, by being ‘globally familiar in the general culture’, or by being derivable through contextual existence entailments (Roberts 2003: 304). Weak familiarity only requires that the existence of the relevant entity be entailed by the interlocutor’s common ground (Roberts 2003: 306). I propose that definiteness in the Chinese languages be identified with Roberts’ notion of weak familiarity. I propose that definite “Cl+N” refer to entities that are directly involved in the situation or are presupposed to be familiar or identifiable by interlocutors, as part of the background information. What contexts allow the presence of “Cl+N”? In general, the definite “Cl+N” construction is more frequently found in daily conversations than in descriptive contexts like, for instance, story-telling. The most natural situations for their use are immediate situation uses like we have seen in (59): on-the-spot uses, the bridging use etc. Anaphoric uses are not very

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natural. In what follows, I will use the data of Wu Chinese (the Fuyang dialect) to illustrate the possible contexts for definite “Cl+N”. Context 1— the on-the-spot use: definite “Cl+N” naturally refers to a perceptually visible entity. ia kua-ȵiɔ die. [Wu: Fuyang] (62) khuaʔ kulɛ, bu tshotsɿ pΩʔ quick come CL car PASS they scratch PRT ‘Come over! The car was scratched by someone.’ Here the speaker is reporting what he/she found in the scene. Suppose that there are two cars in their family and they are parked next to each other. The speaker finds that one of them is scratched and calls the rest of the family members. The hearers will only identify which car is scratched after entering the immediate situation. The expression kќ ࠺in ‘Cl man’ can even refer to the speaker or the addressee if (and only if) they are on the spot: (63) a. kintsɔ kɤ ȵin man tɕhiəʔȵiʔ. [Wu: Fuyang] today CL man very tired ‘Today, the person (the speaker) is very tired.’ b. kΩmэ kќ ࠺in kaҌ lэ юian man. currently Cl man so old look PRT ‘Lately, the person (the addressee) looks so old.’ “Cl+N” in (63a) refers to the speaker himself, and (63b) refers to the hearer on the spot. A scenario for (63a) is the following: a husband returns home after working for a long day. When he sees his wife in the kitchen, he says (63a) to describe his tiredness to his wife. A scenario for (63b) is the following: two old friends have not seen each other for a few years. One day they meet in the street. One of them says (63b) to the other, to comment on the addressee’s physical appearance. Context 2—the familiarity use: definite “Cl+N” refers to the entity that is assumed to be known by interlocutors in a local context. (64) a-biƾ, tsΩʔ kiu ɕiankhan san mɔbiƾ die. A-Ping, CL dog seem get sick PRT ‘A-Ping, the dog seems to get sick.’

[Wu: Fuyang]

In (64), the speaker is telling the hearer about the sickness of the dog. In reporting this event, he assumes that the hearer knows which dog he is

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talking about. In most cases, the definite refers to the individual in their immediate environment, e.g. their own dog at home. But the dog need not be on the scene. In the two uses discussed so far, the definite can easily be a ‘new’ definite, not mentioned before in the discourse. Context 3—the bridging use: the definite CL+N can be modified by different modifiers, e.g. nouns, pronouns, adjectives, relative clauses. [Modifier+CL+N] always implies definiteness. (65) a. [tsəʔ kiu] [tsəʔ tɕiaʔ] tɛnȵiɔ die. CL dog CL leg fracture PRT ‘The leg of the dog was fractured.’ b. faƾkan [kќ khѓkuan] ua࠺iэ die. room CL switch broken PRT ‘The switch of the room does not work.’

[Wu: Fuyang]

In these examples, the head noun has a relational interpretation, such as ‘the leg of … etc.’. Clark (1977) calls this the “bridging” phenomenon. I assume that the modifiers provide relevant contextual information to help to identify relevant referents in the denotation of N. As I mentioned, definite “Cl+N” are not naturally used in cases of strong familiarity, i.e. as discourse anaphors. In the English example in (66a) (from Heim 1982), the glass is strongly familiar, since it is a discourse anaphor to the indefinite antecedent a glass. In Wu, it is preferable to use demonstratives or pro-drop in such cases, as in (66c-d). (66) a. A wine glass broke last night. The glass had been very expensive. b. ? ƾќ khэpha lΩ tsΩҌ pѓtsѷ. [tsΩҌ pætsѷ] mъn kuѓ. I break PFV CL glass CL glass very expensive ‘I broke a glass. The glass had been very expensive.’ c. ƾќ khэpha lΩ tsΩҌ pѓtsѷ. mъn kuѓ ko. I break PFV CL glass very expensive PRT ‘I broke a glass. (It) had been very expensive.’ d. ƾќ khэpha lΩ tsΩҌ pѓtsѷ. [kΩҌ tsΩҌ pѓtsѷ] man kuѓ. I break PFV CL glass DEM CL glass very expensive ‘I broke a glass. This glass had been very expensive.’ There are two facts that a familiarity-based proposal can easily explain.

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First, definite “Cl+N” has an episodic reading, while definite bare nouns have a generic reading: (67) a. (*kɤ) tha-iaƾ zɿ iuan ko. Cl sun be round PRT ‘The sun is round.’ b. kintsэ *(kќ) tha-iaƾ man dќ. today CL sun very big ‘Today, the sun is really strong.’

[Generic]

[Episodic]

(67a), with the bare noun tha-iaƾ ‘sun’, means that the sun has the generic property of being round’. In contrast, (67b) with the definite “Cl+N” kќ tha-iaƾ means that the sun is really strong at a particular moment. I propose that bare nouns like tha-iaƾ have a uniqueness requirement built into their semantics and are used naturally in contexts where we express what the characteristic properties of this unique object are. On the other hand, the definite reading of “Cl+N” kќ tha-iaƾ implies familiarity in a context here and now: we are likely to use it to express properties that are instantiated here and now, episodic properties. The second fact is why there is a subject-object asymmetry for definite “Cl+N” in Wu: (68) a. ƾɤ khɔphaʔ le [tsəʔ uan]. 1SG break PFV CL bowl ‘I broke a bowl.’ NOT ‘I broke the bowl.’

[SVO]

b. ƾќ khΩҌ [tsΩҌ uan ] tюhi khэpha die. 1SG OM CL bowl go break PRT ‘I broke the bowl.’ c. [tsΩҌ uan], ƾќ khэpha ko. CL bowl 1SG break PRT ‘The bowl, I broke (it).’ NOT ‘A bowl, I broken (it).’

[SOV]

[Topicalization]

As explained, in Chinese, topics are usually found in preverbal positions and express hearer-old information. In contrast, foci are usually in postverbal positions and express hearer-new information. But, of course, familiarity is a ‘hearer-old’ notion. Hence we expect definite “Cl+N” to occur in topic positions, hence preverbal positions.

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6.3.3. Semantics of definite “Cl+N” I now formulate the semantics of definite CL+N. The semantics I gave for indefinite “CL+N”, such as ben shu ‘CL book’ in (69), is repeated in (70): (69) Wo mai le ben shu. I buy PFV CLvolume book ‘I bought a book.’ (70) a. Nben shuN=Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈(?>BOOK ŀ k)∧Volume(ʌ1(x)) ∧ʌ2(x)= k b. ∃x∃ ∃e[BUY(e)∧Ag(e)=I∧Th(e)=x∧ʌ1(x)∈(?>BOOKŀk) ∧Volume(ʌ1(x)) ∧ ʌ2(x)=k]] I derive a predicative meaning for “Cl+N”, which gets existentially closed by default existential closure in postverbal positions like object position. I assume the same predicative interpretation for definite “Cl+N” to start with. I proposed a different syntax for definite “Cl+N”, which involves Clto-D raising. I claim that this syntactic operation is semantically interpreted much like the operation of argument formation AF in Landman (2004). Landman’s AF operation is in essence a definiteness type shifting rule: it maps a predicate interpretation on a generalized quantifier which is the result of existentially closing and maximalizing the predicate interpretation. Now maximalization corresponds to Sharvy’s sigma operation, and I have argued in this chapter that the sigma operation is not appropriate for Chinese. So I want to replace it by what is appropriate for Chinese, a condition of weak familiarity. I formulate argument formation as: (71) AFWEAK-FAM: α → λP.∃x[α(x) ∧WEAK-FAM(x) ∧ P(x)] I propose, then, that AFWEAK-FAM is the interpretation of Cl-to-D raising. This means that it will take the predicative meaning of “Cl+N” (in (72a) into a generalized quantifier meaning (in (72b): (72) a. Ȝx.ʌ1(x) ∈ (>k ŀ k) ∧ α(ʌ1(x)) ∧ ʌ2(x)= k b.ȜP∃x[ʌ1(x)∈(>kŀk)∧α(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k∧WEAK-FAM(ʌ1(x)) ∧P(ʌ1 (x))] I work this out for the definite “Cl+N” in (73):

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(73) kintsэ man lan. kɤ tюhuaƾdoƾ laƾ piƾ tюiҌ man die. today very cold CL window on ice freeze full PRT ‘Today is very cold. The window is full of ice.’ (74) Denotation of “Cl+N” at type a. Predicate interpretation: Nkܶ t‫ܨ‬huaƾdoƾN=Ȝx.ʌ1(x)∈(>?WINDOW ?k)∧Unit(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k b. Definite interpretation: ȜP∃x[ʌ1(x)∈(>?WINDOW ŀ k)∧Unit(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k ∧WEAK-FAM(ʌ1(x))∧P(ʌ1 (x))] With this semantic expression, the window will need to satisfy the requirements of weak familiarity discussed above.

7. Summary This chapter examined the distribution, syntax and semantics of the indefinite and definite Cl+N construction in three Sinitic languages. I showed that the distribution of definite and indefinite “Cl+N” is constrained to different degrees by the information structure in the three languages I examined. In particular, definite “Cl+N” are typically found in preverbal positions, which are usually topics, and indefinite “Cl+N” in postverbal positions, which are usually foci. I argued that indefinite “Cl+N” are classifier phrases whose indefinite semantics in object position are derived from default existential closure over the internal arguments of the VP, (following in essence Heim 1982), while definite “Cl+N” are DPs, in which the classifier undergoes Cl-to-D raising, a process which is semantically interpreted as argument formation (following Landman 2004). Argument formation produces a definite generalized quantifier interpretation. Whereas in English the definiteness condition involved is taken to be a maximalization condition (following Sharvy 1980), for Chinese this condition is taken to be weak familiarity (following Roberts 2003).

Chapter 10 Definite classifiers and their modifiers

1. Introduction to modified “Cl+N” In chapter 9, I showed that in some southern Chinese languages, classifiers are able to undertake the role of definiteness-marking in the ClassifierNoun construction. Specifically, I argued that definite classifiers in “Cl+N” in Wu and Cantonese are not fully-grammaticalized definite articles and they are “quasi definite articles”: (i) they are able to instantiate the D head (via Cl-to-D raising) and head a DP projection; (ii) definiteness expressed by definite classifiers is characterized with “familiarity” but not “uniqueness” (cf. Li and Bisang 2012). This goes against Boškoviü’s (2010:13) claim that “obligatory numeral classifier systems occur only in NP languages… if a language has an obligatory classifier system, it does not have DP.” In the current chapter, I extend the research from the bare form of “Cl+N” to non-bare “Cl+N”, i.e. the complex phrase composed of “Cl+N” and its preceding elements, such as adjectives, demonstratives etc. In particular, I make a case study on non-bare “Cl+N” in Wu (the Fuyang dialect). I will show that the peculiar syntactic and semantic properties of non-bare “Cl+N” in Wu can only be explained with an appeal to the DP proposal of definite classifiers. As discussed in chapter 9, both indefinite and definite readings are available for “Cl+N” in Wu: preverbal “Cl+N” with a definite reading and postverbal ones with an indefinite reading. These two uses are represented in the example (1). (1) [kɤ iaʔsən] ɕiʔȵiʔtsɿ tɕhi ma lΩ [pΩn CL student yesterday go buy PFV CL ‘The student went to buy a book yesterday.’

ɕy].

book

In addition to that, “Cl+N” in Wu can also be used in non-bare forms. That is, they can be preceded by adjectives, demonstratives and possessors

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etc. Unlike bare “Cl+N” that is ambiguous between indefinite and definite readings, non-bare “Cl+N” is unambiguously definite. Consider (2): (2) a. ɕiɔ kΩ [tsΩʔ kiu] small Mod CL dog ‘the small dog’ b. ƾta [tsΩҌ kiu] that CL dog ‘that dog’ c. ƾa [tsΩҌ kiu] you CL dog ‘your dog’

[Adjective/RC]

[Demonstrative]

[Possessor]

It is even possible to have multiple occurrences of those elements before “Cl+N” in Wu, as in (3). But they are subject to a certain ordering restriction. For example, the demonstrative must stand closest to “Cl+N”, as in (3a) and it cannot precede a modified “Cl+N”, as in (3b). (3) a. ɕin santshΩʔlɛ kΩ new born Mod ‘that newly born dog’ b.#ƾta юin santshΩҌlѓ kΩ that new born Mod

ƾta [tsΩʔ kiu] that CL dog [tsΩҌ kiu] CL dog

In contrast, in Mandarin, there is only indefinite “Cl+N” but no definite “Cl+N”. The sentence (4a) is ungrammatical with “Cl+N” as subject. It is sufficient to use a bare noun, such as bi ‘pen’ as its subject, meaning ‘the pen(s)’. However, Mandarin “Cl+N” can be used in postverbal positions without any problem, where it has an indefinite reading, as in (4b). (4) a. * [zhi bi] huai le. CL pen broken PRF ‘The pen was broken.’ b. wo jintian mai le [zhi bi]. I today buy PFV CL pen. ‘I bought a pen today.’

[Mandarin]

Moreover, Mandarin does not have non-bare “Cl+N” either. It is impossible to find “Adjective/Relative clause/Possessor/…+Cl+N” in Manda-

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rin and the only exception is the demonstrative phrase “Dem+Cl+N”. Compare (5a-b) with (5c). (5) a.* xiao de zhi gou small Mod CL dog Intended: ‘the small dog’ b.*wo de zhi gou I Mod CL dog Intended: ‘the dog of mine’ c. na zhi gou that CL dog ‘that dog’

[Adj/RC]

[Possessor]

[Demonstrative]

The following questions are raised from the data exhibited in (1-5): a. What is the underlying reason why Wu allows “Cl+N” to be modified and Mandarin does not? Is it possible to propose a unified DP structure for determiner phrases in Mandarin and Wu? b. What is the ordering restriction regarding the multiple occurrence of modifiers before “Cl+N” in Wu? What does that tell us about their syntactic status? c. Why can those elements preceding “Cl+N” induce a definite reading in Wu? How can “Cl+N” and its modifiers be interpreted in a compositional way? The rest of the chapter is structured as follows. Section 2 discusses the syntactic relations of definite classifier and its preceding elements. I argue that modified “Cl+N” is a definite expression, in which the classifier heads a DP projection and demonstratives are located in [Spec DP] and other preceding elements are DP modifiers. In Section 3, I propose a compositional semantics for modified “Cl+N” à la Bach and Cooper (1978). The last section is the conclusion of the chapter.

2. Syntax of modified “Cl+N” in Wu In this section, I will look at the syntax of definite classifiers by examining the relation between “Cl+N” and its preceding elements. The following two questions will be examined: (i) is non-bare “Cl+N” an indefinite phrase with a specific reading or a definite phrase? (ii) if non-bare “Cl+N”

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is a definite phrase, then what is the syntactic relation between the definite classifier and its preceding elements?

2.1. Modified “Cl+N” as a definite expression As said earlier, a non-modified “Cl+N” in Wu can be interpreted with either a definite or an indefinite reading in different syntactic contexts (recall example (1)). However, a modified “Cl+N” has an unambiguous definite reading in Wu. Modified “Cl+N” refers to entities that are assumed to be known to the interlocutors or are able to be identified in the context. Consider the examples in (6): ɕy (6) a. ƾ kΩ pΩn red Mod CL book ‘the red book’ b. ta mэtsѷ kΩ kќ юiэkuѓ wear hat Mod CL boy ‘the boy that wears a hat’

In (6a), by using the modified “Cl+N”, the speaker intends the hearer to identify a particular book, namely, the red book but not the others. The sentence (6a) presupposes that in the given context, there are more than one book and the adjective red helps to identify the relevant one, to be contrasted with the alternatives, say, the black one, the white one etc. We suggest that a modified “Cl+N”, such as the one in (6a), expresses a definite reading and not a specific indefinite reading. The example (6b) can be interpreted in the same way that the hearer is able to identify the relevant boy with the property expressed by the modifier, i.e. the property of wearing a hat. I now show syntactic evidence to prove that non-bare [Cl-N] is a definite expression, but not a specific indefinite phrase. I provide two pieces of evidence in support of this statement. The first piece of evidence is concerned with the “definiteness effect” in existential clauses (Milsark 1987). Existential clauses in Mandarin are expressed by the existential verb you ‘there be’ and only indefinite phrases, such as numeral classifier phrases, are allowed to be the pivot of existential (see Huang 1987 for Mandarin existentials). Existentials in Wu work in the same way as Mandarin. They are introduced by the existential verb iu ‘there be’ and definite phrases are not allowed in existentials.

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For example, (7a) has the phrase “Cl+N”, i.e. kќ ࠺in, as pivot of the existential clause, but it can only be interpreted with an indefinite reading, meaning ‘a person’, but not a definite reading ‘the person’. It is parallel to the example with a numeral classifier phrase, as in (7b). (7) a. xoҌtюia iu kќ ࠺in ti tΩƾ ƾ. downstairs there:be CL people PROG wait you ‘There is a person waiting for you downstairs.’ b. xoҌtюia iu iҌ kќ ࠺in ti tΩƾ ƾ. downstairs there:be one CL people PROG wait you ‘There is a person waiting for you downstairs.’ On the contrary, modified “Cl+N” is not allowed to appear in existential, as shown in (8a). To make this sentence grammatical, we must delete the existential iu ‘there be’, as in (8b). The sentence (8b) is turned into a nonexistential sentence, which has a modified “Cl+N” as subject. (8) a. # xoҌtюia iu soƾ юin kΩ kќ ࠺in ti tΩƾ ƾ. downstairs there:be send letter Mod CL people PROG wait you ‘There is the man who sends newspaper is waiting for you downstairs.’ b. xoҌtюia soƾ юin kΩ kќ ࠺in ti tΩƾ ƾ. downstairs send letter Mod CL people PROG wait you ‘The man who sends newspaper is waiting for you downstairs.’ The second piece of evidence is concerned with the possibility of the recovery of the numeral ‘one’. “Cl+N” always has a singular interpretation. When “Cl+N” has an indefinite singular reading, it is possible to recover the numeral iҌ ‘one’ before it. However, it is impossible to have ONE insertion before definite “Cl+N”. For example, in (9a), we can insert an optional ONE before the postverbal tюin i-saƾ ‘CL shirt’, meaning ‘a shirt’, but in (9b), it is impossible to have ONE before definite “Cl+N” at the subject position. (9) a. ƾa m-ma pΩҌ ƾ ta lΩ (iҌ) [tюin i-saƾ] lɛ. you mum give you bring PFV one CL shirt directional ‘Your mum (asked me to) bring a shirt to you.’ b. (*iҌ) [tsΩҌ kiu] m-࠺iэ diѓ. one CL dog lost PRT ‘The dog is missing.’

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In the case of modified “Cl+N” that we discuss here, the operation of ONE insertion is never possible between “Cl+N” and its modifiers. The relevant examples are given in (10). They behave like definite “Cl+N” but not indefinite “Cl+N”. (10) a. ƾta (*iҌ) tsΩҌ that one CL ‘that dog’ b. юiэ kΩ (*iҌ) small Mod one ‘the small dog’ c. юin san tshΩҌlѓ kΩ new born Mod ‘the newly born dog’

kiu dog

[Demonstrative]

tsΩҌ CL

kiu dog

(*iҌ) one

tsΩҌ CL

[Adjective]

kiu dog

[Relative clause]

From these three facts, I conclude that the modified “Cl+N” is a definite expression, but not a specific indefinite phrase. The classifier in modified “Cl+N” is supposed to have the same syntactic and semantic properties as its use in non-modified “Cl+N”.

2.2. Modified “Cl+N” as DP Given that modified “Cl+N” is a definite phrase, we assume that it can be decomposed into definite bare “Cl+N” phrases and left pheripheral elements in a simplified way. In this subsection, we will first examine whether the relevant linguistic facts about modified “Cl+N” are able to support the DP proposal of definite classifiers, as proposed in Chapter 9 and in Li and Bisang (2012). Secondly, we will figure out where the preceding elements should be located with respect to definite “Cl+N” in the relevant syntactic structure. Specifically, we will separate demonstratives from the rest, such as adjectives, relative clauses, and possessors etc. We will argue that in Wu, demonstratives are [Spec DP] and adjectives, relative clauses etc. are DP modifiers.

2.2.1. Definite classifiers as D head It is argued earlier that in Wu, in definite bare “Cl+N”, the classifier instantiates the D0, via Cl0-to-D0 raising. One crucial piece of evidence in

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support of the DP hypothesis for definite “Cl+N” given by Li and Bisang (2012) is about the use of proper names in Wu. It is shown below: (11) What about XiaoWang? a. юiэ-uaƾ ࠺in? Xiao Wang Q b. kќ юiэ-uaƾ ࠺in? CL XiaoWang Q Proper names with or without classifier have the same denotation, i.e. being rigid designators. For example, both kќ юiэuaƾ and юiэuaƾ refer to the same individual, XiaoWang. Assuming that both proper name and CLproper name are treated as DP, a plausible account for the data in (21) is that: proper names are base-generated as N, which may be raised to D position, as in (11a), or remain in N position if the D position is lexically filled, such as a definite classifier, as in (11b) (see Longobardi 1999 for the discussion on proper names in Italian). I now provide two independent pieces of evidence to support the DP structure of modified “Cl+N”. The first evidence comes from coordination. When two modifiers are coordinated and then followed by a classifier, such as [[Possessor1 +Possessor2]+Cl], it makes reference to a singular entity, as in (12a). However, if what is coordinated are two “modifier-Cl”, such as [[Possessor1+CL]+[Possessor2-CL]], the coordinated phrase makes a plural reference, as in (12b). (12) a. [юiэuaƾ tsΩҌ юiэloҌ ] pΩn юy [Singularity] XiaoWang and Xiao Lu CL book ‘Xiao Wang and Xiao Lu’s book’ b. [DP [юiэuaƾ] pΩn] tsΩҌ [DP[юiэloҌ] pΩn] юy [Plurality] XiaoWang CL and XiaoLu CL book ‘XiaoWang’s (book) and Xiao Lu’s book’ The test in (12a) suggests that the classifier is not part of the modifier and they occupy two different positions. The plural referentiality of the coordinated phrase suggests that the coordination of [Modifier-CL] in (12b) may be a sort of DP coordination and that the head of the DP is most likely to be headed by the classifier (see Jenks 2011 for relevant facts in Thai). The second piece of evidence is about the singular demonstrative phrase. In both Wu and Mandarin, Dem-Cl-N implies singularity. In Mandarin, an

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optional numeral ‘one’ can be inserted between Dem and [Cl-N], as in 1 (13a), but such insertion is impossible in Wu, as in (13b). (13) a. na that b. ƾta that

(yi) ben shu one CL book (*iҌ) pΩn юy one CL book

[Mandarin] [Wu]

One of the ways of explaining the contrast in (13) is that in Mandarin, the classifier in Dem-Cl-N remains at its base-generated classifier position, i.e. between Num and N, and that in Wu, the classifier is located at a position higher than Num0. It is possibly raised from Cl0 to D0 by crossing the empty Num head, if we assume that Wu has the DP structure: [DPD[NumP Num [ClP Cl [NP N]]]]. Based on the two facts exhibited in (12) and (13), we suggest that in modified “Cl+N” in Wu, the classifier no longer sits at its base-generated Cl0 position and it is a determiner head and it heads a DP projection. Therefore, definite classifiers always act as the head of DP, regardless of being modified or not.

2.2.2. Dems as [Spec DP] This section examines the syntactic status of the elements preceding “Cl+N”, such as demonstratives, adjectives, possessors etc. I treat demonstratives separately from the other types of modifiers, since they may occupy two different syntactic positions. I claim that demonstratives are specifiers to the DP and the other modifiers are simply DP modifiers. I deal with the syntactic status of demonstrative first. There are two interesting facts about demonstratives in Wu. First, demonstratives are able to express definiteness. Numeral classifier phrases are indefinite in Wu in general and a demonstrative is needed to turn them into definites. However, the phrase “Dem-Num-Cl-N” can only express plurality but not singularity. In other wods, the numeral after Dem can only be larger than one. Compare (14a) with (14b).

1

In Mandarin, modifiers can modify [Dem-Cl-N] only but not [Cl-N]. Maybe this is due to the fact that in Mandarin, [Cl-N] is inherently indefinite and Cl0-to-D0 raising is prohibited in general.

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(14) a. ƾta san pΩn юy that three CL book ‘these three books’ b.* ƾta iҌ pΩn юy that one CL book Intended: ‘that book’ To express singularity, we simply use “Cl+N” (15a) or “Dem+Cl+N” (15b), but demonstrative cannot directly modify a noun without a classifier (15c). Therefore, the singularity of (15b) is dependent on the classifier and the demonstrative itself does not express singularity. (15) a. tsΩҌ kiu zѷ ala-ko. CL dog be 1PL-MOD ‘The dog is ours.’ b. ƾta tsΩҌ kiu zѷ ala-ko. that CL dog be 1PL-MOD ‘That dog is ours.’ c. *ƾta kiu zѷ ala-ko. that dog be 1PL-MOD ‘That dog is ours.’ The facts in (14) and (15) tell us that although definite classifiers and demonstratives are both able to express definiteness, they are differentiated in number: the former are definite singulars, while the latter are preferred to express definite plurals, though singular reference is also possible. Second, in expressing definite singulars, a demonstrative always stands on the left side of classifiers, not vice versa. Namely, Dem-Cl-N is the only possible order and Cl-Dem-N is not grammatical. Compare (16) with (15b). (16) * tsΩҌ CL

ƾta kiu zѷ ala-ko. that dog be 1PL-MOD

How can we account for these two facts? According to Giutsi (1999, 2002), a FP is licensed by (a) making the specifier visible and/or (b) making the head visible. The realization of a functional head is the last resort. In our case, the D head, i.e. the classifier, has to be visible only when we want to express singularity, as exhibited in (14-15). A possible arrangement of demonstrative and definite classifier is that demonstratives, as the leftmost element in the DP domain, are located in the specifier position of

284

Definite classifiers and their modifiers

DP, as headed by definite classifiers.They are responsible for expressing plural definites.

2.2.3. Adjs/RCs as [Spec DP] I now move onto the discussion on adjectives, relative clauses and possessors before definite “Cl+N”. There are several differences between demonstratives and the other elements, such as adj/RC and possessor. The first difference is concerned with the possibility of the modification marker /kԥ/. It is obligatory for Adj and RC to take a modification marker /kԥ/. It is possible for possessors to take /kԥ/, though not obligatory. Demonstratives can never be followed by the modification marker /kԥ/. (17) a. юiэ *(kΩ) tsΩҌ small Mod CL ‘the small dog’ b. юin san tshΩҌlѓ new born out ‘the newly born dog’ c. ƾa (kΩ) tsΩҌ 1PL Mod CL ‘your dog’ d. ƾta (*kΩ) tsΩҌ that Mod CL dog ‘that dog’

kiu dog *(kΩ) tsΩҌ Mod CL

[Adjective]

kiu dog

[Relative clause]

kiu dog

[Possessor]

kiu

[Demonstrative]

The possibility of the presence of /kԥ/ separates adjectives, relatives and possessors from demonstratives. The former are modifiers in nature and the demonstratives are not, if we take the position that the morpheme /kԥ/ is a modification marker which obligatorily follows modifiers when modifying nouns (comparable to the modification marker de in Mandarin, cf. Chapter 8). The second difference is about the ordering of demonstrative and these modifiers. Occurrence of multiple preceding elements is possible, but it is restricted by the ordering constraint that demonstratives must always stand closest to [Cl-N] and the Adj/RC or possessors stand to the left side of DP. In other words, we can only have the order of “Modifier+Dem+Cl+N”, as in (18a) but not “Dem+Modifier+Cl+N”, as in (18b).

Semantics of non-bare “Cl+N”

(18) a. Adj/RC/Poss+Dem+Cl+N ўΩҌ kΩ ƾta tsΩҌ black Mod that CL ‘that dog with black fur’ b.*Dem+Adj/RC/Poss+CL+N *ƾta ўΩҌ kΩ tsΩҌ that black Mod CL

285

kiu dog

kiu dog

If our claim is correct that RCs, adjectives and possessors are modifiers and demonstratives are elements within DP, then the fact in (18) tells us that those modifiers are DP modifiers. To summarize, the relevant linguistic facts about non-bare “Cl+N” in Wu that we have assembled so far show that (i) non-bare “Cl+N” is a definite expression, in which the classifier is a determiner head, and (ii) demonstratives are better to be treated as [Spec DP] and (iii) adjectives, relative clauses and possessors are DP modifiers.

3. Semantics of non-bare “Cl+N” This section works on the compositional semantics of non-bare “Cl+N”. As we saw earlier, nominal modifiers are left-branching in Wu Chinese. If my claim is correct that elements like adjectives and relative clauses etc. are DP modifiers, how can they be interpreted in a compositional way?

3.1. Definite classifiers characterized with “familiarity” Before working out the compositional semantics, I repeat some of the arguments on definiteness expressed by definite classifier, as proposed in Chapter 9 and in Li and Bisang (2012). Lyons (1999) claims that the semantic-pragmatic notion of definiteness exists universally, but the notion of definiteness may be represented differently, such as exclusiveness, uniqueness, identifiablity etc. According to Li and Bisang (2012), definite classifiers in Wu Chinese are characterized with the pragmatic notion of familiarity and not the semantic notion of uniqueness. First, uniqueness is not a necessary condition for the use of definite classifiers in Wu. There is a certain group of nouns that are inherently definite crosslinguistically. They are called “culturally unique entities” in

286

Definite classifiers and their modifiers

Löbner (1985). They can be expressed either by bare nouns or “Cl+N” in Wu, but “Cl+N” are used in a different context from bare nouns. zѷ lan ko. (19) a. thin sky be blue PRT ‘The sky is blue (in general).’ b. kintsэ ban thin man lan. today CL sky very blue ‘Today, the sky is very blue.’

[Generic]

[Episodic]

The bare noun thiƾ ‘sky’ in (19a) is used in a generic sentence, and it refers to the unique sky known to all of us. (19a) means that the sky is blue in general. However, ban thiƾ ‘CL sky’ in (19b) refers to the sky in a particular situation, which is known to the interlocutors. In this specific example, the temporal adverbial kintsэ ‘today’ helps to locate the entity in a very particular spatial-temporal point. Second, uniqueness is not a sufficient condition for the use of definite classifiers. Definite “Cl+N” does not presuppose uniqueness or exclusiveness, but they imply familiarity or identifiability. (20) a. ƾta tsΩҌ kiu that CL dog ‘that dog’ b. юin santshΩҌlѓ kΩ tsΩҌ kiu new born Mod CL dog ‘the newly born dog’

[Demonstrative]

[Relative clause]

(20a) implies that there is a set of individual dogs, and the use of demonstrative ƾta ‘that’, accompanied with gesture, helps to identify the relevant entity among others in the context. By uttering (20b), the speaker intends to refer to a particular dog, namely, the newly born one and not others. This requires not that there be just one dog but that there be just one dog that was newly born. Another observation made by Li and Bisang (2012) is that bare “Cl+N” is ambiguous between indefinite and definite readings, and that a definite [Cl-N] is restricted to preverbal positions, which are argued to be (secondary) topic positions in Wu. (cf. the relevant arguments were presented in chapter 9). To combine these arguments, it is proposed that definite “Cl+N” in Wu is characterized with familiarity in that the entity referred to by definite

Semantics of non-bare “Cl+N”

287

“Cl+N” function as the topic of the sentence and it presupposes the entity referred to to be familiar to the interlocutors.

3.2. Interpret modified “Cl-N” compositionally In English, relative clauses behave differently from other modifiers, such as adjectives, in that they occur on the right side of the head noun. Theoretically speaking, there are two possible ways to analyze the constituent relation of the head noun and the relative clause, namely, [[the N]-RC] and [the [N-RC]]. In the first case, the relative clause modifies the determiner phrase and in the second, the relative clause modifies the noun and the determiner scopes over the whole modified constituent. According to Partee (1975), [the [N-RC]] in (21b) is preferred over [[the N]-RC] in (21a) for the modified definite expression in English in terms of compositionality. In other words, the uniqueness requirement of the definite article the is relative to the extension of N-RC and not to that of N. The reasoning goes as follows: like adjectives, relative clauses in English should be treated as predicate modifiers, , which applies to predicates of type and return entities that are of the same type. (21) a.

NP NP Det

b. CP

N

NP Det

N’ N

CP

Nevertheless, in our case of non-bare “Cl+N” in Wu, we claimed that different modifiers before “Cl+N” are treated as DP modifiers. They are parallel to the structure in (21a). The linear order of Modifier-Cl-N seems to go contrary to Partee’s compositional semantics based on the structure (21b), since those modifiers do not modify the noun but the whole definite phrase “Cl+N”. Moreover, the presence of the marker /kԥ/ after Adj/RC and possessors suggests that those elements preceding “Cl+N” are predicative in nature (either being predicate or “predicate modifiers”). However, definite “Cl+N” is analyzed as a generalized quantifier in our early study. Therefore, it is quite surprising that [Cl-N] as a GQ can be modified by these predicate modifiers. There seems to be an obvious type mismatch.

288

Definite classifiers and their modifiers

The mismatching problem can be solved by taking into account the proposal offered by Bach and Cooper (1978). According to Bach and Cooper (1978), it is possible to work out a compositional semantics for the structure (22a), i.e. [[the N]-RC]. They argue that noun phrases (DPs in our term) can optionally take an extra property argument, which is saturated by the denotation of a high-adjoined relative clause and intersected with the property contributed by the content of the noun phrase. Its semantics is sketched in (22). (22)

NP2(=DP) NP1(=DP) Det

N

S’(=CP) who loves Mary

every man a. NNP1N= λRλP[(∀x)[man(x)∧ R(x)] → P(x) ] b. NS’N = λz[love (z, m)] c. NNP2N = λP [(∀x)[man(x)∧ love (x, m)] → P(x) ] It is clear from the semantics in (22) that a type-shifting is introduced: the GQ is converted from type to a function of type . As inspired by Bach and Cooper’s semantics in (22), we are now ready to work out the compositional semantics of definite “Cl+N” and its modifiers. In the discussion of bare “Cl+N”, we claimed that definite “Cl+N” is a generalized quantifier and it is lifted from the predicative use of “Cl+N”. This lifting operation (Partee 1987) may be seen as the corresponding syntactic operation of raising, namely, Cl-to-D raising. They also propose that a contextual variable C is introduced in the denotation of definite “Cl+N”, which represents contextual familiarity. We, following Chierchia (1998) and Li (2011), assume that bare nouns in classifier languages are kind denoting, as in (23). (23) Denotation of bare nouns NNN= k

Semantics of non-bare “Cl+N”

289

Indefinite [Cl-N] denotes a set of atomic instantiations of the relevant kind, as represented by k (k is a variable over kinds). See the representation in (24). (24) Indefinite [Cl-N] NCl-N N = ȜkȜx. ʌ1(x)∈(>k ?k)∧α(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k Definiteness is a feature in D, which shifts from the predicate type denoted by [Cl-N] to the GQ meaning denoted by the [Det-Cl-NP]. See (25). (25) From indefinite [Cl-N] to definite [Cl-N] NCl-NN= ȜRȜP.∃x[P(x)∧R(x)∧ FAMILIAR(x)] (ȜkȜx. ʌ1(x)∈(>k ?k)∧α(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k) = ȜP∃x[ʌ1(x)∈(>kŀk)∧α(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k ∧ FAMILIAR (ʌ1(x))∧P(ʌ1 (x))] In the case of modified “Cl+N”, the elements preceding “Cl+N”, such as adjectives, RCs and possessors are DP modifiers. We suggest that they express properties that intersect with the denotation of definite “Cl+N” and saturate the contextual variable C. The information expressed by elements preceding “Cl+N” is familiar to both the speaker and the hearer. Namely, the information expressed those modifiers is part of the familiarity required by definite classifiers in D0 position. (26) юiэ kΩ small Mod ‘the small dog’

[tsΩҌ CL

kiu] dog

The semantics of modified [Cl-N] is represented in (27): (27) a. Nɕiɔ kԥ N= Ȝx. small (x) b. Semantics of bare definite [Cl-N] Ntsԥ‫ݦ‬-kiuN=ȜP∃x[ʌ1(x)∈(>DOGŀk)∧UNITanimal(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k ∧ FAMILIAR (ʌ1(x)) ∧P(ʌ1 (x))] c. Semantics of non-bare [Cl-N] N‫ܨ‬i‫ܧ‬-kԥ tsԥ‫ ݦ‬kiu N= Ntsԥ‫ ݦ‬kiuN (N‫ܨ‬i‫ܧ‬kԥN) ȜP∃x[ʌ1(x)∈(>DOGŀk)∧UNITanimal(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k ∧FAMILIAR (ʌ1(x)) ∧P(ʌ1 (x))] (Ȝx. small (x)) =∃x[ʌ1(x)∈(>DOGŀk)∧UNITanimal(ʌ1(x))∧ʌ2(x)=k ∧ FAMILIAR (ʌ1(x)) ∧small (ʌ1 (x))]

290

Definite classifiers and their modifiers

4. Concluding remarks In this chapter, we investigated the syntactic and semantic properties of non-bare “classifier+noun” in Wu Chinese. We showed that it is possible for classifier languages, such as Wu Chinese, to have definite classifiers. We argued that in non-bare “Cl+N” construction, classifiers are used as definiteness markers and they are grammaticalized as quasi-definite articles. We proposed that Wu Chinese not only has (quasi)definite articles, which are able to instantiate the D head, but also it has a very refined DP structure, in which demonstratives are located at [Spec DP] and modifiers like adjectives, possessors etc are DP modifiers.

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Index

accommodation, 268 additive, 137, 154 adjective, 37, 174 adnominal adjective, 174 dimensional adjective, 38, 60, 83, 182, 195 left-peripheral adjective, 174 pre-classifier adjective, 37, 49, 57, 174 animacy scale, 70 appositive, 92 approximation, 212, 226 argumental language, 86, 88 atomization, 161 attributive reading, 62, 204 ba construction, 119, 239 bare argument, 44, 88 bare argument language, 69, 71 bare classifier construction, 154, 235 bare noun, 2, 44, 52, 94, 101, 162, 237 bare plural, 94 Boolean algebra, 101, 164 Cantonese, 5, 234, 243 classifier language, 16 classifier reduplication, 139, 142 coercion, 159 concrete portion, 179, 195 container classifier, 18, 22, 25, 129, 135, 170 container classifiers, 149 conventional classifier, 23 copula clause, 104, 106, 108, 112,

114 count classifier, 45, 127 count mass noun, 68, 73 count noun, 42, 46, 102, 166 count structure, 73 countability, 2, 69, 71 counting, 2, 3, 130, 134, 164, 167, 179, 221, 223 count-to-mass shifting, 78 definiteness, 4, 93, 97, 266 definite bare noun, 116, 121 definite classifier, 136, 234, 240, 278 definite numeral, 258, 261 definite reading, 95, 97, 99 DP structure, 3, 141 demonstrative, 4, 90, 282 Dëne Suliné, 71 distributivity, 132 dotted type, 130 estimation, 222, 224 existential closure, 265, 266 existential quantifier, 238 existential reading, 94 expressive, 195 familiarity, 4, 97, 121, 269, 288 weak familiarity, 4, 269 feature analysis, 143 focus, 246 fraction, 65, 215 functional, 20, 33, 43, 133

308

Index

general classifier, 74, 76 generic sentence, 89 group classifier, 17, 25, 74, 76, 149 Hebrew, 130 high countability, 13 high round number, 225 Hmong, 233 identity sentence, 105, 115 indefinite phrase, 94, 95, 98 indeterminate quantity, 212 individual classifier, 15, 17, 21, 144 individuation, 2, 69, 71, 79, 80, 81, 146 information structure, 246 information weight, 211, 212 iota operator, 266, 267 jeung construction, 245 kind, 86, 87, 102 subkind, 91, 112, 114 kind classifier, 19, 92, 150 kind-level predicate, 90, 91 Lao, 15 lexical, 43, 133 Lexical Integrity, 194 mass classifier, 46, 127 mass mass noun, 68, 73 mass noun, 42, 44, 46, 102, 166 measure, 2, 3, 130, 134, 163, 171, 218 measure phrase, 128 mensural see non-individual classifier Minangkabau, 16

minimal parts, 68, 73, 75 natural atomicity, 84, 163 nominal properties, 25, 26 nominalizer, 36 non-individual classifier, 15, 34, 35 NP-ellipsis, 40 number agreement, 132 number marking, 35, 71, 72, 75 general number, 45 numeral classifier, 15 object-level reading, 86, 87 ontology, 2, 69, 70, 80, 82 discrete individuals, 46 homogeneous entity, 47 opacity, 93 opaque reading. see opacity partial-object, 79 particle de, 50, 61, 62, 138, 202 partition classifier, 18, 25, 149 pragmatic shifting, 226 pre-classifier adjective, 175 predicational sentence, 104, 113 predicative, 103 proper name, 260 pseudo-partitive construction, 34, 56, 133, 181 pseudo-partitive reading, 62, 129, 133, 204 relational noun, 40 relative clause, 95, 287 relativization, 52, 53 root noun, 128, 164 round number, 65, 215 Russian, 130

Index

309

scope, 98 intermediate reading, 100 narrow scope, 97, 99 wide scope, 98 secondary topic, 247 semantic shifting, 134, 158 signature property, 42 sortal classifier see.individual classifier specificity, 96, 249, 252, 253 standard measure, 19, 147 stubbornly distributive predicate, 140 stuff, 79 syntactic re-analysis, 223

Thai, 14 topic, 118, 119, 241, 246 secondary topic, 119 topic-prominent language, 246 transparent phenomenon, 38, 56, 181 transparent reading, 93 type shifting, 94, 106, 111

taxonomy, 91 temporary classifier, 19, 147

Yudja, 71

uniqueness, 4, 97, 267 universal grinding, 68, 78 Vietnamese, 233 word order, 246 Wu Chinese, 5, 234, 240, 242, 277