North Kharga Oasis Survey: Explorations in Egypt's Western Desert (British Museum Publications on Egypt and Sudan) 9789042936218, 9789042937437, 9042936215
The North Kharga Oasis Survey (NKOS) presents the results of archaeological exploration carried out over seven years in
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English Pages 619 [621] Year 2018
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PART I
PART II
PART III
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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NORTH KHARGA OASIS SURVEY
BRITISH
MUSEUM
PUBLICATIONS
ON
EGYPT
AND
NORTH KHARGA OASIS SURVEY
Explorations in Egypt' s Western Desert
Corinna ROSSI and Salima IKRAM
PEETERS LEUVEN - PARIS - BRISTOL, CT 2018
SUDAN
5
Cover illustration: Aerial photograph of
Umrn al-Dabadib, by Richard Knisely-Marpole (2002).
A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-90-429-3621-8 elSBN 978-90-429-3743-7 D/20l 8/0602/86
© 2018, Peeters, Bondgenotenlaan 153, B-3OO0 Leuven, Belgium No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage or retrieval devices or systems, without the prior written permission from the publisher, except the quotation of brief passages for review purposes.
To Adriano and Nicholas, for remaining committed to Kharga (and to us) to Hugh J, L Beadnell and John Ball, for their early inspirational work in Kharga Oasis and to the memory of Gene Cruz-Uribe who lit our way in the oasis,
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword. . .... ... .. Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. .
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XXIII xxv
XXIX
PART I THE KHARGA OASIS: GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY L1 - KHARGA AND THE WESTERN DESERT : GEOLOGY. GEOGRAPHY. AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Salima IKRAM, with a contribution by Judith BUNBURY
Kharga and the Western Desert ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. The name of the oasis. .. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Geography. . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Geology and climate (JB and SI) General Geology. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . Pleistocene and Holocene Sedimentation . . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Groundwater in the Kharga Oasis. .......... Natural resources (SI) .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Flora and fauna. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Mineral wealth. . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Lapis Lazuli Mining. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . .
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3 3 3 4 5 6 8 9 9 10 10
1.2 - THE EXPLORATION OF KHARGA OASIS Salima IKRAM Trade and travels. . .... ... .. Ancient records .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Early travellers. .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Modern archaeological investigations. .. .. .
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11 11 12 16
1.3 - A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF KHARGA Salima IKRAM, with contributions by Corinna ROSSI Prehistory . ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods. ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Old Kingdom (SIICR) . .... ... .. First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom. ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Second Intermediate Period . .. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. New Kingdom. .. .. Third Intermediate and Late Periods . . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. .
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19 19 20 21 22 23 24
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VIII
Ptolemaic Period . Roman and Romano.Byzantine Periods (SIICR) . From the Arab conquest to the present . . .
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25 25 28
PART II GAZETTEER ILl - THE ORGANIZATION OF THE GAZETTEER Introduction (SIICR) ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... . Methodology for topographic surveys (CR) .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Methodology for architectural surveys (CR) . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Methodology for geophysical survey (TH) ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Methodology for ceramic studies (ALG/LAW) . .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Ceramic collection: sites and seasons. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... . NKOS ceramic fabric classification system. . NKOS ceramic form recording system. .. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Note on the dating of some ceramic finds (SIICR) .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Methodology for glass studies (MMG). ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Methodology for coin studies (DMR). .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Methodology for archaeobotanical studies (AJC) . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Methodology for archaeozoological and human remains (SI) . .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Tomb typology (SI) . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .
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IL2
-
THE NORTHERNMOST AREA
The Overall Form of the Oasis (SIICR). .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... The Northwestern Area (SI) . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Previous work. ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Prehistoric Site 1 (NPH1) . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Prehistoric Site 2 (NPH2) . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Prehistoric Site 3 (NPH3) . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... The Northwestern Access (SIICR) .. .... Previous work. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Northwest Cairn 6 (NWC6) .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .
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Northwest Cairn 5 (NWC5) Northwest Cairns 7 and 8 (NWC7 and 8)
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North Cairn 9 (NWC9).... Northwest Cairn 10 (NWC10) ..
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Northwest Cairn 4 (NWC4) . Northwest Cairn 3 (NWC3)
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Northwest Cairn 2 (NWC2) . Northwest Cairn 1 (NWC1) .
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The Northeastern Access (CR/SI).. Previous work..
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33 33 34 34 34 35 36 37 37 37 37 38 38 38
North Donkeys and Three Dead Donkeys (NDons).. Northeast Cairns 9, 8, 7 and North Camel 2 (NEC9, 8, 7 and NCam2) . .
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39 40 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42
TABLE OF CONTENTS
IX
North Camel 4 and North Donkey 3 (NCam4 and NDon3) ....... .. Northeast Cairn ]] (NEC]]). ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. .
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Forest of Cairns (NEC1 0) .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Northeast Cairn 6, North Donkey 2 and Dead Livestock (NEC6, NDon2 and DeadL)... ... .... ... .. .
Northeast Cairns 5, 4, 3, 2, North Camel 1 and North Donkey 4 (NEC5, 4, 3, and 2, NCam1 and NDon4) Prehistoric site 4 (NPH4). ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Big Track and North Donkey 5 (NDon5)... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Northeast Cairn 4 and North Cairn 4-twin (NEC4) . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... . Northeast Cairn 3, 2 and 1 (NEC3, 2 and 1) ............................................... North Gib Petroglyphs ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... .
The Coptic graffito (NL). ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . .
North Gib Trail. . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .
43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 44 44 44
IL3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER General description of the area (CR) ....................................................... North Gib (SIICR) .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . North Gib 3 - Diggings . . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . North Gib 2, 2a, 2b - Diggings... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . North Gib 1 - Diggings . . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Gib North Watchtower Rock . . ... .... . Ain Gib (SIICR) .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Previous work (SIICR) ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . General description (CRISI) .. . Water system (CRISI) . .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Location and approach (CRISI). . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . Qasr al-Gib (CR) Gib Tombs/Burials (SI) .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... . East Gib Petro glyphs (SI) .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... . West Gib Petro glyphs (CR) .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... . Ceramics from Ain Gib (LAW) . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . Collection. .. .... ... . .
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Catalogue..
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Finds from Ain Gib . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . Small finds and archaeozoological remains (SI). .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... . Archaeobotanical Remains (AJC) .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Sumayra ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... . Previous work (SI) .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Description of the area (SIICR) . .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Qasr al-Sumayra (CR) ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . The Southern Buildings (NWlSI) . . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... . The Sumayra Tombs (SI) . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Aqueduct G1 (CR) .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Ceramics from Sumayra (LAW) . .
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Catalogue. .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ....
Finds from Sumayra . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... . Glass (MMG) Coins (DMR) ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .
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x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Small finds (SI) ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Zooarchaeological Evidence (SI)... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .
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Archaeobotanical Evidence (AJC) . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Two Houses (SIICR). ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Previous work. .. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... General description . . .... The standing buildings (NW). .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Aqueduct G2 (CR) ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... The 'Owl Tomb' (SI) . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... Owl Tomb Annexe (SI) . .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... Ceramics from Two Houses (LAW).... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... Collection. ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Catalogue. ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Finds from Two Houses . . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... Glass (MMG) . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Small finds (SI) . . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Archaeobotanical Remains (AJC) .. ... The Maghatta Area (SI unless otherwise stated) ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... General description ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Previous work. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Outcrop Tombs. ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... Complex Structure (or Complex T) .. ... Ceramics from Complex Structure (LAW) Graffiti Tombs. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .
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Rock With Tombs Western Tombs (Maghatta D) .. .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... .
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Small Finds from the Western Tombs . . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .
North Lookout Rock. .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... Western Tombs Trail (CR/SI). . .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... Ridge Tombs. .
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Watermelon Settlement (Maghatta A) (SIICR) .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... Previous work. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... Description of the settlement. ... ... Watermelon Prehistoric remains (SI) .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Disturbed Settlement (SI) .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Aqueducts G3 and G4 and ancient cultivations (CR) .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. Ceramics from the Watermelon Settlement (ALG) . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. Glass (MMG) .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. Coins (DMR) . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. Small Finds (SI) .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. Archaeozoology (SI) . .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. Vaulted Tombs (SI) ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. Previous work. . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. Description. ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .. Mummification . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .. Small Finds. ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .. Ceramics from Vaulted Tombs (LAW) .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .. Collection. .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .. Catalogue. .... .. Moving East . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .. .
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
XI
Pottery Broken Rock (SIICR) . ........................................................... Maghatta B (SI) .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Maghatta C (SI) .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Ain Ghazal (CR/SI) .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Previous Work . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Description. . . .... ... .. Ain Ghazal Prehistoric remains (SI) .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Ain Ghazal Tombs (SI)... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Irrigation and Agriculture (SI).... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Umm al·Qusur (Settlement C) (SIICR) .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Previous work. .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . Description of the settlement (MHlSI) .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Ceramics from U mm al-Qusur (LAW) . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Catalogue ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Umm al·Qusur Cemetery or the Eastern Tombs (SI) . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Previous work. .. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Description. . .. ... .... . Mummification . . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . Heading South (CR/SI) .. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Square Rock. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . The Crossroad (CR) .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . .
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11.4
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MUHAMMAD TULEIB
The site of Muhammad Tuleib. .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... . Previous Work (SI) .................................................................... Overview and boundaries (CR/SI) .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . The 'Building That Became a Fort' (CR) . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . General description . . . ... . The southeastern corner. .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... . The Temple of Muhammad Tuleib (SIINW) ................................................. A Hieroglyphic Inscription from the Temple at Muhammad Tuleib (ECU) .. .... ... .... ... .... .... The Tuleib Settlement. .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... General description (CR/SI) .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... The industrial area and the geophysical survey (TH). .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Ancient water system and cultivations (CR) . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Ceramics from Tuleib (ALG/LAW) ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Finds from Tuleib ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Glass (MMG) .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Coins (DMR) .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Small Finds (SI) .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Archaeozoology (SI) .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Cemeteries near Muhammad Tuleib. . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Tuleib Tombs (SI) . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Ain aI-Gebel (the Killing Fields) (SIIMH).... ... ....... .... ... .... .... ... .... ....... ... .... History of Work at the Site. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... The Cemetery. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... The Human Remains (SI) .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Burial Containers and Grave Goods (SI) . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
XII
II. 5 - AIN AL-LEBEKHA The site of Ain al-Lebekha .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... General description (CR/SI) .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Previous exploration and work (SIICR) ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... The Northern Area Lebekha Northwestern Petroglyph Rock (SI) The Northern Faint Petro glyphs (SI). . . . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... The Northern Temple (SI/NW). ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... The Sanctuary of Piyris and the Tombs (SI) .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Demotic texts from the Temple of Piyris (ECU/NL). . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... An astronomical (?) Demotic text: a plaster fragment from Ain al-Lebekha (ECU) .. ... .... ... .... The area of the Southern Spring (CR/SI) . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... The Buried Settlement (CR) ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... Western Remains (CR). .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... The Southern Temple (SI/NW). .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Qasr al-Lebekha (CR) ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Description of the external appearance. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... Description of the internal organisation. .... .................. ......................... ... The Gridded Settlement (NW/CR). ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... Layout and extent. . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... Two domestic units (NW). . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... Eastern remains (CR). .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... The water system of Ain al-Lebekha (CR) . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... .
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General layout The Springs. .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... .
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Aqueducts L1 and L2 ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Aqueducts L3 and L4 ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... The cultivations. ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... The western area of Ain al-Lebekha (SI) .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... The Western Cemetery. . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. The Alum Mines and Rock Quarries. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. Ceramics from Ain al-Lebekha (ALG) . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... From the Northern Temple.. ........... ......................... .................. ...... From the Northern Spring. . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. From Qasr al-Lebekha and surrounds. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. Finds from Ain al-Lebekha .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. Glass (MMG) .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. East and South of Ain al-Lebekha. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. The Lebekha Eastern Far Tomb or Shelter (SI) .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. The Cairn Trail heading south (CR) . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. The east-west axis: tracks and sites (CR/SI). . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. .
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159 159 162 162 162 165 165 169 169 173 173 175 175 175 176 176 182 183 183 186 188 188 188 189 189 190 191 191 191 192 192 193 195 196 201 201 202 202 202 202
IL6 - UMM AL-DABADIB The site of Umm al-Dabadib (CR/SI) General Description. ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .. Earlier travellers and previous work. .... .. The Spring, the Temple, and the Tower (NW/SI) ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .. The Spring/Well (SIICR) .
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205 206 208 208 211
TABLE OF CONTENTS
XIII
The Temple (SIJNW) The Tower (NW/SI) . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. .
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The Northern and Eastern Settlements. . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .. The Northern Settlement (NW/CR) ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. The Eastern Settlement (NW/CR) . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Between the U mm al· Dabadib settlements (CR/SI).. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. The Fortified Settlement.. . .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Position and relation to water system (CR) ................................................ Layout and internal organisation (CR/NW) . .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Design of domestic units (NW) . .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Unit A . ....... ......................... ......................... ................ Unit B..... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Unit F .. ......................... ......................... ....................... Units C, D, E, G .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . Rooms to the south of the Church .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . The Church of Umm al-Dabadib (NW) . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Position and layout.. ........... .............. ........... ........... .................. . The apse ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . The Coptic inscriptions from the Church.. .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . The texts (NL) ................. .................. ......................... ........... . Discussion (NL/CR). .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . The Fort of Umm al-Dabadib (CR)............ . . ... .... . Description of the external appearance. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Description of the internal organisation. ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . Cemeteries of Umm al-Dabadib (SI)........... ....... . Location and description. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . Cemetery A .......................................................................... _
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Cemetery B.......................................................................... Cemetery C. . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . Cemetery D........................................ _
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Architectural Details, Finds, and the Occupants.. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Cemetery E ......... ......................... ......................... ............... Cemetery F .. ........ Cemetery G. . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . .
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Cemetery G Annex . .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... . Cemetery H. . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... . Cemetery I. .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Cemetery! ............................. .......... _
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Mummification and human remains. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... The water system of Umm al-Dabadib (CR) .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... General layout .......................... . .... Aqueduct U D 1 ....................................................................... _
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Aqueduct U D2 Aqueduct U D 3 Aqueduct U D4 ....................................................................... Aqueduct U D 5 ............... . .... _
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Aqueducts U D6 and U D7. . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Agriculture at Umm al-Dabadib . . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Ancient and modern fields (CR/SI) . ....... .... ....... .... ... .... ....... .... ....... ... .... The Western Cultivation (CR/SI) .. . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ....
The 'Mill' (SI/NW). .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ....
211 217 218 218 223 225 225 225 227 230 231 234 234 235 235 236 236 239 241 241 243 244 244 248 25 1 25 1 25 1 25 1 253 253 254 257 257 258 258 258 258 258 259 259 259 261 262 263 264 264 265 265 265 266 267
TABLE OF CONTENTS
XIV
The Central Cultivation (CR/SI) ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... The Eastern Cultivation (CR/SI) ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ....
Around the central core . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... . Cave Dwelling (NW/ALG). ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... The Coptic inscriptions in the Cave Dwelling (NL) .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... The Animal Den (SI). . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... High Shelter (SI/ALG/NW) .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... The plain south of the main site (CR/SI) . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Ceramics from Umm al·Dabadib (ALG. with a contribution by SAeIM) . . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Ceramics from the Fortified Settlement. . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Ceramics from the Northern Settlement. . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... Ceramics from the Eastern Settlement. .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Ceramics from the Spring/Well. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Ceramics from the Tower.. . .. ... Ceramics from Cave Dwelling. . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... Ceramics from High Shelter. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... Ceramics from the cemeteries.. . ... ... Cemetery A . .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... Cemetery B ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... Cemetery D (SAeIM)... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... Cemetery F. ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... Cemetery G . .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... Significance of the assemblage. .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... Finds from Umm al·Dabadib. . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... Glass (MMG) . .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Coins (DMR) . .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Small finds (SI/CR). .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Vegetation and archaeobotanical remains from Umm al·Dabadib (AJC) . .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Current vegetation. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. Northern Area .. ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Near the mouth of Aqueduct UD3 ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Towards the Northern Settlement .. .. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Between the Northern Settlement and the Fortified Settlement.. . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. Samples from the ancient remains. ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. From the Temple .. . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. From the bins of the Eastern Settlement.. . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .. From the Fort... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .. From the Fortified Settlement .. .. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .. From the Church . .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .. From the fields..... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .. .
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267 267 268 268 269 271 271 271 271 272 276 288 291 295 295 301 304 304 304 304 306 306 306 307 307 310 311 312 312 312 312 312 313 313 313 314 315 315 316 316
Ir.7 - PREHISTORIC SITES IN THE AREA OF UMM AL-DABADIB Sites investigated by NKOS (SI). .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. U mm al-Dabadib Prehistory 1 (PH1) .
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U mm al-Dabadib Prehistory 2 (PH2) . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. U mm al-Dabadib Prehistory 3 (PH3) ..................................................... U mm al-Dabadib Prehistory 4 (PH4)..................................................... U mm al-Dabadib Prehistory 5 (PH5) .....................................................
319 319 319 319 319 319
TABLE OF CONTENTS
XV
U mm al-Dabadib Prehistory 6 (PH6) . ......... U mm al-Dabadib Prehistory 7 (PH7) . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. .
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The Prehistoric Archaeology of Umm al·Dabadib Area in Perspective (FHlDH) ... ... .... .... ... .. Introduction. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Middle Palaeolithic sites of U mm al-Dabadib . .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. The Post-Palaeolithic Sites....... ....... .. Affinities with local Post-Palaeolithic Traditions. .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Connections with the Nile Valley. . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Mid-Holocene climate change and cultural dynamics in the Egyptian Sahara.. . .. . Out of the Desert - Into the Valley. ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . Summary. .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . .
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319 320 320 320 321 322 325 328 328 330 331
II.8 - THE AREA BETWEEN A1N AL-LEBEKHA AND A1N AL-TARAKWA Sites Between Lebekha and Tarakwa (S1) ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Previous Work . . . ... .... . Cairns.. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Site Between Lebekha and Tarakwa ...................................................... Fox Rock.
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North Tarakwa Wells. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Hoeet ( 'Houses') and Settlement Debris................................................... Re-used Settlement, Bones, and Eastern Wells. . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Tombs Robbed . . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .
Environs of Ain al·Tarakwa (S1) . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Previous Work .. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Tarakwa Tombs Northeast. ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Tarakwa North Tombs. .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . Mummification and Burial Rites . . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . North Tarakwa and North Tarakwa Complex.. . .. . Tarakwa Northeastern Sites. .. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... . .
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333 333 333 333 333 333 333 335 335 335 335 335 336 337 337 338
11.9 - A1N AL-TARAKWA The site of Ain al·Tarakwa (SIICR) ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Previous Work . . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Description.. . . .... ... . Ancient and modern wells and springs. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Tarakwa Southern Neolithic/Roman Site. ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . The temple enclosure. ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... . Description (SIICR) .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... . The Temple of Ain al-Tarakwa (SIINW) .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... . The Church of Ain al-Tarakwa (NW) ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Other buildings within the enclosure (SIICR) .. .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... The settlement of Ain al·Tarakwa (SIICR/TH)..... ... .... ....... .... ....... ... ....... .... .... General description . . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Results of magneto metry survey (TH) ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... The cemetery of Ain al·Tarakwa (S1) ........ .... ... .... ....... .... ....... ... ....... .... .... The Populations and Mummification. ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .
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339 339 339 339 341 341 341 343 344 347 347 347 347 348 350
TABLE OF CONTENTS
XVI
Ceramics from Ain al-Tarakwa (ALG) ............. Collection. .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Ceramics from the cemeteries. .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... North Tombs . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Outside tomb T9 . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Around other tombs ............ .. .... Tarakwa cemetery .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Settlement material. .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... 'Hoeet' houses ................................. .. .... North Tarakwa and North Tarakwa Complex ........................................... Temple enclosure.. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Two Wells Area... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... The southern part of the Tarakwa area. . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... Significance of the assemblage............ ... ... Finds from Ain al-Tarakwa . . . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... Glass (MMG) . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... Small finds (SI) ........ ... ... _
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350 350 350 350 351 353 355 359 359 360 364 369 372 374 375 375 375
AIN AL-DABASHIYA
The site of Ain al-Dabashiya (SIICR) .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... General description ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... Early travellers and previous work. . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... The northern remains at Ain al-Dabashiya (SI) .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... Northern Canine Cemetery. . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... The Pigeon Tower (NW) ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... The Grain Processing Area and 'Administrative' Buildings (SI) . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... Low Cemetery/Poor Tombs (SI).. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... Temple and settlements of Ain al-Dabashiya. .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... The Temple of Ain al-Dabashiya (SIINW) .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... The modern settlement (CR/SI) .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... The ancient settlement (CR/SI) .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Western and Southern Cemeteries of Ain al-Dabashiya (SI) . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... The Main Cemetery . ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Mummification . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... The Southern Canine Tomb (Tomb 41) ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Ain al-Dabashiya South . .. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... The Southern Farm (NW) ...... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... The Wells and Southern Fields (CR/SI)... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... Ceramics from Ain al-Dabashiya (ALG, with a contribution by LAW) ........ ... .... ... .... ... ... Collection. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. Ceramics from the cemeteries. .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. Tomb west of Pigeon Tower. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. Low Cemetery . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... .. 'Tomb of the Pots'.. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .. Settlement material. .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .. Temple/well area ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .. Southern Farm .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .. Grain Processing Area... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ..
377 377 379 379 380 381 384 385 385 385 387 389 389 389 389 390 391 391 391 392 392 392 393 393 394 398 398 401 401
TABLE OF CONTENTS
XVII
Pottery from the Pigeon Tower (LAW) .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. 20th-century corpus. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Significance of the assemblage. ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Finds from Ain al.Dabashiya. .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Coins (DMR) ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Small Finds (SI) . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Les ostraca demotiques de Dabasheya (MC) . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Introduction. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Les ostraca. . .. . .
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404 408 411 412 412 412 412 412 413
ILlI - OTHER SITES ASSOCIATED WITH NKOS'S ACTIVITIES AI·Deir (CR/SI). .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Ain Zaf (SI/NW) .. .. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Muteibekh and Malaha (SI/NW) . ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Beleida (SI/NW) . ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Qurn al·Ginah (SI) . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Qasr al.Baramoudy (CR) . .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Qasr al·Nessima (CR/SI). ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ..
421 422 422 422 423 423 424
PART III KHARGA OASIS IN ANTIQUITY: AN OVERVIEW
IILI - THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE FORTS Corinn a ROSSI Introduction . .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Forts of Northern Kharga . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. AI-Deir . . .... ... .. 'The Others' ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Issues. . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Are they forts? . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Context and parallels. ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Reconstructions . .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Qasr al-Gib. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Qasr al-Sumayra. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . Qasr al-Lebekha. . .. . U mm al-Dabadib ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Analysis. ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Differences and similarities. .. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Materials and construction techniques . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . External aspect.. . .. . Internal organisation. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Interpretation. . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . .
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Perception........................................................................... Function . ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .
429 429 429 431 433 433 434 434 434 439 439 442 444 444 445 446 448 449 449 450
TABLE OF CONTENTS
XVIII
III.2 - LIVING IN ROMAN KHARGA: AN ANALYSIS OF DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS Nicholas WARNER Introduction . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Context. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Previous surveys and excavations. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Comparanda. . . . Technology . .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Walls.... ..................... ......................... .................. ........... Vaults and Domes. . .... Mortars and Plasters. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Doors and Fenestration. . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Stairs and multiple storeys. ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Niches... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Spatial structure and use . . .... .
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453 453 454 456 458 458 459 461 462 463 464 465
IIL3 - TEMPLES OF NORTH KHARGA Salima IKRAM Introduction . . .... Location and Orientation . ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Architecture . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Plans, components, and pairings. . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Materials and Construction. .. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Decoration . . .... Deities . . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Discussion . .. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... .
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467 468 469 469 473 476 477 477
IlI.4 - CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE IN NORTH KHARGA Nicholas WARNER Introduction . . .... Previous surveys and excavations . ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Comparanda. . . . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Architectural analysis . . .... Orientations .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Entrance and narthex. ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Internal structure. .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Apses and niches. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Other architectural features. . .... Decoration and inscriptions. .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Monastic communities and hermits. .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Conclusion . .... .
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479 479 481 483 483 485 485 488 490 491 491 493
IIL5 - THE WAYS OF DEATH IN NORTH KHARGA Salima IKRAM Introduction . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Basic typology of tombs . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ....
495 495
TABLE OF CONTENTS
XIX
Khargan cemeteries and their organisation. . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .. Discussion of the different tomb types . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .. Grave goods. . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Mummification . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. The population and its health. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Religion and social class. .... ... .. Discussion . ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. .
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496 497 500 500 501 501 502
III.6 - WATER SYSTEMS Corinna ROSSI Introduction . . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Position of sites and availability of water. .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. The shape of the depression. . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. The Raised Belt. .. .. The U pper Step. . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . Springs and wells. . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . History and technology. .. ... .... . Natural and artificial water sources. .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Ain al-Tarakwa and Ain al-Dabashiya ............... .................. .................. . Muhammad Tuleib .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . .
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Ain al-Lebekha and U mm al-Dabadib.....................................................
Underground aqueducts (qanawat) ....... . Origin, use and re-use ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Position and function of qauawat in northern Kharga ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . U mm al-Dabadib ... . Ain al-Lebekha .. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . The area from Ain Gib to the Watermelon Settlement ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... . Technical observations o n the qauawat of U mm al-Dabadib, Ain al-Lebekha and Ain Gib. .. ... .... . Relationship between aqueducts and vegetation. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... . The Dush qauawat: differences and similarities. .... ... ....... .... ....... .... ... .... ....... . Timeline Absolute and relative chronology. . .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... . U se and abandonment . .. .... ... . .
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505 505 505 506 507 507 507 508 509 509 510 510 510 511 512 514 514 517 518 519 520 520 521
IIL7 - ARCHAEOBOTANICAL REMAINS Alau J. CLAPHAM Introduction . . ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Mudbrick studies. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Comparison with other sites.. .................. ......................... ................ Crops. . ........... ......................... ......................... ................ The cereals. .. .. Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp aestivum M acKey) .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Hard/macaroui wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp durum (Desf.) Theil.) .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Barley (hulled 6-row) (Hordeum vulgare ssp vulgare L.) .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. The sorghum millets (Sorghum bicolor L. ssp bicolor, S. bicolor L. ssp durra) .... ... .... ... .. Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.BL). .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... . Rice (Oryza sativa L.) . . .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . Fibre/oil crops . . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... . .
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523 523 523 530 530 530 530 531 532 532 533 533
xx
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Flax/linseed (Unum usitatissimum L.) .. .... Cotton (Gossypium sp L.) . .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Castor oil (Ricinus communis L.) ... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Garden crops ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Fruit crops .. .... Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus Thunb. M atsum. and Nakai) ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Fig (Ficus carica L.) .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Olive (Olea europaea L.) Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Date (Phoenix dactylifera L.) .. .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) . .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Fodder crops. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Weeds. . Discussion . .. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Conclusion .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .
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533 534 535 535 536 536 536 536 537 537 537 538 538 538 538 539
IIL8 TEXTILES Jana JONES -
Introduction . .. .... Methodology. .. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Textile structure .. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Fibre identification. . Flax . .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Cotton ... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Recording ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Spin direction. ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... The linen textiles . . Plain weaves. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... Basket weaves. ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Stitching and mending. ... ... Colours and dyes. .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... The cotton textiles . . .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... The cotton and flax union textiles . .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Archaeobotanical and textual evidence. .. .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... Conclusions. .. .... Glossary ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .
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541 541 541 542 542 542 543 543 544 544 544 545 545 545 547 547 548 548
IIL9 SUMMARY Corinna ROSSI and Salima IKRAM -
Site distribution . ... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... Ancient and modern routes. . The evolution of the landscape. . ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... Historical sequence . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... General observations. .. .... Prehistory. .. .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .
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55 1 551 553 553 553 554
TABLE OF CONTENTS
XXI
Pharaonic period. . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. Late Period. ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. .
Late Ptolemaic and Early Roman Period (from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD).. .... ... .. Late Roman Period (4th and 5th centuries AD). .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ..
Concluding remarks . .. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .. Chronology. .... ... .. .
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Future research
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554 554 554 556 556 556 559
BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbreviations. ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. Bibliography. . ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .. .
.
562 563
FOREWORD
The first four volumes of the British Museum Publications on Egypt and Sudan series were thematic, drawing upon papers given at British Museum conferences on the first millennium AD, coffins and Nubia. Yet the series was always intended as a home for research publications on Egypt and Sudan, not restricted by chronological or disciplinary limitation s, and that might not be based on British Museum collections, research or conferences. This volume, on the northern Kharga Oasis, provides an enriched understanding of this region and the shifting occupation of it across time. It embodies a welcome trend to study the full chronological scope of an area's archae ology, and will provide context for the 4200 objects from the Kharga Oasis held in the Museum, including important prehistoric holdings (some excavated by Gertrude Caton-Thompson), and material as recent as a late 20th century wedding dress acquired in Qasr Kharga.
PREFACE
The North Kharga Oasis Survey (NKOS) has worked in Kharga Oasis since 2001. The idea of a project in the area origin ated in a visit to U mm al-Dabadib and Ain al-Lebekha in 1995 by C. Rossi, who noted similarities between the sites. In 1998 a more structnred visit to the area, in particular to U mm al-Dabadib, resulted in an initial evaluation of the area for further exploration (Rossi 2000). In 2000 the editors of this volume joined forces as co directors to found NKOS. The broad aim of this project was to locate and document for the first time in a scientific and consistent way the archaeological remains located in this little-explored part of the oasis, in order to better understand its role in Egyptian history. Since the very beginning, particular attention was also given to the study of the relationship and physical interconnections among these sites; hence the large extent of the concession that includes both the sites and the desert tracks that link them. The area of the concession runs from the edge of the escarpment that delineates the perimeter of the oasis to a few kilometres north of Kharga town, extending westward to include the entire area of U mm el-Dabadib and thence further west to the tiny oasis of Ain Amur, located on the escarpment leading up to Dakhla Oasis. In total, NKOS' s concession covers an area of about 4030 km2 (figure 1). Since 2001, other self-contained projects have started to work in the northern parts of the oasis.Until NKOS had been launched, however, archaeological work in Kharga had been patchy: the major remains located close to Kharga Town had been formally studied (see Chapter 1.2 and Part II for details) , a limited number of rescue excavations had been carried out by the SCA, and only a few major sites located at the outskirts of the oasis had been the object of specific research. In the south, the IFAO carried out important work at Dush, and laid the basis of a large-scale survey of the area; in the north, apart from the French mission to al-Deir (also called Deir al-Mounira), begun in 1998, no large-scale work had been carried out. The sites included in NKOS' concession had received little or no attention at all; in some cases, single buildings or portion s of settlements and cemeteries had been n oted, surveyed or excavated, but no large-scale surveys and comprehensive publication existed. NKOS therefore carried out the first theodolite surveys of all sites, as well as detailed surveys of buildings and other visible featnres, and integrated these activities with the study of the archaeological finds retrieved on the surface. Because of the variety and distribution of the remains and the n ature of the landscape, NKOS has adopted various methods to record its concession.When the project started, much of the initial work was carried out using traditional methods: driving, walking, kite photography. The starting point of the survey was to explore the terrain by car; when an area of archaeological interest was identified based on flint or pottery scatters, anomalies in the landscape, or extant standing remains, a walking survey was instituted and features marked by GPS (Global Positioning System). Once major sites were identified, a core area was singled out to be surveyed by theodolite/total station; walking surveys were carried out in their surroundings, and in the areas linking different sites, using GPS to record the position of more distant features. In 2001 NKOS member R. Knisely-Marpole also experimented with aerial photography using a digital camera attached to a kite.As the results were most encouraging, the method was used subsequently, and was extremely helpful in identifying and mapping large areas during the course of the survey, and allowed NKOS to initially identify the field systems that are a prominent feature of many of the sites. Satellite imagery, in the meanwhile, became easily available through GoogleEarth and has been subsequently used to flesh out the survey's results. The cores of the sites with the highest concentration of standing archaeological remains were, once identified, walked, sketched, and finally surveyed by theodolite/total station.Any prominent architectnral features such as forts, religious structures, tombs, or other notable remains were documented, surveyed and studied in detail.Human and archaeozoological remains were examined on site, whereas ceramics, glass, archaeobotanical remains, and small finds were collected, studied, photographed, drawn when appropriate, and stored at the Kharga Inspectorate. A substantial effort was made to document the sites consistently, dedicating attention also to small features and faint remains indicating the ancient connections between the main sites.It is worth mentioning the fact that most of the work was carried out in extremely difficult logistic conditions, as the majority of the sites that have been inves tigated lie far from the inhabited parts of the oasis.The enviromn ental conditions dictated short and compact seasons, and requested substantial flexibility on the side of every team member: if working in the area of Qasr al-Gib
XXVI
PREFACE
required a lot of driving, working at U mm al-Dabadib meant camping on site for weeks. We believe that, despite these difficulties, we managed to achieve a substantially even result at each site, and document them all to a similar level of detail. The results of the survey from 2001 to 2007 are presented in this volume. The book is divided into three main portions. Part I acts as an introduction to the oasis, and deals with the geology, geography, history of investigation and a basic overall history of Kharga Oasis.Part II consists of the Gazetteer, which presents all the sites that NKOS has identified in geographical order from the north to the south, with maps, plans where appropriate, and the different sorts of finds from each site. Part III consists of thematic chapters focussing on individual subjects, such as forts, domestic structures, temples, churches, tombs, water systems, archaeobotany and textiles. The fin al chapter sum marises the finds, presents an overview of the project's achievements, and offers a general recon struction of the historical evolution of north Kharga. Italics are used in the text to indicate that a site is listed in the Gazetteer. NKOS has discovered a broad range of sites throughout north Kharga, from prehistoric sites, identifiable through lithic scatters, to Roman mud-brick constructions that still stand proud in the landscape, including military, admin istrative, domestic, religious and funerary structures, together with fields and the irrigation systems that supported them. The broader aim of NKOS has always been to approach n orth Kharga as an interconn ected network of instal lations, not only as a collection of archaeological sites. This is particularly evident in the case of the Late Roman sites that represent a high percentage of the visible remains. The eviden ce from earlier periods is rather patchy, but nevertheless indicates a significant amount of activities that must have been part of a complex and articulated occu pation of the region throughout the ages. Obviously future scientific excavations in the area will be able to fill in the existing gaps in the material that has been so far retrieved, both in terms of interpretation of the visible remains and in terms of documentation of historical periods that are currently still poorly documented. We are contin uing our investigations in the area in two parallel directions: the North Kharga Oasis Darb Ain Amur Survey (NKODAAS), directed by S.Ikram, is exploring and documenting the archaeological remains located along the portion of caravan route that linked the area of Umm al-Dabadib with Ain Amur, and evaluating changes in the landscape and environ ment, whilst the Italian Archaeological Mission to Umm al-Dabadib, directed by C. Rossi, is focussing on this site and on its relationship with the environment, both in ancient and modern times. This monograph offers an initial scientific and systematic survey of the visible archaeological remains located in north Kharga, a significant amount of fresh information on a little-known area and a first general overview of its historical evolution.We hope that our work will represent the basis for future research in the area and will stimulate discussions on the connections existing with the Nile Valley and among the oases in all historical periods.
I ....
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5cm
1 0 em
76
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
6)
7)
8)
9)
it is possible that the ring base of fabric IE, from a shallow bowl, also comes from this form. Par allel: al-Ashmunein (Bailey 1998: pI. 9 C246, 4th-7th centuries AD): here this vessel is made of Aswan Fine Ware, which is typically slipped on both interior and exterior surfaces, with a slip ranging in colour from white to yellow to pink (Bailey 1998: 8; see also Hayes 1972: 387-97). A vessel ofKharga fabric IE with red slip would have been the closest imitation in both fabric and surface treatment that could have been produced by local potters, and thus this form very close ly mimics vessels at al-Ashrnunein. The form is very similar to numbers 6 and 8, below. Howev er, these are here paralleled to Ptolemaic-period material as they are more shallow in depth and have a less pronounced interior ledge. The simi larity in form, surface treatment, and fabric of the four sherds leads the author to be suspicious of the temporal distinction. If all four of these ves sels (catalogue numbers 5 to 8) are the products of temporal variation in one form, or in fact all bear the same date, is unclear. Bowl with modelled rim. Red-slipped on both interior and exterior surfaces, with blackened exterior. Traces of burnishing at the top of the rim only. Fabric: IE. Diameter: 24 cm (6%). Drawing: 01/57. Parallels: Mut, Dakhla Oasis (Gill 2014: 274, no. 192; Gill's form 5a; Ptole maic). However, Gill notes that typical examples of his form 5a are unslipped, with only 2 exam ples from his corpus having a red slip, and three black-fired and burnished (Gill 2014: 65). See discussion with no. 5, above. See also Umm al Qusur (below, figure 93, no. 10). Bowl with modelled rim. Red-slipped on both interior and exterior, with red rim band on top and exterior surfaces. Fabric: IE. Diameter: esti mated at 24 cm (3%). Drawing: 0 1/56. Parallel: al-Ashrnunein (Bailey 1998: pI. 10 C293, 4th to 8th centuries AD). See discussion of no. 5, above. Bowl with modelled rim. Red-slipped and bur nished on both interior and exterior surfaces, with blackened exterior. Fabric: Nile silt. Diam eter: 30 cm (10%). Drawing: 0 1/55. Parallels as for no. 6, above. See also discussion of no. 5 , above. Bowl with flange rim. Both interior and exterior surfaces red-slipped and burnished. Fabric: ORS. Diameter: 20 cm (5%). Drawing: 01174.
Jars (figure 44, previous page) 10) Bowl rim. Red-slipped on both interior and ex terior surfaces, although interior is quite worn. Fabric: Nile silt. Diameter: 17 cm (10%). Draw ing: 0 1/46. No parallels. 1 1) Wide-mouthed jar. Both interior and exterior sur faces are uncoated. Fabric: Nile silt with chaff inclusions. Diameter: 26 cm (5%). Drawing: 0 1/47. No parallels. 12) Handled storage jar with modelled rim. Red slipped on the exterior surface with an uncoat ed interior surface. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 14 cm (23%). Drawing: 01/52. See Two Houses (below, figure 6 1 , no. 2 1). 13) Jar with pulled rim. Surfaces uncoated. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 15 cm (8%). Drawing: 01/75. 14) Rim from a jar or restricted bowl. Both interi or and exterior surfaces appear to be uncoated, though all surfaces are rather worn. Fabric: Nile silt with chaff inclusions. Diameter: 14 cm (4%). From square collection. Drawing: 01/43. No par allels. 15) Cooking jar rim. Exterior surface is red-slipped; interior uncoated. Fabric: lA. Diameter: 1 3 cm (8%). Drawing: 01176. 16) Jar with pulled rim. Surfaces uncoated. Fabric: Nile silt with chaff inclusions. Diameter: 12 cm (8%). From square collection. Drawing: 01142. Parallel: Ain al-Gedida, Dakhla Oasis (Dixneuf 2012, fig. 1 . 12; the context was windblown sand and resultantly bears no associated date). 17) Jar with modelled candlestick rim. Surfaces uncoated. Fabric: lA. Diameter: 1 2 cm ( 1 8%). Drawing: 0 1/53. Parallel: Mut, Dakhla Oasis (Gill 2014: 3 1 1 , nos. 723-724; 505 no. 1239; form 65g; Ptolemaic, perhaps late Ptolemaic?). 18) Jar or bottle rim. Both the interior and exterior surfaces are covered with a yellow slip. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 10 cm (15%). Drawing: 01150. All vessels that parallel this rim in shape, such as at Kysis, Kharga Oasis (Ballet 2004: fig. 220.47, fig. 222.58; Ballet and Vichy 1992: fig. 13h; both late 3rd to 5th century AD) are too small in diam eter to offer secure dating. 19) Jar with pulled rim. Interior and exterior surfaces are uncoated. Fabric: I A. Diameter: 12 cm (23 %). From sherd dump south of the fort. Drawing: 01/59. Parallels: Mut, Dakhla Oasis (Gill 2014: 506 no. 1247; forms 65b and 65c; Ptolemaic); Is mant al-Kharab, Dakhla Oasis (Dunsmore 2002:
II.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER fig. 3d, dated by parallels in Dakhla to before the 3rd centnry AD; figs. 4k and 5b, dating to before the 4th century AD). 20) Keg with modelled, candlestick rim. Surfaces un coated. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 6 cm (50%). From sherd dump south of the fort. Drawing: 01/58. Parallel: Kysis, Kharga Oasis (Ballet 2004: 234, fig. 217 no. 28, 1st to early 3rd centuries AD). 21) Flask rim. Surfaces uncoated. Fabric: IA (2A). Diameter: 3 cm (45%). Drawing: 01148. No par allels. 22) Flat base of globular vessel. Both interior and exterior surfaces are red-slipped and bumished. Fabric: ORS. Base diameter: 3 cm (35%). Draw ing: 0 1/54. No parallels.
Finds from Sumayra
Glass (MMG) A lenticular red bead with a loop was found (no. I , figure 45). It measures 1.45 cm in diameter. It is difficult to date a single object ofthis type; some similar ones are on display in the Kharga Museum, dated to the Ottoman Period. The other fragmentary material noted at the site (but not collected) took the form of bowls and cups and are tentatively dated from the 4th to the early 6th centn ries AD , based on their similarity to other material that is documented within the Gazetteer. List of glass from the site: no. 1 : pendant; H 1,45 cm; red.
1
o
77
Coins (DMR) NKOS Cat. No. I (figure 46) Sumayra, cluster of buildings Location near the tombs 30 rnrn Diam. Material and Billon tetradrachrn denomination Alexandria Mint Imperial bust of a bearded Obverse emperor, laurel wreath, facing right. Legend: AYT KAI [ . . . ]. Nilus, facing left, seated on a Reverse pile of rocks with a climbing crocodile underneath; in left hand a cornucopia; in right a wheat stalk. Year no longer extant in the left field. Date Coin of Hadrian, either Year 16 (AD 1 3 1 - 1 32) or (less likely) Year 22 (AD 137-138). Milne 1 97 1 : 1329-34, 1336 Citation (Year 16, i.e., 1 3 1 - 1 32), 156973 (Year 22, i.e., 137-138). NKOS Cat. No. 2 Location Diam. Material, module and denomination Mint Obverse Reverse
Sumayra, on southern yardang with wall attached. 17 rnrn Bronze AE3/Nummus centen ionalis? Unknown Not recorded. Gloria Exercitus series; two soldiers with spears, two standards between them.
o
o
1 cm
Figure 45: Glass find no. 1, from the area of Surnayra (M. Mossakowska-Gaubert).
2cm
Figure 46: Coin NKOS 1 from Surnayra, obverse and reverse (S.
Ikram).
78
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
Date Citation NKOS Cat. No. 3 Location Diam. Material, module and denomination Mint Obverse Reverse
Date Citation Note NKOS Cat. No. 4 Location Diam. Material, module and denomination Mint Obverse Reverse Legend, mint mark Date Citation Note NKOS Cat. No. 5 Location Diam. Material, module and denomination Mint Obverse Reverse Date Citation Note
Legend visible on left. Mint mark in exergue, but not legible from image. Coin of Constantine, AD 330335. NA
Near Qasr al-Sumayra 12mm Bronze AE3/Maiorina Unkno-wn Imperial bust right, diadem or wreath, traces oflegend. FeZ Temp Reparatio, Falling Horseman series. Legend and mint mark illegible. AD 351-361 NA Possibly cast.
Near Qasr al-Sumayra 12mm Bronze AE3/Maiorina Unkno-wn Illegible, traces oflegend. FeZ Temp Reparatio, Falling Horseman series. Illegible AD 351-361 NA Possibly cast.
Smallfind, (SI)
The Sumayra area yielded several small finds ofvar ious types. Northwest of the fort a small cluster of ob jects were found on the surface (the find spot is marked by the metal ball in figure 33). These consisted of an eroded faience bead, five pieces of corroded metal, and a curious iron ball with a broken off hook-type attach ment at one end. The ball, some 7 cm in diameter, is not totally spherical, perhaps due to weathering: part of one side has an odd rippled surface. Its function is unknO"Wll. A few fragments of faience vessels were also found in the vicinity. The majority of finds came from the part of the site that lies south of the fort and is situated just north of the ancient cultivations (the area between alabaster and grinding stone in figure 33). Several pieces of blue faience bowls were found scattered across the area. A few fragments of glass (see above) were also found con centrated in roughly the same areas as the faience. An elongated, rounded terracotta basin lay in pieces on the desert surface (figure 47). A fragment of an Egyptian alabaster (travertine) bowl was identified; clearly this is an import from the Nile Valley. At least two entire, and one partial, gran ite grinding stones were found here, indicative of grain processing and the possible reuse of materials from another building in the oasis. Another example of a grinding stone of granite was also found in the ruined mudbrick building associated with a large yardang, lo cated in the southern portion of the site. Worked pieces of sandstone, granite (smooth on both sides and 4.5 cm thick), and one piece of quartzite, all perhaps fragments
Near Qasr al-Sumayra 14mm Bronze AE3 or AE4 UnknO"Wll Impossible to clean, illegible. Impossible to clean, illegible. 4th cent. AD? NA Broken, fragmentary
Of the five coins retrieved, four date to the 4th centu
ry AD and one to the 2nd century AD.
Figure 47: Terracotta basin from Sumayra (C. Rossi, 2001).
II.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER of architectural elements, were also noted in the area south of the fort. The fact that all of these items that were clearly of a domestic and slightly luxurious nature (glass, faience, travertine) might suggest that wealthier people lived at the southern end of the site, or, at least, that the southern part of the settlement, further away from the fort, was of a domestic nature. The cluster of buildings near the cemetery also yield ed a few objects, including worked pieces of granite, and two unfired donut shaped clay loom weights, at testing to spinning and weaving being carried out at the site, most probably on a domestic scale. The first one is 5 cm in diameter, 2 cm thick, with the hole's diameter being 1.6 cm. The second one is 7.5 cm in diameter, 2 cm thick, with the hole's diameter being 2 crn. It is un clear if this area was related to the cemetery (weaving cloth for the dead?) or if it was independent of it.
79 Common name
Latin name Triticum aestivum
Grain rachis remains Glumes paleasllemmas awn fragments
Desiccated cereals
Triticum durum
Evidence of animal bones from different areas of the site suggests that pigs as well as ovicaprids were ex poited here. The latter possibly provided woollhair for textiles in addition to meat and dairy products. The suid anatomical elements (skulls and all limb bones) suggest that the animals were reared and slaughtered here (eas ily done at a time when the area was much wetter) rath er than specific fresh or preserved joints being brought into the settlement.
3.
4
.. .. ..
hard wheat
rain Cereal rulm nodes Cereal rulm bases Cereal rulm internodes
5
6
7
.. .. ..
.. ..
..
..
.. ... ... ...
..
rachis remains Hordeum vulgare
barley straw
•
..
..
straw
Olea europaea
... •
straw
..
..
...
olives
•
stones leaves
•
Vitis vinifera
Fruits
mpe
seeds seed fragments edicels Phoenix
•
dacty lifera
•
usitatissimum
..
capsules fragments Ricinus communis Lolium
Charred cereals
castor oil
..
•
•
darnel
temulentum
•
spikelets Setaria verticil/afa/viridis
bristle-grass •
spikelets Triticum aestivum
bread wheat
•
rachis remains Phoenix
Fruits
•
flax/linseed
seed fragments
Weeds! other
..
..
fruit rachis remains erianth
Fibre/oil crops
..
date
Unum
Zooarchaeological Evidence (SI)
bread wheat
date
da�tv lifera
stones Olea europaea
stone fra
..
olives
�t,
•
Table 6: Plant remains from the mudbricks from Qasr al-Sumayra (A. Clapham).
Archaeobotanical Evidence (AIC) A survey of the modem flora was carried out here, yielding evidence for haifa grass (Imperata cylindrica) and goat's thorn (Alhagi maurorum). Additionally, sev eral brick samples were taken, out of which four were examined; the results appear in table 6. Sumayra Mudbrick 3a. This mudbrick sample con tained a limited number and range of desiccated plant remains including grain and rachis fragments of bread wheat and straw remains in the form of cereal cuhn nodes and internodes. Sumayra Mudbrick 4. This mudbrick sample con tained very little in the way of plant remains. A small number of bread wheat paleas and lemmas were pres ent along with straw fragments. No other plant remains were identified. Sumayra Mudbrick 5 . Desiccated remains of bread wheat (grains, rachis fragments, glumes and awn frag ments) and dururn wheat (Triticum durum) rachis frag-
ments were present along with cereal culm nodes. Other remains include grape seeds, and castor oil seed frag ments (Ricinus communis). No other plant remains were identified from this sample. Sumayra Mudbrick 6. Desiccated remains of bread wheat chaff and cereal cuhn bases were found along with grape seed fragments and date fruit rachis frag ments and perianths. Castor oil seed fragments were the only other remains identified. Sumayra Mudbrick 7. Desiccated bread wheat grain and rachis fragments were noted as were a few grains of hulled barley. Cereal cuhn nodes and straw fragments were also common. Thus, the list of species from the archaeological material was: Triticum aestivum (bread wheat) : rachis frag ments, glumes, palea/lemmas, grain Triticum durum (dururn wheat): rachis fragments
80
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
were present along with cereal culm nodes Hordeum vulgare (6-row hulled barley): rachis fragments and grain Vitis vinifera (grapes): seeds Phoenix dactyli/era (dates): fruitstones, calices and male flowers Ricinus communis (castor oil seed fragments). The different cereals used in the bricks is of note. At Sumayra and Qasr al-Gib the dominant cereal is bread wheat, with a small amount of hard wheat. Two Houses (SlieR) This settlement was called 'Two Houses'because it is characterised by the presence oftwo buildings, relative ly well preserved, that stand out from the undulating, sandy landscape (figure 48). At first sight they appear to be isolated, but the buried remains of a settlement surround them (figure 49). The MoA/SeA has in the past considered this to be an extension of Sumayra, but Fakhry, in his notebook, identifies what is probably this site as being 'Moghatta', a name (Maghatta) that is now applied to sites further to the south (see below) by the SCAiMoA Both Qasr al-Sumayra and Two Houses were built on a long north-south ridge that slopes do-wn into a vast plain. Two Houses lies about 1 kilometre to the south of the Sumayra plain, at the mouth of the 4 km long Aqueduct G2. The site is richer and more complex than it first appears; this discrepancy is mainly due to the un even preservation ofthe ancient buildings. It consists of a series of mudbrick structures, at least one well, visi-
ble in figure 50 (possibly two, but the other is too sand covered to be certain of its identification), an extensive field system, and agricultural areas, including what might have been orchards, protected by dry-stone walls (figure 51). Only two constructions survive to the height of their second floor, but many more lie buried under the sand. Some might have been razed to a low level, perhaps to recycle their mudbricks, but others appear to be still buried in the sand up to their roof level. It is therefore possible that the ancient ground surface was irregular and uneven, and that the constructions were originally built on different levels. Once the site was abandoned, the wind-blown sand levelled the area and gave it its present appearance.
Figure 48: Aerial view ofTwo Houses and the field system (R. Knisely Marpole, 2002).
Figure 50: Remains of a stone-lined well at Two Houses (C. Rossi, 2001).
Figure 49: Stumps of parabolic vaults protruding from the sand at Two Houses (C. Rossi, 2001).
-
81
II.3 THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
hck wall of loose stones (support foe' eanal)
•
FEATURES TO SCALE
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vegetation
ancient cultivation
•
walls (visible/traces)
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Buil buried buildings
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SYMBOLS NOT TO SCALE
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stone lined w,' laid ..-- stone wall
buildings shafts (qanat)
open-air canals two circular
0
wells
+
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+
pottery scatter
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glass
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grinder
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1 00
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contour lines at 1 m intervals
Figure 5 1 : Map of Two Houses (R. Knisely-Marpole/C. Rossi) .
300 m
i
82
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
Previous work There is no record of any investigation being carried out in this area prior to NKOS's work, that took place in 200 1 (Ikram and Rossi 2004b). General description
It is not easy to reconstruct the precise outline of the settlement, but it seems that groups of constructions were built on either sides of a central depression, that was probably all cultivated (cf. figure 51). The ancient fields are clearly visible in the northern part of the site. Here Aqueduct G2 discharged its water in a rather dra matic way: an open-air channel resting on a tall dry stone wall brought the water to the limit of the hollow and let it fall from a height of at least l.5 rn, either as a small cascade, or into a mill (see below). Several pottery scatters and fragments of alabaster were noted nearby. In some instances the field divisions are clearly marked by single or clusters of palms, just as is seen today. The area to the southeast of the site was also cul tivated, with a series ofmounds providing evidence for irrigation channel supports. Only two buildings stand proud from the sand: they have been labelled A (the southern one, figures 52 and 53) andB (the northern one, figures 54 and 55, follow ing pages); traces of other structures can be discerned in the east and west of the area. Building B is located on top of a low ridge, and is accompanied by an oven or storage bin and a pottery scatter. The eastern portion of the ridge contains the ruined remains of a series of structures surrounded by a large mound of pottery; to the south, a stone-lined circular well, some 2.04 m in di ameter, lies just below the edge of the ridge, surrounded
Figure 52: View of Building A from the north (N. Warner, 2010).
by potsherds on all sides. To the north is a midden with portions of a donkey skeleton and a great deal ofpottery. Inunediately to the south lies a group of what appear to be buried structures. On the other side of the hollow rises Building A, probably a house; the survey recorded the presence of a fire emplacement to the north, and of a rectangular, stone-lined feature surrounded by pottery to the east. To the south, a substantial buried building, barely visible on the desert surface, appears to cover a large portion of the ridge. Within its outline, beside a pottery scatter, lie the remains of two circular mud bins. The traces of the southern portion of the cultivation are not as clear as those near the mouth of the aqueduct, and are indeed slightly different. Here a series of low walls cross the desert surface in both a north-south and an east-west direction. To the west of Building A, a se ries of at least nine parallel lines of stones run from the edge ofthe ridge along an east-west direction; one north south line outlines a group of plots. Two long mudbrick walls cross the central area from side to side, whilst a dry-stone wall runs at a right angle to the latter. Along the eastern edge, inunediately to the south of the buried buildings there is a rectangular depression that appears to exploit a natural, shallow hollow of the ground; im mediately to the south lie a series of four north-south lines of small piles of loose stones. Against the southern border of the hollow, a couple of large rectangular plots are still outlined by walls made of black stones set in mud. The low ground continues to the east, into anoth er, smaller hollow divided into rectangular portions by lines of neatly arranged, small piles of stones. All these walls crossing the central area, sometimes associated with low mounds, might simply be the re mains of ancient field divisions. However, it is possible that some ofthem might have had also another function: that of retaining channelled water. Particularly interest ing is the southernmost wall, a long line that bends with a right angle on the east side. It runs straight across a narrow passage that represents the southern mouth of the natural depression of Two Houses, after which the terrain descends into a large plain. This wall marks the southern boundary of the site, as the pottery spread on the archaeological site stops here abruptly. Its position across the narrow passage suggests that it might also have had the function of directing or controlling the water flowing into the depression, either rainwater or groundwater corning from the qanat. Ceramic and glass evidence from the site suggests that it flourished between the 3rd and the 5th centuries AD (see below).
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
,. , ,
--- ----- -- - -- - - - -
83
SECTION BB
SECTION AA
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Figure 53: Plan and sections of Building A (N. Warner, 2001).
-
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10
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
84
the springing of the vaults. The precise configuration of
The standing buildings (NW) The best preserved of this group of structures is an apparently isolated house (Building A) oriented on a north-south axis with an orthogonal plan composed of five rooms at ground level (figure
52, previous pages).
Traces of staircase vaulting and sandstone treads can still be seen at its collapsed northeastern comer. The house was plastered internally with mud plaster but not on the exterior. The entrance is from the south - away from the prevailing wind - and leads to a small ante room enclosed by an elliptical vault. Beyond this, ac cessible through a door with a stepped double palm log lintel, is a separately enclosed stairwell and stair, which was supported by a series of eccentric mudbrick arch es. Another door, again with a roughly shaped palm-log lintel, leads into the principal room of the house. Only fragments of the palm-log lintels survive. Although the interior is largely filled with collapsed mudbrick and wind blown sand, requiring an estimate to be made ofthe original height, enough details survive to pennit a reconstruction of the design of the principal room of the house (figure 53, previous page). The room is double-height and is cross-vaulted in a distinctive fashion, with paired broad (north-south) and narrow (east-west) intersecting elliptical inclined vaults. This design of 'bi-axial' vault is paralleled at other sites in the oasis, notably at residential units in the settlements associated with the forts at
Ain al-Lebekha and Ain
Umm al-Dabadib.
An honorific niche faces the entrance to the room at
the upper floor of the house is unclear due to collapse, but it is likely that further vaulted rooms superimposed on those of the ground floor were located here although they may not have taken up the entire available area of the plan. These may have served as spaces for storage or food preparation. The remains ofthe springing of one vault, located above the entrance hall and accessed by a door at the head of the stair, are still clearly visible. To the northeast of Building A is another isolated two-storey structure (Building B), also oriented on a north-south axis (figure 54). Although this is not as well preserved as its counterpart, Building B has traces of six elliptical vaulted rooms at ground level (figure
55). No
doorways or points of access are visible due to collapse and sanding up. The interior was plastered throughout with mud plaster, and niches are found in five rooms. These have both semicircular arched and square heads with lintels. A circular storage bin with a
5 cm thick wall of mud with chaff temper measuring 120 cm in diameter and enclosed by a 50 cm thick square mudbrick wall stands on the southeast end ofthe structure external to the main
mass ofthe building. To judge from later blocking walls and differing sizes of wall and vaulting bricks used in different sections of the structure (cf. figure
55), the
construction took place in different phases. The collapsed remains of a further large structure, the full extent and function ofwhich are unclear, are locat ed to the southwest of Building A.
high level and is located on its east-west axis. Though substantially destroyed the niche probably had a square top originally, and is framed by projecting flat pilas ter colonnettes. On the opposing east wall at the same height is another smaller, elliptically arched, niche without framing. Subsidiary niches of different designs (with arches and fronted by a straight lintel or with pointed arches) can be seen at the lower level, which would have been more inunediately accessible for day to-day use. One of these niches, on the east wall, retains the emplacement for a timber shelf. Two small high
level rectangular window openings survive in the south wall. No traces oflime plaster or lime wash were noted inside the building, suggesting that the final finish was mud plaster. To the west of the principal room, and directly ac cessed from it, are two smaller elliptically vaulted rooms, which may have functioned as sleeping spaces. These are also furnished with arched niches that cut into
Figure 54: View of Building B from the southeast with storage bin in foreground (N. Warner, 2010).
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
.
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Figure 55: Plan of Building B (N. Warner, 2001).
Aqueduct G2 (CR) Aqueduct G2 starts to the west of Qasr al-Gib, behind a low ridge and discharged its waters into the plain of Two Houses (see figures 12 and 13 above). After a short V-shaped begilll1ing, it converges into a single straight line, marked by a series of 2 m high, light grey spoil heaps. The line of shafts proceeds southwards in a nat ural corridor between two ridges for most of its course. En route, it skirts a small, distinctive, pink rock outcrop, disappears into an elongated patch of vegetation where a modem watennelon cultivation had been installed, bends slightly to the east and, at the far south, enters the hollow where the site of Two Houses was built. A total number of 179 shafts were counted along Aqueduct G2, although it is possible that there were more that are now so covered with sand that they are unidentifiable. Three sequences of large spoil heaps are distributed along the course of this aqueduct; they could be the result either of the original digging of the aqueduct, or of its periodic cleaning operations.
85
The last underground section of Aqueduct G2 is par ticularly well preserved; it consists ofa 45 cm wide sur face channel covered by neatly laid stone slabs, served by a series of small circular openings, also originally closed by stone slabs. This challl1el headed south and led to an isolated wall, roughly made of basalt stones, that most probably once supported an open-air canal; this wall protrudes from the sandy ridge into the Sumay ra plain, and abruptly stops at a height of 1.5 m above the northernmost edge ofthe cultivation (Schacht 2003). Here the water either fell as a little cascade, or was per haps used for a mill, but only excavation might clarify this point, as nothing is visible inunediately under the drop, where the terrain is covered by wind-blown sand. At a short distance to the west there is a large pottery scatter, paired by a smaller one on the other side. Faint traces of a north-south line end into an area covered by loose stones, to the south of which the remains of an ancient, winding canal are clearly visible. Three branch es of the canal are still visible, plus an isolated, curved section that seem to suggest a loop in the course of the challl1el. Although the remains of the ancient cultivation are barely visible, the overall impression of Two Houses is that the cultivated area, exploiting a natural hollow, was flooded from north to south. A series of dry-stone walls helped to retain the water into the various plots, whilst a long, transversal wall built at the southernmost edge of the natural hollow delayed the natural flow ofthe water into the southern plain. The 'Owl Tomb '(SI) A large sandstone rock, surrounded by a few small boulders with one other large inselberg to the west, stands in the hollow haIfa kilometre to the south of Two Houses, and provided that settlement with a site for an elite tomb (see figure 12 above). It contains a solitary one-chambered tomb that was finely carved into the eastern face of the outcrop, oriented east to west (figure 56). Its name derives from the 200 1 occupant, a young owl, a Pharaoh Eagle Owl Bubo ascalaphus (thanks to Richard Hoath in his help in confinuing the identifica tion). It is an elaborate version of a Type 3 tomb (see Chapter III.5). The tomb's fayade was built up with mudbrick walls on either side of the rectangular rock-cut entrance, creating a small courtyard. The mudbricks are of the same size used at Qasr al-Sumayra. A horizontal recess carved above the exterior of the doorway (1.75 m x 0.38
86
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER a rectangular shaft occupied the southwestern portion of the tomb; however, the area is fairly full of aeolian sand, so it is unclear ifthis is indeed a shaft leading to the bur· ial chamber. Fragmentary human remains are scattered outside the door of the tomb, with only a few bones left within it. At least one mature adult male (over 35) and one younger adult (under 24 years old) were identified on the basis of epiphysial fusion of bones, and the num· ber of limbs found.' Owl Tomb Annexe (SI)
Figure 56: View of the Owl Tomb (S. Ikram, 2001).
m, 0.23 to 0.25 m deep) suggests that this was original ly the location of a decorated stone lintel, presumably inscribed with the name and title of the tomb-owner(s). A pair of crudely carved triangular niches flanks the en trance; the northern one measures 70 em and the south ern one measures 60 em in height, with the bases so broken that no accurate measurement could be made. The interior of the rectangular tomb has plain verti cal rectangular niches carved into the north and south walls, facing each other (figure 57). The southern one is 0.49 m high, 0.43 m wide, and 0.20 m deep, while the northern one is 0.55 m high, 0.44 m wide, and 0.20 m deep. The chamber measures 5.24 m x 3.3 m, with a minimum height of2.15 m. There is evidence that it was once plastered and painted. A faint outline suggests that
.... _ .... , ... , , , .
_
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-
To the west of the Owl Tomb, carved into a series of poorer quality sandstone outcrops are at least three more tombs, the exteriors as well as interiors of which were enhanced with mudbrick; perhaps at least one was vaulted. Fragments of thin plaster and whitewash sug· gest that originally these interiors were covered with plaster and painted. Crumbling remains of niches fur· ther emphasize a similarity with the architecture of the Owl Tomb, although these tombs are smaller in size and none show evidence for a slab stela or false lintel, although they all probably had some sort of entrance structure built of mudbrick. The interior dimensions of these tombs are difficult to judge due to the erosion that they have suffered; a width of 2.5 m would be an aver· age for all three, but their lengths cannot be established due to collapse and weathering. The pottery scatter is dense here. At least eight individuals were identified, and at least three of these, based on the pelvis, were female. Clearly these tombs were used for more than one individual. As only a scatter of bones was found here, it is difficult to say anything about the techniques of mummification employed (the presence of bandages would suggest some intervention). Grave goods in the fonn of ceramic vessels were noted, but there was no extant evidence of glass or faience objects. Slightly fur· ther to the west there is a rise pitted with depressions, but it is unclear if these are indicative of tombs as no bones or pots were found here. They might be evidence ofshoad mining for alum or ochre, but again, there is no alum visible, and very little ochre found here.
1
L
o
10m I
Figure 57: Plan of the Owl Tomb (N. Warner).
The overall length (GL) of the femur was 43 em, and of the tibia 35.5 em. The teeth showed little evidence of wear, though the third molar was in use. There was some lipping ofthe vertebrae. The second individual's humerus had its distal end fused, although the proximal epiphysis was still in the process of fusion. A femur, possibly also belonging to the same individual, clearly shows the fusion line ofthe proximal epiphysis.
II.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER Ceramics from Two Houses (LAW)
Collection Ceramic collections were carried out by Amanda Dunsmore at Two Houses in both the 2002 and 2003 seasons, often in tandem with work at Sumayra or Umm al-Dabadib. No controlled collection was made at the site, as the scatters of potsherds were, for the most part, not dense enough to sustain any large collection. Though the scatters were small in size, at least one of them, located at the base of a very large rock northwest of both buildings, was dominated by sherds of fabric 10, including bread forms. These industrial sherds were quite weathered and impossible to draw; they do, however, document the presence of some degree of production and provisioning activity at the site. Due to the sparse scatters, we may only discuss fabric use and distribution subjectively; to that end, it appears that the pottery was made out of the normal Khargawi fabrics documented at Sumayra. Some Nile Valley sherds were identified, particularly in the form of Late Roman Am phora 7. Additionally, Amanda Dunsmore's notes make reference to a Palestinian amphora. It has been impossi ble to double-check these sherds and their classification at the time ofthis writing. Targeted collections of diagnostic sherds were made throughout the site, focusing largely on Buildings A and B. Additionally, chinking sherds were removed from Vault 3 of Building A. These sherds provide a termi nus post quem for the construction of that house, but unfortunately can only be dated roughly, to before the 4th century AD , perhaps more specifically to the 2nd-3rd centuries AD . A few ofthe chinking sherds might be no tably earlier, perhaps dating to as early as the Persian or Ptolemaic periods. Building B's vaults employed chink ing stones rather than sherds. The pottery from inside and around the houses dates from the 3rdl4th centuries AD and later. It seems reasonable to assume a 3rd-4th century building and occupation date for the buildings.
Catalogue In addition to the below forms, collections from Building A included an LRA 7 base, a small cup (paral leled to 01/1 19, Umm al-Dabadib Northern Settlement; see figure 282, no. 58); a keg rim (similar to Umm al Dabadib Northern Settlement, figure 287, no. 132), a thin-walled bowl with one lug on rim (similar to Umm al-Dabadib Fortified Settlement, figure 280, no. 34), and a medium bowl with outcurved rim. Collection from the
87
stone-lined well, located east of Building B, included a high-fired cooking jar (Eastern Settlement, Umm al Dabadib, figure 288 no. 143) and a large, deep bowl (parallel drawing 02/123, targeted pickup from Umm al-Dabadib; unpublished). Targeted collection around Building B also included LRA 7 sherds from the wall, a large, shallow bowl coming from the central area of the room, two Palestinian amphora sherds, a neck and handle from a lentoid flask, a lamp fragment, and base from a Nile silt jar. The general environs yielded body sherds of LRA 7, gargoulettes with exterior cream/yellow slip, ledge-rim bowls, a few keg sherds, and a small cup of fabric lB. Many of the sherds were very eroded. All sherds came from surface collection; all dates are based on parallel vessels. Collection from Building A (figure 58, following page) I) Flask (?) neck with filter and handle. Both inte rior and exterior surfaces are unslipped. Fabric: Ie. Diameter: 3.7 cm (100%). Drawing 01/61. Parallels: Dush, Kharga (Ballet 2004: fig. 2 1 8.35; late 2nd/early 3rd century AD - late 3rdlbeginning 4th centuries AD; Ballet and Vichy 1992: fig. 13f; 3rd century AD). 2) Keg. Exterior may have originally been cream slipped, but this is uncertain; unslipped interior. Fabric: IA. Diameter 6 cm (100%). Drawing 0 1/62. Similar to Qasr al-Sumayra (above), fig ure 44, no. 20. 3) Small carinated bowl. Unslipped on both interi or and exterior, with red rim band and traces of red blobs on the shoulder. Blobs might or might not have been deliberate. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 1 2 cm (1 8%). Drawing 0 1/64. Conceptually sim ilar to Dush, Kharga (Ballet 2004: fig. 2 15. 17; I st/2nd centuries AD - early 3rd century AD). 4) Deep bowl with three to four lug handles. Red slipped on both interior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 22.0 cm (55%). Drawing 0 1/63. Chinking sherds from Building A, Vault 3 (figure 59) 5) Large, deep bowl with pulled rim. Red-slipped on rim, possibly, and exterior; unslipped on in terior surface. Fabric: lB. Diameter 40 cm (4%). Drawing 02/192. 6) Large, deep bowl with pulled rim. Red-slipped interior, continues over rim; unslipped exterior.
88
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER 12) Jar with pulled rim. Unslipped on interior and exterior, but may have had a red rim band. Diam eter: 16 cm (25%). Fabric: 1A. Drawing 02/199. Parallels as with no. 13, below. 13) Jarwith pulled rim. Unslipped on interior and ex terior surfaces. Diameter: 16 cm (13%). Fabric: lB. Drawing 02/200. Similar in fonn to the ma terial found in the necropolis of al-Deir, Khar ga (Brones 2010: fig. 273; Persian to Roman in date); Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla (Patten 1996: fig. 6; 3rd-4th centuries AD); Ain Manawir, Khar ga (Marchand 1997: fig. 1, though much larger than our example). These parallels had trefoil spouts, which our example is missing; without the spout present these parallels are tentative. Dunsmore (2002: fig. 2j) published an example without a spout from Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla (2nd-3rd centuries AD).
Fabric: IB, inclusions well sorted. Diameter 40.0 em (12%). Drawing 021193. Parallel: Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla (Dunsmore 2002: fig. 4e; Phase Ie - specific dating unclear but certainly pre-4th century AD . The Ismant al-Kharab vessel is not as large in diameter as our example). 7) Large, deep bowl with pulled rim. Pale red slip on rim and exterior, possibly on interior. Fabric: lA, low fired. Diameter 40 em (12%). Drawing 021194. 8) Large, deep bowl with pulled rim. Possible pale red slip on interior and exterior surfaces, but unclear. Fabric: lA, low fired. Diameter: 48 em (6%). Drawing 02/195. 9) Medium, deep bowl with pulled rim. Pale red slip on rim and exterior surface; possibly on interior surface as well. Diameter: 26 em (5%). Draw ing 021196. Parallel: Dakhla (Gill 2014: 70, fonn 30b; Ptolemaic). 10) Medium bowl with direct rim. Pale red slip on interior and exterior surfaces. Diameter: approxi mately 22 cm (6%). Drawing 021197. 11) Small bowl with direct rim. Red-slipped on ex terior, possibly on interior as well. Diameter: 20 cm (7%). Drawing 02/198.
2
1
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Collection from Building B (figure 60) 14) Medium bowl with concave rim. Red-slipped on both interior and exterior surfaces, with traces of a cream rim band. Diameter: 23 cm (13%). Fab ric: 1A. Drawing 03/208. Possibly a chinking sherd from either the wall or the vault.
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II.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER 15) Bowl with complex rim. Interior and exterior surfaces unslipped. Diameter: 28 cm (13%). Fab ric: lA. Drawing: 01169. 16) Large ledge-rim bowl. Cream-slipped on both in terior and exterior surfaces, with piecrust pinched decoration at rim, amorphous red decoration on interior, and indistinct modeled decoration on exterior. Diameter: 35 cm (17%). Fabric: lA. Drawing 0 1170. 17) Large, deep bowl with pulled rim. No slip on any surface, though exterior surface is very weath ered. Diameter: approx. 40 cm (3%). Fabric: lA. Drawing 03/209. 18) Small bowl with direct rim. Red-slipped on both interior and exterior surfaces. Diameter: 14 cm (28%). Fabric: IA. Drawing 0 1/66. Parallels: similar to Tebtynis, Fayum (Ballet and Polud nikiewicz 20 12: pI. 36, fig. 349, though their ex ample is larger; 2nd century AD); Ismant al-Khar ab, Dakhla (Dunsmore 2002: fig. 5t; Phase 3. The absolute dating for these phases is uncertain, but Dunsmore suggests a possible early-mid 3rd cen tury date for Phase 3 based on the stratigraphy and association with other ceramics). 19) Medium bowl with direct rim. Cream-slipped on both interior and exterior surfaces, with red rim band. Diameter: 2 1 cm (12%). Fabric: lA. Draw ing 0 1/67. 20) Wide, shallow bowl with direct rim and flat base. Red-slipped on interior and exterior surfac es; most of exterior is blackened except for the center of the base. Diameter: 28 cm (5%). Fabric: Nile silt. Drawing 03/2 10. 21) Jar rim, with edge of handle preserved (not shown in drawing). Unslipped on both interior and exte rior surfaces. Diameter: 14 cm (7%). Fabric: lA. Drawing 0 1/68. Parallels: Qasr Sumayra (figure 44, no. 1 2); Mutal-Kharab and Site 3, Dakhla(Gill 2014: form 65g: 3 1 1 , no. 723; 44 1 , no. 794; Ptolemaic). A small dump, located near the northeastern cor ner of Building B yielded a respectable proportion of sherds made of Nile Silt, the specifics of which were not recorded in Dunsmore's notes. The reader should remember that the representation of Nile silt sherds in this sample has no statistical significance. Nile Silt (figure 60) 22) Medium, deep bowl. Red slip visible on both in terior and exterior, though most of exterior sur-
91
face is weathered away. Diameter: 24 cm (10%). Fabric: Nile Valley silt. Drawing 03/215. 23) Flange-rim bowl. Red-slipped and burnished on both interior and exterior. Diameter: 15 cm (1 8%). Fabric: ORS. Drawing 03/2 12. Parallel: Kharga (Rodziewicz 1987: form 21e; no date). 24) Bowl with direct rim. Unslipped on interior and exterior surfaces. Diameter: 15 cm (13%). Fab ric: Nile Valley silt. Drawing 03/2 14. 25) Jar or amphora rim (?). Cream-slipped on interior and exterior. Diameter: 6 cm (33%). Fabric: Nile Valley silt. Drawing 03/2 13. 26) Ring base from bowl. Red slip on interior sur face; exterior surface weathered. Base diameter: 8 cm (15%). Fabric: Nile Valley silt. Drawing 03/2 16. 27) Arnphorarim and neck. Unslipped in and out, with residue traces on interior, possibly from resin. Diameter: 7 cm (23%). Fabric: Nile Valley silt. Drawing 03/2 17. Appears to parallel examples of LRA 7, for example, at Dush, Kharga (Ballet 2004: fig. 221.55; late 3rdlearly 4th centuries AD early 5th century AD); Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla (Hope 1985: fig. 6a, no. 3 1 ; late 4th to early 5th centuries AD). However, Dunsmore did not at tribute this form to the vessel; it was impossible to access the sherd to verifY its fabric and treat ment at the time of this writing. 28) Jar rim. Unslipped on interior and exterior sur faces. Diameter: 14 cm (16%). Fabric: lA. Drawing: 03/2 1 1 . Finds from Two Houses
Glass (MMG) Six glass fragments (nos. 2 to 7, figure 61) were re corded from the prospection ofthis area: three rims, two body fragments, and a fragment of a base. Bowls with pinched-up decoration (nos. 2-3) Fragment no. 2 was part of a bowl with a cut and smoothed rim, which is bent outward. It is decorat ed with a repeating geometric pattern, consisting of a small vertical pinched 'rib', flanked by two dramat ically curved ones. Fragment no. 3 might have be longed to a bowl of the same type. This type of dec oration is seen on glasses from the 3rd century AD, becoming widespread in Byzantine and Umayyad periods, and still in use at the beginning of Abbasid
92
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER period (Foy 2000: 161-2). There are other attestations of the glass objects with a similar pinched decoration from Kbarga Oasis (Nelll1a 2010: cat. 24; 4th century AD), as well from Dakhla Oasis (Marchini 1999: no 28, fig. 3i; 4th century AD). The footless bowls with pinched decoration are also known, for example, from Dura Europos (Clairmont 1963: no. 223, before 256 AD), and probably from Karanis (see small fragments in Harden 1936: no. 324 and 325, 5th-6th centuries AD?). The bowls with cut, smoothed (or not) rim and bent outward seem to be particularly conunon in the 4th and 5th centuries AD, but usually have engraved decoration. They are found both in the western part of the Mediterranean, in southeastern France (Foy 1995: nos. 98, 99, 100) and in the East: Egypt (Hard en 1936: no. 330; Mossakowska-Gaubert 2004: Cat
)
11, 5; Mossakowska-Gaubert 2006: no. 2405-1); Pal estine (Crowfood 1957: fig 93, no. 8), Jordan (Dussart 1998: BI 221; Meyer 1987: fig. 7, gg, hh, ii), Lebanon (Je1ll1ings, 1997-1998: fig. 9 nos. 4, 5, 6) or North Af rica (Fiinfschilling 1999: nos. 128, 129). Ring base (no. 4) A fragment of a base of bowl, without decoration (no. 4). This kind ofring base is not characteristic. Rounded lip rims (nos. 5-6) Two thick, rounded lip rims (nos. 5-6). It is not easy to identify the vessels to which they belonged. Par allels to these rims are knO"Wll, for example from Carthage (Fiinfschilling 1999: nos. 646 and 655, 4th5th centuries) or Beirut (Je1ll1ings 1997-1998: fig 13,
2
3
4
5
6
\I
\
\
I
P
7
(�
c:?',
))
-
Oom
Figure 61: Glass finds nos. 2 to 7, from Two Houses (11. Mossakowska-Gaubert).
10m
II.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER no. 13: 4th-5th centuries). However, other interpreta tions seem to be equally possible. Piece of glass with facet-cut decoration (no. 7). On a small piece of glass, probably part of the body, with traces of faceted cut decoration (no. 7). Given its small size, the identification of the form and the full pattern of decoration is impossible. The glass fragments found at Two Houses all seem to date to the 4th and 5th centuries. All these objects have a yellowish tint. List of glass from the site: no. 2: part of a bowl with pinched decoration; diam. 1 1 ,6 cm, H+ 3,4 cm; yellowish no. 3 : part ofa bowl with pinched decoration; H+ 3,7 cm; yellowish no. 4: ring base; diarn. 6,8 cm, H+ 1,9 cm; yel lowish no. 5 : rounded rim; diarn. 7 cm, H+ 1,8 cm; yel lowish no. 6 : rounded rim; diam. 6,4 cm, H+ 1,8 cm; yellowish no. 7: piece of glass, with faceted cut decoration; H+ 1,5 cm; yellowish
Smallfinds (SI) Aside from ceramics (including some 4th century Af rican Red Slip bowls, identified by Colin Hope in 2005 during a site visit), the area yielded virtually no objects. Some Neolithic stone tool fragments, together with lith ics of indeterminate date were located near the well, and a small portion from the body of an Egyptian alabaster vessel was found near Building A. No faience was not ed: either the sand is too thick, or there were few or no objects of this type here, indicating a poorer settlement than those associated with forts and/or temples.
Archaeobotanical Remains (AIC) At the Two Houses three mudbrick samples and four surface samples were taken; the result of their analysis is shown in tables 7 and 8 (following pages). In addi tion the walking survey showed that in the field areas date palms (Phoenix dactylifera) were used to mark the boundaries of plots, just as they are today. As there was no excavation, it was impossible to determine what the fields had been used to grow.
93
Building A Mudbrick 1 Desiccated plant remains were common m this mudbrick sample and consisted of grains and chaff remains (rachis fragments, glumes and paleas and lemmas) of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) and empty spikelets of hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare) although these were not as common as the wheat remains. Straw remains in the form of cuhn nodes, culm bases and straw internodes were also common. Other crop taxa present included olive (Olea euro paea) stones and leaves, grape (Vitis vinifera) seeds and seed fragments. Fibre crops were also represent ed in the form of flax (Linum usitatissimum) cap sule fragments and cotton (Gossypium sp) seeds and seed fragments. Weed seeds present included black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) and floret bases of oats (Avena sterilis). No charred plant remains were iden tified from this sample. Building B Mudbrick 2 Desiccated cereal remains consisted of bread wheat grains and chaff along with indeterminate cereal culm nodes, cuhn bases and straw internodes. Olive stones and leaves and grape seed fragments were also present. Date fruit rachis remains and perianthicalyx remains were also present. Flax seeds, capsule frag ments and immature capsules along with cotton seed kernels and fibres were noted. Weed seeds in the form of Brassica sp seeds and spikelets of darnel (Loli um temulentum) and oats (Avena sp) were identified. Charred remains in the form of olive stone fragments were recorded. Building B Mudbrick 3 A similar range of desiccted plant remams were recorded from this mudbrick as the previous two. Although, there appears to be a higher proportion of cereal culm internodes (straw) fragments. Olive stone, stone fragments and leaves were present as were grape seeds. Seed fragments of pomegranate (Punica granatum) and date stones were also pres ent. Spices in the form of fennel (Foeniculum vul gare) seeds were noted. Non-cultivated taxa were represented by Acacia sp. leaflets (most likely Acacia nilotica) and spikelets of darnel. Sheep/goat dung pellets were noted. Charred remains in the form of grape seed and olive stone fragments were recorded. Samples from Building B Two deposits were discovered and a total of three
94
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER samples were taken from Building B. On the south side of the house, a deposit of desiccated remains was found at the base of a mud storage bin at the south eastern comer ofthe building. It appears to consist of
Common name
Latin name Triticum aesfivum
Desiccated cereals
I
Grain rachis remains Glumes oaleasllemmas awn fra m ents
Hordeum vulgare emptyspikelets Cereal culm nodes Cereal culm bases Cereal culm internodes
Olea europaea stones stone fragments leaves
Vifis vinifera seeds seed fra ments
Fruits
Punicagranatum seed fragments
Phoenix dacfylifera
I
Fibre/oil crops
bread wheat
++
Unum usifafissimum
++
+++
++
+ +++
++
straw
++
++
++
straw
++
++
++++
+
++
+
++
olive
I grape I pome
+
++
++
ranate
++
++
f1axllinseed + ++
+++ +
cotton
+
+++ +
++ +
fennel +
cabbaqe
+
acacia black nightshade
+
+
darnel +
spikelets
Avena sferilis
Miscellaneous
floret base Avena s spikelets Sheep! oat dun
Charred fruits
winter wildoat
seed fra ments
Olea europaea
olive
+
+
wild oat
I grape
Vifis vinifera
++
+
seed
Lolium femulenfum
++
+
leaflet
Weeds/other
++
+++
dates
seeds
Solanum nigrum
++
++
seed
Acacia s
++
++
+++
seed seed fragments kernal fibres
Brassica so
3
straw
seed capsules fraqments immature capsules
Foeniculum vulgare
++
+++
+++
barley
2
+++
stones fruit rachis remains perianth
Gossvpium sp
Spices/pulses! condiments
1
stone fragments
+
+ +
+
+++
Table 7: Plant remains from the mudbrick samples from Two Houses (A. J. Clapham).
a mass of straw and other plant debris. The deposit spreads for approximately 60 cm to the south of the building. The depth of the deposit is unknown. One sample of two bags was taken from the top (closest to the bin) of the deposit and a second (1 bag) was taken from the southern end of the deposit. A second deposit of desiccated material was found at the north eastern comer of the building, north of the collapsed wall. The material seems to be in a layer sitting on a sandstone shelf on which the building is located. The deposit has a similar content to that found in the southeastern corner. Sample 1 , top of dump: the desiccated plant remains consisted of a few bread wheat rachis fragments, six row hulled barley empty spikelets and rachis remains and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp bicolor) glumes. The dominant cereal remains were cereal cuhn nodes and straw fragments. Olive stones and leaves, grape seeds and date stones, testa fragments, perianths and male flowers were present. Fibre crop remains in the form of flax capsule fragments and cotton seed fragments were identified. Safflower (Carthamus tinctorial seed fragments were also noted. Corian der seeds, onion skin (Allium cepa) were recorded. Non-cultivated plant remains included seeds of Eu phorbia peplus and shoots of Tamarix nilotica and Avena sterilis floret bases. Apart from plant remains a large number of rodent dung pellets were recorded from this sample. Sample 2, bottom of dump: this had a greater number of bread wheat remains including grain, and chaff. Cereal cuhn nodes and straw fragments were com mon. Olive stones and leaves, grape seed and seed fragments and date stones and perianths were also recorded. Flax capsule fragments and cotton seed fragments indicate the presence of fibre crops. Other desiccated remains included Fhalaris minor caryop ses and indeterminate Cyperaceae stern fragments. Sample 3, northeastern end of the house: this surface sample consisted of bread wheat grains and chaff as well as cereal culm nodes and bases as well as straw fragments, which are most likely to be of bread wheat. Olive leaves, grape pedicels and date stones were also present. Flax capsule fragments and sterns as well as cotton seed fragments indicated the pres ence of fibre crops. Weed/non-cultivated taxa includ ed a calyx of Hyoscyamus muticus, seeds of smooth sowthistle, spikelets of darnel, and floret bases of Avena sterilis. Rodent dung pellets and donkey dung were also present in the sample.
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER Sample 4, fi'om lined depression: the single sample from Building A came from a lined depression adja cent to the structure. The diversity of the desiccated plant remains from this sample was very much re duced compared to the previous samples and consist ed of cereal straw fragments, olive stones and date pahn fibres. No other remains were recovered from it.
Common name
Latin name Tntlcum aestivum
1
bread ;meat
Grain
•
rachis remains
6_ ,rn 1
++;-;-
••
••
++++
•••
•••
barley
•
S lkel els
•
rachis romans
SOI'!}hum birolor ssp bIDor
sorgh..im ••
Glumes
Cereal (:\JIm nodes
straw
Cereal �Im bases
straw
Cereal culm
straw
interoodes Olea Bum aea
olives
••
stones
•••
leaves VItIS vmrfera
rn ,
•
seeds seed Ira FnJts
ents
edicels Phoenix dad litera
dale
..
stones
lesla Ira
·
ents
.. ..
enanlhs
male nowers
•
••
..
••
uS/lal/sslmum
Fibre/oil crops
Go"
urn,
seed Ira
colton
ents
Carlhamus tmctoria
safflower
•
• •
·
Conandrum seed
condiments
Al lium ce a
seed
•
•
shoots Hyoscyamus mutlCUS
,tt
, "
,
tamarisk
Sonchus oIeroceus LoIlUm lfH1J/JJenlum
s Ikelels
Avena slenlis ftorelbase Ptlalans mmor a ses
Cypernceae mdeterminate stem fra
ents
Rodent dun Donke
,,,
The SCAlMoA has called much of the area to the south and west of the Owl Tomb 'Maghatta' . This area contains several sites, primarily cemeteries, few of which were officially registered. l1,ese were temporar ily named Maghatta A, B, C, etc. and then given the current names with the the approval of the Kharga In spectorate. Maghatta is an interesting area, but difficult to inter pret as this southern area has been deeply modified by the introduction ofmodem watermelon cultivations that have literarily turned the soil upside down and possibly destroyed, or at least disul.rbed, many ofthe archaeolog ical remains (figure 62, following page). In particular, the vast cultivation that encroached upon Watermelon Settlement appears to have literally deleted a portion of the archaeological area corresponding to the course of Aqueduct G4, and probably the surroundings of Water melon Settlement. At any rate, the evidence that punctu ates the desert surface offers significant information on the extent and variety of the ancient occupation. Ceram ic evidence and small fillds indicate that the area was occupied during different historical periods, ranging from the Ptolemaic period to the 5th century AD.
Previous work There is no record of any formal work being carried out in this area prior to NKOS's exploration in 2001. The SCAlMoA has only officially registered the sites that are now called the Vaulted Tombs and the Water melon Settlement, and noted that there are archaeologi cal remains in the area.
Outcrop Tombs
henbane •
smooth sowlhlstle
·
darnel
..
Winter Wild·
"I
General description
•
seed
Mlscellanoous
..
..
oal
"
•
• u,
Tamam mJotlCa
Woeds/other
·
•
fraaments
""'"
..
onion
epidermal Eu
..
coriander
sativum
The Maghatta Area (SJ unless othelwise stated)
..
..
achene Ira ments
Spices/pulses!
••
�1lXI1lnseed
ca sules Ira ments siems
••
•
••
fibres
Unum
4
·
..
aleasJ1emmas
avm lra menls
Desiccated coreals
.. .. ..
3
.. .. .. ..
Glumes
Hordeum vulgare
2
95
•
•
lesser canarv-{lrn ss
•
sedge family •••
••
· •
Table 8: Plant remains from the non-mudbrick samples from Two Houses (A. J. Clapham).
Two large stone outcrops are pierced by crudely cut Type 3 tombs located at the base of the rock. The cham bers are extremely eroded. It seems that they were cut roughly in a diagonal, east-south, measuring 2.91 m in width and 6.55 m in length. Details were added in mud brick as some portions of the wall show the remains of brickwork. Bones and pottery spew forth from the open ings, but in such a state that nothing can be determined about the treatment of the bodies, save that they were wrapped and that some resinous substance was used in their preservation.
. '.
.
'
...., , ....•..,-.-
i ,
z ..
I ,
.'.
.,' . - � :�" .. • • +
•• • o
Figure 62: Map of the area including Maghatta, Ain Ghazal and Unun al-Qusur (C. Rossi).
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
97
Complex Structure (or Complex T) A structure built on a slight ridge is located some 700 m to the west, and very slightly, to the south of the Outcrop Tombs. It is unusual as it is constructed of chambers cut into the bedrock, together with some built portions made of crudely cut sandstone chunks. The structure measures at least 2 m in width and 4.75 m in length; it is difficult to detennine the precise size and plan as portions are covered by sand (figure 63). The complex is roughly a large rectangle with different sized divisions within it. At the southwestern comer are three areas cut into the bedrock, separated by pieces of rough stone, such as those used to build the complex. There is a scattering ofpottery and some glass, suggesting a hab itation of some sort, although the density of the fonner is not typical of other habitations. Nearby, a few depressions might be indicative of tombs, or maybe these are other structures (even hav ing to do with water acquisition) whose precise nature cmmot be detennined without excavation. This might have been an area for a small house or lookout point, although it is neither very protected, nor does it have a particularly good view. Alternatively, it might have had something to do with the upkeep of the nearby tombs (Outcrop, above, and Graffiti and Rock with Tombs, be low). Ceramics/rom Complex Structure (LAW) The material from this site was examined and evalu ated in situ. The few diagnostic sherds are of a cooking pot, possibly of the 4th century AD, a LRA 7 (4th to 7th centuries AD), and part of the top portion of a LRA 1 (3rd to 5th centuries AD in Egypt). It is possible that oth er, earlier pottery is present below the surface, but the remains studied place this site within the 4th-5th centu ries range that is seen at other standing structures in the north of the oasis. Graffiti Tombs This group of Type 3 tombs lies 240 m to the south-southeast of Complex Structure. Three tombs are cut into the southern and southwestern end of a low sandstone ridge (figure 64, following page). Originally there might have been more tombs, but it is impossi ble to tell due to the sand and also the poor quality of the rock that has collapsed in many places. In the mid1990s, watennelon cultivation prospered in the south and southwest. The modem track serving the western
Figure 63: Complex Structure, or Complex T (S. Ikram, 2002).
watennelon cultivation runs just at the foot of this out crop; on the other side of the track, there is a group of temporary huts used by local fanners, built on the ridge overlooking the southern plain. The rectangular tombs are, on average, 2.9 m wide x 3.1 m long. The interiors are rough and unplastered. Disarticulated and broken bones as well as fragments of linen and broken pots are scattered across the area. In addition to the usual scatter of potsherds, several fragments of glass were found, although no diagnostics. A piece of a moulded faience vessel that is glazed, blue, yellow and green was found here, and is typical of late 3rd to 4th century AD production. The exterior, and part of the interior of the tombs are inscribed with graffiti of different periods. The most modem is Arabic (Allah, Muhanunad), carved on the outside of the tombs and was quite possibly carved by the watennelon growers; some similar texts appear on the interior. Bedouin "WUsum also appear here, as do the outlines of feet, some carved over Arabic texts, and other independent of or beneath the texts (figure 65). The latter vary in date; some are superimposed on the Arabic, while others are clearly earlier. There is a preponderance of right feet (no toes are outlined). The patina is not a particularly useful aid to dating in this case.The majority of the graffiti on the interior is very eroded and largely undecipherable, save for the out lines of feet. In tenns of texts, it is possible that some of these might be Coptic (and even possibly earlier), as is evidenced by faint traces of letters in the Greek or Coptic alphabet.
98
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
Figure 64: View of Graffiti Tombs (S. Ikram, 2002).
Rock "With Tombs Only 210 m to the southwest of the Graffiti Tombs is another small outcrop with at least one if not more rock-cut tombs in it. The same scatter of bones, textiles, and sherds characterise this tomb, as is the case with the Graffiti Tombs. There is no identifiable ancient habita tion nearby, although there must have been some sort of settlement related to these tombs, which is now hidden beneath the desert's surface. Western Tombs (Maghatta D) Another group of quite impressive rock-cut tombs are located some l.6 km to the west of the Graffiti and Rock with Tombs groups. The site is marked by two long parallel sandstone massifs (Rocks B and C, east to west), averaging about 380 m in length, standing proud from the desert, with another, lumpier rock lying about 220 m to the west (Rock A). Another smaller massif (North Lookout Rock) is situated at 580 m to the north of the parallel massifs. Between the single and double massifs, and to their east is the remnant of intensive wa tennelon cultivation that had been abandoned by 200 1 (figure 66). Some sherds of Roman date noted in the less churned up areas, together with spoil heaps typical of water extraction, suggest that this area was occupied during that period, either as an agricultural area or as a small settlement, perhaps related to the Watermelon Settlement (cf. figure 62 and see below). The most western outcrop (A) hosts at least two tombs cut into the eastern side (WT 1 and 2, both Type 3). Indentations indicate some shaft tombs (Type 2) on the top of the rock (at least two) and also on the south eastern slope (possibly three). The tombs on the eastern face were the most impressive tombs found at the site,
Figure 65: Texts engmved on the rock surface inside the Gmffiti Tombs (S. Ikram, 2002).
and presumably made for the highest elite of the Water melon Settlement or maybe some as-yet-undiscovered settlement (figure 67). More tombs might exist here, but the collapse makes this difficult to ascertain. These rough rectangles that are cut horizontally into the rock's eastern face exploit the area where the rock is most stable. It is possible that steep causeways led to these tombs, but the deposition of sand and broken stone ob fuscates this. The northernmost (numbered WT 1 by NKOS) is a Type 5 tomb roughly measuring 3.6 m north to south and 2.73 m east to west. The doorway is 75 cm wide, the jamb 45 cm, and the height lUlclear due to floor de bris. The door was not set in the centre of the eastern wall, but rather, to the south. A shaft lies in the southern part of the tomb, and measures approximately 1.8 m x 2.55 m, as far as can be detennined. There is no carved internal decoration, and no evidence of plaster or paint, although, given the state of the tombs, this is not SUf-
Figure 66: Abandoned watermelon cultivation in the west ern area, looking south towards the outcrops of the Western Tombs (C. Rossi, 2002).
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
99
is 1 .23 x 0.64 m and at least 1 m deep (the bottom was filled with sand). Rock C has at least one shaft on the top, on the western side, which could not be properly measured; several other depressions on the top of the rock might indicate the presence of additional burials.
pnsmg. The tomb has been robbed several times. Disar ticulated body parts lie scattered within and just outside the tomb; it was clearly used for more than one body, and possibly was reused over time. Other objects found here include fragments of cartOlll1age, enhanced with paint and plaster, chunks of painted plaster from coffins, bits of plastered and painted wooden anthropomorphic coffins, and fragments ofjeri!, suggesting that some of the burials might have been cheaper, using these palm ribs to support the bodies, rather than using coffins. A few palms had some fronds attached. All the painted re mains are tentatively dated to the ptolemaic, and most certainly Roman era (Aubert and Cortopassi 2004). WT 2, the most southern of the tombs cut into the rock's eastern face, roughly measures 4 m x 4 m. No evidence for a shaft is visible. The interior, like that of WT 1, is undecorated. It contained at least three adults and one child aged between four and eight years old. All the remains seem to have been mmmnified, but to different standards. The maj ority showed evidence for evisceration, while at least three individuals were ex cerebrated. A dark resinous material covered many of the bodies and the bandages. Bum tests indicated that most of this seemed to be a combination of resins and oils, but one smelled more like bitumen. Some of the mummy bandages are pink, a colour clearly popular in the Graeco-Roman period, and often, but not exclusive ly, seen on mmmnies of the 2nd century BC through the 2nd century AD (figure 68). Rock B only has tombs cut into its relatively flat top, in the northern half of the massif (Type 2). At least five shaft mouths were identified of which two were meas urable. Quite possibly more exist here. Shaft 1 measures l.39 m x 0.68 m and is at least 4.5 m deep and Shaft 2
In addition to the usual fonn of cartonnage, this tomb also contained linen that was covered by a layer of pIas ter, 3 nun thick on average, that had been painted (figure 69, following page). The painting on these seemed very late Ptolemaic to Roman (up to the late 3rd century AD) in date, and include texts, images, and rosettes (figures 70 and 71). Chunks of painted and modelled plaster, in dicating -wreaths, typical of Roman burials of the 1 st and 2nd century AD (Aubert and Cortopassi 2004: A2, AIO, A13, B2, B3), were also retrieved. Fragments of thinly plastered and painted pieces of wood attested the presence of wooden coffins, some with dowels. One fragment in particular is notewor thy; it is on a curved piece of thick wood (ca. 2.6 cm) from an anthropoid coffin/sarcophagus, with a layer of white plaster, which is painted with a delicate hand and is probably part of a wesekh collar (figure 72). A tiny fragment of a greeny-blue paint is followed by a band of white, which borders a black (or dark, possibly the colour has changed) band, with white eight-petalled rosettes painted on it. Another white band follows and then a complete band of greeny-blue, followed by an other white band. The greeny-blue band is adorned with pendentive lily/lotus buds and open flowers outlined in black. This surely dates to the early Ptolemaic period if not before: this pattern is attested on Late Period and
Figure 67: View of the Western Tombs (S. Ikram, 2002).
Figure 68: Mummy bandages from the Western Tombs (S. Ikram, 2002).
Small Finds from the Western Tombs
100
II.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
Figure 69: Fragment of plastered linen from Western Tombs
Figure 7 1 : Fragment of texts painted on plaster from West
(S. Daam, 2002).
ern Tombs (S. Daam, 2002).
Ptolemaic coffins in different media (Rijksmuseum Lei
it is possible that more existed originally, but are now
den AM 4; elements in common with the coffin of Psa
obscured by sand and rubble or completely destroyed.
metik, son of Sbarekhy in Grenoble, Inv. 1996; North
It consists of a single cmdely carved chamber that is
Carolina Museum of Art coffin of Amunred G.73 .8.5;
oval. The door to the tomb, however, has survived and
Grand Egyptian Museum 20374; coffin ofNesmin Rho
is well cut, but the interior is very cmde and oval (3 m
de Island School of Design 3 8.206).
long and varying between 0.65 m and 1 .5 m in width). It
Another painted fragment for which no parallel has
looks as if the door led straight to a shaft. It is possible
been found thus far appears on a straight piece of 3
that the tomb carvers had not realised that the band of
em thick wood with remains of dowels and joins. The
good quality rock was very limited, or that they ran out
decoration consists of a white plaster background upon
of time, and thus had to put the shaft directly beyond
which rows of cmdely painted red splotches that look
the entrance. Of course, it is possible that this might not
as if they are meant to be flowers are followed by sub
have been a tomb (no mummy fragments were noted),
sequent rows of similar yellow and black rows (figure
but rather some sort of shelter for anyone using this rock
73). A similar piece was recovered from Ain ai-Gebel
as a lookout point, though that still does not explain the
(below).
presence of a shaft.
North Lookout Rock
Western Tombs Trail (CRJSI)
A rock that is situated to the north of Rocks B and C
To the north ofthe three outcrops containing the West
provides a view of what has been posited to be one ofthe
ern Tombs another flat-topped outcrop rises up, offering
branches of the Darb aI-Arbain (Rossi and Ikram 20 13).
a commanding view of the surroundings. A cairn marks
Its eastern face boasts a single tomb (Type 3); again,
its northern edge. From this elevated position one can
Figure 70: Fragment of plaster decorated with rosettes,
Figure 72: Fragment of an anthropoid coffin, from Western
from Western Tombs (S. Daam, 2002).
Tombs (S. Damn, 2002).
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
101
cess to water. Thus, a settlement and accompanying ag ricultural activities associated with the cemetery could have been located in the area that has now been tak en over by the watennelon cultivation; indeed several sherds were noted within these areas. Watermelon Settlement (Maghatta A) (SlieR)
Figure 73: Unusual decoration on a plaster fragment, from Western Tombs (S. Ikram, 2002).
clearly see that the flat, soft terrain stretching around the outcrops that appears to be densely pitted by scores of footprints. A well-travelled trail clearly runs along a north-south direction, in line with the North Gib Trail mentioned above (Ikram and Rossi 2004b: 74-6, Rossi and Ikram 2013). It descended towards the Western Tombs from a low rocky ridge (as a clearly discoloured path shows) and then headed south in the direction of a line of cairns (see below). No objects or bones have been found along this portion of the track; perhaps the extremely soft terrain has swallowed them. The settle ment that must have been associated with the Western Tombs surely would have serviced, to some extent, those who used this track. Ridge Tombs The Ridge Tombs lie nearly a kilometre south of the Outcrop Tombs and 2.3 km southeast of the Western Tombs (see figure 62 above). As the name implies, these tombs are located on a ridge, at its southern end. They are part of the same geologic line that rises up in the landscape as the Owl and Outcrop tombs. More than 40 tombs, identified by depressions and a light scatter of human skeletal remains and sherds, were noted along the ridge. Tomb Types 2 and 4 make up the identifiable tombs recorded. Some of the exposed sections of shafts show that they were lined with mudbrick. These do not seem to be particularly wealthy tombs, based on the limited pottery scatter; their sizes are hard to detennine accurately as most are choked with sand that obscures their perimeters. To the east and west of the ridge lie the remains of a vast watennelon cultivation, interrupted by some yar dangs. It is quite probable, as attested by the modem cultivation, that in ancient times this area had easy ac-
Watermelon Settlement is located at the southern edge of the Northern Cluster, at a distance of nearly 6 km from Qasr al-Gib (cf. above figures 12 and 62). The central core consists ofa large tell, largely covered with sand, lying within an area ofwatennelon fields, with a smaller elongated tell slightly to the west, and a small mound to the north. Whether these tells exist because the site was located on a series of natural outcrop or rise or whether this is due to long-tenn deposition cannot be detennined without excavation. The watennelon cultivators reported the area to the Kharga Inspectorate in the 1980s (Magdy Hussein, pers. comm.) after they had started their cultivation, although they had left this portion of the site relatively untouched while they exploited the surrounding area. No doubt, a significant part of the site has been de stroyed by the cultivation, as is attested by the mounds of pottery that interrupt the watennelon fields. The site has also been engulfed by wind blmvn sand, as well as a large dune that has taken over a part of the area (figure 74). The southern area, free from watennelons and veg etation, contains the well-preserved and clearly visible remains of ancient fields, similar to those around Qasr al-Sumayra. They were probably irrigated thanks to an underground aqueduct of which a short section is still visible to the southeast of the remains of the settlement (see also Aqueducts G3 and G4 below). Old wells are attested by palm clumps, although the date of these is uncertain; the surrounding ceramics appear to date to the Roman period if not earlier, and might have been reactivated at some point later on. Although the water melon cultivation and the aeolian sand make it difficult to establish the boundaries of the site, its area was at least 4.5 hectares. Based on its size, the variety of ar chitecture, and the materials found here, it clearly was a place of some consequence in antiquity. The ceramics retrieved from the settlement's remains mainly date to the late 3rd to 5th centuries AD , broadly in line with the suggested chronology for the glass (4th to the beginning of the 6th centuries AD) and coins (all 4th century AD, see below).
102
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
Previous work There is no record of any work being carried out in this area prior to NKOS's work, although the SCAlMoA registered the site and had visited it briefly. Description ofthe settlement The remains of the settlement consist of at least one sandstone building that is situated at the highest point of the main tell, surrounded by several mudbrick structures, with the typical vaulted roofs that are seen throughout the oasis (figure 75). The mudbrick build ings are well preserved, some to roof height, with their interior plaster visible in some cases. The other small er tells only seem to contain mudbrick buildings. The brick measurements are consistent with those found at
Qasr al-Gib and the other constructed sites in the oasis. The sandstone building is unusual as so few stone buildings have been recorded in the periphery of the oasis, and argues for the importance of this site. The building's plan could not be recovered without excava tion, so only a rough idea of its nature can be given here. The sandstone was covered with white plaster exter nally, giving the impression of a dazzling white (lime stone?) edifice. It was entered through the east via a rec tangular door with a cavetto cornice and torus moulding (largely identified by feeling it through the sand) that led to a room 3.50 m x 2.15 m wall thickness OAO m (there was a hole in the roof, made of sandstone slabs, which pennitted entry). Another chamber led out of this, accessed by an arched doorway (figure 76). The amount of debris prevented any further exploration.
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Figure 74: Map ofthe area of Watermelon Settlement (C. Rossi).
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11.3 THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
103
-
Figure 75: View of the top of the tell ofWatennelon Settlement (S. Ikram).
Inspector Magdy Hussein said that about 25 years ago or so he found a set of drawings/paintings that was very faint, on plaster that was affixed to the walls of this building; unfortunately no photographs were tak en and no further infonnation is available. The entrance is suggestive ofa temple, somewhat reminiscent of the chapels at Beleida (see Chapter III.3), although the plan could not be recovered to check this suggestion; if it is not a temple, it is surely an acbninistrative building of some significance. The surface ceramics that were examined are of Ro man date; however, it is possible that the site had an earlier foundation, with the datable remains being bur ied well below the sand and Roman occupation debris. The area around the sandstone building is rich in blocks of lighter coloured sandstone and a few shaped
granite fragments. Some of these were possibly used in the building, although some are located toward the western edge of the tell. One such piece of sandstone was carved in the fonn of a cavetto cornice, complete with patterning, and once probably brightly painted (figure 77). Two large sandstone blocks lay nearby. This might have been applied to the exterior ofthe sandstone building at the centre or there might have been another stone structure here, possibly a gate, now destroyed or buried beneath the sand. Some limestone fragments are also found at the site. There is an industrial area with a group of roughly oval kilns/ovens 1.5 m in diameter and an abundance of slag and dense sherdage on the rise that lies to the west of the main tell, and another such kiln to the north east of the main tell. Presumably these were for pottery pro duction or, less likely, for bread. Some flints were also found 250 m to the north of the stone building. These are most likely to be Neolithic, but as they are not of a typical shape it is difficult to detennine their date. Flints were used throughout Pharaonic history, although it is unclear if their use persisted into the Roman era. Of course, as there is a rich supply of flint nodules in the oasis, there is no reason why people of any period who needed a blade in a hurry would not avail themselves of this source. The inhabitants of the Watermelon Settlement might have been buried in the Vaulted Tombs (see below), lo cated 800 m to the southeast. It is also possible that the Western, Outcrop, Rock with Tombs, and Graffiti Tombs might have been associated to this settlement. However, it is curious that no closer cemeteries have been found.
•
Figure 76: Interior of the sandstone building at Watermelon Settlement (S. Ikram).
Figure 77: Sandstone block with cavetto cornice (S. Iknun).
104
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
Watermelon Prehistoric remains (SI) A late Neolithic site, located in watermelon fields, is situated some 400 m to the south of the Watennel on Settlement. It consists of ostrich eggshell fragments, possibly used as vessels, as well as for bead production, and lithics. The modem watennelon cultivators take ad vantage of the geology and hydrology of the oasis, ex ploiting areas where water is accessible; most probably, in ancient times these areas were even better provided with water, perhaps with small lakes as well as easy access to rich snpplies of snbsnrface water (see Chap ter 111.6; Tallet et al. 2012; Tallet, Garcier, and Bravard 20 I I ; Blllbmy and Ikrarn 2014). Quite probably many otber prehistoric sites have been destroyed or not iden tified due to the cultivation ofwatelmelon in Khoo·ga.
Disturbed Settlement (SI) Some 200 m south east of the Watermelon Prehis toric Remains, not far from a modern settlement of wa termelon cultivators and within the fields of watermel on, NKOS found several pots, tentatively dated to the 3rd/4th century AD. These are probably the remains of a now-destroyed small Roman site. Several sites seem to have been sacrificed to the watermelon cultivators.
Aqueducts G3 and G4 and ancient cultivations (CR) Aqueducts G3 and G4 served an area that has been almost completely swallowed by modern watermelon cultivations. The passage of a huge dune that left be hind a barren stripe and a sandy layer that covers what the watermelons spared make the oo·ea very difficult to describe (cf. figme 62 and 74, above). TIle northernmost, deepest shafts of Aqueducts G2 and G3 are separated by two low, parallel ridges (see also Chapter 111.6). The northernmost portion of Aque duct G3 consisted of a nmnber of secondary branches all quickly converging into a single tunnel; the first shafts of this single line are surrounded by large spoil heaps, as if the rubble of all the upper lateral branches bad been pulled out from tllere. Its course beads south in a slightly winding way until it bends westwards wbere it straightens out; here a long line of large spoil heaps marks the beginning of a straight line, that con tinues south across a lower, barren area. At this point the situation becomes difficult to read due to the ter rain. Possibly the aqueduct bifurcates, converges again, and eventually plunges into a large patch of vegetation mixed with sand.
No further traces of shafts are currently visible among the bushes, and obviously any trace of cultiva tion would have disappeared under the thick layer of dead vegetation and sand. However, by observing the surrounding area, it is possible to suggest a description of the ancient layout. The ground to the south of the green patch rises slightly, and bears no traces of shafts; seemingly, nothing COOl bee seen along the barren trail of the dune that is slowly crossing the western portion of the archaeological area. Therefore, it may be conclud ed that Aqueduct G3 terminated more or less where its southernmost shaft is currently visible, into a cultivated area now completely covered by spontaneous vegeta tion. In total, 156 shafts were recorded, although it is possible that some were missed in the count. Seemingly to Aqueduct G2, tile two sequences of spoil heaps are located at more or less regular intervals. The large L-shaped patch of vegetation that is being exploited to cultivate watermelons is being cut into two halves by the passage of the large dune. The terrain re cently cleared of the mass of the dune is dotted by a number of yardOOlgs and does not appear to contain any archaeological material. The beginning of another sub terranean aqueduct, labelled G4, lies to the east ofa tall, flat-topped outcrop marked by a cairn, that commands a fine view of the surrounding desert area. Only seven shafts are visible, some accompanied by spoil heaps; the rest of the aqueduct bas been swallowed by the wa termelon cultivation; it is possible that the modem cul tivation purposefully followed the course ofthe ancient watercourse (see Chapter 111.6). Two lines of shafts have been recorded to the south and to the east ofthe watennelon cultivation surrounding the ancient settlement: one heads straight south, whilst the other heads east across the plain at the foot of the Vaulted Tombs (cf. figure 62 above). It is possible that they are all branches of the same aqueduct G4, and there fore these three visible StllllpS have been labelled G4a, b and c. G4b consists of at least 9 shafts, but more might have been covered by the soft and sandy terrain mixed with sparse vegetation. It is possible that this branch headed west OOld discharged its water into the I km-long cultivation installed in the plain beyond the ridge. A straight nOlth-south raised line crosses the area; this might indicate the presence of a distribution chan nel. Another substantial patch of remains of ancient cultivations is visible to the east of G4b. In both cases, the fields appear to have been clearly marked by east west lines, possibily indicating raised edges meant to regulate the constant flow of the water coming out of
II.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
qanat line. In a few areas, a strict gridded pattern can be clearly discerned. The visible portion of G4c amounts to 39 shafts; the latter can be followed across the plain until it reaches a small, isolated patch of vegetation. No traces of ancient cultivations can be currently spotted in this area. To the east, the terrain becomes irregular and difficult to read; more shafts emerge from the vegetation, and appear to head towards another huge watermelon cultivation, that occupies a vast area, lower in level than the Gib/Sumay ra area. Clearly, the area immediately to the east of Gib/ Sumayra contained further archaeological evidence re lating to water systems and cultivation, of which only scant and faint traces pop out of the terrain, ravaged by the trenches of the watermelons. Ceramics from the Watermelon Settlement (ALG) A small collection of 33 sherds was picked up from the Watermelon Settlement, of which I S were drawn (figure 78, following page). No controlled collection was made at this site; thus no meaningful information is available as to fabric proportions in use here, although all recorded pieces bar a single sherd of LRA 4 (no. 1 3 below) were oflocal fabrics. The sherds were all surface finds. Two pieces of faience bowls were among those collected, the forms of which are paralleled by vessels from Muhammad Tuleib (Gascoigne et al. in press, fig. 6, nos 2 and 3, form I , 1st to early 3rd century AD). Most ofthe material recorded from the Watermelon Set tlement seems to date from the late 3rd to Sth centuries AD , although a few sherds may be a little earlier in ori gin, in line with the early Roman-era activity indicated by the faience vessels. I) Small, flat-based bowl. Fabric: IA. Surfaces: red-slipped interior and exterior; scorched under base. Diameter: 12 cm (30%). Drawing: OS/6 18. Paralleled from Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla, late 3rd-4th centuries AD (Dunsmore 2002: fig. 4r). 2) Wide, shallow, flat-based bowl. Fabric: IA. Surfaces: possible red slip interior and exterior; scorched under base. Diameter: 24 cm (4S%). Drawing: OS/613. Paralleled from Dakhla, 'Christian period' (Hope 1983: fig. 7a). 3) Small bowl with straight, flared sides. Fabric: IA. Surfaces: probable cream-slipped interior and exterior. Diameter (base): 4.4 cm (7S%). Drawing: OS/620. 4) Large bowl with everted ledge rim; exterior and parts of interior of rim very worn. Fabric: IA.
lOS
Surfaces: red-slipped interior and exterior. Diam eter: 40 cm ( l 1%). Drawing: OS/6 19. S) Bowl or casserole with corrugated upper body and vertical loop handles. Fabric: IA. Surfaces: probable dark, matte red-slipped interior and ex terior. Diameter: 32 cm (1 8%). Drawing: OS/62 1 . Parallels: Arnarna, 4th-7th centuries AD (Faiers 200S: 1 1 2, no. 196); see also similar vessel, al though without preserved handles, from Ain Gib (above), figure 28, no. 9. 6) Deep bowl with slightly inturned rim. Fabric: lB. Surfaces: uncoated; reduced-fired. Diameter: 1 9 cm (10%). Drawing: OS/6 1 6. 7) Bowl with slightly intumed, rounded rim. Fab ric: IA. Surfaces: red-slipped interior; scorched, blackened exterior. Diameter: 23 cm (12%). Drawing: OS/6 12. Paralleled fromAin al-Gedida, Dakhla (Dixneuf 20 12: fig. 1.9, end of3rd to be ginning of Sth century AD); see also similar ves sel from Ain al-Dabashiya (below), figure 364, no. 19. 8) Lid. Fabric: IA. Surfaces: possible red-slipped interior; exterior scorched and worn. Diameter: 14 cm ( 1 8%). Drawing: OS/6 1 7. 9) Jar with externally thickened rim. Fabric: IA. Surfaces: uncoated; reduced-fired. Diameter: 1 0 cm (1 8%). Drawing: OS/614. 10) Cooking pot or jar with everted rim and verti cal handles. Fabric: lB. Surfaces: uncoated; re duced-fired. Diameter: 14 cm (12%). Drawing: OS/608. Similar vessel from Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla, 3rd century AD (Dunsmore 2002: fig. 3a). 1 1 ) Globular cooking pot or jar with thickened rim. Fabric: IA. Surfaces: uncoated; reduced-fired. Diameter: 9.S cm (3S%). Drawing: OS/609. 12) Pigeon pot. Fabric: IA. Surfaces: uncoated. Di ameter: 14 cm (24%). Drawing: OS/6 IS. Ptole maic to Roman in date (see Warden's discussion under section on the pottery from Dabashiya Pi geon Tower, below). 13) Gaza Jar. Fabric: LRA 4 (Riley 1979). Surfac es: uncoated. Diameter: 1 1 cm (SI%). Drawing: OS/6 1 1 . Widespread throughout Egypt and be yond from the 4th into the early 7th century AD (Majchereck 1995). 14) Narrow-necked jar or bottle with two handles. Fabric: IA. Surfaces: yellow-cream slip with black-painted decoration on exterior; uncoated interior. Drawing: OS/6 1O. Paralleled from Dush,
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1I.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER 4th-5th centuries AD (Ballet 2001 : fig. 6 1 ; Rodzie wicz 1987: fig. 5); Dakhla oasis, 'Christian peri od' (Hope 1980: pI. 25j-k; 1983: fig. 6e, 7g). See also the examples from Umm al-Dabadib, Cave Dwelling, below (figure 294, nos. 179-1 80). 15) Keg with upright simple rim, ovoid handle and filter with three pierced holes. Fabric: lB. Sur faces: uncoated, slightly reduced. Diameter: 3.84 cm (100%); slightly oval. Drawing: 05/622. Paralleled from Dakhla, 'Roman' (Hope 1979: pI. 19, no. 14).
Glass (MMG) The material from the Watermelon Settlement in cludes four rims, two bases, a fragment of a body, and a fragment of a neck (nos. 8- 15, figure 79, following page). Vessels with cut rims (nos. 8- 1 1) Among the material from this site one can identify fragments belonging to bowls with cut rims which are bent outward: an unworked rim (no. 8), a smoothed rim (no. 9), and a fragment probably from a conical lamp, fitted with the same type of rim (unworked rim: no. 10). Cut rims, which are bent outward, were very cornmon in the 4th and 5th centuries and persisted into the beginning of the 6th century (about bowls, see above Two Houses no. 2; about conicale lamps, see: Crowfood and Harden 1 93 1 : type A.I-2; Isings 1957: type 106c-d; Uboldi 1995: type 11.1-2; Mos sakowska-Gaubert 2000: type 1-2). A body fragment decorated with applied glass pellets (no. 1 1 ) was also found here. Dark blue pellets quite frequently deco rated conical lamps with cut edges (Karanis: Harden 1936: nos. 440, 457, 460, 5th-6th centuries AD?; Kel lia: Egloff 1977: 173-4, pI. 34, nos. 1-2, type 359, end of 4th-beginning of 5th century AD), but one can also sometimes see them on bowls (Karanis, Harden 1936: no. 33 1 , 5th-6th centuries AD?; see also a paral lel from southeastern France, Foy 1995: nos. 7 1 , 72, 74, 5th century AD) or cups (southeastern France, Foy 1995: nos. 80, 81 and 82, 5th century AD). Bowl and plate (nos. 12-13) Two fragments ofa base probably belonging to a bowl (no. 12) and a plate (no. 13) were found during pros pecting. The former was executed in burgundy-pur ple colored glass, containing manganese oxides. The closest analogous vessels of this type, equipped with
107
a undecorated full ring foot, are known from Ismant al-Kharab (Marchini 1999: no. 6, fig. l,f, 4th centu ry AD), from Naqlun (Mossakowska-Gaubert 2004: cat. 11,1 and III, 1, 5th to early 6th centuries AD), from Tebtynis (Foy 200 1 : no. 20, 6th century AD), and Karanis (Harden 1936: nos. 8, 28, 29, 60, 74, 5th-6th centuries AD?). Bottle (no. 14) A fragment of a simple rounded rim, slightly curved to the interior, extending into the neck decorated with a heavy thread below the rim (no. 14) probably be longed to pyriform shaped bottles, known from Kara nis (Harden 1936: no. 579, 4th-5th centuries AD?) and Ialame (Weinberg 1988: no. 2 1 7, 4th century AD), but the rims of these bottles are not curved. For this kind of neck see also some glass fragments from Bagawat in Kharga Oasis (Nenna 20 10: cat. 40-4 1 , 4th centu ry AD , not curved), and for other regions: Carthage (Funfschilling 1999: 299 and 301, 4th to 6th century AD, slightly curved), and Sardis (von Saldern 1980: 633, end of 4th to 5th century AD, not curved). Vessel with folded rim (no. 15) A fragment of a rim folded inward (no. 15). Rims of this type with similar diameters can belong to dif ferent containers, including various types of bottles dated to the 5th and 6th centuries AD (Harden 1936: nos. 608, 612; Fiinfschilling 1999: nos. 3 1 2-3 1 2B). This rim also corresponds to the edges of bowls lamps equipped with handles, cornmon in the Med iterranean from the late 4th to at least the 8th centu ries (Isings 1957: type 134; Uboldi 1995: type I 1), although this lamp-type also has outward folded rims (Hadad 1998: type I ; von Saldern 1980: no. 237). The group of glass from the Watermelon Settlement could be dated from between the end of the 4th to the very begiuning of the 6th centuries AD . Body fragments of three objects (nos. 9, 10 and 1 1) have an olive color: this was made from sand rich in iron, titanium and man ganese, and was found throughout the Mediterranean from the late 4th to early 6th centuries, peaking in the second half of the 5th century (Foy 1995: 198-9; Foy 200 I : 456-67). List of glass from the site: no 8. Cut rim; D 17 cm, H+ 3,6 cm; olive green no 9. Cut rim; D 15,8 cm, H+ 1,5 cm; green-blue
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
108
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11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER no 10. Cut rim; D 10, 8 cm, H+ 4 cm; olive green no 1 1 . Body fragment with applied decoration; H+ 2 cm; body olive green, pellets of blue glass no 12. Foot; D 5 cm, H+ 1,1 cm; burgundy no 13. Foot; D 1 1 cm, H+ 0,9 cm; green no 14. Rim with a coil; D 7,2 cm, H+ 1,2 cm; olive green no 15. Inward folded rim; D 7,2 cm, H+ 1,7 cm; olive green
NKOS Cat. No. 11 Location Diam. Material, module and denomination Mint Obverse Reverse
Coins (D:MR) NKOS Cat. No. 10 (figure 80) Location Watermelon Settlement, by the stone building. Diam. 20mm Material, module and denomination Bronze AE3/Centenionalis? Mint Antioch Obverse Imperial bust, helmeted, cuirassed, draped, facing left; holding spear and shield; Legend: D N FL CL IVLI-AN VS P F AVG. Reverse Votive wreath: VOT / X / MVLT / xx. Mintmark in exergue: ANTA, perhaps framed with palms. Date Votive coin of Julian, minted in Antioch, AD 361-363 Citation RlC VIII Antioch 219 or 220.
Date Citation Note NKOS Cat. No. 12 Location Diam. Material, module and denomination Mint Obverse Reverse Date Citation
109
Watermelon Settlement, southern side IO mm Bronze AE3 or AE4 Unknown Illegible, only one side imaged. Illegible, only one side imaged. 4th century AD? NA Fragmentary
Watermelon Settlement 13 rum Bronze AE3 or AE4 Unknown Illegible, only one side imaged. Illegible, only one side imaged. 4th century AD? NA
The coins broadly point to a 4th century date, in ac condance with the surface ceramics and the glass. Small Finds (SI) In addition to the material listed above, fragments of green, clear, and orangey glass were also found here, pointing to luxurious import (see below). Portions of faience vessels were also noted. Other finds include crudely shaped unfired loom weights, suggestive of local textile production (linen or perhaps cotton, see Chapters III.7 and 111.8), and two fragments of granite grinding stones. Archaeozoology (SI)
Figure 80: Coin 10, obverse, from Watermelon Settlement (S. Ikram).
The presence of cattle bones suggest that a high status diet was available to the inhabitants of the area, while donkey bones point to at least one means of transport for the denizens ofthis settlement (there is no proof that the donkeys might have served as food). The finds of Aspatharia sp. shells, a freshwater mussel, suggests that
110
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
either they were brought here from the Nile as food or (more likely) to be used in the manufacture of an object, collected as a curiosity, or might be renmants from a time when the area was wetter (TaUet, Gradel and Gue dot 2012; Tallet, Garcier and Bravard 2011; Bunbury and Ikram 2014). Vaulted Tombs (SI) This cemetery lies about 800 m southeast of the Wa termelon Settlement, and might have served as the main necropolis for it, as well as for the surrounding area, including possibly the Disturbed Settlement. The tombs are located on a low ridge that is made up ofa combina tion ofrock and tafia of varying densities, and that runs roughly north to south with an extension to the west, like a backward capital 'L'. The tombs border the east ern, southern, and western faces of the main outcrop, as well as having a small group cut into its top; more tombs might be buried under the soft sand along the southern edge of the outcrop (figure 81). Previous work There is no record of any investigations being carried out in this area prior to NKOS's work. Description The precise nmnber of tombs is difficult to detennine due to the sand covering the outcrop, but at least fifteen can be identified confidently. The main tombs belong to Type 1: rock-cut lined with mudbrick and vaulted (figure 82). The majority of the larger Type 1 ones are on the western end and a few of the same type lie on the eastern side; all of these are oriented east-west, insofar as possible, given the topography of the site. Type 2 tombs, consisting of shafts, lie between the larger ones, most no tably on the southwest, and a few are located on the top of the ridge. Perhaps the ones situated between the larger tombs belonged to the dependents ofthose tomb owners. The Type 1 tombs vary in size: 2.91 mwide and6.55m long; 3.5 m x 6.8 m; 4.3 m x 7.5 m; 3.10 m x 8.10 111, 3.8 m x 10m. Perhaps the larger ones consisted of small antechambers as well as the main chamber, as is seen at Dush (Dunand et al. 1992; 2005) with the cross walls now invisible due to sand cover or deterioration of the brick. Alternatively, the size is indicative of a varied so cial class, or larger family tombs. Some white chunky plaster was found here, suggesting that the tombs were
once plastered, possibly both internally and externally (at least a few had plaster fragments scattered around the exterior), and painted. One of the tombs on the west ern part of the ridge was further enhanced by a small section built of sandstone which had been mud plas tered originally. This seems to have provided a vestibule of some sort for this tomb. The Type 2 tombs were not clearly defined enough to provide useful measurements. It should be noted that one tomb, on the eastern side of the ridge looked as if it might have been a single tomb with three vaulted chambers. The dispersal of bones and mununified fragments suggest that there were multiple burials in each tomb, but it is difficult to tell if the burials were placed with in the vaulted chambers or if there were subterranean sections to these tombs. The skeletal and mununified fragments show that males, females, andjuveniles were all buried here. Some of the bodies showed clear signs of arthritis, particularly in the spinal COIU11U1, and in two instances in the proximal femur. The debris around the tombs included large quanti ties of pottery ranging from the Ptolemaic Period to the
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11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
Figure 82: View of one of the Vaulted Tombs (S. Ikram, 2002).
4th/5th centuries AD (see below), some faience (proba bly dating from the 1st to the 3rd century AD), and frag ments of 4th century glass (see below). Clearly the de ceased were well provided for in tenns of grave goods. Mummification The majority of the bodies had been excerebrated via the ethmoid, but this was by no means the standard. Other mununified remains from Kharga, brought to the Smithsonian Institution's Natural History Museum un der the auspices ofAles Hrdlicka (1912), also had their brains intact, albeit desiccated (personal observation), with resin added to the cranium. Evisceration seems to have been more conunon, but also was not the rule. The use of resins spread over the body was over-generous in some instances, but several other bodies were well preserved with only a sparing use of resins. In several instances hair and flesh were present, together with lin en bandages, most of which had a dark colour due to the application of oils and resins. Small Finds A piece offaience from a closed vessel with a mould ed crisscross pattern, suggestive of basketry (figure 83), probably Roman from the 1st to the 3rd centuries AD, was found there (see Leipzig 5459 for a parallel).
III
Figure 83: Faience fragment from the Vaulted Tombs (S. Ikram, 2002).
Ceramics from Vaulted Tombs (LAW) Collection Ceramic collections were made by Amanda Dun smore in 2002, in tandem with work at Ain Gib and Sumayra, and processed in 2003. Ceramic scatters at the site were patchy and some scatters did not appear to have any cOlmection to building activity. These scatters suggest that activity at the site continued southwards from the tombs for at least a limited distance. However, no collection was made at the scatters located at a dis tance from the tombs. There was no controlled collection at the site. Tar geted collection yielded diagnostics, which were often in quite good shape, with many full profiles preserved. Due to the small size of the scatters and the collection, we may only discuss fabric distribution anecdotally. The fabric distribution is similar to that found at other PtolemaiclRoman sites in Kharga. No. 14 (below, figure 84), is probably an import, though from where cannot be detennined. No additional imports were identified. The corpus is otherwise almost entirely of oasis manu facture, with the majority being made of fabric 1A. As this site is a necropolis, it is interesting to compare the corpus to those from living contexts at nearby Qasr al-Gib and Qasr al-Sumayra. As should be expected for a necropolis context, cooking vessels appeared only
112
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
rarely. LRA 7, so prevalent at some NKOS sites, was notably absent, and tbe only vessels apparent for tbe transportation of liquids were kegs. The corpus is domi nated by open forms, particularly cups and small bowls, many of which bear a cream slip. Large mixing bowls are also cornmon; similar vessels were identified in tbe chinking sherds of Building A at Two Houses, but are not otberwise cornmon in the Gib or Sumayra corpora. When compared to the ceramics from Qasr al-Su mayra and Qasr al-Gib, it is apparent tbat ceramics col lected from the Vaulted Tombs area are more repetitive in form tban tbe forts' corpora. The dominance of cups, small bowls, and water-/liquid-bearing vessels suggests tbat people ate and drank near the tombs, or that tbe de ceased were expected to use these vessels for eating and drinking. Storage vessels are notably absent. The com mon, perhaps characteristic, surface treatment of this corpus is a cream slip on both outer and inner surfaces; red slips also appear, though less frequently. Use of slip appears more cornmon here than at Qasr al-Gib or Qasr al-Sumayra, though tbat statement cannot be made witb any statistical certainty. Renrnants of soot, visible in the ceramics from tbe cemeteries of Ain al-Dabashiya and al-Deir (see be low; also Brones 2010: 1 82), are occasionally apparent on the vessels from the Vaulted Tombs (see nos. 9, 16, 27, 35 and 38, below). These vessels might have begun tbeir use life in a domestic context before their intern ment. One vessel (no. 3 1 , figure 87 below) was worn at the rim, which might suggest tbat it had been worn down through domestic use before being placed in tbe tomb, as is argued by Gill for ceramics from Ptolema ic necropoleis in Dakhla (Gill 2014: 106). None oftbe vessels bear traces of resin or linen; tbey do not appear to have played any role in the mummification process, tbough such activity is attested at otber necropoleis (see, for example, Gill 2014: 107). In addition to the vessels presented below, a number of kegs and large mixing bowls were identified but not collected. The vessels below are dated through compar ison witb parallel vessels from other sites; tbey range in date from tbe Ptolemaic period through to tbe 4tb/5th centuries AD. As the vessels seem to be tbe remains of tbe burial goods and not renrnants of a long-lived cult, tbese dates suggest tbat tbe tombs were not all contem porary.
Catalogue The below catalogue is presented by tomb and not by form, witb the goal of maintaining any potentially meaningful association. A mudbrick structure was iden tified to the east of these tombs; tbe pottery from this structure is included as a separate entry. Southern slope, not near a specific tomb (figure 84, following page) I) Small bowl (?) witb handles and applique knobs. Red-slipped on the exterior surface and unslipped on interior. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 1 1 cm (15%). Drawing 03/233. Downslope between tombs 2-4 (figure 84) 2) Shallow bowl witb everted walls, direct rim, and flat base. Red-slipped on botb interior and exte rior surfaces. Fabric: IA. Rim diameter: 2 1 cm (27%); base diameter: 1 5 cm (45%). Drawing 031230. 3) Small jar. Red-slipped on exterior surface, un slipped on interior. Fabric: IA. Diameter: est. 9.4 cm (3%). Drawing 03/228. Parallel: Qaret al Toub, Bahariya (Marchand 20 12: fig. 8.2a; Ist2nd centuries AD); Tebtynis, Fayum (Ballet and Poludnikiewicz 2012: pI. 19, no. 223, tbough this example is larger tban ours; mid-I st to mid-2nd centuries AD); Elephantine (Rodziewicz 2005: pI. 63 nos. 1021-103 1 , though again, all larger tban our example; no specific date though presumably Early Roman). 4) Deep bowl witb direct rim and lug handles. Red slipped on botb interior and exterior surfaces. Fab ric: IA. Diameter: 20 cm (8%). Drawing 03/232. 5) Deep bowl witb pulled rim. Red-slipped on botb interior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: IA. Diam eter: 25 cm (28%). Drawing 03/23 1 . A parallel from Ain Manawir, Kharga (Wuttmann et al. 1998: fig. 60a; Ptolemaic) is tentative, as it is ap proximately 25% larger tban our example. 6) Small bowl witb direct rim. Unslipped on interior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: lA, with abundant limestone fragments visible in break. Diameter: 13 cm (23%). Drawing 03/229. Downslope from Tomb 4 (figure 84) 7) Small keg. Exterior perhaps bears a pale red slip. Neck and rim were roughly hand modeled. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 4.4 cm (1 00%). Drawing 03/258.
II.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER Around Tomb 5 (figure 84) 8) Small cooking jar with two lug handles. Interior and exterior surfaces are unslipped, but exteri or fired to a dark grey/brown color. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 10-10.5 cm (100%). Drawing 03/250. Parallels: Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla (Dunsmore 2002: fig. 2c; mid-late 3rd centuries AD); Dush, Kharga (Dunand 1992: pI. III, no. 2, without lugs; date unclear). 9) Shallow bowl with pulled rim. Appears to be un slipped on interior and exterior, with blackened patch on exterior. Fabric: IA. Rim diameter: 14.3 cm (70%). Base diameter: 8.0 cm (100%). Drawing 03/234. Parallels: Dush, Kharga (Dunand 1992: pI. III, no. 4; date unclear). Found downslope from Tomb 5. 10) Shallow bowl with pulled rim. Cream-slipped on interior and exterior surface, with traces of a thin red rim band. Fabric: IA. Rim diameter: 15.5 cm (35%). Base diameter: 10 cm (45%). Draw ing 03/249. Parallel: Arnheida, Dakhla (Caputo 2014: fig. 3.6; 2nd-3rd centuries AD . Also see her note 14). 1 1 ) Small bowl. Slipped on both interior and exterior surface; slip ranges in colour from red to orange. Fabric: lB. Rim diameter: 13.5 cm (35%). Base diameter: 7 cm (25%). Drawing 03/247. 12) Bowl with direct rim. Cream-slipped on both in terior and exterior surfaces, with red rim band. Fabric: not noted. Rim diameter: 15.5 cm (35%). Base diameter: 1 1 cm (28%). Drawing 03/248. 13) Small bowl with direct rim. Cream-slipped on interior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: lA. Rim diameter approximately 1 1 cm (5%). Base diam eter: 5.4 cm (45%). Drawing 03/246. Parallels: Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla (Dunsmore 2002: fig. Id; 1 st-2nd centuries AD , through parallel with ceramics from Bemike; Hope 1985: fig. 5j; late 4th-early 5th centuries AD). Tomb 6 (figure 84) 14) Small flask. Unslipped on both interior and exte rior surfaces. Fabric: noted as being outside our normal oasis fabric series. It was not possible to access the sherd at the time of writing. Rim di ameter: approximately 2.6 cm (percentage not noted). Drawing 03/25 1 . 15) Small bowl with everted walls and direct rim. Cream-slipped on both interior and exterior sur faces. Fabric: lA. Rim diameter: 12 cm (35%).
113
Base diameter 5.6 cm (100%). Drawing 03/236. Parallels: Dush, Kharga (Ballet and Vichy 1992: fig. 13e, 13g; Phases II, 3rd century AD, and III, 4th-5th centuries AD , respectively); Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla (Hope 1985: fig. 5 , j24; late 4th - early 5th centuries AD). Found outside Tomb 6. Between Tombs 5 and 6 (figure 84) 16) Small bowl with flange rim. Cream-slipped in and out with diagonal red rim stripes and traces of blackening on exterior. Fabric: lB. Diame ter: 12 cm (17%). Drawing 03/260. Parallel: Ain al-Gedida, Dakhla (Dixneuf 2012: fig, 10.2; no date given). 17) Bowl with direct rim and rounded base. Cream slipped on interior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: lB. Diameter: 14 cm (55%). Drawing 03/259. Parallels: Tebtynis, Fayum (Ballet and Polud nikiewicz 20 12: pI. 22, no. 240; 2nd - 1st centu ries BC); Dakhla (Hope 1980: pI. XXVg, ' Chris tian'). 1 8) Small spouted bowl with lug handle. Surface treatment and fabric not noted. The rim is very ir regular, making it impossible to take its diameter. Base diameter: 5.9 cm (50%). Drawing 03/261. Tomb 7 (figure 85, following page) 19) Bread mould or low basin. Interior and exterior originally covered with a thick red slip, patches of which remain; hand-built, with what seems to be a small spout. There is a discoloured, roughly cir cular, section in the center of the vessel's interior. Fingermarks are visible across the vessel. Fabric: 10. The vessel is roughly rectangular, with rough dimensions at the rim measuring 36.5 cm x 23.6 cm (100%), and at base measuring 32.7 cm x 24.2 cm (100%). Drawing 03/265. Parallels: Mut al-Kharab, Dakhla (Gill 2014: 259, no. 13; Ptole maic); Ain Manawir, Kharga (Wuttrnann et al. 1996: group 1 8, no. 60; Persian). Slope between Tombs 7 and 8 (figure 85) 20) Small, shallow bowl. Interior and exterior sur faces covered with a pale red slip. Fabric: lA. Rim diameter: 15 cm (30%). Base diameter: 7 cm (45%). Drawing 03/256. 2 1) Small bowl with direct rim. Cream-slipped on interior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: lB. Diam eter: 9.5 cm (25%). Drawing 03/255. Parallels:
Slope between Tombs 2 - 4
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II.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla (Dunsmore 2002: p. 137 and fig. 6x; context dates to mid-late 3rd cen tury AD , but pottery parallels for this form from Bemike date to 1 st/2nd centuries AD). 22) Cooking jar with direct rim and interior ledge. Unslipped on both interior and exterior surfaces, both fired a dark grey. Fabric: lA, very light and porous. Diameter: 12 cm (8%). Drawing 03/257. Parallels: Ain Manawir, Kharga (Wuttrnann et al. 1998: fig. 59b; 3rd-2nd centuries BC); Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla (Dunsmore 2002: fig. 4g; Phase I c. The specific dating is unclear, but is Roman, pre-dating the 3rd century AD); Muham mad Tuleib (Gascoigne et al. in press, fig. 7, no. 14; dated by parallel to pre-4th century AD). Tomb 8 (figure 86, following page) 23) Keg. Unslipped. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 5.7 cm (85%). Drawing 03/243. Found outside tomb 8. 24) Handled jug with spout. The vessel originally would have had a filter, though the filter is not in tact. Red-slipped on exterior surface. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 4 cm (80%). Drawing 03/245. 25) Jar with complex rim. Unslipped; surfaces fired a dark grey-brown. Fabric: IA. Diameter: 1 6 cm (20%). Drawing 03/244. Found outside tomb 8. 26) Deep bowl with lug handles (only one preserved on the rim). Red-slipped on both interior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: lB. Diameter: 20 cm (1 5%). Drawing 03/240. Parallels: Dush, Kharga (Ballet 2004: fig. 2 1 8, no. 34; Phase II, late 2nd/ early 3rd centuries - late 3rd/early 4th centuries AD) . Found outside tomb 8. 27) Shallow bowl with lug handles. Red-slipped on both interior and exterior surfaces; the bottom of the interior is blackened, as well as a patch on the exterior. Fabric: lA. Rim diameter: 17 cm (1 00%). Base diameter: 10.8 cm (100%). Draw ing 03/239. From entrance to tomb 8. See also Umm al-Qusur (below, figure 93, no. 8) and the Northern Settlement at Umm al-Dabadib (below, figure 282, no. 67). 28) Ovoid closed form with pinched ring base and remains of one handle at shoulder. Cream slipped or -fired exterior surface. Fabric: IB. Base diameter: 7.2 cm ( 1 00%). Drawing 03/238. Parallels: Dush, Kharga (Ballet 2004: fig. 2 16, no. 24; Phase I, late 1 st/early 2nd centuries to early 3rd century AD). From entrance to tomb 8.
115
29) Small bowl with direct rim. Cream-slipped on interior and exterior, though exterior fired an orange color. Fabric: lB. Rim diameter: 14 cm (40%). Base diameter: 6.5 cm (50%). Drawing 03/24 1 . Found outside tomb 8. Parallels as with no. 15, above. 30) Small bowl with pulled rim. Red-slipped on in terior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: lA. Rim di ameter: 15.2 cm (45%). Base diameter: 7.6 cm (90%). Drawing 03/242. Found outside tomb 8. Tomb I I (figure 87) 3 1) Deep bowl with applique looped handles (only one preserved). Surface treatment and fabric not noted. Rim diameter: 27 cm (1 8%). Base diame ter: 1 1 cm (35%). Drawing 03/254. Shape similar in concept to Mut al-Kharab, Dakhla (for shape: Gill 2014: 266, no. 1 12; loop handles as Gill 2014: 275, no. 209 and 283, no. 308; Ptolemaic). Vessels of form 4 1 (of which no. 1 1 2 is an ex ample) have been paralleled by Gill to late 4th early 3rd century BC vessels from Tukh al-Quar mous (Gill 2014: 332). Found downslope from Tomb 1 1 . 32) Small bowl. Cream-slipped on all surfaces. Fab ric: lA. Diameter: 13.5 cm (15%). Drawing 03/252. 33) Bowl with pulled rim. Cream-slipped on interior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: lA. Diameter: 1 5 cm (28%). Drawing 03/253. Parallel from Umm al-Qusur, below, figure 93, no. 17. Outside Tomb 12 (figure 88) 34) Jar with pulled rim. Unslipped. Fabric: lA. Di ameter: 6.7 cm (50%). Drawing 03/272. 35) Medium bowl with lug handles (only one pre served). Cream-slipped on interior and exterior surfaces, with red rim band and dark red/black lattice design on top of rim. Fabric: lA. Diame ter: 22 cm (22%). Drawing 03/273. 36) Bowl with pulled rim and lug handles (only one preserved). Unslipped. Fabric: lA. Diameter: 1 5 cm (30%). Drawing 03/268. 37) Small, shallow bowl with pulled rim. Possible cream slip on interior and exterior surfaces. Fab ric: lB. Rim diameter: 1 1 . 5 cm (25%). Base di ameter: 9 cm (30%). Drawing 03/266. Parallels: Dush necropolis, Kharga (Dunand 1992: fig. III, no. 4; date unclear). See no. 9, above, figure 84, for further parallels.
116
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38) Small, shallow bowl with pulled rim. All surfac es are unslipped. Rim diameter: 13.4 em (80%). Base diameter: 7 em (100%). Drawing 03/27l. Parallels: Dush, Kharga (Ballet 2004: fig. 216, no. 24, though the Dush example has both deco ration and lug handles; Phase I, late 1st/early 2nd centuries to begi1ll1ing 3rd century AD). 39) Small bowl with slightly pulled rim. Red-slipped interior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: lAo Rim diameter: 13.5 em (100%). Base diameter: 7.4 em (100%). Drawing 03/237. 40) Bowl with direct rim. Unslipped. Fabric: lA. Rim diameter: 14 em (38%). Base diameter: 7 em (45%). Drawing 03/269. For parallels, see no. 15, above, figure 94. 41) Bowl with lug handles (only one preserved). Pos sible pale red slip on both interior and exterior, with red rim band on interior. Fabric: 1A. Rim diameter: 16 cm (38%). Base diameter: 9.5 cm (48%). Drawing 03/270. Parallels: Dush, Kharga (Ballet 2004: fig. 218.33; Phase II, late 2nd/ear ly 3rd centuries - late 3rd/early 4th centuries AD ; Ballet and Vichy 1992: fig. Be; Phase III, 3rd century AD). This latter example does not have lugs. 42) Bowl with direct rim. Cream-slipped interior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: IE. Rim diameter: 13 cm (35%). Base diameter: 6.5 (50%). Drawing 03/267. For parallels, see no. 15, above. 43) Medium bowl. Unslipped. Fabric: 1A. Diameter: 28 cm (8%). Drawing 03/274.
44) Large, deep bowl. Possible light red slip on inte rior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: 1A. Diameter: 40 cm (7%). Drawing 03/277. Parallels: Gill's fonn 30b, found at many Dakhla sites including Mut al-Kharab (Gill 2014: nos. 153, 623, 625, 674, 675; Ptolemaic) and Site 34 (Gill 2014: no. 1097; Ptolemaic). Gill's examples, however, tend to be around 20 cm in diameter. See also Two Houses, no. 9, above, figure 59, and Vaulted Tombs nos. 43 and 47, below, figure 89. 45) Large, deep bowl with pulled rim. Light red slip on interior and exterior. Fabric: 1A. Diameter: 40 cm (12%). Drawing 03/276. See also Two Hous es, no. 9, and nos. 42 and Vaulted Tombs no. 47, below. 46) Large, deep bowl. Light red slip on both interior and exterior. Fabric: 1A. Diameter: 40 cm (3%). Drawing 03/275. Parallels: Dush, Kharga (Ballet 2004: fig. 219, no. 40; Phase II, late 2nd/early 3rd centuries - late 3rd/early 4th centuries AD); El ephantine (Gempler 1992: Abb. 114 no. 3 K509; not dated); also conunon in the Dakhla Oasis (Gill 2014: 71, fonn 31; Ptolemaic). Tomb 13 (figure 89, following pages) 47) Large, deep bowl with pulled rim. Unslipped. Fabric: 1A. Rim diameter: 41 cm (measure ment based on extrapolation from base measure ment). Base diameter: 14.5 cm (100%). Drawing 03/264. See also nos. 42 and 43, above, and Two Houses no. 9, above, figure 59.
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120
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
48) Handledjug with strainer. Unslipped. Fabric: Ie. Diameter: 4.2 em (80%). Drawing 03/235. Paral lels: Dush, Kbarga (Ballet 2004: fig. 217, no. 27; Phase I, late 1st/early 2nd centuries - 3rd centu ry AD); Muhammad Tuleib, Kbarga (Gascoigne et al. in press: fig. 8, no. 11; dated by parallels with Dakhla to their 'Byzantine' period). Found downslope from Tomb 13. 49) Bowl with direct rim. All surfaces are unslipped. Fabric: lA. Rim diameter: 19 em (23%). Base diameter: 14 em (23%). Drawing 03/262. 50) Small jar with recurved rim and flat base. Un slipped. Fabric: lAo Rim diameter: 8 em (35%). Base diameter: 5 em (100%). Drawing 03/263. Parallels: Dush necropolis, Kharga (Dunand et al. 2005: Tomb 7, fig. 133; date unclear; Dunand 1992: pl. III, no. 2; date unclear).
Moving East The site grouped under the heading Northern Cluster belonged to a large-scale installation that probably ex tended and intensified eastwards, as the ground slopes down and water becomes more easily accessible. Mod em activities and the presence of spontaneous vegeta tion make it difficult to single out ancient remains, but it is possible that the sites listed below might have been all linked together by water features and cultivated areas. Pottery Broken Rock (SVCR) South of Vaulted Tombs at a distance of ca. 210 m the east-west qanat line labelled G4c can be clearly discerned in a flat plain (cf. figure 62). The only other remarkable feature here is a large sandstone massif, run ning north to south, with a break in it. The area between
47
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11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER its two portions and that surrounding it is dense with pottery apparently dating from the 2nd to at least the 4th centuries AD The rock is so eroded that, if it was ever inscribed, nothing remains. Clearly the presence of the qanawat and this pot dense rock are indicative of water exploitation here dur ing the Roman period ifnot at other times. The qanawat peter off toward the east, but as there is a drop in ground level (about 1 km away) and a huge watennelon culti vation, which contains some sherds, it is likely that this area was cultivated in antiquity and might also be the site ofa settlement that is now buried. This lower area is located northwest of the site and area nowadays knO"Wll as Ain Ghazal (see below). .
121
located at a lower level, continued to be active even af ter the Ain Gib area was abandoned. Its name suggests that gazelles were abundant there in relatively recent times, which pairs with Beadnell's description of Ain Gib as an excellent hunting area (1909: 131, 170 and 226). The surrounding area is relatively flat, with a very slight slope toward the east, leading toward the area of Umm al-Qusur (see below). Previous Work Only Ball (1900) and Beadnell (1909) mention this site, but they give no infonnation with regard to ruins. Description
Maghatta B (SI) The ground level rises some 330 m to the southeast of Pottery Rock. This houses a small group of Type 1 tombs. They were filled with debris and could not be measured. Sherds, bones, bandages, and body parts impregnated with dark resinous material mark the site. There are also a handful identifiable Type 4 tombs here. Maghatta C (SI) Two Type 1 tombs were noted to the northeast of Maghatta B on a low rise. They are cut into the tafia and then constructed with mudbrick, and face east. The larg er, southern one measures 7.3 m x 3.5 m, and the small er one is 4.5 m x 2 m. It has a small niche in the back, set within a crumbling arch, reminiscent ofthe Bagawat tombs and the niches in the houses at Umm al-Dabadib (see Chapter III.2). These contained the skulls of at least 3 individuals: one man, one woman, and one whose sex is undetenninable. The ceramic remains have been ten tatively dated to the 3rd-4th centuries AD
The still moderately active spring, surrounded by lush vegetation of palms, tamarisks, acacia, and many cultivars that are maintained by the present O"Wllers are the focal point ofAin Ghazal. The larger area that bears the same name is approximately 180 or more hectares, much of it covered by a fairly dense spread of camel thorn, punctuated by a few clusters of date palms, and a significant amount of intensive watennelon cultivation which has, no doubt, consumed at least one, ifnot more ancient settlements (figure 90). As one might expect, this bioturbation has made it difficult to trace the ancient remains save for clusters of tombs or dense ceramic scatters, that are occasionally associated with small amounts of mudbrick, indicative of buried or partly de stroyed buildings, portions of qanawat together with above ground irrigation features, the latter two a clear indication of agricultural activity in the area.
.
Ain Ghazal (CRlSI) Ain Ghazal ('Spring of the Gazelle') is currently the northernmost pennanenly inhabited site of the Kharga Oasis; only scattered agricultural installations and a modem checkpoint are located north of this site, before the road heads to Asyut. Both Ball and Beadnell report that at the begi1ll1ing of the twentieth century Ain Ghaz al was 'the last place at which water-skins and tanks can be filled' on the way north to Asyut (Beadnell I909: 28; Ball 1900: 52), suggesting that it played the same role as Ain Gib in earlier times. This spring, however,
Figure 90: Multi-period settlement atAin Ghazal (C. Rossi).
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11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
One area with habitation debris is 430 m southeast from the spring, another is 900 m to the southeast, and a third lies 920 m to the northwest. No doubt there are many more to be found in this large area. The SeAl MoA inspectors said that they remember that parts of the Ain Ghazal had been cursorily explored prior to much of the watennelon cultivation, and there was evi dence for occupation. The surface ceramics noted by NKOS can be tenta tively attributed to the period from the 2nd to the 5th centuries AD, with a few LRA 7s that might be of a later date. Some of the water features lie close to the habi tation areas, but two are rather far, and might tie into the line that is south of the Vaulted Tombs near the Pot tery Broken Rock. One is possibly a well, 1.75 km south of this qanat line, and 2.5 km southwest of the spring, while the other, a north-south qanat line, lies beyond a barchan dune, 2.36 km south of the Pottery Broken Rock and 2.07 km southwest of the spring. Clearly this area supported a significant amount of agriculture as well as human habitation in antiquity.
Irrigation and Agriculture (SI) A patchwork of fields surround the whole area, some of which were probably active in the 19th and 20th centuries, as well as possibly in the Roman period, if not earlier, as attested by the ceramics found scattered throughout the area. Much of this space seems to have been irrigated as is evidenced by lines/heaps of chan nel supports. The size and shape of the plots is hard to ascertain, even through satellite imagery, due to the amount of sand deposited in the area. However, from what is visible, it seems that at least 9 to 10 square km were cultivated here. Umm al-Qusur (Settlement C) (SIICR) This ancient settlement lies just next to the modem road. The area is very sandy and punctuated by trees and large bushes; the upper part of the ancient remains emerge from the landscape, and it is likely that a sub stantial part of the settlement lies finnly buried under the sand (figure 91).
Ain Ghazal Prehistoric remains (SI) A portion of a Neolithic site surprisingly escaped the watennelon cultivators: it is located on one ofthe ridges that make up the watennelon beds in the slightly higher ground to the west of the spring. It consists of ostrich eggshells and a handful oflong flint flakes. Quite prob ably other sites were located in the area, suggesting the presence of water here around 5500 Be. Ain Ghazal Tombs (SI) Several groups of tombs surround the Ain Ghazal area. All of these are located on low prominences that punctuate the landscape and are of Types 1 (mudbrick vaulted chambers), 2 (shaft), and possibly 4 (shal low depressions); the latter are difficult to confident ly identify unless they or their contents are partially exposed. Ain Ghazal West and South Tombs are locat ed to the west of the spring and are of Types 1 and 2. The skeletal remains were fragmentary, so sex could not be established; what bones were present were from mature individuals. The bodies had been \Vfapped and resins and oils used, but the remains were insufficient ly well preserved to make any other observations on their mummification. Ain Ghazal East Tombs are 0.4 km to the southeast of the spring and are of Types 2 and 4.
Figure 91: View ofthe settlement ofUmm al-Qusur looking west (C. Rossi).
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER Previous work The site was visited by Fakhry; he made a note of it in
his unpublished manuscript, writing, rather dismissive
Iy: 'This high-sounding name is for a very few remains of the upper part ofbrick walls of some mansion which is mostly built (sic) under the sand. The building is built on a high ridge and near it there is a waH called Ain Sabak.' Some excavations have been carried out here by the SCA between 1992-1994 (see below).
123
per floors were 1.55 metres. The majority of rooms on both storeys were vaulted, although a few rooms were roofed with palm logs and mats. This might reflect dif ferent usages of these spaces and the ones above. Hus sein reports discovering two ostraca inscribed in Greek:, one with five lines of writing, and the other with three characters·, these were not available for study. Stone elements, such as thresholds were noted from the area. Entrances to the buildings either led of the main street, or were from the south, as is the case of the majority of the extant buildings (military, administrative and domestic)
Description ofthe settlement (MWSI)
Umm al-Qusur is located about 2.6 Ian east of Ain Ghazal. It is the old name of the Estate of Muhammad Mustafa and is located 500 m north of a thriving group of verdant fanus. It is possible that the name, locally held to mean 'Mother of Castles', refers to the ancient remains that were once prominently exposed here. This site is largely covered by sand, although some mudbrick elements, dense pottery scatter, and some vestiges of an cient irrigation systems are visible. Its remains are cut in two by the modern road that is now the main transpor tation artery of the oasis: the settlement lies to the west, and the cemetery to the east, roughly two kilometres away (cf. figure 62 above). The area was examined by an informal SCA survey led by Magdy Hussein in 199294 and appears to be a rich and significant site. It has
been prey to illegal digging at various times because of
the lack of permanent guards in the area. The main constructed area, portions ofwhich emerge from a small sand dune, extends some 800 metres north to south, and about 100 melres east to west. Evidence of agricultural activity in the fonn of faint outlines of fields divided by what might be water charnels was
of the Roman era here. This design ensures protection from the strong and often bitterly cold northern wind that periodically sweeps through the oasi s. The east to west streets that ran between houses might have been vaulted to protect the denizens of this area against the elements,just as is seen at Umm al-Dabadib (see Chap ler 01.6). A significant concentration of plaster around the re mains of another building, in line with what happens in other sites such as Umm al-Dabadib, An i al-Lebekha and Muhammad Tuleib (see below) suggests the exist ence of a sacred space of some sort. Unfortunately the plan of this building was irretrievable. In the southern part ofthe site the presence of a kiln surrOlmded by slag argues for local ceramic production. A few circular un baked loom weights made of a marl-like substance were also retrieved, attesting to a local tradition of spinning and weaving. The presence of a cluster of thick vegeta tion to the east of the modem road suggests that water was originally available from a springJwell that might have also tied in with the water system in the environs
found both to the east and west and the north and south
of the buildings. A few mudbrick walls and concentra tions of pottery punctuate this field area, that also hosts some circular features, possibly relating to the local wa ter system. As the field sizes vari� it is possible thai some might have been contemporary with the settle ment, while others came later, subsuming portions of the built area. The excavation of part of the settlement revealed that a 2.8 m wide street divided the settlement, running north to south. It was flanked by a series of two-storey buildings made of mudbrick. One ofthese was particu larly large: measuring 13 m north to south and 17 m east to west (figure 92). The height of the rooms of the lower floors measured 2.5 metres, while those of the up-
,
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Figure 92: Sketch plan of the Umm al-Qusur building, courtesy M. Hussein, redrawn by N. Warner.
124
11.3 - THE NORTHERN CLUSTER
of Ain Ghazal. The current state of the ruins, nearly completely buried under wind-blown sand, makes any further observation impossible. Umm al-Qusur appears to have shared the same de cline as the sites of Qasr al-Gib, Qasr al-Sumayra, Two Houses and Watermelon Settlement: no ceramics dating beyond the beginning of the 5th century have been re corded during the excavation. About half a kilometre to the east of the remains ex posed by the SCAlMoA, and somewhat obscured by watermelon cultivation, is an area dense with sherds. Mounds indicate that water was accessed here and in the area to the north. The sherds include LRA 7 as well as large jars, all consistent with a 3rd to 4th century AD date. Presumably this is a less grand part of Umm al Qusur. The area to the south and east of the ruin excavated by the SCAIMoA was farmed in the 20th century, prob ably the 1940s and ' 50s. Plot outlines are visible, as are signs of digging for water. It is most probable that once again earlier fields and irrigation systems were being exploited, just as the surface water was being used to grow watermelons in the 1990s.
Ceramics from Umm al-Qusur (LAW) The ceramics from Umm al-Qusur were investigated during the 2005 season by Gascoigne and Warden. The corpus was dominated by amphorae, most notably Late Roman Amphorae 7 and I , as well as ledge-rimmed, Oasis Red Slip (ORS) bowls. These ORS bowls were also cornmon at Umm al-Dabadib (see below). No sys tematic collection was made at this site. Collection con centrated on well-preserved diagnostics. Two targeted collections were made: one by Gascoigne and Warden, the other by Ikram at the outskirts of the site. These two samples are merged in the below catalogue (figure 93, following page). All of the collected sherds were drawn and are represented in this catalogue, the sole excep tion being a body sherd of fabric IA which had a cream slip (exterior) with black painted decoration. ORS is over-represented and amphorae are under-represented. Dating this small assemblage is difficult due to the small number of parallels; they range in date from the 4th cen tury BC to the 7th century AD. Catalogue Oasis Red Slip ware (figure 93) I) Small bowl with ledge rim. Fabric: ORS. Diam-
2)
3) 4) 5)
6)
eter: 1 1 cm (10%). Drawing 05/596. Parallels: Dush, Kharga Oasis (Ballet 2004: fig. 220 no. 45; Rodziewicz 1987: 128, 133, pI. XLII.2Ib; 3rd-4th centuries AD); Ismant al-Kharab, Dakhla Oasis (Bowen 2003a: fig. 6a). See also Ain Gib (above, figure 3 1 , no. 42); Fortified Settlement at Umm al-Dabadib (below, figure 278, no. 3). Date: late 3rd-5th centuries AD. Small bowl with ledge rim and flat base, broadly parallel 05/596, above. Fabric: ORS. Diameter: 12 cm (34%). Drawing 05/591. Parallels as for number I , above. Medium bowl with ledge rim. Fabric: ORS. Di ameter: 23 cm (1 8%). Drawing: 05/598. Bowl with small disk rim and flat base. Fabric: ORS. Diameter: 19 cm (12%). Drawing 05/592. Medium bowl with direct rim. Fabric: ORS. Di ameter: 19 cm (13%). Drawing 05/593. Parallel: Dush, Kharga Oasis (Rodziewicz 1987: 133-4, pI. XLIII: 28b; 4th-5th centuries AD). Lamp. Fabric: ORS. No diameter. Likely mould made. Drawing 05/595.
Bowls (figure 93) 7) Bowl with direct rim, black rim band, and black interior decoration. Cream-slipped on both inte rior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: lB. Diameter: 15 cm (12%). Drawing 05/602. 8) Bowl with modeled rim, flat base, and applique lug handles. Red rim band with superimposed black rim ticks; the red paint was sloppily ap plied, leading some drips on the interior. Both interior and exterior are cream-slipped, though either firing or post-depositional processes turned the exterior surface orange. Fabric: IA. Diam eter: 19 cm (36%). Drawing 05/603. Parallel to 031239 from Dush, Kharga Oasis (Ballet 2004: fig. 2 1 6.24; 1st-early 3rd centuries AD though the Dush example has a diameter of 12 cm). See also the Vaulted Tombs (above, figure 86, no. 27); the Northern Settlement at Umm al-Dabadib (below, figure 282, no. 67). 9) Small, shallow bowl with direct rim. Cream slipped on both interior and exterior surfaces. Fabric: probable IE, dense, fired pale beige. Diameter: 14 cm (9%). Drawing 05/599. Deco ration paralleled to vessel from al-Deir, Kharga Oasis (Coudert 20 12: 457, pI. 12; 4th century AD). Form, no decoration, paralleled to vessel from Is mant al-Kharab, Dakhla Oasis (Dunsmore 2002: -
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2
3
4
5
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Figure 109: Plan ofthe second floor ofthe main building at Muhammad Tuleib (C. Rossi).
140
11.4 - MUHAMMAD TULEIB
ofthe structure. As already mentioned, the external wall was built as a series of structurally independent sections, separated by vertical 'movement joints' in the masonry; one of these joints runs across the southern face of the building, at 11.2 m from the intact southwestern comer. Beyond this joint, serious troubles appear to have af fected the building: the southeastern comer ofthe exter-
nal wall is completely missing, and probably as a con sequence the entire eastern section of the southern wall tilts dramatically towards the building's interior (figure 110). If the function of these movement joints was to make the walls work and stand independently from one another, and to limit structural problems, this method appears to have worked well. At Umm al-Dabadib, for instance, one section of the eastern wall of the Fort has collapsed, but the rest ofthe structure still stands without any problem; in this case, the collapse appears to have taken place when the build ing had been already abandoned, or at least nothing was done to repair it. In the case of the Tuleib Fort, instead, the damage was carefully repaired: the last metre or so of the right comer was cut off and the surface smoothed (figure 1 1 1), the passages were bricked up, and a thick wall was built to support the tilted structure from the inside of the building (figure 112). The mudbricks em ployed in the reconstruction do not help to establish a date for this operation, since they are identical to those used in the rest of the structure; they were either made from the same materials and with the same dimensions,
Figure I l l : Detail of the repaired southeastern comer of the Fort ofTuleib, showing tilt of the damaged structure and propping wall built behind it (C. Rossi, 2002).
Figure 112: The damaged comer of the Fort ofTuleib seen from the inside, with the bricked-up passage and the prop ping wall built beside it (C. Rossi, 2002).
Figure no: South-east view of the Fort ofTuleib showing the building's damaged comer (R. Knisely-Marpole, 2001).
11.4 - MUHAMMAD TULEIB
141
by ca. 50 cm. The temple wall is slightly tapering, and has torus mouldings and cavetto cornices along its top, sides, and around a blocked door opening (figure 114, following page). Some 27 m to the east lie the semi-buried sections of a monumental gateway of mudbrick, built with a slight batter. Remains of what may have been an outer enclosure wall run from the gate to the north and the south. The alignment of the blocked entrance in the east wall and the gateway clearly indicate that this was the original axis for the temple. This east-west orientation is also seen at the temples of Qasr al-Lebekha (see be low), Umm al-Dabadib (see below), al-Deir, AinAmur, and Bir al-Gebel (see also Chapter III.3). Due to the na ture of the sand deposition it was impossible to identify a causeway or fonnal approach leading to the gate and the temple itself. The space in between the exterior wall and the temple fayade could be accessed through a small hole made by looters. The fayade contained a blocked doorway framed by a cavetto cornice and torus moulding, set within a similarly shaped frame, with vestiges of what might be additional torus mouldings on the southern side of the door. The fayade is asynunetrical, perhaps a result of remodelling in antiquity. The sand-filled space between the wall and the building contained a wealth of thick (2 to 3 nun) white plaster fragments, some of which had traces of polychromatic painted decoration, that had become detached from the fayade of the temple.
or simply taken from the demolished part of the struc ture and recycled. The upper portion of the thick wall that was built to support the tilted wall was made of two parallel layers. In the lower part of this wall (and in the cracked section of the west wall) the mudbrick courses were sometimes laid in alternating horizontal and vertical courses. This supporting wall disappears after a few metres into a mass of debris, after which appear the remains of the original eastern wall, that had collapsed or had been de molished in proximity to the missing comer. This wall was made of two layers, containing the aforementioned internal passage. A large chunk ofmasonry belonging to the external layer survives in the middle of the eastern side; its lower part points in the direction of the miss ing southeastern comer, whilst its upper part, tilted to wards the inside, leans on the mass of the building. A careful examination ofthe narrow space now separating the two layers revealed that, buried under the sand and hidden from view by the external layer, lie hidden the remains of a mudbrick Temple. The Temple of Muhammad Toleib (SIINW) The eastern side of the main building at Muhammad Tuleib shows that the core of the site once consisted of a temple, perhaps the starting point for the whole settle ment. The damaged mudbrick front wall of this temple runs north to south, and is hidden behind a later wall that leans upon it (figure 113), and is separated from it
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.
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.
Figure 113: The eastern enclosure wall ofthe Fort ofTuleib with part of the Temple fayade showing to left and right behind the collapsed exterior skin wall (S. Ikram, 2007).
142
11.4 MUHAM.MAD TULEm -
ELEVATION
(facing wall not shown)
27 metres
1
PLAN OF FACADE AND GATEWAY o
5
10m
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7
Figure 114: ReconstrLlcted sketch elevation and plan of the entrance to the Temple ofTuleib (N. Warner).
rI.4 - MUHAM:MAD TULEIB
Figure 1 1 5 : Plaster from the Tuleib Temple decorated with a
143
possibly Horus alone, who bravely went into the desert (P. Boulaq 6, Koenig 1 9 8 1 : 60). One fragmentary image shows a greenish-skinned deity facing left and wearing a vest decorated with a feather pattern (figure 1 16). He wears two broad co11ars of red and blue bands, separated by white bands, and red ann-bands decorated with white and green rosettes. Other fragments show parts of an ate! cmwn with very narrow flanking feathers (figure 1 17) surmolUlting a deity's head. These two patterns conceivably might fit together, although the angles of the neck in relation to the ate! cmwn make this questionable. If they do, then undoubtedly the image is of Osiris; the same lUl-mum mified body of Osiris is attested at Dush, Deir aI-Haggar and Ain Birbiyeh. If they do not fit together, it is pos sible that the first fragment belongs to AmlUl who was revered throughout the Oasis. Images ofboth deities are found in both Kharga and Dakhla with similar iconog raphy and colouring. Other painted fragments show part ofthe body of a deity, or more likely a ruler, with the left
gridded pattern (S. Ikram, 2004).
The background paint used in some fragments was a ye110wish colour, reminiscent of pieces of papyrus, with a curious grid line painted in black or red in some areas (figure 1 15). Other sections of the background were plain white. Some of the fragments were pieced together, revealing portions of text (see below), as we11 as figural decoration, with the standing figures when complete measuring no more than 30 cm in height. The text suggests that at least one deity associated with the temple was Horus, presumably in conjlUlction with Isis and Osiris or Isis and Serapis, as is the case at Dush, or
Figure 1 1 6 : Green-skinned god from the Tuleib Temple (S. Iham, 2004).
Figure 1 1 7 : Deity wearing
an
atef crown from the Tuleib
Temple (S. Ikram, 2004).
144
IIA - MUHAMMAD TULEIB
arm extended along the side of the body to the waist.
the mudbrick mammisi (birth house depicting the di
Still other small fragments are decorated -with eight-pet
vine birth of a god) was decorated with painted plaster.
alled rosettes (figme 1 1 8), slightly reminiscent of the
The schema of decoration retrieved from that temple
decoration seen on coffin fragments from the Western
was internal however, combining Pharaonic as well as
Cemetery (see above), as well as bands of alternating
Classical motifs (Kaper 1 997a, 1998, 2012). Thus far no
green and white rectangles. Curiously, the red grid pat
evidence has come to light of external figural or textual
tern lies over the rosettes; it is llllc1ear ifthis was part of
decoration from any mudbrick temple in either Kharga
the decoration or a tool used by later copyists. Some of
or Dakhla, save for whitewash (see Chapter III.3).
the text sections are llllusual as they are painted in black
It was impossible to
access the interior of the tem
and red: thus, the homed viper glyph (Gardiner 19) is
ple. It would have been interesting to discover, how
dravm in black and the 'horns' in red; thus far no paral
ever, ifthe false door mentioned by Fakhry (see above)
lels have been fOlllld to this treatment. Portions of solar
was part of the temple or had some function in a sep
disks, possibly wings, and other tantalizing polychrome
arate building. The date of the temple, if based on the
fragments hint at the riclmess ofthe original decoration
ceramics found in the area, would be Roman, probably
ofthe temple's fayade.
starting in the 3rd century
AD. It should be
noted that
The paucity of decorated mudbrick temples that
a coin (see below) dating to the reign of Antoninus
have survived in the oases, or anywhere else in Egypt
Pius (thus 2nd century AD) was fOlllld in the area of the
for that matter, makes it difficult to interpret the scenes
western gate of the large enclosure, although using
that must have adorned the exterior of this temple. The
coinage for dating is a vexed issue as coins remain
closest parallels are from the sites of Umm al-Dabadib
in circulation for long periods of time . Nonetheless,
and the North Temple atAin aI-Lebekha in Kharga (see
a foundation earlier than the 2nd or 3rd centuries
below), and the Tutu temple at Kellis in Dakhla, where
should not be dismissed.
AD
Figure 1 1 8 : Painted plaster from the Tuleib Temple
Figure 1 1 9: Fragment of hieroglyphic inscription from the
(S. IIrram, 2004).
Temple (S. Ikram, 2004).
11.4 - MUHAMMAD TULEIB A Hieroglyphic Inscriptionfrom the Temple at Muham
mad Tuleib (ECD)
While clearing loose sand from the area between the eastern wall and the temple's outer wall, we found a number of pieces of painted plaster, which originally decorated the exterior wall of the temple. One piece contained a portion of a hieroglyphic inscription. As the materials all deal with exterior plaster decorations of a Roman period temple, the decoration would also date to the Roman period. The plaster fragment measures: 15.5 cm wide by 15 cm high. The fragment contains a short inscription with the red gridlines still visible with a portion of a double crown to the left. The hieroglyphs are painted in black ink (figure 119). Transliteration 4d mdw in I;r-s;-Is.t nb w[w .. .}
145
'nome' (WB I, 243) had acquired the meaning of agri cultural land used for growing crops; see also the conunent by Derchain-Urtel (1978: 29). Our text has the traces of a city detenninative, which would suggest that we are dealing with some specific geographic area. The Tuleib Settlement The badly preserved remains of a substantial settle ment surround the Tuleib fort. Considering the proxim ity to the modem village, it cmmot be excluded that it was used as a source of building material and/or fer tiliser. Its presence is only revealed by a dense pottery scatter and by the occasional appearance of faint lines of brick walls from the thick sand. General description (CRlSI)
Conunentary In Gauthier (1925) there is nothing specific concern ing w by itself as a place name. Much more conunon are the fonns of'w + god or place name' with w mean ing 'district (agricultural land)'. Gauthier does note (1925: 40) a w Jfr for 'Letopolis'. We should note that at Hibis temple in the sanctuary (North Reveal Register 5) we have Osiris, Isis, and Horus of Leto polis pictured (Cruz-Uribe 1988: 40). For other w + DN (or GN) see Montet (1957, II, 225), and Gardiner (1947: vol. 2: 297). Wilson (1997: 190) notes that by the Late Period the tenn w, which originally meant
Establishing the contours, the shape and the precise extent of the settlement is currently impossible. It cer tainly stretched to a certain extent to the north (at least 200 m) and to the south (230 m) of the Fort, with sec tions found at least 500 m to the east. The extent of the area to the west is less clear: there seem to be more fields there than settlement when one goes beyond 100 m, but this might be due to more modem activities in the 1940s and 1950s. Two isolated masses of mudbricks protrude from the sand: one, located to the west of the Fort, appears to be a portion of a building (figure 120); another, located to the south, looks like a section of an undulating wall, similar to others seen in 30th Dynasty temple enclosure walls (figure 121). Perhaps this wall also served a simi lar purpose at Muhanunad Tuleib.
Figure 120: Portion of a building in the Tuleib Settlement, located to the west of the Fort (C. Rossi, 2004).
Figure 121: Section of undulating wall in the Tuleib Settlement (C. Rossi, 2004).
Translation 'Words spoken by Horus-son-of-Isis, lord ofW[ . .].'
146
11.4 - MUHAMMAD TULEIB
To the southeast of the fort lies an area of industrial activity. Large oval ceramic tubs with holes in one end are located near what seems to be a kiln. Traces of other kilns were also fOlUld, and thus this area was subj ected to a magnetometry survey (see below and Gascoigne et al. in press). Two substantial pottery dumps lie some 350 m from the settlement; south of those lie the ruined remains of a mudbrick building, surrounded by a high concentration of potsherds (many of thick, coarse fab ric) and punctuated by grinding stones. This might have been an ancient processing area that served the cultiva tion, similar to the one found in the northern portion of Ain al-Dabashiya (see Chapter 11.10). To the northwest of the enclosed building is a small rise, which might be a midden; it contained the bones of pigs, ovicaprids, and donkeys, as well as a few fragments of the crania of catfish (Clarias spp.). The industrial area and the geophysical survey (TH) The area prospected at Muhammad Tuleib covers 1.66 ha. The gaps that appear in squares C3-C4, D3-D4 and E4-ES (figure 122) correspond to the main building and another structure situated in front of it (possibly the entrance to the ancient sacred enclosure, see above). The differences in magnetic intensity shown on the map are slight (average gradient below 0.1 nT). The main objective of the survey was to detennine the existence of an enclosure wall around the surviving building. The presence of such a wall was suggested by the structures preserved to the west of the building (squares E4-ES). The other objective was to trace the extent of the settlement. The most evident result is a series of anomalies of high amplitude, oval-shaped with diameters ranging from 1.5 to 3 m. These are typical images of furnaces and hearths. The bigger anomalies predominate in the southern part of the area, especially near its southern comer. The anomalies at the meeting points of squares F2, F3, G2, G3 (cf. figure 122) correspond to furnaces seen on the ground (figure 123), situated upon a slight mound. The anomaly in the southern comer of square G2 reflects a furnace, the outline of which can be traced on the ground. Of the two identical anomalies in square E3, the east ern one requires no verification in the field as the outline of the furnace is visible on the ground. Pottery man ufacturing waste can also be picked up on the spot of this anomaly (figure 124). No surface evidence whatso ever accompanies the remaining anomalies interpreted
as furnaces or hearths (in squares C2, B4, and in the northern part of the surveyed area). The sole exception is the anomaly in C2, where some burnt clay can be ob served on the ground. Pottery manufacturing waste was also found in the northern part of C7, precisely between
A B c
D
, F
G
4
25
0
2.5
5 0T
25
0
2.5
50T
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0
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G
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o
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Figure 122: Magnetic map, dynamics 1.9 nT/+2.7 nT (above). Plan of architecture reconstructed based on magnet ic survey results (dashed line) superimposed on the magnetic map (dynamics 1.4 nT/+3.1 nT); reconstructed positions of furnaces and hearts in red; furnaces visible on the surface in yellow (below) (T. Herbich, 2004).
ITA - MUHAMMAD WLElB
147
•
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_ •
-
•
•
Figure 123: Furnaces visible
OIl
the surface
(T. Herbich, 2004).
Figure 124: Pottery manufacturing waste near the remains of a furnace (T. Herbich, 2004).
the set of anomalies in the eastern corner ofB7 and the
In conclusion, the prospection led to the recording of
anomaly in the centre ofC7. These remains are identical
evidence of industrial activities in the southern portion
with that from E3 square.
of the settlement. The fragmentariness of the mapping
Areas characterized by magnetic disturbances were noted around the fwnaces at the meeting points of
of wall prevents a credible reconstruction of elements of the architecture.
squares F2, FJ, G2, G3 and in square E2. In the field, they correspond to mounds. The measurements suggest that these mounds consist of some kind of manufac
Ancient water system and cultivations (CR.)
turing waste (possibly from pottery production). There
The presence of a thick layer of sand prevents any
may be a potential fwnace at the northeastern edge of
detailed study of the local agricultural system: some
the mound in square E2, but the anomaly pointing to its
cultivated areas were identified, but little can be said
existence is not very distinct due to the overall magnetic
on the irrigation system. It is difficult to tell whether the
disturbances recorded here.
ancient site relied on underground aqueducts or wells or
Nothing mapped in the survey can confirm in any
a combination of the two systems. The position of the
way the existence of an enclosure wall around the
site, relatively low and far from the escarpment, would
building. Perhaps a very faint linear anomaly parallel
suggest the use of wells (or maybe even springs), rather
to the north side of the building could be a reflection
than of underground aqueducts of the qanat-type. How
of such a walL It runs between the western corner of
ever, the site offers ambiguous evidence: apart from a
square B4 and the northern part of square D5. A further
large circular feature accompanied by anarrow channel,
linear anomaly, possibly suggesting the presence of a
located to the north of the elongated dune and impossi
wall, can be traced along a line extending the northern
ble to date without excavation, no traces of large wells
side of the building, between the southern part of square
can be discerned. On the contrary, enigmatic sequences
D5 and the eastern corner of square E5 (in both cases,
of small wells can be seen to the east and to the west of
in figure 122 an arrow indicates eastern end of the line).
the settlement.
This structure could be related somehow to a few faint
To the west, beyond the long sand dune topped by
linear anomalies lying more or less on the E-W axis of
vegetation, there is an elongated hollow punctuated by
the building (indicated by the white arrows).
round depressions. Most of them appear to be shafts,
A number of not very distinct anomalies can be dis
but it is difficult to establish whether or not they belong
tinguished in the northern half of the map. Their gen
to a subterranean aqueduct. Although the shafts run in
eral shape is suggestive of walls and their orientation
a north-south direction, they do not follow a straight
is similar (SWW-NEE). The arrangement, however, is
line: therefore, either the main tunnel is endowed with
not clear enough to support a reconstruction of the set
several side-branches, or it changes direction every few
tlement plan. What is to be traced based on this is the
metres. The topography of the terrain suggests that, if
layout ofa few rooms at the most (in squares B7-C7).
there were an underground canal, it discharged its water
148
11.4 - MUHAMMAD TULEIB
to the south; however, the area is totally engulfed with sand and does not offer further clues. To the east of the settlement there is an elongated hol low that appears to host traces of an ancient cultivation: here the outline of the plots is more faded and more reg ular than the more recent ones (see Umm al-Dabadib below). The area to the south hosts a clear sequence of four stone-lined rectangular shafts. Once more, only ex cavation may clarifY whether these shafts belong to a qana!. Further west and south west of these remains, traces of canals, pottery scatters and circular depressions punctuate the sandy terrain; some of them appear to be ancient, but they are mixed with modem remains. It appears that this area was used, then re-used and final ly abandoned to the encroaching sand. The soft terrain in the area of the rectangular shafts, as well as the ancient plots and the area to the north between the settlement and the pottery dumps are all covered by a distinctive, even, light scatter of minute potsherds. This condition might be the result of repeat ed ploughing; however, as no traces of fields can be cur rently discerned on the soft desert surface, it may be suggested that these operations took place in a distant past. To the south, the modem road and the evidence of modem activities take over. However, at a distance of over 2 km to the south start the remains of what might have been a large cultivation irrigated by a system of canals. In that area, two isolated patches of modem cul tivation are separated by a strip of desert crisscrossed by lines of bushes engulfed by sand (cf. figure 100). Aban doned plots dating to recent times emerge from the sand at various points, but the lines of bushes may well corre spond to ancient canals ofthe type that can be seen in the GiblSumayra area (above), Ain al-Lebekha and Umm al-Dabadib (below). Once more, a modem cultivation might have been installed in an area already exploited in antiquity; it is even possible that those canals conveyed water to the cultivation from a northern source. Whether this was a well or a subterranean aqueduct (to which the shafts recorded near the Tuleib Settlement belong?), it is currently impossible to tell. These are suggestions that can only be confirmed by excavation. Ceramics from Tuleib (ALG/LAW) The site of Muhammad Tuleib is of particular inter est from a ceramics perspective due to the presence of a number of kilns with associated pottery wasters. The
surface assemblage from the site, primarily collected in 2005, has been presented in detail elsewhere (Gas coigne et al. in press). In summary, the corpus follows patterns identified in collections from the other major sites in the survey area, being strongly dominated by local clays. Material from the 1st to 3rd centuries is well represented, and ceramic evidence clearly indicates that significant use of the site continued into the 4th and 5th centuries. Following the recording of the pottery presented by Gascoigne et al. (in press), a further collection was made focussing on evidence of industrial activity in the form of wasters and slag; this was done by Warden during the 20 1 1-2012 field season of NKODAAS. From the areas of the two kilns (geophysics grid square E5), a number of spoiled sherds were collected: 1) The rim of a grey-fired basin, diameter 34 cm (6%), with everted ledge rim and hemispherical body. The fabric bore similarities to highly fired examples of IA. The fracture was surprisigly soft given the vitrified state of the piece. 2) A fine-walled form (wall thickness 0.5 to 0.7 cm), but so distorted that no more detailed idea of the intended shape can be discerned. The fabric shades from a yellowish-green to grey and again bears some similarities with lA, or perhaps Ie. 3) A flat body sherd with one side highly vitrified and bubbled. The intended form is unidentifiable. The fabric is hard and shiny with some sand, and again may resemble lA. 4) A flat body sherd, thiuner-walled than no. 3 above. The exterior surface is greenish-white, while the interior is melted and bubbled. The fabric is heavily over-fired, shiny, with large voids and perhaps some sand; it may resemble Ie. 5) Part of a well trimmed flat base, diameter 7 cm (40%), wall thickness 0.4 crn. The surfaces are greenish-yellow, and the fabric is soft and fria ble, containing some sand; perhaps related to IA or Ie. 6) A ring base embedded in slag, having a diame ter of ca. 1 0 crn. The fabric is grey-fired with a red margin in the break, and again perhaps most closely resembles IA. It goes without saying that all fabric identifications should be treated as very tentative in light of the condi tion of the pieces examined. Further (scientific) analysis is needed to shed light on the nature of the clays used in the production processes at Muhammad Tuleib.
IIA - MUHAMMAD TULEIB Finds from Tuleib
Glass (MMG) The material collected from this site (nos. 1 6 to 35, figures 125 and 126, following pages) included: thirteen rim fragments, three body fragments, two necks and two pieces of bracelets. An analysis of the glass found during a survey on the site of Muhammad Tuleib shows that the vast majority of these objects date from the Byzantine, Ummayad, and Abbasid periods, with only a few elements coming from later periods. Lamps and Bowls with cut rim (nos. 16- 1 8) The site yielded three cut rims, which are bent out ward, the diameter of which varies between 8.4 em and 10.6 cm. Two of these seem to belong to conical lamps (nos. 1 6 and 17); the third, with thicker walls and larger diameter (no. 18), was probably part of a footless bowl (on conical lamps see above Watermel on Settlement, nos 1 0 and 1 1 ; on bowls with outward bent rim see above Two Houses, no. 2). The closest parallels to the material found at Muhammad Tuleib are from Karanis (Harden 1936: nos. 436 and 449, 5th-6th centuries AD?). The two fragments of lamps have an olive hue (see above Watermelon Settlement, nos. 9, 1 0 and 1 1). Bowl decorated with tong impressions (no. 19) A fragment with a rounded edge was found at Mu hammad Tuleib (no. 19). It probably belonged to a bowl, decorated with repeating geometric or floral motifs (it is difficult to determine which), created by tong impressions. Another body fragment with the same type of decoration was recorded. This style of decoration, probably invented in Egypt, was ex tremely popular throughout the Islamic world from the late 8th century until the 10th century (Carboni 200 1 : 261-7 1 ; Carboni and Whitehouse 200 1 : 102-3; Foy 200 1 : 474; Foy, Picon and Vichy 2003: 140). In Egypt, this type of glass is found in large quantities at Fustat (Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 200 1 : cat. IV, 3 8 a-j; Foy 200 1 : 474), Tebtynis (Foy 200 1 : nos. 85-99), Naqlun (Mossakowska-Gaubert 20 16: nos. 9 and 10) and Raya (Shindo 2003: 1 8 1), amongst other sites. Outfolded Rims (nos. 20-22) Three rims folded outward probably belonged to ei ther small bowls (no. 20) or drinking glasses or other
149
containers with large bodies (nos. 2 1 and 22). This type of rim is rare. Fragment no. 20 is burgundy (cf. above Watermelon Settlement, no. 12). Flasks and Bottles (nos. 23-30) Eight fragments ofrimlnecks offlasks or bottles were recorded at Muhammad Tuleib. One of these necks (no. 23), with an inward-folding rim and immediately expanding walls, resembles those fowld in Byzantine contexts in Jordan (Jones 2006: no. 59; Meyer 1987: fig. 9, S). However, this identification remains hypo thetical. Two other necks, coloured green (nos. 2425), with inward folded rims, could belong to several kinds of bottles, as they are not very typical. Three necks found on this site have rounded edges, which flare slightly (nos. 26, 27 and 28). Analogies are found in material dated from the 6th and 7th centuries, as well as in other periods, at Carthage (Fiinfschilling 1999: 3 1 7, 3 1 8) and Jerash (Meyer 1987: fig. 10 C). However, we see this type of rim also on later flasks, dated to the 8th and 9th centuries, and sometimes even in the 1 0th century, as is seen in Fustat (Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 200 1 : 15f), Tiberias (Lester 2003 : fig. 1 . 8), at Bijan Island (Reiche 1996: fig. 1 .2 and 1 . 17) and at other sites. These vials, quite varied in size, have glohular bodies. Additionally, two necks of bot tles or flasks with fairly thick walls the rims of which are not preserved, were found on the site. The first (no. 29), with a slightly oval shape, sloping outwards, was probably part of a globular bottle or flask wide spread in the 13th century AD and later, known from Quseir al-Qadim (Meyer 1992: no. 383) and Rama (Riis, Poulsen and Rammerschaimb 1 957: 3 1). The last neck (no. 30), with ahnost straight sides, seems to belong to a type of massive bottle with a rounded rim, known in the Abbasid era and documented for exam ple in Fustat (Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 200 1 : 1 5k) or from Caesarea (pollak 2003: fig. 2.23). Body fragments with applied decoration (nos. 3 1-32) Two body fragments decorated with applied glass threads were recovered from the site: one yellowish body with decoration ofthe same colour (no. 3 1), and the second likewise having a iliick slightly yellowish body, and dark green threads (110. 32). This type of decoration starts in Roman times and continues to be used in the Byzantine and throughout the Arab pe riods. As with fragment no. 3 1 , it seems not to be characteristic. It is difficult to find any close paral-
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17
18
19
20
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TIT Figure 125: Glass finds nos. 16 to 24, from Tuleib (M. Mossakowska-Gaubert).
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Figure 126: Glass finds nos. 25 to 35, from Tuleib (M. Mossakowska-Gaubert).
1cm
152
11.4 - MUHAMMAD TULEIB
lei to fragment no. 32, but some yellowish jars with dark green applated decoration, usually with a 'zig zag' motif, are known, for example, from Palestine, and are dated between mid 4th to mid 5th century AD (Stem 200 1 : nos. 1 1 7 and 12 1). The shapes and exact decorative motifs of both fragments from Muham mad Tuleib are unknown to us. Body fragment with wheel-cut decoration (no. 33) Another body fragment is decorated with two parallel, deep wheel-cut lines (no. 33). Again, this decorative technique was known from Roman times, and was used frequently during the Byzantine andArab periods. Parallels for a such decoration appear on a beaker from Karanis (Harden 1936: no. 408, 5th-6th centuries?) and on some bowls from Beirut (Jennings 1997-1998: fig. 9, nos. 3 and 7, 4th-5th century AD) . Bracelets (nos. 34-35) Two fragments of bracelets were found on the site of Muhammad Tuleib. The first (no. 34), with a semi circular cross section and patch pattern, has a double surface formed by honey and green colour coatings, and decoration patches in orange - yellow - black white - black - white - black. Bracelets with the same pattern were cornmon throughout Kharga Oasis (see the display at the Kharga Museum). Bracelets of this type are used since the 14th century (Spaer 1992: 54). They are also found at other sites in Egypt, such as Quseir al-Qadim (Meyer 1992: nos. 581 and 583), as well as in Palestine (Spaer 1992: type 0 1 , d, fig. 12), and at Sardis in Anatolia (von Saldern 1980: nos. 760 and 761). The second bracelet (no. 35) with flattened semi circular cross section, was decorated with three ex terior filaments. A similar design, but consisting of two threads, is known from a few bracelets dated to the 14th century from the site of Sardis (von Saldern 1980: nos. 75 1-6). In conclusion, the glass finds from Muhammad Tuleib appear to date mainly to the Byzantine, Urnmayad, and Abbasid periods, and only partly overlap with the date of the ceramics retrieved there. List of glass from the site: no. 16: cut rim; 0 8.8 cm, H+ 3.6 cm; olive green no. 17.: cut rim; 0 ± 8,4 cm, H+ 2,2 cm; olive green
no. 18: cut rim; 0 ± 10,6 cm, H+ 2,8 cm; greenish no. 19: rounded rim, decoration impressed with tongs; 0 ± 16 cm, H+ 2,9 cm; green no. 20: folded rim; 0 10.8 cm, H ± 1.5 cm; bur gundy no. 2 1 : folded rim; 0 8.6 cm, H+ 0.8 cm; green no. 22: folded rim; 0 7.8 cm, H+ 1.9 cm; yel lowish no. 23: folded rim; 0 2.4 cm, H+ 1.3 cm; green no. 24: folded rim; 0 2 cm, H+ 2. 1 cm; green no. 25: folded rim; 0 1 . 8 cm, H+ 1,8 cm; green no. 26: rounded rim; 0 2.6 cm, H+ 1 .9 cm; green no. 27: rounded rim; 0 3.6 cm, H+ 1 .4 cm; green no. 28: rounded rim; 0 1.25 cm, H+ 3.3 cm; hon ey coloured no. 29: neck fragment; 0 internal ± 2 cm, H+ 2.3 ern; green no. 30: neck fragment; 0 internal 2.6 cm, H+ 2.4 cm; green-blue no. 3 1 : body fragment, applied decoration; H+ 2.4 cm; yellowish no. 32: body fragment, applied decoration; H+ 4,9 cm; plain body: yellowish, filaments: dark green no. 33: body fragment, wheel-cut decoration; H+ 4 cm; yellowish no. 34: fragment of a bracelet; H+ 2. 1 cm; brace let honey coloured and green; decoration: orange - yellow - black - white - black - white - black no. 35: fragment of a bracelet; H+ 1 . 7 cm; brace let honey coloured; decoration: light green, sea blue, yellow.
Coins (OMR) Four coins were found at this site. One came from close to the western wall of the main building, near the entrance; two from what appear to be middens to the northeast; and one from about a quarter of a kilometre to the northeast of the main building. NKOS Cat. No. 1 3 (figure 127) Location Muhammad Tuleib, western wall Oiarn. 24 rnm Material and denomination B illon tetradrachrn Mint Alexandria Obverse Imperial bust, laurel wreath, cuirassed, draped, facing right. Legend: ANTnNINO-L LEB
11.4 - MUHAMMAD TULEIB
Reverse
Date Citation
NKOS Cat. No. 14 Location Diam. Material, module and denomination Mint Obverse Reverse Date Citation
ETIEB. Note the position ofthe final sigma of ANTONINOL under bust. Nilus, reclining left, with cornucopia cro\V1led with a genius. Reed or sheaf of wheat in left hand. Underneath, a crocodile. Legend: fiOfiE-KATOY; L (etous sign) in left field. Above and after fiOfiE: 1�. Coin of Antoninus Pius, AD 148-149 Variant of Milne 1971: 1990; Geissen 1974-83: 1595.
Muhammad Tuleib, northeast of midden/mound 14 rnm Bronze AE3 or AE4 Unknown Illegible, only one side imaged. Illegible, only one side im aged. 4th century AD? NA
NKOS Cat. No. 15 Location Diam. Material, module and denomination Mint Obverse Reverse Date Citation Note
NKOS Cat. No. 16 Location Diam. Material and denomination Mint Obverse Reverse Date Citation
153
Muhammad Tuleib, northeast of midden/mound 21 rnm Bronze Unknown Illegible Illegible ?
NA Perhaps an imitation or not a com
Northeast of the main buidling 1 1 rnm Bronze AE3 or AE4 Unknown Not cleaned, currently illegible. Not cleaned, currently illegible. 4th century AD? NA
Of these four coins, one dates to the 2nd century AD, two to the 4th century AD, and one is illegible.
O em
Figure 127: Coin ofAntoninus Pius from Muhammed Tuleib (S. Ikram).
1 em
154
11.4 - MUHAMMAD TULEIB and a corroded metal ring. Other finds in the Tuleib area included a few flints of various dates, with the most identifiable dating from 5600-5200 Be, and in the area some 500 m to the east of the core building, a small, undecorated metal ring, ofuncertain flUlction. Archaeozoology (SI)
Figure 128: Loom weights from Tuleib (S. Ikram, 2004).
Small Finds (SI) In the area north of the main structure a small mound, either the remains of another small structure or a mid den, boasted a group of unfired donut-shaped loom weights as well as a fine bone tool of the type used for weaving or leather work (figure 128). These clearly at test to weaving being carried out at the site at least on a domestic, if not more commercial scale. This area also yielded a squarish stone weight of 250 g (figure 129)
Figure 129: Stone weight from Tuleib (S. Ikram, 2004).
Animal bone finds included pig, ovicaprid, donkey, and a few remains of catfish. No cattle bones were not ed. The presence of catfish (both Clarias spp. and Syn odontis sp.), also found at other sites in North Kharga, points to canals and standing water that were supplied with such creatures, an environmental view that is also supported by the presence of pigs, animals that require a wetter environment. It also is possible that catfish were brought in from the Nile Valley (Lesur et al. 2011; Lesur 2013), although the reasons for importing bottom-feed ing fish into the oasis as opposed to other more tasty fish is lUlclear. A possible reason might be that catfish are a robust species and can be transported with minimal water, lUllike other fish. Cemeteries near Muhammad Tuleib Tuleib Tombs (SI) A stone outcrop stands proud of the surrolUlding flat landscape some 900 m northwest of the main building at Muhammad Tuleib. At least one Type 3 and two Type 2 tombs are cut into this. Visible grave goods consist ed only of pottery fragments. The few skeletal remains provide little infonnation about the O"Wllers of these tombs. Possibly related to this, or maybe associated with now buried fields, at 300 m further west stands a sturdier outcrop. It is topped by a crude shelter built of pieces of lUlcut sandstone, consisting of perhaps six rooms; the largest is 2.5 m in length. To the southeast of the main structure is another rock that protrudes up ward and contains tombs of Type 2, as is attested by the spread of skeletal fragments. Further to the east of the main structure, after 700 m, there are Type 4 tombs (simply dug into the earth) that persist across the road. It is possible that Type 2 (shaft) tombs also are to be found here. Perhaps these belong to the cemetery that was noted when the road was being constructed. This was probably where the majority of people who lived at this site were buried, with the elites enjoying the more prestigious rock tombs located in the few knolls acces sible from the main site.
11.4 - MUHAMMAD TULEIB
155
Ain ai-Gebel (the Killing Fields) (SIIMH) Ain ai-Gebel is the name of the area located to the east of the modem asphalted road, that hosts a modem abandoned settlement located near a dry spring, and an ancient substantial cemetery, probably for the inhabit ants of Muhammad Tuleib.
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History ofWork at the Site The centre ofthe extensive cemetery ofAin ai-Gebel, also called by NKOS 'The Killing Fields', lies less than 2 km to the east of Tuleib's main building. The SCA worked here in 1992-93, under the direction of Magdy Hussein, to whom we are grateful for his collaboration in explaining the site. The cemetery became the focus of study after robbers had started to loot it and bones and mununies were scattered across the site (figure 130). Now, a roughly built mudbrick structure, constructed by the SCA, marks the area that was detennined to be the eastern extent of the cemetery, which is located in a slightly lower area of the ground. The overall area is approximately 500 m square.
Figure 130: Human remains at the Killing Fields (S. Ikram, 2005).
The Cemetery As the closest ancient settlement recorded near the Ain ai-Gebel necropolis is that of Muhammad Tuleib, it is logical to assume that the two sites were linked. It is possible that there might have been another settlement served by this cemetery, but the SCA has no record of any other ancient remains in the vicinity. An abandoned spring and settlement lies to the east ofAin aI-Gebel, at a distance of half a kilometre, but it dates to relatively modem times (see figure 100). The apparent absence of archaeological remains between Muhammed Tuleib and Ain ai-Gebel might be due to the soft, sandy nature of the terrain, as well as to the construction of the different incarnations of the asphalt road that connects Kharga to the Nile Valley, and the parallel line of electricity py lons. Hussein excavated at least seven tombs here. These consisted of shafts carved straight do"Wll into the ground that opened into one or more chambers containing mul tiple burials (Type 2). It is possible that some shafts were enhanced with mudbrick. These are now all choked with sand and all that is visible on the surface is a plethora of sand stre"Wll with hundreds of disarticulated human remains, a veritable killing field; this scene of carnage is the result of more robbers who visited the site after Hussein's excavations.
Tomb 1 consisted ofa shaft (110 cm x 85 cm) leading to a single irregularly shaped room through a door that was 109 cm wide. The chamber's north wall measured 257 cm, the south wall 290 cm, the east wall was 150 cm, and the west wall was 175 cm. The height of the chamber was 103 cm. Fragments ofmununified human remains, linen, and cartOlmage were noted here. Tomb 2 had two shafts, one in the north, and the other in the south, leading to a two cOlmected burial cham bers. The shafts were 80 cm square. The northern cham ber measured 295 cm x 190 cm, while the southern chamber's eastern and western walls were 158 cm long, the north wall measured 226 cm, and the southern side was 204 cm. Both chambers were about 90 cm high. It is possible that the two chambers had initially been in dependent, but, due to the damaged rock, now appear to be closely related. The two chambers and the shaft were full of sand, mixed with some pieces of linen and mum mified remains, as well as wooden fragments, which were probably part of the funerary couch or bier. Three bodies were found together, one belonging to a child. Tomb 3 was made up of a shaft with a single cham ber leading to the north, carved into the tafia. The shaft measured approximately 55 cm x 65 cm. The burial chamber's southern wall was 215 cm, its northern wall
156
11.4 - MUHAMMAD TULEIB
was 180 cm, the westem wall was 168 cm, and the eastem wall measured 248 cm; the chamber was 83 cm high. A small ledge on the eastern side might have been meant for the mummy or as a place to rest grave goods. The door between the shaft and the burial chamber was 60 cm wide. Cartonnage and wood fi'om coffins and a bier burial as well as mummified remains were found here. Tomb 4 was carved out of tafia and sandstone layers, consisting of a shaft and a burial chamber. The shaft was not symmetrical in size: it measured 55 cm in the south, 85 cm in the north, and l l 5 cm in the east and west. The door leading to the burial chamber was 68 cm high. The burial chamber's south wall was 406 cm, the northern side was 40 I cm long, the eastern wall was 203 cm, and the westem wall was 293 cm. The chamber was about l lO cm high. Mummy fragments and cartonnage were found in this tomb. Tomb 5 consisted of a shaft measuring 48 cm x 110 cm, which connects to the burial chamber, all carved into the local sandstone. The chamber measures 295 cm on the east and west, with the north wall being 150 cm, and the south wall 186 cm. Some mummy fragments and linen were found here. Tomb 6 takes the form of a shaft (90 cm x 90 cm) that leads to two chambers, both of which were filled with human remains, linen, cartonnage, and wood from coffins and/or beds. The well was a square and its side was about 90 cm. The eastem chamber's nOlthern wall measured 168 cm, the southem one 1 88 cm, while the eastem and westem ones were about 165 cm. The west em chamber's north wall was 263 cm, the southern one 245 cm the eastem side 217 cm, and the westem side is about I In cm, and the burial chamber was 97 cm high. Tomb 7 was cut into the sandstone, and consists of a shaft connected to two chambers to the south and west. The shaft was not symmetrical: the northem and south em sides were 107 cm, the western side 55 cm, and the eastem wall 62 cm. The measurements of the walls of the westem burial chamber were as follows: the east 170 cm, the west 2 10 cm, the north and south 1 80 cm. The width of the door into this chamber was 55 cm and the chamber's height was 97 cm. The southem cham ber's dimensions wall lengths were as follows: the north wall was 210 cm, the south wall 275 cm, the east wall 360 cm, and the west wall 365 cm. The entry to the burial chamber was 64 cm wide, and the burial chambers' was 97 cm high. Human remains and bandages were found here.
The Human Remains (SI) TI,e remains were of adults of all ages, as well as of children and infants. In passing, Ikram noted some evidence for ruthritis (spine and femur) and dental dis ease (caries, teeth that had fallen out and the bone reab sorbed). The burial types here were diverse, indicative of different socio-economic status and possibly chrono logical variation. Some of the bodies were carefully mummified, be ing both excerebrated via the ethmoid, and eviscerat ed. Generous amounts of resinous substances had been poured into the skull in many instances. Linen had been placed carefully into the eye sockets (and possibly orig inally painted with pupils) of several individuals. lu oth er cases hot resinous materials had been applied to the (poorly?) desiccated flesh so that it had bUl11ed through to the bone, leaving ollly a brittle casing of bruldages around bone. It is also possible that some bodies were eviscerated, not dried, but instead the body cavities filled with resinuous substance and cloth, with more of the resinous substance poured over the body and then the whole wrapped in cloth. Only linen bandages were found at the site. Most of the bandages were of the standard yellowy-white colour where they were not discoloured by embalming mate rials. However, some bandages dyed a reddish-orange were also noted. Some of the millmnie s had been en shrouded as large, open pieces of fabric were found near some of ti,e bodies. Presumably amulets and jewellery, as well as cruton nage had been buried with these individuals, but none were noted on the surface, although Hussein had recov ered some cartonnage. Burial Containers and Grave Goods (SI) There is evidence for wooden coffins, rectangular as well as anthropomorphic, covered with a layer of plaster and paint in some instances, and just paint in others. Un fortunately no designs or inscriptions could be clearly discerned (figure 1 3 1). These all seem to be ofa Roman and possibly late Pto lemaic date. Thick fragments of gypslll11 p laster with paint 00 them, sinlilar to those folllld at the Western Tombs (above) were also noted. Some bodies were wrapped in palm mats made of pahn ribs (jerid), or just with some palm ribs, tied together Witll rope; similar means of protection have been recorded elsewhere in the oasis as well as the Nile Valley (Dunruld 2007: 1 72; personal observation
11.4 MUHAMMAD TULEIB -
Figure 1 31 : Fragment of coffin at the Killing Fields (S. Ikram).
157
in Thebes). This makes it easier to stack the mummies as if they were cordwood. Sometimes the palm rib rein forcement is provided only for certain body parts, as for the legs of ajuvenile, where the palm ribs were attached to the body when it was still wet with resins and oils, and thus is finnly embedded in these. It is also possi ble that some of the bodies might have rested on beds made ofjerid, such as were found in Dush (Castel and Dunand 1981). Evidence for grave goods was minimal, though there must have been a significant number of ceramics and glass vessels. Only a few ceramics lay above the sand, mixed in with the bodies. Unfortunately, few diagnostic fragments were recovered. Those that were found indi cated that the cemetery was in use during the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, if not earlier (Magdy Hussein, pers. comm.).
II.S - AIN AL-LEBEKHA
The site of Ain al-Lebekha General description (CRlS!) The name of the site might be derived from the Ar abic word for Persea tree (Mimusops schimpen): leb akh, which presmnably were once abundant in the area, although are no longer found here. These trees were often, like the Sycamore Fig, dedicated to Isis or some times to Horus. According to some scholars, they be came increasingly rare during the Roman occupation as the Romans allegedly were opposed to the cultivation of these trees and destroyed many (Lortet and Gail lard 1905-1909: 242). If this is the origin of the current name, however, one should conclude that the ancient to ponym managed to survive for centuries after the aban donment of the site, that took place sometime in the 5th century AD .
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The archaeological site of Ain al-Lebekha (figure 132) covers an area of about l.5 km in an east-west di rection by nearly 4 km along a north-south axis. It is lo cated close to the edge ofthe western escarpment where it turns toward the west in the direction ofDakhla Oasis. The main cluster of remains is located in a central de pression, focussed around two large springs, one in the north and the other in the south. The built remains include two Temples (one located at each spring, in the north and the south), a Cemetery and a chapel in a ridge just to the south of the Northern Temple, the fort of Qasr al-Lebekha in the south sur rounded by the dense Gridded Settlement, accompanied by at least four groups of buried structures southwest of the fort, and two to its east. Two cultivated areas were served by two pairs of underground aqueducts, stretch ing to the north and to the south of this central core. The boundaries of the archaeological area that was surveyed
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Figure 132: View ofAin al-Lebekha from the southern hills (C. Rossi, 2007).
II.S - AIN AL-LEBEKHA
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