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SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science Vishwambhar Prasad Sati
Natural and Cultural Diversity in the Himalaya
SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science
SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science present concise summaries of cutting- edge research and practical applications across a wide spectrum of environmental fields, with fast turnaround time to publication. Featuring compact volumes of 50 to 125 pages, the series covers a range of content from professional to academic. Monographs of new material are considered for the SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science series. Typical topics might include: a timely report of state-of-the-art analytical techniques, a bridge between new research results, as published in journal articles and a contextual literature review, a snapshot of a hot or emerging topic, an in-depth case study or technical example, a presentation of core concepts that students must understand in order to make independent contributions, best practices or protocols to be followed, a series of short case studies/debates highlighting a specific angle. SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science allow authors to present their ideas and readers to absorb them with minimal time investment. Both solicited and unsolicited manuscripts are considered for publication.
Vishwambhar Prasad Sati
Natural and Cultural Diversity in the Himalaya
Vishwambhar Prasad Sati Geography and Resource Management Mizoram University Aizawl, Mizoram, India
ISSN 2191-5547 ISSN 2191-5555 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science ISBN 978-3-031-39362-4 ISBN 978-3-031-39363-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39363-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Diversity in the natural and cultural components is the beauty of our Earth. The Earth consists of land and water, which represents 29% and 71% areas, respectively. Further, it comprises mountains, plateaus, plains, coastal areas, and deep oceanic depressions. It has an atmosphere and a biosphere. The snow-capped mountains, river valleys, fertile plains, deserts, and beaches make landforms spectacular. All these components of nature support life on the Earth and the livelihood of people. Cultural diversity, on the other hand, is unique. It varies from one continent to another and among the human races. Diversity in food, beverages, clothing, human habitats, cultures, customs, rituals, and languages are found as part of the human races, climate, and landscapes. The Himalaya presents a rich diversity in nature, culture, and all walks of life. It is the tallest mountain in the world. The Greater Himalaya remains snow-capped, and therefore, it is known as the Third Pole and Water Tower of Earth. The vast alpine pasturelands, dense forests with rich biodiversity, numerous river valleys, and terraced agricultural fields show richness. Idea matters. While writing continuously on different aspects of the Himalayan region, a thought occurred in my mind about the natural and cultural diversity of the Himalaya. The idea was cultivated in the form of writing a brief book with the title Natural and Cultural Diversity in the Himalaya. The book is divided into two parts – the natural diversity and the cultural diversity. Natural diversity includes the diversity in landscape, climate, soils, livestock, biodiversity, and agro-biodiversity. Cultural diversity comprises the diversity in social systems; culture, customs, rituals, fairs, and festivals; folklores and folk deities; food and beverages; and languages and clothes. Now, the book is in your hands. It is a unique combination of the natural and cultural diversity in the Himalaya, very useful to all the stakeholders – students, teachers, researchers, and book lovers. The data and contents in the book are mainly based on my long experience and observations about the regions, although data were also gathered from primary and secondary sources. Many tables and figures were developed to present natural and cultural diversity in the region. The diversities are also presented by adding the latest photographs in the text. I hope this book will be a milestone in the disciplines of natural and social sciences. It is Lord Shiva, who v
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nurtures me – my body and mind. This book is a result of his blessing and the blessings of my forefathers. I dedicate this book to the broader perspectives of humanity Aizawl, Mizoram, India 19 June 2023
Vishwambhar Prasad Sati
About the Book
The Himalaya is the new folded mountain system – the tallest and the youngest in the world. It has a rich diversity – natural and cultural, and diversity in all walks of life. Most of its uniqueness is unknown because of its remoteness. Even the native people are not aware of them. This book aims to describe the uniqueness of the Central Himalaya in terms of its natural and cultural diversity in detail. Supported by original figures and primary data, this book is empirically tested. It is mainly based on observation and participation and the use of a qualitative approach. Although lots of work has been carried out on the various aspects of the Himalayan region yet, a detailed description of the natural and cultural diversity is yet to be done. This book steps forward to elaborate on some of the unique natural and cultural features of the Central Himalaya, which are worthy to be known about. It contains a total of 10 chapters. Four chapters are devoted to natural diversity and four chapters comprise cultural diversity. Besides, the introduction and conclusions are the first and the last chapters of the book, respectively. The book is the first of its kind and will be useful to all stakeholders – students of all standards, research scholars, academicians, policymakers, native people, tourists, and the general public.
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Contents
1
Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1 1.1 Diversity in Global Mountains���������������������������������������������������������� 1 1.2 The Central Himalaya ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 2 1.3 Objectives and Methodology������������������������������������������������������������ 6 1.4 Organisation of the Study ���������������������������������������������������������������� 7 References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 8
Part I Natural Diversity 2
Diversity in Landforms���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13 2.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13 2.2 Major Landforms������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 14 2.2.1 Plain Regions������������������������������������������������������������������������ 14 2.2.2 Shivalik Hills������������������������������������������������������������������������ 17 2.2.3 Middle Altitudes ������������������������������������������������������������������ 18 2.2.4 The Highlands���������������������������������������������������������������������� 18 2.2.5 Alpine Pasturelands�������������������������������������������������������������� 19 2.2.6 The Greater Himalaya���������������������������������������������������������� 20 2.2.7 Mountain Peaks�������������������������������������������������������������������� 20 2.2.8 Highland and Valley Lakes �������������������������������������������������� 21 References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
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Diversity in Climate �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25 3.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25 3.2 Climatic Zones���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 26 3.2.1 Sub-tropical Climate ������������������������������������������������������������ 27 3.2.2 Temperate Climate���������������������������������������������������������������� 27 3.2.3 Cold Climate ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 27 3.2.4 Frigid Cold���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 28 3.3 Climate Seasons�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 28 3.3.1 Altitude 3400 m������������������������������������������������������������������ 29 3.4 Temperature, Rainfall, and Humidity ���������������������������������������������� 29 3.4.1 Temperature�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29 3.4.2 Rainfall���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30 3.4.3 Humidity ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 31 3.5 Conclusions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32 References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 33 4
Biodiversity ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35 4.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35 4.2 Vertical Distribution of Floral Diversity ������������������������������������������ 36 4.2.1 Monsoon Deciduous Forests������������������������������������������������ 36 4.2.2 Pine Forests�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38 4.2.3 Mixed-Oak Forests���������������������������������������������������������������� 38 4.2.4 Coniferous Forests���������������������������������������������������������������� 40 4.2.5 Alpine Pasturelands�������������������������������������������������������������� 41 4.3 Faunal Diversity�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 43 4.4 Domestic Animals���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44 4.5 Conclusions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44 References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46
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Agro-biodiversity ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 49 5.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49 5.2 Agricultural Diversity ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 50 5.2.1 Paddy������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 51 5.2.2 Wheat and Barley������������������������������������������������������������������ 52 5.2.3 Millets ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 52 5.2.4 Chaulai���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53 5.3 Horticultural Diversity���������������������������������������������������������������������� 54 5.3.1 Tropical Fruits���������������������������������������������������������������������� 54 5.3.2 Sub-tropical Fruits���������������������������������������������������������������� 54 5.3.3 Temperate Fruits ������������������������������������������������������������������ 54 5.3.4 Spices and Vegetables ���������������������������������������������������������� 55 5.4 Diversity in Wild Fruits�������������������������������������������������������������������� 58 5.5 Conclusions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 60 References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 60
Part II Cultural Diversity 6
Diversity in Social Systems���������������������������������������������������������������������� 65 6.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65 6.2 Social Systems���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 66 6.2.1 Brahmins ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 66 6.2.2 Rajputs and their Sub-clans�������������������������������������������������� 69 6.2.3 Tribal Diversity �������������������������������������������������������������������� 71 6.2.4 Scheduled Castes������������������������������������������������������������������ 75
Contents
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6.3 Conclusions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75 References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76 7
Diversity in Cultures and Customs�������������������������������������������������������� 77 7.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 77 7.2 Garhwal Himalaya���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 81 7.3 Kumaon Himalaya���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 82 7.4 Jaunsar and Rawain�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 82 References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83
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Diversity in Fairs and Festivals�������������������������������������������������������������� 85 8.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 85 8.2 Major Fairs and Festivals������������������������������������������������������������������ 86 8.2.1 Dev/Devi Naach during Navratra������������������������������������������ 86 8.2.2 Vaisakhi/Bikhoti�������������������������������������������������������������������� 86 8.2.3 Jhanda Fair���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 88 8.2.4 Ganga Dussehra/Dashami���������������������������������������������������� 90 8.2.5 Rai Sankranti and Harela������������������������������������������������������ 90 8.2.6 Shravan Mela������������������������������������������������������������������������ 91 8.2.7 Bagwal Fair�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93 8.2.8 Ghee Sankranti/Olgia������������������������������������������������������������ 94 8.2.9 Hiran-Chittal Utsav�������������������������������������������������������������� 94 8.2.10 Mahasu Devta Fair���������������������������������������������������������������� 94 8.2.11 Pati and Nanda Devi Kauthig������������������������������������������������ 94 8.2.12 Purnagiri Fair������������������������������������������������������������������������ 95 8.2.13 Chausat Kali/Athwad������������������������������������������������������������ 96 8.2.14 Deolang Festival ������������������������������������������������������������������ 96 8.2.15 Krishna Leela������������������������������������������������������������������������ 96 8.2.16 Krishna Nritya���������������������������������������������������������������������� 97 8.2.17 Pandav Nritya������������������������������������������������������������������������ 97 8.2.18 Uttarayani Mela�������������������������������������������������������������������� 98 8.2.19 Angyar Puja�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 98 8.2.20 Fuldei Festival���������������������������������������������������������������������� 99 8.3 Conclusions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99 Reference �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99
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Diversity in All Walks of Life������������������������������������������������������������������ 101 9.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 101 9.2 Diversity in Folklore ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 102 9.3 Musical Instruments�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 105 9.4 Ornaments of the Central Himalaya ������������������������������������������������ 106 9.4.1 Gold Ornaments�������������������������������������������������������������������� 106 9.4.2 Silver Ornaments������������������������������������������������������������������ 107 9.5 Folk Deities�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 108 9.5.1 Folk Deities of Garhwal Region ������������������������������������������ 109 9.5.2 Folk Deities of the Kumaon Region ������������������������������������ 109
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9.6 Some Famous Temples of Lord Shiva, Shakti, and Lord Vishnu ���� 110 9.7 Languages, Clothing, Food, and Beverages�������������������������������������� 111 9.7.1 Languages ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111 9.7.2 Clothing�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 117 9.7.3 Food and Beverages�������������������������������������������������������������� 118 9.8 Conclusions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 118 Reference �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 119 10 Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
About the Author
Vishwambhar Prasad Sati (b. 1966), D.Litt. and Ph.D., a Senior Professor of Geography and Resource Management, is currently working at the Mizoram University (A Central University), Aizawl, India. With a teaching career of about three decades, he has served in several higher education institutions within and outside India, some of them being ‘Eritrea Institute of Technology’, Asmara, Eritrea (NE Africa), ‘Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment’, Chengdu, China, ‘Madhya Pradesh Higher Education’, and ‘HNB Garhwal University’, Srinagar Garhwal. In the same field, he has deeply been involved in research, and has worked as a Visiting Professor and Visiting Scholar in the world’s various renowned research and academic institutions, including ‘The World Academy of Sciences’, ‘Chinese Academy of Sciences’, ‘Indian National Science Academy’, ‘Indian Council of Social Science Research’, and ‘Indian Institute of Advanced Studies’. Currently, he is a Senior Global Fellow of the Grassroots Institute, Canada. Besides, he has travelled widely – 40 countries and all over India. He has impactful expertise in the fields of Natural Resource Management, Environment-Development Interface, Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, DisasterRelated issues, and Culture of the Himalayan region. He has developed several models and action plans for environmental conservation and economic development of the fragile Himalayan ecosystems/landscapes. More than a dozen of national individual projects and projects with international collaboration have been conducted by him. With more than 180 research papers and articles, and about three dozen books published, his academic contribution is well-documented at national and international levels.
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List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Altitudes, the major rivers, and districts of the Central Himalaya. (Source: By Author)������������������������������ 3 Fig. 2.1 Major landforms of the Central Himalaya. (Source: By Author)����������������������������������������������������������������������� 14 Fig. 2.2 Major river systems in the Central Himalaya. (Source: By Author)����������������������������������������������������������������������� 15 Fig. 2.3 (a) The Jahnavi River is flowing through a deep gorge at Bhaironghati (b) Vasudhara, a divine waterfall on the way to Satopanth Lake from Badrinath shrine (c) Potholes can be seen along the Bhagirathi River near Gangnani village (d) the Ganga River is making a beautiful meander near Sakinidhar. (Photo: By Author)����������������������������������������������������� 16 Fig. 2.4 Villages located in the middle altitude near Ukhimath. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 18 Fig. 2.5 Alpine pastureland and the Greater Himalaya near the Kedarnath Highland shrine. (Photo: By Author)��������������������� 19 Fig. 2.6 The Greater Himalaya, below which is Dharali village in the upper Bhagirathi valley. (Photo: By Author)����������������������� 20 Fig. 2.7 (a) Satopanth, a glacier-fed picturesque lake, is located 30 km upslope of Badrinath shrine (b) Nainital Lake is located in the Nainital district at about 2000 m altitude. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 23 Fig. 3.1 Diversity in climate: major climatic zones in the Central Himalaya. (Source: By Author)����������������������������������������������������� 26 Fig. 3.2 Major and sub-seasons in the plain and the valley regions. (Source: By Author)��������������������������������������������������������� 28 Fig. 3.3 Major seasons in the middle-altitudes and highlands. (Source: By Author)����������������������������������������������������������������������� 29 Fig. 3.4 Climate season in the Greater Himalaya. (Source: By Author)����������������������������������������������������������������������� 29 xv
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List of Figures
Fig. 3.5 Monthly average temperature (a) Dehradun (b) Mukteshwar. (Source: Meteorological Department, Dehradun)������������������������� 30 Fig. 3.6 Monthly average rainfall (mm) (a) Dehradun (b) Mukteshwar. (Source: Meteorological Department, Dehradun)������������������������� 31 Fig. 3.7 Monthly average humidity (%) (a) Dehradun (b) Mukteshwar. (Source: Meteorological Department, Dehradun)������������������������� 32 Fig. 4.1 Graphic presentation of forests types and distribution. (Source: By Author)����������������������������������������������������������������������� 36 Fig. 4.2 Monsoon deciduous forests, Raja Ji National Park. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 38 Fig. 4.3 Pine forests in the middle altitude. (Photo: By Author)���������������� 39 Fig. 4.4 Mixed-oak forests below Tungnath shrine in Ukhimath block. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������� 39 Fig. 4.5 Rhododendron (burans) grows in the lower temperate zone within the mixed-oak forests. (Photo: By Author)���������������� 40 Fig. 4.6 Coniferous forests (>2500 m) in the Niti Valley. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 41 Fig. 4.7 Alpine pastureland in Tungnath (>3000 m). (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 42 Fig. 4.8 Brahma Kamal, blossoms in a few alpine pasturelands of the Central Himalaya. (Photo: By Author)�������������������������������� 42 Fig. 4.9 (a) Himalayan Monal (b) Reindeer (c) Musk deer (d) Leopard. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 43 Fig. 4.10 (a) Goats are reared in the highlands (b) a woman with cattle taking them for rearing. (Photo: By Author)������������������������ 45 Fig. 5.1 Agro-biodiversity in the Central Himalaya. (Source: By Author)����������������������������������������������������������������������� 50 Fig. 5.2 (a) Paddy grows in irrigated areas (b) rain-fed terraced fields. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 51 Fig. 5.3 Paddy grows in plain region, river valleys, and middle altitudes as mono-crop. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������ 52 Fig. 5.4 (a) Millets (b) multi-cropping, Barahnaja – 12 crops grow in a single crop field. (Photo: By Author)�������������������������������������� 53 Fig. 5.5 (a) Chaulai (Ramdana) field (b) Chaulai is ready to harvest. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 53 Fig. 5.6 Mangos are grown in the sub-tropical climate zones below 1100 m. (Photo: By Author)���������������������������������������������������������� 55 Fig. 5.7 Citrus fruits; Photo: By Author������������������������������������������������������ 55 Fig. 5.8 (a) Apricot (b) pear (c) plum (d) peach. (Photo: By Author)�������� 56 Fig. 5.9 (a) Apple orchard (b) apples are grown in the Purali village. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 56 Fig. 5.10 (a) Rajma (b) Potato are grown in the highlands (the upper Bhagirathi River valley). (Photo: By Author)�������������� 57
List of Figures
xvii
Fig. 5.11 (a) Potato (b) Cauliflower are grown in the river valleys (Khanda Garh in Pauri district). (Photo: By Author)��������������������� 57 Fig. 5.12 (a) Kafal (b) Bhamora. (Photo: By Author)���������������������������������� 59 Fig. 5.13 Wild fruits (a) Kilmori (b) Ghingharu. (Photo: By Author)���������� 59 Fig. 5.14 Wild fruits. (a) Timli (b) Hainsoli. (Photo: By Author)���������������� 60 Fig. 7.1 Major cultural and sub-cultural realms of the Central Himalaya. (Source: By Author)����������������������������������������������������������������������� 81 Fig. 8.1 Vaisakhi festival is celebrated at Panti on the left bank of the Pindar River. (Photo: By Author)���������������������������������������� 89 Fig. 9.1 The young women wearing Naths. The Nath has economic, social, and cultural importance in the Central Himalaya. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 107 Fig. 9.2 Folk deity is being carried out for a cultural procession. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 109 Fig. 9.3 (a) Lord Shiva temple at Jageshwar (1600 m) (b) and at Kasar Devi premises at Almora town (2100 m). (Photo: By Author)������ 112 Fig. 9.4 Shakti temples (a) Kasar Devi 2100 m (b) Dhari Devi 800 m. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 113 Fig. 9.5 (a) The Sun temples of Katarmal (2000 m) (b) Lord Vishnu temples at Adi-Badri (1200 m). (Photo: By Author)��������������������� 114 Fig. 9.6 Golu Devta temple (2000 m) at Chitai near Almora town, way to Jageshwar shrine. (Photo: By Author)������������������������������� 115 Fig. 9.7 (a) A Bhotiya woman wearing Pakhula (a woolen cloth) in the Niti Valley (b) A Brahmin man wearing Kurta-Pajama while worshiping Lord Shiva, in Kaub Village. (Photo: By Author)�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 118
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4
Major waterfalls of the Central Himalaya������������������������������������� 17 Mountain peaks of the Central Himalaya�������������������������������������� 21 Highland lakes (>2500 m)������������������������������������������������������������� 22 Valley lakes (7000 m (Fig.1.1). The Ganges system is one of the biggest river systems in the world. It has numerous glacial-fed perennial rivers, which originate and flow in the Central Himalaya. It has a rich diversity in all aspects – natural and cultural. Natural diversity includes diversities in landscape, climate, biodiversity, and agro-biodiversity. Culturally, the Himalaya is rich and it obtains a rich cultural diversity. Diversity in social structure, culture and customs, fairs and festivals, folklore and folk deities, languages and clothes, and foods and beverages is rich and unique. The diversity in the landscape of the Himalaya is enormous and spectacular. From the river valleys to the middle altitudes and the Greater Himalaya, the Himalaya makes panoramic landforms. The river gorges, waterfalls, rapids, rivulets, V-shaped valleys, U-shaped valleys, hanging valleys, and cirques are the major landforms in the Himalaya. The alpine pasturelands are panoramic that remain snow-capped for almost 6 months in the year. These pasturelands are well known for growing medicinal plants naturally. World-famous India’s highland shrines are
Fig. 1.1 Altitudes, the major rivers, and districts of the Central Himalaya. (Source: By Author)
4
1 Introduction
situated in these alpine pasturelands, where thousands of pilgrims visit during the pilgrimage season. The river valley terraces and the arable lands of the middle altitudes provide suitability for sustainable farming systems. In many areas, the altitude rises abruptly within a short distance. For instance, Dehradun city is located in the stretch of Doon Valley at a 600 m average altitude. Within 30 km of spatial distance, Mussoorie town is located at 2000 m altitude. The same example can be given for Kathgodam and Nainital towns. The distance and the altitude of both places are similar to that of Dehradun and Mussoorie. The climatic diversity is very high (Kumar and Sati 2023; Sati 2019). In some places, the climate is very harsh and in others, it is pleasant. The Himalaya comprises all types of climate – subtropical, temperate, cold, and frigid cold. The variability in climate is high and varies from summer to winter. The Greater Himalaya remains snow-capped throughout the year. The highlands and the alpine pasturelands have two seasons – frigid cold during the winter and cold during the summer. In the middle altitudes, the climate is pleasant during the summer. When the Ganges valley faces heat waves, the middle altitudes remain cool and thus, the tourists visit the resorts of the middle altitudes. In the Doon Valley, the temperature accedes to >40 °C in the summer whereas in the Niti and Mana valleys, the temperature is often −0 °C during the same time. The variability in rainfall is also high. The windward and leeward direction of the slopes regulates the amount of rainfall. While Karnprayag receives high rainfall during the monsoon, Chamoli town within 40 km faces rain scarcity due to its location in the rain shadow region. The Mandal village is located 14 km from Chamoli town and receives the highest rain in the Central Himalaya (>2400 m annual average). This village is known as the ‘Cherrapunji of the Central Himalaya’. The Central Himalaya is rich in biodiversity (Sati 2023a, b). It is one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world. Biodiversity varies according to altitude and climate. The rich biodiversity can be seen at different altitudes from 200 m up to 3400 m. At the plain regions, Doon Valley, and Shivalik Hills, the deciduous forests are found up to 800 m with rich biodiversity (UEPPCB 2004; Sati 2006, 2019). Pine forests are distributed between 800 m and 1600 m. Pine is a single species. The rich biodiversity is found in the mixed-oak forests between 1600 m and 2200 m. It comprises oak, Tilonj, Kafal, and Burans (rhododendron). These are economically viable forests. Between 2200 m and 2800 m, coniferous forests are distributed with rich biodiversity. The main species are deodar, cedar, fir, spruce, and small bamboo (Sati and Bandooni 2019). These forests have very high economic viability. However, these are the most unutilized forests because of their remoteness. Alpine pasturelands are located from 2800 m to 3400 m or between the tree line and snow line, rich in medicinal plants and flowers. The altitudinal zonation of forests with rich biodiversity makes the forest landscape beautiful. Faunal diversity is equally rich in the Central Himalaya. There are many faunal species. These have habitats in different altitudinal zones. Giant elephants, tigers, leopards, snow leopards, lions, dears, endangered musk dears, wild bears, wild pigs, reindeer, and hundreds of varieties of birds are found in the Central Himalayan region (Saxena et al. 2001).
1.2 The Central Himalaya
5
The agro-biodiversity is rich. There are mono-cropping, multi-cropping, irrigated, and rainfed farming systems (Kumar et al. 2003; Joshi et al. 2004, 2005; Pingali 2004). In agriculture, food grains, pulses, and oilseeds are grown. Tropical, subtropical, temperate, nut, and stone fruits are grown largely in different altitudinal zones (Government of India 2003). Vegetable farming is practiced. A variety of vegetables are grown. Onion, tomato, potato, beans, leafy vegetables, eggplants, cucumber, pumpkin, bottle guard, snack guard, and bitter guard are the major vegetable crops of the Central Himalaya (Sati 2022, 2019, 2018a, b). The agro-diversity increases with increasing altitudes (Sati 2004, 2005, 2009, 2018a, b). In the highland areas, 12 crops are grown in a single farmland, which is known as the ‘Barahnaja system’. The soil texture and colour are diverse. In the river valleys, plain regions, and the Doon Valley, alluvium soil is found, which is fertile. In the mountainous region, the soil colour is red. It is hilly soil. Owing to the high slope gradient and heavy rainfall, the upper soil is eroded during the monsoon season, the rate of soil erosion is high and consequently, the soil fertility is low. Colluvial soil is made by the glacier- eroded and deposited soils, found in the highland areas, mainly below the glaciers. There is a rich diversity in the livestock population. Cows, buffaloes, oxen, goats, sheep, lambs, and horses are reared according to the altitudes. Among cattle, Badri Cow is reared. Improved species of cow and buffalo are reared in the river valleys and plain regions. Goats, sheep, lambs, and horses are reared in the highlands by nomads and tribal communities. These communities migrate seasonally with their animals in the highlands during the summer and they come back to the lowlands during the winter. The rich and varied culture and customs shape the lifestyle of the people of the Central Himalaya. The cultures, customs, rituals, fairs, and festivals vary according to the altitudes, landscapes, and social structure. People perform different cultures, customs, and rituals accordingly. In the river valleys, plain regions, and urban areas, the waves of modern culture have influenced societies greatly. These areas are well connected by the means of transportation and communications. Further, the tourists and pilgrims coming from the Indian sub-continent and abroad are interacting with the local people and influence them significantly. On the other hand, people living in the highlands and remote areas are isolated and their way of life is traditional. The food habit, beverages, clothing, and languages vary horizontally and vertically. The traditional food system, which is called ‘Pahari Food’, is very popular in the middle and higher regions. The millets and pulses, having high nutritional value, are the staple food. Owing to the cold climate, the meat of goat, sheep, and lamb is common among the highland people. The male population consumes alcohol and tobacco products. Tobacco is also consumed by old women. In the valley regions, rice and wheat-made food items are prominent. Wearing woolen clothing is essential in the highland regions, where the climate is very cold. In the river valleys, the main clothes are Kurta and Pajama for men and women, it is black Chadar and Salwar Kurta. There are many dialects spoken. Among them, the main dialects are Kumauni, Garhwali, and Jaunsari. Further, the dialects are changing as per the drainage basins.
6
1 Introduction
The Central Himalaya is known as the ‘Land of Gods and Goddesses’. People worship Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, Goddess Shakti, and other folk deities. The followers of Lord Shiva and Shakti are known as Shaiv and the followers of Lord Vishnu are called Vaishnav. Food habit varies according to the belief of people. The followers of Shiva and Shakti are mainly non-vegetarian and the Vaishnavs are vegetarian. People celebrate colourful fairs and festivals every month of the year. Dev/Devi Naach, Dev Avataran, Vaisakhi, Ganga Dussehra, Uttarayani Mela, Magh Mela, Ghee Sankranti, Rai Sankranti, Shravan’s Baisi, and opening and closing ceremonies of the highland shrines are unique and the main festivals. The highland and river valley shrines, mainly the four highland and two river valley pilgrimages, have a prominent place in the Central Himalaya. Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri, the highland shrines, and Rishikesh and Haridwar, the valley pilgrimages, are the centres of belief and attainment of Moksha (Salvation). There are a few shrines of Sikh, Jain, and Buddhist, located in the Himalaya. Diversity in natural locales and cultural places is immense. Diversity in the social system is unique. Society is divided into caste systems. Brahmins, Rajputs, Scheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribes inhabit the Central Himalaya and show unity in diversity. The social system shows the hierarchy in the society like Brahmins belong to the privileged class, although there is complete harmony in the society. The Brahmins are involved in chanting, serving temples, and performing rituals, and Rajputs are serving the national army. The Scheduled Tribes are involved in rearing animals mainly goats, sheep, and lambs, in the highlands and forest areas. The Scheduled Castes are serving society in various ways. They play drums on various auspicious occasions and work as landless labours.
1.3 Objectives and Methodology The main objective of this study is to elucidate the natural and cultural diversity in the Himalaya. It presents the overall picture of diversity in natural and cultural realms. This study is concentrated on the Central Himalayan region, which is an integral part of the Himalaya. It is empirically tested and a qualitative study. Based on the collection of primary and secondary data, the study also uses long and deep observations of the region. The author visited the entire Central Himalayan region several times. He participated in various cultural activities and conducted many studies on the natural and cultural aspects of the Central Himalaya. The book is divided into two parts – natural and cultural diversity. It comprises a total of 10 chapters including the introduction and conclusions. A total of four core chapters describe natural diversity and four other chapters deal with cultural diversity. Natural diversity comprises landforms, climate, biodiversity, and agro-biodiversity. Similarly, social systems, cultures and customs, fairs and festivals, and diversity in all walks of life, are the parts of cultural diversity.
1.4 Organisation of the Study
7
1.4 Organisation of the Study The introduction presents a complete picture of natural and cultural diversity in the Central Himalaya. This empirical study is supported by the works carried out by other scholars. It includes the objectives of the study and methodology and a brief note on all chapters. The rich diversity of landforms in the Central Himalaya is presented. It comprises both vertical and horizontal landforms. The description of the landforms of the plain regions, Doon Valley, river valleys, middle altitudes, highlands, alpine pasturelands, and the Greater Himalaya is precisely given. River gorges, waterfalls, rapids, streams, potholes, V-shaped valleys, U-shaped valleys, and Hanging valleys are described. This study is supported by illustrations of various landforms and diagrams. How the diversity in landforms is changing, from the valleys to the Greater Himalaya, has been illustrated. The climate of the Central Himalaya varies because of its altitudinal and latitudinal extensions. In this chapter, the climatic conditions – temperature, rainfall, and humidity of all the climatic zones – sub-tropical, temperate, cold, and frigid cold are presented. Further, the major climatic seasons (three major and six minor) are illustrated along the different climatic zones. It also describes the other factors – slope aspects, leeward, and windward direction of landscapes, which are affecting the climate of the region. The chapter is supported by diagrams, graphs, and tables. The Central Himalaya is considered one of the global biodiversity hotspots. Here, many floral and faunal species are found. Biodiversity varies according to climate and altitude. It has five vertical floral zones – sub-tropical deciduous forests in the plain regions and the river valleys, middle altitudes sub-tropical pine forests, temperate mixed-oak forests in the lower altitudes, temperate coniferous forests in the higher altitudes, and the alpine pasturelands. Similarly, the faunal diversity varies from the river valleys to the high altitudes. In this chapter, a detailed discussion of the floral and faunal diversity is carried out. Diagrams, graphs, and illustrations are presented. Agro-biodiversity comprises diversity in crop races/cultivars – agriculture and horticulture. Agricultural diversity is further divided into food grains, pulses, and oilseeds. Horticulture includes fruits – tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, nut, and stone; and varieties of vegetables. Agro-biodiversity in the Central Himalaya is elaborated broadly in this chapter with the support of illustrations. Further, a variety of wild fruits grows naturally, which are described in detail. A diagram was prepared and shown. The social system of the Central Himalaya is very peculiar and unique. The society is divided into various castes – Brahmins, Rajputs, Scheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribes. These castes are further divided into many sub-castes. The Brahmins are involved in practicing and preserving the traditional culture, the Rajputs are serving the national army, the Scheduled Castes perform during the fairs and festivals and playing drums, and serve in the agricultural fields as landless labour, and the Scheduled Tribes have habitats in the highland forest areas and they are rearing livestock. In this chapter, the social systems and castes have been described broadly. A detailed description of the cultures, customs, and rituals, the people perform, has been carried out. The culture and customs are rich; vary from the Garhwal Himalaya to the
8
1 Introduction
Kumaon Himalaya and the Jaunsar region. These also vary from one micro-cultural region to another. In this chapter, a brief description of the cultures and customs of all regions – Garhwal, Kumaon, and Jaunsar, are presented. The Central Himalaya celebrates many fairs and festivals every month and with changing seasons. People worship trees, mountains, water, land, food, folk deities, and animals. In this chapter, all the fairs and festivals are described, which are only celebrated in the Central Himalayan region. There is a day to month-long festivals celebrated. Cultural processions of folk deities are carried on when the devotees move from one village to another with the idols of folk deities. The fairs and festivals coexisted with the nature and culture of the central Himalaya. Diversity in all walks of life is the beauty of the Himalaya. There are peculiar musical instruments, folklore – folk songs and folk dances, traditional ornaments, and folk deities. Traditional dresses are varied from the valleys to the highlands based on the climate. Owing to the cold climate, people wear warm traditional clothe called Pakhula whereas the youth in the valleys and middle altitudes wear Kurta and Pajama. Food and beverages are diverse as per the climate and altitude. Himalaya is a unique symbiosis of nature and culture. In this chapter, the symbiosis of nature and culture is described. It has been described how nature influences culture and how culture impacts human activities. The summary of all chapters is also given in this chapter.
References English R (1985) Himalayan state formation and the impact of British rule in the nineteenth century. Mt Res Dev 5(1):61–78 FAO (2016) Mountain culture, celebrating diversity and strengthening identity. Food and Agricultural Organisation, Rome Government of India (2003) Indian economic survey: 2002–2003. Akalank Publications, New Delhi Guillet D (1983) Toward a cultural ecology of mountains: the Central Andes and the Himalayas compared. Curr Anthropol 24(5):561–574 Joshi PK, Gulati A, Birthal PS, Rao P (2004) Agricultural diversification and vertical integration in India: will smallholders participate? MTID. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC. (Memio) Joshi PK, Gulati A, Birthal PS, Tewari L (2005) Agricultural diversification in South Asia: patterns, determinants and policy implications. Econ Polit Wkly 39(24):2457–2468 Kumar S, Sati VP (2023) Highland-lowland interaction in mountain regions: a study of changing patterns among Bhotiya tribes of Garhwal Himalaya. Hum Geogr 17(1):87–105; https://doi. org/10.5719/hgeo.2023.171.5 Kumar P, Mruthyunjaya, Birthal PS (2003) Changing consumption pattern in South Asia. Paper presented in the International Workshop on Agricultural diversification and vertical integration in South Asia organized by FICCI-ICRISATIFPRI, 5–6 Nov 2003, New Delhi Orlove BS, David WG (1985) Theoretical and methodological considerations on the study of mountain peoples: reflections on the idea of subsistence type and the role of history in human ecology. Mt Res Dev 5(1):3–18 Paranjpye V (1988) Evaluating the Tehri dam: an extended cost-benefit appraisal. In: DETACH, studies in ecology and sustainable development. Indraprastha Press, New Delhi Pingali PL (2004) Agricultural diversification: opportunities and constraints. FAO Rice conference. Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations, Rome, Italy, 12–13 Feb 2004
References
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Rhoades RE, Thompson S (1975) Adaptive strategies in alpine environments: beyond ecological particularism. Am Ethnol 2(3):535–551 Sati VP (2004) Systems of agricultural farming in the Uttaranchal Himalaya, India. J Mt Sci 2(1):76–85. ISSN: 1993-0321 (Impact Factor 1.423) Sati VP (2005) Vertical zonation of horticultural farming in the Alaknanda Basin of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Mt Sci 2(4):319–328. ISSN: 1993-0321 (Impact Factor 1.423) Sati VP (2006) Forest resource management in mountain regions: a case for the Pindar Basin of Uttaranchal Himalaya. Lyonia J Ecol Appl 11(1):75–84 Sati VP (2009) Conservation of agro-biodiversity through traditionally cultivating ‘Barahnaja’ in the Garhwal Himalaya. MF Bull IX(2). www.mtnforum.org, ISSN: 1815-2139 Sati VP (2018a) Crop productivity and suitability analysis for land use planning in Himalayan ecosystem of Uttarakhand, India. Curr Sci 115(4):767–772. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v115/ i4/767-772. ISSN: 0011-3891 Sati VP (2018b) Patterns and progress in horticultural farming in rural areas of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Indian J Hill Farming Special Issue(October):15–22 Sati VP (2019) Himalaya on the threshold of change. Springer International Publishers, Cham, ISBN 978-3-030-14179-0, p. 250, Advances in Global Change Research series, Scopus Indexed Sati VP (2022) The typology and agro-climatic zones of fruit cultivation in Uttarakhand Himalaya. Indian J Hill Farming, A ICAR Publications 35(1):1–10 Sati VP (2023a) Sustainable forest management in the Himalaya. Springer, Cham, ISBN: 978-3-031-21935-1 Sati VP (2023b) Declining agricultural in Garhwal Himalaya: major drivers and implications. Cogent Soc Sci 9(1):1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2167571 Sati VP, Bandooni S (2019) Farmer vulnerability to agricultural risks in the Indian Central Himalayan region. ENVIS Bull Himalayan Ecol 27:102–110 Saxena KG, Rao KS, Sen KK, Maikhuri RK, Semwal RL (2001) Conserv Ecol 5:14, online http://www.consecol.org/vol15/iss2/art14 Shiva V (1988) Staying alive: women, ecology and survival in India. Kali for Women, New Delhi UEPPCB (2004) State of environment report for Uttaranchal. Uttaranchal Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Board, Government of Uttaranchal, Dehradun
Part I
Natural Diversity
Chapter 2
Diversity in Landforms
Abstract The rich diversity in landforms is presented in the Second Chapter. It includes both vertical and horizontal landforms. The description of the landforms of the plain regions, Doon Valley, river valleys, middle altitudes, highlands, alpine pasturelands, and the Greater Himalaya is precisely given. River gorges, waterfalls, rapids, streams, potholes, V-shaped valleys, U-shaped valleys, and Hanging valleys are described. This study is supported by illustrations of various landforms and diagrams. How the diversity in landforms is changing, from the valleys to the Greater Himalaya, has been illustrated. Keywords River valleys · Shivalik Hills · Middle Himalaya · Alpine pastureland · Greater Himalaya
2.1 Introduction The formation of the Himalaya was due to the collision of two plates – the Indian Plate in the south and Sino-Siberian Plate in the north. In the middle of these two plates was lying a water body, called Tethys geosynclines, which was a long, shallow, and narrow water body. It was fed by the big rivers. With the collision in the Tethys geosynclines, the Himalaya came into force. It has three horizontal and five vertical divisions with high diversity. The Central Himalaya, located in the centre of the Indian Himalayan region, obtains unique and varied landforms. The Central Himalaya possesses a rich diversity of landforms. Its 93% of the geographical area is called the mountainous mainland. Of which, approximately 16% area is snow-capped. It has three-dimensional landscapes, which have further been divided into six major landforms. The plain regions include Tarai, Bhabhar, Doon Valley, and Dwar region (3400 m) make it highly diversified (Fig. 2.1) and spectacular. This chapter describes all landforms of the Central Himalaya in detail. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. P. Sati, Natural and Cultural Diversity in the Himalaya, SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39363-1_2
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14
2 Diversity in Landforms
Greater Himalaya >3400 m
Alpine Pasturelands 2800-3400 m Highlands 2000 to 2800 m Middle Altitudes 800-2000 m Shivalik Hills 400-800 m Plain Tracts & River Valleys 2500 m. The three districts – Chamoli, Uttarkashi, and Pithoragarh possess a large geographical area under perpetual snow-capped mountains, therefore, these districts have the highest highland lakes. Among them, the highest highland lakes are located in the Chamoli district (15), followed by Uttarkashi (12) and Pithoragarh (11) districts. Part of the Tehri and Rudraprayag districts also have snow-capped areas, therefore, these two districts have a few number of highland perennial lakes. Tehri has seven lakes and Rudraprayag has three highland perennial lakes (Table 2.3). The valley lakes are located 2500 m) District Chamoli
Name of lakes (total) Bedni Kund, Roopkund, Homkund, Bhekal Tal, Brahma Tal, Hemkund Sahib, Bara Dhara Sem Complex, Satopanth, Tara Tal Complex, Dev Tal (Shahi Kund), Dooth Tal, Raat Pathar Tal, Vasudhara Tal Complx, Gyaldhung Tal, Nandi Kund (15) Rudraprayag Chaurabari Tal, Basuki Tal, Paiya Kund (3) Tehri Uttarkashi
Pithoragarh
Miali Tal, Masuri Tal, Kush Kalyan Tal, Lingam Tal, Shastru Tal, Maati Tal, Lamb Tal (7) Bharadhsar, Kanasar, Gugui Kanasar, Sari Tal, Bakri Tal, Kama Tal, Manera Tal, Maldharu Tal, Ruinsara Tal, Bali Kind, Saptrishi Kund, Dodi Tal (12) Khera Tal West, Khera Tal East, Sat Tal, Kedar Tal, Chipla/Kedar Kund, Kakrauli/Asura Kund, Patauti Kund, Gauri Kund, Parvati Knd, Hardeo Kund, Thamri Tal (11)
Altitude (m) 3000– 6000
3000– 5000 3000– 5000 3000– 5000 2800– 5000
Source: Forest Statistical Book (2017) Table 2.4 Valley lakes (3400 m (Fig. 3.1). The micro-climatic zones vary from one drainage basin to another and they have uniqueness.
Fig. 3.1 Diversity in climate: major climatic zones in the Central Himalaya. (Source: By Author)
3.2 Climatic Zones
27
3.2.1 Sub-tropical Climate The sub-tropical climate zone lies 3000 m). (Photo: By Author)
Fig. 4.8 Brahma Kamal, blossoms in a few alpine pasturelands of the Central Himalaya. (Photo: By Author)
4 Biodiversity
4.3 Faunal Diversity
43
4.3 Faunal Diversity The Central Himalaya provides habitat to a variety of faunal species, such as birds, mammals, and reptiles. As per the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), Northern Regional Centre, Dehradun, a total of 3748 species of fauna are found in the Central Himalaya. These species belong to 1848 genera and 427 families (vertebrate and invertebrate). There are a total of 102 species of mammals (25% of India’s total), 743 species of birds (60% of India’s avifauna), 72 species of reptiles (15% of India’s reptile population), and about 439 species of butterfly. A total of 43% of avian species are endangered. Fish constitutes a total of 132 species (7.5% are endangered). Avifauna is abundantly found in the Central Himalaya. The wetlands of the Himalayan ecosystem support avifauna habitats. Now, some of the species of avifauna are endangered, such as the Himalayan Monal, Mask dear, and reindeer (Fig. 4.9).
Fig. 4.9 (a) Himalayan Monal (b) Reindeer (c) Musk deer (d) Leopard. (Photo: By Author)
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4.4 Domestic Animals The livestock census 2019 shows that the total population of livestock in the state was 96.78 lakh. Out of which, 50.18% was the poultry population. The cattle population was 18.52% and the goat was 13.71%. Buffalo, sheep, horses, pigs, and yak were other domestic animals (Table 4.2). The Central Himalaya obtains 0.96% cattle, 0.79% buffaloes, 0.38% sheep, 0.92% goats, 0.20% pigs, and 0.59% poultry on the country average. Cattle are reared in the valley regions and middle altitudes and goats, sheep, and lambs are reared in the highlands. There has been a significant increase in the population of crossbred cattle and a decrease in indigenous cattle, buffaloes, and sheep populations. Overall, the total population of cattle has decreased. The increase in cross-breed and poultry populations reflects the direct influence of the Breed Improvement Programs being carried out. Further, the goat population significantly increased. The climatic conditions in the highlands are quite suitable for rearing goats, sheep, and lambs. The tribal community, mainly Bhotiyas and Jadhs, rear them largely for running their livelihoods. Along with rearing goats, sheep, and lambs, they rear cattle, which are used for milk and ploughing agricultural fields (Fig. 4.10).
4.5 Conclusions The Central Himalaya houses many floral species and obtains rich forest diversity, which ranges from sub-tropical moist and dry deciduous forests to sub-tropical pine, Himalayan dry and moist temperate forests, moist and dry alpine forests, and plantation forests. Scrubs and bushes are also found in between the forests at all altitudes. Climate, altitude, slope aspects, terrain, and vicinity of the Great Himalayan Ranges affect the forest diversity and distribution. Some endemic and some endangered species are also found here. Among forest species, 36 types of Table 4.2 Livestock Demography in 2019
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Species Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Horse Pig Yak Poultry
Population (in Lakh) 18.52 8.66 2.84 13.71 0.34 0.17 2.36 50.18
Source: Livestock demography survey in 2019, Government of Uttarakhand, Dehradun
4.5 Conclusions
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Fig. 4.10 (a) Goats are reared in the highlands (b) a woman with cattle taking them for rearing. (Photo: By Author)
trees grow, spanning over a 24,762 km2 area. Every district has >40% forest cover and >60% forest area. The mountainous districts, which are located close to the Himalaya, have less forest cover and area. On the other hand, the areas in the middle altitudes and valley regions have high forest cover. The vertical distribution of forests is unique. They are distributed from 3000 m. The forest types vary accordingly. The monsoon deciduous forest in the plain and valley regions and the
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pine forests in the sub-tropical regions are distributed in the middle altitudes. The mixed-oak and coniferous forests in the temperate region and the alpine pasturelands in the cold regions make the vertical distribution of forests unique. The highest forest cover is spanning between 1000 m to 2000 m and the lowest forest cover lies >4000 m. The area >4000 m remains snow-capped and thus, the forest cover is just negligible. It shows that the Central Himalaya has rich forest diversity.
References Chapin FS, Walker BH, Hobbs RJ, Hopper DU, Lawton JH, Sola DE, Tilman D (1997) Biotic control over the functioning of the ecosystem. Science 277:500–504 Dhar U, Rawal RS, Samant SS (1997) Structural diversity and representativeness of forest vegetation in a protected area of Kumaun Himalaya, India: implications for conservation. Biodivers Conserv 6(8):1045–1062 FSI (2019) Forest Survey of India’s report. Dehradun, Uttarakhand IUCN (2003) IUCN red list of threatened species. IUCN, Glands Khan SM, Page SE, Ahmad H, Harper DM (2013) Sustainable utilization and conservation of plant biodiversity in montane ecosystems: the Western Himalayas as a case study. Ann Bot 112(3):479–501 Khera N, Kumar A, Ram J, Tewari A (2001) Plant biodiversity assessment in relation to disturbances in mid-elevational forest of Central Himalaya, India. Trop Ecol 42:83–95 Kumar A (2000) Plant biodiversity in forests of middle Central Himalaya in relation to various disturbances. Ph.D. Thesis, Kumaun University, Nainital Samant SS (1998) Diversity, distribution, and conservation of fodder resource of west Himalaya, India. In: Misri B (ed) Proceedings of the Third Temperate Pasture and Fodder Network (TAPAFON). Pokhara/Rome, FAO, pp 109–128 Samant SS, Dhar U (1997) Diversity, endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya. Int J Sust Dev World 4:179–191 Samant SS, Palni LMS (2000) Diversity, distribution, and indigenous uses of essential oil-yielding plants of Indian Himalayan Region. J Med Aromat Plant Sci 22:671–684 Samant SS, Pant S (2003) Diversity, distribution pattern and traditional knowledge of Sacred Plants in Indian Himalayan Region. Indian J For 26(3):201–213 Samant SS, Dhar U, Palni LMS (1998) Medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya: diversity distribution potential values. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital Sati VP (2006) Forest resource management in mountain regions: a case for the Pindar Basin of Uttaranchal Himalaya. Lyonia J Ecol Appl 11(1):75–84, ISSN: 0888-9619 Sati VP (2017) An assessment of forest cover changes in the Indian Himalayan region. ENVIS Bull Himal Ecol 25:66–74 Sati VP (2020) Vertical and horizontal distribution of forests in Uttarakhand Himalaya: a geographical analysis. Turkish J For Sci 4(2):229–244 Sati VP (2021) Forests’ management for sustainable livelihoods in the Himalaya: a review of existing literature. In: Shit PK, Pourghasemi HR, Adhikary PP, Bhunia GS, Sati VP (eds) . Elsevier, Forest resources resilience and conflicts, pp 321–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978- 0-12-822931-6.00025-3 Sati VP (2023) Sustainable forest management in the Himalaya. Springer, Cham, ISBN: 978-3-031-21935-1 Sati VP, Song C (2012) Estimation of forest biomass flow in the Montane mainland of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Int J For Soil Erosion 2(1):1–7, ISSN: 2251-6387 Schulze ED, Mooney HA (1993) Diversity and ecosystem function. Springer, Berlin
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Silori CS (2001) Status and distribution of anthropogenic pressure in the buffer zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in western Himalaya, India. Biodivers Conserv 10(7):1113–1130 Singh JS (2006) Sustainable development of the Indian Himalayan region: linking ecological and economic concerns. Curr Sci 90(6):784–788 Singh JS, Singh SP (1992) Forests of Himalaya: structure, functioning, and impact of man. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital
Chapter 5
Agro-biodiversity
Abstract Agro-biodiversity comprises diversity in crop races/cultivars – agriculture and horticulture. Agricultural diversity is further divided into food grains, pulses, and oilseeds. Horticulture includes fruits – tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, nut, and stone; and varieties of vegetables. Agro-biodiversity in the Central Himalaya is elaborated broadly in this chapter with the support of illustrations. Further, a variety of wild fruits grows naturally, which are described in detail. Keywords Agro-diversity · Crop races · Agriculture · Horticulture · Barahnaja
5.1 Introduction The Central Himalayan region has rich agro-biodiversity. It varies from sub- tropical agro-climate to temperate and cold. A variety of crop races/cultivars are grown in all the agro-climatic zones (Sati and Rawat 1993; Sati 1993a, b, 2007, 2010, 2012, 2013). Two major farming systems prevail – agriculture and horticulture. Agriculture includes food grains, pulses, and oilseeds, whereas, horticulture comprises the cultivation of fruits and vegetables. The fruits are grown as per the climate and altitudes. Aside from it, medicinal plants grow in the highlands and the alpine grasslands. Paddy and wheat are grown as mono-crops in the river valleys and the middle altitudes and the higher altitudes, multi-crops are grown. The practice of growing Barahnaja (12 grains grown in a single cropland) is the intercropping system of rain-fed hill farming, which has been practiced for time immemorial. The Barahnaja includes millets, pulses, and oilseeds (Sati 2009a, b). Barahnaja is conserved by the practice of crop rotation (Sati, 1993a, b, 2009a, b). In the past, millets were the staple food, however, now, paddy and wheat have replaced millets. Fruit types vary from tropical to sub-tropical and temperate (Sati 1993a, b, 2017). The climate is suitable for growing all varieties of citrus fruits – lemon, orange, malta, elephant citrus, and Galgal, temperate fruits – apple, peach, pear, plum, apricot, walnut, and almond. Mango, guava, papaya, and litchi are
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. P. Sati, Natural and Cultural Diversity in the Himalaya, SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39363-1_5
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Fig. 5.1 Agro-biodiversity in the Central Himalaya. (Source: By Author)
grown in the valley regions. Vegetables are grown in all agro-climatic zones. A large arable land is rain-fed and crop diversity is rich in the rain-fed areas mainly in the highlands. Several spices also grow in different climatic zones. A variety of wild fruits are grown in tropical and temperate climate zones. The suitable agrobiodiversity with crop races/cultivars grow under each climatic zone is described (Fig. 5.1).
5.2 Agricultural Diversity The crops under agriculture include food grains, pulses, and oilseeds (Table 5.1). The principal food grain crops are paddy, wheat, barley, maize, and millet (4 races). A variety of pulses are grown, which include Urd, Moong, Gram, Naurangi, Bhatt, Soya Been, and Rajma. Finally, Til, Bhangzira, and mustard are the principal oilseeds of the Central Himalaya. The Central Himalaya obtains hundreds of crop cultivars/races. Here, Barahnaja (12 grains) grow in a single cropland.
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Table 5.1 Crops, growing areas, and climatic zones S. No. Major crops 1. Paddy
2.
Wheat
3.
Barley
4.
Millets – Sava, Kodo, Koni, and Jhangora Pulses – Urd, Moong, Gram, Peas, Gahat, Rajma, Naurangi, Bhatt, and Soya been Oilseeds – Til, Bhangira, and Mustard
5.
6.
Growing areas (altitude m) Plain region and river valleys (irrigated), middle altitudes (rain-fed) 200–1600 m Plain region and river valleys (irrigated), middle altitudes, and the highlands (rain-fed) 200–2000 m Middle altitudes (rain-fed) 800–1800 m Middle and higher altitudes (rain-fed) 800–2200 m Middle and higher altitudes (rain-fed) 800–2200 m All altitudes (rain-fed)
Climatic zones Sub-tropical
Sub-tropical, and temperate Sub-tropical Sub-tropical, and temperate Sub-tropical, and temperate Sub-tropical, temperate, and cold
Source: Compiled by Author
Fig. 5.2 (a) Paddy grows in irrigated areas (b) rain-fed terraced fields. (Photo: By Author)
5.2.1 Paddy Paddy crop is both irrigated and rainfed. In the river valleys, paddy is irrigated as ample water is available (Fig. 5.2a) and it is mono-crop. In the middle-altitude and highlands, it is rainfed (Fig. 5.2b). Koni and Jhangora (two millets) are grown along with Paddy in the highlands. In the river valleys, a small area is devoted to its cultivation. The highest arable land under paddy crop is found in the middle altitudes and the paddy is grown traditionally. In the plain region, Basmati rice is grown.
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Fig. 5.3 Paddy grows in plain region, river valleys, and middle altitudes as mono-crop. (Photo: By Author)
The production and yield of paddy is the highest in plain region mainly in the Doon Valley and the Tarai region where irrigation facility is ample and high quality and quantity of paddy is grown (Fig. 5.3). The production and productivity of paddy is low in the middle altitude.
5.2.2 Wheat and Barley Wheat is generally a mono-crop. However, seldom mustard is grown with it in a few areas. The seeds are sown in November–December and the crop is harvested from April to June depending upon the climate and altitude of the wheat growing areas. Recently, the wheat has become the staple food. Barley is grown along with wheat but separately. It was the major crop in the past whereas currently, its area and production have decreased largely.
5.2.3 Millets Millets are multigrain crops grown in the middle altitudes and in the highlands. The crop diversity in millets is rich. Many crop races/cultivars are grown in single cropland (Fig. 5.4). Millets are rich in nutrients. In the past, millets were the staple food in rural areas. These were known as the poor people’s food. However, recently, knowing the rich nutrients in millet, the crop products are consumed by all sections of people and the market value of millet is high.
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Fig. 5.4 (a) Millets (b) multi-cropping, Barahnaja – 12 crops grow in a single crop field. (Photo: By Author)
Fig. 5.5 (a) Chaulai (Ramdana) field (b) Chaulai is ready to harvest. (Photo: By Author)
5.2.4 Chaulai Chaulai, also known as Ramdana (Amaranths) is the major crop of the highland, grown during the summer and monsoon seasons (Fig. 5.5). Its leaves are used for making curry and seeds are used for making several food items. The sweet of Chaulai seeds is very tasty and it has high nutrients. The pulses and oilseed are largely grown in all altitudes with high quality and quantity. The pulses have many races/cultivars such as Urd, gram, Moong, Kulthi (Gahat), Peas, Rajma, Naurangi, Bhatt, and Soya been. Among oilseeds, mustard, til, and Bhanjeera are the major crops.
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Table 5.2 Major fruits grow in different climatic zones S. No. Major crops 1. Tropical fruits – mango, guava, papaya, and litchi 2.
3. 4.
Sub-tropical: citrus fruits – orange, malta, lemon, elephant citrus, and galgal Temperate – apple, pear, plum, peach, and stone fruits Nut fruits – walnut, apricot, and almond
Growing areas (altitude m) Plain region, Doon and Dwar, and River valleys (