Modern Archaeology and its Reflection in the Value System of Contemporary Culture: Based on anthropological/archaeological research conducted in Australia 9780860548331, 9781407349565

Citation preview

Modem Archaeology and its Reflection in the Value System of Contemporary Culture Based on anthropological/archaeological research conducted in Australia

Boris Deunert

BAR International Series 648 1996

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 648 Modern Archaeology and its Reflection in the Value System of Contemporary Culture © Boris Deunert and the Publisher 1996 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860548331 paperback ISBN 9781407349565 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860548331 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1996. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

T om yp a r en t sa nd a l h e lpfu l s uppor t e r s

LIST OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

F igures

Page

1 .

The

ideal

interview

2 .

Truthfulness

3 .

Coastlines

4 .

Routes

5 .

Outrigger

6 .

Theories

7 .

Classification of Australian

answers

within

the

own culture

1 2

of Australia

during

the

ice

15

from

of

8

Sunda

canoe of

to

Sahul

( after Davidson

migrational

( Keaton/Sterling 8 .

Horsehoof

9 .

Results

scrapers

of

Suction effect

1 1.

Common and - 1 4

Flake

routes

1 977:122)

1935:16) ( after

stone

Flood

1983:78)

24

implements

1 901 : Appendix )

( Cooper

22 2 3

30

1 943:352)

32

use-wear analysis

1 0.

1 2

( Birdsell

ages

3 4 41

theorethical

model

of

application treatment

scatter patterns

49 7 5

Tables 1 .

Measurements

of

tools

manufactured

80

2 .

Measurements

of

tools

either manufactured or obtained

from Aborigines 3 .

Measurements

4 .

Results

of

of

tools

either excavated or

the microscopic

81 collected

investigation of

collected stone knifes

8 2

the 85

Photos 1

Thin

sectioning of

sandstone

2

Typical

knapping

3

Testing

the

4

Raw material

5

Typical

6 .

Anvil

7

Typical

8 .

Free-hand percussion

7 3

9 .

Refinement

7 6

1 0.

Rough tool/Preforms

7 6

1 1.

Stone

77

1 2.

Adze

location

raw material block

anvil

nose

stone knife

preform ,

69 70 70 7 2

technique

knifes

69

and scrapers produced Hammerstone

7 2 7 3

77

ACKNO WLEDG MENTS

T he re w e r e a ne no rmou sn umbe ro fp eop le t h a ts howed i n t e r e s ti nt h i s s t udy a nd w e re g l ad ly w i l l ing t o s uppor tm e i nv a r iou s w ay s . I ti sn o t my i n t en t ion t oe va lua t e t h i s s uppo r t a cco rd ing t oi t sh e lpf u lne ss o rt oa r t i f ic ia l ly c r ea t e a" t ypo logy" o ft h er e sp ec t ive p eop le t h a tb enef i t ed m e , o rde red , i . e . ,a f te rg rade o ff r iend sh ip , w a rm th o rc u tene s s e t c . . Iw ou ld l i k e t oe mpha s ize t h a tt h e a r rangemen tb e low d oes n o t r e f lec ta ny o ft h e se c r i t e r ia . Two p eop le , h oweve r , h ave t o b e m en t ioned s epa ra te ly . T hes e a r e m y d oc to ra l s up erv i so r P rof .D r .He lmu tZ ieg er ta nd my s ucces sfu l m idd lepe r son S hawn B uchanan . H e lmu t Z iege r t (P rof e sso r f o r p r e - a nd e a r ly h i s to ry a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o f H ambu rg )a g reed o n m y l ou sy p ropo sa l a nd t h e f ew u n s t ruc tu red i d ea s Ih ad f o r m y d oc to ra l t h e s is . H e p robab ly g ave h i s c onsen t b ecause o ft h e f a c t t h a t Id id n o t d o much b e t te r w i th m y m a s t e r s a nd i ts t i l l t ur n ed o u t w e l l . No t much s uppor tw a sp o s s ib le i nA u s t ra l ia , e xcep t an i ce r e commenda t ion ( wa s i tm e h e w a s t a lk ing a bou t? ) ,b u tb ack i nG e rmany h es upp l ied m ew i th e ve ry th ing n eeded . S hawn B uchanan (S tuden t a tp r e sen t )w a s m y c ompan ion t h roughou t t h e A us t ra l ian c on t inen t . N o t o n ly w a ss he as ucce s s fu li n te rv iewe r ,b u ta l so at h r iv ing p u sh s ta r te ro fo u rc a rt h a tn eve rw an t ed t or un a si ts hou ld .S he h ad t h eh ono rt ol i ve t h rough t h e mo s th o r r ib le t ime o fh e rl i f ef o rs c ience 's s ake . Ia me spec ia l ly g ra tefu lt oP h i l l ip A l ice a nd h i sl i f ec ompan ion A gne sY oung ,w ho s howed u sa r ound i n t h e A l ice S p r ing s r e g ion a nd w e r e n eve r t i r ed o fa n swe r ing o u r s ome t ime s n e rve -w ra ck ing q ues t ions . A n u nfo rge t tab le a dven tu r e w a s aw eekend i nt h e b u sh , e ven t h ough g uana s hoo t ing a nd t h e t a s te o f k anga roo b lood i sn o tq u i te a r ous ing i nt h ea u tho r sp o in to fv i ew . Ia l so w ish t ot h ank Me r iam a nd R ober ta A l ice f o r t h e i r k i ndne s s i ni n v i t ing S hawn a nd m e t ot h e i r c ommun i ty . L ena a nd J a ck C a lvanagh w e r e mo s th e lp fu l i nc onduc t ing s t one t o o le xpe r imen t s . S pec ia l t h ank s s ha l l b e d i rec ted t ot h e A runda p eop le d w e l l ing i na nd a r ound t h e T odd R ive r . T hese p eop le c om ing f r om s eve ra l d if e ren t A bo r ig ina l c ommun i t ie s i n t h e s ou ther n p a r t o f t h e N o r the rn T e r r i to ry w e r e w i l l ing a nd g l ad t oh ave t h e i rs ay a bou tt h ep r ob lem i nq ue s t ion . A newne K angke t je a neme ma rpe S an ta T e r e sa a r enheke a nd T odd R ive ra r enhe m a rpek e . A newne t h ankem e l heme a newne l e te mi l heke a pme r el ea nhe t jeke a nd k angke t je a n thu r r ea nheme . Iw ish t ot h ank P rof .D r .Robe r t B o rof sky , o fw hom Ii n ten se ly t h ough t i nA u s t ra l ia , b u t w hom In eve r w ro te . Iw ou ld l i ke t o a po log ize f o r t h a t , s i nce s ome o f t h e t h ing s h e t a ugh t m e a r e t a ken i n to c ons ide ra t ion w i th in t h et h e s is . MA R a ine r M iche l c onve r t ed p a r t s o f t h e P h .D . w r i t ten i n Wo rd f o rma t i n to Winw r i t e f o rma t a nd h e lped m ea s much a sh ec ou ld . P rof .D r .Pe t e rH iscock ,U n ive r s i ty o fD a rw in ,b u i l tm e u p i n ap ha se o ff r u s t ra t ion a bou ta dm in is t ra t ive d i ff icu l t ies . P rof .D r .V inx , U n ive r s i ty o f H ambu rg , c onduc ted t h e m ine ra log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h in sec t ioned s and s tone ,t h ough h ew as o verwo rked a nyway . T he o wne ro ft h eo ld c ame lf a rm c amp ing g round ,w h ich i sp i t iab ly c l o sed n ow ,g ave u st h ep e rm i s s ion t oc amp a lmo s tf o rf r ee ,s i nce s he s uppo r ted o u rd o ing a nd k new a bou to u rf i nanc ia l s i tua t ion . Ia me spec ia l ly i nd eb tt ot h e s t af fo ft h e TAFE c o l lege i nA l ice S p r ing s .T he f r iend l ines so ft h e s t af fi n a dm i ss ion , l i b ra ry a nd c ompu te r l a b , a nd t h e w i l l ingne s s t op rov ide m e w i th e ve ry th ing In eeded w a s e xemp la ry . Ia m g ra tefu l t o S ue , S ha ron a nd J im H a l l iday , w ho w e r e t h e s upp l ie r o fo u r d a i ly f i r ewood , t e a a nd c ook ies ,a nd f am i ly l i k ew a rm th . T he A in s ly V i l lage a dm in i s t ra t ion s ha l l b e t h anked f o r l e t t ing u s s t ay o n t h e l owe s t t a r if f a nd f o r of er ing u st h ep o s s ib i l i ty t oc onduc tf i r s ti n t er v iew s ,a l so w i th p eop le i na l coho lr ehab i l i ta t ion .

Iw ou ld l i ke t oe xp r ess m yg r a t i tude t oL ucy a nd Ma r inu s d e Wo lf , w ho a ccommoda ted u s ,f e du s , a nd s howed u sA u s t ra l ian h o sp i ta l i ty . G e ra ld ine T r iff i th a nd J ohn T a rba th b ecame o u r h one s t f r iend s a nd w e r e a lway s g ood f o r ac r i t ica l c onv e r sa t ion .T he i rg i f t , a4 0l i t e rw a te rc on ta ine r ,p robab ly s a ved o u rl i ves s eve ra l t ime s . Iw ou ld a l so l i ke t o e xp r e s s my a pp rec ia t ion t o t h e s t af f o f t h e A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu t e o f A bo r ig ina l S tud ie s a nd T o r r es S t ra i t I s lande r s f o r t h e i r k i ndne s s t om e s s w i th t h e i r m e t icu lous o rde r a nd much , m uch h e lp . T hank st oa l l t h em echan ic sw ho k ep to u rc a rr unn ing , mo s t ly w i thou ta ny c ha rge . S pec ia l t h ank s t ot h e g en iu se l ec t r ic ian Max T a t ei nT ennan tC r eek . AS w i s sc oup le ,w hose n ames Id on o te ven k now ,t owed u s ,w hen o u rc a r ' st im ing c ha in r i pped r i gh ti n t h ed e ser t ,f o rw h ich Ia mv e ry g ra t e fu l . J enn if e rT homp son ,h ea l th w o rke ri nA l ice S p r ing s s uppo r ted u sw i th a dv ice a nd u nconven t iona l h e lp . T hank y ou v e ry much . Ia mg ra tefu l t o aMao r if am i ly ,w h ich g ave u ss he l te rf o r af ew d ays a nd h e lped u st or e cove rf r om t h e l o s so fo u rc a r . T hank y ou t o D av id B lana s i , E ddy R yon , a nd a l l t h e I n t er v iewee s , w ho w i l l ing ly a n swe red o u r q ue s t ions a nd s howed i n te r e s ti nt h ep r esen tw o rk . L a s t ,b u tn o tl e a s t , Iwou ld l i ke t ot h ank m y p a ren t s , w ho s uppo r ted m e t h roughou t my e duca t ion a nd d i dt h e i rs ha re a l so i nt h is a dven tu r e .

TABLE O F CONTENTS L ist o f

I llustrations

i x

Acknowledgments

xi

T able o f

xv

c ontents

1 . I ntroduction 1 .1 O bject oriented problem

1

1 .2 Theme delineation a nd definition

2

a )

f actual

2

b )

s patial

4

C )

t emporal R esearch l evel

and h istory

5

1 .4

Evaluation o f s ources a nd t echniques u sed

7

a ) b )

The prepared and c ontinuously d eveloped or even a ltered q uestion c atalogue

7

L iterature

9

C )

The u se o f a middleperson

d )

The truthfulness o f a nswers a nd the c redibility o f

1 .5 2

4

1 .3

1 0

i nformants

1 1

I nquiry method,

construction o f the t ext

1 3

O utline o f the a rchaeological/anthropological i nterpretation o f prehistoric Australia

pre

1 770

2 .1 I ntroductory r emarks

1 4

2 .2 S unda a nd S ahul

1 4

2 .3 Derivation o f Aboriginal Australians a )

1 6

b )

c ulturally/linguistically

1 7

c )

archaeologically

1 9

2 .4

3 .

1 6

b iologically

S ettlement a nd subsistence

A )

M igrational routes

B )

F our P leistocene s ites,

C )

H uman i mpact on the e nvironment

2 4

i n Australia

2 5

their i nventory and validity

2 5 2 8

2 .5 S tone technology

2 9

2 .6 Art

3 3

S tatus o f Aboriginal people i n a c hanging s ociety

- a

brief h istory 3 .1 I ntroductory r emarks

3 6

3 .2 Traditional l ife-style

3 6

3 .3 Changes within the f irst 1 00 years o f o ccupation

3 8

3 .4 L ater changes 3 .5 Recent c hanges

3 9 - today's c onditions

3 .6 Own experiences/common v iew

4 3

3 .7 S ummary,

4 4

c onclusions

3 .8 F uturistic v iews 4 .

4 4

C ultural awareness and a ssertiveness 4 .1 B lack movement

5 .

4 0

4 6

4 .2 N ational/International work u p

4 7

4 .3 E valuation o f this movement

4 7

Approaching a n A boriginal

4 8

c ommunity

6 .

T he question c atalogue

5 0

G eneral questions

5 0

S pecific q uestions a )

7 .

8

5 0

prepared

5 1

b )

a lterations

5 1

c )

weaknesses

5 1

The outcome

- E valuation o f the

i nterviews

5 3

S pecific q uestions

5 7

S tone t ool e xperiments 8 .1

Physical p roperties o f

s tone material

8 .2 Multi-purpose s tone k nife manufacturing A )

6 8 6 8

P rimary r eduction

a )

pre manufacturing

6 8

b )

M anufacturing

7 1

p ost manufacturing

7 1

c ) B )

S econdary r eduction

a )

p re manufacturing

7 4

b )

M anufacturing

7 4

c ) C )

p ost manufacturing L ocal d ifferences

7 4

i n manufacturing process

7 8

8 .3

F laking a ttributes o f d ifferent r aw material

7 8

8 .4

T ool measurements

7 8

A )

Measurements o f tools manufactured

B )

Measurements o f tools e ither excavated o r c ollected

8 1

C )

C omparison o f r esults

8 2

8 .5 B lade u sage s tated by the Aborigines 8 .6

8 0

7 9

H igh and l ow power e xamination o f the s tone material

a )

I ntroductory r emarks

7 9

b )

T ool

8 3

C )

S ummary

8 .7

i nterpretation

E valuation o f the experiments

8 6 c onsidering the c o-

o peration a nd i nterest o f the Aborigines 9 .

5 3

General questions

8 6

Summary a nd c onclusions

8 7

1 0.

Bibliography

9 2

1 1.

Catalog

1 06

1 .I NTRODUCTION

t ob e e xpanded a nd a l te red , w h i le o b ta in ing i n -dep th k now l e dge a bou t Abo r ig ina l h i s to ry & p r eh is to ry a nd t h e i r s t and i n gi nt oday 's s oc ie ty ( s ec t ions I .a nd I I . )

1 . 1 OBJECT OR IENTED PROBLE M T he m a in p rob lem s b e ing i n ves t iga ted i nt h is t h es is c an b e p h ra sed a s f o l low s : How c an a r chaeo log is t s w o rk c l ose ly t o ge the r w i th A bor ig ina l p eop le a nd i n aw ay t h a t c an mu t u a l ly b enef i t b o th p a r t ies i n vo lved , c once rn ing t h e r e sea rch o u tcome f o r t h e s c ien t is t a nd g i v ing A bor ig ines a p roven b a se o f t h e p r eh i s tory t h ey a r e a im ing t o i d en t ify w i th , b u t a r e n o t w i l l ing t oe xp lo re i n d e ta i l t h emse lve s ?S ince t h e a u tho r o f t h i s t h es is c hose a r chaeo logy a s a ma jo r a nd a n t h ropo logy & g eog raphy a s m ino r s ub jec t s a tt h e u n ive r s i ty i n o rder t o i n ve s t iga te E u ropean p r eh is tory a nd t h e n o t ion t h a t t h is k now ledge i sa n i n teg ra l p a r t o fh i s c u l tura l a wa re n es s , h e d i d n o t u nde r s tand w hy Abor ig ina l p eop le " obv ious ly" d o n o t h ave t h e u rge t oe xp lo re t h e ir c u l tu re i n d e ta i l . Know ing t h a t s uch ac onc lus ion i si n adequa te , i fn o t p roven t h rough c a refu l ly c onduc ted r e sea rch o r ar ep resen ta t i ve g enera l i n qu i ry , at ho rough s ea rch f o r t h is s o r t o f i n fo r m a t ion w a st h e c onsequence .

T he a c tua l i n terv iew , a sw e l l a s , t h e s t one t e chno logy s ec t ion r ep resen t t h e ma in i n ves t iga t iona l t o o ls i n t h is t h es is . B o th p ar t sa r en o t t h ough tt od eve lop f a rr e a ch ing c onc lus ion s , b u t t o e xemp l ify t h e d i lemma moder n s c ience h a s t o f a ce i f w o rk ing i n af i e ld , w he r e n o t o n ly t h e e xchange o f k now l e dge b e tween t wo d i ve r se c u l tu re s i sq ues t ioned , b u t a l so c u ltu ra l a s s im i la t ion b o th w ays . T he a im o f t h ese i n ves t iga t i on s i st of i nd ap oss ib le w ay o f mu tua l ly b enef ic ia ry r e la t i ons . ( See a l so Sm i th /Br idd le 1 975 :122 ) [A s im i la r d i scus s ion o f t h e p rob lem i nq ues t ion h a s t a ken p l ace i n t h e U n i ted S t a te s c oncer n ing t h e Na t ive Amer ican a nd P o lynes ian c u l tu res a nd i sn ow s l ow ly r e ach ing t h e A us t r a l ian c on t inen t . e . g . B o rof sky 1 987 , H a rd ing 1 991 , L anca s t e r , 1 992 , L igh t foo t 1 992 , P eva r 1 992 , P ewewa rdy 1 992 , R oss 1 992 , S nyde r -Joy 1 992 ] T he c l ose c onnec t ion o ft h e i n t erv iew a nd t h e s t one t e chno l o gy s e c t ion w a s t h ough tt oe nhance t h e o u tcome o ft h e s t one t oo l e xper imen t s . T he a u tho r s u re ly h a s t oa sk h imse lf i ft h e i n s igh t h e w i l l o r w i l l n o t e xper ience a c tua l ly r ef lec t s t h e i n ter es t o f t h e Abor ig ina l p eop le t owa rd s t h e m a in p rob lem o f t h e t h es is r a the r t h an s imp ly t owa rds t h e s t one t oo l e x p er imen t s . I ti sa nyway q ues t ionab le i fs ome r e sea rch p ro j e c t s c an b enef i t A bor ig ina l p eop le a ta l a nd i ft h e r e sea rch e r s ' e f for t s a r e w an ted o rj u s t t o le ra ted . T he ma in q ues t ions a sked i nt h is p a r tc an b e p hra sed a sf o l low s :

S eve ra l p re inve s t iga t iona l s t ep s h ad t ob e t a ken , i no rde r t o i n ves t iga te t h ese p rob lems . A ma jo rp recond i t ion wa s t h e i n d ep th k now ledge o f t h e h i s tor ica l a nd u p to -da te a r chaeo l o g ica l & a n th ropo log ica l i n terp re ta t ion o f p r eh is to r ic A us t r a l ia i n c lud ing a l o the r ma jo r s c ien t if ic b ranches i n vo lved . A l though , n ume rous ma jo r w o rk s a bou t p a r t ia l a spec t s o f A u s t ra l ian p r eh i s tory e x is t , t h ey h ave n o t s ub s tan t ia l ly i n c l uded o the r s c ience b ranche s a s w a s d one i n t h is t h es is . F u r the r i n fo rma t ion , s uch a sr e f e rences t oa u tho r s a r e l o ca ted i nt h e o u t l ine . T he n eed f o r t h is p ar t icu la r r e sea rch b ecomes o bv ious w hen s e cure ly s t a tab le r e su l t s o f t oday 's s c ien t if ic r e sea rch a r e e va lua ted a nd i n corpo ra ted i n Abor ig ina l d r eam t ime s t or ies , a s w e l l a s , s uppor t ing A bor ig ina l c u l tu ra l a wa r eness a nd a s ser t iveness .

I si tp os s ib le t ou se s pec ia l s t one t o o ls a sc u l tu ra l ma rker s o r i st h i s a t temp t i n adequa t e ?D o mu l t i -pu rpose t o o ls e x is t , a nd , i fy es , a r e t h ey s u i tab le f o r f r equen t ly mov ing g roup s c once rn ing t h e i rh and l ing , manufac tur ing a nd f unc t ion ? R ep l ica t ive e xp er imen t s o f c ommon s t one t oo ls , a nd a n e va lua t ion o f t h e i r u se a nd e f f ec t iveness s ha l l e s tab l ish a b a se f o r s ubsequen t c onc lus ions . Ad e ta i led u se -wea r a na ly s i s o f s eve ra l s u r fa ce f i nd ings a nd ma ter ia l o b ta ined f r om l im i ted e xcava t ions s ha l l s uppo r t o r d eny t h e p r ev ious h y p o thes i s .

T he s e cond , b u t e qua l ly i mpo r tan t i n ves t iga t iona l s t ep w a s t h ec l a r if ica t ion o ft h e s t a tus o fA bor ig ina l p eop le i np a s ta nd p r esen t t imes , a sw e l l a s , t h e i rc u l tu ra l a wa renes s a nd i d en t i f i ca t ion w i th t h e ir own a nd f o rcefu l ly o b t ruded c u l tu r e . R e s e a rche r s i n t er e s ted i ns t udy ing A bor ig ina l c u l tur e h ave t ob e a wa re o f t h e s t a tus o f A bor ig ina l p eop le i nh i s to r ic a nd t o d ay 's Aus t ra l ian s oc ie ty i n o rde r t o u nder s tand Abo r ig ina l n eed s a nd i d eo log ica l d eve lopmen t s . S c ien t is t s , w ho t a ke t h is p r e inves t iga t iona l s t ep may b e a b le t o p red ic t t h e a bo r i g ina l i n te r es t i n h i s /he r s t ud ie s a nd t h e s uppo r t t o b e r e c e ived . A rchaeo log is t s , e spec ia l ly t h ose , w o rk ing i nt h e f i e ld o f s t one t e chno logy o r t h ose w ho a im t o i n terp re t s i ng le f i nd ing s n eed A bor ig ina l p eop le s t a t ing t h e a c tua l u se o f a t o o l . ( Fo r e xamp le , i n as pec ia l manne r ) T hese s c ien t is t s m igh t w an t t o s t ruc tu r e t h e i r r e sea rch p rog ram d if e ren t ly , i n c lud ing t h eme s o f A bor ig ina l i n teres t , b e ing d i rec ted t o w a rd s t h e m a in r e sea rch p urpo se . T h is a u tho rc hose t oe xam i n et h e Abor ig ina l i d en t if ica t ion p rob lem w i th t h e i rp a s t , a l so i n c lud ing t o day ' s l a nd c l a im p rocesses a s b e ing c l ose ly r e l a ted t ot h ep rob lems i nq ues t ion .

A ppa r en t ly t h ese d a ta w e re u nob ta inab le ( due t o l a ck o f r e f e rences ) o r v ery d if icu l t a cqu i re t h rough t h e i n ter na l l i b ra ry e xchange p rog ram o n a n i n terna t iona l l e ve l . When r e sea rch ing w i th A bo r ig ina l c u l tu r e i nE u rope o ne i n ev i tab ly h a s t o r e ly o n r e s ea r ch c onduc ted i n A us t ra l ia a nd p roce s s a nd r e co rd t h e r e su l t s s o t h a t i th a s aw es tern ized s t y le a nd a ppea rance f o r t h e c onven ience o f t h e i n te r es ted r eade r . I n fo rma t ion o b ta ined a bou t t h e a u thor s made i to bv ious t h a t t h ey w e re e i the r E u ropean , Amer ican o r A us t ra l ian o fE u ro p ean d escen t . T he d ec is ion w a s made t od o f u r the r r e sea rch i nA u s t ra l ia w i th t h e a im b e ing o ff i nd ing o u t i ft h e Abo r ig i n es w e re i n te res ted i nt h e i rc u l tu ra lh er i tage ( 1 )

T he q ues t ionna i re , w h ich w a s u sed i n t h e a c tua l i n t erv iew s hou ld n o t o n ly i n corpora te s o le ly a r chaeo log ica l q ues t ions , b u ta l so t h o se e xp l ic i t ly i n ves t iga t ing t h e Abor ig ina l i d en t if i c a t ion p rob lem . T he i n i t ia l ly p r epa red q ues t ion c a ta log h ad

( 1 ) c on s ider ing b o th t h e i r d r eam t ime s t or ies a nd t h e r e sea rch r e su l t so f moder ns c ien t is t s

1

1 . 2 THE ME DELINEAT ION AND DEF INIT ION

a nd i fe ve ry th ing t h e " wh i t e man" h ad w r i t ten w a s c or rec t , s i nce t h e Abo r ig ina l p eop le s e em n o tt oc on t rad ic ti nw r i t ing . A r r iv ing i n A us t ra l ia w i th t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e re w a s a r e sea rch g ap o r l a rge e duca t iona l d if e r ences b e tween r e s ea rcher s a nd Abor ig ines t h e a u thor w a s q u ick t ol e a rn d i f f e ren t ly e ven d ur ing t h e f i r s t w eek s o f h i s s t ay . T he o r ig i n a l ly p repa red q ues t ionna i re h ad t o b e e xpanded t o i n c lude e i the r s e lf -der ived q ues t ions o r q ues t ion s d er ived w i th t h e h e lp o f at h i rd p a r ty . ( s ee s e c t ion 1 . 4a /V Ib ) T he r e sea rch mo re a nd mo re r evo lved a r ound t h e ma in q ues t ion ; i sa r -

a )f a c tua l Modern a r chaeo logy a nd i t s r ef lec t ion i nt h e v a lue s y s tem o f c on tempo ra ry c u l tu res i n c ludes n o t o n ly t h e q ues t ion ing a nd s t udy o ft h e i n ves t iga ted c ommun i t ies , b u t a l so ac r i t ica l s e lf r ef lec t ion o f o ne 's own c u l tu ra l v a lues a nd t h e r o le o f a r c haeo logy i no ne 's o wn s oc ie ty . T he i mmense p r ide o f mod er n a r chaeo log is t s , i n c lud ing t h e a u tho r , f o r t h e v a luab le a ch ievemen t s i n t h eory a nd me thodo logy o ve r t h e l a s t 3 0 y ea r s m igh t s t and i n ah uge c on t ra s t w i th , h i ther to u nd iscov e r ed , a r cha eo log ica l i n te res t s o f t h e i n ves t iga ted e t hn ic g roup s . T he n o t ion t h a t a l t h e c u l tu re s , l i ke o u r s , w i l l b e i n teres ted i n t h e e xp l ic i t e xp lana t ion o f t h e i r p r eh is tory , c ou ld b e an a ive o ne . I gnor ing t h is c ons idera t ion , g enera t i ons o f a ma teu r a nd p ro f ess iona l r e sea rcher s w e r e e ager ly a im ing t og i ve " t hose p eop le" a h i s to ry t h ey c ou ld r e ly o n , p o in t ing o u t , t h e i r f o ref inger s r a i sed , t h a t o ne d ay t h e e x p lo red c u l tu res w i l l b e g ra tefu l f o r t h e i r d o ing . I n o rder t o p rove o rd i sp rove t h e t h eo ry t ha t A bor ig ina l p eop le a r e f u l ly c on ten t w i th t h e i r d ream t ime s t o r ies a nd t h e ir own k now l e dge , w ha t eve r o ne m igh t u nder s tand a s s uch , a bou t t h e p a s t a nd a l so t o a nswer t h e q ues t ions r a ised i n p a r t 1 . 1, b a s ic i n forma t ion a bou t t h e c onduc ted r e sea rch a nd i t s h i s tory h ad t o b e o b ta ined . T he " ou t l ine o f t h e a r chaeo log i c a l /an th ropo log ica l i n terp re ta t ion o fp reh is tor ic A us t ra l ia" a s w e l l a st h e " r esea rch l e ve l a nd h i s to ry" i st hough tn o t o n ly t o s um u p t h e r e sea rch c a r r ied o u t ( under s pec ia l c ons idera t ion o f i t s o u tcome ) , b u t a l so t ob e u sed i n a bs t rac t f o r q ues t ion No . 8i n t h e q ues t ionna i re . T he r e sea rch l e ve l a nd h i s to ry s e c t ion w i l l b e c ha rac ter ized b y a n i n s igh t fu l l o ok a t t h e c hang ing a n th ropo log ica l s e lf -und e r s tand ing w i th i t s c on v u ls ive a t temp t t o i n gen ious ly f u lf i l l n ew d emand s t owa rd s t h is b ranch o fs c ience . E spec ia l ly t h e a n thropo log is t 's r o le a s e xpe r t w i tne ss i n l a nd c l a im c our t c a ses w i l l f u r the r s how t h a t t h is d u ty d oes n o t o n ly p o l i t ica l ly i n vo lves a f o remos t " i nnocen t s c ience" ( 3 ) , b u t a l so d i v ides r e sea rcher s i n to t wo o ppos ing g roup s a nd m akes t h em i n to t h e mos t h a ted p eop le i nt h e A bor ig ines ' v i ew . T he " eva lua t ion o f t h e s ou rces a nd t e chn iques u sed" s e c t ion s ha l l a rgue a bou t t h e p ro s a nd c on s o f t h e u sefu lne s s o f a n e i ther p repa red a nd /o r a l te red q ues t i on c a ta logue . P e r sona l e xper ience a s w e l l a s t h e l i t er ary w o rk -up o f t h i s q ues t ion w i l l b e c ons ide red , i n o rder t o c hoo se t h e a pp ropr ia te q ue s t ionna i r e t o b e u sed f o r t h e i n t e rv iews . T he l i t e ra tu re u sed , t h e i r q ua l i ty , d i ve r s i ty a nd a ccess ib i l i ty , w i l l b e c r i t ica l ly a na lyzed w i th p o in t b ) o f t h e s ame s e c t ion . T h is p o in t i n c omb ina t ion w i th t h e l i t era tu re l i s t m igh t p rove t h e a u tho r s c a refu lnes s c oncer n ing h i s r e s ea rch o rg i ve r e a son t oc r i t ica l ly a r gue a bou t om is s ions . T he u se o f am idd lepe r son i s ac en t ra l p o in t i n t h e a u tho r s a p p roach o fd if e ren t c ommun i t ies a nd i nd iv idua ls . T h is p o in t s t r es ses t h eu sefu lnes s , s e lec t ion , a nd Abor ig ina ls ' p e rcep t ion ( 4 ) o f t h e m idde lpe r son a nd t h e s ubsequen t ly e n h anced o r

c haeo log ica l & a n thropo log ica l r e sea rch b o th n eeded a nd w an ted b y t h e A bor ig ines o r i si ti s maybe c onduc ted o n ly f o r t h e r e sea rcher s s e lf ish i n te res t ?M igh t i tb e t h a t t h e A bo r ig ina l g roups o r c ommun i t ies t h roughou t t h e c oun try a r e p er f ec t ly c on ten t w i th t h e i r d r eam t ime s t o r ies a nd h anded d own k now ledge o f a nces t ry a nd d escen t ?How , i f p oss ib le a t a l l , c an a r cha eo logy & a n th ropo logy s uppor t A bo r ig ina l i n teres ts ? H ow a r e a r chaeo log is t s a nd a n th ro p o log is t s p e rce ived a nd w ha t i s e xpec ted o f t h em b y t h e Abo r ig ines ? C r i t ica l ly a na lyz ing t h ese q ues t ion s , o ne b e c omes a wa re t h a t t h ese i mp l ied p rob lem s c anno t b e d ea l t w i th o n an a t iona l A us t ra l ian l e ve l ,b u th ave t ob e c on s ide red a s ap roduc t o f af a ta l d eve lopmen t i nE u ropean a nd Amer i c an r e sea rch . I n at ime w hen s oc ia l s c ience i sd i scr im ina ted i n f a vo r o f o t he r s c ien t if ic b ranches i n t e rms o f f i nanc ia l s uppor t a nd w hen p rof esso r ia l p os i t ions a r e c ance led o rb a sed o n t empo r a ry emp loymen t , t h e s t udy o f t ho se s c iences i sp urpo se ly made u na t t rac t ive t h rough t h e r equ i remen t o f h igh g r ade p o in t a ve rages a nd t h e r equ i r emen t o f n o t o n ly a d oc to ra l , b u t a l so ama s ter s a nd , i ns ome c oun t r ies , aBA Hono r s t h e s i s . A l l t h e p rom i s ing f u tu r e s c ien t is t s " enr ich" o u r l i b ra r ies o r a r ch ives w i th a no the r t h ousand b ook s , manuscr ip t s o r p amph le t s o f r ewr i t ten a nd /o r s l igh t ly a l te red b u t b a s ica l ly t h e s ame i n forma t ion ( 2 ) . I no rde rt om ee tt h er e qu i remen to f i n dependen t , a na ly t ica l r e sea rch , s t uden t s s p read o u t a l l o ve r t h e w o r ld s e ek ing t h e l a s t u nexp lo red s e c r e t s , i fp oss ib le i n c onnec t ion w i th c on tempo ra ry c u l tu res . T he mo s t h aun ted c u l tu re s eemed a nd s e ems t o b e t h e A bor ig ina l o ne . H ow , o ne m igh tt h ink , d o t h e p eop le r e ac tt owa rd s t h is f l ood ?A re t h ey s t i l l h ones t ( o r h ave t h ey e ve r b een ) i fs c ien t if ica l ly a sked i no rde r t o a nswer r e sea rch p rob lem s ?D o t h ey c a re a bou t t h e o u tcome ?I st h e r e sea rch w or th c onduc t ing ?Do r e sea rcher s h ave t h e r e spons ib i l i ty t op os i t ive ly i nf luence t h e A bor ig ines r o le a nd p e rcep t ion i ns oc ie ty ?H ow i st h i s r o le o r s t a tus o f Abor ig ina l p eop le d ef ined i n aw h i te d om ina ted s oc ie ty ? I st h e p oor r e la t ion o f Abo r ig ines a nd w h i te A us t r a l ian s s o le ly b a sed o n ac o lo r p rob lem o r i st h e c u l tu ra l c omponen t d om ina t ing ? A l l t h is i sl i ke ly t o b e a nswe r ed t h rough t h is r e sea rch .

( 3 ) S ee a l so c ommen t No . 2 4 ( 4 ) C ros s c ompa r isons w i th t h e i n ter v iew o u tcome w i thou t a m idd leman w i l lb ep rov ided

( 2 ) c ompa rab le t oa nc ien t G reek e xcava t ions , w her e a no ther 1 0 .000 s herd s a r e e xcava ted , a na lyzed , p ub l ished a nd s t o red w i thou ta ny h i s tor ica l v a lue ( Z ieger t ,D oc to ra l s em ina r 1 990 )

2

m en t s . R ep l ica t ive e xp er imen t sc onduc t ed b y o t he rr e sea rch e r s a s w e l l a s u se -wea r c on s id e ra t ion s w e re n o ted a nd w i l l a l so b e o fu se f o r e xp er imen t s c onduc t ed b y t h e a u tho r . O n t h e o ne h and , A bo r ig ina l a r t m igh t b e a n i nd ica to r o f A bo r i g ina l t e chno logy , b ehav io r a nd a n t iqu i ty , b u t o n t h e o t he r h and , i tm igh t s how t h e c u l tu ra l r emo t ene s s o f t h e A bo r ig i n a l , a nd w e s ter n ized l i v ing s t y le , a nd t h e i n vo lved t h ink ing p roce sses .

s im i la r i n fo rma t ion o b ta ined . A no the r p o in t t r i e s t oi n ve s t i g a t e t h e t r u thf u lne s s o f a n swe r a nd t h e c r ed ib i l i ty o f i n fo r m an t s a s f a r a s t h i s c an b e s t a t ed t h rough t h e c ompa ra t ive a na ly s i s o f t h e a n swe r s g i ven . L i t e ra t u r e c oncer n ing t h i s p rob lem w i l la l so b ec ons ide r ed . P o in t 1 . 5 i nd ica te s t h e i n qu i ry m e thod u sed f o r t h i s t h e s i s . T he e xp lana t ion o ft h is m e thod w i l l e nab le t h e r e ade r t ot e s t t h e a u thor s c onc lu s ions a nd d e tec t e ven tua l a b su rd i t ie s , s hou ld t h ey e x i s t .

T he s t a tus o ft h e A bo r ig ina l p eop le i nt o day 's s oc ie ty w i l l b e h i s to r ica l ly e va lua ted b y t h e a i d o f l i t e ra tu r e , w h i le i n te r v i ew s w i th A u s t ra l ian s o f E u rop ean d e scen t s ha l l c l a r ify t oday 's c ond i t ion s . T h is e va lua t ion i se x t r eme ly i mpo r t an t s i nce i ts how st h e r e la t ion o ft h em a jo r i ty o fl a nd u se r s t ot h e m ino r i ty o f t r ad i t iona l l a nd o wne r s . T he i n t e rv iew s s ha l l e s tab l i sh i ft h e A u s t ra l ian s o fE u ropean d e scen t t r y t oa ccep t t h e A bo r ig ina l c u l tu r e a si ti so ri ft h ey d ef in i t e ly s e e an eed t oc hange i t .T he q ue s t ions a sked w i l l t a rge t t h e p rob lem o f f o rced a s s im i la t ion , t h e s ub sequen t c u l tu ra l p r e s su re t o c hange t o aw es te rn ized l i f e s ty le , a nd t h e i n vo lved s t age s o f d eve lopmen t ( 5 ) o r d egene ra t ion ( 6 ) . T he s e c t ion a bou t t h e c u l tu ra l a wa r ene s s a nd a s se r t ivene s s o f t h e A bo r ig ina l p eo p l e t r i e s t o s how h ow f a r t h e a s s im i la t ion p rog r e s sed a nd a sk s i ft h e r e a r e movemen t s e i the r t or e ve r se t h e p roces s o r t od i rec ti tmo re s u i tab ly i nt h eA bo r ig ina l sp e r spec t ive .

S ec t ion I s ha l l a cqua in t t h e r e ade r w i th t h e g eo log ica l s e t t i ng o ft h e A u s t ra l ian c on t inen t , a s w e l l a s t h e p r ima ry a r c ha eo log ica l r e sea r ch h i s to ry , c ommon t h eo r ie s , a nd m a in s t r eam i d ea s . T he g eo log ica l p a r t w i l l d ea l w i th p l a te t e c ton i c s , t h e i c e a ge s a nd t h e P le is tocene f l o ra a nd f a una , a lway s c on s id e r ing t h e p o s s ib le i mpac t s o ccu r r ing t h rough t h ese f a c to r s o r t h e f e a s ib le i n te rac t ion s o f t h em t owa rd s e a r ly A u s t ra l ian s e t t lemen t s . A l though t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e sea r ch c oncep t ion s i nA u s t ra l ia w i l l p robab ly n o tb e much d i f f e r en t f r om t h e E u ropean o nes , t h e u n ique c ha ra c te r is t ic s s ha l l b e e spec ia l ly m en t ioned . S ince t h ea u tho ro f t en h ea rd t h e s a y ing t h a tt h e Abo r ig ine sw e r e a lway s i nA us t ra l ia ,h e i n c luded t h e s c ien t if i c d e r iva t ion t h eor ie s d eve loped o ve r t h e l a s t e i gh ty y ea r s . T he s c ien t if i c e xp lana t ion o f t h e a nce s t ry o f t oday 's A bo r ig ines w i l l b e t h r eefo ld , c on s ide r ing b io log ica l , c u l t u ra l / l ingu i s t ica l , a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e s ea r ch . E ach r e sea r ch c oncep t ion a nd o u t come w i l l i n d iv idua l ly b e a na lyzed a nd t e s t ed f o r v a l id i ty . I n t h e e nd , t h e r e su l t s o f t h e a na ly se s o f t h e t h r ee s c ien t if i c b ranche s m igh t c onc lude ap o s s ib le d e r i v a t ion t h eo ry . S e t t lemen t a nd s ub s i s t ence p a t ter n s o fp r eh i s t o r ic a nd c on t empo ra ry A bo r ig ina l g roup s m igh t i n f e r t h e a c cu ra cy o r i n accu racy o f p r ev iou s ly s t a ted d e r iva t iona l t h eo r i e s . I ft h e t r a ceab le m ig ra t iona l r ou tes w i th in A us t ra l ia a sw e l l a s t h e l i v ing s t y le a nd t h e mod e s o fb ehav io r , s how s im i la r o r o ve r lapp ing t r a ce s t ot h e c onc luded a nce s t ra l c u l t u r es , t h en o ne o r t h e o t he r d e r iva t iona l t h eo ry s e em s t ob e m o r e p l aus ib le . F ou r e xemp la ry a r cha eo log ica l s i te s w i l l b e c ho sen i no rde r t os how t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o fP le is tocene s e t t le m en t a nd s ub s is t ence r e con s t ruc t ion b a sed o n c onc re t e a r c ha eo log ica l r e co rd s . T hese s i te s s hou ld b e d i spe r s ed o ve r t h e c on t inen t , w he r ea s t h e a qua t ic a nd /o rt e r re s t r ia l e nv i ron m en t w a s p r ef e rab ly e xp lo i t ed . A t h o rough a nd c r i t ica l a na ly s i s o ft h e e xcava t ion m e thod , r e a l iza t ion , a nd o u tcome s ha l le nab le o ne t od e tec tw eakne s se s ,u n tenab le c onc lu s ion s o r i n /adequa t e r e con s t ruc t ion s . S t ra t ig raph ica l p e r spec t ive s w i l l b e av a luab le t o o l t ot e s t t ime r e la ted s t a t emen t s a nd t o e ven tua l ly d i sp rov e f a r reach ing i n te rp r e ta t ion s . T he h uman i mpa c t o n t h e e nv i ronmen t , i ft h rough c hang ing o f t h e f i r e r e g im e o r e xces s ive h un t ing , m igh t b e a n i nd ica to r o f t h e a pp rox ima t e t ime o f e a r ly A us t ra l ian s e t t lemen t , a s w e l l a s f o r t h e s ucce s sfu l e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e f a una l a nd f l o ra l e nv i r o nm en t . I tm igh t e ven c on t rad ic t t h e c ommon v i ew o f t h e h a rmon iz ing r e la t ionsh ip o f A bo r ig ine s a nd n a tu r e . S pec ia l n o t ic e s ha l l b e d i r ec ted t ot h e r e l ic s o ft h e ma t e r ia l c u l tu r e , a s f u r ther n eeded f o r t h e s t one t e chno log ica l e xpe r imen t s . T he m o s t c ommon ly f ound a r t if ac t s , w e l l p re served o ve r t h ou sand s o fy ea r s , a r e r ep r esen ted i nt h e s t one t o o ls , mo r e f r ag i le a r t if ac t s h ave mo s t ly p e r i shed . P rom inence s ha l l b e g i ven t o c l a s s if ica t iona l t yp es c on s ide red t o b e c u l tu ra l m a rk e r s , i no rde r t ou s e t h ese t ype s t oi mp rove t h e s pec ia l h ypo the s is d eve loped i n t h e s t one t o o l r ep l ica t ive e xp e r i -

S ec t ion V w i l l g i ve as ho r te xcu r s ion i nt h e d e l ica t e v en tu r e o fa pp roach ing a nd c on ta c t ing A bo r ig ina l c ommun i t ie s . T he r e ade r w i l l b e a cqua in ted w i th b o th t h e b u reauc ra t ic w ay o ve rt h e l a nd c ounc i l a nd t h e d i rec t ,u nbu reauc ra t ic a pp roach o fA bo r ig ina l c ommun i t ie s . T he f unc t ion , s t ruc tu r e , u se , a nd a bu se o ft h e i n s t i tu t ion " l and c ounc i l" w i l l b e c r i t ica l ly a na l y zed . At h eo re t ica l mode l , d eve loped b y t h e a u tho r , w i l l b e o ppo sed t o t h e c ommon p rocedu r e o f h and l ing t h e r e s ea r che r 's r e que s t t o v i s i t s pec ia l A bo r ig ina l c ommun i t ie s . C oncer n ing t h i s , i tw i l l b e i n ve s t iga ted i fA bo r ig ina l p eop le d o h ave as t rong s en se o f s epa ra t ene s s , i s o la t ion , a nd s u sp i c i on o f o u t s ide r s , o r i ft h i s i sj u s t a no the r o f t h o se s t o r ies c r ea ted ( by " wh i t e p eop le" ) t oj u s t ify t h e i r l i f e o n r e se rva t i on s . T he a c tua l q ue s t ion ing a nd d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e i n t erv iew s i tua t ion s w i l l b e e va lua ted i n s e c t ion V I . I ti sp l anned t o i n t e rv iew a tl e a s t 1 00 -1 50 A bo r ig ina l p eop le a nd 4 0 A u s t r a l ian s o f E u rop ean d e scen t . I tw i l l n o t ma t t e r , i n t h i s i n s t ance , i fs omeone i s af u l l b lood ed A bo r ig ine o r p a r t ly m ixed , o r i fa n A u s t ra l ian o f E u rop ean d e scen t s e t t led i n A u s t ra l ia i nt h e 6 t h o r 2 nd g ene ra t ion . I ti si mpo r tan t , h ow e ve r , t o g e t aw ide v a r ie ty o f i n fo rman t s f r om t h e s eve ra l d if e r en t p a r t s o fA u s t r a l ia v i s i ted b y t h e a u tho r . T he ma jo r i t yo ft h e i n terv iewee so f A bo r ig ina ld escen tw i l lb ec ho s en f r om Abo r ig ina l c ommun i t ie s . T he i n te rv iew s w i l l b e c onduc ted w i th o r w i thou t at a pe r e co rde r ( no te t a k ing , t h rough m emo ry p rac t ice e nhanced d eb r ief ing ) , d epend ing o nt h e i n fo rman t 's w i sh .I ti sd e s i rab le t oi n t erv iew A bo r ig i -

( 5 )I nA u s t ra l ian s 'w i th E u ropean d e scen tp e r sp ec t ive ( 6 )I nA bo r ig ina ls 'p e r spec t ive

3

g roup s d we l l ing a l ong r i verbed s a nd r e s t ing a r ea s a l ong t h e ma in h i ghways . T he s t one t oo l e xpe r imen t s t ook p a r t i n a mo re r e s t r ic ted a r ea . E ven t hough o ne s t one t o o l w o rke r w a s f r om Wes te rn A u s t ra l ia , h e o n ly u sed b asa l t ic ma t er ia l f r om q ua r r ies a r ound K a ther ine . T he o t he re xper imen t s t o ok p l ace a r ound t h e A l ice S p r ing s a r ea o rn ea rK a the r ine .

n es , a sw e l l a s A u st ra l ians o fE uropean d escen t i nr u ra l a nd u rban a r ea s , w i th c omp le ted u n ive r s i ty s t ud ies , d eser t s choo l o r s choo l o f t h e a i r a bso lven t s . T he r e spec t ive a ges o f t h e i n forman t s w i l l b e c ons idered i no rde r t oe ven tua l ly e xam ine a ge s pec if ic o p in ions . T he q ues t ion c a ta logue i t se lf w i l l b e i n t roduced i ni t s o r ig i n a l , p r epa red f o rm , a sw e l l a s i ni t s a l te red f o rm , w h ich w a s a c tua l ly u sed f o r mo s t o f t h e i n terv iews . T yp ica l i n te rv iew s i tua t ion s w i l l b e d esc r ibed s uppo r t ing t h e d ec is ion s t oa l te r c er ta in q ues t ions o rt oa dd o r c ance l o t he r s . Ac r i t ica l r ef lec t i on u pon t h e q ues t ion c a ta logue s ha l l d e tec t w eaknes se s a nd

c )t empora l I n r e ad ing t h e t i le o f t h i s t h es is , o ne m igh t a s sume t h a t t h e p r esen t r e sea rch d oes n o t r each f u r the r b ack t han t h e d a te t h a t moder n a r cha eo logy s t ar ted , i n A us tra l ia , f o r e xamp le , i nt h e s i x t ie s . T h is a s sump t ion d oes n o t c on s ider a l t h e a s p ec t s i n vo lved i n i n ves t iga t ing t h e p rob lem i n q ues t ion . S ince mode rn a r chaeo logy p resumab ly h a s i t s r o le i n t h e p roces s o f b e t te r u nder s t and ing A u s t ra l ian s o f E u ropean d escen t a nd i n d igenous A us t ra l ians , t h e p re - a nd h i s tor ica l d eve lopmen t h a s t ob e k nown , i no rde r t o s e t n ew s t anda rd s i nc r os s -cu l tu ra l f i e ldwo rk . T he q ues t ion o fw he the r moder n a r chaeo logy i n tend s o r i sd es igned t om ee t t h e r e qu iremen t s a nd e ven tua l ly c l a im s o f t h e p eop le i ti s i n ves t iga t ing c an o n ly b e a n swe red t h rough t h e h i s to r ic e va lua t ion o f a r chae o l ogy a nd t h e k now ledge o f p re - a nd h i s to r ica l A bor ig ina l c u l tu re . T o make al o ng s t o ry s ho r t , t h e t h es is c ove r s t h e l a s t 4 5 .000 y ea r s o f A u s t ra l ian p re / a nd h i s to ry , w i th s pec ia l c ons ide ra t ion o ft h e l a s t 1 50 y ea r s .

om iss ion s t ha t m igh t b e v a luab le k now ledge f o r f u tu r e r e s ea rche r s a im ing t o c on t inue o r d i sp rove s t a temen t s o f t h e p r esen tt h es is . A ne va lua t ion o ft h e i n te rv iews , c omb ined w i th p a r t ia l o rf u l l p r esen ta t ion o f s i ng le i n terv iews , s ha l l b e d one i n s e c t ion V I I . T hrough t h i s p rocedu re , t h e r eader i sa b le t o t e s t c on c l us ion s b a sed o n t h e i n terv iews . Un tenab le s t a t emen t s a nd a bsu rd i t ies s hou ld b ed e tec tab le , i fp r esen t . T he s t one t oo l a na lys is w i l l a cqua in t t h e r eade r w i th t h e p hys ica l p roper t ies o f c er ta in b a sa l t u sed i n t h e r ep l ica t ive e xper imen t s . A l though t h e ma s te r s t h e s is o f t h e a u tho r w a s w r i t ten a bou t b a sa l t t o o ls a nd i n vo lved t h e i r r ep l ica t ive p ro d uc t ion , ac er ta in u nfam i l ia r i ty o ft h e b a sa l t f ound i nA us t ra l i a , a s w e l l a s i t s f l ak ing a t t r ibu tes , c ou ld n o t b e d en ied . S eve ra l b a sa l t mod if ica t ion e xper imen t s wou ld b e n eces sa ry b efo re i n d igenou s A us t ra l ians c ou ld b e a sked t o p roduce t y p ica l t o o ls a nd t h e t e chn ique a pp l ied b y t h em c ou ld b e u nde r s tood . T oo ls e i ther f ound o n t h e s ur face o f a n o l d c h ipp ing f l oo r o r t h ose d i scove red t h rough r e s t r ic ted e xca v a t ions ( 7 ) i n r e la t ive ly r e cen t h ab i ta t ion o r manufac tu r ing s i tes w i l l b e m ic roscop ica l ly i n ves t iga ted . T he ma in i d ea o f t h ese i n ve s t iga t ion s i st h ed e tec t ion o fp oss ib le mu l t i p u rpose t o o ls t h a t w e re p r edom inan t ly u sed b y f r equen t ly mov ing g roup s .T h is t h es is t r i es t o move b eyond t h e t h eo ry t h a t s t one t o o ls a r e c u l tura l ma rke r s , w h ich p rov ide a n i nd ica t ion o f d i spa ra te c u l tur es t h rough o f t en s l igh t i n ven tory d if e r e nces /changes . C onsequen t ly , t oo l r e la ted t h eo r ies a bou t m ig ra t iona l r ou te s o r d eve lopmen ta l s t ages o f A bor ig ina l c u l tu re c ou ld b eb ia sed .

b )s pa t ia l R ough ly i nd ica t ing t h e s pa t ia l r e s t r ic t ion o f t h e p r esen t i n v es t iga t ion , t h e s t a tes o f N ew S ou th Wa les , Q ueen s land , V ic tor ia , t h e No r the rn T er r i to ry , a nd t h e f ede ra l d i s t r ic t C anber ra s ha l l b e m en t ioned , e ven t h ough s evera l i n terv iew es w e re v i s i to r s f r om Wes ter n A us t ra l ia , s eve ra l i s land s , a nd af ew f r om T a sman ia .T he i n terv iews t ook p l ace i nu rban a s w e l l a s r u ra l a r ea s , i n u n ive r s i t ies , a nd i n d eser tschoo ls . T he ma jor i ty o f t h e i n terv iews , h owever , w e re h e ld i ns e lf g over ned Abor ig ina l c ommun i t ies o r among A bor ig ina l

( 7 ) p erm i t ted b y t h er e spec t ive Abor ig ina l c ommun i ty

4

H e a l so men t ioned t h a t l a nd owne r sh ip i ss p ir i tua l i nn a tu re , w h ich i mp l ies t h a tt h e s p ir i t so ft h e a nce s to r so ccupy t h el a nd a nd w i l l b e w o r sh ipped i n s a c red p l aces . E lk in ( 1938 ) a nd s ome o f h i s s t uden t s , l i ke S t anne r ( 1965 ) a nd B ernd t R .M . /C .M . ( 1964 ) , f i r s t a ccep ted h i s t h eo ry , b u t h ad t od eny i t w i th s ubsequen t r e sea rch ( H ia t t 1 962 /Gumber t 1 981 , 1984 ) . T he c ruc ia l p o in t i nt h i s a n th ropo log ica l o r tho d oxy w a s t h e f a c t t h a t S tanne r a nd B er nd t w e re s ubpoenaed t o c our t a s w i tnesses f o r t h e A bo r ig ines i n t h e C ove L and R igh tC ase u nde rt h e l e ader sh ip o fj u s t ice B lackbur n , a sw i l l b e m en t ioned l a te r . A lso i n 1 964 C a ther ine B e rnd t p o in ted o u tt h e p o ss ib le u ses a nd m i suses o fa n th ropo logy . R ef e r r ing t ot h e u pcom ing a nd i n tens ify ing r ep roach t h a t a n thropo logy i so fn o u se , s h e s aw t h e ma in f unc t ion o fa n th ropo logy t ob e i n t e ach ing a nd r e sea rch r a the r t h an i n p o l i t ica l i s sue s . T hough e veryone h a s t o make p e r sona l d ec is ions a nd h a s t o s e t p r ior i t ies , t h e p oss ib le m isuse o f a n thropo logy wou ld b e m o s t s eve r e i fw ork ing i n p o l i t ica l i n s t i tu t ion s . C o l lec ted a n th ropo log ica l ma ter ia l g iven i n c onf idence a nd u nde r t h e p r om ise o f s e c recy b y i n forman t s s hou ld n o t b e m isused t h rough p ub l ic d i sp lay i na ny f o rm . S he e ven s aw t h e d ange r

t h a t a n th ropo log ica l k now ledge m igh t b e o r ien ted t owa rd s c omme r c ia l o r p e r sona l p res t ige g oa ls , w h ich c ou ld l e ad t o f a ls ify ing o f i n forma t ion ( s ince u nde r d i sc losu re ) o r c o r rup t i on i ff a c ing c ou r t c a ses . J a span ( 1964 ) , w ho h i s to r ica l ly a na lyzed a n th ropo log ica l c omm i tmen t i np o l i t ica l d ec is ions , d ry ly c ommen ted t h a t t h ese a n th ropo log is t s c onsequen t ly " spo i l" s ubsequen t r e sea rch b y i nf luenc ing t h e l o ca l g roup ( J a span 1 964 :218 ) . T he c ode o fe t h ic s f o r a pp l ied a n th ropo l o gy , p r ima ry e s tab l ished b y T ugby ( 1964 ) , r e cogn izes " t he r i gh t o f t h e a n thropo log is t t o f unc t ion a s as oc ia l s c ien t is t a nd t o p ro tec t h im a ga ins t l o ss o f s e lf -es teem" ( Tugby 1 964 :231) . No t ic ing t h e i nf luenc ing f a c to r s o fw o rk ing a sa n a n th ropo log is t a t tached t o a n a gency ( s .a . :226 ) , h e p o in ted o u t t h e n eed t or ema in as oc ia l s c ien t is t i nt h e f i r s tp l ace a nd n o t t o b e m isused f o r i n s t i tu t iona l a im s . A n a n thropo log is t s hou ld a l so r e cogn ize h i s /he r i r reve r s ib le i nf luence t owa rd s t h e g roup s t ud ied a nd h i s /he r o b l iga t ion n o t t o a buse t h e i n forman t s ' c onf idence . G eddes ( 1964 :193 ) o nt h eo ther h and a r gued t h a t a n thropo log is t s h ave t o b e i n vo lved i n p o l i t ica l i s sue s i fa t temp t ing t o ma in ta in ac onf iden t ia l s t a tu s w i th t h e e t hn ic i ty , w h ich w ou ld b e e s sen t ia l f o r t h e s ucces s o fh i s /he r s c ien t if i c i n ves t iga t ion . T he C ove D i spu te , p robab ly d ec is ive f o r t h e a wa renes s o ft h e n eed f o r A bo r ig ina l l a nd r i gh t l e g is l a t ion , s t a r ted o u t w i th a p ress a nnouncemen t i n F eb rua ry 1 963 . T he F ede ra l G overnmen t h ad a pp roved o f l e a ses o f l a nd t o t h e C ove B aux i te C o rpo ra t ion . B e rnd t , R .M . ( 1964 :293 ) w ro te a bou t t h e d i spu te i n i t s b eg inn ing a nd a bou tt h e A bor ig ina l a t tachmen tt ot h e l a nd , b a sed o n s evera l a n th ropo log ica l v i s i t s i n t h is r eg ion . T h is w o rk a nd s evera l o t he r a r t ic les made h im q ua l if ied t ob e h ea rd a s aw i tnes s i n t h e s ubsequen tt r ia l a bou tl a nd t e nu re o n t h e C ove P en insu la . T he t r ia l c ame u p b ecause o f t h e d ec i s ion o f t h e C onserva t i ve N a t iona l C oun t ry P a r ty g over nmen t t o t r ansf e r l a nd o n t h eC ove P en insu la t ol a rge m in ing c ompan ies . T h is l a nd wa s t r ad i t iona l ly c l a imed b y t h e A bo r ig ines o ft h is a r ea . T he f i r s t t ime i n h i s tory t h e a n th ropo log ica l s c ience w a s a sked t o w i tnes s t h e c l a im s o f A bo r ig ina l g roup s i nc ou r t ( 10 ) . S t an n e r a nd B er nd t , i nf luenced t h rough R adc l if f -B rown 's mode ls o f " ho rd s" , c ou ld n o t c onv ince t h e c ou r t o f t h e l e g i t ima te Abo r ig ina l l a nd c l a im . T he c ommon l aw e s tab l ished i n 1 971 s t a tes t h a t A bor ig ines h ave n o r e cogn izab le r i gh t t o l a nd s i nce t h ey c an n o t s t a te t h e i rc l a im o n t h e l e ga l g round o ft h e A us t ra l ian c our t . T he c hange o f t h e g over nmen t i nN ovem b e r 1 972 ( 1 1) a nd t h e " Abor ig ina l Emba ssy" e ncampmen t i n f r on to ft h e A us t ra l ian p a r l iamen tl e d t o an ew h ea r ing i nt h e A bo r ig ina l L and R igh t C la im . T he 1 976 L and R igh t s ( No r ther n T e r r i to ry ) A c t w a s t h e c onsequence , a nd i ta c k now ledged A bor ig ina l l a nd r i gh t s . T h is a c t g ene ra l ly r e s emb led B er nd t 's c oncep t ion o fA bo r ig ina l l a nd t e nu re , s i nce t r ad i t iona l A bor ig ina l o wne r s i n r e la t ion t o l a nd m ean s a l o ca l d escen tg roup o fA bor ig ine s w ho a ) h ave c ommon s p i r i tua l a ff i l ia t ion s t o as i te o n t h e l a nd , a ff i l ia t ion s t h a t p l ace t h e g roup u nde r ap r ima ry s p ir i tua l r e spons ib i l i ty f o rt h a ts i te a nd f o rt h a tl a nd b ) a r e e n t i t led b y A bo r ig ina l t r ad i t ion t o f o rage r i gh t fu l ly o ve rt h e l a nd . [ Cour td ef in i t ion ]

( 8 ) Uv i -S t rau ss ( Pa r is ) ,H e ineGe lder n (W ien ) , H e lmu tP e t r i ( Kö ln ) ( 9 ) Ma rg re t Mead ( New Y o rk ) , Wa rd H . G oodenough ( Ph i lade lph ia )

( 10 )A l l t h ec our tm embe r sw ere w h i te E u ropean c an n o ts t a te t h e i rc l a im o nt h e l e ga l g round o ft h e A us t ra l ian ( 1 1) T he L abo r N a t iona l g ove rnmen t w a s e l ec ted a f te r 2 3 y ea r si no ppos i t ion

1 . 3 RESEARCH LEVEL AND H ISTORY

I n ten s ive l i b ra ry r e sea rch a nd t h e q ues t ion ing o f a r chaeo lo g i s t s a nd a n th ropo log is t s l a rge ly w o rk ing i n t h e f i e ld o f A bo r ig ina l c u l tu r e c onv inced t h e a u tho r t h a t n o o ne w orked w i th t h e s pec if i c t op ic o ft h is t h es is . S i nce t h is t h es is i sb u i l t o n a p rob lem o r ien ted a pp roach , s e vera l s ub -p rob lem s ( q ues t ions i np a r t 1 )d o f i nd d i scuss ion i nc er ta in a n th ropo l o g ica l r e sea rch . T he g enera l p ercep t ion o f A bor ig ines b y r e sea rche rs , v a ry ing o ver t ime , w i l l b e s hown i nt h e " ou t l ine o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l . . ." . T he mos tr e cen t3 0 y ea r s o fa n th ro p o log ica l r e sea rch w ork s ha l l f i nd p a r t icu la rm en t ion h er e , a s t h ey w ere c ha rac ter ized b y t h e c r i t ica l s e lf ref lec t ion o f t h e a n th ropo log ica l s c ience . T h is p roces s , a l ready o ngo ing i n E u rop e ( 8 ) a nd Ame r ica ( 9 ) f o r s eve ra l y ea r s , w a s c r i t ica l ly a na lyzed i n t h e s e cond a n thropo log ica l f o rum o f t h e U n i v e r s i ty o f Wes ter n Aus t ra l ia . E lk in ( 1964 :152f f ) , t h e f a the r o f A us t ra l ian a n thropo log ica l r e sea rch , t r ied t o g i ve a n o ver v iew o f t h e p as t a n thropo log ica l r e sea rch i n A u s t ra l ia . H is , i nt h e a u tho r 's o p in ion , q u i te i n app ropr ia te e nume ra t ion m igh t b e s ho r tened a nd a l te red , s i nce R adc l if f e -Brown ( 1 9 13 ) , who p ub l ished h i s f i nd ing s o n t h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu re o f t h r ee Wes ter n A us t ra l ian t r ibes , w a s t h e f i r s t modern a n th ro p o log is t . H i s g ene ra l iza t ions f o r Au s t ra l ia a s aw ho le w e r e n o ted i n h i s l a ter work a bou t t h e " s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion o f A u s t ra l ian t r ibes" ( Radc l if f e -Brow n 1 930 -31) . E sp ec ia l ly h i s s t a temen t s a bou t l a nd t e nu re b ecame i mpo r tan t f o r s ub se q uen t a n th ropo log ica l s e lf -unde r s tand ing . T he p a tr i l inea l , p a t r i loca l , a u tonomous g roup s , t e rmed ah orde b y R adc l if f e B rown , c l ea r ly d ef ined l o ca l l a nd o wne r sh ip . Whe rea s a ny m embe r o f t h e l o ca l g roup m igh t h un t o ver t h e l a nd t h a t b e longs t o h i s /he r r e spec t ive g roup , h e /she h a s t o a sk f o r p erm iss ion i fw an t ing t od o s oo ve rt h e l a nd o fo t he rg roups .

5

w i thou t t h e p erm is s ion o f t h e l a nd o wner s , a nd e a r l ier c o l l e c ted i t em s h ave t ob e r e turned . An ew ly c onvened a n th ro p o log ica l f o rum i n 1 983 -84 d ea l t e spec ia l ly w i th t h e r o le o f a n th ropo log is t s i n c our t a nd h i s /he r s c ien t if ic r e spons ib i l i t i es . [ P rof es s iona l d i sc re t ion f o r t h e s o c ia l s c ien t is t s i nc our t a nd p ub l ic ] B e l l ( 1983 /84 :176 -81) e numera ted t h e d i ve r se e mp loymen tp o ss ib i l i t ies t h a t Aus t ra l ian An th ropo log is t s w i l l f a ce i nt h e f u tu re . H er e mp loymen t f o reca s t p red ic ted w e l l p a id p o s i t ions a va i lab le i n l e g is la t ion , c onsu l tancy , p rof es s i ona l o rgan iza t ions , a nd t h e l i ke , b u t t h e b ur n -ou t r a te w ou ld b e h igh . Wh i le o t he r s oc ia l s c ience b ranches w ou ld p l ace t h e i r g radua tes i na n e ver -shr ink ing l a bo r ma rke t , t h e a n th ropo log is t s s t udy ing A bor ig ina l c u l tu re w ou ld h ave a r o sy f u ture , s i nce t h e s uppor t ive money f l ow ing f r om t h e ACT s eem s t o b e s e cu re . T o mee t a l t h e r e qu i r emen t s o f b e ing a c onsu l tan t a n thropo log is t f o r t h e A bo r ig ina l L and R igh t C omm iss ioner t h e r e spec t ive a n th ropo log is t h a s t o b e q ua l if ied a nd e xpe r ienced i nt h e a r ea o fq ues t ion , a nd h a s t o b e a pp roved a nd a ppo in ted b y t h e L and C omm iss ione r 's r e sea rch o f f ice r , a s T onk inson ( 1983 /84 :187 ) n o t ed . I fa c c ep t ing t h e r o le a s ac onsu l tan t , t h e a n th ropo log is t s hou ld b e w e l l a wa re t h a t h e /she w i l l f a ce a n a dve r se r e la t ionsh ip w i th h i s /her c o l leagues , a nd t h a t r e spon s ib le a nd w e l l -ba lanced j udgmen t s h ave t ob e made . T he m a in i d ea o f a n a n thropo l o g ica l c onsu l tan t i st h e w i tness ing o f t h e c l a im s a nd t h e e s tab l ished e v idence , a nd t oc l ar ify , c r o s s -check o r p o ss ib ly c or rec tt h em . T onk inson c onc luded t h a tt h e a n th ropo log is t , i f f unc t ion ing a s ac onsu l tan t , s hou ld n o tt r y t od ec ide o n i s sues e nd less ly d i scus sed i n a pp l ied a n th ropo logy f o rum s w i thou t e ve r b e ing s a t i sfac tor i ly r e so lved . T o f u r the r d eve lop t h is i d ea , s uch a d ec is ion c ou ld b ecome a p receden t c a se , o n w h ich f u tu re d ec is ions m igh t b e b a sed . I n 1 983 /84 :221f f , V achon f i r s t ly r ef lec ted o ver t h e A bor ig ina l r e spon ses t ot h e a n thropo log ica l e n terpr ise . One , a dm i t tab ly r ad ica l , r e sponse w a s t h e n o t ion t h a t ac onsu l tan t p o s i t ion i nc our th a s l i t t le , i f a ny th ing , t o d o w i th a cadem ic q ua l if ica t ion . E ven t h ough s omeone s e emed t ob e q ua l if ied i nt h e "Wh i te man ' se yes" , i t w ou ld n o t i mp ly t h a t h e / she u nde r s tand s t h e c omp lex i ty o f t h e ma t ter a nd w i l l b e a b le t o s o lve p rob lems c once rn ing A bo r ig ina l c l a ims . An thropo log is t s , i fn o t t h e " pu r e" , i n s t i t u t iona l ized k ind , h ave m ean t t o a rgue a bou t p o l i t ica l i s sues a nd h ave o b ta ined s ucces s , b u t a l so f a i lu re . I na ny c a se , t h ey w e r e " on ly t oo ls" ( 14 ) u sed t oc l a im A bor ig ina l r i gh t s i nt h e " wes te rn ized" c ou r t . C romwe l l ( 1983 /84 :240 -53 ) g ave a v i s iona ry v i ew o ft h e a n th ropo log is t 's r o le t owa rd s i t sc l ien t s . H e p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e a n thropo log is t h a s t h e o b l iga t ion t o s u i t t h e c l ien t 's n eeds a nd h a s t o s e rve h im /her a s b es t a s h e /she c an . C romwe l l 's q u i te f u tu r is t ic p i c ture o f " n ew a n t h ropo logy" i mag ined a n thropo log is t s r o le a s a dvoca tes f o r t h e p r esen t a nd f u ture n eeds o f m ino r i t ies ( C romwe l l 1 983 /84 :252 ) . T he o ld a pp roach o f t h e i n s t i tu t iona l ized a n th ropo logy i sb ecom ing e x t inc t o r i so n ly r e ces s ive ly h e ld f o r r e a sons o f n o s ta lg ia . I n " pa rad igm l o s t . . ." , o r " ne i the r j u s t ice n o r r ea son" , Gumbe r t ( 1981 /84 ) a rgued t h a t c l a ss ica l a n th ropo log ica l c oncep t ion s o f A bor ig ina l l o ca l o r gan iza t i on s a nd , c onsequen t ly , o f t r ad i t iona l l a nd t e nu re a r e b a sed o n i n adequa te mode ls , w h ich r ende r n a r row a nd d i s tor ted

I n t h e f o l low ing y ea r s an ew d i scus s ion k i nd led o ve r t h e q ues t ion o f w he the r a n thropo log i s t s s hou ld b e i n vo lved i n t h e l a nd c l a im p rocedu re , a nd , i fy e s , w ha t r o le s hou ld t h ey p l ay . A lr eady i n 1 9 10 F r iedman , f a c ing t h e f i r s t N a t ive Amer ican c l a im s , n o tes t h e p o s s ib le a bu ses o f e xp er t t e s t i mon ies . H e a sked t h e f undamen ta l q ues t ion s , w ho s hou ld b e c ons idered a sa ne xper t , a nd w ho makes t h e f i na l d ec is ion o n w ha t e xper t m igh t b e s ubpoenaed t o c ou r t ( 12 ) . A r t ic les o f G reenberg ( 1956 :953 -70 ) , R o se ( 1956 :205 18 ) , a nd Wo lf g ang ( 1974 :239 -47 ) s aw t h e i n c r ea s ing emp loymen t o f a n t h ropo log is t s a nd s o c io log is t s i nl e ga l c a ses c oncern ing e nv i r onmen ta l , f am i l ia l , a nd r a ce -re la t ed ma t ter s . R ozen ( 1977 :577 ) s ummed u p t h e u se s o r m isuses o f c e r ta in a n t h ropo log is t s i n Amer ican l aw c a ses . A n th ropo log i s t s " have t e s t if ied o n e ve ry th ing f r om r a c ia l s eg r ega t ion , m iscegena t i on l aws a nd c h i ld c us tody , t o t h e b l ood t y pes o f p u ta t ive f a the r s , t h e n a tu r e o fr e l ig ious c ommun i t ies , a nd t h e c u lt ura l b ackg round o f c r im ina l d ef endan t s . T he i r p redom inan t r o le h a s b een i n c a ses i n vo lv ing Amer ican I nd ians" ( Rosen 1 977 :556 ) . T he e xemp la ry s e lec t ion o fc r os s -exam ina t ions o f s c ien t if ic c o l leagues s uppor t s h i s t h eo ry t h a t a n thropo log is t s i n vo lved i n s u ch p roceed ings o bv ious ly h ave t o t e s t ify o n mo re t h an t h e s imp le p resen ta t ion o f o b jec t ive d a ta ( 13 ) . A n th ropo log is t s t o day h ave t od ea l w i th t h e b a t t les t h e i ro wn e xp er t s f i gh to ve rd ef in i t ions o fs ome c oncep t s , s uch a st r ibe o r b and . S ince al aw c a se r e qu i r es c l ea r ly d ef ined t e rms o n w h ich t o b a se i t s c onc lus ions , t h e s ub jec t ive o p in ion o f t h e c ho sen e xper t i nf luences t h e j ud ic ia l d ec is ion . S ubsequen t r e sea rch m igh t r e duce t h e i r a s se ssmen t t o a bsurd i ty . One t h ing w e a lways h ave t or e a l ize i st h a t t h e re i sn o s uch t h ing a s a b so lu te t r u th i n a n thropo logy . I n A u s t ra l ia A bor ig ina l l aw c a ses a ccumu la ted e spec ia l ly i n t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e e i gh t ies . T he r o le o f t h e a n thropo log is t s i n c our t w a s d e s c r ibed b y t h e f i r s t A bor ig ina l L and C omm is s ione r T oohey a sf o l lows : " The L and R igh t A c ti sn o t a ne xe rc ise i na n th ro p o logy . A n thropo log is t s a r e r e co rder s o f ma ter ia l a nd t h e i r c apac i ty t o c o l la t e i t , a nd i n i t s p r e sen ta t ion t o t h e h ea r ing a nd c ommen t u pon i t h a s p roved i n va luab le" ( Toohey 1 980 :pa rag raph 8 9 ) . T he A bo r ig ina l L aw . B u l le t in w a s e d i t ed b ecause o ft h e f e e l ing t h a t t h e w h i te -ru led l e ga l s y s tem w a s r e p ress ive a nd r a c is t a ga ins t A bo r ig ines . T he b u l le t in c ommon ly p ub l ished b y l awye r s o f t h e A bor ig ina l L aw R e s ea rch U n i t a nd a n thropo log is t s t r i ed t oa dver t ise t h e n ewes t l e ga l a c t ions a nd i t s e f ec t s o n A bo r ig ines . O ne a r t ic le i nt h e b u l le t in c oncerned t h e l e ga l p ro tec t ion o f s e c re t a nd s a c red i t ems o f A bor ig ina l c u l tu r e ( Nea te 1 982 ) . A n a mendmen t t o t h e A bo r ig ina l L and R igh t s ( No r ther n T er r i tory ) A c t 1 976 h a s r e cogn ized t h e s i gn if icance o f m any o b jec t s , d es igns , s t or ies , c e remon ies , n ames , a nd s i tes t o t h e s p ir i tua l l i f e o f A bo r ig ina l c u l tu r e . P ho to s t a ken o f p eop le , s i t es , o b jec t s c o l lec ted i n mu seum s , e t c . m ay n o t b e b roadca s ted

( 12 ) T he I nd ian C la im s C omm is s ion , f i na l ly e s tab l i shed i n 1 964 ,w a sa u tho r ized t oh ea rN a t ive Ame r ican c l a im s a ga ins t t h e g over nmen t , i fb rough t f o rwa rd f r om a t r ibe , b and , o r c l ea r ly i d en t if iab le g roup . ( 13 ) T he n on -commen ted c o l lec t ion o f o b jec t ive d a ta w a s t h e d ec la red a im o fa n thropo log is t s , s i nce t h ey d id n o t w an t t o i n ter f e re w i th o r a l te r t h e i n te res t s o f t h e i n ve s t iga ted g roup .

( 14 ) O ve rempha s ized b y t h e a u tho r , d oes n o t r ef lec t t h e o p in ion e xp r essed i nt h e t e x tc i ted

6

1 . 4 EVALUAT ION OF SOURCES AND TECHN IQUES USED

v i ews o f s o c ia l r e a l i ty . H e c r i t ic ized t h e s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion t h eory i n t r ad i t iona l a n thropo logy a nd p rov ided a n a l te rna t i ve p arad igm , f o l low ing t h e p r em ise t h a t t h e o lde r mode ls a r e d ysfunc t iona l i nt h e l a nd c l a im p rocess . H is ma in c r i t i c i sm w a s d i rec ted t owa rds t h e i d eo log ica l ly d e r ived u n i l inea l mode l o fs o c ie ty t h a td oes n o tc ons ide rt h e a c tua l c omp lex i ty o ft h eu nde r ly ing s oc io -econom ic r e a l i ty ( Gumbe r t 1 984 :91) . Two f a c to r s h ave t ob e c ons ide red i fe s tab l ish ing l a nd o wn e r sh ip , t h e i d eo log ica l a nd t h e e conom ic r i gh t . B o th m igh t n o t s epa ra t e ly r ef lec t as p ec if ic g roup , b u t t h e i r a c t ive i n te r a c t ion w i th e ach o t he r c ou ld . T h is s hou ld b e c ons ide red , w hen n ew ly a s s ign ing l a nd t oc l a iman t s . B e l l ( 1985 /86 ) , w ho w a s ma in ly c oncerned w i th t h e w oman 's r o le i n A bo r ig ina l s o c ie ty , n o ted t h a t t h e re a r e n o p u re ly f ema le c our t s t h a t c ou ld p res ide o ve r w omen ' s ma t te r s , a nd w h ich r e f lec t t h e t r ad i t iona l w ay o f d ec is ionma l c ing i n Abor ig ina l s oc ie ty . A na lyz ing t h e l a nd c l a im s s o f a r , s he a rgued t h a t a n th ro p o log is t s w e re n o t a b le t o a s s is t t h e c our t a s f u l ly a s t h ey m igh t h ave i ni n forma l d i scuss ions , w hen c r ea t ive i d ea s a r e n o t e xc luded a nd w h ich d o n o t l e ad t o c ou r t d ec is ions t h a t m igh t n o t b e r e ve r s ib le . B e l l q ues t ioned wha t w ou ld h appen i ft h e a n th ropo log i s t 's v i ew i sd if e ren t f r om t h ose o f t h e c l a iman t s h e /she r e p resen t s ?( Be l l 1 986b :8 ) U nde r t h ese c ond i t ions , s he e nv is ioned emp ty c onsu l tan t s e a t s i n c our t , s i nce n o o ne l i kes t o make p o ten t ia l ly w rong d ec is ion s o r g i ve a dv ice t h a t m igh t p rove t o b e m isgu ided ( Be l l 1 986a :28 ) . F ina l ly , i n 1 989 , N ea te s ummed u p t h e p rob lem s t h a t a r ise i fd ea l ing w i th A bor ig ina l c l a im s i nc our t , p a r t icu l a r ly w he r e c oncep t s r e la ted t o l a nd h ave n o p a ra l le l i n E u ropean l aw . D if f e rence s b e tween a n thropo log is t s a s t o t h e c ompos i t ion o f k ey A bo r ig ina l g roups a nd t h e n a tu re o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h o se g roup s a nd t h e l a nd Appa ren t i n cons is tenc ies b e tween t h e e v idence o f a n th ro p o log is t sa nd t h et e s t imony o f A bor ig ina l w i tnes ses The l a ck o f r e l iab le i n forma t ion a bou t t h e s i tua t ion b efo re c on tac tw i th E u ropeans ( Nea te 1 989 :35 )

a )T he p repared a nd c on t inuous ly d eve loped o ra l tered q ues t ion c a ta logue A s e a r ly a s t h r ee mon ths b efo re t h e i n t ended f i e ldwo rk i n A us t ra l ia a n i n terv iew p l an a sw e l l a s aq ues t ionna i r e w a s s e t u p . K now ing l i t t le a bou t t h e i n ves t iga t ed c u l tu re , t h is p ro jec t c ou ld n eve r s u i t t h e n eeds o f t h e a c tua l i n terv iew s i tua t ion . E ven t h ough as c ien t is t w ou ld h ave n o t o n ly i n -dep th k now l e dge a bou t t h e s ma l l s amp le o fp eop le b e ing q ues t ioned b u t a l so i n -dep th k now ledge a bou t t h e p opu la t ion i ng enera l , t h e q ues t ion s wou ld s t i l l b e s ub jec t t o n ego t ia t ion s a nd a l te ra t i ons . T he i n ten s ive c onsu l ta t ion o fl i t e ra tu re c oncer n ing t h i s t h eme r e vea led t h ed i f f e ren tk ind so fq ues t ions t h a ts hou ld b e a vo ided . [ e .g . G o rden 1 969 , B radbur n 1 979 , L abaw 1 980 , B a i ley 1 987 :104 146 , S chne l l 1 989 :291-384 , B rowne 1 992 :394 -422 ] T he a u tho r l e a rned a bou t l e ad ing a nd l o aded q ues t ions w h ich i n d ica te o r s ugges t t o i n forman t s h ow t h e i n terv iewer w an t s t h em t o r e spond . T h is , f o r t h e p ropo sed r e sea rch o u tcome o bv ious ly , s uppor t ive a pp roach i sh igh ly man ipu la t ive a nd s hou ld b e r e jec ted b y e very r e spons ib le r e sea rche r . A lso d oub le -bar re led q ues t ion s , t hose t h a t a sk t wo o r mo re q ues t ions a to nce , a r e n o t a dv isab le f o r s c ien t i s t s w ho i n tend t o r e ce ive c l ea r , u namb iguous a n swe r s . U sua l ly , t h e i n forman t w i l l a nswe r t h e p a r t o f t h e q ues t ion mo s t i mpo r tan t t o h im /he r a nd w i l l n eg lec t t h e o t he r p a r t , w h ich m igh t b e mo re i mpor tan t t o t h e r e sea rche r . I ts e em s i mpos s ib le n ow t oi n terp re t t h e r e su l t s o ft h e q ues t ion a ccu r a te ly . Ar e commendab le e ndeavo r , o n t h e o t he rh and , i st h e r e ph ra s ing o f q ues t ions o bv ious ly n o t u nder s tood b y t h e i n fo rman t o r t h e a dd i t ion o f c l a r ify ing p o in t s . Q ues t ions , p r esum ing p r io r k now ledge o f t h e i n forman t a nd h ypo the t i c a l q ues t ions , a im ing t o c r ea te f i c t i t ious s i tua t ions , a r e n o t d es i rab le i nt h eq ue s t ion c a ta logue . Q ues t ions o f ap r esum ing n a tu re t e nd t oe ven tua l ly c r ea te i n ven ted a nswe r s , s i nce t h e i n fo rman t d oes n o t l i ke t o a dm i t i g no rance o f t h e t o p ic . H y p o the t ica lq ues t ions may r e su l ti n a" l ie" t o o , i ft h e i n forman t h a s al a ck o f i mag ina t ion , b u t t r i es t o g i ve a n a nswe r t h a t h e / she f e e ls m igh tp l ea se t h e r e sea r che r . T hose q ues t ions t h a t a sk f o r t h e p er sona l o p in ion o ft h e i n forman t a r e c a l led p e r s ona l ized o r j udgmen ta l q ues t ion s . T hey m igh t l e ad t o m is t r us t a nd s u sp ic ion a nd e nd a n i n t erv iew s oone rt h an w ished , b u t , t h ey m igh t a l so make t h e i n fo rman t f e e l i mpor tan t b y a sk ing f o rh i s /he r p e r sona l o p in ion a nd r a ise t h e s t anda rd o f t h e i n te rv iew . Wh i le i n terv iew ing , t h e a u tho r h ad t o l e a rn a bou t a no the r t y p e o f q ues t ion t h a t s hou ld b e a vo ided , a s t h ey c an s po i l aw ho le i n terv iew i fn o ta l l s ub sequen to ne s i n t h e s ame t r iba l c ommun i ty . T ho se c ou ld b e d esc r ibed a s " emba r ra ss ing q ue s t ions" . T he c ance led q ues t ion N o . 1 2 ( s ee s e c t ion V a ) c ou ld h ave b een a sked d i rec t ly o r i n d i rec t ly , u s ing t h e w o rd " s omeone" i n s tead o f" you" , b u ti ts t i l l w ou ld h ave e mba r ra ssed t h e i n terv iew p ar tne r s s i nce t h ey t h ough ti t c a l led t h em l i a r s . E ven t h ough Ms . B uchanan a nd t h e a u tho r s t re ssed t h e a b so lu te c onf iden t ia l i ty w i th w h ich t h e a nswe r w ou ld b e h and led , t h e i n terv iew t ook a n ega t ive t u rn ( i n te rv iew No .4 ) . S u re , i ft h e i n ve s t iga to r h ad n ego t ia ted t h e q ues t ion w i th s e ve ra l Abor ig ina l p eop le o f d i f f e ren t t r iba l c ommun i t ies h e w ou ld h ave f ound o the r w o rd s o r p h ra ses t o a sk t h i s q ues t ion i n al e ss emba r ra s s ing manne r . T h is s hou ld

7

a u tho r c an n o t s peak f o r o t he r s c ien t is t s , e xcep t f o r t h ose t o w hom h e t a lked ( s ee b e low ) , b u t h e f i gu red t ha t ac on t inu o us ly d eve loped , i ns ome c a ses a l te red , q ues t ion c a ta logue , b a sed o n ap repa red o ne , a ppea r s t ob e t h e b es t s o lu t ion . S o , a n a t temp t t o d eve lop a n i d ea l s equence o f c on t inuou s ly p rog ress ing a nd i mp rov ing q ues t ions f o l lowed (F ig 1) .T h is

h ave b een d one f o r t h e E ng l i sh l a nguage a sw e l l a sf o r t h ose Abor ig ina l l a nguages w he re at r ans la to r w a s u sed . T he i m p oss ib i l i ty o f t h is u nder tak ing i so bv ious , i fo ne c ons ide r s t ime a nd money r e s tr ic t ions a l ong w i th t h e a t temp t t oi n ves t i ga te a b road c r oss -sec t ion o f t h e A bor ig ina l p ub l ic . A q ues t ion c a ta logue s e em s t o o s t a t ic t o a d jus t t o d i f f e r en t

I DEAL S ITUAT ION OF CONT INUOUSLY DEVELOPED QUEST ION CATALOGUE I n terv iewe r p reced ing r e sea r ch

a c t ion

r e su l t s i n p r epa red q ues t ions

PREINTER V IE W ( i nforma l ) i n i t ia tes

r eac t ion - -> i n terv iewee

n o ti n vo lved

n ego t ia t ing q ues t ion s t a ke s p a r t i np rob lem e va lua t ion , a dd s o rc ance l s p o in ts , a pp ra ises i n terv iewe rg a ins , c onf idence e v t l . t r us t , a ccep tance o rr e fu sa l o fq ues t ions

a pp ra ise s i n terv iewee , f o rmu la te s n ew o rf u r ther d eve lop s q ue s t ion s , n o te s s pon taneous r e sponses , a sks f o rp erm i ss ion t ou se t a pe r e co rde r a c t ive i n terp lay

I NTERVIE W ( f orma l ) a l te red q ues t ions c oncen t ra t ion o n r e levan tp a r t s f ocu s o n s pec ia l p rob lems

POSTINTERV IE W ( c a sua l ) i n i t ia tes t a lk , g u ides

mo re r e laxed , k now s w ha tt oe xpec t , h ad t ime t ot h ink a bou t t h e a nswer s

c l a r ify ing o fu nc lea rp o in t s d i scu s s ion o ft h ec ou r se o ft h e i n terv iew s ugge s t ion s o fi mp rovemen t

f e e ls e qua l ly i mpor tan t i nt h e f i nd ing o f s o lu t ions

a c t ive i n terp lay

F ig . 1T he i d ea l i n terv iew ( c oncep to ft h ea u tho r )

s i tua t ion s f a ced i ne very i n te rv iew , e spec ia l ly i fd ea l ing w i th d iver se t r iba l c ommun i t ies a nd p eop le o fd i spa ra te s oc ia l a nd e duca t iona l b ackg round . N ever the less , as p ec ia l s e t o f q ues t i ons , w h ich a r e t h ough t t ob e n on judgmen ta l , n on lead ing , n on -doub le -ba r r e led , e t c . h ad t ob e p rev iou s ly w r i t t en d own , a im ing t o s t ruc tu re t h e r e sea rcher 's t hough t s a s w e l l a s t o g i ve a g ene ra l g u idance t o t h e i n forman t s . T hese q ues t ion s h ad t ob e m ean ingfu l i no rde r t oo b ta in m ean ingfu l a nswer s . S ince l i t t le w a s k nown a bou t t h e i n terv iewees b efor e t h e i n terv iew , t h e q ues t ions w e re w r i t ten i n t h e w ay t h e a u tho r wou ld h ave a sked t h em t o a n a cadem ica l ly s e lec ted a ud i e nce . I tw a sk nown t h a t many ,p e rhaps mos t , o ft h eq ues t ion s t h e a u tho rw ou ld b r ing t ot h e f i e ld f r om t h e p er sona l s t udy a t h ome w ou ld b e u nsu i tab le f o r p r esen ta t ion t ot h e i n forman t s . A n i n fo rman t h ad t o b e a pp ra ised f o r h i s /he r e duca t iona l b ackg round , s oc ia l r o le , e t c . , a nd t h e q ues t ion h ad t o b e a d jus ted t o t h e r e spec t ive s i tua t ion . I n t h e a c tua l i n ter v iew t h e q ues t ion s w e re p hra sed i n s t ra igh t fo rwa rd e veryday l a n g uage .

i d ea l i n terv iew s c heme w a s d eve loped b ecause o ft h e a ppa r e n t l a ck o f c on t inuous ly d eve loped q ue s t ion c a ta logs i n s o c i o log ica l w r i t ings . T he o n ly c ompa rab le s oc io log ica l a p p roach i s r ep resen ted i n t h e o pen -ended q ues t ionna i re a s w e l l a s t h e u ns t ruc tu red o r i n forma l i n t erv iew , ( Browne 1 992 :406 /4 11) w h ich g ives r e sponden t s t h e p os s ib i l i ty o f e xp r es s ing t h e ir o wn v i ews , e ven tua l ly a l t er ing s ubsequen t q ues t ionna i res b ecause o f t h e o b ta ined r e sponse . T he b a s ic a s sump t ion i st h a t t h e i n terv iewe r 's a c t ion ( s ) r e su l t i n ap os i t i ve o r n ega t ive r e ac t ion f r om t h e i n terv iewee , r ef lec ted i n t h e q ua l i ty a nd f l uency o ft h e r e sponses . T he p r epa red q ues t i on c a ta logue d eve loped t h rough p reced ing r e sea rch s hou ld o n ly b e ag u ide l i ne f o r n ego t ia t ions i n t h e i n forma l p r e i n ter v iew . I fp r esum ing , e mba r ra s s ing , d oub le -bar re led a nd a ny f o rm o fl oaded q ues t ions a r e i n i t ia l ly a vo ided , a n a c t ive i n terp lay b e tween i n terv iewe r a nd i n terv iewee , b o th b e ing a wa re o ft h e ir e qua l r o les ,s hou ld s oon d eve lop . T he ma in f unc t ions o f t h is p r e in te rv iew a r e , a s ide f r om t h e d eve lopmen t o f q ues t ions t h a t s u i t t h e i n terv iew s i tua t ion b e t te r , t h e g a in ing o f t h e i n ter v iewee 's c onf idence a nd t r us t b y t h e i n t e rv iewe r a nd t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f ac omfor tab le a nd p os i t ive a t t i tude f o rt h e u pcom ing f o rma l i n terv iew .

T he q ues t ion n ow i si f ap repa red , o r ac on t inuous ly d eve l o ped a nd a l te red q ues t ion c a ta logue , o r am ix tu re o f t h ese p oss ib i l i t ies w ou ld s u i t t h e i n tended r e sea rch mos t . T he

8

b )L i tera ture

I ti se x t reme ly i mpo r tan t t o n o te t h e s pon taneous r e ac t ions a nd r e sponses o ft h e i n terv iew p a r tne r t op r epa red q ue s t ions a nd t h e i n t erv iew s i tua t ion i n g enera l , a s t h ey r e vea l p er s ona l i ty f e a tur e s t h a t m igh t b e u sefu l t ok now f o r t h e f o rma l i n terv iew a nd f o r t h e s ubsequen t a na lys is . P erm iss ion t ou se at a pe r e co rde r f o r t h e f o rma l i n ter v iew s hou ld a l so b e r e q ues ted . B o th t h e s c ien t is t a nd t h e i n fo rman t k now w ha t t o e xpec t i n t h e f o rma l i n terv iew ( bu t b e a wa re o f s u rp r ises ) , g i vi ng t h e c a lmnes s n eeded t or a ise t h e s t anda rd o f t h e i n t e r v iew . S pon taneous s t a temen t s o r o t he r s udden r e sponses a r e l e s s l i ke ly . Ac a sua l p o s t in terv iew i sn ecessa ry t oc l a r ify p o in t s t h a t w e re i n suf f ic ien t ly c ove red . P er sona l e xper ience s how s t h a t i ti sv ery i mpor tan t t h a t t h e i n terv iewe r i n i t ia te s t h e c a sua l t a lk s a nd g u ides t h e i n terv iewee . I ti so f ten t h e c a se t h a t ma jo r w eaknes ses a r e d e tec ted t h a t c an b e s o lved , e i the r i n as e cond i n terv iew w i th t h e s ame i n forman t o r i n s ubsequen ti n t er v iews .

T he a t temp t t os t udy t h emes c oncern ing Abor ig ina l c u l tu re i s c ondemned t of a i l i fr e ly ing o n ly o n l i t e ra tu re a ccess ib le h e re i nG ermany a nd t h e r e s t o f E u rope . E ven t h ough , a s m en t i oned e a r l ie r ( s ec t ion 1 . 3 / I I ) , t h e Aus t ra l ian a r chaeo l o g ica l /an thropo log ica l r e sea rch i sb a sed o n t h e e fo r t s o f s c ien t is t s t r a ined i n Amer ica a nd E u rope , m a in ly G rea t B r i t a i n , t h e r e f inemen to fu se -wea ra na lys i s ( Kamm inga ) a nd t h e i n ven t ion o f e t hno -a rchaeo logy wa s s uppor t ed t h rough r e s e a rch c onduc ted i n A us t ra l ia ( Gou ld ) a nd b y A us t ra l ian s c ien t is t s ( Hayden , J ones ) . E spec ia l ly t ypescr ip t s , manu s c r ip t s , p amph le t s , a nd b u l le t ins a r e o f ten o n ly o b ta inab le a t t h e l o ca l i n s t i tu t e o r d epa r tmen t w h ich p ub l ished t h em . T hese w r i t ings c ou ld n o t e ven b e o rdered , s i nce t h ey w e re n o t i n ter na t iona l ly l i s ted o r p roduced w i th t h e i n ten t ion t o r e ach t h e i n ter na t iona l p ub l ic . P re l im ina ry s t ud ies i n G e r m any u ncove red n o t e ven 1 / 10 th o f t h e l i t e ra tur e u sed f o r t h is t h e s is . S t r ik ing w a s t h e c ons iderab le a ge o f t h e p ub l ica t i on s f ound . Wr i t ings a f ter 1 975 w e re s e ldom d i scove red . F ac ing t h ese f a c t s , t h e d ec is ion w a s made t oc onduc t i n ten s i ve l i b r ary w o rk i n A us t ra l ia , i n a dd i t ion t o t h e a l ready p l anned f i e ldwo rk . T he i n tens ive s ea rch w a s s t a r ted i nS yd n ey , s imp ly b ecause t h e c heapes t f l igh t f r om G ermany a r r i ved t h e re . S urp r is ing ly , t h e Un ive r s i ty o f S ydney h ad n o A bor ig ina l s e c t ion i n c on t ra s t t o u n iver s i t ies i n t h e Un i ted S t a tes , w ho se l i b ra r ies a r e g ene ra l ly e qu ipped w i th a n Amer ican I nd ian s e c t ion . T he S ydney l i b ra ry s e emed t o h ave , a cco rd ing t o s ome k i nd o f i n scru tab le s y s t em , b ooks a bou t A bor ig ina l c u ltu re d i spe r sed a l l o ve r t h e n ume rous f l oo r s . S ince mo s t o f t h e b ook s f ound w e re p ub l ished e i the r b y t h e I n s t i tu t e o f Abor ig ina l S tud ies o r t h e Au s t ra l ian N a t i ona l Un iver s i ty , t h e n eed t o d o f u r the r s t ud ies t h ere w a s r e a l ized t h ree w eek s l a te r . T he e a sy a cces s ib i l i ty o f a lmo s t e very b ook , p amph le t , t ypescr ip t , e t c . , t h e f r iend l iness o ft h e s t a f f , a nd t h e i r w i l l ingne ss t oh e lp , a s w e l l a s t h e a b i l i ty t o r e serve a s t udydesk s ho r tened t h e r e sea rch t ime i mmense ly . T he re w a s n o l im i t a s t ot h e n umbe r o f b ooks t h a t c ou ld b e t a ken t h e d esk a to ne t ime , w h ich i se spec ia l ly v a luab le i f w o rk ing o n c ompa ra t ive a na lys is . T he I n s t i tu te o f Abo r ig ina l S tud ies i s av a luab le s ou rce f o r a l l t ypes o fr e sea rch c a r r ied o u t i nt h e f i e ld o fA bor ig ina l c u l tu re a nd s hou ld b e t h e s t a r t i n g p o in t f o r e ve ry r e sea rche r . A t t h is p o in t , t h e i mpor tance o f mak ing t h e f i n ished r e sea rch ( manuscr ip t ,t h es is ) a va i lab le t ot h e i n s t i tu te ( 15 ) s ha l l b e e xp l ic i t ly s t a ted . O n ly t h en i ti s g ua ran teed t h a t t h e i n s t i tu te k eep s u p w i th t h e l a tes t r e sea rch a nd a vo ids d up l ica t ions . T he I n s t i tu te o f A bo r ig ina l S tud ies l o ca ted i n Da rw in i sn o t r e commended , s i nce o n ly a f ew p ub l ica t ions a r e a th and . T h is i n s t i tu te m igh t o n ly b e o f i n t e res t i fo ne i sa im ing t oo b ta in t h e l a tes t p ub l ica t ions a bou t T o r res S t ra i t , A rnhem L and o r Kakadu Na t iona l P a rk , s i nce t h e D a rw in i n s t i tu t e w i l l g enera l ly b e s upp l ied w i th t h em f i r s t .

O the r s c ien t is t s t h e a u tho r m e t i n A us t ra l ia a nd t h ose r e c en t ly r e tur n ed f r om f i e ldwo rk i nA f r ica u nan imous ly s t a ted t h er ough o rt e n ta t ive n a tu re o f ap r epa red q ues t ion c a ta logue d eve loped a th ome . On ly o ne r e sea rche r d i d n o t c hange t h e c a ta logue i n t h e s ense o f a dd ing o r c ance l ing p o in t s , a l t h ough ar eph ra s ing o f t h e q ues t ions f r equen t ly t o ok p l ace . T h is w a s e spec ia l ly o f i n t e res t , s i nce s he h ad v i s i ted t h e r e spec t ive t r iba l c ommun i ty t h e f i r s t t ime . T he o t her s c ien t i s t s e xp la ined t h a t t h e i r c a ta logue d id n o t a dequa te ly r ep re s e n t t h e c u l tu ra l r e a l i ty f a ced i nt h e r e spec t ive e t hn ic g roup s . T hey a dded , c ance led , o r r e phra sed q ues t ion s i n a manne r s im i la r t ot h e p r esen t a pp roach . T he f r equency o f v i s i t s t oa t r iba l c ommun i ty d id n o t p ropor t iona l ly l owe rt h e a moun t o f a l te ra t ions i nt h ep repa red q ues t ion c a ta logue . B ecause t h e t e chn ique o f g a ther ing i n forma t ion t h rough i n ter v iew ing h a sb een b o r rowed f r om s oc io logy t h e t wo ma in t ypes o f i n t erv iews s hou ld b e m en t ioned h er e . T hese a r e t h e s t ruc tu red o r f o rma l i n ter v iew a nd u n s truc tu red o r i n forma l i n terv iew . B a sed o n ap r e -coded q ues t ionna i re ,t h e s t ruc tu red i n t erv iew d oes n o t move b eyond t h e a nswe r s r e ce ived . T he u n s truc tu r ed i n terv iew , o n t h e o t her h and , may l e ad t o d i s c uss ions a nd /o r f u r the r q ue s t ions , w h ich c an b e u sed i ns ub s e quen t i n terv iews . T hese t wo i n t erv iew t e chn iques a r e u sed i n c on junc t ion w i th e i the r n on -pa r t ic ipan t o b serva t ion o r p a r t ic ipan t o b serva t ion . T he l a t te r t e chn ique i n vo lves t h e s oc io log is t ' s p a r t ic ipa t ion i n ag roup f o rl o ng p er iod s i no rde r t ob ecome a n a ccep ted p a r to ft h a tg roup . F o l low ing t h e s cheme d eve loped b y B rowne ( 1992 :4 19 /F ig 1 6 ,5 ) t h e u n s t ruc tured i n ter v iew i nc on junc t ion w i th p a r t ic i p an t o bserva t ion i s mos t l i ke ly t o d eve lop mo re q ua l i ta t ive d a ta . T he p r esen t a pp roach d oes n o t f u l ly f i t i nt h a t s c heme a nd i st h e refo re f u r ther e xp la ined i nF ig .1 .

A s i no t he r c oun t r ies , t h e r e sea rcher 's p res t ige ( a u thor i ty ) i n A us t ra l ia r i ses p ropo r t iona l ly t ot h e n umbe r o fh i s /he r p ub l i c a t ion s . I n t h is c oncer n , i td oes n o t ma t te r i fh e /she i st h e

( 1 5 )E spec ia l ly f o rf o re ign s c ien t is t s

9

a u tho r o r e d i to r . E ven t h ough t h e d eve lopmen t i n a r chaeo l og ica l /an thropo log ica l m e thodo logy h a s b een r ap id a nd t h e n umbe r o fd e t ec ted s i te s h a s i n c rea sed , t h e a moun t o fp ub l i c a t ion s h a s i n c r ea sed t w ice a s f a s t . S t i l l , t h e q ua l i ty o f a r e sea rche r i s t h ough t less ly m ea su red b y t h e a moun t o f h i s /he r p ub l ica t ions r a the r t h an b y t h e i r q ua l i ty . T he p resen t s t udy a t temp ted t on eg lec t p ub l ica t ions t h a t w e re r ew r i t ing s o f a l ready p ub l ished r e sea r ch o r t hose t h a t d id n o t d eve lop n ew i d ea s o r r e sea rch c oncep t s . Mos t o f t h e l i t era tu re u sed a nd m en t ioned i n t h i s t h es is may b e s e en a s mo re o r l e s s p i eces i nt h e p uzz le o f A bor ig ina l p reh is tory . T he d om inan t f ea tu re o f t h e c onduc ted a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch i si t s c a re f u lness a nd a pp l ica t ion o ft h e n ewes t m e thod s . T h is r e sea rch c an s t and a s a n e xamp le f o r e xce l len t a r chaeo l o gy /an th ropo logy , w h ich i nt h e e nd , s t i l l d oes n o tj u s t ify i t s p resen tp e r fo rmance i nt e rms o ft h e Abor ig ine s w an to rn eed f o ri t . P a r t Io f t h i s t h es is c oncer n ing s t one t o o l t e chno logy w a s ma in ly b a sed o n r e sea rch a l ready c onduc ted i n 1 989 /90 ( Ma s te r s t h es is D eune r t 1 990 ) , b u t mod if ied t o t h e s pec if ic Aus t ra l ian c ond i t ions . T heme r e la ted l i t e ra tu re w a s s uf i c i en t ly a va i lab le .

c )T he u se o f am idd leperson

A s s oon a s i tb ecame c l ea r t h a t f i e ldwo rk h ad t o b e c on d uc ted i nA us t ra l ia , t h e d ec is ion w a s made t ou se am idd lep e r son o fs k in c o lo r s im i la r t ot h e A bo r ig ines . P er sona l e xpe r i ences i n ac o lo r -m ixed r e la t ionsh ip s howed t h a t mo re t h an w h i t e p eop le , b l ack p eop le h ave a s t rong , c o lo r -ba sed s o l i d a r i ty . I ti si d le t o s pecu la te a bou t t h e r ea sons f o r t h is p he n omenon , b u t t h e w o r ldw ide h i s to r ica l o pp ress ion o f b lack p eop le s e em s t ob e ama in f a c to r . Whereve r t h e a u tho r w en t w i th h i s p a r tner , s he w a s a pp roached b y o t he r b l ack p eop le , mo s t ly i nt h e a u tho r 's a bsence . Know ing t h a t , i ts e emed t ob e w o r th d i scover ing i f as im i la r r e ac t ion wou ld b e o bservab le i n A us t ra l ia a mong t h e i nd igenou s p eop le . Ms . B uchanan i mmed ia te ly a g reed t od o t h is t h ank le s s j ob , w h ich r e qu i red t h e p er sona l s t reng th t ob a lance t h e p o ss ib le b e t raya l o f t h e p eop le w ho g ave h e rc onf iden t ia l i n forma t ion w i th ac on s tan t e f for tt or e la te ( r a t iona l ly ) t h e s t a te o fb l ack /wh i te r e la t ions . T hough t h e a u tho r d eep ly b e l ieves t h a t t h e A us t ra l ian A bo r i g ines a r e t h e l e a s t c o lo r p re jud ice p eop le h e h a s e ve r m e t , t h e re s e ems t o b e ad i sc repancy b e tween t h e f l uency a nd w i l l ingnes s t or e lea se i n forma t ion t o Ms . B uchanan a s c om p a red t o " wh i te" r e sea rche r s . I to f ten h appened t h a t i n te r v i ews a nd e ven i n s ign if ican t c ha t s b e tween i n forman t s a nd Ms . B uchanan s t opped u pon t h e a u tho r s a r r iva l , a nd t h ey n eve r r e ached t h e s ame i n t ima te s t a t e a sb efo re . E ven i ft h e a u tho r j u s t p a ssed b y , v o ice s w er e l owe red o r t h e s ub jec t c hanged . C on tac t w i th p eop le wa s r e nde red mo re d i ff icu l t i f t h e a u thor w a s s t and ing t o ge the r w i th Ms . B uchanan , s i nce f ewe r p eop le c ame u p t o t a lk t o u s . T here w e re o n ly f ew s i tua t ion s w he re t h e a u tho r h ad t h e f e e l ing t h a t p eop le w e re mo re r e spon s ive t o h im b ecause t h ey a ccep ted h im a s a n a u tho r i ty ( 16 ) . Wi th t h ese p eop le , e ven t h e r e luc tan t ly a p p l ied d i rec t a pp roach , t h a t i sa sk ing f o r a n i n terv iew w i thou t b e ing i n t roduced b yo t her so rw i thou tk now ing t h ep eop le f o r ac ons ide rab le a moun t o ft ime , wo rked , t h ough t h e i n fo rma t i on o b ta ined s hou ld b e b i a sed ( I n forman t s N o . 3 4 , 6 7 a nd 8 1) . I n s ome t r iba l c ommun i t ies , g ender s p ec if ic p rob lems a r o se , t hough t h is r e sea rch d oes n o t i n ves t iga t e g ende r s pec if ic r o les . T he s imp le f a c t t h a t Ms . B uchanan w a s f ema le d i d n o t a l low h e r t o i n terv iew s ome ma le m embe r s o f t h e c ommu n i ty , a t l e a s t n o t w i thou t t h e a u tho r 's p e r sona l a ppea rance . A nd v i ce v e r sa , t h e a u tho r w a s s t r ic t ly n o t a l lowed t ot a lk t o f ema le m embe r s o f c er ta in t r iba l c ommun i t ies , u n less a p p roved b yt h e w omen 's c ounc i l . A tt h is p o in t , t h e n eces s i ty o f d a ta b e ing c o l lec ted b yb o th s exes s ha l lb e s t a ted . I fs t udy ing ac u l tu re , o ne 's s ubsequen t i n terp re ta t ion i s d ependen t o n o ne 's s ex a nd o n o ne 's c u l tura l ly d ef ined s exua l i d en t i ty . I t w a sn o tw i thou tr ea son t h a t Wh i tehead a nd C onaway d ef ined c er ta in d if er ences i n f i e ldwo rk e xpe r ience a s s ex -spec if i c . T hey a rgued t h a t : " f ema le f i e ldwo rker s a r e mor e s ens i t ive t o t h e f i e ld s i tua t ion t h an ma le f i e ldwo rke r s , a nd a r e t h e refo re

( 16 ) Mo s t ly o nf o rme rm iss ions w here i tw a se xp l ic i t ly s t a ted t h a tJ esus C hr is ta nd God a r e w h i te .

1 0

mo re l i ke ly t oa t t emp t t ou nde r s tand t h e s y s t ema t ic r e la t ion s h ip b e tween t h e f i e ldwo rk p roces s a nd t h e f i e ldwo rke r 's s en se o f s e lf ." ( Wh i t ehead /Connaway 1 986 :289 , p o in t s 1 t o5 ) A pa r tf r om t h e se g ende rc ons ide ra t ion s , ad ec i s ion h ad t ob e m ade a st ow ha tc ha rac ter is t ic s a nd b ehav io r t h e m idd lepe r s on s hou ld d i sp lay . S ince mo r e t h an 5 0% o f t h e f i lm s a nd t e lev i s ion p rog ram s s e en i n A u s t ra l ia a r e p roduced i n a nd i mpo r ted f r om t h e U n i ted S t a t es , t h e i mage o f a n Ame r ican w oman w a s a l so c r ea ted b y t h e m ed ia . T oday , e ven t h e r e mo t es tc ommun i ty h a s a tl e a s t ac ommuna l TV r oom , w h ich i so f ten f r equen t ed mo r e t h an t h e l o ca l s choo l . T he A bor ig i n a l TV s t a t ion I mpa la g l ad ly b roadca s t s d ocumen ta t ion s a bou t t h e Ame r ican I nd ian s , w h ich s t and a sa n e xamp le f o r t h e s t a t e t h a t t h e A bo r ig ine s t r y t or e ach i nA u s t ra l ian s oc i e t y . S hou ld Ms . B uchanan , w ho i sp a r t ia l ly C he rokee , r ep re s en tt h i s t yp ica l v i ew o f Ame r ican I nd ian s s hown o n TV , o r s hou ld s he r e semb le t h e i mage t h a tt h e i n fo rman t sh o ld o fa n i d ea l Ame r ican w oman ,o rs hou ld s he mod ify h e rb ehav io rt o a ccommoda te t h e s t anda rd s o f t h e A bo r ig ine s a nd t r y t o m im ic t h e i n f o rman t 's c l o th ing e xa c t ly ? S ome t ime s , a s P ro f .D rJen sen ( 1 7 ) ,l e c tu r e ra tt h eU n ive r s i ty o fH ambu rg i n t h e D epa r tmen to fE thno logy e xp r es sed i t , mo r e i n forma t ion c an b e o b ta ined w i thou t am idd lepe r son b y b ehav ing a nd d r e s s ing i nt h e h ab i tua l w ay o ft h e i n ves t iga t ed g roup , a sh e e xpe r ienced i n Maur i t iu s . T he r e sea r ch i nA u st ra l ia s howed t h a t am idd lep e r son o fs im i la rs k in c o lo ri sa b so lu te ly n ece s s a ry , s o t h a t s ha l l b e r e commended a tt h i s p o in t f o r f u tu r e r e sea r che r s .E ven t h ough t h e a u tho ri so ft h eo p in ion t h a tt h e A bo r ig ines t h em se lves s hou ld i d ea l ly c onduc t t h is k i nd o f r e sea r ch , a tt h i sp o in tt h e re a r e o n ly af ew t r a ined A bo r ig ina l a r cha eo log i s t sa nd a n th ropo log is t s . Ms . B uchanan w a s a sked t ob e h e r se lf a nd n o tt om im ic a ny b ehav io rn o rt od re s s i na s p ec if ic w ay . T he re w a s o n ly o ne e xcep t iona l s i tua t ion , w hen t h e w omen o f ac ommun i ty a sked Ms . B uchanan n o tt o w ea r s ho r t s o r d r es se s t h a t w ou ld e xpose h e r k ne es a nd t h ighs . T he n umbe ro fe xce l len t i n te rv iew s a ch ieved a nd t h e h o sp i ta l i ty Ms . B uchanan e xpe r ienced p roved t h i s a pp roach t ob er i gh t .

d )T he t ru thfu lnes so fa nswer sa nd t he c red ib i l i ty o f i n f orman t s

S ome a n th ropo log i s t s m igh tb e c onfused b y t h e a u tho r s r e la t i ve ly f l abby ( und i s t ingu i shed ) u s e o f t h e w o rd i n form an t . S ince i tw a s t h e a im o f t h i s r e sea rch t o o b ta in a v a r ie ty o f a n swe r s f r om A bo r ig ine s i nd if e r en te duca t iona l , s oc ia l a nd d eve lopmen ta l s t a t e s ( 1 8 ) n o k ey i n fo rman t s o r c o r e sea rche r s w e r e s e lec ted . S ome p eop le , w i th w hom Ms . B uchanan o rt h e a u tho re s tab l ished c l o se , s omehow i n t ima t e c on tac t , m igh t b e s e en a s c on su l tan t s , a l though t h ey w e r e s e ldom a sked t or e la te t oa mb iguous a n swe r s g i ven b y o t he r i n t erv iew p a r tne r s . T he a u tho r b e l ieve s t h a t t h e s e lec t ion o f k ey i n fo rman t s o r , e ven w o r se , c o r e sea rche r s w ou ld h ave a dve r se ly a f ec ted t h e o u tcome o ft h e r e sea r ch . K ey i n fo rman t s a r e d ef ined a s t h o se w ho h ave b een i n t er v iewed i n t en s ive ly o r o ve r a n e x t e n s ive p er iod o f t ime f o r t h e p u rpose o f p rov id ing ar e la t i ve ly c omp le te e t hnog raph ica l d esc r ip t ion o ft h e s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l p a t ter n s o ft h e i r g roup . Ac o -r es ea rche r o r r e sea rch c o l labo ra to r o n t h e o t he r h and , " r e semb le s ac on su l tan t b u t h a s b ecome a m embe r o f t h e r e sea rch t e am" ( Wer n e r /Schoep f le 1 986 :248 ) . T he f o cused u se o f k ey i n f o rman t s o r c o r e sea rche r s w ou ld h ave a r t if ic ia l ly c hanged t h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu r e o f t h e r e spec t ive c ommun i ty . T he s e l e c ted p e r son w ou ld h ave b ecome ,o rs imp ly c l a imed t oh ave b ecome ,o f ah i ghe rs oc ia l s t a tus , s i nce i tw a sh im /he r , w hom t h e r e sea rche r s e lec ted , a nd n o t t h e o the r s . H e /She w ou ld h ave i n t roduced t h e r e sea r che r t op eop le t h a t a ccep t h i s /he r p o s i t ion , t h u s s how ing u n i fo rm i ty i n t h e i r a n swe r s . T h i s p roces s w ou ld n o t h ave b een a dvan tageou s t o t h e p r esen t r e s ea rch . T r emb ley ( 1957 ) , w ho a pp l ied t h e k ey i n fo rman t t e chn ique i n h i s S t i r l ing C oun ty S t udy , r ema rk s t h a t t h i s t e chn ique m igh t b e u s efu l i fs u rvey ing al a rge n umb e r o fc ommun i t ie s i na ne x ten s ive a r ea . I fd o ing s o ,h e p ref e r s t h e c a r ef u l s e lec t i on o fk ey i n fo rman t s t o ap u re ly s t a t is t ica l ly d rawn r e spon d en t . T he s e lec t ion c r i t er ia w e re s i x f o ld . T he r o le w i th in t h e c ommun i ty , k now ledge , w i l l ingne s s , c ommun icab i l i ty , i m p a r t ia l i ty a nd r e l iab i l i ty , s hou ld b e c ons ide red w hen c hoo s i n g ak ey i n fo rman t . I ft h e s e lec ted p e r son r ef lec t s a l l t h e se a t t i tude s , h e / she w i l l b e h e lp f u l a nd s uppor t ive i nt h e o ngo i n gr e sea r ch ( T r emb ley 1 957 :69 1-93 ) . A sn i ce a st h i s a pp roach s ounds , i th a rd ly s e em s t ob e a pp l i c ab le t oa ny k i nd o fr e sea r ch w he r e i n fo rman t s a r e n eeded . O ne o ft h e ma in p rob lem s i st h e t ime f a c to r . I n o rde r t oe n s u re t h e a bove -men t ioned a t t i tude s t h a t a n i d ea l i n fo rman t s hou ld d i sp lay ,s e ve ra l mon ths , i fn o ty ea r s ,w ou ld b en eeded t og a in h i s /he rt r u s t a nd t ob e s u re t h a th e / she i sn o t l y ing o r p l ay ing a r o le . T o m en t ion o n ly o ne e xamp le , i n t h i s c ase f r om A u s t ra l ia , S t anne r d e sc r ibes o ne o f h i s Abo r ig ina l i n

( 1 8 ) Mo r e o rl e s s i n f luenced b y t h e w e s ter nl i v ing s t y le . S ee a l so n o t e ( d ep raved v e r su sd eve loped ,n o t es 5 , 6 )

( 17 ) p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion ,F ebrua ry 1 992

1 1

b ia sed , c on s ide r ing h i s /he r i n f luen t ia l r o le w i th in t h e c om mun i ty .

f o rman t s T j ima r i a s f o l low s :" H e w a s t h e f i r s t A bo r ig ine I e ve rm e ta nd ,o ve r aq ua r te ro f ac en tu ry , If ound h im t ob e a f a sc ina t ing m ix tu r e -al i a r , at h ie f , a n i n ve t e ra t e t r i ck s te r , a t i r e les s i n t r igue r , a n a r t is to fh i gh a b i l i ty a nd am an o fm uch i fi n a ccu ra t e k now ledge . . . . H e w a s a dep t i n p l ay ing w h i te a ga in s tb o th w h i te a nd b l ack . . . . It h ough th im a na r chman ipu l a to rw i th w i ta nd c ha rm b u tn op r inc ip le s , a nd r e ady f o ra ny v i l la iny t h a t p a id " ( S tanne r 1 960 :68 ) . T h i s a s se s smen t o f T j ima r i w a sg a ined a f te r a n a cqua in tance o fa lmo s t2 5 y ea r s , a nd S tanne r s t i l l a dm i t s t h a t s ome o f h i s o t he r i n fo rman t s s u rp r ise h im w i th h i ther to u nknown r e ac t ion s . S im i la r w r i t i n gs a bou t i n f o rman t s a s " unknown my s te r ie s" a r e f ound i n a lmo s t e ve ry e t hnog raph ica l r e po r t d ea l ing w i th c r o s s c u l tu ra l ,a sw e l l a si n t e r -cu l tu ra l ,f i e ldwo rk .

Ac ons id e rab le f a c to r , c ommon ly s ummed u pw i th t h e s ay ing " t he r e i sn o th ing s u ch a st r u th i na n th ropo logy" , c ome s f r om t h e i n ve s t iga t ing o b jec t a sw e l l a sf r om t h e i n ves t iga ted s ub j e c t , t h e t e ndenc ie s o fh uman b e ing s i ng ene ra l . I fr e f lec t ing u pon o ne ' s o wn b ehav io r , o ne s oon r e a l ize s t h a t , h ow w e r i g u p as t o ry t of i to u rs pec ia l p u rpos e sd epend s s t rong ly o n t h e s i tua t ion s a nd t h e p e r sons w e f a ce , s i nce i t i si mpor tan t t o i mp res s t h e r e spec t ive p e r son w e t a lk t o . A r e w e u ncomfo r t a b le w i th t h e s i tua t ion , a r e w e a f ra id t o t e l l t h e t r u th , e t c ? A l l t h e se a r e f a c to r s w e c onsc iou s ly o r u ncon sc iou s ly c on s i de r w hen r e spond ing t o aq ue s t ion o r n a r ra t ing a s t o ry . R ecen t ly ( Ma r ch 1 992 ) ,t h e a u tho rr a ndom ly a sked p eop le h e m e t i ft h ey w ou ld a lway s t e l l t h e t r u th i fa sked q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e i r l i f e a nd i ft h ey l i e i nt h e d a i ly s oc ia l i n te rcou r se w i th a cqua in tance s a nd c l o se f r iend s . T hey w e r e a sked t o e s t ima t e t h e i r t r u thfu lnes s o n as c a le f r om 0 - 1 00 % i n

A no the rp rob lem o ft h ek ey i n fo rman tt e chn ique i st h e s ome h ow n a ive n o t ion t h a tt h e a n th ropo log i s tc an c a re fu l ly s e lec t ak ey i n fo rman t a nd t h en c onduc tu n inf luenced f i e ldwo rk a s ap a r t ic ipan t o bser ve r . S ince t h e r e sea r che r c omes a s a n

R elease i nformation IThe a uthor With IAcquaintances1With IFriendsI a bout t owardslas s cientist Idcb I I dcb I Q uestions scientific general personal about o thers a )friends b )acquaintances R eports/Stories scientific general personal about o thers a )friends b )acquaintances

1 00% 9 0% 8 5%

9 5% 9 0% 8 0%

7 5% 9 0% X

7 0% 8 5% X

1 00% 9 0% 9 0%

7 0% 9 0%

7 0% 8 5%

7 5%

X 7 0%

9 0% 9 5%

1 00% 8 5% 8 0%

9 5% 8 0% 7 5%

7 0% 8 0% 6 5%

7 0% 8 0% 5 5%

1 00% 9 0% 9 0%

7 0% 9 0%

6 5% 8 0%

6 5% 8 0%

6 0% 8 0%

9 0% 9 0%

d cb = d ifferent c ultural b ackground X = w ould n ot r elease a ny i nformation ( 20) F ig.

2

T ruthfulness o f a nswers w ithin t he o wn c ulture .

s t ep so f 5% .

o u t s ide r t ot h e c ommun i ty h e / she i n tend s t os t udy , h e / she i s i mmed ia te ly e xpo sed t o c u r io s i ty , o b se rva t ion , g o s s ip , a nd e ven man ipu la t ion . T he a n th ropo log i s t a s a n a c t ive a gen t t r y ing t oo b ta in i n fo rma t ion i n ev i tab ly b ecome s ap a r to ft h e s oc ia l l i f e o ft h e p eop le w i th w hom h e /she i n t e ra c t s . T h i s i s e spec ia l ly t r ue f o rt h ek ey i n fo rman t ,w ho m igh tg a in c on s id e rab le a dvan tages o u t o f h i s /he r a s c r ibed r o le . G o ldk ind c onc ludes i nh i s p ape r " An th ropo log i s t s , i n fo rman t s a nd t h e a ch ievemen t o f p owe r i n C han K or n" t h a t " t he re i ss ome e t h ica l o b l iga t ion f o r t h e a n th ropo log i s t t oa t t emp t t om in i m ize b e ing m an ipu la t ed o r o t herw i se u s ed b y i n fo rman t s w ho t h e reby m igh t g a in s om e s i gn if ican t a dvan tage a tt h e e xpen se o fo t he r s b e ing s t ud ied " ( Go ldk ind 1 970 :39 ) . E ven t h ough t h e r e sea rche r t r ie s t o h ide h i s /he r a c t iv i ty b y t h e m eans o f a" cover t" o r " s ec r e t "p a r t ic ipan to b serve r ( 19 ) ( I n : B u lme r e d . 1 982 ) , h i s /he r r e sea rch o u tcome s t i l l h a s t ob e

A f te r af ew i n ter v iew so n ly i tb ecam eo bv ious t h a ts ome k i nd o f ap r ev iou s ly p r epa red a n swe r ing s hee t w a s n eeded , s i nce n o o ne w a s a b le o rw i l l ing t oa nswe r w i thou t a ny r e s t r ic t ing c ond i t ion s . T he f o l low ing l i s t F ig . 2( w i thou t p e rcen tages ) w a sp r epa r ed a nd h anded o u td u r ing t h ei n t e rv iew .

( 19 ) T e rm e mp loyed i np ro f e s s iona l w r i t ing a tl e a s t a se a r ly a s 1 939 b yN ade l( Ba r t le t t 1 939 :317 -27 ) ( 20 ) R ema rk : t h i s o p t ion w a s n o t g i ven , b u t m en t ioned b y e ve ry i n t er v iew p a r tne r .

1 2

d eve loped q ues t ions ( s ee s e c t ion 1 . 4a ) t r u thfu l ly c an b e c ons ide r ed a se xcep t iona l ly h igh . T he s e lec t ion o f i n ter v iew p a r tne r s f r om a l l o ve r A u s t ra l ia s hou ld h ave g ua ran t eed a g ene ra l A bo r ig ina l p ub l ic o p in ion r a the r t h an j u s t l o ca l i m p re s s ion s . T he s t one t o o l e xpe r imen t s e c t ion o n t h e o t he r h and a sked f o r s pec if ic a b i l i t ie s o f s i ng le p e r son s . T he f r ic t i on le s s ( smoo th ) c oope ra t ion o ft h e A bo r ig ines , t h e u se o fa m idd lepe r son , a nd t h e p ub l ic i n t e re s t i n t h e p resen t t h e s i s made t h e a u tho r b e l ieve t h a t t h e r e su l t s a r e a ccu ra te , e ven t hough a b so lu t e t r u th c an n o tb e s t a ted .

A l l t o ge the r4 2 p eop le w e r e i n te rv iewed . T he m ean v a lue o f e ve ry s i ng le a n swe r w a s e s tab l i shed a nd c an b e s e en i nt h e l i s t . T he re i s ad ef in i t e t r end t o r e lea se i n fo rma t ion a bou t a c q ua in tances r a the rt h an f r iend s , a tl e a s tt op eop le t h a t a r e n o t ac l o se r e la t ion o ft h e p er son a sked . T he s l igh t ly l owe r p e r c en tage f o rp eop le o f ad i f f e ren tc u l tu ra l b a ckg round ma in ly r e su l ted f r om t h e a nswe r s f r om o ne p e r son w ho o bv iou s ly d id n o tl i ke f o r e igne r s a nd h ad n eve rb een o u to fh i s c oun t ry e i the r . Unfo r tuna t e ly , t h e a u tho rh a s t h e f e e l ing t h a t t h e p e r c en tage o f t h e p eop le r eached f r om d if e r en t c u l tu ra l b ack g round d oes n o t r e f lec t r e a l i ty . Many i n t er v iew p a r tne r s r e vea led s l igh t t o s t rong p r e jud ice s a bou t o ne c u l tu r e o r a no the r . T he g r ade o fp re jud ice w a s d i r ec t ly p ropo r t iona l t o t h er emo tene s so ft h er e spec t ive c u l tu r e .

1 . 5I NQU IRY METHOD , CONSTRUCT ION OF THE TEXT

T he a u tho r h one s t ly b e l ieve s t h a t a lmo s t a l l o f t h e p e rcen t a ge s g i ven a r e f a r t oo h igh a tl e a s tb y 1 0% . T he s imp le f a c t o f t h e c onfo rm i ty o f t h e a n swe r s a nd t h e p romp tne s s w i th w h ich t h ey w e r eg i ven m akes t h e a u tho rd oub t t h e i rt r u thfu l n es s . O bv iou s ly , n o o ne l i ke s t oa dm i t t ob e ing a l i a r o r a s how o f f i ns ome s i tua t ion s , e spec ia l ly n o t i n as oc ie ty l i ke o u r sw i th s t r ic tr u le so fb ehav io r . T he a u tho r h a s t oa dm i t t h a t h e w ou ld n o t b e s o t r u thfu l i n c er ta in n on sc ien t if ic s i tua t ion s . I nA u s t ra l ia i t se lf t h e a u tho r e xp er ienced i n t erv iew p a r tne r s ( No . 5 7 a nd 5 8 ) w ho h ad o bv iou s ly m ad e u p s t o r ies t oj u s t if y t h e i r A bo r ig ina l i ty t o o the r s , b u t h ad h e ld o n t ot h e se " l ies" f o r s o l o ng t h a t t h ey s t a r t ed t ob e l ieve t h em . T he se p eop le w e r e u nab le t od i s t in g u i sh b e tween t h et r ue e ven t sa nd t h ef i c t i t iou so ne s( s ee a l so s ec t ion I V ) .I no t he rc a se s w he r et h ese f i c t i t iou s s t o r ies w e r e n o t s o o bv ious a nd e a sy t od i sp rove , t h ey m igh t h ave b een w r i t t en o r o r a l ly h anded d own a nd h ave b ecome h i s to ry . O the rp eop le ( No . 1 4a nd 1 03 )w e r e r e a lf l a t t e r e r s , a im ing t o g e t ar i de i nt h ec a r( 2 1) ,o rw e r ea t t ra c ted t o Ms .B uchanan . T he se p eop le w ou ld h ave g i ven a n swe r st h a ts u i tt h er e sea r ch g oa ls i fp u rpose ly d i r ec ted i nt h i s w ay t h rough s pec ia l q ue s t i on s . H e re l i e s o ne o f t h e m a jo r r e spon s ib i l i t ie s o f ar e s ea r che r , t on o t u se i n fo rman t s t h a t c an b e m an ipu la t ed i n o rde rt op roduce t h e p ropo sed r e sea rch o u tcome . I n fo rman t s c ommon ly p o in ted o u t o t he r p eop le t h a t w e r e i nt h e i r o p in i o n n o t s ound o f m ind o r c on s ide r ed t ob e b abb le r s . O f ten t h e se " babb le r s" w ou ld c on t rad ic t t h e i n fo rma t ion o b ta ined f r om t h ep e r son t h a td i spa raged h im /he r . T he r e sea rche rt h en h ad t od ec ide w ho w a s t e l l ing t h e t r u th a nd w ha t c ou ld b e s e en a s v a luab le i n fo rma t ion f o r t h e r e s ea r ch p ro jec t . O ne w ay t o r educe a mb igu i t ie s a r e p robab i l i ty c on s ide ra t ion s . T he mo r e o f t en as t o ry w a s t o ld i n as im i la r w ay , t h e h ighe r i st h ep robab i l i ty t h a ti tc on ta ined t h et r u th . S ince t h e p r esen t s t udy w a st h ough tt oe s tab l i sh ap o s s ib le mu tua lb a s i sf o rt h e w o rk o f a r cha eo log is t s a nd a n th ropo log is t s w i th A bo r ig ina l c ommun i t ies , t h e w i l l ingne s s t o a n swe r t h e o f t en s e l f

T he p r e sen t t h e s i s p roceed s f r om ap rob lem o r ien ted w o rk i n g m e thod . "T he p r econd i t ion f o r t h is p rob lem o r ien ted w o rk ing m e thod i so ne o r s eve ra l c l ea r ly s t a ted p rob lem (s ) . T he c l ea r d ef in i t ion o f t h ep rob lem (s ) e nab les t h e r e searche r t oe s tab l i sh c r i t er ia f o r ac a refu l ly d i rec ted s ea rch o f i n fo r ma t ion . T he d i v i s ion o f t h e p rob lem ( s ) i n s eve ra l s ub p rob lem s i sa n i mpo r tan t s t ep i nt h e p rob lem a na lys i s . E ach o ft h e i n ve s t iga t ion s u nde r taken t os o lve t h ese s ub -p rob lem s b ecom e s as epa ra t e s e c t ion i nt h e o u t l ine o ft h e f i na l r epo r t o f t h e s t udy . W i th e ve ry s t ep (t h e s o lu t ion o f o ne s ub p rob lem )t h er e sea rche ri sa b le t oe s tab l i sh ah ypo thes i s t h a t c an b e t e s ted w i th t h e n ex t s t ep . I f as o lu t ion o f as ub p rob lem c an n o t b e o b ta ined , t h e r e a son f o r t h is mus t b e q ues t ioned a nd ac r i t ica l r e v iew o f t h e r e sea rch m e thod s i s n ece s sa ry t od e r ive b e t te rr e su l t s . Af t e r t h e s o lu t ion o fe ve ry s ub -p rob lem a nd t h e t e s t ing o fe ve ry h ypo the s i s , t h e s o lu t ion o f t h e b a s ic p rob lem ( s ) c an b e s yn thes ized ." ( D eune r t 1 990 :37 )S ome o ft h e s ub -p rob lem s (q ue s t ion s i nt h e c a ta l ogue )a r e t h i rd p a r ty d e t e rm ined , o the r s a r e e s tab l ished t h rough p e r sona l e xpe r ience s i ni n te rcu l tu ra l r e la t ions (s e e s e c t ion 1 . 4 c ) a nd d a i ly e xpo su r e t o t h e i n s t i tu t iona l ized s c ien t if i c d i lemma (s e e s e c t ion 1 . 1) . T he c omb ina t ion o f t h ese s ub -p rob lem s , t h e i rf o rmu la t ion i n to c ommon d emand s f r om mode rn s c ience , a nd t h e i r e xemp la ry s hown s o lu t ion s s ha l le s tab l i sh t h eo u t e rf r ame o ft h ep r esen tt h es i s . T he A u s t ra l ian a r cha eo log ica l e n te rp r i se r e l ie s o n t h i s m e thod , a l be i t i t s p e r fo rmance i sl e s s m e thod ica l , e spec ia l ly i n t h e i n t roduc to ry p a r t . T he c l ea r p rob lem d ef in i t ion , i t s p ropos ed s o lu t ion , a nd t h e p roof o fi t sb ene f ic ia l p u rpo se a r e c ompu l so ry f o re ve ry s c ien t if i c w o rk i nA u s t ra l ia , a tl e a s tf o r A u s t ra l ian r e sea rche r s . T he i mmen se d ange ro f ap roposa l o f t h e p o s s ib le r e sea rch o u tcome i st h e e a r ly m en ta l f i xa t ion t owa rd s t h i s s pec if ic s o lu t ion , s o t h a t o the r p o s s ib i l i t ie s m igh t n o t b e r e a l ized . T he p r ima ry f ocu s o n t h e p ropo sed o u tcome n a r row st h e m ind a nd m ake s ac r i t ica l r e -eva lua t ion l e s sf e a s ib le t h an w i th t h e s t ep b y s t ep s o lu t ion o fp r ev iou s ly s t a ted s ub -p rob lem s ,w h ich s hou ld d e r ive i ndub i tab le r e su l t s . S ince t h e p r esen t a pp roa ch d id n o t f o l low t h e u sua l b u r eau c r a t ic p rocedu r eo ft h e l a nd c ounc i l ,t h ep r ev iou s ly d esc r ibed p roce s s ( r egu la t ion s ) d id n o t h ave t o b e o b se rved . A t a ny r a te , i tw ou ld h ave b een i mpos s ib le t o s t a t e t h e r e sea rch o u tcome c l ea r ly , t h ough t h e b enef i t s f o r t h e Abo r ig ina l p eo p l e w e r ef o r es eeab le .

( 2 1) i no rde rt ob uy a l coho l

1 3

w a s n o t q u i te p ropor t iona l t o t h e s i ze o f t h e c on t inen t , a maz ing r e su l t s w e re o b ta ined i nj u s t t h e f i r s tf ew y ea r s ( See b e low ) . T he d eve lopmen t o fe t hnoa rchaeo logy m igh tb e s e en a s a n A us t ra l ian a ccomp l ishmen t , e ven t h ough t h e Amer ican G ou ld w a s t h e i n i t ia t ing f o rce i n t h i s f i e ld . S ubsequen t r e s ea rch f r om H ayden ( 1976 ) a nd Meehan / Jones ( e d s .1988 ) r e f ined t h is a pp roach . Wi th t h e i n c rea s ing e fo r t p u t i n to a n thropo log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s a nd t h e g row ing d emand f o r t h e c on t ro l o fl a nd r i gh t s f o r A bo r ig ina l A us t ra l ians , r e sea rch i nt h ese f i e ld s r e ached t h e n a t iona l i s t ic s t a te . F ac ing t h e f a c t t h a t t h e re w e r e t oo f ew A bo r ig ina l A us tra l ian f i e ld w o rke r s o r a c t ive ly s t udy ing p r eh is tor ian s , t h e Abo r ig ina l c ommun i ty b ecame a wa r e o f t h e i mpa c t t h a t t h e w h i te m an 's v i ew o f c onse rva t ion c ou ld h ave o n t h e Abo r ig ina l h er i tage . T he A bo r ig ina l r e ac t ion w a s at o ta l o r p a r t ia l b an o n e n t ry t o s i t es c oncer n ing t h e i r h i s to ry . T h is b ecame e spec ia l ly t r ue f o r b ur ia l s i te s , s a c red s i tes , o r a r ea s w he re A bor ig ines s t i l l l i ve c l oses t t o t h e i r t r ad i t iona l l i f e s t y le . T hese r e cen t d eve lopmen t s s p l i t t h e r e sea rche r s i n to t wo p a r t ie s . T he f i r s t e mpha s ize s t h e n eed o f a r chae o logy /an th ropo logy f o r p r eh is to r ica l /h is to r ica l s ake , o r a s Mur ray a nd Wh i te e xp res s i t : " Aus t ra l ian a r cha eo logy i ss i ngu la r , m e thodo log ica l ly a nd t h eo re t ica l ly A us t ra l ian a r chaeo logy , w a s a nd i sa r cha eo logy f i r s t a nd A us t ra l ian s e cond" ( Mur ray / Wh i t e 1 981 :262 ) . T he s econd , n o t n ega t ive ly c a l led n a t iona l is t ic , i ss t i l l i n te res ted i n t h e e xp lo ra t ion o f A bor ig ina l c u l tu re , b u t o n ly w hen c omp ly ing w i th A bo r ig ina l i n teres t s ( 24 ) .

2 . OUTLINE OF THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL /ANTHROPOLOG ICAL I NTERPRETATION OF PREHISTORIC AUSTRAL IA PRE 1 770

2 . 1 I n troduc tory r e marks Much , p robab ly t o o much , h a s b een p u t d own i n w r i t ing a bou t t h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd a n thropo log ica l i n terp re ta t ion o f p reh is to r ic A us t ra l ia , a nd e ven my modes t c ont r ibu t ion ( s ing le p a r t s o ft h is o u t l ine ) c an b e r e ad at housand t imes i n v a r ious , f r om s imp l is t ic t o h i gh ly s oph is t ica ted , d eg ree s o f p h ra s ing . T hese w r i t ings v a ry i n t h e i r a pp ea r ance f r om c o lon ia l i s t ic t o " Camb r idge s c ho la s t ic" t o n a t iona l is t ic . A l t h ough t h e a u tho r a s sumes t h a t t h e c o lon ia l w r i t ing s t y le i s s uf i c ien t ly k nown ( 22 ) ( i n A us t ra l ia i tw a s n o t much d if e r e n t f r om r e sea rch i nA f r ica ) t h e t e rms " Camb r idge s c ho la s t i c" a nd n a t iona l i s t ic h ave t ob e e xp la ined . F rom 1 788 u n t i l 1 910 t h e p r eva i l ing c once rn o f r e sea rche r s w a s t h e r a c ia l d i s t inc t ion o f g roups a nd t h e i r i n teg ra t ion i n to aq u i te s im p l is t ic h i e ra rch ica l s y s tem r a ng ing f r om p r im i t ive t o s oph is t i ca ted . T he y ea r s 1 9 11 t o 1 959 w er e e n t i re ly d om ina ted b y a ma teu r s , a dm i t ted ly e ager o nes , w ho ma in ly d ea l t w i th c l a s s if ica t ion a nd t h e r e su l t ing c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ions ( 2 3 ) . T he " Cambr idge s c ho la s t ic" p ha se s t a r ted i n t h e y ea r 1 960 a nd c on t inued u p t h rough t h e s even t ies . T he s t a r t ing p o in t w a s t h e " imm ig ra t ion" o f mo re t h an ad ozen s t af f a nd g radua te s t uden t s f r om C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty t oA us t ra l ian U n ive r s i t i es a nd t h e s ubsequen t w r i t ing o f Ma s te r a nd D oc to ra l t h e s e s c oncer n ing Abor ig ina l c u l tu re . T hese p eop le t oday c on s t i tu te t h ec or e o fl e ad ing A us t ra l ian r e sea rche r sa nd t e ache r s h and ing d own t h e i r k now ledge t o t h e u pcom ing a cadem ic g enera t ion . I no rder t oe nhance t h e r epu ta t ion o ft h e A us t ra l i an U n ive r s i t ies , f o r e ign s t uden t s w e re b r ibed t h rough s cho la r sh ip s t o c on t inue t h e i r g radua te s t ud ies i n A us t ra l ia . T h is p roces s s t opped a r ound 1 980 . Mos t o f t h e s t uden t s c ame f r om C ambr idge o r o t he r l e ad ing u n ive r s i t ies o f t h e Un i ted K ingdom a nyway . D u C ros ( 1983 ) c r i t ica l ly i n ves t i g a ted c er ta in d i rec t a nd i n d i rec te nv i ronmen ta l i nf luences o n f i e ldwo rke r s i nh e r BA Hono r s T hes is . S he c onc luded t h a t i t i s i mpor tan t t o k now a bou t t h e i nf luence s o f t h e s oc io c u l tu ra l a nd s c ho la s t ic e nv ironmen t o n t h e a cadem ic o rn on a cadem ic a u tho r i t ies i n o rde r t o a na lyze t h e f i e ldwo rk c on d uc ted b y t h e v a r ious r e sea rche r s ( Du C ros 1 983 :67 -73 ) . Howeve r , t h is d ef in i te ly w ho lesome p ha se o f p rof ess iona l i z a t ion f o r A u s t ra l ian a r chaeo logy /an th ropo logy w en t a l ong w i th t h e f ounda t ion o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f A bor ig ina l S tud ies i n 1 961 . A l though t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch l e ve l

2 . 2 ) S unda a nd S ahu l A n i n te res t ing f a c to r i n t h e p reh is to ry o f A u s t ra l ia i s i t s c hang ing s hape , c aused b y s e a l e ve l r eg r es s ions d ur ing i c e a ges . G eo log ica l e v idence s hows t h a t d ur ing i t s l a s t 7 00 m i l l ion y ea r s o fe x is tence t h e e a r th h a s e xper ienced s e vera l i c e a ges , e ach l a s t ing s eve ra l 1 0 .000 y ea r s . D ur ing t h e Q ua t e rna ry p e r iod t h e mos t r e cen t i c e a ge a ppea red a nd i ti s p robab ly s t i l lc on t inu ing ( 2 5 ) . A t t h eh e igh to ft h e l a s tg l ac ia l p er iod ( 26 ) , t h e s e a l e ve l w a s a s much a s 1 00 -1 50 m e ter s b e low i t s p r esen t s t a te d ue t ot h e e normou s a moun t s o fw a te r b ound i ni c e ( J enn ings 1 971 :4 ) . T he i c e s h ee t s o f t h e n or th er n h em isphe r e e x tended a s f a r s ou th a s 4 0 d eg ree s N i n Nor th Amer ica a nd 5 2 d eg rees 3 0 'N i nE u rop e . T h is g l ac ia l

( 24 ) T he c ruc ia l p o in t i st h e r e cogn i t ion o fp u r e A bo r ig ina l i n ter es t s . T hese m igh t v a ry f r om t r ibe t o t r ibe o r r eg ion t o r eg ion . I ti sq ues t ionab le i ft h ese a r e t h e i n te res t s o f t h e A bor ig ines l i v ing i nt h e t r ad i t iona l w ay o r t h ose i n f luenced b y t h e Wes t , i n e xp ress ing t h e i rn eeds a nd d emand s c omp ly w i th t h e E u ropean -s ty le l e g is la t ion . I ti se sp ec ia l ly q ues t ion a b le i ft h ese v a ry ing n eeds c an b e d ef ined i nt h e l e ga l t e rm s c ommon ly u sed i nw es ter n ized s oc ie t ies . ( 25 ) S c ien t is t s a r gue t h a t w e a r e a l ready c l o se t ot h e e nd o f t h e p resen t i n te rg lac ia l a nd t h a t ag lac ia l p er iod w i l l f o l low , b u t t h is , o f c ou r s e , l i es i n t h e t ime s ca le o f t h ousands o f y ea r s . ( 26 ) Wiscons in o r Wuerm

( 22 ) O n t h e 1 5 th o f May 1 788 , P h il ip s en th i s f i r s t d i spa tch b ack t o E ng land , a dd ressed t o L o rd S ydney , a nnounc ing Aus t ra l ia 's f i r s t a r chaeo log ica l i n ves t iga t ion . (C i ted i n ' P roceed ing so ft h eP r eh is tor ic S oc ie ty XXV I I , 1 96 1 :56 ) ( 23 ) Go jak ( 1982 :97 -100 ) , i n f luenced b y r e sea rch o fH ayden a nd Ka rnm inga , a rgues t h a t t h e t e rms C o re T oo l a nd S c rape r T rad i t ion a r e n o tc or rec ta nd t h a tt h e w ho le c oncep to fd ef in i ng t r ad i t ion s s hou ld b er e though t .

1 4

1 7 .000 B .P . a nd 5 3 .000 B .P c aus ed t h e s ea l e ve l t od rop o f u p t o 1 30 m e ter s . T he i n te r s tad ia l p er iod , w i th i t s p eaks a r ound 2 8 .000 B .P . a nd 4 3 .000 B .P . , w ou ld h ave c aused a m ar ine t r an sg res s ion . B ow ler e ta l . ( 1976 :392 ) d er ived s im i l a r r e su l t s a nd r e f er red t og eo log ica l p henomenons o b served i n i n land s i t es ( See d er iva t ion , s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s is t ence s e c t ions ) . T he re w a s n eve r ad i rec t l a nd c onnec t ion b e twe en t h e S unda a nd S ahu l s he lf , w h ich k ep tt h e f l ora a nd f auna o f t h is a r ea s epa ra ted ( F ig .3 ) .

b egan a r ound 1 20 .000 y ea r s b efo re t h e p r e sen t a nd s uppo s e d ly e nded a bou t 2 0 .000 y ea r s a go . T he i c e a ge c aused a n a nnua l m ean t emp era tu re d ec l ine o f 3t o 1 3 d eg rees C e ls iu s b e low p re sen tv a lues , d epend ing o n t h e d i s tance f r om t h e i c e s h ee t s . C happe l l ( 1976 :21 , s ee a l so B a rham /Ha r r is 1 983 :555 ) d i scu s sed t h e g l ac io -eus ta t ic s e a leve l c hange s e spec ia l ly r e levan t t o t h e m ig ra t ion o f p eop le f r om S ou th E a s t A s ia t owa rd s Aus t ra l ia . H e n o ted t h a t g la c ia l a dvance s ( l a te a nd m idd le Wiscons in / Wuerm HM I ) o ccu r r ing a round

,

I

0

, )

/

/ / 1 I

L I

• ,

0

l ag

ix

1 0 0 0k i l l

F ig . 3C oa s t l ines o fA u s tra l ia d ur ing t h e i c e a ges . Af t e rS t ruwe 1 974 :30

1 5

Know ing t h a tp eop le s e t t led i nA us t ra l ia a tl e a s t4 0 .000 y ea r s a go ( Bow ler 1 976 :64 ; B ow le r /Thorne 1 976 :134 ) a nd h av ing g eo log ica l e v idence t h a t t h e A us t ra l ian c on t inen ta l c l ima t e a t

r i g ina l s ' s a ke o r maybe f o r t h e i r s e lf ish o ne . E xa c t ly t h is i s t h e f undamen ta l q ues t ion t ha tt h is t h es is t r i es t oa n swe r . ( See o b jec to r ien ted p rob lem )

t h a t t ime w a s much c o lde r a nd h ad h ighe r a nnua l r a infa l ls ( 27 ) , w em igh ta s sume t h a tp eop le h ad t of a ce d i f f e ren tf a una a nd f l o ra b ack t h en .

a )b io log ica l ly

I ndeed , e ven t oday t h e h igh a moun to fs t i l l l i v ing ma r sup ia ls ( 138 a cco rd ing t o K ea s t e t a l . 1 959 :1963 ) t e s t if i es t o t h e d i s t inc t ive f auna o fp r eh is tor ic A us t ra l ia . O n ly af ew o ft h ese s pec ies h ave s u rv ived i n Ame r ica , a nd n one i nE urope , a nd t h e g i an t ma r sup ia ls b ecame e x t inc t o r r educed i n s i ze i n A us t ra l ia a s w e l l . Mur ray ( 1984 ) l i s ted t h e g i an t ma r sup ia ls i n a n i lus t ra t ive g u ide b a sed o n f o ss i l f i nd ings , t hough h i s i lus t ra t ions a r e o n ly p os s ib le r e cons t ruc t ions . S im i la r w o rk c oncer n ing A us t ra l ia 's p r eh is to r ic p l an t s w a sd one b y Ma iden ( 1889 ) , w ho g ave s pec ia l c ons idera t ion t ot h e ir u sefu lnes s t o h uman b e ings , a nd b y Wh i te ( 1985 ) ; h oweve r , t h e l i s t ing o f t h em w ou ld d r if tt o o f a rf r om t h e s ub jec t . How t h e P le is tocene Abo r ig ines r e ac ted t oc l ima t ic c hanges a nd t h e s ubsequen t ly d i f f eren t f a una l a nd f l o ra l e nv ironmen t i sb a s ic q ues t ion t h a t r e sea rche r s s t i l l t r y t o a nswer . When D eacon ( 1985 :5 ) m en t ioned s ou th -wes ter n A us t ra l ia a nd T a sman ia a s p o ss ib le r e fuges d u r ing t h e l a s t g l ac ia l m ax i mum , h e l a cked t h e k now ledge o f t h e i n land s i te P ur i t ja r ra s he l te r , w h ich w a s o n ly l a ter d i scove red . I ti sa l so q ues t ion a b le i ft h e S ou th A f r ican p r eh is tory m igh t b e c ompa rab le t o A us t ra l ia 's , a s a s ser ted b y s eve ra l r e sea rcher s . F ur the r r e f l ec t ions a bou t h uman a dap ta t ion t o c hang ing c l ima tes w i l l b e p rov ided i nt h e s e t t lemen ta nd s ubs is tence s e c t ion .

2 . 3 ) D er iva t ion o f Abor ig ina l Aus tra l ians T he A us t ra l ian A bor ig ina l w ou ld p robab ly h ave n eve r " s c ien t if ica l ly" r ef lec ted u pon t h e d er iva t ion o r g enes is o f h i s /her c u l tu re , s i nce a l l t h is i sa n i n teg ra l pa n o f t h e s o c a l led d r eam t ime . T he d r eam t ime r ep resen t s t h e n eve r e xhaus t ing p oo l o f k now ledge a bou t t h e G rea t S p i r i t a nces t o r s h anded d own i no ra l t r ad i t ion s , p a in t ings , l e gend s , a nd my ths . F rom t h e A bor ig ina l p er spec t ive , i tp rov ided as uf i c i en t e xp lana t ion o f t h e i r p a s t a nd c omposed av i v id p a r t o f t h e i r h a rmon iz ing v i ew o f man a nd n a tu re . E n t i re ly d i f f e ren t w a s t h e e u rocen t r ic p o in t o f v i ew , w he r e e ve ry th ing h ad t o b e a na lyzed , t e s ted , a nd e xp l ic i t ly e xp la ined . T he f i r s t h un d red y ea r s o f E u ropean c o lon iza t ion d id n o t s how much o f t h a t a s t h e Abor ig ines w e re t hough t , o r f o r mora ls s ake d e c l a red t o b e a n ima ls r a the r t h an h uman b e ing s a nd a s s uch w er e s l augh te red i n s tan t ly o rk ep ta s am ean s o fc heap l a bo r . T he n ex t 5 0 y ea r s t h ese " c rea tu res" a woke t h e c u r ios i ty o f o ne o rt h e o the rl ud ic rous r e sea rche ra nd t h e f o l low ing t ot h e mos t r e cen t y ea r s r e sea r che r s d eve lop ed s c ien t if ic e xp lana t i ons w i thou t a sk ing t h e q ues t ion i ft h ey d o i tf o r t h e A bo -

Much h a s b een w r i t ten a bou t t h e b i o log ica l o r ig in o f t h e a bo r ig ina l A us t ra l ians b a sed o n t h e c a refu l s t udy o f b lood t ypes , g ene s ,b ones , o rs imp ly e x ter na l p hys ica l t r a i t s .D ur ing t h e B ienn ia l G ene ra l Mee t ing o f t h e A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f A bo r ig ina l S tud ies a s ympos ium w a s h e ld i n C anber ra o n May 2 1-22 , 1 974 . T he b io log ica l o r ig in o f t h e A bo r ig ina l A u s t ra l ians w a st h e b a s is o ft h e s ympo s ium t h a t s hou ld b r ing t o ge the r s ome o f t h e ma in r e su l t s o f r e cen t r e sea rch c on d uc ted i nt h i s f i e ld . K i rk a nd T hor n e ( 1976 ) c o l lec ted a nd s ome t ime sr e v ised t h e d e l ivered p ap e r st oc omp le te av o lume a bou t " The o r ig in o f t h e A us tra l ian s" . T he i n v i ted r e sea rch e r s w e re mo re i n te res ted i n o b jec t ive e v idence t h an i n a c ompa r ison o f t h e p hys ica l c ha rac te r is t ic s o f c on tempo r ary c u l tu res w i th p r eh is tor ic f i nd ings . T he l a t te r a pp roach r e s u l ted i n s u ch d e r iva t ion t h eor ies a s K laa t sch 's 1 922 :338 p ub l ished h ypo thes is t h a t h umank ind a s aw ho le o r ig ina ted i n o r s omewhe re n ea r A us t ra l ia a nd s p read t h e rea f t e r o ve r t h e w ho le w o r ld . H is ma in ma rke r t o t h i s t h eo ry w a s t h e " appa ren t s im i la r i ty" o f A us t ra l ian A bor ig ines t o a pes . S choe tensack ( 190 1 :129 ) , S o l la s ( 19 11 :208 -9 ) , B a sedow ( 1925 :15 ,23 -25 ) , a s w e l l a s H rd l icka ( 1926 ) s ugges ted t h rough s im i la r s t ud ies t h a t t h e e n t i r e p opu la t ion o f A us t ra l i an A bor ig ines w a s d er ived f r om N eander tha l f o rms w i th in A us t ra l ia . E ven t h ough t h e b a s ic a r gumen t s o f t h ose r e s ea rche r s a r e u n tenab le , t h e re i ss o me t r u th t ot h e n o t ion t h a t A bor ig ina l s ku l ls s how s l igh t a nd s ome t ime s a maz ing s im i l a r i t ies t o t h e a nc ien t s ku l ls f ound i n J ava , I nd ia a nd e ven A f r ica ( Abb ie 1 966 :211) . I n 1 870 - 1 885 r e sea rcher s w ere a l ready a r gu ing t h a t w e h ave t o a s sume t h e a nces t ry o f t h e A us tra l ian A bor ig ines t o b e o u t s ide o f t h e A us t ra l ian c on t i n en t ( Top ina rd 1 872 , L esson 1 880 , T ur n e r 1 884 ) . T h is t h e o ry w a s t a ken u p b y s c ien t is t s f r om t h e e a r ly 1 930 's t o t h e l a te 1 960 's . A h o t d i scuss ion k i nd led o n t h e q ues t ion o f a s o l i tary o r am u l t ip le o r ig in o f t h e i nd igenou s A us t ra l ians . P roponen t s o f t h e f o rme r t h eo ry w ere Wood Jones ( 1934 ) , C hampbe l l e ta l . ( 1936 ) , Howe l ls ( 1937 ) , a nd A bb ie ( 1966 ) , t h ose s uppor t ing t h e l a t te r o ne w ere F enne r ( 1939 ) , B i rdse l l ( 1967 ) , a nd Mo r r ison ( 1967 ) . T he " t r ihybr id t h eo ry" o fB i rd s e l l w a s b a sed o n r e sea rch c onduc ted w i th " Ba r r inea s" , a T a smano id r emnan t w ho w a s b e l ieved t o h ave o nce l i ved t h roughou t A us t ra l ia . D ur ing t h e i c e a ge , w hen ac r os s ing t o c on t inen ta l A us t ra l ia s e emed t o h ave b een p o ss ib le , t wo w aves o f p eop le , t h e "Mu r rayans" a nd t h e " Ca rpen ta r ians" a r e s uppo sed t o h ave c ome o ve r . I n terb reed ing w i th e ach o t he r t h ese t h ree e t hn ic g roup s m igh t h ave e s tab l ished t h e A us tra l ian A bor ig ina l e t hn ic i ty . A bb ie a nd o t he r r ep resen ta t i ve s o ft h e u n i tary o r ig in o ft h e A bor ig ina l p eop le p o in t o u t t h a t " t he a va i lab le e v idence d oes n o t s uppo r t a ny s i gn if ican t d eg ree o f mu l t ip le a nces t ry o ft h e A bor ig ines , n o r d oe s t h er e s e em a ny p r es s ing n eed t os e ek f o r amu l t ip le a nces t ry" ( Abb ie 1 966 :216 ) . Mac in to sh a nd L a rnach ( 197 :113 -26 ) a rgue t h a tt h e A bor ig i n e s r ep r esen t ap r ac t ica l ly u nchang ing p opu la t ion o ver a p er iod o f a t l e a s t 2 5 .000 y ea r s a nd s imp ly e xh ib i t aw ide

( 27 ) T he f i l l ing o f t h e Wi l land ra l a ke s a t4 4 .000 B .P . s ug g es ted a s ubs tan t ia l c hange i n t empe ra tu re a nd h yd ro log ic r eg imes ( Bow ler 1 976a :136 )

1 6

( 1976 :344 ) e ven a r gue s t h a t t h e s pec if i c s e rum p ro te in a nd e nzyme m a rke r s a deny la t e k ina se AK2 , t h e p e a c id p hos p ha ta se , a nd t h e t r an s f e r r in B 2 a l le le s c ommon ly f ound t h roughou t t h e w h i t e p opu la t ion o fE u rop e i sn o t e x i s ten t i n t h eA u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina lp opu la t ion .

r ange o fv a r iab i l i ty . W i th t h i s c ommen tt h ey r e f e rt os k e le ta l f i nd ing s o f Kow S wamp , C ohuna , C o s sa ck a nd t h o se o f K e i lo r a nd L ake Mungo . When c ompa r ed w i th e a ch o t he r , t h e s ku l l s f r om t h e f i r s t t h r ee s i te s w e r e f ound t ob e r obu s t , r ugged , a nd t h ick -boned , w h i le t h e K e i lo r a nd L ake Mungo s ku l l s w e r e d ef ined a s g ra c i le f o r t h e i r l i gh t b u i ld a nd t h in b oned a ppea rance ( J ones 1 979 :458 ) . I fs t i l l t h ink ing i no l d e vo lu t iona ry t e rm s a nd s e a r ch ing f o r at y po log ica l r ow , o ne w ou ld p o in t o u t t h a t t h e r obu s t , r ugged , t h ick -boned t y p e i s o lde r t h an t h e l i gh t ly b u i l t o ne . T h i s w ou ld p robab ly s t i l l b e t h e p r eva i l ing o p in ion i fr e la t ive d a t ing t h rough s t ra t ig raphy a sw e l l a st h e a b so lu t e d a t ing u s ing t h e r a d io c a rbon d a t ing me thod d id n o t i nd ica te t h e o ppo s i te ( Lake Mungo ) [ Bow le r 1 976 :134 ] .

E ven t h ough C u r ta in e ta l . ( 1976 :354 ) s e emed t oh ave f ound as t r ik ing s im i la r i ty i n t h e i mmog lobu l in g ene f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e A us t ra l ian A bor ig ine s a nd a d jacen t N ew G u inea p eop le , t h ey h ave t o a dm i t t h a t t h e i r r e sea r ch d oes n o tl e ad t h e q ue s t ion o ft h e o r ig in o ft h e A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig i n e st o as o lu t ion . K i rk ' s o p t im i sm t h a t t h e d i ve r s if ica t ion o f g ene t ic ma rke r s a nd t h e i n ten s ive u se o fc ompu te r t e chno logy m igh t l e ad t o b e t te r r e su l t s s e em s u n founded , c on s ide r ing L ie In jo 's ( 1976 :277f f ) f a i lu re w i th n ea r ly 5 0 g ene t ic ma rke r s c om b ined w i th t h e o u tcome o f V os 's e ta l . a nd C ur ta in 's e ta l . r e sea r ch .

Know ing t h a tc on t empo ra ry A bo r ig ine s t e nd t os how al i gh t , t h in -boned b u i ld , w he rea s t h e r e la t ive ly y oung K ow S wamp s ku l l d i sp lay s h eavy , " a r cha ic look ing" f e a tu r es , c on t ra s t ing t h e o l de r , mo r e moder n look ing , g ra c i le K e i lo r a nd L ake Mungo t y p e s ,i tb ecome sc l ea rt h a tt h eA bo r ig ina l p opu la t ion mu s t h ave a l r eady b een d i ve r s i f ied i nt h e p a s t . E ven t o day t h e c r an iome t r is t s , s uppo r ted b y t h e e x t en s ive u se o f c om p u te r s a nd s t a t is t ica l m e thod s , a s t h e mu l t iva r ia t e o r d i s c r im inan t f unc t ion a na ly s i s , " s t i l l t e nd t o b e l ieve t h a t t h e Abo r ig ina l A u s t ra l ian s r e p r esen t as i ng le p opu la t ion o f h o mogeneous o r ig in" ( B i rd se l l 1 979 :429 ) .

I n 1 979 B i rd se l lp ub l i shed ac r i t ica lr e v iew o ft h e 1 974 s ym p o s ium .H e ma in ly d i sag r ees w i th t h er eg iona l r e s t r ic t ion a nd l im i t ed m a ter ia l w i th w h ich mo s t r e sea rche r s w o rked . H e a l so r e f e r s t ot h e d i sc r epancy o fr e sea rch d one i nt h e Nor th er n T e r r i to ry w i th t h a t d one i n t h e s ou ther n r eg ion o f t h e c oun t ry . B i rd se l l p l ead s f o r f a s t r e inf o r cemen t o f i n t e rd i sc i p l ina ry w o rk a nd f o rr e g iona le xpan s ion ( B i rd se l l 1 979 :425 ) . T he l a s t c oncer n m igh t b e e ven mo r e p r e s s ing c on s ide r ing t h e f a c t t h a t u nm ixed , f u l l -b looded A u s t ra l ian A bor ig ines momen t a r i ly d ec l ine a t ar a te o f 5 0 p e r cen t p e r g ene ra t ion , w h ich i mp l ie s ac u l tu ra l a s w e l l a s ab io log ica l e x t inc t ion . D esp i t e t h e c r i t ica l r ema rk s f r om o t he r r e sea rche r s B i rd se l l s t i l l h o ld s o n t oh i s t r i hyb r id t h eo ry ,e ven t h ough T a sman ian s ke le ta l r ema in s s how n o d if e r ence s b e tween p r eh i s tor ic T a sman ian A bo r ig ine sa nd c on tempo ra ry ma in lande r s .

I n 1 976 P rokopec a nd S ed ivy p r esen t ed ap ape r c oncer n ing t h e d e rma tog lyph ica l e v idence o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e A u s t ra l ian Abor ig ina l s e r ie s a nd p opu la t ion s f r om S ou th E a s tA s ia a nd t h e P a c if ic I s land s , a nd t h e c l ea r s epa ra t ion o f t ho se f r om A f r ica . T he r e sea r ch ma in ly i n vo lved t h e c oun t i n go fa r ches , r i dges , a nd w ho r ls o nt h e i nd iv idua l f i nge r s o f d if e r en t e t hn ic g roup s a nd t h e i r s t a t i s t ica l c ompa r i son ( P rokop ec /Sed ivy 1 976 :224 /25 ) . P a r son a nd Wh i te ( 1976 ) u sed b o th d erma tog lyph ic ma t e r ia l a nd c e r ta in n onme t r ica l c r an ia l t r a i t s . C on s ide r ing s k in c o lo r ing v a r ia t ion s a s w e l l , t h ey c onc luded t ha t t h ey c an n o tf a vo ro ne o ft h e p reva i l ing d e r iva t ion t h eor ies , b u t t h a t " m ic ro -env i ronmen ta l v a r ia t ion may b e o f c ons ide rab le s i gn if icance i nt h e e vo lu t ion o f t h e A u s t ra l ian Abor ig ina l b o th d u r ing a nd a f t e r t h e i r a r r iva l i n A u s t ra l ia "( Pa r son sa nd Wh i t e 1 976 :242 ) .

An ew a pp roach t og ene t ic a ff in i ty h a s b een r e cen t ly d eve l o ped a tt h e Un ive r s i ty a tB e rke ley b y R ebecca C a lm ( 1985 ) . H e r s t udy i n t h e f i e ld o f mo lecu la r b io logy s t a t e s t h a t t h e g rea te r t h e d if e r ence i n DNA b e tween t wo e t hn ic g roup s , t h e e a r l ie rt h ey s epa ra t ed i nt h e i rd eve lopmen t . T hese d if e r e nce s a r e e xp r e s sed i n p e rcen tage r a tes a nd ma rked o n a s ca le , s o t h a t i tw ou ld b e p os s ib le t oe s tab l ish an ew e vo lu t i ona ry f am i ly t r ee o fh umank ind ( Cann 1 985 :12 1) . I n c on c l u s ion o ne m igh t s a y t h a t o ne s hou ld n o t r e ly s o le ly o n g ene t ic a nd mo lecu la r d a ta t o d e t e rm ine t h e o r ig in o f A bo r i g ines .T he r ea r et o om any f a c to r so t he rt h an t ime t h a tm igh t h ave c aused a v a r ia t ion i n g ene t ic ma te r ia l .E ven t hough g ene t ic m a rke r s h ave t h e h ighe s th e r i tab i l i ty , t h ey a r e s u r e ly a f ec ted b y s e lec t ion p roces ses a nd e nv i ronmen ta l i mpac t s ( c hanges ) . A n i n c rea se i nd a ta a nd ac ompu ter ized a nd s t a t i s t ica l r e v is ion w i l l n o t h ide t h e n eed o fn ew c oncep t s a nd d if e r en ta pp roa che s ( Deuner t 1 990 :23 -30 ) . I fw e d on o tf i nd s t r ik ing e v idence i ns ome w ay , t h e r e m igh t o n ly b e t h eo r ies i nt h ee nd .

S hanghv i ' s p ape r ( 1976 :40f f ) b a s ica l ly t r i e s t oc ompa re t h e d a ta o fa n a l le l ic v a r ia t ion a na ly s i s f r om A u s t ra l ia w i th t e n t r iba l p opu la t ions f r om w es t er nI nd ia . H e a r gues t h a t i n deed e i gh ta le les d e l ive r ed c ompa ra t ive d a ta , b u t t h e i rv a r iab i l i ty s how s aw ide r ange . T he v a r ia t ion w a s l owe s tf o r Aa nd R o a nd h i ghes t f o r Ba nd M ( Shanghv i 1 976 :409 / 10 ) . I n o t he r w o rd s , t h e mean v a lues o fAa nd R o h ave r ema ined c l o s e s t t o e a ch o t he r , w h i le t h o se f o r B a nd M d r if t ed a pa r t . H e p o in t so u tt ha tt h ee nv i ronmen ta ld if e r ence so fA u s t ra l ia a nd I nd ia o r g ene t ic d r i f t m igh t h ave c au sed ad i spa ra t e d eve l o pmen t . S immon s ( 1976 ) a nd K i rk ( 1976 ) d raw a s omewha t d a rk p e r sp ec t ive . A f t e r 3 5 a nd 1 5 y ea r s r e spec t ive ly o f i n t en s ive b lood t e s t ing , t h ey s t i l lc anno tp o in to u tt h eo r ig in o fA u s t ra l i an A bo r ig ines s pec i f ica l ly . T hey d o k now t h a t t h e r e i sn o o bv iou s c on fo rm i ty b e tween t h e A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ine s , t h e I nd ian s , V eddahs , A inu , I ndone s ian s , a nd S ou th E a s t A s ian s i nt e rm s o fb lood g roup s , s e rum p ro te in s , a nd e nzyme s . K i rk

b ) Cu l tura l ly /L ingu is t ica l ly S eve ra l d ay s o f i n t en s ive l i b ra ry r e sea rch a nd t h e h e lpfu l a dv ice o ft h e s t a f fa tt h e I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ies a nd T o r re s S t ra i t I s lande r s a tC anbe r ra d id n o tu ncove r a ny p ro -

1 7

f ound w o rk i nt h e e t hnog raph ic c ompa r ison o fc on tempo ra ry t r ibes i nS ou th E a s t A s ia a nd A us t ra l ia . T he re a r e , h oweve r , n ume rou s e t hnog raph ic r epor t s a bou t t r iba l g roup s i n s pe c i f ic r e g ions t h roughou t t h e a r ea i nq ues t ion . T o r ead t hose a nd c ompa r e t h em , w h ich w ou ld d ef in i te ly make s ense , l i es o u t s ide t h e s cope o ft h is o verv iew . Wh i le p re Wo r ld Wa r I e t hnog raphe r st r ied t od eve lop r a ce a nd e vo lu t iona ry t h eo r ies i n ab roade r c on tex t , t o day 's e t hnog raphe r s f ea r t h a t s t ep b eyond t h e i r i n ves t iga ted e t hn ic g roup . T h is r e luc tance i s s omewha t u nder s tandab le , a s s ubsequen t r e sea rch m igh t c on t rad ic t t h e ir e va lua t ion o r r educe i tt oa b su rd i ty , b u t i ti s e xac t ly t h e r e -eva lua t ion b y o t he r r e sea rcher s t h a t a l low s s c iences l i ke a r chaeo logy o r a n th ropo logy t ol i ve a ta l l . O ne r e sea rche r a l one c an n eve r f i nd t h e u l t ima te s o lu t ion t o a p rob lem , h e n eed s t h e s t eady d i scu ss ion w i th s c ien t if ic c o l l e ague s t o s o lve a no the r p a r t o f t h e p uzz le o f t h e o r ig in o f t h eA u s t ra l ian Abor ig ines . F ew e t hnog raph ica l w ork s t r ied t o c omb ine t h e ir r e g ion o f i n te res t w i th b roade r q ues t ion s o f a f in i t ies a nd d escen t . Mos t o ft h e t ime t h ey d i d n o t s o le ly b a se t h e i r a rgumen t s o n t h e c ompa ra t ive a na lys is o fr e l ig ion , h un t ing t e chn iques , a r t , e t c . ,b u ta l so o nb io log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . Two , a dm i t ted ly e a r ly w r i t ing s i n t h is c oncern a r e t hose o f E a r l ( 1 849 /50 ) a nd S pe ise r ( 1938 ) . R igh t a tt h e b eg inn ing o fh i s p ape r E a r l m en t ioned t h e c on s ide rab ly v ague a rgumen t s o ne h a s w hen wo rk ing i n t h e f i e ld o f " e thnog raph ic e v idence" a mong e t hn ic g roup s w i thou t aw r i t ten l a nguage . E nd less s pecu la t ions w i l l r i se t h a t "w i l l e ve r p rove l i ab le t od i spu te" ( Ea r l 1 849 :682 ) . H e d id n o t b e l ieve t h a t " r aces" c ou ld o n ly b e e s tab l ished t h rough i n terb reed ing a nd s epa ra t ion , b u t a l so t h rough t h e i r mode o fl i f e , w h ich c ause s d if erences i nt e rm s o fs t a tu re a nd o t he r p hys ica l p ropor t ions . I n t h e p rog res s o f h i s p ape r h e p o in ted o u t t h e u n ique f e a tu r es a nd c us tom s o f t h e P apuans a nd s ea rched f o r s im i la r i t ie s among t h e o t he r e t hn ic g roups o f t h e A us t rones ian r eg ion . T he " un tamab le f e roc i ty" o ft h e P apuans a nd t h e c us tom o fr a is ing t h e s k in i n c i ca t r ices o ve r v ar ious p a r t s o ft h e b ody , w h i le r ubb ing c l ay i nt h e w ound s t oc ause t h e s k in t or i se , s e em s t ob e a n a rgu m en t f o r t h e e x is tence o f au n ique P apuan c u l tu re . T h is s k in r a is ing c us tom s hou ld n o t b e c onfused w i th t h e t a t too ing o r p unc tu r ing o fs k in w ide ly p rac t iced b y "Ma layu -Po lynes ian" t r ibes . T he p i er c ing o f t h e n o s t r i ls i no rde r t o w ea r b one o r w ood t h rough i t , t h e g r ind ing d own o f t h e f r on t t e e th u n t i l t h ey b ecome p o in ted , a nd t h e d y ing o f t h e i r b l ack h a i r t o a r edd ish c o lo r s e em su n ique t oP apua , o ra tl e a s t mo re c l ose ly r e la ted t o t h e P a c if ic I s land s t h an t o A u s t ra l ia . E a r l , w ho l i ved al ong t ime a l l o ver Aus t ra l ia ,c ou ld n o tf i nd a ny h in to f ac u l tu ra l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween P apuans a nd A us t ra l ian A bo r i g ines , e ven t h ough h e a dm i t ted t h a tP apuans , s im i la r t ot h e t r ibes o n t h e n o r the rn c oa s t o f Aus t ra l ia , f i nd d e l igh t i n d we l l ing a l ong t h e c oa s t . H e e ncoun te red t r ibes i nn o r the rn A us t ra l ia t h a t w e re w ande r ing a l ong t h e c oa s t i nf am i ly u n i t s a nd c r os s ing t h e s e a t oo f f sho re i s lands i nl i gh t ly b u i l tb oa t s . T h is o bserva t ion make sh im t h ink t ha tt h er e m igh th ave b een ac r o ss ing b e tween P apua a nd A us t ra l ia i no ne o r t h e o t he r d i r ec t ion ( Ea r l 1 849 :682 -9 ) .

t h es i s t h rough ac ompa r ison o f t h e c u l tu ra l i n ven to ry o f t h e c on t empo ra ry c u l tur es . I n f luence f r om I ndones ia w ou ld h ave l e f t t h e c u l tu ra l g oods s uch a s t h e b lowp ipe , i k a t , p la ng i , w ayang , e t c . , a nd t h ose f r om A us t ra l ia t h e b u l lroa re r , c hu r inga , a nd t h e t h row ing s t ick . S pe ise r s aw t h e e a r l ies t s e t t lemen t o f A us t ra l ia b y P a leo l i th ic P a leme lanes ians a s u n l ike ly , b u t d i d n o t b o ther t os how o t he r e v idence ( Spe ise r 1 938 :463 -81) . A no ther e t hnog raph ic a pp roach w ou ld b e t h e c ompa r ison a nd i n terp re ta t ion o fl e gends a nd m y ths t o ld w i th in t h e A bo r i g ina l t r ibes . U nfor tuna te ly , t h ere a r e a s many ( s l igh t ly t o e x t reme ly ) d i f f e ren td er iva t ion l e gend sa nd c r ea t ion my th s a s t h er e a r e t r ibes o r t r iba l c ommun i t ies i nA us t ra l ia . I ts e em s a pp rop r ia t e t os e lec tf o re xam ina t ion t h ose t h a t i n te r sec te ach o t he r i ng ene ra l a nd /o r i nd e ta i l . T he c h ief c ha rac ter is t ic o f t h ese s t or ies s e em s t ob e t h e b e l ief i na n o r ig in i n ac oun try t o t h e n o r th o r t h e n or thwes t . T he e a r ly A u s t ra l ian s e t t le r s w e re e i the rd r iven b y a n t s o r o the ra n ima l s o u to ft h e i r c oun t r y o f o r ig in o r w e re c ur ious a bou t t h e u nknown c oun t ry t o t h e s ou th . I n a lmos t a l l l e gend s t h e n ewcome r s h ad t oc r os s t h e s ea e i the ri nc anoes o r s a i l ing b oa t s , o rt h ey w e re w a shed a sho re o np i eces o fd r if t ing wood . S hor t ly t h e rea f ter , al e ade r o r l e ad ing f am i ly w a s e s tab l ished t o r e ign o ver t h e p eop le a nd t oo rde r t h e i r l i ves . P opu la t ion p r essur e o r d i spu tes s p l i t t r ibes a nd f am i l ies a nd d i sper sed t h em t h roughou t t h e n ew l a nd . I ti si n te r es t ing t ol ook a tc er ta in c r ea t ion my ths n ow , e spe c i a l ly t ho se m en t ion ing t h e s u r round ing e nv i ronmen t ( I n S i lve r D iges t 1 970 :8 ) . A l though i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t s ev e r a l o ft h ese my th h ave b een i n f luenced b y m iss iona r ies , w e c an n o td eny t h e f a c t t h a tt h e k anga roo i sa n e ndem ic s pec ies i nA us t ra l ia a nd i sn o tf ound i na ny n or ther nc oun try . Wa s , a sked L ove ( 1989 :1) t h e d ream t ime e ve r ar ea l t ime ? I fn o t , t h a t w ou ld e xp la in t h e d i screpanc ie s a mong l e gend s a nd my ths t h roughou tt h e A us t ra l ian c on t inen t ,b u ti fi tw a s a r e a l t ime , t h ose s t o r ies c ou ld g i ve v a luab le c l ues t ot h e o r ig in a nd t h e a ge o ft h e A us t ra l ian Abo r ig ina l c u l tu re . L ove , w ho s t ud ied t h e B o ra i n i t ia t ion c e r emony , p o in ted o u t t h a t t h i s c e remony , a nd i t s a ccompany ing c a rv ing s , p a in t ings , e t c . , c ou ld b e t h e l i nk t o t h e e ven t s a nd t h e e nv i ronmen t o f t h e d r eam t ime ( Love 1 989 :13 ) . O nce t h e a nces to r s o f moder n A bor ig ines h ad c ro ssed t h e Wa l lace L ine ( 2 8 ) , t h ey f a ced a d if e ren t e nv i ronmen t t ha t h ad t o b e u nde r s tood a nd e x p lo i ted f o r t h e i r s ub s is tence . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence s how s t h a t t h e A bor ig ines s e t t led t h e A us tra l ian c on t inen t a tl e a s t 4 0 .000 y ea r s a go , at ime w hen macro f auna w a sf ound . L ove b e l ieves t ha t t h is mac ro f auna m igh tf o rm am a jo rp a r t o ft h e c r ea tu r e c omponen t s e c t ion o ft h e b o ra c e r emony . A l though a n th ropo logy c an n eve r s t a te t h e a bso lu t e t r u th , as t rong a rgumen t f o r t h e d escendancy o f Aus t ra l ian A bor ig ine s

S pe ise r d id n o t p rov ide a ny e xp lana t ion f o r t h e e a r l ies t s e t t l emen t o fA us t ra l ia , b u t t r ied t os how t h rough c u l tu ra l , b io l o g ica l , a nd l i ngu is t ica l c ompa r ison s t h e s e t t lemen t o fP apua b o th f r om I ndones ia a nd l a te rf r om A us t ra l ia . H e r e a l ized h i s

( 28 ) A rb it ra ry f a una l b o rder t h a t d iv ided t h e S unda s he lf f a una f r om t ho se o f t h e S ahu l s he lf . A f te r t h e n a tu ra l is t A l f r ed R us se l Wa l lace ( 1823 -1 9 13 ) . L a te r r edef ined b y T .A . Hux ley a nd Max Webe r .

1 8

f r om t h e n o r th o r t h e n o r thwe s t o f t h e A u s t ra l ian c on t inen t . L ingu is t so nce t r a ced b a ck t h e I ndo -Eu ropean l a nguages t oa p ro to language . T h i s l a nguage i s p r esumab ly o n ly a f ew t housand y ea r s o l d a nd h a s b een r e con s t ruc ted t h rough t h e u se o fw r i t ten r e co rd s . T he A u s t rone s ian l a nguage s m igh tb e 1 00000 y ea r s o ld a nd s how n o w r i t ten r e co rd . A dd i t iona l ly , t h e A u s t rones ian l a nguages t e nd t od i e o rr educe t h em se lve s t o af ew b a s ic g roup s . L ingu i s t s e s t ima t e t h a t a r ound 1 780 a bou t 2 00 l a nguages w e r e s poken i n A u s t ra l ia , a n a moun t t h a th a s ma s s ive ly r e duced s i nce t h en .

w ou ld b ef ounded ,i fh ec ou ld s how e v idence o ft h a t . T he c o l lec t ion o f l i ngu i s t ic d a ta i nt h e A u s t rones ian r e g ion r ep r esen t s a no the r a t temp t t of i nd e v idence o ft h e m ig ra t ion r ou t es o f t h e A bo r ig ine s . F o ley ( 1986 ) e xam ined l i nk s b e t ween A u s t ra l ian a nd P apuan l a nguage s u s ing a r chaeo log ica l a nd l i ngu i s t ic e v idence f r om t h e a na ly s i s o fP ro to -Au s t ra l ian n on sy l lab ic v e rb s a nd t h e i r c ogna te s i nt h eE a s t e rn H igh land l a nguage s . S ince A u s t rone s ian l a nguages a r e r e la t ive ly s l ow c hang ing a nd t h e p hy s ica l s epa ra t ion o f A u s t ra l ia a nd N ew G u inea d a t e s b a ck a bou t 8 000 y ea r s , t h e r e i s ag ood c hance t of i nd l i ngu i s t ic c onnec t ion s . P r ev iou s a pp l ica t ion o f c om p a ra t ive l i ngu i s t ic s d id n o te s tab l ish a ny c onnec t ion b e tween P apuan a nd A u s t ra l ian l a nguages s imp ly b ecau se t h e r e s ea rche r s s ea rched " i n t h e w rong p lace" ( Fo ley 1 986 :27 1) . U nfo r tuna t e ly ,F o ley c ou ld a s semb le f ewe r t h an t wen ty p o s s i b le c ogna t es , a nd s ome o f t h em h ave p rob lem s i n t h e i r p hone t ic c o r r e spondence . N ever the les s , h e n o t e s ag ene t ic r e la t ion sh ip b e tween A u s t ra l ian a nd E a s ter n H igh land l a n g uag e s .

I fw eo b se rve t h er a p id c hange si no u ro wn l a nguage o ve rt h e c ou r se o f t ime , w e b ecome a wa r e o f t h e d i lemma l i ngu i s t s h ave t of a ce i nr e con s t ruc t ing a nc ien tl a nguage s . Al a s tc r i t i c a l c ommen t m igh t b e m ade c oncer n ing t h e l i ngu is t ic a t t emp t t op hys ica l ly b ind l a nguage s t o s peake r s . Al a nguage c an b e s e en a sa n c on t inuou s ly c hang ing p oo l o fk now ledge . N ew i mp r e s s ion s m igh t b e a dded , o t he r s d i sca rded . I f , f o r e xamp le , ap a s to ra l g roup m ig ra t e s t ot h e a r ea o fa n a g r icu l t u ra l ly e s tab l i shed g roup a nd d ec ides t os t ay (B y r e a son o f p opu la t ion p r e s su r e , p ro t ec t ion , e t c . ) , t h e i r l a nguages w i l l e i the r m ix o r o ne w i l l b e a bandoned o ve r t ime . T he l a t t e r r e su l tw ou ld l e ave n o l i ngu is t ic e v idence o fo ne g roup o rt h e o t he r .

C obe r ly ( p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) t r i es t or e la te P apua N ew G u inean l a nguage st oN o r th A us t ra l ian t r iba ll a nguage s . O ne l o ok sf o rwa rd t ot h eo u tcome o fh e rs t i l lo ngo ing r e sea rch . S ha rpe ( 1985 :122f f ) c ou ld n o t t r ace t h e m ig ra t ion o f t h e B und ja lung s e t t lemen tf u r the rb a ck t h an ag ene ra l s p l i t t ing o f t h e g roup a nd as ou the rn /no r ther n movemen t . I n 1 980 B race d emon s t ra t ed a g rada t ion o f A us t ra l ian t o o th -s izes f r om a m in imum i nC ape Y o rk P en in su la t o amax imum i n Mu r ray B a s in . H e s ugges t ed t h a t t h o se c hange s i n t o o th -s ize w e r e d ue t o f o r ced a l te ra t ion i n s ubs i s tence s t ra t eg ie s a nd t o o l t e chno logy , a s w e l l a s t o g ene f l ow f r om o u t s ide , w he r e a r educ t ion i nt oo th s ize h ad b egun d ue t oa dap ta t ion t oe a r l ie r Meso l i th ic d eve lopmen t s . A rea s w he r e l a rge t oo th -s ize s p e r s i s ted w e re mo s t f a vo rab le t o h uman h ab i ta t ion ( B race 1 980 :162 /3 ) . B ra ce , w ho h ad a l ready t r i ed t oc omb ine a nd s uppor t h i s t h eo ry t h rough l i ngu is t ic s t ud ie s , w a s s uppo r ted b y G r uhn ' s ( 1980 :804 -6 ) a r t ic le a bou t l i ngu i s t ic e v idence . G ruhn f ound a s t r ik ing p a ra l le l i nt h e t o o th s iz e t h eo ry a nd p r eva i l ing l i ngu i s t ic a s sump t ion s . C on su l t ing D yen ' s m ig ra t i on t h eo ry , w h ich a s sume s ag r ea t e r d i ver s i ty w i th in al a n g uag e f am i ly ( o f ac e r ta in a r ea ) i fc l o se rt ot h e g eog raph ica l c en t e r o f o r ig in a nd l e s s d i ve rgence a s ar e su l t o f r e cen t l a nguage s p r ead , s he p o in t ed t o ap o ss ib le l i ngu i s t ica l h ome land o ft h e A u s t ra l ian l a nguage i nt h e C ap e Y o rk a r ea . Wu rm ' s ( 1972 ) w o rk i n d ica ted a t r emendou s d i ve r s i ty o f l a nguage si nt h eC ape Y o rk a r ea ,w i th 2 6 -2 8 p hy l ic f am i l ie s c oun ted s o f a r . T he e a s ter n h a lf o ft h e A u s t ra l ian c on t inen t d i sp lay se xc lus ive ly t h e s i ng le p hy l ic f am i ly P a rna -Nyungan . T he e xpan s ion a nd m ig ra t ion o fP ama -Nyungan w ou ld i nd i c a t e ar e cen t d iv i s ion a nd s p read o ve r t h e c on t inen t ( Wu rm 1 972 :14 1-45 /153 -54 ) . F o l low ing G ruhn ' s t h eo ry , w e w ou ld b e a b le t of i nd e ven e a r l ie r h ab i ta t ion s i te s i nt h e No r ther n T e r r i to r ie s t h an t h o se a l ready e s tab l i shed i nt h e S ou th ( Lake Mungo ) . T he c onc lus ion o ft h ee t hnog raph ic a nd l i ngu i s t ic e v idence i s s imp le a nd a tt h e s ame t ime u n sa t i s fy ing . U p t on ow t h ese t wo d i sc ip l ines c ou ld n o tp rov ide u sw i th r ea le v idence o ft h e o r ig in o ft h e A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ine s ,e ven t h ough r e sea r che r s t e nd t o a s sume t h a t t h e a nces to r s o f t h e A bo r ig ines c ame

1 9

c )a rchaeo log ica l ly Ag r ea td ea l o fw o rk h a sb een d one i na r cha eo logy c oncer n i n g t h eo r ig in a nd m ig ra t ion ( w i th in A u s t ra l ia ) o ft h e A u s t ra l i an A bo r ig ina l p eop le . Mo r e t h an a ny o t he r b ranch o f s c i e nce ,a r chaeo logy p roves t h ee a r ly o ccupa t ion o fA u s t ra l ia .I t i sn o t q u i te c l ea r w ha t w e s hou ld c on s ide r a s t h e o ldes t s i t e y e t e xcava ted . I n t h e W i l land ra l a ke s s y s t em , as e r ie s o f e x t inc to ve r f low l a kes f o rmed b y t h e L a ch lan r i ve r , a n o ccu p a t iona l s i te d a t ing b ack t o a r ound 3 1 .000 y ea r s B .P . w a s u ncove r ed . T h i s s i t e , c ommon ly r e f e r red t oa sL ake Mungo , i ns ou thwe s ter nN ew S ou th Wa les w a s e xcava ted u nde r t h e l e ade r sh ip o f t h e g eomo rpho log is t J im B ow le r i n 1 974 ( Bow le r 1 976 ) . Mungo i sn o t ewo r thy i nt h a tn o o lde rh uman s ke le ta lr ema in sh ave b een f ound e l sewhe r e i nA u s t ra l ia .T he Mungo 1s ke le ton w a s b u rn t , s o ac r ema t ion s i t e w as c on c l uded .T he r ad ioca rbon d a te r e aches b a ck t o am in imum a ge o f2 6 .250 h - 1 200 y ea r sB .P . ( Bow le r /Thor n e 1 976 :134 ) . T he a d jacen t b u r ia l w a s d a t ed c on s ide rab ly o lde r d ue t o i t s s t ra t ig raph ica l p o s i t ion . A no the r s i t e w i th in t h e s ame a ge r ange a s L ake Mungo i sa tK e i lo r , o n Ma r ibyr nong C re ek n ea r Me lbour n e ( J oyce , A nde r son 1 976 :47f f ) . T he t h ree s ed imen tl a ye r st h a ta r e f ound t h e re c on ta in r ema in s d a ted i n c h rono log ica l o rde r a s f o l low s . T he l owe s t , a r t if ac t b ea r ing l e ve l o f t h e Dc l ay d a ted f r om am in imum o f 3 6 .000 y ea r s B .P . t o amax imum o f4 5 .000 y ea r s B .P . . T he s e cond o ccu p a t iona l h o r izon d a ted t o b e tween 1 9 .000 - 3 6 .000 B .P . ( Bow le r 1 976 :64 ) a nd c on ta ined s t one a r t if ac t s , a n ima l b ones , o ch re a nd h ea r th r ema in s . T he y ounge s t h or izon w a s o ccup ied u n t i l a bou t 4 . 500 y ea r s b efo r e p r esen t , a nd i t s s ed imen t s e mbedded t h e " Ke i lo r c r an ium" , s t one a r t if ac t s , h ea r th r ema in s a nd a n ima l b one s . T he s ku l l w a s r e cen t ly d a ted t oa n a ge o fa bou t 1 3 .000 y ea r s . T he l a s t , s upposed ly o l des t , s i te i sf ound i n Wes ter nA us t ra l ia . T he c ave s i t e D ev i l s L a i r s how s t h ick d epo s i t s a ccumu la ted b y h uman s w ho se r a d ioca rbon d a t e s s t r e tch b a ck t o a bou t 3 3 .000 y ea r s B .P .

( Ba lme 1 978 :63 /4 ) . O ccupa t iona l d eb r is , i n c lud ing ac ook ing h ea r th , d a tes t ob e tween 2 8 .000 a nd 6 .000 y ea r s a go . Among o the r t h ing s t h e l imes tone c ave y i e lded t h e o ldes tb one t oo l s

Go lson ( 1971 :124 f f ,1972 :375f f ) c o r respond ing ly t r ied t o r e la te t h e p r eh is to ry o f A s ia a nd N ew G u inea t o t hose o f A us t ra l ia . U n l ike t h e p rev ious ly m en t ioned r e sea rche r s h e b a sed h i s s t ud ies o n a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ions s uppor ted t h rough r a d io -ca rbon d a t ing . H is c onc lus ions a r e ma in ly made t h rough t h e c onsu l ta t ion o f w e l l -da ted a r chaeo log ica l s equences p ub l ished b y Mu lvaney a nd J oyce ( 1965 ) , Wh i te ( 1969 ) a nd B u lme r ( 1964 ) . Go lson d i rec ted h i s a t ten t ion ma in ly t o g round a nd h a f ted s t one i mp lemen t s , s i nce t h ey c l ea r ly c ons t i tu te t o o ls a nd h oped t o s how a n e a r ly r e la t ion s h ip b e tween A s ia ,N ew G u inea a nd A us t ra l ia . E spec ia l ly t h e o r ig ina l a pp ea rance o f n ew t e chno log ies o r n ew t e chn ica l a t t r ibu tes o fs t one t oo ls c ou ld o u t l ine m ig ra t iona l r ou tes a nd c u l tu ra l e xchange t h rough t r ade o r i mm ig ra t ing g roups . A n e xamp le w ou ld b e t h e a ppea rance o fp o in t s o n s ma l l f l ake s i n n or ther n A u s t ra l ia i n 7 . 000 B .P . , w h i le t h ey a ppea r b y 5 . 500 B .P . i n s ou th -ea s ter n Aus t ra l ia . T he p oss ib i l i ty o f m ig ra t iona l r ou tes o t he r t h en t h rough N ew G u inea t on or th er n A us t ra l ia i si mp l ied b y t h e f a c t t h a t l e a f -shaped p o in t s a nd b acked b l ades , w h ich p robab ly o r ig ina ted i n I ndones ia , a r e n o t p r e sen t i nN ew G u inea , b u t a r e i nA u s t ra l ia . T h is , s o Go lson ( 1972 :393 /94 ) a dm i t ted , o n ly h o ld s f o r t h e l a te i n d u s t r ies i nN ew G u inea a nd A us t ra l ia , s i nce n o c ompa ra t ive wo rk h a s y e t b een d one o n e a r ly i ndus t r ies . C oncer n ing t h e Hoab inh ien c u l tu ra l c omp lex men t ioned b y McCar thy ( 1944a :265 ) , ab ackda t ing s e em s t ob e a pp ropr ia te , c ons ide r i n g t h e d i scovery o fs ome 2 0 .000 y ea r o l d e dge -g round a xe s i nt h e A u s t ra l ian r eg ion a nd t h e r e la t ive ly l a te d a tes i nS ou th E a s t A s ia . G r ind ing d id n o t a ppea r i n N ew Gu inea b efo r e 6 . 000 y ea r s B .P . , f u r the r e v idence f o r am ig ra t iona l r ou t e o ve rt h e i s land s " ad jacen t "t o Ar nhem L and .

y e tt ob e e xcava ted i n Au s t ra l ia . S ince t h e e a r ly y ea r s o f a r chaeo log ica l i n ves t iga t ion w e re r e s t r ic ted t o g eomorpho log ica l s t ud ie s a nd d i gg ing , t h e p r e v a i l ing m ig ra t ion t h eor ies w e re d er ived f r om g eo log ica l r a the r t h an s t ra t ig raph ica l o r ma ter ia l c u l tu ra l e v idence . I n 1 937 T inda le 's a pp roach , t h e c o l lec t ion o ft h e K ar tan i mp le men t s o n K anga roo I s land a nd o n t h e ma in land o f S ou th Aus t ra l ia w e re c ompa r ed w i th t h e " Suma t ra" t ypes a nd T a s man ian c o l lec t ions . T he c o l lec t ions w e re c ompr ised o f s u r f a ce f i nd ings a s w e l l a s s t one i mp lemen t s s pec if i c t o g eo l og ica l l a yer s , w h ich w ere n o t d a tab le . T he e xac t n umbe r o f s t one t oo ls s t ud ied w a s n o t g i ven b y t h e a u tho r , b u t i ts e em s t o h ave i n c luded s evera l h und r ed s o c a l led " Suma t ra" , " P ir r i" , h amme r s tone s a nd s eve ra l " sma l l f l ake t ypes" . T in d a le t e n ta t ive ly s pecu la t ed a bou t p oss ib le c or re la t ions w i th p redef ined c u l tu ra l i n dus t r ies , i . e . t h e F u lham a nd T a sman ian c u l tu re s w i th t h e Uppe r P a leo l i th ic o f Ma laya . T he e x t inc t Kanga roo I s land c u l tu re may h ave r ep r esen ted t h e c u l tu re t h a tv i s i ted a nd s e t t led i nA us t ra l ia f i r s t . T he c l ose r e la t ion t o i ndus t r ies i n Ma laya may i n d ica t e , a cco rd ing t o T inda le ( 1937 :56 /57 ) , t h e e a r l ies t m ig ra t iona l r ou te o f A bor ig ina l Aus t ra l ian s t owa rd s " G rea te r A us t ra l ia" . T he c a r r ier s o f t h e c u l tu re , s o T inda le ( 1937 :57 ) s ugges t s , m igh t h ave b een o f T a sman ian t ype . H ed er ived t h is t h eory d ue t ot h e s imp le f a c t t ha t s c ien t is t s f ound s t one i mp lemen t s i n ma in land A u s t ra l ia s im i la r t o t hose o f t h e T a sman ian i ndus t ry . T he T a sman ian c u ltu re m igh t h ave d eve loped i t s d i s t inc t ive f e a tu res a f t e r i t s i s o la t ion o n t h e i s land . T inda le l a cked t h e b a s ic a b i l i ty o f a bst rac t ion t h a t h i s t h eory m igh t b e r ever t ib le , s i nce h e d i d n o t p rov ide d a ta . A no the r a t temp t i nt h is c oncer n w a s made b y McCa r thy , w ho c ompa red t h e A u st ra l ian p r eh is tory w i th t ha to fI ndo -Ch ina a nd Ma laya . McCa r thy o b ta ined h i s s t udy ma ter ia l ma in ly f r om e xcava ted d epos i t s , h oweve r i n t h e g eo log ica l s ense , a nd f r om a l ready e s tab l ished t ypo log ie s a nd d i s tr ibu t ion s o fp r ev ious w o rk . T h is s t udy a l so i n vo lved t h e i n ves t iga t ion o f s evera l h und red s pec imen s o f p o in t s , a xes , mor ta r s a nd p es t les , a s w e l l a s m i l ls tone s . O ne o f McCa r thy 's ma in s t a temen t s i st h a t t h e o bv ious d ifu s ion o f t r a i t s i ns t one a nd b one i ndus t r ie s i sd ue t ot h e f r equen t c on t a c to f Aus t ra l ian c u l tu res ( e spec ia l ly t hose o ft h e C ape Yo rk r eg ion a nd t h e N ew G u inean o ne s ) w i th t ho se i n du s t r ies o f t h e Hoab inh ien c omp lex ( McCa r thy 1 944a :265 ) . T he Ho a b inh ien c omp lex i s ma in ly f ound i n S ou th E a s t A s ia , Ma l a ya a nd Aus t ra l ia , a l though t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n dus t ry o f t h i s c omp lex i sl a ck ing i n Aus t ra l ia . T he s t udy o ft h e s t one i ndu s t r ies o fJ ava a nd A us t ra l ia c ou ld n o t s t a te ar e la t ionsh ip u n amb iguous ly . T he c l oses t a f f i l ia t ion wa s f ound i nt h e s t one i ndus t r ies o f A us t ra l ia a nd N ew G u inea , a l be i t t h e re w e r e s ome d i f f erences .

I n h e r d oc to ra l t h es is t i led t h e "I nqu i r ies i n to t h e o lde r p e r iod s o ft h e p r eh is tory o fA us t ra l ia" S t ruwe ( 1974 ) n o ted t h a t ac ompa ra t ive a na lys is o f t h e e a r ly s t one a nd b one i n v en tory o f A us t ra l ia , N ew G u inea a nd S ou th E a s t A s ia i s i n app rop r ia te a nd m is lead ing s i nce t h er e i sa n o bv ious r e s ea rch g ap ( S t ruwe 1 974 :Append ix 2 ) . E spec ia l ly t h e o ngo i n g a t temp t t ou se a r chaeo log ica l s i tes a s i n d ica to r s f o r m i g ra t iona l r ou tes i si n va l id a s l o ng a s s i tes i n N ew Gu inea , Aus t ra l ia a nd t h e i s land c ha in t oT imo r a r e a bundan to rp res e n t o n ly i n i n suff ic ien t n umbe r s t o b e i n terp re ted . S t ruwe e xp la ined t h e o bv ious l a ck o f d i ver s if ied s t one a r t ifac t s , i n t h e s en se o f F eus te l 's " Upper P a leo l i th ic R evo lu t ion" , t h roughou t t h e w es t a s ia t ic r e g ion w i th t h e r e la t ive u n impo r t a nce o fs t one a r t ifac t s i nc ompa r ison t ot ho se o fo t her ma te r i a l ( i . e . b amboo ) [ S t ruwe 1 974 :162f f ] . S he a l so r e f er red t o t h eu ncond i t iona l n eed t oc ompa re t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re o ft h e N iah a nd T obon c ave , o ro t he rs ubsequen td i scove r ies i nt h i s r eg ion , w i th A u st ra l ian ma ter ia l ( S t ruwe 1 974 :171) . H er own r e sea rch , w h ich ma in ly i n vo lved t h e mea su remen t a nd f r e q uen t a na ly s i s o f ma ter ia l f r om S ang iran a nd T jabenge , a s w e l l a s A us tra l ian ma te r ia l d id n o t l e ad t o ap ioneer ing d i s c ove ry . N ever the less , S t ruwe s t a ted a n o lde r a ge f o r t h ese s t one i n dus t r ies , p oss ib ly s im i la r t o t h e o ldes t h o r izons o f T obon , t h an f o r t h e A us t ra l ian ma ter ia l ( S t ruwe 1 974 :171/ 172 ) . O n ly t h is l a s t t h eo ry wou ld make m ig ra t ion f r om S ou th E a s tA s ia t owa rds A us t ra l ia p oss ib le ,c ons ider ing t h e a ge o f A us t ra l ian s i tes . I fs he h ad n o t i mp l ied a n o lde r a ge f o rt h e S ou th E a s tA s ian s i tes , ar ever se m ig ra t ion wou ld

T he c ompa r ison o f c y l ind ro -con ica l s t ones f r om N ew S ou th Wa les a nd J ava b y t h e s ame a u tho rd id s how ap o ss ib le r e la t i onsh ip o ft h e t wo i ndus t r ies (McCa r thy 1 944 :P la t e XV ) .I t wou ld b e p r uden t t o c r i t ica l ly s t a te t ha t t h ese f i nd ing s w e r e s u rface f i nd ing s g i ven t o t h e a u tho r b y p eop le o f l i t t le i n t e g r i ty .

2 0

h ave b een a p o s s ib i l i ty . S ubsequen t r e sea rch p roved h e r s t a temen t st ob et r ue , a sw e w i l l f u r the rs e e .

3 0 .000 y ea r s B .P . , s e e D or n e t a l . 1 988 :681-9 ) . S t i l l , t h e v a l id i ty o ft h is m e thod h a sy e tt ob e p roven .

A l so i n 1 974 , Wh i te d emanded r e sea rche r s t oa bandon t h e i r e u rocen t r ic v i ew o f p reh is to ry . T h is w ou ld b e e sp ec ia l ly u sefu l i n d ea l ing w i th S ou th E a s t A s ian , N ew G u inean a nd A u s t ra l ian p r eh is to ry , a s i tc u l tu ra l ly d eve loped " qu i te d i f f e r en t t ot h a t i no t her p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld" (Wh i te 1 974 :112 ) . I n t h e f o l low ing y ea r s ar ea l f l ood o fd a ta a nd n ew a r chaeo l o g ica l d i scove r ie s e nr iched t h e s t udy o f A us t ra l ian p r eh is t o ry ( Camb r idge s choo l , s e e i n t roduc to ry r ema rks ) . Unfor tu n a te ly , l i t t le w o rk w a s d one i nI ndones ia a nd al a rge p a r t o f N ew G u inea . A rchaeo log ica l p ro jec t s i nN ew G u inea h ave b een r e s t r ic ted t o t h e c oa s ta l a r ea s o f s ou th -ea s ter n P apua a nd t h e H igh land s . No e x tens ive a r cha eo log ica l w o rk h a s b een d one i n Wes t I r ian , t h e C oa s ta l L ow land s a nd t h e i s l a nd s , w h ich w ou ld b e s o i mpor tan t t ov er ify o r f a ls ify m i g ra t iona l t h eor ies . T he e a r l ies t s i te i nN ew G u inea a tK o s ipe d oes n o td a te f u r ther b ack t h en 2 6 .000 y ea r s B .P . a nd l i es i n t h e H igh land s i n t h e s ou th -ea s t er n c o rne r o f N ew G u inea . U nde r at wo m e te rt h ick l a ye ro fv o lcan ic a sh , ah a f ted s t one a xe w a s f ound a mong o t he r t o o ls . W i thou t c ons ide r ing t h e p oss ib le i nf luences o f t h e v o lcan ic a s h l a ye r , w h ich m igh t h ave c aused a n e a r ly d a t ing , t h e a xe w a s d a ted b e tween 3 7 .000 a nd 4 5 .000 y ea r s B .P . (Wh i t e 1 974 :109f f ; Wh i te /O 'Conne l l 1 979 :21f f )

D esp i te t h ese v ague f a c t s , J ones ( 1979 ) r e cen t ly t r ied t o c onc lude t h e d a te o f A us t ra l ian s e t t lemen t a nd t h e o r ig in o f t h e A us t ra l ian A bor ig ines . E nume ra t ing a l l t h e f a c t s a nd s pecu la t ions a l ready k nown f o r s eve ra l y ea r s a nd c omb in ing t h em w i th n ew a r chaeo log ica l f a c t s a nd t h eo r ies , J ones s ug g es ted t wo m ig ra t iona l w aves t owa rd s G rea te r Au s t ra l ia . T he f i r s t c o lon ia l w ave , b y p eop le c l o se ly r e la ted t ot h e " a rcha ic s ap iens" o f t h e J avanese e r ec tus f o rebea rer s , o ccu r red a r ound 5 0 .000 y ea r s a go . Empha s iz ing t h a t t h e e a r ly s t one t o o ls c ons is ted o f " r ough ly r e touched f l akes a nd p oss ib ly f l aked c hoppe r s" ( J ones 1 979 :460 ) , J ones c onc luded t h e l im i ted t e chno log ica l c apab i l i t ies o f t h e e a r ly s e t t ler s a s c ompa red t o moder nh un te r s a nd g a the re r s . T he s e cond w ave o f h omo s ap iens o f t h e g rac i le f o rm a r r ived i n A us t ra l ia a bou t 3 0 .000 y ea r s a go . T he i n terb reed ing o ft h e t wo g roup s , a s J ones i n f er red , a nd t h e q u ick s p read o f t h ese " advanced a nd s oph is t ica ted" p eop le t h rough t h e c on t inen t r e su l ted i n t h e a nces t ra l p opu la t ion o f t h e c on tempo ra ry A us t ra l ian A bor ig ines . T he t e chno log ica l c omp lex o f t h e A us t ra l ian C o re T oo l a nd S crape r T rad i t ion , i n c lud ing w a s ted b l ades , w ou ld h ave b een t h e s i ng le a ch ievemen t o f t h e g rac i le p eo p l e . T he d i f f e ren t p hys ica l a ppea rance o f Abor ig ina l T a s m an ians t o t hose o f ma in land A us t ra l ia m igh t b e e xp la ined t h rough t h e s epa ra t ion o ft h e i s land s a f te r t h e r i se o f t h e s ea l e ve l . O r ig ina l ly c o lon ized b y t h e g rac i le p eop le , w ho s e t t led G rea te r A us t ra l ia f a s te r t h an t h e " a rcha ic s ap iens" , t h e T a s man ians w e re a l ready g ene t ica l ly l o cked a way w hen t h e a r cha ic p eop le r e ached s ou thern A us t ra l ia a nd i n terb red w i th t h e g rac i le p eop le . T he T a sman ian Abor ig ines m ay h ave ma in ta ined a g ene t ic p oo l mo re s im i la r t o t h e b i o log ica l h er i tage o f t h e g rac i le p eop le t h an t h e i r r e la t ives o n t h e ma in land ( J ones 1 979 :460 -62 ) . E ven t h ough J ones ' a r gu m en t s s e em t ob e c onc lus ive , i ti ss t i l l u ncer ta in t h a t w e c an c onc lude a l l t h is o u t o f t h e f ew r e a l f a c t s t h a t h ave b een c o l lec ted . F o r i n s tance t h e e a r l ies te v idence f o rh uman o ccu p a t ion i nT a sman ia d a te s b ack t o a bou t 3 0 .000 y ea r s B .P . ( A l len 1 989 :153 ) . T he s ame a u tho r t r ied t o c ons t ruc t a b roade r , c on t inen ta l h i s to ry o u t o f e xcava t ion p ro jec ts c u r r en t ly b e ing d one i nt h e S ou th a nd E a s t A l l iga to r r i ver v a l l e ys . O ne o ft h e ma in r e su l t s , o ther s w i l l b e m en t ioned l a te r , w a s t h e e s t ima t ion o ft h e e a r l ies t , d a tab le h uman o ccupa t ion a ta bou t 3 0 .000 B .P . . T h is d a te w ou ld e l im ina te t h e d i sc rep a ncy b e tween r e la t ive ly o l d d a tes i n t h e s ou thern r eg ion o f Aus t ra l ia a nd t h e y ounge r d a tes i nt h e n or ther nr e g ion , s i nce t h e o r ig ina l c o lon iza t ion o f A us t ra l ia w a s s ugges ted t o b e f r om t h e Nor th t o t h e S ou th . H e re w e s e e t h e t r u th o f S t ruwe 's ( 1974 :Append ix 2 ) p red ic t ion o f ar e sea rch g ap c aus ing d i screpanc ies i n m ig ra t iona l t h eor ies . I ts hou ld b e men t ioned t ha t G roube e ta l . ( 1986 :453 ) c ou ld d a te as e r ies o fu p l if ted c o ra l r e ef s c on ta in ing e v idence o fh uman o ccupa t i on t o a bou t 4 0 .000 -4 5 .000 y ea r s B .P . . T h is s i t e a t t h e Huon P en insu la r i n e a s ter n P apua N ew Gu inea w a s p a r t ly man t led b y v o lcan ic a sh . T he d a te s e em s u ncer ta in a nd i s d oub ted b y F o ley ( 1986 :275 ) . R ecen t e xcava t ions a nd a na lys is o fd epos i t s i nf ou r l imes tone c aves i nN ew I r e land , P apua N ew Gu inea , h ave i nd ica ted t ha t t h is i s land w a s o c c up ied a tl e a s t 3 2 .000 y ea r s a go ( A l len e t a l . 1 988 :707 -9 ) . Aga in , a l t h ese s i tes a r e i ne a s ter n P apua N ew G u inea a nd

I n t h e f o l low ing y ea r s ac onvu ls ive a t t emp t t oo b ta in e a r l ie r d a tes i n A u s t ra l ia c an b e n o ted , e ven t h ough r e a l e v idence f o r s i te s o l der t h an 3 5 .000 y ea r s B .P . c ou ld n o t b e f ound i n t h e p a s t 1 0 y ea r s . E a r l ie r d a tes r e su l ted e i the r f r om t h e s ub j e c t ive i n te rp re ta t ion o f p a r t icu la r g eomorpho log ica l p he n omena , w he re an a tu ra l e xp lana t ion m igh tb e a sp o ss ib le a s t h e h uman i n f luence , o r f r om t h e d a t ing o fs t one t oo ls f ound i na l luv ia l r i ve rd epos i t s , w h ich m igh tb e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e p r esen t s ed imen t s o n ly t h rough a ccumu la t ion . A r e cen t e x a mp le o f t h e l a t ter t ype o f i n terp r e ta t ion wou ld b e t h e t h e r mo lum in i scen t d a t ing o f g rave l a s soc ia ted w i th s even s t one t o o ls i n t h e C raneb rook T er race n ea r S ydney a t 4 3 .000 4 7 .000 y ea r s B .P . ( Nanson e t a l . 1 987 :72 ) . S ingh e t a l . ( 1981) a nd G oede ( 1989 ) e xp la ined p henomena i ns ed imen t a ry p rof i les a sh uman a c t iv i ty , e ven t h ough t h e r e i sn o c l ea r e v idence f o ri t .S ingh s ugges ted ah uman o ccupa t ion o fA us t r a l ia b e tween 1 28 .000 -7 5 .000 y ea r s d ue t ot h e p r esence o f ac ha rcoa l l a ye r i nt h e g eo log ica l p rof i le f r om L ake G eo rge n ea rC anber ra , w h ich w a s i n te rp re ted a st h e e a r l ies te v idence o fh uman f i res ( f i res t ick f a rm ing ? )[ S ingh e ta l . 1 981 :52 /3 ] . S he l l d epos i t s o f a n e roded c l if f l i ne n ea r Wa r ramboo l i n V ic tor ia h ave b een c l a imed b y G oede t ob e o fh uman o r ig in , a l though t h i s c ou ld n o t b e c onc lus ive ly s hown . G oede d a ted t h ese d epos i t st oa bou t8 0 .000 y ea r s( Goede 1 989 :28 ) . I ts hou ld b e men t ioned t h a t ab ackda t ing o f A bor ig ina l h i s t o ry w a s d one t h rough t h e n ewe s t t h ermo lun inescence d a tes f r om Ma la l cunan ja 2 i n Ar nhem L and , a d jus t ing t h e a ge o f s t one t o o ls t o5 0 .000 y ea r s a nd t h e m in imum a ge o f ab i fa c i a l ly f l aked c o re a nd amod if ied f l ake f r om P ur i t ja r ra r o ck s he l te r , C en t ra l D eser t t o3 8 .000 y ea r s ( F lood 1 990 :83 /154 ) . T hese d a tes h ave n o t y e t b een c onf irmed . T he a u tho r a l so h ea rd a bou t an ew m e thod t od a te t h ed eser tv a rn ish c over ing r ock e ng rav ings , w h ich g ave a ma z ing ly e a r ly d a tes ( up t o

2 1

a b le t oc a r ry p eop le o ve r t h ese d i s tances . U nfor tuna te ly , n o a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o f P le is tocene w a te rc ra f t h a s b een f ound o r i sl i ke ly t o b e f ound i n Au st ra l ia . Mos t o f t h e P le is tocene c oa s ta l s i tes h ave n ow b een s ubme rged b y p res e n t s ea l e ve ls a nd a ny o ther w ooden ma t er ia l w ou ld h ave p er ished b y n ow o rb een e a ten u pb y t e rm i tes i nt h e n or thern r e g ion s o fA us t ra l ia . A l l t h e l a te r p r eh is tor ic o r h i s tor ic w a t e rc ra f t s a r e n o t l i ke ly t o h ave b een u sed f o r P le is tocene v oyages , a s t h ey b ecome wa ter logged a f ter af ew h ou r s a nd s e em n o t b uoyan t a nd s t urdy e nough t o h ave c ar r ied t h e e s t ima ted n umber o fp eop le t ha ti n i t ia l ly s e t t led A us t ra l ia .

n oe v idence w a so b ta ined f o re a r ly o ccupa t ion i nt h e w es te rn r e g ions . A no the r , u nfor tuna te ly e ven mo re i n terp re ta t ive a pp roach d e term in ing t h e m ig ra t ion a nd m ig ra t iona l r ou tes t owa rd s A us t ra l ia w a s a n a n thropo log ica l -geograph ica l o ne f a vo r ed b y s evera l a r chaeo log is t s a nd p hy s ica l a n thropo log is t s . T h is a pp roach i n corpora ted t h e g eo log ica l k now ledge o fd ropp ing s e a l e ve ls ( t h rough t h e b ind ing o fh uge a moun t s o f w a te r i n g l ac ier s c over ing e normous l a ndma sses i nt h e n or ther nh em i s phere d u r ing t h e l a s t i c e a ge ) a nd t h e s imp le m ea su r emen t s o f d i s tances b e tween i s lands e x is t ing w i th in t h e S unda a nd S ahu l s he lf i n ter reg ion . T he mos t a dvanced a t temp t i n t h i s r e ga rd w a s d one b y B i rdse l l i n 1 977 (F ig . 4) .H e c ove red a l p os s ib le r ou tes e a r ly ma r ine r s a nd e xp lo re r s m igh t h ave

F o rt h e s u cces sfu l s e t t lemen to ft h ec on t inen tf e r t i le m emb er s o fb o th s e xes mus t h ave l a nded . C ompu ter s t a t is t ics o r s im p l e ma thema t ica l a ccoun t s c ons ider ing a l l r e levan t v a r iab les , s uch a s m onogamy , p o lygamy , a ge g roup , d ea th , b i r th r a te , d i e t , n umb er o f w omen , e nv i ronmen ta l i mpac t , e t c . , g i ve

t a ken . B ird se l l i mp l ied t h a t o ne o f t h e ma in f a c to r s i np lo t t i ng t h e c ou r se , w a s t h e v i s ib i l i ty o ft h e i s lands t ot h e v oyag e r s . T h is v i s ib i l i ty wa s n o t a lways p resen t , a nd i na l c a ses a t

o n ly a s l igh t c hance o f s u rv iva l f o r ag roup o f t h ree y oung

5 90 K m

H a lmahe ra J u

K a i r rnan tan G ebe

93 P e leng l e r ro C Z

w

e geo

•

s u ia

. _ _ =

. =

. =

g o t o =

. 5 4 W

:

a p i

" t a g o -5 . 3 3 3 g r 9 I r 4 c e > 0 XIX i x U

):5i3..z-2 ; . i :e r t i .—= . ; i . i • g 3• e- v =2.-.= i c j • • , ,2 _ =.2 ,i , , = e:k r o a u , „ , = cäe .

a d 2

u

2

4

. . . a u u

. .52 , o . 0 =

E l v )

—

e i i

u l U l U l i n i n i n 'g l g e g

g

e n m r

'

'

'

e l

e l

g

g

e. 0 3 C D 0 a >

•

c ,

e

i n

0

0

›. . .. .. . ,

14

7 Ä.

et ,

>,

> 0 .rm .

b

0

C‚j

eh .

2 . . .

. — ä o

e s oe

t i o • . . . • . .

V )

I n

c , c g p o p u , r e l r e l

i n

R

a > e p u n e l m C e l el r g

g

e n e n '

u l C p u l . e l 0 /

4 7)

'

'

u l e l ( " A

g r

2 2

C g C r ! r e o e 0

0 . C D

o p

u l ( 0 4 e l

.

U l e l e l

2 '

e e l °, C D u-)

I

U l

g 2

'

'

U l e l

r g e l

0

C p l m r u e n

—

s .

i n

` 4 11

9 ( ,

'

' r e n l

'

?

7 !„ c D

0

e 0 • 2 e

4

u n

C D

u ,

x r m r

C : ? N g C r ! C g r e r e I r ; 7 ? o e M e e l C e u l 0 -r 0 — 0 0 0 0 -

• •c D

% .4

7 ? c e ( 2 ! 0 ' 0 ' 0 0 . g t v D O D C A r q O D C h i n O D

r 2g; 1g n r

1 )

. •- . "

e . a

-

C 1

I : 10 1 CA .

i n i n t . o m i i n r i en

s i e i m f e i r i r i i n i n e i e i i n e i r i i n r i s i s i m f i n i n e i r i 4 m f i n

k r ) G P I r ; e

i n

e n e 51 , r

' 0

c o l 0 1 0

A

4e 4c


c > 1 7

E . 72 u

u • —

e d2 6 1 3

T . )

E

I f)

e i

C l ; CO

o x 21

0 9 , en

e i r e i

• e . )

e id

-

— ;

1 .• 3

%e rn CT

e

f l

qe

C

• •• ••

••• 1

e

ON

c o

o

1 .. 1

••••

WI N C ) ON e N 1 1

e l

e v ,

• , g e ev ec e

r i' 4?c e

NO

2 , O A

o p i n U " )

I

= u

L uE -f i o pw i z -W3 w : z >

. e rc v t • :r ye ) ND . 4 " t • • • O D i n

8 f 1 8 ,1 U , 00

e t o v pN .c o

4 . )

. >

4

0

0

0 0

0

T ab le 2 : Mea su remen ts o ft o o ls e i the rm anu fac tu red o ro b ta ined f r om A bo r ig ine s

E dge s moo th ing ;r o und ing

1n a tu ra l r e touch E dge C u rva tu re

. = o n =

0

2 0

. = ,.= 40 u 4 0

., C

0 u j >

-

> .O

x ) , ,

U W

ä oI N

0

tec e

C 4 4 : . . cC . )(

=

0 3 . , , -

. = . . . c

00 40

ea

0 4 0

0 = ; r 4 Z

> ; C 4 Z >

4 • 4

4

U

.

. . =

g

2

Z

i . 4 2 4. 1 /Ji I '= Yic . = e

W ** - >

) e d .

›

„ . . . c

0 0

—

g b

U

e d )

0 e a=

‘

t r . 3

b 00 > Z

jj

C e

g - C4

C

4 O 0 u >

.=

e a

C

> . , -

0 W V e 4 . 2 J -

j

i .-

=

.=

.=

. G • , fx ° . . c& o I

u . ,r g X

U

>

>

( 2

U

U ‘ J

C- z . 2 g• s . 2 Cg 0 : az•0 0 0. e- = g 0— i , :3 1 'C 83 g o P P h ' > >5 › U ,, ,> ,A ,= > . e ( 2

e '.ö n

J Z

i ..5 , -

.o 4 .04

0

e

u l e l e l e n e v

C D . d I u l 0 1 r A o n

u l C ) u l u l ( * A e V r A r A e l

C D d, U l o e i e l e l r A e l

0 I n

g

2

, 4

g

g

e i

"

0e

' 2 '

??

i gkr2,

" 4 7? ul

u /

0 1 r A

C D C h

' G

g

I n

ö d

e o

U l C 2 C 2 c p t i n u n e V s r ir 0 1 e l 0 1

g

g

g

i ?

k g ;

22" 1

m

g g

g 4 1 . 2

r l o g r . c g C D c i

-. C D C D

o ec eg t

o ev 2 ez m l v 2 o ec er l u 7 S t V D. r , s r o g u l r ; u l C S C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D . C D . 6 6 C D C › C D C S

---

on r e l r q r ,

e i e i e i

;r4

u /

e ;

"

g °

ig

' A

i ?

-

: 5 ‘ . a l o n

. b ik e t°

0 4 c

C ? U l 9 2 u l e l r A e l e V s r

C D C D C 5

( 4 . )

e r 5

I n e l e l

t v

c n C e )

Z 5 t -

u l 0 0 C D 0 1 s r 0 1

o g r;

4 . )

t e .? .0 —

0 0 1

W I

E

40

o r y

0

▪

0

r / 2 c t i

C )

C . ?

E

r ‚ 5 7iZ 5

r / 2

u l

u M

• " •

'

E c

g

' A

'

V I C D V D s r c p . 0 1 v p S t e l r A O D u l s r .e l C D . O D r A V D ( . 4a e l e i e s i s i c r i e i e i e i e i e i n i e i e i

e l

n i n f o i e i e i S i r i e i r i e i e i o i

• u l C h e l C D u l e l s r e V n t r ; c e • o d c i I n 0 i C 5 C D e , C D

t ;r i c e. r eO D C D r i

r, r l c D O Z C 5 C h s i r A

c e

C h e . n r r , nr C D e i n o : r 4 . r 4

e i c i

i n (4 ( NI c p 0 c 1 e 0 . m lg r c g e r y V D l 0 o 2 p 0 r l 1 c r : c r .! e l y e e l o ( e 4 w y l p c o r e, r s t , C D r v D A C D V r s , r 0 r , 1 O 0 D 0 r C h , r v D , C D I 0 N 0 . I u / n . . . . . . . . . . . n r e Z N 0 e N i u l g e e0 . 4c oe . o n i n r , o n C h 0 1 r A C D C h r A v D 0 1 m t V I u l r A r -0 0 e l s t u l r - r y s r s r v p i f ) e l r A n r s r O D d l W I V D I n s t U l r, t - v l V D

•• ••• •

. 44 c. 4 ci ei c

•

r m

( r )

u /

m"

-

°

7 , 12 o c l X 2 e ;

< c 1 2 c ) c ) c )c )c )Cc )

8 8 8

Z 7

( „ )C ZC ZG IR i g

G ;2 2 z i g2

4 1 4 . 1 4 . 1 L i k 1 . 3 4 P 4

1 31 3r z

& m . 4 4 i x . 4 . t 5

C D C ) C ) C ) ( ) C D C ) C ) C ) C D C) 5 D C ) C ) C ) C D C D 0 . 6 1 .

r 2

T ab le 3 :M ea su remen t so ft o o ls e i the re xcava ted o rc o l le c ted

i o W

C r ush ing o ft h ef o rwa rd e dge

,4

.0 =

R ounded ;Smoo th c u t t ing e dg e

D e f in i te e dg er o und ing ; 1 n a tu ra l re touch

ee

o ft h em ic rof lake s c a r sp o in ted t ob i -d i rec t iona l mo t ion w he rea st h ee qua ls t ra in o fb o th e dge a s p ec t sr a the ri mp l ied ac u t t ing / s l ic ing mo t ion t h an w h i t t l ing o rs c rap ing /p lan ing . Med ium t os o f tm a t e r ia lw a st hough tt oh ave b een u sed . E va lua t ion : I n secu r e ( v ague )i n t e rp re ta t ion

t h i sm ic ro scop e w a st r ansm i t t ed l i gh t ad if e r en t s ou rce h ad t ob eu sed . AH e r t e l &R eu s sM IC I , 2 00 g l a sf ibe rl amp w i th a d ju s tab le l i gh t i n tens i ty a nd t h r ee d if e r en t t e n ta c le s t ob e t ur n ed t owa rd s t h e i n ves t iga t ing o b jec t w a s e mp loyed . T he f oo t o f t h e m ic ro scope w a s t a ken o f a nd t h e o p t ica l p a r t w a s moun t ed o n as t ab le s t and i no rde rt oe nab le t h e i n ve s t i ga to r t o o b se r ve t h e t op o ft h e e dge , s i nce t h e r e w a s n o t s uf i c ien ts pa ce f o rt h et oo li nt h eo r ig ina la r rangemen t .

FOA 16 : T h i sb a sa l t ic t o o ld i sp layed f e a the r (4 0 % )a nd s t ep (4 0 % )t e rm ina ted s ca r st oe qua l n umbe r s . A dd i t iona l ly o ne d o r sa l s nap t e rm ina ted (2 0 %) s ca rw a sp r esen t . S l igh t ly mo re d o r sa l t h an v en t ra l s ca r sw e re f ound . D ue t ot h e s ma l lne ss o ft h e s c a r s t h e i rc onf igura t ion w a ss ca t t e red a l ong t h et o o l 's e dge .E ven t h ough t h ed o r sa la sw e l la sv en t ra l e dge a sp ec tw a so n ly s l igh t ly r ounded ,p o l i sh w a s o b se rvab le o nb o th s i des .T he p o l ish w a sd u l l , g ra iny a nd mo s t ly p i t ted . Un fo r tuna te ly ,n o s t r ia t i on o rd en t icu la t ion w a sd e t ec tab le . A l so h e re ,t h e a r rangemen to ft h em ic rof lake s c a r sp o in t ed t oa mo t ion w he r et h et oo lw a su sed s i deway ss ot h a t w h i t t l ing o fm ed ium -ha rd ma t e r ia l w a sc onc luded . E va lua t ion : S ecu r e i n t e rp r e ta t ion

U n fo r tuna t e ly , t h e m ic ro scope w a s n o t e qu ipped w i th a ny f i l t e r s u sed t os c r een t h e b r igh tne s s o f t h e l i gh t r ef lec t ed f r om t h e h i gh ly r ef lec t ive q ua r tz i t ic s t one t o o l s . S uch t oo l s c ou ld o n ly b ee xam ined w hen l owe r ing t h el i gh ti n ten s i ty o f t h e g la s f ib e rl amp o r t ur n ing i t s t e n ta c les t ot h e m a rg in r e g i on s o f t h e t o o l . Add i t iona l d if icu l t ie s o ccu r red w hen a t t emp t ing t op ho tog raph t h rough t h e m ic ro scope . A t f i r s t t h ee xposu r et i m e c ou ld n o tb e a u toma t ica l ly s t ee r ed o ve ra e xposu reme t e r s o t ha t s t anda rd a d jus tmen t s h ad t o b e d e v e loped d ep end ing o n t h e g rade o f r e f lec t iv i ty o f t h e r e spec t ive t o o l . G ene ra l ly t h e s hu t t e r t ime v a r ied f r om / 4 1 s e c t o 1s e cond w hen t h e u se o ft h e n on -sen s i t ive 1 00 A sa f i lm wa st a ken i n to a ccoun t .

FOC33 : T h i sq ua r tz i t ic t o o l s howed o n ly o ne d o r sa l ,h i nge t e rm ina t ed (1 00 % )m ic rof lake s c a r . N e i the re dge r ound ing /smoo th ing n o rd en t icu la t ion o rs t r ia t ion w a so b ser ved .T h is s t one k n i f ew a se i the rn o tu sed a ta l lo ro n ly o ve r as ho r tp er iod o ft ime o n s o f t ma te r ia l ,w h i le t h ed i rec t ion o fu se o rt h ea c t ion p e r fo rmed i si mpos s ib le t os t a t e . V a lua t ion : I n secu r e ( vague ) i n te rp re ta t ion

S i nce t h e r e w a s n o f i t t ing a dap te r t om oun t t h e c ame ra o n t h e t ube o ft h e m ic roscope i th ad t ob e f i t t ed t oo ne o f t h e e yep iece s . W i sh ing t oe mp loy ah ighe ro rl owe r magn if ica t i on , t h e c am e ra h ad t ob e r emoved a nd a no t he ro cu la r h ad t o b e c ho sen , w h ich e x t ended t h e e xam ina t ion t ime f o r e ve ry t o o l i mmen se ly . T he p ho to sw e r e s ho tw it ht h e a i d o f t h e s e lf t ime r , i n o rde r t o a vo id a ny b l u r r ing . A M ino l ta S RT 10 1 c am e ra w a s e mp loyed f o r t h e p ho tog raph ic d ocu m en ta t ion . S ome p ho tog raph ic e xamp le s c an b e s e en i nt h e a ppend ix A .

FOE50 : T he h i ghes ta moun to fm ic rof lake s ca r sw a sf ound o nt h i sq ua r tz i t ic t o o l ,d i sp lay ing s l igh t ly mo re d o r sa l s ca r st h an v en t ra lo ne s .T h i ss t one k n if e r ep re sen ted a tt h es ame t ime t h eo n ly s e cu re ly i n t e rp r e tab le q ua r tz i t ic t oo ls i nce i ts howed s t rong e dge r ound ing ,a sw e l la s ,p o l ished a r ea s ,a tl e a s t o nt h ed o r sa l s i de . F ea the r (4 4 ,4 % )a nd s t ep (4 4 ,4 % )t e rm ina t ed m ic rof lake s ca r sw e r ed ocu m en t ed ,wh i le s nap (1 , 2% )t e rm ina t ed o ne s w e r em eage r ly r ep r esen t ed .N one o ft h es ca r s o ve r lapped l e av ing t h e s ca rc onf igu ra t ion s c a t te red o nt h ed o r sa l a nd v en t ra le dge s i de .T he e dge r ound ing c ou ld b ec on s ide red s t rong ,s i nce i ti s a l r eady d i scer n ib le w i th a1 0x magn ify ing h and l e n s . Amaz ing ly ,o n ly t h ed o r sa l s i de s e emed t o h ave a r ea st h a tc ou ld b ed ef ined a sp o l ished . T he p o l i sh w a sb r igh t ,e x t r eme ly s moo th a nd n on p i t ted . S t r ia t ion a nd d en t icu la t ion w a sa b sen t .T he o ne s i ded p o l ish w ou ld r a the rp o in tt o as c rap ing a nd p l an ing mo t ion t h an t ot h e i n te rp r e ted w h i t t l i ng o ne ,b u tt h ea r rangemen to ft h em ic ro f lake s ca r sw a sd ec is ive f o rt h es t a t emen to ft h ea c t ion . Med ium -h a rd c on tac tm a te r ia l may h ave c aus ed t h et r ace so b ser vab le o nt h e s t one t oo l . E va lua t ion : S ecu r e i n te rp r e ta t ion

T he o u tcome o ft h eh igh a nd l ow p owe ru se -wea ra na lys is i s l i s ted i n at a bu la rf o rm a nd c an b e s e en i nt a b le 3 . Unfor tu n a te ly , o n ly a f ew o f t h e t o o l s d i sp layed u s e -wea r , e ven t h ose ,t h a tw e re d ef in i te ly u sed o ve r al o nge rp e r iod o ft ime (T oo l F075 ) .A l ready b efo r eh i sc l o se i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h e q ua r tz i t ic m a t er ia l P ro f .D r .V inx r ema rk ed t h a t l i t t le u s e w ea rm igh tb e f ound d ue t ot h eh a rdne s s a nd c omp lex mo r p ho log ica l s t ruc tu re o ft h e m a t e r ia l . S i nce o n ly 9o u t o ft h e 3 7 i n ve s t iga t ed t oo ls d i sp layed s om e k i nd o f u se -wea r a d esc r ip t ive e xp lana t ion o f t h e se t o o l s s e em s t o b e a pp ro p r ia te i n o r de r t o a cqua in t t h e r e ad e r w i th t h e m eage r f i nd ing sw h ich w e re g round sf o rs ub sequen tc onc lu s ions . b )T oo li n t e rp re ta t ion FOA l2 : T h r ee m ic ro f lak es c a r sw e r eo b served o nt h eb a s a l t ic t oo l . Two o ft h em w e r ef ound o nt h ev en t ra l a nd o ne o nt h ed o r sa l s i d eo ft h e s t one k n if e .T h i s i n vo lved ma in ly f e a the r (6 6 ,7 % ) ,b u ta l so s t ep ( 3 3 ,3 % )t e rm ina t ed s c a r s .D ue t ot h e i rs ma l ln um b e rt h em ic rof la ke s c a r sw e r es c a t t e r ed a l ong t h et oo le dge . O the rt h an o ne s ca r ,w h ich w a sq u i te l a rge ,t h em ic rof lake s c a r sw e r e s ma l li ns i ze .T he d o r sa le dge a spec tw a ss l igh t , w h i le t h ev en t ra lo ne w a sp a r t ia l ly u nmod if ied t os l igh t ly r ounded .T he p o l i sh o b se rved o nb o th e dge a spec t sw a sd u l l t o b r igh t ,g ra iny ,a nd n o tv e ry s moo th . S t r ia t ion a s w e l la sd en t icu la t ion w a sa b sen t .T he a r rangemen t

FOF62 : T h i sl i t t le s t res sed b a sa l t ic s t one k n if ed i sp layed d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l m ic ro f lake s ca r s . T he s ca r sw e r e e xc lus ive ly f e a the r (1 00 % )t e rm ina ted o nes , w h ich o bv iou s ly w e re s ca t te r ed a l ong b o th e dge

8 3

t i on , o rd en t icu la t ion w e r e a b so lu te ly a b sen t . E ven t h ough t h e s upposed ly w e l le xecu ted a c t ion d id n o t l e ave many t r a ce s , awh i t t l ing mo t ion w a s i n te r p r e ted b ecause o ft h e a r rangemen to ft h e m icro f l ake s ca r s . Med ium c on tac tm a ter ia l c ou ld h ave c aused t h e p r esen tu se -wea r . E va lua t ion : I n secure ( vague ) i n te rp re ta t ion

s i de s . S l igh te dge r ound ing w a so bserved o n t h e d o r sa l e dge s i de , w h i le u nmod if ied t os l igh t r ound ing w a sc ha rac ter is t ic f o rt h ev ent ra l s i de . P o l ish a nd s t r ia t ion w e re a bso lu te ly a bsen t . T he m ic ro f lake s ca r sa sw e l l a st h e i n term i t ten ta nd s ha l low d en t icu la t ion p o in ted t o ab i -d i r ec t iona l c u t t ing o rs l ic ing mo t ion w i th r i pp ing a l ong t h e t o o l e dge . T he u se o fs o f tc on tac t ma ter ia l s e emed t ob ef i t t ing i nv i ew o ft h en umbe ra nd a ppea rance o ft h e m ic ro f lake s ca r s . E va lua t ion : S ecu r e i n terp re ta t ion

FO 7 8 : T h is q ua tz i t ic t o o l wa sr a the rm or e i n te r es t ing b e c au se o fi t sc r us tt han b ecause o fi t s u se -wea r . A f ew ( two )o bser vab le m ic ro f lake s ca r s w e r e f ound o n t h e d o r sa l s i de o ft h e t o o l c on s is t ing o ff e a the r (5 0 % )a sw e l l a ss t ep (5 0 % )t e rm ina ted s ca r s . T he s ca rc onf igu ra t ion w a ss c a t te r ed a nd o n ly s l igh te dge r ound ing wa so bser ved . P o l ish a nd d en t icu la t ion w e re a bsen t . I n t e r es t ing w a st h ep os s i b le s t r ia t ion o bserved o n t h e t o o l p a r t ia l ly c ov e r ed b y at h ick c r us t . M ine ra log ica l e xam ina t ions v e r if ied t h ec r us t /pa t ina a sh av ing b een d eve loped t h rough c hem ica l p rocesses w i th in t h e s t one a s w e l l a sc hem ica l o rb ac te r io log ica l p roce sses f r om t h e s u r round ing e nv i ronmen t .I no rder t ot e s tt h e h ypo thes is t h a tt h is c rus tm igh td e s t roy t h eu se w ea r , w h i le a ccumu la t ing o n t h et o o l 's s ur face , t h i s l a ye rh ad t ob e e xfo l ia ted . O the rt o o ls t ha td id n o t s how a ny k i nd o fu se -wea rw e r ec hosen t od e r ive a nd e xecu te p os s ib le e xfo l ia t ion t e chn iques . T he f o l low ing t e chn iques w ere t e s t ed : a )A ne l ec t ro ly t ic b a th d id n o tr emove a ny c r u s t p a r t ic les ,e ven w hen t h e t oo l w a sk ep ti ni tf o rs e v e r a l h our s . b )S oak ing i ti nw a t e ro ver s evera l d ays l e ad t os im i la rn on -suf f ic ien tr e su l t s . c ) Do ing t h e s ame i n as a l ine s o lu t ion d id p a r t ia l ly r emove s ome o ft h e c r us t . d )B rush ing o rs c rap ing of o ft h e c r us tw a sp oss ib le b u tc ons id e red t ob e t oo a g g r es s ive f o rt h et o o l 's s ur face .e )T he s ame w a s t r ue f o ra c id sw hen l a id o n , i n an on -d isso lved s t a t e .f ) Mo s te f f ic ien t wa s t h eb o i l ing o ft h e t o o l i nw a te re nr iched w i th af ew d r op so fh ouseho ld c l eane rw i th o rgan ic a c ids t od i s so lve l ime . T ech n i que f )w a sa pp l ied t ot oo l FO 7 8 i no rde rt oe x f o l ia te t h ec r us ta tl e a s to n t h e a r ea w ere u se -wea r w a sa s sumed . A f te rm ic roscop ica l ly i n ves t iga t ing t h et o o l , i tc ou ld b e s t a ted t ha tt h es t r ia t ion e i the r n eve rc on t inued u nde rt h e c rus to rw a sd es t royed b y i t .T he c ru s te xfo l ia t ion t e chn ique c ou ld n o t h ave d es t royed t h eu se -wea rs i nce t h e p rev ious ly o bserved s t r ia t ion w a s s t i l l p resen t . O ther r e s e a rche r s may b e a dv ised t oc onduc t ac a refu lu se w ea ra na lys is o ft h e i n ves t iga t ing t o o lb efor e t h e b o i l ing p rocedu re , s i nce t h e t oo lm igh tr e ce ive a dd i t iona l u se -wea rt h rough t h em ovemen ti nt h e w a te r (h i t t ing t h e p o t )T oo l FO 7 8 w a st hough tt o h ave b een u sed i n as c rap ing mo t ion o n s of tc on t a c tm a ter ia l . E va lua t ion : I n secu re ( v ague ) i n t erp re ta t ion

FOG73 : T he f i ve o bserved m ic rof lake s ca r s w e r e ma in ly f ound o n t h e d o r sa l s i de o ft h eb a sa l t ic t o o le dge , a lmos tf i rm ly i n d ica t ing as c rap ing o rp l an ing mo t i on . T he s ca r s w e re ma in ly c omposed o fs t ep (6 0 % )t e rm ina ted s ca r s ,b u ta l so l e sse r a moun t s o fs nap (2 0 % )a nd f e a the r (2 0 % )t e rm ina ted m ic rof lake s ca r s .D ue t ot h e ir n umbe ra nd s i ze t h e s ca r s w e re s ca t te red a l ong t h e t oo l 's e dges . S t rong e dge r ound ing ,a sw e l l a s ,d u l l ,g ra iny a nd p i t ted p o l ish w a so bserved o n t h e d o r sa l s i de o ft h e t o o l , w h i le o n ly s l igh tr ound ing a nd n o p o l i sh o ccur red o n t h ev en t ra l s i de . N o s t r ia t ion a nd d en t icu la t ion w e r e f ound . K now ing t h a ts c rap ing a sw e l l a s p l an ing mo t ion sd eve lop s im i la ru se - w ea rt r aces , a d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h ese a c t ions w ou ld o n ly b e made p oss ib le t h rough e x tens ion m ea su remen t so f t h e p o l ish o rs t r ia t ion . T h is w ou ld i mp ly t h a tc ha r t s w i th t h ese m ea su remen t sc ons ider ing t h ed if er en t ma ter ia ls o ft h e t o o l a nd t h e c on tac t ed i t em s w ou ld h ave t ob ee s tab l ished a nd s t i l l o n ly a nv ague i n t e rp re ta t ion wou ld b e p oss ib le . S c rap ing /p lan ing c an b e f i rm ly s t a ted t h ough t h ec on tac t ma ter ia l w a sa s sumed t ob e m ed ium -sof tb ecause o ft h e f ew t r aces t h a tw e re o bse rvab le . E va lua t ion : S ecu re i n terp re ta t ion FO 7 4 : T h is q ua r tz i t ic t oo l d i sp layed , s im i la rt ot h e p r ev i o us ly m en t ioned o ne , ar e la t ive ly h igh a moun to f s ca r so no ne s i de o ft h et oo l . T hree d o r sa l f e a the r (7 5 % )a nd s t ep (1 5 % )t e rm ina ted s c a r sw e re o ppo sed o ne v en t ra l ,f e a the rt e rm ina ted s ca r . T he s ca r sw ere s ca t te red a l ong b o th e dges w h ich w e r e a l so s l igh t ly r ounded .P o l ish , s t r ia t ion a nd d en t icu l a t ion w e re a bsen t . As c rap ing , maybe p l an ing mo t i on w a s s imp ly c onc luded b ecau se o ft h eu nequa l d o r sa l /ven t ra l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h em ic ro f lake s ca r s . T he c on tac t ma ter ia l m ay h ave b een m ed ium -so f t . E va lua t ion : I n secu re ( v ague ) i n te rp r e ta t ion FO 7 7 : T he b a sa l t ic t oo l FO 7 7 d i sp layed d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l s ca r s i ne qua l n umber s . S nap (5 0 %) ,f e a the r (2 5 %) ,a nd h inge (2 5 % )t e rm ina ted s ca r s w e re p resen t .T he s ca r s w e re s ma l l i ns i ze a nd s ca t te red a l ong t h e t o o le dge . T he d o rsa l a nd v en t ra le dge r ound ing s e emed t ob e s l igh t , w h i le p o l ish , s t r ia -

8 4

i

1 3

=

l

l

t

d

-M

3

1

3

1

1

1

1

1

1

. . . r-

4

1

4

8 98

98

3

1

18

1

1

1

1

1

1

E

ee e e1 5 10. 00 0 0 00 000 0 0 0 l e e Z e f9 00 0 0 0 0 lM1o .o " " 8

zn P 1 5

-

e l •

Z

•

8

z z z > z z z z z z z z z z z z z > z z z z

r e M 1 3 1:1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1E 1 1 1 /

1 1 1 -M

2

3 0

0 cz = 00 c o o o o oo oo oo o o o 0 oo o o o o o o o U G

z

G C

U =

U C

U =

G C

U =

U =

V C

U =

U =

U U = 10

U =

.

.

4

4

.

4

.

.

4

P o l i sh /Smoo th ing

IfI

4

.

4

.

,

4

4

1 I I

.

.

4

4

/ .

4

.

.

4

: I

4

. 4

4.

C

G

U

Ö

4

.

4

4

,

l 4 .

l

l

.. . .

l

U

U

l

1 l

4 .

4 ,

l

.4.

G

2

. ä°

. . .

4

.0

00 0 0 0 0

U ▪=

1 l

U

U

U

U

U

U

0

0

0

0

0

0

1 l

l l

I

\

.4

4. 4

4

4

4.

4

. 4

4

4. 4

4.

• O U U U 1 1 2 c-- 0 = 0 0 o o oao U

z z z z z z

g z z z z

o

l l

l l

l l

l l

.. .

4 .

.. .

. ..

l l

I f "

ll l l l l l l l l l

l l

l

l

! "

!

I 1

4. 4

0, .› .

› -

A

U =

11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f t

0

MI M M M I

4: 1

.

4

› . 4.

V 1 : 1

z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z g z z z z 1 z o u e

I: 4

ks g . °3 1

0 0 0 • 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e e e e z e z M 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 s t- i s e b. z z zi5 z z z z z z z z z z z z z › z z z z , , z z z z z z m m z z › m .=

I J C

e

u z z z z z z > 3 z z > o ,

\

4

4.

: I

4. 4. 4

1

1

4.

ll l l

C › -

M. M IM M

0

Z D I

C 4

1

4

1

1

4

4

I : . \

4

: I

4. 4. 4

4

9 7

:

I0

ll l

l

. ..

4

. 4

\

c n

4

4

. 4

4

4.

,

l l l ll

I

\

.4

\

4

.

4

4

.

4

.

\

4

I Im \

4

:

.

t ;t g" t gt g

i hj

.0 c d o

ll l l l l l e .4

4 4 :m m

I :I

4 . 4

.

1 g

e

1:

: 4 .

4

.

4

4 .

S.

S .

\

4

4

l lllll I ::

1

4 .

I

4 .

. 4

4 .

4 . 1

l lllll

11 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 : : : : : : : : : :

4

k

..4

C>

MM . •••• M• M

:I f :

.

::, A

. 41 1 i . w1 1 1 1 1

G «

N

M M I .

k

0 .

ä 5>

I i

i re 1

1

:

:

;I : I l l i f I nr 1 1 1 1 'm S .

. ...

m.

„

:: : : 1 1 -, o lf le N 1

I

. ...

i d cl Ee s e l n r

E 4

u n

l ru l

5 4 0 0 C N . 4 e i e l e l e l e l ms g

O • 00 00 0 0 000 1 4 L T 4 P 4 1 2 6 1

L t w U . M w k w 4 4

A 4e r ,

mm

g

g Ce h e

C h

e i e. l I t 0 4 2

i n e t s- r g e l V, M 2 t,

4 4

4 4

M 2 ND e

e 4 1

r ,

e . 00 0 00 0 000 0 0 00 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

M4 k w 44 Mw 4w

44

44 44

4 4

4 4

4

.

4 4

4 4

U.

44

44

4 4

4 4

44

g x .

4 4

T ab le 4 :R e su l t so ft h em ic ro scop ic i n ve s t ig a t ion o ft h ec o l le c ted s t one k n i fe s

E

=

c haeo log i s t s a nd Abo r ig ines h e p robab ly h ad t h e v i s ion o fa p ub l ic ly i n t e res t ing a r chaeo log ica l e n t e rp r i se . E ven t h ough h e p ub l i shed ap ho to ( F ig 3 : 14 ) w he r e A bor ig ine s s e emed t og a the r a r ound o u t o f i n te res t f o r t h e e xp lana t ion s o f a n a r cha eo log i s t d ea l ing w i th s t one t o o l s , t h e r e w a s n o w ay t h a t t h ese p eop le c ou ld b e k ep t i n t h e h o t s un f o r l o nge r t h an 1 0 -1 5 m inu te s w i thou tl oo s ing t h e i n t e r es t . T h is d oes n o t i mp ly t h a t Abor ig ine s may h ave as ho r t a t t en t ion s pan , o n t h e c on t ra ry , t h ey m ea su r e t h e i rp o s s ib le b enef i t s a r is ing f r om t h e i ri n vo lvemen ti np ub l ic a nd a cadem ic a r cha eo logy . T he o n ly b enef i t s e em s t o b e t h e e xp lana t ion o f ah i s t o ry /p reh i s to ry t h ey a l r eady k now , m o s t ly i n ad i f f e r en t w ay , f r om t h e i r d ream t ime s t o r ie s . A r chaeo logy d o e s n o t g i ve t h em c on s ide rab le s uppo r ti nc ou r tw i th r ega rd st ot h e i r l a nd c l a im s . A rcha eo log i s t s c on t inue t o e xcava t e e ven i n s a c red p l a ces . F u r the r mo r e , mo s tA bo r ig ina l p eop le d o n o t e ven k now o rw an tt ok now wha ta r cha eo logy i s .T hes e a nd s im i la r r e a c t ion s a nd c ommen t s t h e a u tho r e xpe r ienced w hen h e t r i ed t o r e la t e t o p ure a r cha eo log ica l p rob lem s , e spec ia l ly i n h i s s t one t o o l t e chno log ica l p a r t . A l though s ome i n t e re s t ing r e su l t sw e re o b ta ined i nt h e a bove a na ly s i s , ac l o se c oop e ra t ion w i th t h e Abo r ig ine s w ou ld made t h ing s mo r ee f ic ien t . I tw ou ld h ave b een d es i rab le t oc o l lec tm o r e d a ta , i . e . t h rough p a r t ia l e xcava t ion o ft h e c h ipp ing f l oo ro r al e ng th ie r t oo l m anuf ac tu r ing e xpe r im en t . T he a u tho r w ou ld h ave a l so l i ked t oh ave b een a lowed t o i n ves t iga t e s ome o f t h e s t one k n ive s t h a t a r e o cca s iona l ly i nu se e ven t oday . T he a u tho r p e r sona l ly h ad t h e f e e l ing t h a t t h e A bo r i g ine s s howed i n te r es t i nt h e g ene ra l i d ea o ft h i s t h es i s , t o b e ad e f a c to d ec i s ion make ro f wha ts hou ld b e i nve s t iga ted i nA us t ra l ian p r eh is to ry , b u tc ons ide red t h e e xemp la ry c ho s en s t one t oo la na lys i su n impo r tan ta nd o fl i t t le b ene f i t .

c )S umma ry T he h igh a nd l ow p owe re xam ina t ion e s tab l ished t h a t 9o u t o f 3 7 t o o ls w e re u sed . O n ly f ou r t ime s w a s as e cu r e i n t e r p re ta t ion o f t h e e xecu ted a c t ion a nd t h e c on ta c t ma t e r ia l w a s p os s ib le . Av ague i n te rp r e ta t ion w a s p o s s ib le o n ly f i ve t imes . O n ly f i rm b a sa l t ic t o o l s c ou ld b e i n te rp r e ted , w h i le o n ly o ne q ua r t z i t ic t o o l d i sp layed s uf i c ien tu se -wea ra l low i ng a s e cu r e s t a temen t a bou t i t s u se . T he p o s s ib le u se s o f s t one k n ive s p r ev iou s ly s t a t ed b y t h e A bo r ig ines c ou ld b e c onf i rmed a s w h i t t l ing , c u t t ing /s l ic ing , p l an ing , a nd s c rap i n g w a s r e cogn ized t h rough t h e t r ace s t h e se a c t ion s l e f t o n t h e t o o l s u r f ace . Ad ef in i t e r e cogn i t ion o ft h e c on ta c t m a t e r i a l w a sn o tp o ss ib le . C ru s t ,b u i l tu po nq ua r tz i t ic t o o ls w a s f ound t od e s t roy u se -wea r , w h ich m igh t h ave b een p r e sen t i nt h ef o rm o fp o l i sh o rs t r ia t ion e ven t h ough t h e a u tho rh a s t oa dm i tt h a th e c ou ld o n ly t e s tt h is t h eo ry o n o ne t o o l . T he a u tho r w ou ld h ave a l so l i ked t o e xam ine t h e t oo ls w i th a magn if i ca t ion u p t o3 50x , s i nce p rev iou s s t ud ie s (D eune r t 1 990 :203 -205 )s howed t h a t p o l ish a nd e spec ia l ly s t r ia t ion w a s o f t en o n ly v i s ib le b e tween 2 00x a nd 3 50x magn i f ica t i on . Al im i t ing f a c to rf o r t h e i n ves t iga ted s t one k n ive s w a s t h e l a ck o fc ompa rab le d a ta f r om e i the r p r ev ious s t ud ie s o r r ep l ica t ive e xp er imen t s .

8 .7 E va lua t ion o ft he e xper imen t sc ons ider ing t he c oop e ra t ion a nd i n tere s to ft he A bor ig ine s When H owa rd C r eame r , w o rk ing w i th t h e N a t iona l P a rk s a nd W i ld l if e S e rv ice i nN ew S ou th Wa les , p ub l ished h i s p ape r ( 1980 :10 -17 ) a bou t t h e p os s ib le c oope ra t ion o f a r -

8 6

i mpo r tance o fs uch a n e n t e rp r i se a nd s howed t h e n ece s s i ty o f f u tu re r e sea rch p ro jec t s . T he s hor t h i s to ry o f A u s t ra l ian a r cha eo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s s how s t h e t ime r e la ted d eve l o pmen ta l s t age s a nd t h e moder n c onf l ic t b e tween s c ien t i s t s e xp lo r ing A u s t ra l ia 's p r eh i s to ry . P h ra sed d i f f e r en t ly , t h i s o u t l ine w a s a l so n eeded f o r t h e i n t erv iew s c onduc ted i no r d e r t o e xam ine p os s ib le d i f f e r ence s i n h i s to r ica l a nd p reh i s to r ica l p e r sp ec t ives . P e r sona l ly , t h e a u tho r r e ga rd s A u s t ra l ian a r cha eo logy a se xce l len t ,h oweve r , i ti sm eage r ly s uppor ted b y g over nmen t o r u n ive r s i ty a dm in i s t ra t ion s . A lso w i th in t h e A u s t ra l ian p opu la t ion a r cha eo logy s e em s t o h ave n o l obby i ng ene ra l , n o tt om en t ion , w i th in A bo r ig ina l g roup s ,w ho o f t en m i s take a r cha eo logy f o ra n th ropo logy .

9 .S U M MARY AND CONCLUSION

I n i t ia l ly i tw a s s t a t ed t h a tt h e A bo r ig ine s , m a in ly t h ose w ho l i ve o n t h e i r t r ad i t iona l l a nd , s e em n o t t ob e i n te r es ted i n t h e i r c u l tu ra l h e r i tage a s p o s s ib ly u ncove r ed t h rough s c ien t i f ic r e sea rch . E ven o bv iou s ly b i a sed r e su l t s a r e n o t c on t rad ic ted i nw r i t ing . A u s t ra l ia , a s aw ho le , a nd Abo r ig i n a l h i s tory a nd p r eh is to ry i nd e ta i l , e vo lved i n to a w o r ld w ide f i e ld o f i n t e r e s t i n s ea r ch o f ac ommon ly a pp l icab le t h eo ry o f s e t t lemen t , s ub s i s t ence , m ig ra t ion , a nd d eve lop m en t i n e a r ly t i me s o f h umank ind . S im i la r t o o t he r c oun t r ies , i nA u s t ra l ia t h e i n d igenou s i n hab i tan t s h ave r e c e ived mo r e r i gh t s , e sp ec ia l ly c once rn ing t h e i r o nce t r ad i t iona l ly o wn ed l a nd . T h i s , a dm i t t ed ly h ono rab le a nd j u s t if iab le d eve lopmen t d id n o t c au se p o s i t ive i n t er cu l tu ra l r e la t ion s i nt h er e spec t ive a r ea s . T r espa s s ing w a rn ing sa nd a b an o n a l l s c ien t i s t s i n s ome a r ea s , w a s t h e c on sequence , p e rhap s t h i s w a s ar eac t ion t oc o lon ia l s c ien t if ic i n ves t iga t i on s . S ince a n th ropo logy , m o r e t h an a r chaeo logy , n eed s s t eady c ommun ica t ion w i th g roup s t ob e i n ve s t iga ted , t h e i r m a in i nve s t iga t iona l t oo ls , o bse rva t ion , i n te rv iew ing , a nd r e co rd ing b ecame u se les s . B u t a l so , a r cha eo log i s t s h ad t o f a ce c on sequence s w h ich m a in ly o ccu r r ed d u r ing l ong a nd o f t en u n sa t i s f a c to ry n ego t ia t ion s o fp o s s ib le e xcava t ion s i n p r eh i s to r ica l ly i n te res t ing a r ea s . No t o n ly d i d t h e s c ien t i s t s a nd Abo r ig ine s l i v ing o n t h e i r t r ad i t iona l l a nd b ecame o p p o s ing p a r t ies , b u t a l so t h os e A bo r ig ine s , w ho h ad moved f u r the r i nt h e a s s im i la t ion p roce s s t owa rd s t h e w e s t e rn c u l t u re , o ppo s ed t o t ho se A bo r ig ine s , w ho se t r ad i t iona l k now ledge a nd c onserva t iona l m ech an i sm sw e re s t i l l i n ta c t . U rban A bo r ig ine se spec ia l ly ,l o s tc on ta c tt ot h e i rt r ad i t iona l l i f e a nd i t s v a lue s a nd b ecame mo r e a nd mo re i n t e r es ted i n t h e i r c u l tu ra l h e r i tage . T he o u t l ined , a l r eady ma ss ive , b u t s t ead i ly r e in f o r c ing d i sc r epanc ie s r ep r esen t a ma jo r f a c to r t h a th ad t ob e o ve rcom e i nt h e f o l low ing y ea r s . I n o rde r t o i n ve s t iga te t h ep rob lem s o ccu r r ing a nd e ven tua l ly f i nd ing a s a t i sfy ing s o lu t ion , o ne h ad t ob ecome a wa re o f t h e i r f u l l e x tend a sw e l la st h en ume rou sf a c to r si n vo lved .

A l though g ene ra t ion s o fs c ien t is t sh ave t r i ed t od eve lop a nd p rove t h eo r ies o fp os s ib le p l ace s o fo r ig in o ft h e A bo r ig ina l c u l tu re ,n one o ft h em h ave b een c onv inc ing u pt on ow . A l so m ig ra t iona l p a t ter n s w i th in A us t ra l ia a r e a mb iguou s t h ough u n i ta r i ly s t a t ing a n i mm ig ra t ion f r om r eg ion s i nt h e n or th . T h i s s t a temen t , b y t h e w ay , d oes a l so c omp ly w i th s eve r a l d r eam t ime s t o r ie s . S ince b i o log ica l , c u l tu ra l , a nd l i ngu i s t i c a l r e sea rch h a s f a i led t o p rov ide d a ta u seab le f o r d e r iva t iona l i n te rp r e ta t ion s a r chaeo logy s hou ld a nd c ou ld p rov id e c ompa rab le d a ta . W i th t h e k now ledge t h a t t h e h u man o ccupa t ion o f c on t inen ta l A us t ra l ia i sa tl e a s t 4 0 .000 y ea r s o ld , ad a t eh a s b een o b ta ined t oc onnec te a r ly A u s t ra l i an c u l tu r es t ot h e a l r eady k nown a nd d a ted o nes i nS ou th E a s tA s ia .U nfor tuna t e ly ,l i t t le r e sea r ch h a sb een d one s of a r i nc ompa r ing i . e . t h e i n ven to r ie s o fs i t e s i nS ou th E a s t A s ia a nd A u s t ra l ia . Mo r e e xcava t ion s h ave t of o l low i nb o th r e g ion si no rde rt op rove e a r ly h ypo these s . A no the r p rob lem i st h e o bv iou s l a ck o fb oa t s , t o day a nd i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a s w e l l a s o f A bo r ig ines , w ho c ou ld s k i l lfu l ly o pe ra te t h em i na qua t ic e nv i ronmen t s . T he se b oa t s w ou ld h ave b een n eeded t o c r o s s t h e s ea -ba r r ie r b e t ween S ou th E a s tA s ia a nd c on t inen ta lA u s t ra l ia . F a r mo re s e cu re t h an t h ev ague i n ve s t iga t ion so ft h eA bo r ig i n e 's o r ig in a r e t h e a r chaeo log ica l s t a t emen t s a bou t A u s t ra l ian s e t t lemen t a nd e a r ly s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ies e s tab l i shed t h rough e ven e a r ly i n land s i te s . I tb ecomes o bv iou s t ha t t h e e a r l ie s t h uman o ccupan t s o f A u s t ra l ia mus t h ave s ucce s s fu l ly e ndu red t h e mo is t c oa s ta l a nd a r id d eser te nv i r onmen t s e qua l ly a s s u cce ss fu l , a l be i t e ven tua l ly t wo d if e ren tg roup s , t h e g ra c i l a nd t h e r obus tt ype , s e t t led A u s t r a l ia s imu l taneous ly . S c ien t is t s t e nd t o b e l ieve t h a t t h e e a r l ies t s e t t l ing s oc ie ty w a s h igh ly a dap t ive a nd s oph i s t i c a ted , t h ough i tl e f t i t s i mpac t o n t h e A us t ra l ian c on t inen t t h rough h un t ing , e sp ec ia l ly w i th f i r e . I n t h e f u tu r e mo r e s i t es h ave t ob e u ncove r ed a nd e xcava ted t oa l low t h e r e s ea rche r s mo r e r e l iab le s t a temen t s a bou t t h e t im e , d i s t r ibu t ion ,a nd v a r ie ty o fs e t t lemen t s .

T he b eg inn ing o ft h e p r esen tt h e s i sd ea l sw i th m e thodo log i c a l c on s id e ra t ions . I tw a s d ec ided t o u se a c on t inuous ly d eve lop ing a nd e ven a l te r ing q ue s t ion c a ta logue s i nce t h e f u l l e x t end o f ap rob lem c an n eve r b e g ra sped u n le s s a c t i ve ly i n vo lved i n i t s s o lu t ion , i n t h is c a s e , t h e a c t ive i n te rp lay o ft h e i n terv iewe r a nd t h e r e spec t ive i n terv iewee . T he f o l low ing a pp l ica t ion o f t h i s q ue s t ion c a ta logue h a s p roved t h e t r u thfu lne s s o f t h i s a s sump t ion . A no the r , e ven mo re i mpo r t an tp re inves t iga t iona ld ec is ion w a st h eu se o fa m idd lepe r son , w ho w ou ld d eve lop m o r e e a s i ly ac l ose r r e l a t ion t oA bo r ig ina l p eop le t h rough h e r e t hn ic b ackg round a nd i n s ome c ases , g end e r d if e rence s . T he c on sequen t ly e xce l len tc oop e ra t ion w i th mo s tA bo r ig in es m ade t h e a u tho r b e l ieve t h a t t h e r i gh t p e r son w a s c ho sen . E xpe r ience s howed t h e r e sea rch m an ipu la t ing i n f luence o f a ny k i nd o f d epend ency o f t h e r e sea rche r t owa rd s t h e i n t erv iewee a nd v i ce v e r sa .T he a u tho rt r i ed t oa vo id a ny d ependenc ie s , a nd w hen e x i s t en t ,t h ei n t er v iew r e su l t sw e r ee i the rb i a sed o rn o t c ons ide r ed a ta l l .

B y i n t e rp r e t ing Abo r ig ina l p reh is to ry a r cha eo logy a l so h a s i t s l im i t s , e sp ec ia l ly w hen b e ing a pp roached e t hnoa rcha e o log ica l ly , e xpe r ienc ing l i t t le o r n o s uppo r t t h rough Abo r ig ina l g roup s . I n a n a t temp t t o a c t ive ly i n vo lve A bo r i g ina l p eop le i n as c ien t if ic p ro jec t r ep l ica t ive s t one t o o l e xpe r imen t sh ave b een c onduc ted u s ing t h el o ca l ly a va i lab le r aw ma te r ia ls o f e ach a r ea b e ing i n ve s t iga ted . C ommon ly a pp l ied s t anda rd p rocedu re s w e r e e mp loyed f o r t h e g a the r -

T he o u t l ine o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l /an th ropo log ica l i n te rp re t a t ion o f p r eh is to r ic A u s t ra l ia - p r e 1 770 , r e vea led t h e

8 7

c onf irmed t h e p r ev ious ly s t a ted e mp loymen t . C rus t , b u i l t u p o n q ua r tz i t ic t o o ls w a s f ound t od es t roy p rev ious ly p r esen t u se -wea r , t h ough t h is t h eo ry c ou ld o n ly b e t e s ted o n o ne t oo l .

i n g a nd r e co rd ing o f d a ta n eeded f o r s ubsequen t i n terp re ta t i ons . Ma jo r p rob lems a l r eady o ccur red w hen t r y ing t o a pp roach a n A bo r ig ina l c ommun i ty . P erm iss ion i sa lway s n eeded t o e ven t r espa ss o n A bor ig ina l , l a nd n o t t o m en t ion , l i v ing w i th in a n A bor ig ina l c ommun i ty . T he n orma l p rocedur e w ou ld b e t o s ubm i t o f a n a pp l ica t ion t o t h e l a nd c ounc i l . T h is d e ta i led a pp l ica t ion s hou ld c on ta in p er sona l d a ta , e du c a t iona l b ackg round , a ny r e sea rch p roposa ls , a nd a ny a ff i l ia t ion s w i th i n s t i tu t ions , a nd s hou ld i nd ica te t h e p os s i b l e b enef ic ia l f ea tu re s f o r t h e g roup t ob e i n ves t iga ted . T he r e sea rcher m igh th ave t ow a i t a bou t 4w eek s t o 3mon ths f o r a pp rova ls o r mos t ly r e jec t ions . I fa pp roved i td oes n o t i m p l y t h a tt h ec hosen c ommun i ty k nows a bou th i s /her r e sea rch o re ven e xpec t sh i s /he ra pp ea rance s i nce i ti sn o t a nnounced b y t h e c ounc i l . T he r e sea rcher i sb e t te r of e s tab l ish ing p e r s ona l c on tac t s t o Abor ig ina l p eop le i na nd a round t h e c i t ie s a nd r e ce iv ing i n v i ta t ion s t ot h e ir c ommun i t ies . T h is w ay t h e r e sea rche rh a s a tl e a s to ne c on tac tp e r son o n t h e d ay o fa r r i v a l a nd t h e " o ra l p r es s" w ou ld w o rk f o r h im /he r . S t i l l , t h e r e sea rche r w ou ld h ave t op ropose h i s /her p ro jec t t o t h e r e -

Aga in t h ea u tho rh a s t op l ace empha s ize o n t h e l i t t le i n teres t s hown o fA bor ig ina l p eop le i nt h e s t one t oo l m anufac tur ing p a r t t hough t h e a u tho r t r i ed e ve ry th ing t o s t a te t h e i mpo r t a nce o f s u ch a n e n terpr ise . A s e a r l ier men t ioned , mo s t A bo r ig ine s w e re g l ad ly w i l l ing t oh ave t he i r s ay i n s evera l q ues t ions a sked , s i nce t h ey l i ked t h e g enera l i d ea o fb e ing a d e f a c to d ec is ion make r o f wha t s hou ld b e i n ves t iga ted o n , i n A us t ra l ian p r eh is tory . T he e l abo ra te a nd e l oquen t a n s we r s o b ta ined b y s ome q ues t ion s s howed t h e d i rec t i n vo lvemen t i nt h e p rob lems men t ioned . T he o p in ions e x p r essed w e re o f ten e x t r eme ly d i ve r se a nd c an n o t b e s umma r ized h er e , b u t c ou ld g u ide f u tu re r e sea rche r s t o a b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f t o day 's A bo r ig ina l p eop le a nd e n h ance t h e a b i l i ty t od eve lop f u tu re r e sea rch p ro jec t s . Wi th r e spec t t ot h is , i ts hou ld b e m en t ioned t h a t t h e p r esen t r e sea rch h a s as omewha t e xcep t iona l c ha rac ter i s t ic t h rough t h e u se o f a n o bv ious ly f i t t ing m idd lepe r son . Mo s t i n ter v i ewees d i d n o t l i ke t h e i r n ame b e ing p ub l ic ly s t a ted a nd w ou ld n eve r g i ve a n h ones t i n ter v iew t o ap e r son w ho d id n o t b e long t o am inor i ty o r o pp re s sed g roup , t h a t h a s e n d ured a s im i la r f a te a s t h ey h ave . T h is c onf l ic t i s e xp la inab le t h rough A bo r ig ina l h i s to ry o ft h e l a s t f ew h un d red y ea r s . T rad i t iona l ly , t h e Abo r ig ines d e term ined t h e i r o wn f a te a nd d eve lopmen t , h oweve r , w i th t h e a r r iva l o f t h e E uropean s , i tb ecame mo r e f o re ign d e t erm ined . F i r s tt r ea ted l i ke a n ima ls , t h en t r i ed t o b e " domes t ica ted" a nd " b ra in w a shed" o n m is s ions a nd r e serves a nd f i na l ly g i ven s ome r i gh t s a dhe ren t t o d i ver se c ond i t ion s , t h e Abor ig ines s t i l l l i v ing o n t h e i r t r ad i t iona l l a nd d eve loped a m is trus t o f a l mo s ta l ln ew p ro jec t s .

s pec t ive c ommun i ty c ounc i l , b u t n ow , a t l e a s t , t h e r e sea rche r h a s t h e o ppor tun i ty t o a c t ive ly t a ke p a r t i n t h e d ec is ion mak ing p rocess t h rough c l ea r a r gumen t s . Once t h e c ommun i ty c ounc i l a pp roves , t h e r e s to ft h e c ommun i ty w i l l k now a bou t t h e r e sea rche r a nd h i s /he r p ro jec t w i th in af ew d ay s . A l though a n a pp rova l w a s o b ta ined , i n t h is c a se , t h e r e sea rche r s hou ld n o t i mp ly t h a t t h e re i s ac ommon i n te res t i n h i s /he r s t ud ies . Mo s t A bor ig ine s a r e o n ly i n teres ted i n p a r t ia l a spec t s ,i nt h e p r esen tc ase , t h e s o lu t ion o fs ome s ub p rob lem s ,o ft h e r e spec t ive r e sea rch p ro jec t . B a sed o n p e r sona l e xper ience , t h e a u tho r f e e ls t h a t t h e Abo r ig ine s a r e mo r e i n te res ted i ns pec ia l q ues t ions r e la t ing mo re t ot h e q ues t ion c a ta logue , s i nce t h ey r e f er red t oa c tua l p rob lems t h a t Abor ig ines f a ce t oday , t h an t h e s t one t o o l e xper imen t s . N ever the less , s ome i n te res t ing r e su l t s h ave b een o b ta ined . S pec ia l c ons idera t ion f ound t h e mu l t i p u rpose s t one k n if e , w hos e manufac tur ing s equences c ou ld c l ea r ly b e s t a ted . A long w i th t h e a l ready k nown ' mapp ing t e chn iques l i ke f r ee -hand p ercuss ion a nd o n -anv i l b ipo la r f l ak ing , at h i rd o ne w a s o bser ved . T he a u thor c a l led i tt h e a nv i l -nose t e chn ique , s i nce a l i t t le l e dge o f t h e a nv i l w a s u sed a s ar e ver se s t r ike r . T he s p l i t t ing b lock i sh e ld w i th e i the r b o th h and s o ro n ly o ne a nd b ea t en o n t h e a nv i l n ose , af o r ce d ue t ow h ich t h e b lock c racks l e av ing as i ng le f a ce t p l a t form . O f ten t h e r ough o u tcome o f s t one k n ives w i th f a i r ly s ha rp e dges w a s t h e e nd p roduc t . O n ly w hen mo re d e l ibe ra te t o o ls w e re n eeded , wa s as e conda ry r educ t ion c onduc ted .

A us t ra l ians t o day t u rn a b l ind e ye t o t h e c ond i t ions t h e A bor ig ine s l i ve i n , e ven b l ame t h em f o r t h e f i nanc ia l ly d e p r es sed s t a te o f A us t ra l ia . S ince t h e A bor ig ines c an n o t r e turn t ot h e i rt r ad i t iona l l i f e s t y le , b u t w i l l n o t b e a ccep ted a sf u l l m embe r s o ft h e n ew A us t ra l ian s o c ie ty , d i sp lacemen t a nd u p roo t ing h ave c aused ma jor p r ob lems . T he p sycho l o g ica l e f ec t i sd e jec t ion a nd d ep r es s ion , u s ing a l coho l t o d rown t h emse lves i n , h op ing t o , i n t h e s hor t t e rm , g ive t h emse lve s as p ir i tua lp ush . We h ave t of a ce t h e f a c tt h a tt h e t r ea tmen to ft h e A bo r ig ines i se qua l ly b ad , i fn o te ven w o r se t h an , i ns ome p o in t s ( h ea l th c a re ) t h e t r ea tmen t e xe rc ised i n t h e o ld A pa r the id r e g ime i nS ou th A f r ica . T he h ea l th s t a tus , i n fan t mo r ta l i ty , a nd j uven i le h ea r ing o rv i s ion l o s s , i sc om p a rab le t ot h i rd ,f o r th , a nd e ven f i f th w o r ld c oun t r ies .

T he t o o l m ea sur emen t s a nd o u te ra ppea rance c ons ide ra t ions e s tab l ished a c on t inu i ty o f h omogeneous s t one k n ives t h roughou t t h e l a s t f ew h und r ed y ea r s ; a l so l o ca l v a r ia t ions w e re f ew . I tb ecame o bv ious t ha t t h e q ua r tz i t ic ma ter ia l w a s e a sy t o f l ake b u t e x t reme ly h a rd t o e ven s c ra tch . P a t ina , p rev iou s e dge d amage a nd e ven tua l ly v i s ib le u se -wea r w a s a l so n o ted s i nce t h e f o l low ing u se -wea r a na lys is s hou ld c onf i rm o r d eny t h e a c tua l s t one k n if e u sages s t a ted b y A bo r ig ina l p eop le . 9o u t o f 3 7 t oo ls , e i ther o b ta ined , c o l l e c ted , o re xcava ted w e re e s tab l ished a sb e ing u sed a nd h a s

I n r e cen t y ea r s A bo r ig ina l g roup s h ave t r i ed t o r e es tab l ish A bor ig ina l c onf idence a nd p owe r , p o in t ing o u t t r ad i t iona l v a lues . F ac tua l ly , mo s t A bor ig ines l o s t t h e ir t r ad i t iona l c u l tu ra l i d en t i ty , s i nce a p rocess o f s u cce ss fu l k now ledge c onserva t ion , t h e o ra l t r ad i t ion , i sn o t b e ing p rac t iced a ny mo re . A s r ega rd s t h is , i ti se x t reme ly a mb iguous t o t h ink t h a t t h e n ew ly p ropaga ted A bor ig ina l a wa r enes s c an p u re ly r e ly o n t h e i r o wn k now ledge o f p re /h i s to ry a nd l e ave o u t a ny s c ien t if ic r e sea r ch . I tb ecomes a ppa ren t t h a t t h e s t a ted p r e /h is to ry m igh t b e an ew ly c r ea ted o ne . T he o u t l ine o f

8 8

t e chn ik , d i e B eobach tung , d a s I n te r v iew u nd d i e A uf ze ich n ung h i nf ä l l ig g ewo rden z u s e in . D och a uch A r chäo log en s pür t en n ega t ive A u sw i rkungen , w a s s i ch h aup t sä ch l ich i n l a ngen , w en ig z uf r iedens t e l lenden V e rhand lungen ü be r mög l iche A u sg rabung en i n p räh i s to r i sch i n te r e s san ten G e g enden ä ußer te . Am K u lm ina t ion spunk t d i ese r E n tw ick lung w a r e sn i ch tn u r s o , d aß d i e W i s sen schaf t le r u nd A bo r ig ine s g egne r i sche P ar te ien w u rden , s onder n a uch d i e jen igen A bo r i g ine s , w e lche s t ä rke r i n d i e w e s t l iche K u l tu r i n t eg r ie r t w a ren , s i ch g egen s o lche A bo r ig ine s , d e r en t r ad i t ione l les Wi s sen u nd d es sen K on se rv ie rung i n tak t w a r , w ende t en . B esonde r s s t äd t ische A bo r ig ine s h ab en d en K on tak t z u i h r em t r ad i t ione l len L eb en s s t i l u nd d e s sen Wer t en v e r lo r en u nd i n t e re ss ie r t en s i ch d ahe rm eh ru nd m eh rf ü ri h r ek u l tu r e l l eH e rkunf t . D ie e b en b e sch r iebenen , m a s s iven , j edoch s i ch n och v e r s tä rkenden D i sk repanzen s t e l len e i nen w ich t igen F ak to r d a r , w e lche r i n d en n ä ch s t en J ah ren ü berwunden w e rden muß . Um d i e a uf tauchenden P rob leme z u u n t e r su c hen u nd d i e se e ven tue l l z ue i ne rz uf r ieden s te l lenden L ö sung z u f üh r en , muß te m an s i ch e i n mög l ichs t g enaues B i ld d es A u smaße s u nd d e r z ah l r e ichen , a bhäng igen F ak to ren ma c hen .

t h e a r cha eo log ica l / a n th ropo log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion o fp r eh i s t o r ic A u s t ra l ia s how s t h a t a r chaeo logy e spec ia l ly , i sn eed ed i nt h i s p roce ss o f i d en t if ica t ion , t hough a r chaeo logy i ss t i l l i n i t s b eg inn ing s t ages . A r chaeo log is t s a nd e spec ia l ly a n t h ropo log is t sh ave t ob ec on sc iou so ft h e i rd e l ica te s i tua t ion a nd i mmens e r e spons ib i l i ty w hen d ea l ing w i th c u l tu r e s o t he r t h an t h e i r o wn . I ti sa dequa t e t o e xp lo re a c u l tu r e , g r own u p i n , s i nce b e ing w e l l a wa re o fi t s r e spec t ive v a lue s y s t em a nd t h ink ing . E ve ry o the r p r eh i s to r ic o r c on t empo r a ry c u l tu re c an o n ly b e e xp lo red f r agmen ta ry a nd t h e r e su l t s w i l l a lway sb e amb iguou s i fa n " i n te rp r e t ive t o o l" i s u s ed . S uch a n i n t e rp re t ive t oo l c an b e , t h e c u l tu ra l b a ck g round , me thod ,a nd t h eo ry ,b u ta l so t h ee xpe r ience . T he l i t e ra ry o u t come e spec ia l ly o fa nt h ropo log ica lr e sea r ch m igh t e nhance t h e r e ad ing s k i l ls a nd e xp r e s s ivene s s o ft h e s t ud en t s wo rk ing i nt h is f i e ld . I tm igh te ven i n vo lve t h em i n t h e p r ocess o fb roade r t h ink ing a nd e ncou rage t h em t ob e c u l tu ra l ly a wa re o ft h e i r o wn a nd o t he rs oc ie t ies , b u t i tc an n o tr ef lec t t h eo r ig ina l i d ea s , t hough t s a nd mode s o fb ehav i o r e ven l e s s s o w hen b e ing e xp r es sed i n al a nguage o f a p e r son w i th ad if e ren tc u l tu ra lb ackg round .

D e r A n f ang d e r v o r l iegenden A rb e i t b e schä f t ig t s i ch m i t m e thodo log i schen P rob lemen . E s w u rde b e sch lo s sen e i nen s i ch s t änd ig e n tw icke lnden u nd s oga r v e ränder nden F ragen k a ta log z u b enu tzen , d a d i e g anze B andb re i t e e i ne r s pez ie l len P rob lema t ik n i ema l s g anz e r f aß t w e rden k ann , w enn m an s i ch n i ch t a k t iv m i t d e r en L ö sung b e schä f t ig t , i n d i e sem F a l l d i e a k t ive Z u sammena rbe i t z w i schen d em I n t e r v i ewe r u nd d em e n t sp rechenden I n terv iewpa r tner . D ie n achfo lgende A nwendung d i es e s F ragenka ta loge s h a t d i e R ich t igke i t d i e se r A nnahme b e s tä t ig t . E ine a nd e r e , n och w ich t ige re E n t sche idung v o r d e r e i gen t l ichen U n t e r suchung w a r d i e V e rwendung e i ne r M i t t le rp e r son , d i e , b ed ing t d u r ch i h r e k u l tu re l le H e rkunf t u nd m anchma l d u rch d en G e s ch lech t sun t e r sch ied , s chne l le r u nd l e ich te r e i ne e nge B ez iehung z u d en A bo r ig ine s e n tw ick e ln w ü rde . D ie s i ch d ahe r e rgebende h ervo r ragende Z u sammena rbe i t m i t d en m e i s ten A bo r ig ine s , s c he in t d e r E n t sche idung r e ch tzugeben . E r f ah rung z e ig t a uch , d aß j ede A r t d e r A bhäng igke i t v om Wi ss enscha f t le r z um I n t e rv iewe r u nd umgekeh r t , s i ch man i p u l ie r end a uf d i eF o r schung a u sw i rken k ann . E sw u rde d ahe r v e r such t , j ede A bhäng igke i t z u v e rme iden , u nd s o l l te s i e d ennoch v o rhanden g ewe sen s e in , s o w u rden d i e E rgebn i s se d es I n te rv iew s e n twed e r a ngezwe if e l t o de r ü be rhaup t n i ch t h e rangezogen .

I th a s b ecome o bv ious n ow t h a t t h e re i s amu tua l d ep end e ncy b e tween s c ien t is t s e xp lor ing A u s t ra l ian p r eh i s to ry a nd A bo r ig ine s . Mea su r es h ave t o b e f ound t o i n vo lve b o th s i de s , w ho w i l lb enef i t e qua l ly f r om t h e i n ve s t iga t ion s . T he A bo r ig ines n eed s c ien t i s t sw ho w i l l s how p roof o ft h ev ague p r eh i s to ry t h a tt h ey a r ea im ing t oi d en t i f yw i th a nd s c ien t i s t s n eed Abo r ig ine s t o f u l ly u nde r s tand a nd i n t e rp r e t p r eh i s t o r ic f i nd ing s . I ft h is t h es is h a s g iven as t imu lu s o fw o rk ing t o g e the r a nd r e duced c onf l ic t s , t h en i th a s n o t f a i led i ni t s p u rpose . S ummary i nG erman DEUTSCHE ZUSA M MENFASSUNG

Z uA nf ang d i e se r A rbe i tw u rde f e s tge s t e l l t ,d aß d i e A bo r ig i n e s , h aup t sä ch l ich d i e jen igen , d i e n och a uf i h r em a ng es tamm ten L and l e ben , o f f enba r k e in I n t e res se a n i h r e r k u l tu re l len H e rkunf t h aben , a l s d i ese mög l iche rwe i se d u r ch w i s senschaf t l iche F o r schung h e rau sgefunden w e rden k önn t e . A uch o f en s ich t l ich f r agwü rd ige R esu l ta te w e rden n i ch t s c hr i f t l ich w ide r leg t . A u s t ra l ien , a l s g anze s , u nd d i e G e s c h ich t e u nd U rgesch ich te d e r A bo r ig ine s i m s pez ie l len , e n tw icke l t e s i ch z u e i nem w e l twe i t en I n te re s sens f e ld , u m a nwendba re B es ied lungs , D a se ins , M ig ra t ion s - u nd E n t w ick lung s theo r ien i n f r ühe s t e r Men schhe i t sge sch ich t e z u s u chen . 1.ihnlich w ie i na nde r en L ände rn h aben a uch i nA u s t ra l ien d i e i n d igenen B ewohne r m eh r R ech te e rha l t en , i m b esonde r en Maße i h rt r ad i t ione l lb es e ss ene sL and b e t r ef f end . D ie se , z ugegebenermaßen e h rba re u nd g e recht f e r t ig t e E n t w ick lung h a t d ennoch k e ine p o s i t iven , i n t e rku l tu r e l len B ez iehungen h ervo rge ruf en . I m G egen t e i l , w u rden e i n ige G eb ie t e n un f ü r Wi s senscha f t le r u nzugäng l ich e rk lä r t , v i e l l e ich t n u r e rk lä rba r d u r ch s ch lech t e E r f ahrungen m i t k o lon ia lw i s senscha f t l ichen F o r schungen . D a E thno log ie , m eh r a l s A rchäo log ie , d i e s t änd ige K ommun ika t ion m i t d en jen ig en G ruppen b rauch t , w e lche U n t e r suchung sg egen s t and s i nd , s ch ien d e r E thno log ie w ich t ig s t e F o r schung s -

D e r A br iß d e r a r chäo log i schen /e thnog raph i schen I n te rp re ta t i on v on A u s t ra l ien s P räh i s to r ie - v o r 1 770 , z e ig te d i e Wich t igke i t e i ne r s o lchen U n t e rnehmung u nd z ukünf t ige r F o r schung sp ro jek te . D ie k u rze E in führung i nd i e G e sch ich t e d e r a u s t ra l ischen A r chäo log ie z e ig t d i e h i s to r isch b ed ing ten E n tw ick lung s s tad ien u nd d en z e i tgenö s s i schen K on f l ik t z w ischen F o r scher n d e r a us t ra l i schen P räh is to r ie . A nd e r s a usged rück t , w u rde d i e se r Ü be rb l ick f ü r d i e I n ter v iew s b e n ö t ig t , um mög l iche U n t e r sch iede i n h i s to r i schen , p räh i s to r ischen P e r spek t iven a u f zuze igen . P e r sön l ich i s t d e r Au to r d e r Me inung , d aß d i e a u s t ra l i sche A rchäo log ie a l s a usgeze ichne t a nzus ehen i s t , l e d ig l ich z u w en ig v on R eg ie r ung u nd U n ive r s i tä t sve rwa l tung u n t e r s tü tz t . E ben so s che in t A rchäo log ie u n t e r d e r a u s t ra l i schen B evö lke rung k e ine L ob -

8 9

u nd j eg l iche V erb indung z u I n s t i tu t ionen , w ie a uch d en mög l ichen b enef iz ie l len C ha rak te r f ü r d ie z u u n te r suchende G ruppe a uf ze igen . D er F o r sche r muß d ann u ngef ähr 6 Wo c hen b i s 3Mona te a uf d i e Z usage ,j edoch m e is t A b lehnung , w a r ten . Wenn a ngenommen , b esag t d i eses n och l a nge n i ch t , d aß d i e a usgewäh l te G eme inde ü be r d a s F o r schungsvo rha b en B esche id w e iß , n och d aß s i e d en F or sche r i ni r gende iner F orm e rwa r te t ,d ad i eses v om " Land C ounc i l" n i ch tw e i te rge l e i te tw u rde . D e rF or sche r w ird b e sse rd a ran t u n , p e r sön l iche K on tak te z u Abo r ig ines i nu nd um d i e S täd te z u k nüpf en u nd p e r sön l iche E in ladungen z u e rha l t en . A uf d i ese A r t h a t d er F o r sche r w en ig s tens e ine Kon tak tpe r son am T age d e r A n k unf t u nd d i e " münd l iche P r e sse" h a t s c hon f ü r i h n g ea rbe i te t . D ennoch müß te u nd s o l l te d er F o r sche r s e in F or s chung svo rhaben d em j ewe i l igen " Commun i ty C ounc i l" n ähe r e rk lä ren , d och w en igs tens j e tz t h a t d e r F o r sche r d i e Mög l ichke i t , d u rch k l a re A rgumen te a k t iv i nd em E n t sche i d ungsp rozeß m i tzuw irken . Wenn e i nma l d a s " Commun i ty C ounc i l" d a sP ro jek tg enehm ig th a t , w e iß s pä te s ten s 1o de r 2 T age s pä ter d i e g anze G eme inscha f td a rübe r B esche id . A uch w enn e i ne G enehm igung e r te i l t w u rde , s o l l te d e r F o r sche r n i ch t d avon a usgehen , d aß d i e g e sam t e G eme in scha f t u ne in g eschränk te s I n t er es se i nd a s F o r schungsvo rhaben z e ig t . D ie m e is ten A bor ig ine s w erden n ur i nT e i la spek ten , i m v o r l ie g enden F a l l d e r L ö sung e in ige r U n terp rob leme , d es j ewe i l igen F or schungsvo rhabens i n t e res s ier ts e in .

b y z u h aben , b esonder s b e i a bor ig ina l G ruppen , d i e A r chäo l og ie h äuf ig m i tE thno log ie v erwechse ln . A uch w enn G ene ra t ionen v on Wis sen scha f t ler n v e r such t h aben , T heo r ien ü be r d i e H e rkunf t d e r A bor ig ines z u e r s te l l e n u nd z u b ewe isen , s o w a r b i she r k e ine a b so lu t ü be rzeugend . A uch M ig ra t ion smus te r i n A us t ra l ien s i nd z we if e lha f t a uch w enn e i nhe i t l ich e i ne E inwanderung a u s d em N o rden a ngeführ t w i rd . D iese A ussage , ü b r igens , s t imm t m i t m ehre ren T raumgesch ich ten d e r A bo r ig ine s ü be re in . D a b i o log ische , k u l tur e l le u nd l i ngu is t i sche F o r s chungen v e r sag t h aben , b rauchba re D a ten f ü r H e rkunf t s in terp r e ta t ionen z u l i ef ern , s o l l te u nd k önn te d i e A rchäo log ie s o lche D a ten b e re i t s te l len . Du rch d a s W is sen , d aß d i e m en sch l iche B es ied lung v on k on t inen ta l A us t ra l ien m indes ten s 4 0 .000 J ahr e z urück l ieg t , w u rde e i n D a tum g e wonnen , um f r ühe a us t ra l ische K u l tu ren m i t j enen s c hon d a t ier ten i n S üd -Os t A s ien z u v e rknüpf en . L e ide r w u rde b i sher w en ig ü be r d en V e rg le ich v on I nven ta r ien s üd -o s t a s ia t ische r u nd a u s t ra l ische r A usg rabungen g ea rbe i te t . Meh r Au sg rabungen i n b e iden R eg ionen mü ssen d i e F o lge s e in , um f r ühe Hypo thesen z u ü be rprüf en . Wesen t l ich k onk re te r a l s d i e u ns icheren I n terp re ta t ionen ü be r d i e H e rkunf t d e r A us t ra l ie r s i nd d i e a r chäo log ischen Au ssagen ü ber d i e f r ühen a us t ra l ischen B es ied lung s - u nd Un terha l t s s t ra teg ien , u n termauer t s oga r d u rch f r ühe I n land p lä tze . E s s che in t n un o f f ens ich t l ich , d aß d i e f r ühes ten , mensch l ichen B ewohne r v on A us t ra l ien s owoh l d i e f e uch ten Küs ten - a l s a uch d i e t r ockenen Wüs ten reg ionen g l e icherma ß en e r fo lg re ich b es iede l ten , o bwoh l w ahr sche in l ich z we i v er sch iedene G ruppen , d i e " G ra z i len" u nd d i e ' Robu s t en" , Aus t ra l ien g l e ichze i t ig b es iede l ten . W is senscha f t ler g l auben h eu te , d aß d i e f r ühes t b es iede lnde G ruppe s ehr a dap t iv u nd f o r t sch r i t t l ich g ewesen s e in muß , d i ej edoch e i nen n achha l t i g en E ind ruck a uf d en a us t ra l ischen Kon t inen t h in te r la ssen h a t , b esonder s d u rch d a s J agen m i t F eue r . I n d e r Z ukunf t müssen m eh r S i ed lungsp lä tze e n tdeck t u nd a usgeg raben w erden , um d en F o r scher n s i che re re A ussagen ü be r d i e Z e i t t i ef e ,V er te i lung u nd V ie lfa l td e rB es ied lung z ue rmög l ichen .

B a s ie rend a uf p e r sön l iche rE r fahrung , i s td er A u to rd e r Me i n ung , d aß d i e A bor ig ines w esen t l ich m eh r a n d en s pez ie l len F ragen i m F ragenka ta log i n teress ie r t w a ren , d a s i e s i ch a uf d i e t a t säch l ichen P rob leme d er A bo r ig ines h eu t e b ez iehen , a l s a n d en S t e inge rä teexper imen ten .E s w u rden j e doch e i n ige s ehr i n te ressan t e E rgebn isse e rz ie l t . B esondere E rwähnun g ; f and d a s Meh rzweck S te inmessser , d essen H er s te l lung s s tad i e n k l a r e rkann t w e rden k onn ten . N eben d en b ere i t s b ekann t en S ch lag techn iken , w ie d e r F re ihandsch lag u nd d i e b ipo la r Amboß t echn ik , w u rde a uch e i ne d r i t te b eobach te t . D e r A u to r h a t d i ese T echn ik d i e Amboß -Na sen -Techn ik g enann t , d a e i n k l e ine r V o r sprung a m Amboß a l s e i n umge k ehr ter S ch lags te in g enu tz t wurde . D e r z u b ea rbe i tende B lock w u rde e n twede rm i tb e iden H änden o der n u rm i te i ne r Hand g eha l ten u nd a uf d i e Amboßna se g esch lagen , e i ne K ra f t , d u rch w e lche d e r B lock z e r sp rang , e ine u n ifac ia le P la t t form h in t e r la s send . Me is t wu rd en s o g robe S t e inmesse r m i t b ea ch t l ich s cha r f en E cken p roduz ier t . L ed ig l ich w enn f e ine re We rkzeuge b enö t ig t wu rden , w u rde e i ne w e i te re B ea rbe i tung d u rchgeführ t .

B e i d e r I n terp re ta t ion d e r V o rgesch ich te d e r A bor ig ine s i s t j edoch a uch d i e A rchäo log ie b esch ränk t , b esonde r s w enn e t hnoa rchäo log isch g ea rbe i te t w i rd u nd w en ig Un te r s tü tzung v on a bor ig ina lG ruppen e r fahr en w i rd . I ne i nem V e r such ,d i e Abor ig ines a k t iv i n e i nem w issenscha f t l ichen P ro jek t m i t w i rken z u l a ssen , w u rden E xper imen te z ur H e r s te l lung v on S te ingerä ten , u n t e r V erwendung d e r j ewe i ls v o rhandenen S t e inma ter ia l ien , d u rchgeführ t . G ene re l l a ngewende te S tan d a rdp rozeduren w u rden f ü r d a s S amme ln u nd A ufnehmen v on D a ten v erwende t , um d i ese f ü r s pä te re I n terp re ta t ionen v erwenden z u k önnen .

D ie G e rä t emes sungen u nd ä ußere F ormbe t rach tungen w e isen a uf e i ne H omogen i tä t u nd K on t inu i tä tv on S t e inme ssern ü ber d i e l e t z ten J ah rhunder te h in ; a uch l o ka le Va r ian ten w a ren b esch ränk t . F rüh w u rde e rkann t , d aß d a s q ua rz i t ische Ma te r i a l z wa r l e ich t z u s ch lagen w a r , j edoch z u h a r t , u m e s a uch n u r e i nzur i tzen . P a t ina , v o rher ige B eschäd igungen d er S chne idekan te u nd e ven tue l l s i ch tba re G eb rauchsspuren wu rden e benso n o t ier t , d ad i e f o lgende G eb rauchs spu renana l y se d i e e i gen t l iche S t e inmesserverwendung , h ervo rgehoben v on d en A bor ig ine s , b es tä t igen o de r w ider legen s o l l te . 9d er 3 7 e n twede re rha l tenen , a ufgesamme l t en o de ra usgeg rabenen S t e inge rä te wu rden a l s i m S inne d e r v o rhe r a ngenommenen V e rwendung b enu tz t . K rus te , w e lche s i ch a uf q ua r z i t ischen

G rund legende P rob leme t a uch ten s c hon b e i d em V e r such a uf , e i ne a bor ig ina l G eme inde z u b esuchen . E ine f o rme l le E r laubn is , um A bor ig ina l L and z u ü be rque ren , g eschwe ige d enn i ne i ne r Abo r ig ina l G eme inde z u l e ben , i s t v on N ö ten . D e rn o rma le Vo rgang z u rE r langung e i ner s o lchen E r laubn is wä re d i e z e i t ige E in re ichung e i ne r B ewe rbung a n d a s " Land C ounc i l" . D iese d e ta i l l ier te B ewe rbung s o l l te a l le p e r sön l i c hen D a ten , d en B i ldungsweg , j eg l iche F o r schung svo rhaben

9 0

I nd en l e tz t en J ah ren h aben a bo r ig ina l G ruppen v e r such t i h r V er t rauen u nd i h r e S t ä rke w iede rzugew innen d u rch d i e R ückbe s innung a uf t r ad i t ione l le We r t e . T a t säch l ich j edoch , h aben d i e m e i s t en A bo r ig ines i h re t r ad i t ione l l , k u l tu r e l le I den t i tä t v e r lo r en , d a d e r b i she r e r fo lg r e iche , w i s sen skon s e r v ie r ende P rozeß , d i e o ra le T rad i t ion , n i ch t m eh r p rak t iz ie r tw u rde .I nd i e sem Z u sammenhang i s te ss eh rz we i f e lha f t z u g l auben , d aß d i e n eu p ropag ie r te a bo r ig ina l B ewuß the i t s i ch n u r a uf e i genes Wi ss en d e r V o r - u nd F rüh g e sch ich te s t ü t zen k ann u nd w is sen schaf t l iche F o r schung v e rnach lä s s ig t . E s w i rd o f en s ich t l ich , d aß d i ese p ropag ie r te V o r - F rühgesch ich te e i ne n eu k r e ie r te s e in mag . D ie B e s ch r e ibung d e r a r chäo log ischen u nd e t hno log ischen I n t e r p re ta t ion v on A u s t ra l ien z e ig t , d aß b e sonde r s d i e A r chäo lo g i e i nd i e sem I d en t if ika t ion sp rozeß g eb rauch t w i rd , o bwoh l j ene F o r schung n och a n A nf ang s t eh t . A rchäo logen , u nd b esonde r s E thno logen mü s sen s i ch i h r e r d e l ika t en S i tua t ion u nd i mmen sen V e ran two r tung b ewuß t s e in , w enn s i e m i t a nde ren K u l tu r en a l s d e r e i genen umgehen . E s i s t a ngeme s s en e i ne K u l tu r z u e r fo r schen , i nd e r m an a ufw uch s , d a m an s i ch d e s j ewe i l igen Wer t esys tem s u nd d e s D enken s b ewuß t i s t . J ede a nde re p räh is to r ische u nd z e i tgenös s i sche K u l tu r k ann n u rf r agmen ta r isch e rg ründe tw e rden u nd d i e R e su l ta t e w e rden i mme r f r agwü rd ig s e in , s o f er n e i n " i n terp re ta t ive s We rkzeug " b enu tz t w u rde . S o e i n i n t e rp re ta t ive s We rkzeug k ann d i e k u l tu re l le H e rkunf t , d i e Me thode , T heo r ie , d och a uch d i ee i gene E r f ahrung s e in .

S t e inge rä t en a bge lager t h a t t e , w u rde a l s G eb rauch s spu r en z e r s tö rend h e rau sge funden , a uch w enn d i e ses n u r a n e i nem G e rä tn achgew ie sen w e rden k onn t e . N ochma l s m uß d e rA u to rd a s g e r inge I n te r e s se d e r A bo r ig i n e s a n d e r H e r s te l lung v on S t e inge rä t en h e rvo rheben , a uch w enn d i e W ich t igke i ts o lche rU n te r suchungen s t änd ig b e ton t w u rde . W i e s c hon f r ühe re rwähn t , w a r en d i e m e i s ten A bo r i g i ne s g e rne b e r e i t a uf v i e le F ragen z u a n twor t en , d a s i e d i e I d ee moch t en , d i e e i gen t l ichen E n t sche idung smache r ü be r d a s z u s e in , w a s i nA u s t ra l iens P räh i s to r ie e r fo r sch t w e rden s o l l t e . D i e a u s füh r l ichen u nd d u rchda ch t en A n two r ten e r ha l t e nb e ie i n igen F ragen ,z e ig t en d i ed i r ek te B e te i l igung a nd en a nge sp rochenen P rob lemen . D ie a u sged rück ten Me inungen w a r en o f te x t r em d i ve r s u nd k önnen h i e rn i ch t z u sammenge f a ß tw e rd en ,d och k önn ten s i e z ukün f t ige F o r sche r z ue i nem b e s se ren V e r s tändn i s m i t A bo r ig ine s f ü h r en u nd d i e Mög l i chke i ts t e iger n ,n eue F o r schungsp ro jek t ez ue r sch l ießen . I n d i esem Z u sammenhang s o l l e rwähn t w e rden , d aß d i e v o r l iegend e F o r schung e i nen A u snahmecha rak te r h a t t e , d a e i ne o f enba r g üns t ige M i t t le rp e r son h e rangezogen w u rde . D ie m e i s t en I n terv iewpa r tne r w o l l t en i h r en N amen n i ch t ö f en t l ich p r e isgeben u nd w ü rden e i n e h r l iches I n te rv iew k e ine r a nd e r en P e r son g eben , a l s d e r jen igen , d i e a uch z u e i ne r M inde rhe i ten - o d e r U n te rdrück ten -Gr uppe g ehö r t u nd a l s s o lche s e i n ä hn l iches S ch icksa l w ie s i e e r f ah ren h a t t e . D iese r K on f l ik t s che in t d u r ch d i e a bo r ig ina l G esch ich t e d e r l e tz ten J a h rhunde r te e r k lä rba r . H a t t en d i e A bo r ig ine s t r ad i t i one l le rwe i se i h rS ch ick sa l s e lb s tb e s t imm t , s ow u rde e sn un m eh ru nd m eh rv on a nde r en b ee in f luß t .B ehande l tz ue r s tw ie d i e T ie re , d ann z u " dome s t iz ie ren" v e r such t u nd e i ne r G e h i rnwä sche a uf M i s s ionen u nd R e se rva t en u n t e r zogen , g ab m an d en A bor ig ines e i n ige R ech te , j e doch m i t d i ve r sen K ond i t ionen v e rbunden , D ahe re n tw ick e l ten d i e A bo r ig ine s , w e lche n och a uf i h r em a nges tamm t en L and l e ben ,M iß t rauen g egenübe rf a s ta l len n euen P ro jek t en .

B e sonde r s i ne t hnog raph i sche r F o r schung k ann d a s l i t e ra r i s che E ndp roduk t d i e L e sekenn tn i sse u nd A usdr uck sk ra f t d e r S tud en ten , w e lche i nd i e sem F e ld a r be i t en , s t e iger n . E s k ann d en S t uden ten s oga r n eue H o r izon te ö f fnen u nd i h n / s ie a n r e izen k u l tu re l l a ufge sch los sen g egenübe r a nde r en K u l tu r en z u s e in , d och e s k ann n i ema l s d i e u r sp rüng l ichen I d een , G edanken u nd V e rha l t en swe is en a u sd rücken , z uma l a uch n och n i ede rge sch r ieben i n e i ne r S p rache e i ne r P e r son m i t u n t e r sch ied l iche r ,k u l tu re l le rH e rkunf t .

D a s h eu t ige A us t ra l ien s che in t b l ind d e r B ed ingungen i n d enen d i e A bo r ig ine s h eu te l e ben , s c he in t s i e s oga r f ü r d i e f i nanz ie l le D ep res s ion i n A us t ra l ien v e r an twor t l ich z u m a c hen . D a d i e A bo r ig ine s n i ch t z u i h rem t r ad i t ione l len L eben s s t i l z u rückkeh ren k önnen , a uf d e r a nde ren S e i t e j e d och n i ch t a l s v o l lwer t ige M i tg l ied e r d e r a u s t ra l i schen G e s e l l schaf t a kzep t ie r t w e rden , s t e l len E n twu rze lung u nd Unzugehö r igke i t sgef üh le i ng roße sP rob lem d a r .D e rp sycho l og i s che Ef ek t i s t N iede rge sch lagenhe i t u nd D ep r es s ionen o f t e i nhe rgehend m i t A lkoho lm ißb rauch , i n d e r H of fnung w en ig s t en s f ü r k u r ze Z e i t e i nen s p i r i tue l len S chub z u e r le b en .W i rm ü s sen u n sh eu t e k l a rmachen , d aß d i e B ehand lung d e r A bo r ig ines m inde s t en s e benso s c h lech t , w enn n i ch t s ch lech t e ri ne in igen P unk t en ( med i z in i sche V e r so rgung ) i s t , a l s j e n e B ehand lung d e r S chwa rzen i m a l t en A pa r the id S y s t em i n S üd A f r ika . D e r G e sundhe i t szus tand , d i e K inde r s t e rb l ichke i t , k i nd l iche r G ehö r - u nd S ehve r lu s t s i nd v e rg le ichba rm i td r i t t ,v i e r tu nd s oga rf ü nf t We l tL änd er n .

E s s che in t n un of ens ich t l ich , d aß e s e i ne g egen se i t ige A b h äng igke i t z w i schen W is sen scha f t le rn , w e lche d i e a u s t ra l i sche P räh i s to r ie e r fo r schen u nd d en A bo r ig ine s g i b t . Wege mü s sen g ef unden w e rden , b e id e S e i ten g l e iche rmaß en h e ranzuz iehen , um v on d en F o r schungen g l e iche rmaßen z u p rof i t ie ren . D ie A bo r ig ines b rauchen W i ssen scha f t le r , w e l c he d i e v age V o rgesch ich t e u n te rmaue rn , m i t w e lche r s i ch d i e A bo r ig ine s i d en t if iz ie ren u nd d i e W i ssenscha f t le r b rau c hen d i e A bo r ig ine s , um p räh is to r i sche B efunde v o l l s tänd ig z u i n te rp r e t ie r en . Wenn d i ese D i sse r ta t ion e i ne S t imu lan sz u r Z u sammena rb e i t g egeben u nd Kon f l ik t e r eduz ie r t h a t , d ann h a ts i en i ch ti h r en Zweck v e rf eh l t .

9 1

A us t ra l ian A cademy o fS c ience . C omm i t tee o nc l ima t ic c hange R epo r t2 1 , 1 976

1 0 .B IBLIOGRAPHY

A us t ra l ian S ou th S ea I s lander s : Ar e po r to ft h ec u r r en t s t a tu so fS ou th S ea I s lande r si nA us t ra l ia p r epa r ed b y : T he E va t tF ounda t ion 7 50a G eorge S t . S ydney 2 000 ,F eb . 1 99 1

A bb ie ,A .A .T he o r ig ina lA us t ra l ian s . S ydney ,A .H . &A .W .Reed , 1 96 A bor ig ina lL and R igh t s (No r ther nT e r r i to ry )A c t 1 976 , S ec t ion 2 3e ,5 1 a nd 5 4A l lb rook ,D .B .T he h uman b io logy o ft h ew es t er nP a c if ic b a s in : a su rvey o ft h e p hys ica la n th ropo logy a nd r e la t ion sh ip so fp eop les w i th in A u s t ra l ia , Me lan e s ia ,M ic rone s ia , P h i l ipp ines a nd P o lynes ia .I n :Yea rbook o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 1 8 , 1 974 :202 -45

B a chman , J .G . ; O ' Ma l ley ,P .M . Y ea say ing ,n ay say ing ,a nd g o ing t oe x t reme s : b lack -wh i t ed i f f er ence si n r e spon se s t y le s . In : P ub l ic O p in ion Q ua t er ly 4 8 , 1 984 :491-501

A l len ,F .J .T he f i r s td ecade i nN ew G u inea a r chaeo logy . I n : A n t iqu i ty 4 6 , 1 972 :180 -90

B a i ley ,G .N .T he r o le o fs he l lm idden si np r eh is to r ic e conom ie sC amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P res s ,C amb r idge 1 975

( t he s ame ) When d id h uman sf i r s tc o lon ize A u s t ra l ia ? I n : S ea r ch 2 0 (5 ) , 1 989 :149 154

B a i ley ,K .D . Me thod so fs oc ia lr e sea rch T he F r ee P r es s ,N ew Yo rk 1 987

A l len ,F .J . ,G o l son .J . ,J ones ,R . ( e d s ) S unda a nd S ahu l , P r eh is to r ic s t ud ie s i nS ou th E a s tA s ia , Me lanes ia a nd A u s t ra l ia .L ondon ,A cadem ic P r e s s , 1 977

B a ldock ,C .V . ;L a l ly , J . S oc io logy i nA u s t ra l ia a nd N ew Z ea land : t h eo ry a nd me thod ,G r eenwood P r e s s , Wes tpo r t 1 974

A l len , J .E xcava t ion sa tB one C ave ,S ou th C en t ra lT a sman ia , J anua ry F eb rua ry 1 989 I n : A u s t ra l ian A r cha eo logy 2 8 , 1 989 :105 -6

B a lme , J . , Me r r i lees ,D . , P or te r ,J .K . L a t e Q ua te rna ry m amma l r ema in s ,s p ann ing a bou t3 0 .000 y ea r s ,f r om e xcava t ion si nD ev i l 's L a i r , We s t er nA us t ra l ia ln : J our na lo ft h eR oya l S oc ie ty o f We s t er nA u s t ra l ia 6 1 , 1 978 :33 -65

( t he s ame ) ,G o sden ,C . ,J ones ,R . , Wh i t e , J .P .P le is tocene d a te sf o rh uman o ccupa t ion o fN ew I r e land , n or ther n Me lanes ia I n : N a tu r e3 31 , 1 988 :707 -709

B a rbe t t i ,M .F . A r cha eomagne t ic a nd r a d io ca rbon s t ud ie so f A bo r ig ina lf i r e -p la ce s . A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l U n ive r s i ty ,C anbe r ra , 1 974

A l tman , J .C .H un t e r -Ga the r e r st oday : A nA bo r ig ina l e conomy i nN o r th A u s t ra l ia .A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f A bo r ig ina lS tud ies ,Canbe r ra 1 987

B a rbe t t i ,M .F . ,A l len ,H .P reh i s to r ic m an a tL ake Mungo , A u s t ra l ia ,b y 3 2 .000 y ea r sB .P . I n : N a tu r e2 40 , 1 972 :46 -8

( t he s ame )E conom ic s t a tus I n : J upp ,J .( e d . )T he A u s t ra l ian p eop le N o r th R yde 1 988 :20 1-7

B a rham ,A . J . ,H a r r is ,D .R .P r eh is to ry a nd p a leoeco logy o f T o r r e sS t ra i t . In : Ma s te r s ,P .M . ,F l emm ing ,N .C . ( e d s )Q ua t er na ry c oa s t l ines a nd m a r ine a r cha eo logy : t owa rd st h ep r eh i s to ry o fl a nd b r idge s a nd c on t inen ta l s h e lves .L ondon ,A cadem ic P re s s 1 983 :530 -57

( t he s ame ) Hun t e r -ga the re rs ub s i s t ence p roduc t ion i n A rnhem La nd :The o r ig ina la f f luence h ypo the s is r e e xam ined . In : Mank ind 1 4 (3 ) , 1 984 :179 -90 ( t he s ame ) ,T ay lo r ,L . Ma rke t ing A bo r ig ina l a r ti nt h e 1 990s . C anbe r ra ,A bo r ig ina l S tud ie sP r e s s , 1 990

B a r ley ,N .T he i n nocen ta n th ropo log i s t .N o t e sf r om t h e mud h u tM idd lesex ,P engu in B ook s 1 986

A n th ropo log ica lF o rum S ympos ium o nt h eu se sa nd m i su ses o fa n th ropo logy .I n : A n th ropo log ica lF o rum 1 ( 2 ) 1 964 ,5 (2 ) 1 983 -4 , Un ive r s i ty o f Wes ter nA us t ra l ia

B a rw ick ,D . ,U r ry , J . ,B enne t t ,D .A se lec ted b i b l iog raphy o f A bo r ig ina lh i s to ry a nd s oc ia lc hange : thes i sa nd p ub l i shes r e sea r ch t o1 976 . I nA bo r ig ina lh i s to ry 1 , 1 977 :111-69

A ppe l l ,G .E th ica ld i lemma s i na n th ropo log ica li n qu i ry : a c a s eb ook Wa lt h am , Ma s sachu se t t s ,C ro s s road P r ess , 1 978

B a s edow ,H .T he A u s t ra l ian Abo r ig ina l A de la ide ,F .W .P r eece , 1 925

A sche r ,R .A na logy i na r cha eo log ica li n t e rp r e ta t ion I n : S ou thwe s t er nJ ou rna lo fA n th ropo logy 1 7 , 1 961 :317 -25

B ayne ,P .L ega l s t a tu sI n : C row ley ,F .K . ( e d . ) An ew h i s to ry o fAu s t ra l ia , Me lbour n e 1 974 :212 16

A t la s ,A us t ra l ian s : ah i s to r ica la t la s B roadway ,F a i r fax ,S yme& We ldon A s soc ia tes , 1 987

B ecke r ,H .D ie U re inwohne rA u s t ra l ien s D re sden , 1 872

9 2

B e 1 1 ,C . ; C o l l in s ,H . ;J upp ,J . : R ub in s t e in ,W .D .E thn ic m ino r i t ie sand Aus t ra l ian f o r e ign p o l icy . C anbe r ra , A u s t ra l ian N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty , 1 983

( t he s ame ) S ome p rob lem si n vo lv ing P le i s tocene man . C o ld S p r ing H a rbou rS ympo s ium o n Q uan t i ta t ive B io logy 2 2 , 1 957 :47 -69

B e l l ,D .R .D augh te ro ft h ed r eam ing , Me lbou rne , McPhee G r ibb le /A l len a nd U nw in 1 983 ,b a sed o nP h .D T he s i s ,A u s t ra l ian N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty ,C anbe r ra , 1 980

( t he s ame )P r e l im ina ry d a ta o nt h et r ihyb r id o r ig in o ft h e A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ines . I n : A rchaeo logy a nd P hy s ica lA n th ropo logy i nO cean ia 2 ,1 967 :100 -55 ( t he s ame )T he p rob lem o fe vo lu t ion o fh uman r a ces : c l a s s if ica t ion o rd ine sI n : S oc ia lB io logy 1 9 , 1 972 :136 -62

( t he s ame )G o ing i ta l one : p rac t iz ing a pp l ied a n th ropo logy , I n : A n th ropo log ica lF o rum 5 ,1 983 -84 :176 -81 ( t he s ame )H ave a n th ropo log i s t sh ad t h e i rd ay i nc ou r t? T yp e sc r ip t ,C anbe r ra 1 985 a nd A u s t ra l ian A n th ropo log ica lS oc ie ty N ew s le t te r2 8 , 1 985 :18 -27

( t he s ame )T he r e ca l ib ra t ion o f ap a rad igm f o rt h ef i r s t p eop l ing i nG r ea t e rA u s t ra l ia . I n : A l len , J . ( e d . ) S unda a nd S ahu l ,L ondon 1 977 :113 -67

( t he s ame ) I nt h ec a se o ft h e l awye r s a nd a n th ropo log i s t s , I n : J our na l o fi n te rcu l tu ra l s t ud ies 7 ( 1) , 1 986a :20 -9

( t he s ame )P hy s ica la n th ropo logy i nA us t ra l ia t oday . I n : A nnua lR ev iew o fA n th ropo logy 8 ,1 979 :4 17 -30

( t he s ame )T he Wa rumungu c l a im : av i ew f r om t h er e sea rch r a nk s ,I n : A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu t eo fA bo r ig ina lS tud ie s L ib ra ry , 1 986b :P MS 5 047

B la ck ,E .C .T he c ano e sa nd c anoe t r ee so fA us t ra l ia . I n : Mank ind 3 ,1 947 :351-61 B o ro f sky ,R . Mak ing h i s to ry ,C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge 1 987

B e l l ,J .H .T he c u l tu r eo ft h eA bo r ig ine s . I n : Mc L eod ,A .L . ( e d . )T he p a t ter no fA u s t ra l ian c u l tu r e . Me lbour ne ,O x fo rd U n ive r s i ty P res s , 1 963 :44 1-77

B ourke ,C . J . a nd C ou t t s ,PJ .F . We r eA us t ra l ia sA bo r ig ine s t h ef i r s tA s ian m ig ran t s ?I n : A s ian 1 ( 2 ) , 1 977 :12 1 3

B e l l ,W .T . S t ud ies i nt h e rmo lum ine scence d a t ing i n A u s t ra l ia .P hD T he s i s ,A u s tra l ian N a t iona l U n ive r s i ty 1 978

B owd le r ,S . B a s sP o in t : T he e xcava t ion o f as ou th -ea s t A u s t ra l ian s h e l lm idden s how ing c u l tu ra la nd e conom ic c hange .B .A . ( Hon s . )U n ive r s i ty o f S ydney , 1 970 :14 1 l e ave s

B eng t s son ,H .A us t ra l ien ss var ta s t es t ena lde r sfo lk . S t ockho lm ,N a tu ro ch K u l tu r 1 56 , 1 947

( t he s ame )T he c oa s ta l c o lon i sa t ion o fA u st ra l ia I n : A l len , J . ( e d . ) S unda a nd S ahu l ,L ondon 1 977 :205 -46

B enne t t ,D . Wo r ld c a ta logue o ft h e se s a nd d i s se r ta t ion s a bou t t h eAus t ra l ia nA bo r ig ine sa nd T o r r es S t ra i t I s lande r s :second u pda te .I n : A us t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l s t ud ie s 1 ,1 985 :46 -6 1

( t he s ame ) ( e d . )C oa s ta l a r cha eo logy i ne a s ter nA u s t ra l ia A u s t ra l ian N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty ,C anbe r ra , 1 982

B e rnd t ,C .M .U ses a nd m i su se si na n th ropo logy ,I n : A n th ropo log ica lF o rum 1 ( 2 ) , 1 964 :168 -87

B ow le r ,J .M .T he K e i lo rT e r ra ce s : a n a s ses smen to f g eo log ica lp r ob lem sI n : T he A r tefa c t 1 4 , 1 969 :1-16

B emd t ,R .M .T he C ove D ispu te : t h eq ue s t ion o ft h e A us t ra l ian A bo r ig ina ll a nd a nd t h ep r ese rva t ion o f s a c red s i te s ,I n : A n th ropo log ica lF o rum 1 ( 2 ) 1 964 :258 -95

( t he s ame )A l luv ia lt e r ra ce si nt h e Ma r ibyr nong V a l ley n ea r K e i lo r ,V ic to r ia .I n : Memo i r so ft h eN a tu ra l Museum o fV ic to r ia 3 0 , 1 970 :15 -58 ( t he s ame )R ecen td eve lopmen t si nr e con s t ruc t ing l a te Q ua te rna ry e nv i ronmen t s i nA u s t ra l ia . I nK i rk ,R .L . , T ho rne ,A .G . ( e d s ) T he o r ig in o ft h eA us t ra l ian s , C anbe r ra ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f Abo r ig ina l S t ud ies , 1 976 :55 -77

( t he s ame )A us t ra l ian Abor ig ina lr e l ig ion s ,L e iden 1 974 ( t he s am e )T he wo r ld o ft h ef i r s tA u s t ra l ian s L ondon : A ngu s &R obe r t son 1 965

B ow le r , J .M . ,J ones ,R . ,A l len ,H . ,T ho rne ,A .G . P le is tocene h uman r ema in sf r om A u s t ra l ia : al i v ing s i t ea nd h uman c r ema t ion f r om L ake Mungo ,w es t er nN ew S ou th Wa le s . I n : Wo r ld A r chaeo logy 2 ,1 970 :39 -60

B emd t ,R .M . ,B er nd t ,C .M . T he w o r ld o ft h ef i r s tA u s t ra l ian s , S ydney ,U r e Sm i th , 1 964 B i rd se l l , J .B . S ome e nv i ronmen ta l a nd c u l tu ra lf a c to r s i n f luenc ing t h e s t ruc tu r ing o fA us tra l ian A bo r ig ina l p opu la t ion s .I n : T he Ame r ican N a tu ra l is t8 7 , 1 953 :171-207

9 3

C ampbe l l ,T .D . ,G rag , J .H . , Hacke t t ,C . J .P hys ica l a n th ropo logy o ft h e Abo r ig ine so fc en t ra lA us t ra l ia . I n : O cean ia 7 ( 1) , 1 936 :106 -26 1

B ow le r ,J .M . ,T ho rne ,A .G .H uman r ema in sf r om L ake Mungo .D i scove ry a nd e xcava t ion o fL ake Mungo I I . I n : K i r ch ,R .L . ,T ho rne ,A .G . ( e d s )T he o r ig in o f t h eA u s t ra l ian s ,C anbe r ra ,A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu t eo f A bo r ig ina l S tud ies , 1 976 :127 -38

C ann ,R . M i tochond r ia l DNA v a r ia t ion a nd t h e s p r ead o f moder np opu la t ion . I n : K i rk ,R .L . , S za thma ry ,E . ( e d s ) O u to fA s ia : p eop l ing t h e Ame r ica sa nd t h e P ac if ic .C anbe r ra ,J our na lo fP a c if i c H i s to ry , 1 985 :113 -22

B ow le r , J .M . ,H ope ,G .S . ,J enn ing s , J .N . ,S ingh ,G . , Wa lke r ,D . L a te Q ua te rna ry c l ima t e so fA u s t ra l ia a nd N ew G u inea .I n : Q ua te rna ry R esea r ch 6 ,1 976 :359 -94 B oyce ,M .W .T he A us t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l c h i ld : b i b l iog raphy a nd a b s t rac t s ,p a r t 1 ;p hy s ica la nd i n te l lec tua l d eve lopmen t . Ma lver n ,V ic to r ia 1 975

C happe l l , J . A sp ec t so fl a t e Qua te rna ry p a leogeog raphy o f t h eA us t ra l ian -Ea s tI ndones ian r e g ion . I n : K i rk ,R .L . ,T hor ne ,A .G . ( e d s )T he o r ig in o ft h e A u s t ra l ian s ,C anbe r ra ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f A bo r ig ina l S tud ies , 1 976 :11-22

B race ,C .L . A u s t ra l ian t oo th s ize c l ines a nd t h ed ea th o fa s t e reo type I n : C u r r en ta n th ropo logy 2 1(2 ) , 1 980 :14 1-64

C ha r leux ,M . 4 0 .000 a ns d i jä . I n : A u s t ra l ie n o i r e ,P a r i s ,A u t r emen tR evue , 1 989 :70 -73

B radburn ,N .M . ; S udman ,S .I mp rov ing i n te rv iew m e thod a nd q ues t ionna i r ed es ign , S an F ranc isco 1 979

C la rk ,C .A us t ra l ian h opes a nd f e a r s L ondon ,H o l l is & C a r te r , 1 958

B raun s t e in ,S .L and r i gh t sl e g is la t ion : as e lec ted b i b l iog raphy D arw in ,C ommun i ty C o l lege 1 981

C la rk ,G . Wo r ld p r eh is to ry . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r es s , 1 962

B room ,L . ;J ones ,F .L . ; McDonne l l ,P . ;W i l l iam s ,T . T he i nher i tance o fi n equa l i ty .L ondon : 1 980

C o l l ing r idge ,G .T he d i scove ry o fA u s t ra l ia . Ac r i t ica l d ocum en ta ryand h i s tor ic i n ve s t iga t ion . S ydney , H ayes , 1 895

B room ,R . Abo r ig ina lA us t ra l ian s .B la ck r e spon se t ow i t e d om inance 1788 -1 980 ,S ydney ,A l len & U nw in , 1 982

C o l l ive r ,F .S .T he r a in f o r e s tA bor ig ine sa nd t h e i ra r t i fa c t s . B r isbane ,T ypescr ip t , 1 976

B rowne ,K .A ni n t roduc t ion t os o c io logy . P o l i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge 1 992

C onnah ,G .A u s t ra l ian f i e ld a r chaeo logy : ag u ide t o t e chn ique s 1 982

B u lme r ,M . ( e d . )S oc ia lr e sea r ch e t h ic s N ew Y o rk ,H o lmes a nd Me ie rP ub l i she r s , I nco rpo ra t ed , 1 982

( t he s ame )O ft h eh u t Ib u i lded .T he a r cha eo logy o f A us t ra l ia s 'h i s to ry .C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r es s , 1 988

B u lme r ,S .R ad ioca rbon d a te sf r om N ew G u inea I n : J our na lo ft h eP o lyne s ian S oc ie ty 7 3 , 1 964 :327 2 8

C oope r ,C . A bo r ig ina l a nd T o r r es S t ra i tI s lande r sc o l lec t ion C anbe r ra ,A bo r ig ina lS tud ies P r e s s , 1 989

B u rnum B u rnum B u rnum B u rnum ' sA bo r ig ina lA u s t ra l ia a t r ave l le r sg u id e No r th R yde ,A ngus a nd R ober t son P ub l i she r s , 1 988

C oope r ,H .M .L a rg e s t one i mp lemen t sf r om S ou th A us t ra l ia . I n : R eco rd so ft h eS ou th Aus t ra l ian Museum 7 , 1 943 :343 -69

C a laby , J .H . S ome b iogeog raph ica lf a c to r sr e levan tt ot h e P le i s tocene movemen to fm an i nA u s t ra l ia .I n : K i rch ,R .L . ,T hor ne ,A .G .( e d s )T he o r ig in o ft h e Au s t ra l ian s ,C anbe r ra ,A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu t eo f Abo r ig ina lS tud ie s , 1 976 :23 -27

C oppe l l ,W .G . A ud io -v i sua l r e sou rce ma t e r ia l sr e la t ing t ot h e A bo r ig ina lA us t ra l ian s .C anbe r ra ,C u r r icu lum D ev . C t r . 1 978 C o rne l ius , J .L ep eup lemen td e l ' Aus t ra l ie . I n : B u l le t in Mus e6 A n th ropo log ie p r eh i s to i r e Mona co 2 2 , 1 978 :119 -25

C amm , J .C . A u s t ra l ian c en su sm ap s 1 901 K en s ing ton , McQu i l ton & Y o rke , 1 983

C o t te r e l l ,B . ,K amm inga , J . Mechan ic so fp r e indus t r ia l e chno logy : a ni n t roduc t ion t ot h em echan ic so f a nc ien ta nd t r ad i t iona lm a te r ia lc u l tu r e .C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P res s , 1 989 -1990

C ampbe l l ,J .B .S e t t lemen tp a t ter n so fo f f sho re i s land si n n or thea s ter nQueen s land . In : A u s t ra l ian A r cha eo logy 9 ,1 979 :18 -32

9 4

C ra ig ,B .F . A rnhem l a nd p en in su la rr e g ion ( i nc lud ing B a thu r s ta nd Me l lv i l le i s land s )C anbe r ra ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu t eo f1 966

D eacon ,H . How d i dp a s tc l ima te s a f f ec t p r eh is to r ic p eop le i n A u s t ra l ia a nd S ou th A f r ica ? I n : D igg ing S t ick 2 (2 ) , 1 985 :5 -6

( t he s ame )C ap eY o rk ,C anbe r ra ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f A bo r ig ina lS tud ie s , 1 967

D euner t ,B . Af undamen ta lb a sa l tf l ake a na ly s is b a sed o n e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced a nd u s ed f l ake sa sw e l l a s t h ep r eh i s to r ic Wa ika lua ma ter ia l . Ma s t e r sT hes i s ,H ambu rg 1 993

( t he s ame )K imb e r ley r eg ion : a na nno ta t ed b ib l iog raphy , C anbe r ra ,A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ies , 1 968

D or n ,R . I . ,N obb s ,M .F . ,C ah i l l ,T .A . C a t ion ra t io d a t ing o f r o ck e ng rav ing sf r om O la ry p rov ince o fa r id S ou th A us t ra l ia . I nA n t iqu i ty 6 2 (237 ) , 1 988 :681-9

( t he s ame )C en t ra l Au s t ra l ian a nd We s te rn d e se r tr e g ion s : a n a nno ta t ed b ib l iog raphy ,C anb e r ra ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i t u t eo f Abor ig ina lS tud ie s , 1 969

D o r s t , J . Kookabu ra s ,w omba t se tc i e .I n : Au s t ra l ie n o i r e , P a r i s ,A u t r em en tR evue , 1 989 :62 -69

( t he s ame )N o r th - Wes t -Cen t ra lQ ueen s land ; a na nno ta ted b i b l iog raphy ,C anbe r ra ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f A bo r ig ina lS tud ie s , 1 970

D or t ch ,C .E .E a r ly a nd l a t e s t one i n dus t r ia l p ha se s i n Wes ter n A u s t ra l ia . I n : Wr igh t ,R .V .S . ( c d ) S tone t o o ls a s c u l tu ra l m a rke r s : c hange ,e vo lu t ion a nd c omp lex i ty , C anbe r ra ,A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f Abo r ig ina l S tud ies , 1 977 :10432

C rocke r ,R .L .P o s t -M iocene c l ima t ic a nd g eo log ic h i s to ry a nd i t ss i gn if icance i nr e la t ion t ot h eg enes i so ft h e m a jo rs o i lt ype so fS ou th A u s t r a l ia .I n : C ommonwea l th S c ien t if i ca nd I n du s t r ia lR e sea rch O rgan iza t ion B u l le t in 1 93 , 1 946 :7 -56

D o r t ch ,C .E . ,B o rde s ,F .B lade a nd L eva l lo is t e chno logy i n We s ter nA u s t ra l ian p r eh i s to ry . I n : Q ua r t a r2 7 (8 ) , 1 977 :1-19

C romwe l l ,L .C on su l t ing a nd n oc l ien tc on s t i tuency ,I n : A n th ropo log ica lF o rum 5 ,1 983 -84 :240 -53

D o r t ch ,C .E . , Mu i r ,B .G .L ong r a nge s i gh t ing s o fb u sh f i r es a s p o s s ib le i n cen t ive f o rP l e i s tocene v oyage r st o G rea t e rA u s t ra l ia . I n : W .A .N a tu ra l i s t 1 4 (7 ) , 1 980 :194 -8

C row ley ,F .( e d . ) An ew h i s to ry o fA u s t r a l ia . R ichmond , Wi l l iam H e inemann A u s t ra l ia , 1 988 ( 1 974 )

D oug la s ,L . ,R obe r t s .A . ,' T homp son ,R . O ra lh i s to ry : a h andbook S ydney ,A l len a nd U nw in , 1 988

C uddy ,D .L .C on t empo ra ry A u s t ra l ian -Ame r ican r e la t ion s S a rago ta , 1 981

D ou t ch ,H .F .T he p a laeogeog raphy o fn o r the r nA u s t ra l ia a nd N ew G u inea a nd i t sr e levance t ot h eT o r res S t ra i t a r ea . I n : Wa lk e r ,D . ( c d ) B r idge a nd b a r r ie r : t h e n a tu ra la nd c u l tu ra lh i s to ry o fT o r res S t ra i t , C anbe r ra ,A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty , 1 972 :11 0

C u r r ,E .M .T he A u s t ra l ian r a ce ( 3v o l s . ) M e lbou rne ,J ohn F e r r es , 1 886 C u r ry ,F . B r ea ch o fc onf idence , O x fo rd ,C la rendon P r es s , 1 984 C ur ta in ,C .C . ,v anLoghem ,E . ,S chanf i e ld ,M .S . I mmunog lobu l in ma rke r sa si n d ica to r so f p opu la t ion a ff in i t ies i nA u s t ra la s ia a nd t h e We s ter n P a c if i c . I n : K i rk ,R .L . ,T ho rn e ,A .G . ( e d s ) T he o r ig in o ft h eA u s t ra l ian s ,C anbe r ra ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f A bo r ig ina l S tud ies , 1 976 :347 -55

D ragov ich ,D . M in imum a ge o fs ome d es e r tv a rn i sh n ea r B roken H i l l ,N ew S ou th Wa les I n : S ea rch 1 7 , 1 986 :149 -51

D av id son , J .P .S .T he c h rono logy o fA u s t ra l ian w a te rc ra f t . I n :J ou rna lo ft h eP o lyne s ian S oc ie ty 4 4 , 1 935 :1-16

D uC ro s ,H . S ke le ton s i nt h ec l o se t : Ah i s to ry o ft h e p reh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy o fN .S .W . ( c :1890 -1 940 ) B .A . (Hon s . ) ,U n ive r s i ty o fS ydney , 1 983

D ubo i s ,M .J .L ep eup lemen td uP a c if ique . I n : L aR eche r che 8 (74 ) , 1 977 :47 -50

D av id son ,D .S . , McCa r thy ,F .D .T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs ome i mpo r tan tt ype so fs t one i mp l emen t si n We s ter n A u s t ra l ia . I n : An th ropo s5 2 , 1 957 :390 -458

D un lop , I .E thnog raph ic f i lm -mak ing i nA us tra l ia : t h ef i r s t s even ty y ea r s .I n : Abo r ig ina lh i s to ry 3 (2 ) , 1 979 :11117

D av id son ,G .R . ,K ea rney ,G .E . ,D e la cey ,D .R . T he p sycho logy o fA bo r ig ina lA u s t ra l ian s . S ydney ,W i ley , 1 973 D un lop ,M . ,K i rkpa t r ick ,B . Al i s t ing o fA bo r ig ina l p e r iod ica ls . I n : A bo r ig ina lH is to ry 3 (2 ) , 1 979 :120 -27

D av ie s ,A .F . ,E nce l ,S . ( e d s . )A u s t ra l ian S oc ie ty L ondon ,P a l l Ma l lP r e s s , 1 965

9 5

D unn ,F . ,D unn ,D .F . Ma r i t ime a dap t ion sa nd e xp lo i ta t ion o f ma r in er e sou rces i nS unda ic s ou thea s tA s ian p r eh i s to ry .I n : B a r t s t ra ,G . J .e ta l( e d s ) Mode rn Q ua te rna ry r e sea rch i ns ou thea s tA s ia ,R o t te rdam , B a lkema ,A .A . , 1 977 :1-28

F lowe r s ,R . Who a r eA bo r ig ina l c ommun i ty a du l te du ca to r s? Wha tt h ey d oa nd w ha ts k i l ld ot h ey n eed ? D epa r tmen to fC ommun i ty a nd Abo r ig ina l E duca t ion .F acu l ty o fE duca t ion . Un ive r s i ty o f T echno logy , S ydney 1 990

D yen , J .L anguage d i s t r ibu t ion a nd m ig ra t ion t h eo ry . I n : L anguage 3 2 , 1 956 :6 11 -26

F o ley ,G . ; F lowe r s ,R . S t ra teg ies f o rs e lf -d e term ina t ion . A bo r ig ina l a du l te duca t ion t r a in ing a nd c ommun i ty d eve lopmen ti nN .S .W . An a t iona lr e sea rch f e l low sh ip s cheme r e sea r ch p ro jec t .F ina l r e po r t . F a cu l ty o fE duca t ion . Un ive r s ty o fT echno logy , S ydney 1 990

E a r l ,G .S .W .O nt h ec ha ra c ter is t ic so ft h eP apuan ,A u s t ra l ian a nd Ma layu -Po lynes ian n a t ion s .I n : J ou rn .I nd . A rch ipe l .e a s tA s ia .Nov .1849 ,3 ( I I ) :682 -9 , J an .1850 ,4 : 110 ,F eb .1850 ,4 :66 -74 , A p r .! 8 50 ,4 : 172 -81

F o ley ,W .A .P apuan l a nguage sa nd N ew G u inea p r eh i s to ry . I n :F o ley ,W .A .T he P apuan l a nguages o fN ew G u inea .C amb r idge , Me lbou rne ,C .U .P . , 1 986 :269 8 3

E ddy , J . B r i ta in a nd t h eA us t ra l ian c o lon ies 1 818 -1 831 . T he t e chn ique o fg over nmen t . O xfo rd ,C la r endon P res s , 1 969

F ranke l ,D . e ta l .Abo r ig ina l l a nd scap e s .I nC amm , J .C .R . , Mc Q u i l ton , J .Au s t ra l ian s : ah i s to r ica l a t la s .B roadway , S yme a nd We ldon A ssoc ia t es , 1 987 :27 -44

E lk in ,A .P .T he A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ine s : H ow t ou nde r s tand t h em .S ydney ,A ngus a nd R obe r t son , 1 938 ( F i r s t p ub l . ) ( t he s ame )T he t h r eef o ld u se o fa n th ropo logy , I n : A n th ropo log ica lF o r um 1 ( 2 ) , 1 964 :152 -67

F r eck le ton , J . T he r o le o fa n th ropo log i s t sa se xpe r tw i tne s se s , P ap e rp r epa red f o rt h eA u s t ra l ian L aw R efo rm C omm i s s ion , 1 984

( t he s ame )E qua l i ty a nd a u tho r i ty . As t udy o fc l a s s ,s t a tus a nd p owe ri nA u s t ra l ia .L ondon ,T av is tock , 1 970

F r iedman ,L .M .E xp er tt e s t imony ,i t sa bu s es a nd r e forma t ion , I n : Y a le L aw J ou rna l 1 9 , 1 9 10 :247 -57

E l l i s ,R .W .T he A bo r ig ina li n hab i tan t sa nd t h e i re nv i ronmen t . I n : Tw inda le ,C .R . ,T y le r ,M . J . , Webb ,B .P . ( ed s ) N a tu ra lh i s to ry o ft h eA d e la ide r e g ion . A d e la ide , R oya lS oc ie ty o fS ou th A u s t ra l ia , 1 976 :113 -20

F r i tzpa t r ick ,B .T he A u s t ra l ian p eop le 1 788 -1 945 Me l lbour ne ,U n ive r s i ty P re s s , 1 947

F avenc ,E .T he h i s to ry o fA u s t ra l ian e xp lo ra t ion f r om 1 788 t o1 888 Ams t e rdam , Me r id ian P ub .Co . , 1 888

G a l lus ,A . V o r läuf ige rB e r ich tü be rp a läo l i th ische F unde i n g es iche r t e rF und lage a us A u s t ra l ien . I n : M i t t e i lungen d e ra n th ropo log i schen G es e l lscha f ti n Wien 8 3 , 1 954 :131-134

G a le ,F . U rban A bo r ig ine s . ANU P re s s ,C anbe r ra , 1 972

F enne r ,F .J .T he A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina ls ku l l : i t sn on -me t r ica l mo rpho log ica lc ha ra c t e r s .I n : T ransac t ion so ft h e R oya lS oc ie ty o fS ou th A u s t ra l ia 6 3 (2 ) , 1 939 :248 3 06

( t he s ame )E xcava t ion sa tK e i lo r . I n :The A r t efac t7 ,1 967 :12 ,2 4 , 1 97 1 :1-12 , 2 7 , 1 972 :9 15 ,8 ( 1-2 ) , 1 983 :114 1

F inn ,P .P .C on f iden t ia l i ty a nd t h e" pub l ic i n te r es t " I n : AL I4 97 :1984

( t he s ame ) As umma ry o ft h er e su l t so fe xcava t ion sb yt h e A r chaeo log ica lS o c ie ty o fV ic to r ia a tK e i lo r( n ea r Me lbour n e )a sp e ra p r i l 1 974 .I n :The A r t e f ac t3 , 1 974 1-9

F lenn iken ,L , Wh i t e , J .P . A us t ra l ian f l aked s t one t o o ls : a t e chno log ica lp e r spec t ive .I n : R eco rd so ft h e A us t ra l ian Museum 3 6 (3 ) , 1 985 :131-51

( t he s ame )T he M idd le a nd E a r ly Upp e rP l e i s tocene s t one i ndu s t r ie sa tD ry C reek a r cha eo log ica l s i t e sn ea r K e i lo r ,A us t ra l ia . I n : T he A r t efac t 1 ( 2 ) , 1 976 :75 108

F lood , J .M .A r chaeo logy o ft h ed r eam t ime S ydney ,W i l l iam C o l l in s , 1 983 ( r epr in t 1 989 ) ( t he s ame )S i te sa nd b y t e s C anbe r ra ,A u s t ra l ian G over nmen tP ub l i sh ing S e rv ice , 1 989

G a l loway ,R .W .L a t eQ ua te rna ry c l ima t e si nA us t ra l ia . I n : J ou rna l o fG eo logy 7 3 , 1 965 :603 -18

( t he s ame )T he r i che so fa nc ien ta u s t ra l ia S t .L uc ia ,U n ive r s i ty o fQ ueen s land P r es s , 1 990

G a range r , J .L e sp r em ie r sA us t ra l ien s . I n : L 'H is to i r e 1 ,1 978 :46 -53

F lo rek ,S .F i r ei n aq ua r ry . I n : A u s t ra l ian A rchaeo logy 2 9 , 1 989 :22 -27

G eddes ,W .R . A n th ropo logy a nd n a t ive p o l icy , I n : A n th rop log ica lF o rum 1 ( 2 ) , 1 964 :188 -94

9 6

G i l l ,A .M . ,G rove s ,R .H . , Nob le , I .R . ( e d s )F i r ea nd t h e A u s t ra l ian B io ta .A u s t ra l ian A cademy o fS c ience , C anbe r ra 1 981 :23 -54

G reenway , J . B ib l iog raphy o ft h eA us t ra l ian A bo r ig ine sa nd t h en a t ive p eop le o fT o r r es S t ra i tt o1 959 . S ydney ,H a ls t ead P re ss 1 963

G oed e ,A .E lec t ron s p in re sonance -A r e la t ive d a t ing t e chn ique f o rQ ua t ema ry s ed imen t sn ea r Wa r ranamboo l ,V ic tor ia . I n : A u s t ra l ian G eog raph ica lS tud ie s2 7 , 1 989 :14 -30

G r i f f i th s ,T . C on tempo ra ry A u s t ra l ia N ew Y o rk , 1 979 G roube ,L . ,C happe l , J . , Mu rke , J . ,P r ince ,D . A4 0 .000 y ea r o ld o ccupa t ion s i te a t Huon P en in su la ,P apua N ew G u inea . I n : N a tu re 3 24 , 1 986 :453 -55

G o ld ie ,T .F ea ra nd t emp ta t ion : T he i mage o ft h e i n d igene i n C anad ian ,A us t ra l ian a nd N ew Z ea land l i t e ra tu re s K ing s ton , Mc G i l l -Q ueen sU n i .P r es s , 1 989

C row ley ,F .K . ( e d . ) An ew h i s to ry o fA u s t ra l ia , Me lbou rne 1 974

G o ldk ins ,V .A n th ropo log i s t s ,i n fo rman t sa nd t h e a ch ievemen to fp owe ri nC han K o rn , I n : S oc io logu s 2 0 ( 1 ) , 1 970 :30 -42

G ruhn ,R . O nB ra ce 's A us t ra l ian t o o th s ize t h es i s : ac l o se r l ook a tt h el i ngu is t ic e v idence . I n : C u r ren tA n th ropo logy 2 1(6 ) , 1 980 :804 -6

G o jak ,D .C u l tu r ea nd t r ad i t ion i nA u s t ra l ian p reh i s to ry : t h e c o r et o o la nd s c rape rt r ad i t ion . U n ive r s i ty o fS ydney ,B .A . ( Hon s . ) 1 982

G umbe r t ,M .P arad igm l o s t : a na na lys i so fa n th ropo log ica l mode ls a nd t h e i re f ec t so nA bo r ig ina l l a nd r i gh t s , I n : O cean ia 5 2 (2 ) , 1 981 :103 -23

G o l son , J .Bo th s i d e so ft h e Wa l lace L ine : A u s t ra l ia ,N ew G u inea a nd A s ian p r eh i s to ry .I n : A r chaeo logy a nd P hy s ica lA n th ropo logy i nO cean ia 6( 2 ) , 1 971 :124 4 4

( t he s ame )N e i the rj u s t ice n o rr e a son : al e ga la nd a n th ropo log ica l a na ly s i so fA bo r ig ina ll a nd r i gh t s . U n ive r s i ty o fQ ueens land P r e s s , S t .L uc ia , 1 984 H abgood ,P . J .T he o r ig in o ft h eA us t ra l ian s : amu l t iva r ia t e a pp roa ch . I n : A rcha eo log ica O cean ia 2 1(2 ) , 1 986 :130 -7

( t he s ame )L and c onnec t ion s ,s ea b a r r ie r sa nd t h e r e la t ion sh ip o fA u s t ra l ian a nd N ew Gu inea p r eh i s to ry .I n : Wa lke r ,D .( e d )B r idge a nd b a r r ie r : t h en a t u ra la nd c u l tu ra lh i s to ry o fT o r r es S t ra i t . C anb e r ra ,A us t ra l ian N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty , 1 972 :375 -95

H a le ,H .M . ,T inda le ,N .B . No tes o ns ome h uman r ema in s i n t h el owe r Mu r ray Va l ley , S ou th A us t ra l ia .I n : R eco rd so ft h e S ou th A us t ra l ian Museum 4 , 1 930 :145 -2 18

G o rden ,R .I n t er v iew ing : S t ra tegy , t e chn iques ,a nd t a c t ic s . H om ewood I I .D o r sey 1 969

H a l lam ,S .F i r e a nd h ea r th . Au s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s , C anbe r ra , 1 975

G ou ld ,R .A .T he a r cha eo log is ta se t hnog raphe r : ac a se f r om t h e We s t e rn D ese r to fA u s t ra l ia , Ame r ican Mu seum N ov i ta t e s ,N .2403 , 1 971

H ammond ,G .N . T he I nd ian c onnec t ion : As t udy o f a n th ropo log ica lo p in ion a nd e v idence s ugge s t ing t h a tt h eo r ig in o ft h eA us t ra l ian A bo r ig ine si st ob e f ound o nt h e I nd ian s ub -con t inen t . S ydney , B .A . (Hons . ) ,T ypesc r ip t 1 979

( t he s ame )U se -wea ro n We s te rn D e ser tA bo r ig ina ls t one t o o l s : ar e p ly t o Mes s r s .I n :H ayden ,B . , K amm inga , j .N ew s le t te ro fL i th ic T echno logy 2 ( 1-2 ) , 1 973 :9 -13

H a rd ing , J . ; S pence ,B . A na nno ta t ed b i b l iog raphy o f A bor ig ina l -con t ro l led j u s t ice p rog rams i nC anada . S choo lo fH uman J u s t ice .U n ive r i ty o fR eg ina , S a ska tchewan 1 99 1

( t he s ame )A u s t ra l ian a r cha eo logy i ne co log ica la nd e t hnog raph ica lp e r spec t ive . Wa rne r Modu la r P ub l ica t ion s , Modu le 7 ,1 973

H awke ,E .N .A r chaeo log ica lr e sou r ce m anagemen t : al e ga l p e r spec t ive .Au s t ra l ia nN a t iona lU n ive r s i ty 1 975

G ra em e ,H .A u s t ra l ia ' sc hang ing p opu la t ion : T rend sa nd i mp l ica t ions Me lbour ne ,O xf o rd Un i .P r es s , 1 986

H ayden ,B .P a la eo l i th ic r e f lec t ion s : l i t h ic t e chno logy a nd e t hnog raph ica le xcava t ion a mong Au s t ra l ian A bo r ig ines C anbe r ra , Abo r ig ina l S tud ie sP res s , 1 979 ,a mended r ep r in t 1 981

G ra e tz ,B . , McA l l i s te r , I .D imen s ion so fA u s t ra l ian s oc ie ty Me lbou rne , Macm i l lan 1 988 G ray ,A .D emog raph ic a nd s oc ia lh i s to ry .I n : J upp , J .( e d . ) T he A u s t ra l ian p eop le ,N o r th R yde 1 988 :135 -40

( t he s ame )A u s t ra l ian We s ter nD e se r tt e chno logy : a ne t hno a r cha eo log ica l s t udy o fv a r iab i l i ty i nm a t er ia l c u l tu r e . D oc to ra ld i s se r ta t ion , Un ive r s i ty o fT o ron to 1 976

G r eenbe rg , J .S oc ia ls c ien t is t st a ke t h es t and . I n : M ich igan L aw R ev iew 5 4 , 1 956 :953 -70

9 7

( t he s ame )T he a l l iga to rr i ve r s : am i r ro rt o ac on t inen ta l p r eh i s to ry . I n : Wade - Ma r sha l l ,D . ,L oveday ,P . ( cd ) F loodp la in sr e sea r ch ,N o r ther nA ust ra l ia : P rog r es s a nd p ro sp ec t s2 .D a rw in ,A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l U n ive r s i ty ,N or th A us t ra l ian R esea rch U n i t , A ppend ix 1 ,1 988 :1-26

H ia t ,L .R .L oca lo rgan iza t ion a mong t h eA u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ine s , I n : O cean ia 3 2 ( 4 ) , 1 962 :267 -86 H o r ton ,D .R . Wa te ra nd w ood land : t h ep eop l ing i nA u s t ra l ia . I n : A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu t eo fA bo r ig ina l S tud ies N ew s le t te r 1 6 , 1 981 :2 1-27

J one s ,R . , Meehan ,B .F loa t ing b a rk a nd h o l low t r unk s . I n : H em isphe r e2 1(4 ) , 1 977 :16 -2 1

H owe l ls ,W .W . ; Wa rne r ,W .L .A n th ropome t ry o ft h en a t ives o fA rnhem L and a nd t h eA u s t ra l ian r a ce p rob lem . I n :P ape r so ft h eP eabody Mu seum 1 6 , 1 937 :1-97

J ones ,R . , Wh i t e ,N .P o in tB lank : s t one t o o l manuf a c tu r e a t t h e Ng i l ip i l j i Q ua r ry ,A rnhem L and , 1 981 I n : Meehan ,B .J one s ,R . ( ed s )A r chaeo logy w i th E thnog raphy ,C anbe r ra ,A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l U n ive r s i ty , 1 988 :51-93

H ow i t t ,A .W .T he n a t ive t r ibes o fS ou th -Ea s tA u s t ra l ia L ondon , Ma cm i l lan , 1 904 H rd l icka ,A .t h ep eop l ing o ft h ee a r th . I n : P roceed ing so ft h e Amer ican P h i lo soph ica lS oc ie ty 6 5 , 1 926 :150 -56

J one s ,P .G . Ab ib l iog raphy o fA bo r ig ina la r chaeo logy i n S ou th A u s t ra l ia . I n : R eco rd so ft h e S ou th A u s t ra l ian Mu seum 1 9 ( 1) , 1 985 :114

I r v ing ,T .H . 1 850 -70 I n : C row ley ,F .K . ( e d . ) An ew h i s to ry o f A u s t ra l ia , Me lbour n e 1 974 :124 -164

J oyce ,E .B . ,A nde r son , J .R .L a te Q ua te rna ry g eo logy a nd e nv i ronmen ta tt h eD ry C r eek a r chaeo log ica l s i te s n ea rK e i lo ri nV ic to r ia ,A u s t ra l ia . I n : A r t ef a c t 1 , 1 976 :47 -74

I s aac s , J . A u s t ra l ian d r eam ing : 4 0 .000 y ea r so fA bo r ig ina l h i s to ry .L an sdowne P r e s s ,S ydney 1 980 J an son ,S . , Ma c in ty re ,S . ( ed s . )T h rough w h i te e ye s A u s t ra l ian H is to r ica l S tud ie s ,S ydney ,A l len & U nw in , 1 990

J upp , J . ( ed . )T he A u s t ra l ian p eop le : A ne ncyc loped ia o ft h e n a t ion ,i t sp eop le a nd t h e i ro r ig ion s N o r th R yde ,A ngu s &R obe r t son , 1 988

J a span ,M .A .A n th ropo logy a nd c omm i tmen tt op o l i t ica l c au se s , I n : A n thropo log ica lF orum , 1 ( 2 ) , 1 964 :212 -19

K amm inga , J .M ic ro scop ic a nd e xp e r im en ta ls t ud ie so f A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l s t one t o o l s . B .A . (Hon s . ) ,U n ive r s i ty o fS ydn ey , 1 971

J enn ing s , J .N . S ea l e ve lc hanges a nd l a nd l i nk s .I n : Mu lvaney ,D .J . ;G o lson , J . ( e d s . )A bo r ig ina lm an a nd e nv i ronmen ti nA u st ra l ia ,C anbe r ra , 1 97 1 :1-13

( t he s ame ) Af unc t iona l s t udy o fa nA u s t r a l ian t oo lt y p e : t h e e l oue ra I n : Wr igh t ,R .V .S .( c d ) S t one t oo ls a s c u l tu ra l ma rke r s : c hange ,e vo lu t ion a nd c omp lex i ty , A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu t eo f Abo r ig ina l S tud ies ,C anbe r ra , 1 978 :205 -12

J enne t t ,C . Mode rn p o l i t ic s /The ma s sm ed ia I n : J upp ,J .( e d . ) T he A us t ra l ian p eop le , No r th R yd e 1 988 :228 3 /252 -55

( t he s ame ) Mechan ic so fp r e indu s t r ia lt e chno logy . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r es s , 1 990

J one s ,R .F i r e s t ick f a rm ing . I n : A u s t ra l ian N a t iona lH is to ry 1 6 , 1 969 :224 -8 ( t he s ame )R ocky C ape a nd t h ep rob lem o ft h eT a sman ian s . P h .D T hes i s , Un ive r s i ty o fS ydney , 1 97 1

K abo ,V .R .T a sman i i t sy iT a sman i i skaya p rob lema . I zda t e l ' s tvo N auka ,G lavnaya R eda l c t s iya V o s tochnoy L i t e ra tu ry , Mo skva , 1 975

( t he s ame ) Eme rg ing p i c tu re o fP le i s tocene A u s t ra l ian s . I n :N a tu r e2 46 , 1 973 :275 -81

K ea s t ,A . ,C rock e r ,R .L . ,C h r i s t ian ,C .S . ( e d s ) B iogeog raphy a nd e co logy i nA u s t ra l ia .T he H ague , 1 959

( t he s ame )T he f i f th c on t inen t : p rob lem sc oncer n ing t h e h uman c o lon iza t ion o fA u s t ra l ia .I n : A nnua l R ev iew so fA n th ropo logy 8 ,1 979 :445 -66

K een , I . ( e d . )B e ing b l ack : A bo r ig ina lc u l tu re si ns e t t led A us t ra l ia C anbe r ra , Abo r ig ina lS t ud ies P r es s , 1 988 ( t he s ame )K in sh ip I n : B er nd t ,R .M . ;T onk inson ,R . ( e d s . ) S oc ia la n th ropo logy a nd A u s t ra l ian Abo r ig ina l s t ud ies : a con t empo ra ry o ve rv iew . C anb e r ra , 1988 :77 124

( t he s ame )e d .A rcha eo log ica lr e sea r ch i nK akadu N a t iona l P a rk .A u s t ra l ian N a t iona lP a rk sa nd W i ld l if e S e rv ice ,C anbe r ra , 1 985

9 8

K ennedy ,M .B or n ah a lf -ca s te C anbe r ra ,A u s t ra l ian i n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s , 1 985

L ampe r t ,R . T he g r ea tK ar t = my s t ery . I n : T e r ra A u s t ra l is 5 , T he A u s t ra l ian N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty P re ss , C anbe r ra , 1 981 ,2 10p

K enyon ,A .S . ,S t i r l ing ,D .C . A us t ra l ian A bor ig ina ls t one i mp lem en t s . As ugge s ted c l a s s i f ica t ion . I n : P roceed ing so ft h eR oya l S oc ie ty o fV ic to r ia 1 3 , 1 90 1 :19 1-200

( t he s ame )T r end si nA u s t ra l ian p r eh is to r ic r e sea r ch . I n : A n t iqu i ty 4 9 , 1 975 :197 -206 L aw r ence ,R .A bo r ig ina lh ab i ta ta nd e conomy . I n : O cca s iona l P ape r s6 ,D epa r tmen to fG eog raphy ,A us t ra l ian N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty P r e ss ,C anbe r ra , 1 968 ,2 90p

K e r shaw ,A .P .Q ua r te rna ry v ege ta t ion a nd e nv i ronmen t s .I n : K ea s t ,A .( e d . )E co log ica lb ib l iog raphy o fA us t ra l ia . T he H ague 1 981 :81-10 1

L es son ,A .L e sP o lyne s ian sV o l .1 ,L ib ra i r ed e l aS oc ii t6 A s ia t ique d eP a r i s ,P a r is , 1 880

K enyon ,A .S . , Mahoney ,D .J . S tone i mp lemen t so ft h e Au s t ra l ian Abo r ig ines . Ag u ide . Me lbou rne ,A rne 1 1 &J a ck son , 1 9 14

L ie In jo , J .E . G ene t ic r e la t ion sh ip o fs eve ra lA bo r ig ina l g roup si nS ou th E a s tA s ia . I n : K i rk ,R .L . , T ho rne ,A .G . ( e d s ) T he o r ig in o ft h eA u s t ra l ians , A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s , C anbe r ra , 1 976 :277 -306

K en-, C .R . ,C a r ro l l , J .D . S oc ia ls c ien t i s t sa nd t h ec ou r t s : t h e d eve lopmen to ft e s t imon ia lp r iv i lege I n : S oc ia lS c ience J ou rna l 1 5 (1) , 1 978 :103 13

L igh t foo t ,R .A r cha eo logy o ft h eh ou se a nd h ou seho ld : a c a se s t udy o fa s semb lage f o rma t ion a nd h ouseho ld o rgan iza t ion i nt h e Amer ican s ou thwes t . A nn A rbo r , M ich igan , 1 992

K i rk ,R .L . S e rum p ro te in a nd e nzyme ma rke r sa si n d ica to r s o fp opu la t ion a ff in i t ie s i nA u s t ra l ia a nd t h e Wes ter n P a c i f ic . I n : K i rk ,R .L . ,T horne ,A .G . ( e d s )T he o r ig in o ft h eA u s t ra l ian s ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s ,C anbe r ra , 1 976 :329 -46

L oh r ey ,A .A u s t ra l ian s t ud ie so ve r sea s : ag u ide . A u s t ra l ian G over nmen tP ub l i sh ing S erv ice , C anbe r ra , 1 988

( t he s ame )P hy s io log ica l ,d emog raph ic a nd g ene t ic a dap t a t ion o fA u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina ls .I n ;K ea s t ,A . ( c d )E co log ica lB ib l iog raphy o fA us t ra l ia ,T he H agu e 1 981 :180 1-15

L ove ,W . Wa st h ed r eam t ime e ve r ar e a l t ime? I n : A n th ropo log ica l S oc ie ty o fQ ueens land N ew s le t te r 1 96 , 1 989 :114

K i rk ,R .L . ,T ho rne ,A .G .( e d s . )T he o r ig in o ft h eA u s t ra l ian s A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s , 1 976

Ma c in to sh ,N .W .G .A n th ropo log ica l s t udy ; p a r t 1 .H uman g roup ing a nd t h eb ackg round o fp r eh is to r ic m an . P a r t2 .C r i t ica ls t ud ie so ft h ea n t iqu i ty o fm an i n A u s t ra l ia .I na dd i t ion s ome f a c t sr e la t ing t ot h e p o s s ib le o r ig in ,m ig ra t ion a nd a f f in i t ie so ft h e A u s t ra l ian sa nd T a sman ian s . U n ive r s i ty o fS ydney , 1 950

K laa t sch ,H .D e r We rdegang d e r Menschhe i tu nd d i e E n t s t ehung d e rK u l tu r . B ong ,B e r l in 1 922 ( t he s ame )D ie S t e ina r t ef ak te d e rA u s t ra l iae ru nd T a sman ie r v e rg l ichen m i td enen d e rU rze i tE u ropa s .I n : Z e i t schr if tf ü rE thno log ie 4 0 , 1 908 :407 -28

( t he s ame )T he A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l : t h ew o r ld ' sf i r s t m a r ine r ?I n : U n ive r s i ty o fS ydney G a zze t t3 , 1 975 :15 -16

Kno t t , J . S e t t lemen t 1 851-1880 I n :J upp , J . ( e d . )T he A u s t ra l ian p eop le . No r th R yde 1 988 :48 -54

Ma c in to sh ,N .W .G . ;L a rna ch ,S .L . A bo r ig ina la ff in i t ie s l ooked a ti nw o r ld c on tex t . I n : K i rk ,R .L . ; T hor n e ,A .G . ( e ds . )T he o r ig in o ft h eA u s t ra l ians , C anbe r ra , 1 976 :113 -26

K öpp ing ,K .P .E thnog raph ic c o l lec t ion sa nd t h en ew i d en t i ty o fn a t ive p opu la t ion s . I n : O cca s iona lP ape r si n A n th ropo logy 2 ,1 973 :9 -23 ( t he s ame )I s td i eE thno log ie a uf d em Wege z u r Münd igke i t . I n :P a ideum 2 6 , 1 980 :2 1-40

Maddock ,K .T he A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ine s : Ap o r t ra i to ft h e i r s oc ie ty R ingwood ,P engu in B ook sA us t ra l ia L td . , 1 974

L abaw ,P . J .A dvanced q ues t ionna i r ed es ign . A b tB ooks ,C amb r idge 1 980

Ma iden , J .H .T he u s ef u ln a t ive p l an t so fA us t ra l ia ( i nc lud ing T a sman ia )S ydney ,T ur n e ra nd H ende r son , 1 889

L a id law ,R .A bo r ig ina l s o c ie ty b efo r eE u ropean s e t t lemen t . I n : T he E u rop ean O ccupa t ion ,H e inemann E duca t iona l ,R ichmond , 1 98 1 :1-43

Ma rch a n t ,L .R . Al i s to ff r ench n ava lr e co rd s a nd i l us t ra t ion s r e la t ing t oA u s t ra la in a nd T a sman ian A bo r ig ines , 1 77 1 -1 828 C anbe r ra ,A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s , 1 969

L anca s te r ,L .R ecru i tmen ta nd r e t en t ion o fs pec ia le duca t ion t e a che r so nN a t ive Ame r ican r e serva t ion s c hoo ls . A nn A rbo r ,M ich igan 1 992

9 9

Meehan ,B .F .T he f o rm ,d i s t r ibu t ion a nd a n t iqu i ty o f A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina lm o r tua ry p ra c t ice ,b e ing a s t udy o ft h e i rm a te r ia l c u l tu r ea nd t h em anne ri n w h ich t h ey u n t i l ized t h e i rp hy s ica le nv i ronmen t . U n ive r s i ty o fS ydney 1 97 1

Ma sso la ,A . A u s t ra l ian f i sh h ook sa nd t h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion .I n : Memo i r so ft h eN a t iona l Mu seum o fV ic to r ia 2 2 , 1 956 :1-17 ( t he s ame )B ib l iog raphy o ft h e V ic to r ian A bo r ig ine s .F rom t h ee a r l ie s tm anu sc r ip t st o3 1 .D ec . 1 970 . Me lbou rne ,T he H aw tho rn P re s s , 1 97 1

Meehan ,B .F . ,J one s ,R . ( e d s . ) A rcha eo logy w i th e t hnog raphy : a nA u s t ra l ian p e r spec t ive C anbe r ra ,D epa r tmen to fP r eh i s tory , 1 988

Ma thew s ,R .H .E thno log ica l n o te so nt h e A bo r ig ina l t r ibe s o f t h eN o r ther nT e r r i to ry .I n : Q ueen s land G eog raph ica lJ ou rna l ( N .S . )2 6 , 1 90 1 :69 -90

Megaw , J .V .S .A rchaeo logy , a r ta nd A bo r ig ine s ; as u rvey o f h i s to r ica ls ou r ce sa nd l a t e rA us t ra l ian p r eh i s to ry . I n : R oya lA us t ra l ian H is to r ica lS oc ie ty J our na l 5 3 (4 ) , 1 967 :277 -94

Mayne ,T .A bo r ig ines a nd t h e i s sues i n fo rma t ion a nd r e sou r ces c a ta logue . A u s t ra l ian C ounc i lo f C hu rche s ,S ydney , 1 986

( t he s ame )A r ts t y les a nd a na lys i s . I n : Mank ind 6 (9 ) , 1 967 :393 -402

McA r thu r ,M .F ood c on sup t ion a nd d i e ta ry l e ve l so fg roup s o fA bo r ig ines l i v ing o nn a tu ra l ly o ccu r ing f ood s . I n : Moun t fo rd ,C .P . ( c d )R eco rd so ft h e Ame r ican A u s t ra l ian s c ien t if ic e xped i t ion t oA rnhem L and ( vo l .2 ) , Me lbour n eU n ive r s i ty P r es s , Me lbour n e , 1 960 :90 135

Memmo t t ,P . B ib l iog raphy o n Abo r ig ina l s e t t lemen ta nd h ou s ing .U n ive r s i ty o fQ ueen s land ,D epa r tmen to f A r ch i t ec tu r e ,A bo r ig ina lD a ta A rch ive 1 977 Me r lan ,P .G ende r .I n : B e rnd t ,R .M . ;T on l c in son ,R . ( e d s . ) S oc ia l a n thropo logy a nd A u s t ra l ian Abo r ig ina l s t ud ie s : ac on tempo ra ry o ve rv iew . C anbe r ra , 1 988 :15 -74

Mc B ryde , I . R eco rd so ft ime s p a s t .E thnoh i s to r ica le s say so n t h ec u l tu r ea nd e co logy o fN ew E ng land t r ibe s C anbe r ra ,A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s , 1 978

Me r r i les s ,D . Man t h ed es t roye r : l a t e rQ ua tema ry c hanges i n t h eA u s t ra l ian ma r sup ia l f a una .I n : J our na l o ft h e R oya l S oc ie ty o f We s te rn A u s t ra l ia 5 1 , 1 968 :1-24

McCa r thy ,F .D .C ompa r ison o ft h ep r eh i s to ry o fA u s t ra l ia w i th t h a to fI ndo -Ch ina ,t h e Ma lay P en in su la a nd N e the r land sE a s tI nd ies .I n : P roceed ing so ft h e T h i rd C ong r es so fP r eh i s tor ian so ft h eF a rE a s t , 1 940 :30 -50

M idd le ton ,H .A bo r ig ines .I n : E nce l ,S . ,B e r ry ,M . ( e d s . ) S e lec ted r e ad ing si n Au s t ra l ian s oc ie ty Me lbou rne ,L ongman C hesh i r e , 1 987

( t he s ame )S ome u nu sua ls t one a r t efa c t sf r om A u s t ra l ia a nd N ew G u inea . I n : R eco rd so ft h eA u s t ra l ian Museum 2 1(5 ) , 1 944a :264 -6

Mood ie ,P .M . ,P ed e r sen ,E .B .T he h ea l th o fA us t ra l ian A bo r ig ine s : a n a nno ta ted b ib l iog raphy , AGPS , C anbe r ra , 1 971

( t he s ame ) S ome u nusua l ,c y l ind ro -con ica l , s t one sf r om N ew S ou th Wa les a nd J ava . I n : R eco rd so ft h eA u s t ra l ian Museum 2 1(5 ) , 1 944b :257 -60

Mo r r ison , J .T he b i ra c ia lo r ig in o ft h eA us t ra l ian Abo r ig ines . I n : Med ica lJ ou rna lo fA us t ra l ia 2 ,1 967 :1054 -6

( t he s ame ) Nomenc la tu r eo fA u s tra l ian s t one i mp lemen t s : t h e 1 964 c l a s s if ica t ion ,A u s t ra l ian i n s t i tu t eo f A bor ig ina lS tud ies ,c on f e rence o nn omenc la tu r eo f i mp lemen t sa nd c u l tu r e ,S ydney A p r i l2 5 th t o2 8 th , T ypesc r ip t , 1 963

Moy le ,A .M . S ou r ce ma te r ia l s : Abor ig ina l mu s ic o fA u s tra l ia a nd N ew G u inea . I nE thnomu s ico logy 1 5 ( 1) , 1 971 :81-93 Mu lvaney ,D .J .T he s t one a ge o f Aus t ra l ia . I n : P roceed ing s o f t h eP r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty ,( N .S . )2 7 , 1 961 :56 107

( t he s ame )A us tra l ian A bo r ig ina ls t one i mp lemen t s . A u s t ra l ian Museum ,S ydney , 1 967 a nd 1 976

( t he s ame )C la s s if i ca t ion a nd t ypo logy i nA u s t ra l ia : t h ef i r s t 3 50 y ea r s .I n : Wr igh t ,R .V .S . ( c d ) ,S tone t oo ls a s c u l tu ra lm a rke r s ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu t eo f Abo r ig ina l S tud ie s ,C anbe r ra , 1 978 :263 -268

McCa r thy ,F .D . ,B rame 1 1 ,E . ,N oone ,H .V .V .T he s t one i mp lemen t so ft h eA u s t ra l ian mus eum ,N o .19 , S ydney 1 946

( t he s ame )B lood f r om s t ones a nd b ones .I n : S ea rch 1 0 , 1 979 :2 14 -18

McCove l l ,P .T he l i ngu is t ic p r eh i s to ry o fA u s t ra l ia : o ppo r tun i t ies f o rd i a logue w i th a r cha eo logy .P ape r p resen t ed May 1 990

( t he s ame )E ncoun te r si np l a ce : O u t s ide ra nd A bor ig ina l A us tra l ian s 1 606 -1 985 .S t .L uc ia ,U n i . o f Q ueen s land P re s s 1 989

1 00

O 'Conne l l , J .F .A sp ec t so fv a r ia t ion i nc en t ra l A u s t ra l ian l i t h ic a s semb lages . I n : Wr igh t ,R .V .S . ( e d . ) S tone t o o l sa sc u l tu ra l ma rke r s : c hange ,e vo lu t ion a nd c omp lex i ty . A us tra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s ,C anbe r ra , 1 977 :269 -82

Mu lvaney ,D . J . ,G o lson , J . ( e d s )A bo r ig ina lm an a nd e nv i r onmen ti nA u s t ra l ia ,A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty P ress ,C anbe r ra , 1 971 Mu lvaney ,D . J . ,J oyce ,E .B .A r cha eo log ica la nd g eomo rpho log ica l i n ve s t iga t ions o nM t . Mof f a t t S ta t ion ,Q ueens land ,A u s t ra l ia .I n : P roceed ing so f t h eP r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 1 , 1 965 :147 -212

O 'Conno r ,R . Ac a s eo fm igh t -have -been : s ome r e f lec t ions o nt h en ew " two k i lomet re l aw" i nt h eN o r the rn T e r r i to ry , I n : A n th ropo log ica lF o rum 5 (2 ) , 1 983 -84 :20 1-7

Mu r ray ,P .F .A u s t ra l ian m egamamma l s : r e s to ra t ion so fs ome l a t eP l e i s tocene f o s s i lm a r sup ia l sa nd a mono t r eme . In : A r t e f a c t3 (2 ) , 1 978 :77 -99 ( t he s am e ) A u s t ra l ian p reh i s to r ic a n ima l s , Me thuen , 1 985

O r ton ,C . Ma thema t ic si nA rchaeo logy ,L ondon ,C o l l in s , 1 980

Mu r ray ,T . , Wh i t e , J .P .A r chaeo logy i nA u s t ra l ia a nd N ew G u in ea . I n : Wo r ld A rcha eo logy 1 3 (2 ) , 1 981 :255 -63

O swa ld ,W . ,S choep f le ,M . S ys tema t ic f i e ldwo rk N ew s l ia ry P a rk , S age P ub l i sh ing , 1 087 P a lme r , ! . B uy ing b a ck t h el a nd : O rgan iza t iona l s t rugg le a nd A bo r ig ina ll a nd f und c omm i s ion C anbe r ra ,A bor ig ina l S tud ie sp r e ss , 1 988

N ade l ,G .A u s t ra l ia 's c o lon ia lc u l tu re . i d ea s ,m en a nd i n s t i t u t ions i nm id -n ine t een th c en tu ry e a s ter n A u s t ra l ia C amb r idge , Ma ss . ,H a rva rd U n i .P res s . , 1 957

P a lme r ,K . ,B rady ,M . D ie ta nd l i f es ty le i nt h ed eser t : A p rof i le o fa nA bo r ig ina l c ommun i ty a t Ma ra l inga C anbe r ra ,A bo r ig ina l S tud ie sP re ss , 1 99 1

N ade l ,S .F .I n t e rv iew t e chn ique i ns oc ia la n th ropo logy . I n : B a r t le t t ,F .e ta l( e d s . )T he s t udy o fs oc ie ty , L ondon ,R ou t ledg e a nd K eg a nP au lL td . , 1 939 :317 2 7

P a r son s ,P .A . , Wh i t e ,N .G . V a r iab i l i ty o fa n th ropome t r ic t r a i t s i nA u s t ra l ian Abo r ig ina ls a nd a d jacen tp opu la t ion s : i t sb ea r ing o nb io log ica l o r ig in o ft h eA u s t ra l ians . I n : K i rch ,R .L . , T ho rne ,A .G . ( e d s . ) T he o r ig in o ft h e A u s t ra l ian s ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu t eo fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s ,C anbe r ra , 1 976 :227 -44

Na n son ,G .C . ,Y oung ,R .W . ,S tock ton ,E .D . C h rono logy a nd p a laeoenv i ronmen to ft h eC raneb rook T e r race ( n ea r S ydney )c on ta in ing a r t e f a c t s mo r et han 4 0 .000 y ea r so ld . I n : A r chaeo log ica O cean ia 2 2 , 1 987 :72 -78

P ea r ce ,R .H .U n ifo rm i ty o ft h eA us t ra l ian b acked b l ade t r ad i t ion . I n Mank ind 9 ,1 973 :89 -95

N ea te ,G .J .T he A bo r ig ina ll a nd r i gh t s( Nor ther nT e r r i to ry ) a c t 1 976 a nd i t se f f ec to nt h eu sage o nA bo r ig ina l l a nd ,T ype sc r ip t ,A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S t ud ie s ,C anbe r ra , 1 977

P e rk in s ,C .P o l i t ica lo b jec t ives . I nJ upp , J . ( ed . )T he A u s t ra l ian p eop le , No r th R yd e , 1 988 :233 -39

( t he s am e )K eep ing s e c r e t ss e c r e t , I n : A bo r ig ina lL aw B u l le t in 5 ,1 982 :1f f

P e te r son ,N . ( e d . )A bo r ig ina ll a nd r i gh t s : Ah andbook C anbe r ra ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu t eo f Abo r ig ina l S t ud ies , 1 981

N e je lsk i ,P . ,P ey se r ,H . Ar e sea r che r s ' s h ie ld s t a tu t e : g ua rd ing a ga in s tt h ec ompu lso ry d i sc lo su re o fr e sea rch d a ta . I n : N a t iona lR esea rch C ounc i l 1 975 :B1-B86

( t he s ame )T r ibes a nd b ounda r ies i nA u s t ra l ia .I n : S oc ia l A n th ropo logy S e r ie s No .10 ,C anber ra ,A bor ig ina l I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s , 1 976

N icho la s ,S . ; S he rgo ld ,P .R .T he c onv ic tp er iod . I n :J upp , J . ( e d . )T he Aus t ra l ian p eop le ,Nor th R yd e 1 988 :23 -31

P eva r ,S .L .T he r i gh t so fI nd ian sa nd t r ib es : t h eb a s ic ACLU g u ide t ot h eI nd ian a nd t r iba lr i gh t s . S ou ther nI l iono i sU n ive r s i ty P re ss ,C a rbonda le 1 992

N obb s ,M .F . ,D o rn ,R . I .A ge d e t e rm ina t ions f o rr o ck v a rn i sh f o rma t ion sw i th in p e t rog lyphs :c a t ion ra t io d a t ing o f2 4 mo t if sf r om O la ry r e g ion ,S ou th A u s t ra l ia . I n : R ock A r tR e sea rch 5 (2 ) , 1 988 :108 -124

P ewewa rdy ,G .R e la t ion sh ip sa mong l a bo rf o r ce s t a tu s , w ages ,a nd p a r t ic ipa t ion i nv oca t iona le duca t ion a mong y oung Ame r ican I nd ian s . Ann A rbo r , M ich igan , 1 992

O 'Br ian ,M .T he l e gend o ft h es e ven s i s te r s I SBN :0855752 165 , 1 990

P i l l ing ,A .R .A bo r ig ine c u l tu r eh i s to ry : as ur vey o f p ub l ica t ion s 1 954 -1957 . D e t ro i t , Wayne S ta t e U n ive r s i ty P r ess , 1 962

1 0 1

R obe r t ,W .C .H .E xp lo ra t ion s Du t ch 1 605 Am s t e rdam ,P h i lo .P re s s , 1 973

PM ,P e t e r Moo s le i tne r s i n t e r e s san t e s Magaz in , Gnme r +J ah r AG +C oD ruck -u nd V e r lag shau s , V e r lag sg ruppe München ,D ec . 1 978 -t o day

R ob in son ,P . T he h a tch a nd b rood o ft i me : As t udy o ft h et h e 1 .g ene ra t ion o fn a t ive -bor nw h i t e A us t ra l ian s 1 788 -1 828 Me lbour ne , Oxfo rd U n i . P r es s , 1 982

P rado yT ova r ,D .D .d e N ew l i gh to nt h ed i scove ry o f A u s t ra l ia a s r evea led b yt h eJ ou rna lo fC p t .P rado y T ova r( t ran s l . f r om s pan i sh )L ondon ,H a l c luy & S oc . , 1 930

R obson ,M .K . ,P a r sons ,P .A .F inge rp r in ts t ud ies o nf o u r C en t ra lA u s t ra l ian Abo r ig ina lt r ibes . I n : A rcha eo logy a nd P hys ica lA n th ropo logy i nO cean ia 2 ( 1) , 1 967 :69 -78

P r ice ,C .A .T he e t hn ic c ha ra c t e ro ft h eA u s t ra l ian p opu la t ion .I n : J upp , J . ( ed . )T he A u s t ra l ian p eop le , N o r th R yde , 1 988 :119 -28

R o se ,A .M .T he s o c ia ls c ien t is ta sa ne xp e r tw i tne s s . I n : M inne so ta L aw R ev iew 4 0 , 1 956 :205 -2 18

P r ince , J .T he A bo r ig ines : Whe r ed ot h ey c ome f r om ? I n : A us t ra l ian Ou tdoo r sa nd F i sh ing , 1 976 :52 -65

R o se ,D .B . A bo r ig ina lA u s t ra l ia . I n : J upp , J .T he A u s t ra l ian p eop le : a ne ncyc loped ia o ft h en a t ion , i t sp eop le a nd t h e i ro r ig in s . Nor th R yde ,A ngu s &R obe r t son , 1 988 :9 13

P rokop ec ,M . , S ed ivy ,V . A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l s a nd t h eo u te r w o r ld : d e rma tog lyph ica le v idence . I n : K i rk ,R .L . , T ho rne ,A .G . ( ed s )T he o r ig in o ft h e A u s t ra l ian s , A u s t ra l ian i n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s , C anb e r ra , 1 976 :2 15 -26

R o s s ,L . Mo the r sb eh ind b a r s : ac ompa r a t ive s t udy o ft h e e xpe r ience so fi mp r isoned Ame r ican i nd ian a nd w h i te w omen .A nn A rbo r ,M ich igan 1 992

R adc l if f e -B rown ,A .T h ree t r ibes o f We s te rn A us t ra l ia . I n : J our na lo ft h eR oya lA n th ropo log ica lI n s t i tu t e4 2 , 1 9 13 :146 i f

R ow ley ,C . A bo r ig ina lp o l icy a nd p ra c t ice . V o l . 1-3 C anbe r ra ,A us t ra l ian n a t iona lU n ive r s i ty P r es s , 1 970 -7 1

( t he s ame )F o rme rn umbe r sa nd d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eA u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ine s . Of f i c ia lY ea rbook o ft h e C ommonwea l th o fA u s t ra l ia ,N o . 2 3 , Me lbou rne , 1 930

R ozen ,L .T he a n th ropo log i s ta se xpe r tw i tnes s , I n : Amer ican a n th ropo log i s t7 9 (3 ) , 1 977 :555 -78

( t he s ame )T he s o c ia lo rgan iza t ion o fA us t ra l ian t r ibes I n : O cean ia 1 ,1 930 -31

S ch i lde r ,G . A u s t ra l ia u nve i led : T he s ha r eo ft h eD u t ch n av iga to r si nt h ed i scove ry o fA u s t ra l ia Am s te rdam , 1 976

R anf t -Panek ,B .A npa ssung u nd K onf ron ta t ion : S oz io ö konom ische V e rände rungen u nd i h rE inf luß a uf d en K u l tu rwande lb e id en A u s t ra l i schen A bo r ig ines . B onn ,H o los , 1 990

S chm id t ,W . G r und l in ien e i ne rV e rg le ichung d e rR e l ig ionen u nd My tho log ien d e r Aus t rone s i s chen Vö lk e r .I n : D enk s ch r if td e rK a i se r l ichen A kadem ie d e r Wis sen scha f t en ,W ien , 1 9 10

R e im ,H .D ie U r e inwohne rA u s t ra l ien s . I n .H abe l ,R . ( c d ) V ö lke rkunde f ü rj ede rmann ,L e ipz ig , VEB H aa ck ,H . 1 966 :317 -27

S chne l l ,R . ;H i l l ,P .B . ;E s se r ,E . Me thoden d e r emp i r is chen S oz ia lf o r schung . O ldenbu rg , 1 989

R eyno ld s ,B . Ma t e r ia lc u l tu r e . I n : J upp , J . ( e d . )T he A u s t ra l ian p eop le .N o r th R yde , 1 988 :196 -20 1

S choe t ensa ck ,O .D ie B edeu tung A u s ta l ien sf ü rd i e H e ranb i ldung d e r Menschen a u se i ne rn i ede r en F o rm . I n : Z e i t schr if tf ü rE thno log ie 3 , 1 90 1 :127 - 5 4

R eyno ld s ,H .T he o t he rs i de o ft h ef r on t ie r . A bo r ig ina l r e s i s tance t ot h eE u ropean i n va s ion o fA u s t ra l ia . P engu in B ook s ,V ic to r ia , 1 982

S cho t t ,L .Z u rB edeu tung o don to log i sche rB efunde b e i a u s t ra l iden B evö lke rung sg rupp en .I n : E thnog raph isch -a rchäo log i sche Z e i t sch r if t2 4 (4 ) , 1 983 :675 -80

( t he s ame )D i spo s ses s ion . B la ck A u s t ra l ian sa nd w h i t e i n vade r sS ydney ,A l len & U nw in A u s t ra l ia P tyL td . , 1 989

S ch r i re ,C .E thno -a rchaeo log ica l mode l sa nd s ub s is t ence b ehav iou ri nA rnhem L and . I n : C la rke ,D .L . ( c d ) Mode l si na r cha eo logy ,L ondon ,M e thuen , 1 972 :653 -70

( t he s ame )W i th t h ew h i te p eop le .P engu in B ook s ,V ic to r ia , 1 990 R ive t ,P .L e sA u s t ra l ien se tl e s Ma layo -Po lyn8 s ien se n Am8 r ique . I n :A n th ropo log ie 3 5 ,P a r is 1 925

( t he s ame ) T he A l l iga to rr i ve r s : p r eh is to ry a nd e co logy i n w e s te rn A rnhem L and . A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty ,C anbe r ra , 1 982

1 02

S chu lze ,L . T he A bo r ig ines o ft h eu ppe ra nd m idd le F inke R ive r : t h e i rh ab i t sa nd c u s tom s ,w i th i n t roduc to ry n o te so nt h ep hy s ica l a nd n a tu ra lh i s to ry f e a tu r es o f t h ec oun t ry . I n : T ransac t ion so ft h eR oya l S oc ie ty o f S ou th A u s t ra l ia 1 4 , 1 891 :2 10 -46

( t he s ame )C en t ra l A u s t ra l ian s e ed g r ind ing i mp lemen t sa nd P le i s tocene g r ind s tone s . I n : Meehan ,B . ,J ones ,R . ( e d s )A rcha eo logy w i th e t hnog raphy ,A u s t ra l ian N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty ,C anbe r ra , 1 988 :94 -111 ( t he s ame )T he p a t t e rn a nd t im ing o fp reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen ti n C en t ra lA us t ra l ia .U npub l ished P h .D .T he s i s , U n ive r s i ty o fN ew E ng land , 1 988

S hanghv i ,L .D .C ompa ra t ive g ene t ic s t ud ie sb e tween s ome g roup so fA us t ra l ian A bo r ig ina ls a nd c e r ta in t r iba l p eop le so fI nd ia . I n : K i rch ,R .L . ,T home ,A .G . ( e d s ) T he o r ig in o ft h e A us t ra l ians ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu t e o f Abo r ig ina l S tud ie s ,C anbe r ra , 1 876 :40 1-14

( t he s ame )T he c a se f o rr e s iden th uman p opu la t ion i nt h e C en t ra lA u s t ra l ian R ange sd u r ing f u l lg l ac ia l a r id i ty . I n : A rcha eo logy i nO cean ia 2 4 (3 ) , 1 989 :93 -105

S ha rpe ,C .E .P r eh i s to r ic a r ti nA u s t ra l ia Me lbou rne C o l lege o fE duca t ion , 1 972 ( t he s ame )P r eh i s tor ic a r ti nA u s t ra l ia : at e ache r 's g u ide F in eA r t sT es i s ,T ype scr ip t ,B o s ton , 1 976

S nyde r Joy ,Z .K . Ame r ican I nd ian e duca t ion i nt h e s ou thwe s t : i s sues o fs e lf -de te rm ina t ion a nd l o ca l c on t ro lA nn A rbo r ,M ich igan , 1 992

S ha rpe ,M .C .B und ja lung s e t t lemen ta nd m ig ra t ion .I n : A bo r ig ina lH is to ry 9 ( 1) , 1 985 :10 1-24

S p e i se r ,F . Me lane s ien u nd I ndone s ien . I n : E thno log i sche Z e i t sch r if t7 0 , 1 938 :463 -8 1

S haw ,A .G .L .T he s t o ry o fA us t ra l ia L ondon ,F abe ra nd F abe rL im i ted , 1 955

S pence r ,W .B .N a t ive t r ibe so ft h eN o r ther nT e r r i to ry o f A u s t ra l ia .L ondon , 1 9 14 ,5 16p .

( t he s ame ) 1 788 -1 810 .I n : C row ley ,F .K . ( ed . ) An ew h i s to ry o f Aus t ra l ia , Me lbour n e 1 974 :1-44

S p rad ley , J .P . T he e t hnog raph ic i n t er v iew N ew Y o rk ,H o l t ,R ineha r ta nd Win s ton , 1 979

S i lve rD ige s tT he Au s tra l ian A bo r ig ine :c u s tom so f y e s te rday a nd t oday .A va lon ,S i lve rD ige s t P ub l i shi ng , 1 970

S o l la s ,W .J . A nc ien th un te r sa nd t h e i r mode rn r ep r esen ta t ive s .L ondon , Ma cm i l lan , 1 911 S t anne r ,W .E .H .D unnugam , an ang iome r i I n : C a sag rande , J .B . ( e d . )I nt h ec ompany o f man , N ew Y o rk ,H a rpe ra nd B ro the r s , 1 960 :63 100

S immons ,R .T .T he b io log ica lo r ig in o fA us t ra l ian A bo r ig ina ls . I n : K i r ch ,R .L . ,T hor n e ,A .G . ( e ds ) T he o r ig in o ft h eA u s t ra l ian s ,A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu t eo f A bo r ig ina l S tud ie s ,C anbe r ra , 1 976 :307 -28

( t he s ame )A bor ig ina lt e r r i to r ia lo rgan iza t ion : e s ta t e ,r ange , d oma in a nd r eg ime . I n : O cean ia 3 6 ( 1 ) , 1 965 :1-26

S i ngh ,G . ,K e r shaw ,A .P . ,C la rk ,R .Q ua t e rna ry v ege ta t ion a nd f i r eh i s to ry i nA u s t ra l ia . I n : G i l l ,A .M .G . , G rov e s ,R .H . ,N ob le , I .R . ( e d s )F i re a nd t h e A u s t ra l ian b io ta .A u s t ra l ian A cademy o fS c ience , C anb e r ra , 1 981 :23 -54

S t ephen s ,E .T he A bo r ig ine so fA u s t ra l ia .I n : J ou rna l a nd P roceed ing so ft h eR oya l S oc ie ty o fN ew S ou th Wa le s2 3 , 1 8 19 :476 -503

Sm i th ,B .T he s pec t r eo fT rugan in i . 1 980 B oye r sl e c tu re s S ydney ,T he A u s t ra l ian B road ca s t ing C omm i s ion , 1 980

S tone ,S .N .A bo r ig ine si nw h i t eA u s t ra l ia : Ad ocumen ta ry h i s to ry o ft h ea t t i tude sa f f ec t ing o f f ic ia lp o l icy a nd t h eA us ta l ian A bo r ig ine 1 697 -1 973 ,S ou th Y a r ra , 1 974

Sm it h ,H .M . ;B idd le ,E .H .L ook f o rwa rd n o tb ack . A u s t ra l ian Na t iona lU n ive r s i ty P re ss ,C anbe r ra , 1 975

S t ruwe ,R .F o r schung sge sch ich t eu nd F o r schung s s tand d e r A rchäo log ie z u ru r sp rüng l ichen B e s ied lung A u s t ra l ien s ,H umbo l tU n ive r s i tä t ,B e r l in , 1 968

Sm i th ,M .L a t ep l e is tocene z am ia e xp lo i ta t ion i no uf te rn We s t er n Aus t ra l ia . I n : A r cha eo logy i nO cean ia 1 7 1 982 :117 -2 1

( t he s ame )U n te r suchungen z um ä l t e r en A b schn i t td e r U rge sch ich t eA u s t ra l iens a ufg rund e i ne rA na ly se d e rS t e in indu s t r ien A u s tra l ien su nd d r e ie r F undkomp lexe a us N eugu inea u nd I ndones ien . P h .D .T he s i s ,H umbo ld tU n ive r s i tä tz uB e r l in , 1 974

Sm i th ,M .A .C en tra lA u s t ra l ia : p r e l im ina ry a r cha eo log ica l i n ves t iga t ions .I n : A u s t ra l ian A r chaeo logy 1 6 , 1 983 :27 -38

( t he s ame )Ü be rb l ick z um g egenwä r t igen S tand d e r a r chäo log ischen F o r schungen i nA u s t ra l ien . I n : E thnog raph i sch , -a r chäo log ische Z e i tsch r if t 1 9 (4 ) , 1 978 :699 -705

( t he s ame )P l e i s tocene o ccupa t ion i na r id C en tra lA u s t ra l ia . I n :N a tu re 3 28 , 1 987 :7 10 11

1 03

( t he s ame ) A bo r ig ina l t r ibes o fA u s t ra l ia ; t h e i rt e r ra in , e nv i ronmen tc on t ro ls ,d i s t r ibu t ion ,l im i t s a nd p rope r n ame s .C anbe r ra , A us t ra l ian N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty P r es s , 1 974

( t he s ame )Z u rB e s ied lung sgesch ich t eA us t ra l ien s . I n : A l t e r tum 2 7 (4 ) , 1 981 :2 17 -23 T a t te r sa l l , J . ,D e l son .E . ,C ouve r ing , J .V .E ncyc loped ia o f h uman e vo lu t ion a nd p r eh i s to ry . N ew Y o rk ,L ondon ,G a r land P ub l ish ing , 1 988

( t he s ame )P rog r es si nA us t ra l ian a r chaeo logy .A r cha eo logy a nd t h el i v ing p eop le i nA u s t ra l ia . 3 p . r oneo . S ou th A us t ra l ian Museum ,n . d .

T a tz ,C .R a ce p o l i t ic si nA u s t ra l ia : A bo r igene sp o l i t ics a nd t h el aw A rm ida le ,U n ive r s i ty o ft h eN ew E ng land P ub l ish ing U n i t 1 979

( t he s ame )D e se r tA bo r ig ine s a nd t h e s ou ther nc oa s ta l p eop le : s ome c ompa r ison s . I n : K ea s t ,A . ( e d . ) E co log ica lb iogeog raphy o fA u s t ra l ia ,T he H ague 1 981 :1853 -84

( t he s ame )A bo r ig ine sa nd u ran ium a nd o t he re s say s V ic to r ia ,H e inemann E duca t iona lA us t ra l ia , 1 982 T ay lo r ,P . ( e d . ) A f te r2 00 y ea r s .P ho tog raph ic e s say s o fA bo r ig ina la nd I s lande rA u s tra l ia t o day C anbe r ra ,A bo r ig ina l s t ud ie sP r es s ,C anbe r ra , 1 988

T onk in son ,R . w o rk ing f o rt h ej udge : r o le a nd r e spon s ib i l i ty , I n : A n th ropo log ica lF o rum 5 ,1 983 -84 :182 -88 T oohey , J . A nma t j i r ra a nd A lyawa r ra l a nd c l a im st oU top ia p a s to ra l l e a se ,C anber ra , AGPS ,p a ra .89 , 1 980 s ee a l so p ages 1 05 -8

T e r r i 1 1 ,R .T he A u s t ra l ian s S imon a nd S chus t e r ,N ew Y o rk 1 987 T haw ley , J . ,G auc i ,S .B ib l iog raph ie so nt h eA u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ine : a na nno ta ted l i s t ing . S econd e d i t ion L aT robe U n ive r s i ty ,B o rcha rd tL ib ra ry , 1 987

( t he s ame )D a ly R ive r( Ma lak Ma lak )l a nd c l a im , C anbe r ra AGPS , 1 982 ,86 -89 ( t he s ame )S even y ea r so n , C anbe r ra AGPS ,p a ra .880 , 1 983

T he H e r i tage o fA u s t ra l ia /Enzyc loped ia T he Max im i l ian C ompany o fA us t ra l ia P tyL td , 1 981

T op ina rd ,P .E tude s u rl e sT a sman ian s . I n : Memo i r so ft h e S oc ie ty o fA n th ropo logy o fP a r is , S er ie s 1 ,3 , 1 872 :307 -29

T homa s ,N .W . A u s t ra l ian c anoe sa nd r a f t s . I n : J our na lo ft h e A n th ropo log ica lI n s t i tu t e3 5 , 1 905 :56 -79

T r emb ley ,M .A .T he k ey info rman tt e chn ique : an on e t hnog raph ica la pp l ica t ion I n : Amer ican A n th ropo log is t5 9 (4 ) , 1 957 :682 -94

T hom son ,N .H ea l th I n : J upp ,J .( e d . )T he A u s t ra l ian p eop le . No r th R yde , 1 988 :24 8 -52 T inda le ,N .B .R e la t ion sh ip o ft h ee x t inc tK anga roo I s land c u l tu r ew i th c u l tu r es o fA us t ra l ia ,T a sman ia a nd Ma laya .I n : R eco rd so ft h e S ou th A u s t ra l ian Mu seum 6 ,1 937 :39 -60

T ugby ,D .J .T owa rd ac ode o fe t h ic sf o ra pp l ied a n th ropo logy , I n : A n th ropo log ica lF orum 1 ( 2 ) , 1 964 : 2 20 -231 T ur n e r ,W .R epo r to nt h eh uman c ran ia a nd o the rb one so f t h es k e le ton sc o l lec ted d u r ing t h ev oyage o f H .M .S .Cha l lenge r ,i nt h e y ea r 1 873 -1876 .P a r t 1T he c r an ia .I n : R epor to ft h e s c ien t if ic r e su l t so ft h e e xp lo r ing v oyage o fH .M .S . C ha l lenge r 1 873 1 876 ,Z oo logy 1 0 , 1 884 :1-30

( t he s ame )P a la eo l i th ic K od jA xe o ft h eA bo r ig ine sa nd i t s d i s t r ibu t ion i nA u s t ra l ia . I n : R eco rd so ft h eS ou th A us t ra l ian Museum 9 ,1 950 :257 -74 ( t he s ame )C u l tu r es ucce s s ion i ne a s ter nA u s t ra l ia f r om L a t e P le i s tocene t ot h ep r es en tI n : R eco rd so ft h eS ou th A us t ra l ian Museum 1 3 , 1 957 :1-49

V achon ,D .A .E s say o fp a s s ion ,I mag ina t ion a nd s t r iv ing : A bo r ig ina lr e spons es t ot h e a n th ropo log ica l e n t e rp r i ses ,I n : A n th ropo log ica lF o rum 5 ,1 983 8 5 :22 1-30

( t he s ame )R ad ioca rbon d a te so fi n t e r es tt oA us t ra l ian a r chaeo log is t s . I n : A us t ra l ian J our na lo fS c ience 2 7 , 1 964 :24

V os ,G . ,K i rk ,H .R .L . ,S t e inbe rg ,A .G . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e g amma g lobu l in t y pes Gm (a ) , Gm (b ) , Gm (x )a nd Gm l ike i nS ou th a nd S ou thea s tA s ia a nd A u s t ra l ia . I n : Ame r ican J our na lo f Human G ene t ics 1 5 ( 1) , 1 963 :44 -52

( t he s ame )N omenc la tu re o fa r chaeo log ica lc u l tu re sa nd a s soc ia ted i mp lemen t si nA u s t ra l ia .I n : R eco rd so f t h eS ou th A u s t ra l ian Mus eum 1 5 , 1 968 :615 -640 ( t he s ame )A bo r ig ina lt r ibe so fA u s t ra l ia . B e rke ley ,U n ive r s i ty o fC a l i for n ia P r e s s , 1 974

Wad e - Ma r sha l l ,D . ,L oveday ,P . ( ed s . ) C on t empo ra ry i s sues i nd eve lopmen t .N o r ther n Au s t ra l ia : P rog r e s sa nd p ro sp ec t sV o l . 1 ,D a rw in , Aus t ra l ian n a t iona l U n ive r s i ty ,N or th A u s t ra l ia R e sea r ch Un i t , 1 988

1 04

Wa l lace ,V .H . Women a nd c h i ld r en f i r s t .A n o u t l ine o fa p opu la t ion p o l icy f o rA u s t ra l ia . Me lbou rne ,O xfo rd Un i .Pr e s s , 1 946

Wh i t ehead ,T .L . ,C onnaway s ,M .E . ( ed s . ) S e lf , s ex , g ende ri n c r o s s -cu l tu ra lf i e ldwo rk . C h icago ,U n ive r s i ty o fI l ino i sP res s , 1 986

Wax ,R . Do ing f i e ldwo rk . Wa rn ing sa nd a dv ice C h icago ,M idway R epr in t sf r om 1 97 1 , 1 985

W igge -Caa se ,M .Z u rw i r t scha f t l ichen E n tw ick lung d e r A bo r ig ines i mN o rd te r r i to r ium . Un ive r s i tä t G ö t t ingen , Ma s t e rT he s i s , 1 983

Webb ,C . ,A l len , J . Af unc t iona la na lys i so fP l e i s tocene b one t oo ls f r om t wo s i tes i ns ou thwes t er nT a sman ia .I n : A rcha eo logy O cean ia 2 5 (2 ) , 1 990 :75 -79

W i l l iam s , J .A . I n terv iew re sponden ti n te ra c t ion : As t udy o f b i a si nt h e i n fo rma t ion i n te rv iew . I n : S oc iome t ry 2 7 , 1 964 :338 -52

We l l s ,E .R ewa rd a nd p un ishmen ti n Ar nhem l a nd 1 962 1 963 . C anbe r ra , Au s t ra l ian I n s t i tu t eo fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s , 1 982

W i l l iam s ,N .W . Two l aw s manag ing d i spu tes i na c on t empo ra ry A bo r ig ina l c ommun i ty . C anbe r ra , A u s t ra l ian i n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s , 1 987

Wha r ton ,W .J .L .( e d . )C ap ta in C ook 's j our na ld u r ing t h ef i r s t v oyage r o und t h ew o r ld m ade i nH .M .b a rk E ndeavou r 1 768 -1 77 1 .A us t ra l ian F a cs im i le E d i t ion ,N o .188 , 1 966

W i l lmo t ,E .E duca t ion I n : J upp ,J .( ed . )T he A u s t ra l ian p eop le . Nor th R yde , 1 988 :244 -47 W i lpe r t ,C .B .K o smogon i sche My then d e ra us t ra l ischen E ingebo renen .D a sK onzep td e rS chöp fung u nd A n th ropogene se . München ,P h .D .T he s is , 1 970

Wh i t e ,C .E a r ly s t one a xe si nA rnhem L and . I n : A n t iqu i ty 4 1 , 1 967a :149 :52

Wo lfgang ,M .E .T he s oc ia l s c ien t i s ti nc ou r t ,I n : J ou rna lo f t h eC r im ina lL aw a nd C r im ino logy 6 5 , 1 974 :239 -47

( t he s ame )P la t eau a nd P la in : P r eh i s to r ic i n ves t iga t ion si n A rnhem L and , Nor ther nT e r r i to ry ,U npub l i shed P h .D .T he s i s ,A us t ra l ian N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty , C anbe r ra , 1 967b

Wood Jone s ,F . A u s t ra l ia ' sv an i sh ing r a ce . S ydney ,A ngu sa nd R ober t son , 1 934

( t he s ame ) T he p r eh i s to ry o ft h eK akadu p eop le . I n : Mank ind 6 (9 ) , 1 967c :426 -31

Wr igh t ,R .V .S . ( e d . ) S tone t oo ls a sc u l tu r e ma rke r s : c hange , e vo lu t ion a nd c omp lex i ty A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu t e o f A bo r ig ina l S tud ie s ,C anbe r ra , 1 977

Wh i t e , J .P . T ypo log ies f o rs ome p r eh i s to r ic f l ak ed s t one a r tef a c t so ft h eA u s t ra l ian N ew G u inea H igh land s . I n : A r cha eo logy a nd P hy s ica lA n th rop logy i n O cean ia 4 ,1 969 :18 -46

Wu r r n ,S .A .L anguage so fA us t ra l ia a nd T a sman ia . T he H ague , Mou ton , 1 972 , 2 08p .

( t he s ame )E a r ly m an i nN ew G u inea .I n :E lk in ,A .P . , Mac in to sh ,N .W .G . ( e d s )G ra f ton E l l io t Sm i th : t h e man a nd h i sw o rk .S ydney U n ive r s i ty P r e s s , S ydney , 1 974 :109 -13

Wyndham ,W .T .T he A bo r ig ine so fA u s t ra l ia . I n ; J ou rna l a nd P roceed ing so ft h eR oya l S oc ie ty o fN ew S ou th w a le s2 3 , 1 889 :36 -42 Z iege r t ,H . O b jek to r ien t ier te u nd p rob lemo r ien t ier t e F o r schung san sä tze i nd e rA r chäo log ie . I n : H epha i s to s2 ,1 980 :57 -65

Wh i t e , J .P . , O 'Conne l l , J .F . A u s t ra l ian p r eh i s to ry : n ew a spec t s o fa n t iqu i ty .I n : S c ience , 1 979 :2 1 -28

( t he s ame )W is senscha f t l iche A rbe i t s t echn iken i nd en K u l tu rw iss en scha f t en . I n : R e ihe K u l tu rw i s sen s cha f t en 1 2 , München 1 986

( t he s ame ) Ap r eh i s to ry o fA u s t ra l ia ,N ew G u inea a nd S ahu l . A cad em ic P r es sA u s t ra l ia , 1 982 Wh i t e ,M .E . A u s t ra l ia sp reh i s tor ic p l an t sa nd t h e i r e nv i ronmen t . Me thuen , 1 984

1 05

1 . CATALOG

(T oo l FOF62 d i sp lay ing s l igh td en t icu la t ion a t1 20x magn if i ca t ion )

(T oo l FOA16 d i sp lay ing m i l c rof lake s ca r sa t9 0x magn if ica t ion )

1 06

(T oo lF OA l2 d i sp lay ing s ca r r ing a t1 20x magn if ica t ion )

(T oo lF 074 d i sp lay ing e dge r ound ing a t6 0x magn i f ica t ion )

1 07

(T oo l FOG73 s how ing s moo thed s u rf ace a t9 0x magn if ica t ion )

(T oo l FOE50 s how ing p o l i sh o nd o r sa l s i de a t9 0x magn if ica t ion )

1 08

(T oo lF OE50 s how ing r e touch a t1 20x magn if ica t ion )

(T oo lF OE50 s how ing e dge r ound ing a t9 0x magn if ica t ion )

1 09

(T oo lF 078 c ove r ed b yt h ick c r u s ta t1 20x magn if ica t ion )

(T oo lF 078 a f t e rp a r t ia lr emova lo fc r u s ta t9 0x m agn if i ca t ion )

10