Mobility for Smart Cities and Regional Development - Challenges for Higher Education: Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Interactive ... (Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 389) 3030939030, 9783030939038

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Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 389

Michael E. Auer Hanno Hortsch Oliver Michler Thomas Köhler   Editors

Mobility for Smart Cities and Regional Development - Challenges for Higher Education Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL2021), Volume 1

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems Volume 389

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Advisory Editors Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of Campinas— UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNNS. Volumes published in LNNS embrace all aspects and subfields of, as well as new challenges in, Networks and Systems. The series contains proceedings and edited volumes in systems and networks, spanning the areas of Cyber-Physical Systems, Autonomous Systems, Sensor Networks, Control Systems, Energy Systems, Automotive Systems, Biological Systems, Vehicular Networking and Connected Vehicles, Aerospace Systems, Automation, Manufacturing, Smart Grids, Nonlinear Systems, Power Systems, Robotics, Social Systems, Economic Systems and other. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the world-wide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid dissemination of research output. The series covers the theory, applications, and perspectives on the state of the art and future developments relevant to systems and networks, decision making, control, complex processes and related areas, as embedded in the fields of interdisciplinary and applied sciences, engineering, computer science, physics, economics, social, and life sciences, as well as the paradigms and methodologies behind them. Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, SCImago. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science.

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/15179

Michael E. Auer Hanno Hortsch Oliver Michler Thomas Köhler •

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•

Editors

Mobility for Smart Cities and Regional Development Challenges for Higher Education Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL2021), Volume 1

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Editors Michael E. Auer CTI Global Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Hanno Hortsch Technische Universität Dresden Dresden, Sachsen, Germany

Oliver Michler Technische Universität Dresden Dresden, Sachsen, Germany

Thomas Köhler Technische Universität Dresden Dresden, Sachsen, Germany

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems ISBN 978-3-030-93903-8 ISBN 978-3-030-93904-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

ICL2021 was the 24th edition of the International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning and the 50th edition of the IGIP International Conference on Engineering Pedagogy. This interdisciplinary conference aims to focus on the exchange of relevant trends and research results as well as the presentation of practical experiences in Interactive Collaborative Learning and Engineering Pedagogy. ICL2021 has been organized by Technische Universität Dresden and University of Applied Science Dresden, Germany, from September 22 to 24, 2021, as a hybrid event. This year’s theme of the conference was “Mobility for Smart Cities and Regional Development – Challenges for Higher Education”. Again, outstanding scientists from around the world accepted the invitation for keynote speeches: • Gyeung Ho Choi, Professor at Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology, Korea. Speech title: Challenges for Future Mobility • Thoralf Knote, Head of Department, Fraunhofer Institute IVI, Germany. Speech title: Involvement of Students in the Project Work at Fraunhofer IVI • Krishna Vedula, Founder and Executive Director of IUCEE, India. Speech title: Addressing the Challenges of Engineering Pedagogy in India • Stefan Odenbach, Dean of Studies for Mechanical Engineering at TU Dresden, Germany Speech title: Practical Courses without Presence – is this possible? • David Guralnick, Kaleidoscope Learning, USA Speech title: Successful Learning Experiences Design • Lars Seiffert, Board Member, Verkehrsbetriebe AG Dresden, Germany Speech title: Priority for Public Transport – Fair and Green • Ulrike Stopka, Professor for Communications Economics and Management at TU Dresden, Germany

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Speech title: Challenges and Opportunities for a Transport Sciences-Oriented Study Program The following very interesting workshops have been held: • Modern Vehicle Engineering Training up to Connected and Automated Driving Facilitators: Oliver Michler, Professor for Traffic Telematics at TU Dresden, Germany, and Toralf Trautmann, Professor for Mechatronics at University of Applied Sciences Dresden, Germany • From Face-to-Face to Hybrid Events – Experiences with the Digital Transformation of a Conference Series Dealing with Online Network Research Facilitator: Thomas Köhler, Professor for Media Technology at TU Dresden and Director of the Center for Open Digital Innovation and Participation at TU Dresden We would like to thank the organizers of the following Special Sessions: • Games in Engineering Education (GinEE) Chair: Matthias C. Utesch, FOS/BOS Technik München, Germany • Entrepreneurship in Engineering Education 2020” (EiEE’20) Chair: Jürgen Jantschgi, HTL Wolfsberg, Austria • Engineering Education for “Smart Work” and “Smart Life” (IPW) Chair: Steffen Kersten, TU Dresden, Germany • Assessing and Enhancing Student online Participation and Engagement Chair: M. Samir Abou El-Seoud, The British University in Egypt • Smart Education of Digital Era Chair: Irirna Victorovna Makarova, Kazan Federal University, Russia Since its beginning, this conference is devoted to new approaches in learning with a focus to collaborative learning and engineering education. We are currently witnessing a significant transformation in the development of education. There are at least three essential and challenging elements of this transformation process that have to be tackled in education: • the impact of globalization and digitalization on all areas of human life, • the exponential acceleration of the developments in technology as well as of the global markets and the necessity of flexibility and agility in education, • the new generation of students, who are always online and don’t know live without Internet. Therefore, the following main themes have been discussed in detail: • • • •

Collaborative Learning Mobility and Smart Cities New Learning Models and Applications Project-Based Learning

Preface

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

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Game-Based Education Educational Virtual Environments Computer-Aided Language Learning (CALL) Teaching Best Practices Engineering Pedagogy Education Public-Private Partnership and Entrepreneurship Education Research in Engineering Pedagogy Evaluation and Outcomes Assessment Internet of Things and Online Laboratories IT and Knowledge Management in Education Approaches of Online Teaching Virtual and Augmented Learning Mobile Learning Applications Connection between Universities and the Labor Market Further Education for Engineering Educators As submission types have been accepted:

• • • •

Full Paper, Short Paper Work in Progress, Poster Special Sessions Workshops, Tutorials.

All contributions were subject to a double-blind review. The review process was very competitive. We had to review more than 500 submissions. A team of about 240 reviewers did this terrific job. Our special thanks go to all of them. Due to the time and conference schedule restrictions, we could finally accept only the best 156 submissions for presentation. The conference had more than 250 online and on-site participants from 42 countries from all continents. Our special thank goes to Prof. Dr. Thomas Köhler and his team of Technische Universität Dresden, Germany, who made the hybrid conference a reality. We thank Sebastian Schreiter for the technical editing of this proceedings. ICL2022 will be held in Vienna, Austria. Michael E. Auer ICL General Chair Hanno Hortsch ICL2021 Chair

Committees

General Chair Michael E. Auer

CTI, Frankfurt/Main, Germany

ICL2021 Conference Chair Hanno Hortsch

Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany

International Chairs Samir A. El-Seoud Neelakshi Chandrasena Premawardhena Alexander Kist Alaa Ashmawy David Guralnick Uriel Cukierman

The British University in Egypt (Africa) University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka (Asia) University of Southern Queensland (Australia/Oceania) American University, Dubai (Middle East) Kaleidoscope Learning New York, USA (North America) UTN, Buenos Aires, Argentina (Latin America)

Honorary Advisors Hans J. Hoyer Panarit Sethakul Hans Müller-Steinhagen Roland Stenzel Viacheslav Prikhodko

IFEES/GEDC General Secretary KMUTNB, Thailand TUDAG Dresden University of Technology, Germany Moscow Technical University, Russia

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Committees

Technical Program Chairs Oliver Michler Toralf Trautmann Sebastian Schreiter

Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany University of Applied Sciences Dresden, Germany IAOE, France

Workshop and Tutorial Chairs Barbara Kerr Manuela Niethammer Claudio Teneiro Leivo

Ottawa University, Canada Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany University of Talca, Chile

Special Sessions Chair Thomas Köhler

Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany

Publication Chairs Steffen Kersten Sebastian Schreiter

Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany IAOE, France

Awards Chairs Stephan Abele Tiia Rüütmann

Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany Tallinn University of Technology, Estonia

Local Arrangement Chair Friedrich Funke

Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany

Senior Program Committee Members Andreas Pester Axel Zafoschnig Cornel Samoila Doru Ursutiu Eleonore Lickl George Ioannidis

The British University in Egypt Ministry of Education, Austria Transylvania University of Brasov, Romania University of Brasov, Romania College for Chemical Industry, Vienna, Austria University of Patras, Greece

Committees

Tatiana Polyakova Tiia Rüütmann

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Moscow State Technical University, Russia Technical University Tallinn, Estonia

Program Committee Members Alexander Soloviev Buri Triyono Christian Guetl Demetrios Sampson Despo Ktoridou Hants Kipper Herwig Rehatschek Igor Verner Istvan Simonics Ivana Simonova James Wolfer Jürgen Mottok Martin Bilek Matthias Utesch Monica Divitini Nael Barakat Pavel Andres Rauno Pirinen Santi Caballé Teresa Restivo Stavros Nikou Stamatios Papadakis

Russia Yogyokarta State University, Indonesia Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria University of Piraeus, Piraeus, Greece University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria Technion, Haifa, Israel Obuda University, Budapest, Hungary University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic Indiana University South Bend, IN, USA OTH Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany NTNU, Gløshaugen, Norway University of Texas at Tyler (UT-Tyler), TX, USA Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic Laurea Universities of Applied Sciences, Vantaa, Finland Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain Universidade de Porto, Porto, Portugal University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK The University of Crete, Greece

Local Organizing Committee Members Sven Eckelmann Dirk Engert

Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany University of Applied Sciences Dresden, Germany

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Jörg Neumann Jacob Romankiewicz

Committees

Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany

Contents

Collaborative Learning Adapting Materials for Diverse Contexts to Help Faculty Adopt Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clif Kussmaul

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Characteristics of Team Dynamics Influencing Success in Engineering Student Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anna Maliashova, Dilbar Sultanova, and Phillip A. Sanger

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Where Are we with Inclusive Digital Further Education? Accessibility Through Digitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meinhardt Branig, Christin Engel, Jan Schmalfuß-Schwarz, Emma Franziska Müller, and Gerhard Weber Critical Teaching-Learning Situations in Higher Education and Vocational Education – A Qualitative Analysis of the Use of Digital Approaches and Tools in Virtual Collaborative Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dörte Görl-Rottstädt, Maik Arnold, Michael Heinrich-Zehm, Marcel Köhler, and Vera Hähnlein Internationalization in Microbiology and Bioengineering Courses: Experiences Between Mexico and Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . José F. Álvarez-Barreto, Jorge Membrillo Hernández, Gloria A. Chapa-Guillén, Fernando Larrea, and Rebeca García-García

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Innovative Capacity of Faculty Development Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olga Y. Khatsrinova, Anna V. Serezhkina, Inna M. Gorodetskaya, and Elina I. Murtazina

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The Role of Inter-institutional Cooperation in Engineering Training . . . Svetlana Karstina

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Linguistic Personality: Requirements to a Modern Textbook . . . . . . . . . Elena Volkova, Olga Y. Khatsrinova, and Mansur Galikhanov

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Acceptance of ICT in Institutional Collaboration in Vocational Education. Empirical Findings Based on Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nadine Schaarschmidt, Maybritt Schrader, Felix Schilk, Helge Fischer, Silvia Blass, and Thomas Köhler

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Designing an Architecture for Structuring Didactic Concepts, Methods and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Veronika Thurner and Axel Böttcher

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Exploring Pre-service Computer Science Teachers’ Perception of Collaborative Learning in Online Teaching from a TPK Perspective . . . 107 Bernhard Standl and Nadine Schlomske-Bodenstein A Review: Status Quo and Current Trends in E-Learning Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Sudath Rohitha Heiyanthuduwage Design of a Vehicle for Modern Mobilities in Metropolitan Areas . . . . . 126 Dan Centea and Seshasai Srinivasan How to Overcome the Difficulties Emerged When Applying Student-Centered Approach? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Júlia Justino and Silviano Rafael Smart Pedestrian Crossing - An EPS@ISEP 2020 Project . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Bárbara Cruz Caruso, Charlie Stenstkie, David van Duivenboden, Jan Starosta, Jens Hoernschemeyer, Solenne Peytard, Benedita Malheiro, Cristina Ribeiro, Jorge Justo, Manuel F. Silva, Paulo Ferreira, and Pedro Guedes Foldable Disaster Shelter - An EPS@ISEP 2020 Project . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Daniela-Andreea Popescu, Eduardo Pereira, Gabriel Givanovitch, Jelte Bakker, Lore Pauwels, Vladimir Dukoski, Benedita Malheiro, Cristina Ribeiro, Jorge Justo, Manuel F. Silva, Paulo Ferreira, and Pedro Guedes Floating Trash Collector - An EPS@ISEP 2020 Project . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Andrea-Bianca Serafia, António Santos, Davide Caddia, Evelien Zeeman, Laura Castaner, Benedita Malheiro, Cristina Ribeiro, Jorge Justo, Manuel F. Silva, Paulo Ferreira, and Pedro Guedes Does Gender Gap in Confidence Explain Gender Gap in Academic Achievement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Yasmine Guemouria, Ivan Acebo, Maria Jose Rosales-Lopez, and Samira Hosseini

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Bonding in Times of Pandemia—A Concept for Purely Virtual Kick-off Days to the Student Entry Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Sabine Hammer, Sarah Ottinger, Veronika Thurner, and Benedikt Zönnchen A Collaborative Approach to Scaffold Group Discussion Skills Using Video Recorded Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Dipali Dilip Awasekar and Shashikant Annarao Halkude Material Demo Lab - Selection Criteria for Methods Training Business Model Generation and Design Prototyping with Material Scientists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Jasmin Schöne, Florian Sägebrecht, Lenard Opeskin, Anne-Katrin Leopold, Jens Krzywinski, Stefan Schwurack, Martin Kunath, and Peter Schmiedgen POSTER: Education for Sustainable Development in the H2InnoCampus TUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Antje Goller, Frances Zedler, Antonio Hurtado, and Jana Markert Educational Virtual Environments Differentiated Approach When Studying “English for Special Purpose” Online in Technological University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Ekaterina Tsareva, Elena Yurievna Semushina, and Roza Bogoudinova ADVANCED EDU-AR-VIZ: a Framework for Selecting Appropriate Visual Augmentations in STEM Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Isabel Lesjak, Christian Guetl, Johanna Pirker, and David Lowe Virtual Environment Smart House for Hybrid Laboratory GOLDi . . . . 250 Yevhenii Yaremchenko, Johannes Nau, Detlef Streitferdt, Karsten Henke, and Anzhelika Parkhomenko Code-Switching in EFL Virtual Lessons: Ambato Case Study . . . . . . . . 258 Josué Arévalo-Peralta, Ruth Infante-Paredes, Cristina Páez-Quinde, and Wilma Suárez-Mosquera Technological University Faculty ICT Barriers During the Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Gulnara F. Khasanova, Farida T. Shageeva, and Natalia V. Kraysman Network Simulator Software Utilization as a Teaching Method for Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Dimitrios Magetos, Ioannis Sarlis, Dimitrios Kotsifakos, and Christos Douligeris Legal Aspects of Using Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education . . . . 286 Timofej G. Makarov, Kamil M. Arslanov, Elena V. Kobchikova, Elena G. Opyhtina, and Svetlana V. Barabanova

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Communicative Competence in Virtual Environments Code-Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Carlos Mayorga-Gaona, Ruth Infante-Paredes, Mayorie Chimbo-Cáceres, and Wilma Suárez-Mosquera Online Stories from the Moth to Improve the Speaking Skill: Ambato Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Yadira Gallardo-Niacato, Ruth Infante-Paredes, Wilma Suárez-Mosquera, and Mayorie Chimbo-Cáceres Internationalization of Teacher Education During COVID-19 . . . . . . . . 311 Aleksandra Lazareva, Irina Ivashenko Amdal, Kjerstin Breistein Danielsen, and Eli-Marie Danbolt Drange Learning Analytics of the Results of Faculty Further Education . . . . . . 322 Gulnara F. Khasanova and Alsu I. Samsutdinova Digital Tools for Competitive Engineering Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Marina Zhuravleva, Galina Klimentova, Roza Tagasheva, Elvira Valeeva, and Olga Y. Khatsrinova Problems and Prospects of Using Remote Educational Technologies in the Context of Engineers’ Digital Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Irina Makarova, Larisa Fatikhova, Polina Buyvol, and Gleb Parsin Development of a Virtual Reality Laboratory to Increase Student Motivation in the Era of Digital Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Irina Makarova, Gleb Parsin, Aleksey Boyko, Polina Buyvol, and Anton Pashkevich Conceptual Maps Applied to Remote/Virtual Laboratories for Active Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Silviano Rafael and Júlia Justino Learning to be Together Again! – Using Virtual Breakout Rooms to Fill the Communication and Cognitive Gap in Online Classrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Charilaos Tsihouridis, Marianthi Batsila, Anastasios Tsihouridis, and Dennis Vavougios Cross-Border Projects in Digital Education Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Carsten Wolff, Galyna Tabunshchyk, Peter Arras, Jose Ramon Otegi, Sergey Bushuyev, Olena Verenych, Anatoly Sachenko, Christian Reimann, Bassam Hussein, Elena Vitkauskaite, Ekaterina Mikhaylova, Areej Aldaghamin, Anna Badasian, Olha Mikhieieva, Nargiza Mikhridinova, Natalya Myronova, Jasmin Hemmer, and Thorsten Ruben

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Suddenly Online: Active Learning Implementation Strategies During Remote Teaching of a Software Engineering Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Simona Vasilache E-Teaching in Higher Education: An Analysis of Teachers’ Challenges Facing E-Learning in Mozambique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Domingos Rhongo and Bonifácio da Piedade Evaluation and Outcomes Assessment COVID-19’s Impact on the Quality of Educational Process and the Academic Performance as Viewed by IT Students: A Case Study in Text Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Olga Dunajeva, Avar Pentel, and Natalja Maksimova Students’ Readiness to Distance Learning: Results of Research in the Institutions of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Olga Banit, Alla Shtepura, Marina Rostoka, Gennadii Cherevychnyi, and Oleksandr Dyma International Collaborative Research Center Criteria Assessment . . . . . 435 Sukanjana Lekapat, Panarit Sethakul, and Matheepot Phattanasak Smooth Transition from Text-Based Exams to Multiple-choice . . . . . . . 448 Gerhard Jahn A Community-Approach to Item Calibration for Testing Math-Skills in Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 Nilay Aral and Stefan Oppl Assessment of Digital Skills in the Context of Social Media . . . . . . . . . . 467 Xhelal Jashari, Bekim Fetaji, and Christian Guetl Real-Time Summative Assessment - A Case Study of Computer Science Course in Engineering Education for Agronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Saloua Bensiali Problem-Based Learning Contribution to Master’s Studies in Logistics and Supply Chain Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Jelizaveta Janno and Kati Kõrbe Kaare Work-in-Progress: Evaluation in Hungarian Education: Evaluation Knowledge and Reflections on Engineering and Technical Teacher Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 Ibolya Tomory Work-in-Progress: Multi-stage Students’ Self-control Realization at Minimum Teachers’ Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 Vladlen Shapo and Valeriy Volovshchykov

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New Learning Models and Applications Outline of Possible Synchronous Solutions and Experiences in Order to Supply Large Groups of Students with Learning Content in Classroom and Mixed Classroom/Distance Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 Herwig Rehatschek Augmented Reality in Engineering Education in Austrian Higher Vocational Education from the Students’ Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Reinhard Bernsteiner, Andreas Probst, Wolfgang Pachatz, Christian Ploder, and Thomas Dilger Human Factors in Human-Centred Systems - On the Influence of Language on the Usability of a Cognitive Aid in Rescue Services . . . 546 Marcel Köhler Re-imagining Blended Learning. An Experience-Led Approach to Accelerate Student Future Skills Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Jamie A. Kelly and Victor McNair Development of Computer Skills to Draw in the LibreCad from Virtual Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Josue Segura The New Meaning of Hybrid Learning During the Pandemic . . . . . . . . 577 Olga Nikolaevna Imas, Olga Vladimirovna Yanuschik, I. G. Ustinova, S. V. Rozhkova, and Evgeniia Aleksandrovna Beliauskene Modern Trends in Soft Skills Development for «International Transport Policy» Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 Tatiana Polyakova and Irina Zueva Development of an Open Digital Platform “Digital PsyTech” for Psychological and Pedagogical Support of Participants in the Educational Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 Nadezhda I. Almazova, Anastasiia Tabolina, Anna V. Rubtsova, Natalia B. Smolskaia, Dmitrii V. Tikhonov, Marina V. Bolsunovskaya, Tatiana Abashkina, and Nikolay I. Snegirev Evaluation of User Experiences in an Immersive Role Play for Cross-Institutional and Cross-National Virtual Collaborative Learning in Hospitality Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602 Maik Arnold, Stefan Jung, Helge Fischer, Stéphanie Philippe, Valerie Radelet, Pierre-Charles Chevallier, Andreas Efstathiou, Nikolaos Boukas, and Christakis Sourouklis Educational Innovations in Financial Management Degree Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 Petr Osipov, Elena Girfanova, and Julia Ziyatdinova

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New Dimensions in Online Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages: Proximity at a Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 Neelakshi Chandrasena Premawardhena Remote Supervision: A Boost for Graduate Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 Neelakshi Chandrasena Premawardhena Interdisciplinary Approach to Teaching Petrochemical Engineers . . . . . 645 Marina Zhuravleva, Natalia Bashkirtseva, Elvira Valeeva, Olga Zinnurova, and Julia Ovchinnikova Transitioning the Teaching/Learning Process to Online Environment During the COVID-19 Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 Paula Miranda, Silviano Rafael, and Júlia Justino Communicative Competencies Assessment of Teachers at Engineering University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661 Ekaterina Tsareva, Roza Bogoudinova, and Elena Yurievna Semushina Exploring the Correlations Between the Dimensions of Computational Thinking and Problem-Solving Concepts Through Students’ Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 Foteini Papadopoulou, Charilaos Tsihouridis, and Marianthi Batsila A Proposed Model for the Academia-Industry Collaboration: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 Hiranmoy Samanta, Pradip Kumar Talapatra, and Kamal Golui Component Organised Learning Method for Digital Supply Chain Hybrid Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 Lea Murumaa, Eduard Shevtshenko, and Tatjana Karaulova Activity-Based Methods in Training Foreign Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 Alla A. Kaybiyaynen, Svetlana E. Matveeva, Rozalina V. Shagieva, Liudmila Dulalaeva, and Tatiana N. Nikitina Using Digital Technologies to Implement Advanced Professional Education Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 Svetlana V. Barabanova, Mansur Galikhanov, Alla A. Kaybiyaynen, and Darya-Anna A. Kaybiyaynen Engaging Students with Gamified Learning Apps: The Role of Teacher Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 Sherine Akkara, Shalini Vohra, Sasi Sekhar Mallampalli, Mallikarjuna Sastry Mallampalli, and PSVSD Nagendrarao Gokarakonda Social Media in Education: A Case Study Regarding Higher Education Students’ Viewpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735 Georgios Lampropoulos, Pekka Makkonen, and Kerstin Siakas

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Work-in-Progress: Piloting Smart Blockchain Badges for Lifelong Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 Alexander Mikroyannidis Intelligent Systems in Translation to Assist in Engineers’ Training . . . . 754 Egor Petrov, Jamila Mustafina, Ahmed Aljaaf, Askar Khayrullin, and Magizov Rustem Building Students’ Transferable Skills Through Classroom Activities and Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766 Jianhua Yang and Mir Seyedebrahimi Laboratory Didactics 5.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 Gudrun Kammasch, Hans-Georg Bruchmüller, and Silke Frye Professional Self-identification of Student’s Majoring in Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787 Ramilya Farakshina, Liliya Slavina, Jamila Mustafina, Nailya Nurutdinova, Askar Khayrullin, Ahmed Al-Jaaf, and Mohammed Alloghani Digitalization of Engineering Education in Training for Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 Irina Makarova, Jamila Mustafina, Polina Buyvol, Eduard Mukhametdinov, and Vadim Mavrin Games in Engineering Education Analysis of Possibilities of Using Game Statistics of the Cloud Quest in Assessment of Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813 Inna Yudina, Pavel Kozlovskii, Natalia Pavlikova, Ksenia Kochkina, and Pavel Sataev Improving Soft Skills and Motivation with Gamification in Engineering Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 Judit Módné Takács, Monika Pogátsnik, and Tamás Kersánszki The Model of Digital Lifelong Education System in the Era of Grand Challenges: The Case of Multidisciplinary University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 Anna V. Rubtsova, Tabolina V. Anastasiia, Dmitrii V. Tikhonov, Nikolay I. Snegirev, Marina V. Bolsunovskaya, Nadezhda I. Almazova, Veronika Rakova, Natalia B. Smolskaia, and Nora G. Kats Vector Model of the Youth Professional Self-Determination in the Context of Multidisciplinary University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 Tabolina V. Anastasiia, Dmitrii V. Tikhonov, Anna V. Rubtsova, Nikolay I. Snegirev, Marina V. Bolsunovskaya, Nadezhda I. Almazova, Yudina Inna, Natalia B. Smolskaia, and Nora G. Kats

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An Evaluation of Serious Games for Engineering Education . . . . . . . . . 852 Susann Zeiner-Fink, Annika Feldhoff, and Angelika C. Bullinger Using a Math Card Game in Several Ways for Teaching the Concept of Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865 Szilvia Szilágyi and Attila Körei Understanding Student Motivation to Engage in the Contents Under Pressure Digital Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878 Jeffrey Stransky, Landon Bassett, Cheryl A. Bodnar, Daniel Anastasio, Daniel Burkey, and Matthew Cooper Design and Development of a Collaborative Serious Game to Promote Professional Knowledge Acquisition of Prospective Teachers . . . . . . . . . 890 Charlotte Knorr and Bernd Zinn Assessing and Enhancing Student On-Line Engagement Gender Differences of Egyptian Undergraduate Students’ Achievements in Online Collaborative Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 Wesam Khairy Morsi and Hala Medhat Assem Towards the Development of a Mobile Healthcare App for Diagnosis of RNA Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917 Hosam F. El-Sofany and Samir Abou El-Seoud A Haptic Handwriting Device in MOALEM Platform for Arabic Vocabulary Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928 Somaya Al-Maadeed, Batoul Khalifa, Moutaz Saleh, Samir Abou El-Seoud, and Jihad AlJa’am Examining Accesses to Educational Resources in a Blended Learning Flipped Classroom Controls Course in 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939 Ana M. B. Pavani Designing Mobile App “Digital Professional Navigation” (DPN) for Self-determination of Schoolchildren and University Students on the Basis of a Multidisciplinary University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951 Dmitrii V. Tikhonov, Nikolay I. Snegirev, Anna V. Rubtsova, Tabolina V. Anastasiia, Natalia B. Smolskaia, Nadezhda I. Almazova, Marina V. Bolsunovskaya, Cherkas Alina, and Svetlana E. Chesnokova Learning Community Detection and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960 Meriem Adraoui, Asmaâ Retbi, Mohammed Khalidi Idrissi, and Samir Bennani Quiz Feedback in Massive Open Online Courses from the Perspective of Learning Analytics: Role of First Quiz Attempts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972 Sandra Schön, Philipp Leitner, Martin Ebner, Sarah Edelsbrunner, and Katharina Hohla

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Digital Humanist: An Innovative Learning Approach for a New ICT Specialist in the Field of Creative Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984 Aleksandra Cicha, Francesco Colace, Vicky Katsoni, Tatyana Koukoleva, Maciej Pietrzykowski, Theologos Prokopiou, Virginia Rosania, Alfonso Santaniello, Domenico Santaniello, Borislava Stoimenova, Ivan Stoychev, and Daniel Tejerina A Socio-educational App for Digitally Transforming Online Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998 Dina Ahmed Zekry and Gerard Thomas McKee Encouraging Student Engagement Through Storytelling . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009 Toka Hassan and Gerard Thomas McKee Teaching Multivariable Calculus in the Emergency Remote Learning in Brazil Amidst COVID-19 Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Cassia Isac, Ana Luiza Lima de Souza, and Aruquia Peixoto Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031

Collaborative Learning

Adapting Materials for Diverse Contexts to Help Faculty Adopt Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) Clif Kussmaul(&) Green Mango Associates, LLC, Bethlehem, PA, USA [email protected]

Abstract. Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) is an approach to teaching and learning in which students work in teams to practice important professional skills and develop their own understanding of key concepts. Numerous studies have found that POGIL increase student motivation and learning. POGIL and related approaches can be a significant change for many instructors, so The POGIL Project has developed numerous workshops to help faculty understand POGIL principles and practices, and learn to create activities and facilitate student learning. However, these workshops were developed by and for STEM faculty in the US. In the last decade, POGIL workshops increasingly target other disciplines, cultures, and countries. This has highlighted limitations and opportunities to improve the workshops. This paper briefly describes POGIL, the author’s experiences adapting POGIL workshops and materials for faculty in diverse contexts, and lessons learned that could help to adapt other materials. Keywords: POGIL
Professional development
Universal design
Workshop

1 Introduction Over the last 20 or more years, a variety of evidence-based approaches to teaching and learning have been developed, validated, and disseminated. This paper focuses on one such approach, Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL). To help faculty learn about and implement POGIL practices in their classes, the POGIL community regularly offers ½-day, 1-day, and multi-day workshops. However, the workshop sessions were developed by and for faculty in the United States. The author has led over 40 POGIL workshops in the US, over 20 in southern India [e.g., 1–4], as well as in Ghana, Switzerland, and Vietnam. This paper describes why and how workshops were adapted for such settings. The lessons learned should be relevant when adapting other learning materials to other contexts. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 briefly describes POGIL, a sample POGIL activity, and the POGIL workshops for faculty. Section 3 describes a set of recommendations based on the author’s experiences adapting workshop materials for diverse contexts. Section 4 provides conclusions and future directions.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 3–12, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_1

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2 Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning The ICAP model (Interactive, Constructive, Active, Passive) [5] describes how learning outcomes improve as the learning environment progresses from passive to active to constructive (learners create their own understanding) to interactive (learners work together and explain concepts to each other). Learning that is both interactive and constructive is also called social constructivism. In a POGIL class, teams of students (typically 3–5) work together to practice teamwork, critical thinking, and other important skills. The teams work on learning activities that guide them to interact and construct their own understanding of key concepts. The instructor observes and listens to students, provides encouragement and help, and leads class discussions about key ideas. Thus, POGIL is learner-centered, not teacher-centered [6, 7]. A POGIL activity consists of one or more models (e.g., tables, graphs, diagrams, computer code) each followed by a sequence of critical thinking questions that guide students through explore-invent-apply learning cycles to explore the model, invent their own understanding of a new concept, and then apply that understanding. POGIL was initially developed for chemistry [e.g., 8] but has since spread to many other STEM disciplines [e.g., 9–12]. Numerous research studies have found that POGIL improves student motivation and learning, despite faculty concerns about “covering” enough content. (For a recent summary of research on POGIL, see [13]). For example, a survey of POGIL faculty in computer science found strong agreement that students are more engaged, more active, develop deeper understanding, and develop relevant skills [14]. The POGIL Project (http://pogil.org) is a non-profit organization that develops and provides training; reviews, endorses, and publishes POGIL activities; and provides other support for POGIL practitioners. 2.1

Sample POGIL Activity: Models of Disease

This section briefly describes the initial sections of a POGIL style activity designed for an introductory programming course. The activity guides student teams to explore a sequence of models for how diseases spread through a population. In doing so, students learn about modeling, program design, and iterative development practices. Students also gain experience in teamwork, critical thinking, and problem solving. The activity starts with a brief introduction to motivate the activity, shown in Fig. 1. Too often, instructors introduce new concepts without context or motivation, but an appropriate example or sample problem can help to engage students. Section A presents two compartmental models, shown in Fig. 2. The early questions prompt students to explore these models, by noting how many stages and transitions are in each model, and whether a person can become sick more than once. Later questions prompt students to invent their own understanding, and explain the common name for each model (SIS and SIR). These questions are not intended to be difficult, but to ensure that students understand the models and are better prepared to work with more complex models later in the activity. Section B starts with a short block of pseudocode, shown in Fig. 3. Questions prompt students to explore the pseudocode to identify the key phases and sub-phases,

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Diseases that are infecous and spread easily can have large, deadly impacts. In the 1300s, the Black Death killed 75-200 million people (30-60% of the populaon) in Europe, Asia, and North Africa. The Cocoliztli Epidemic of 1545-48 killed 5-15 million people (80% of the populaon) in what is now Mexico. In 1918-20, the Spanish flu killed 75 million people worldwide, nearly four mes as many as World War I. More recently, HIV/AIDS has killed over 30 million people since 1960. This acvity explores ways to model and simulate the spread of a disease. The same concepts and techniques are used in other types of modeling. Fig. 1. Introduction to activity on disease models

Fig. 2. Compartmental models for section A of activity on disease models.

and understand how the simulation works. Students are then asked to choose which phases will be easiest and hardest, and to explain their reasoning; this would be obvious to an instructor or experienced developer, but is often not obvious to novices. Next, students are given several pages of starter code (in Python), and questions prompt students to look through the code to see how many functions are defined, which will need to be completed, which are tests, etc.

make population (one individual at a time) make individual run simulation (one day at a time) update population (one individual at a time) update individual check for new infections summarize results (for day) summarize results (for simulation) (e.g., graph, table) Fig. 3. Pseudocode for section B of activity on Disease Models.

Section C starts with a short block of Python code that defines a set of variables, shown in Fig. 4. Questions prompt students to explore the variables, identify elements, and connect them back to the compartmental models, pseudocode, and starter code. Later questions prompt students to create new sets of variables to represent other diseases and conditions.

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# individuals and population indA indB pop

= { "stage":"healthy", "days":0 = { "stage":"sick", "days":5 = [ { "stage":"healthy", "days":0 { "stage":"sick", "days":2 { "stage":"healthy", "days":0 # daily summary and history day1 = { "healthy":1, "sick":1 } hist = [ { "healthy":1, "sick":1 }, { "healthy":1, "sick":1 }, { "healthy":2, "sick":0 } ]

} } }, }, } ]

Fig. 4. Simulation data values for section C of activity on disease models.

Thus, in the course of this classroom activity, students explore and invent understanding of graphical models, pseudocode, starter code, data representations, and good development practices, and how these different elements are interrelated. To some instructors, this approach seems time-consuming and inefficient, but an activity like this can help students to develop deeper understanding so that they are more confident and successful with the programming assignment, and with future assignments. 2.2

Faculty Professional Development

Unfortunately, not enough instructors adopt evidence-based approaches [15], despite varied propagation efforts [e.g., 16, 17]. To help instructors learn about POGIL principles and practices, The POGIL Project has developed a set of professional development workshop sessions for instructors, trains experienced POGIL instructors to lead these sessions, and offers ½-day, 1-day, and multi-day workshops at professional conferences and academic institutions. Table 1 lists sessions in a typical 3-day workshop. To a large extent, the sessions use POGIL practices to help instructors learn about POGIL; for example, instructors work through a short POGIL activity (as students), and then work through a second meta-activity to reflect on what they did, what the instructor did, and how the activity’s structure supported their learning.

Table 1. Workshop Sessions developed by The POGIL Project Introductory • Fundamentals of POGIL Classroom Facilitation • Team Formation • Modeling a POGIL Classroom • Improving Facilitation Skills • Scenarios & Effective Strategies • Introducing Process Skills • Using & Assessing Process Skills • Facilitator Toolbox

Activity Authoring • Activity Structure • Learning Objectives & Scaffolding • Robust Models • Activity Rubrics for Feedback • Author Coaching Other • POGIL Laboratories (6 sessions) • Inclusive Excellence • Scholarship of Teaching & Learning

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3 Adapting Materials in Diverse Contexts The workshop sessions described above were mostly developed by and used with college and high school instructors who teach STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) in the US. The POGIL Project solicits feedback from workshop participants and leaders, which is used to identify and fix problems, and consider ways to continually improve the workshops. However, the workshop sessions are increasingly used in more diverse contexts. For example, the author has led workshops in India, Ghana, Switzerland, and Vietnam, and other POGIL practitioners have led workshops in China, Japan, South Africa, and South Korea. These workshops present a variety of challenges. For example: • Participants might have different levels of English language proficiency, especially when materials and conversations involve abstract concepts in education and other academic disciplines. • Some activities and examples assume that participants are familiar with US customs, geography, currency, and society, and thus might be confusing in other contexts. For example, in India, 100,000 is written 1,00,000 (one lakh) and 10,000,000 (ten million) is written 1,00,00,000 (one crore). The author has led workshops with over 50 participants, none of whom could describe or draw a “Star of David”. • In the US, The POGIL Project typically gives every participant printed copies of the handouts, notes, and other materials for a workshop. Outside the US, sending materials might be too expensive, or they might never arrive (as happened to the author in Ghana). Preparing materials locally can be complicated and can result in errors. Based on experiences adapting workshop sessions for other contexts, we offer a set of recommendations, divided into several broad categories. The term “learners” refers to participants in a workshop, but also applies to students in a course. Thus, these recommendations are also relevant to adapting classroom materials. Note that many of these recommendations are examples of universal design [18, 19]; efforts to remove barriers and expand access for specific populations often have similar benefits for broader populations. 3.1

Strategic Recommendations

These higher-level recommendations should guide everything else. Focus on How to Help Learners Interact and Construct Understanding. As outlined above, the ICAP Model [5] describes how learning outcomes improve as contexts become more active, constructive, and interactive. Similarly, POGIL provides a framework to make this happen. There is always pressure to “cover” as much content as possible, but it is more important to focus on the impact on the learner. An instructor who “covers” content that learners don’t understand or remember is wasting time; learners who truly understand key concepts and master skills are empowered to learn more on their own. For example:

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• Meet with some learners before the workshop, or observe some class sessions, to better understand the range of common practices. • Although workshop sessions might have minute-by-minute schedules, be ready to adjust based on learner behavior and needs, to allow more time for key topics, and omit topics as necessary, rather than pushing too hard to follow a schedule that doesn’t work for the learners. Use Tight Feedback Loops to Quickly Identify and Respond to Problems. Tom Peters, the business writer and speaker, is quoted as saying “Test fast, fail fast, adjust fast” – the sooner we try something and find out whether it works or not, the sooner we can do something about it. A sequence of small successes is better than a large effort that fails. An instructor who lectures without any student feedback doesn’t know what they are learning and when they are confused. For example: • Split long sessions into shorter pieces that alternate with quick feedback activities. • Check the learners’ answers and confidence frequently – every few minutes, ideally. Phone apps and clicker devices can help, but colored cards or a show of hands can be quite effective too. • Use “think-pair-share” questions, where learners think about their own answer, then chat with a partner, and then a few pairs share their answers with the whole group. Encourage Small Steps to Build Confidence. New approaches to teaching and learning can intimidate students and instructors. Find ways to help people see benefits, even small ones, as quickly as possible. Follow new ideas or techniques with short opportunities to apply them. For example: • Decompose complex ideas into simpler ideas and check that learners understand each part. POGIL activities use learning cycles (described above); the author often finds that more, shorter cycles increase student confidence and persistence. • POGIL is a set of practices that work well together, but also work well individually, so the author explicitly lists the practices and suggests a few to try first. Instructors who have good experiences with a few practices are likely to try more, while instructors who take on too much and have problems might give up in frustration. • Writing a POGIL style activity can be slow and difficult, so the author developed a workshop session to help instructors quickly write a mini-activity they could pilot in their own classes. Allow More Time in Unfamiliar Settings. Sessions and activities that work well in one context will likely work less well and take more time in other contexts. Differences in culture and language can introduce misunderstandings and confusion that take time to resolve. For example: • Schedule 120 min for a session that would normally take 90 min, and run at most three sessions a day, not four or five. • Consider options if the workshop starts late due to travel delays, technical issues, or unexpected changes. On multiple occasions, the author has arrived late for workshop, had to meet first with an academic leader, reached the workshop location after

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participants were assembled, participated in an opening ceremony, and then had to connect to a projector and organize printed materials, before starting the first session, nearly an hour later than scheduled. 3.2

Tactical Recommendations for Materials and Presentation

These lower-level recommendations focus on materials, including slides, handouts, and worksheets, and how they are organized and presented. When the instructor and/or materials use a language that is not a preferred language for some or all learners, those learners face additional challenges and need extra support. For example, learners in Europe and India are usually proficient in English but are often more proficient in a language native to their own state or country. Simplify Language, Structures, and Examples. Blaise Pascal, Benjamin Franklin, Mark Twain, and others have been quoted as apologizing for a long letter because they didn’t have time to make it shorter. A first draft often seeks to capture an idea, not to express it clearly; later drafts (and mature workshop sessions) should seek to simplify and clarify. For example: • Use active voice, not passive voice; e.g., “solve problems” instead of “problems should be solved”. • Use verbs, not related nouns; e.g., “explore” instead of “exploring” (a gerund) or “exploration” (a nominalization). • Use parallel structures to emphasize similarities and reduce the amount of effort needed for a set of related ideas. • Find a website or program that computes readability scores [e.g., 20, 21] and revise the text to improve the score. This often results in shorter sentences and fewer long or unfamiliar words. • If possible, translate some materials into a language more familiar to learners, enlist assistants who can converse in their language(s), or provide materials in advance so learners can skim and lookup unfamiliar words. (This can also help learners with vision or reading impairments.) The author rewrote an overview of POGIL. The original text was: POGIL is an acronym for Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning. It is a student-centered instructional approach that simultaneously develops discipline content mastery and key process skills such as critical thinking, self-assessment and teamwork — skills that are valuable in the workforce. A POGIL classroom consists of students working in small self-managed teams on specially designed guided inquiry materials. These materials supply students with data or information to interpret followed by guiding questions designed to lead them toward concept development – essentially a recapitulation of the scientific process. The instructor serves as facilitator, observing and addressing individual and classroomwide needs.

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The rewritten text was: POGIL is an approach to teaching and learning that focuses on students. POGIL helps students to learn both content and key skills such as critical thinking, communication, and teamwork. In a POGIL classroom or lab, students work in small teams on guided inquiry activities. These activities include data or information with questions that lead students to form valid conclusions. These are often called Critical Thinking Questions (CTQ). Thus, a POGIL activity parallels the scientific method. The instructor is an active facilitator, who observes and assists students, teams, and the entire class. Choose Appropriate Examples. Identify assumptions or examples that might be less familiar in other contexts, and generalize them, or replace with more relevant examples. For example: • Different regions use “gas station”, “gasbar”, “petrol bunk”, and “service station” for the same facility. “Football” can refer to quite different sports. • Use discipline specific examples. POGIL was originally developed by and form chemistry faculty, so chemistry examples are common. The author has replaced some of them with computing activities in workshops for computing educators. However, note that unfamiliar examples can be valuable, particularly in faculty development workshops. Such examples help instructors to feel like students, and avoid discipline-specific concerns about level of detail, difficult, and the “right” way to teach a familiar topic. Present Information in Multiple Ways. Don’t assume that learners will understand and remember everything that is said once, or written on a slide or handout. For example: • Repeat or summarize spoken instructions on a slide or handout, to help learners who didn’t hear, understand, or remember. • Copy key elements of printed activities or handouts on slides, to more clearly indicate what learners should be doing. This is also helpful when printed materials are not available or incomplete. Split Materials into Smaller Pieces. Software developers often rewrite (“refactor”) source code, to make it easier to read, modify, and reuse. This often involves splitting long blocks of code into smaller pieces that can be connected in a variety of ways. The same approach is useful for learning activities. For example: • Split learning materials into smaller pieces that can be combined in different ways. This makes easier to adjust when sessions and activities take more (or less) time, learners have less (or more) experience with a topic, or a session has different goals. However, note that using multiple formats and smaller pieces can cause everyone to keep track of more materials. This can be difficult, especially in virtual workshops (when learners have a single small screen). Some POGIL workshops provide printed materials in a folder, and one learner in each team is in charge of the folder. Virtual workshops often provide a single Google Doc or slide deck with links to all other materials.

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Encourage Learners to Interact and Construct Understanding in Their Preferred Language(s). Learning will be more efficient and effective when learners do not have the added burden of translating thoughts between languages. For example: • When the author taught in south India, different teams chose to interact in English, Hindi, and Malayalam.

4 Conclusions and Future Directions This paper has briefly described Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL), and described recommendations for adapting materials to diverse contexts, based on the author’s experiences teaching and leading faculty development workshops in a wide range of settings. Given any new teaching practices or materials, instructors will need to adapt these practices and materials to their own culture, discipline, institution, classroom setting, and personality. Adapting materials for faculty development workshops should improve learning outcomes for the participants, and also provides them with examples of how to develop materials of their own that will be easier for others to adopt and adapt. Authors of learning materials (for faculty development or for students) should continually work to make the materials more effective and more adaptable. It would be helpful to have more research studies showing the impact of such changes. It would also be helpful to have better ways to help authors assess and improve their own materials.

References 1. Butler, K., Cherukuri, J., Libby, R.D., Kussmaul, C.: POGIL in India: a collaboration between US & Indian educators. Presented at IUPAC International Conference on Chemistry Education (2014) 2. Kode, S., Cherukuri, J.: Creating a learner centric environment through POGIL: our experience in engineering and management education in India. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Technology for Education (T4E), pp. 72–75 (2014) 3. Kussmaul, C.: Invited tutorial: improving student outcomes through guided inquiry activities. Presented at the IEEE International Conference on Technology for Education (T4E) (2012) 4. Kussmaul, C.: Workshop: guiding students to construct understanding and develop process skills. Presented at the IEEE Int’l Conference on Technology for Education (T4E) (2016) 5. Chi, M.T.H., Wylie, R.: The ICAP framework: linking cognitive engagement to active learning outcomes. Educ. Psychol. 49(4), 219–243 (2014) 6. Moog, R.S., Spencer, J.N. (eds.): Process-Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL). American Chemical Society, Washington (2008) 7. Simonson, S.R. (ed.): POGIL: An Introduction to Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning for Those Who Wish to Empower Learners. Stylus Publishing, Sterling (2019)

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8. Farrell, J.J., Moog, R.S., Spencer, J.N.: A guided-inquiry general chemistry course. J. Chem. Educ. 76(4), 570–574 (1999) 9. Douglas, E.P., Chiu, C.: Implementation of process oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL) in engineering. Adv. Eng. Educ. 3(3), 1–15 (2013) 10. Lenz, L.: Active learning in a math for liberal arts classroom. Primus 25, 279–296 (2015) 11. Rutten, M.: A POGIL approach to teaching engineering hydrology. In American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting Abstracts, p. 0686 (2012) 12. Vanags, T., Pammer, K., Brinker, J.: Process-oriented guided-inquiry learning improves long-term retention of information. Adv. Physiol. Educ. 37, 233–241 (2013) 13. Lo, S.M., Mendez, J.I.: Learning – the evidence. In: Simonson, S. (ed.) POGIL: An Introduction to Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning for Those Who Wish to Empower Learners, pp. 85–110. Stylus Publishing, Sterling (2019) 14. Hu, H.H., Kussmaul, C., Knaeble, B., Mayfield, C., Yadav, A.: Results from a survey on faculty adoption of Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) in Computer Science. In: Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education (ITiCSE). ACM Press, New York (2016) 15. Henderson, C., Dancy, M., Niewiadomska-Bugaj, N.: Use of research-based instructional strategies in introductory physics: where do faculty leave the innovation-decision process? Phys. Rev. Spec. Top. Phys. Educ. Res. 8(2), 020104 (2012) 16. Henderson, C., Beach, A., Finkelstein, N.: Facilitating change in undergraduate STEM instructional practices: an analytical review of the literature. J. Res. Sci. Teach. 48(8), 952– 984 (2011) 17. Kezar, A.: What is the best way to achieve broader reach of improved practices in higher education? Innov. High. Educ. 36(4), 235–247 (2011) 18. Bowe, F.G.: Universal Design in Education: Teaching Nontraditional Students. Praeger, Westport (2000) 19. Preiser, W., Smith, K.H.: Universal Design Handbook, 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill Education, New York (2010) 20. Flesch, R.: A new readability yardstick. J. Appl. Psychol. 32, 221–233 (1948) 21. Kincaid, J.P., Fishburne, R.P., Rogers, R.L., Chissom, B.S.: Derivation of new readability formulas (Automated Readability Index, Fog Count, and Flesch Reading Ease Formula) for Navy enlisted personnel. CNTECHTRA Research Branch Report 8–75 (1975)

Characteristics of Team Dynamics Influencing Success in Engineering Student Teams Anna Maliashova1, Dilbar Sultanova1, and Phillip A. Sanger2(&) 1

Kazan National Research Technological University, Kazan, Tatarstan, Russian Federation 2 Purdue Polytechnic Institute, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA [email protected]

Abstract. Introducing team projects into the engineering curriculum and teaching good teaming skills is one of the challenges for today’s engineering instructors. One of the challenging tasks is to form project team that can be successful. The question becomes: what information can be used to avoid bad teams. This article uses the experience of introducing real-world projects into the curriculum of the Department of Innovation in Chemical Technology of Kazan National Research Technological University to explore two key questions that might influence team success: 1) whether culture is a large factor in determining team success and 2) whether the diversity of styles of managing conflict influences success. In Kazan, there are two distinct cultures: Tatar which is predominantly Muslim and European Russian which is predominantly Orthodox. This situation offers an excellent opportunity to study these questions. Student teams were formed around projects according to their area of interest. During the project students were given three surveys from www.itpmetrics.com: on their personality and on their individual style of conflict management and a final survey on assessing the health and performance of the team. The approach in this article to analyze the results of these surveys to explore what factors had the most influence. All the students regardless of sex or culture showed a very high degree of integrative decision making. However, there are distinct differences in conflict management styles between the men and women of Tatar and Russian cultures. Having a high integrative style in the team leaders correlated to high team satisfaction. Surprisingly, the lack of contribution equity or the presence of personal conflict in the team had no to minimal influence on success. Keywords: Conflict management diversity
Competency building


Project team dynamics
Cultural

1 Introduction It is clear that creativity, teamwork, leadership, problem solving, inter-disciplinary integration, and project management have become essential skills if engineering and technology students are to remain in high-demand and be globally competitive. These competencies go far beyond the technical knowledge on which many programs concentrate. Industry constantly complains that new graduates require several years of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 13–20, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_2

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practical training before they can be effective employees [7]. Curricula that only gives theorical knowledge does not prepare the student for the real world where working effectively in teams on complicated projects is the reality [11]. Success for many companies in this global environment depend on successful, high performance, multicultural and multi-disciplinary teams [12]. The challenge for the academic community is to train and develop new engineers with the interpersonal skills essential to success in this team environment [8]. Unfortunately, many educational programs in Russian universities are devoid of practical, applied based, team instruction. Research suggests that project- based-learning in teams tends to have a stronger long-term positive influence on the students building their useful competencies [9]. However, one of the challenges for engineering instructors is to form teams in way that avoids problems and produces the psychologically safe environment needed for successful project outcomes. This paper investigates whether the individual student’s style of handling decision making and/or conflict management can be used to select and form successful project teams of senior (final year) students. Perhaps even more important, the paper seeks to identify mixes in conflict management styles that may be toxic and therefore form the basis on which to avoid the formation of dis-functional teams. According to Google studies, five key factors are needed for effective project teams: dependability, structure and clarity, meaning for person, impact to the organization and psychological safety [1]. The last factor, psychological safety, is the characteristic that creates an environment in which a team member is safe to take risks and make judgement-free proposals and questions. The study in this paper postulates that the conflict management styles of the each of the members can have a strong influence of whether this safe environment is created, and the team achieves high performance. If a linkage between conflict management styles and team success can be established, student surveys on their style of conflict management could be used as a one of the key considerations in team formation.

2 Applied Projects for 3rd and 4th Year Students in Innovation in Chemical Technology Students from the third- and fourth-year program of Innovation in Chemical Technology at Kazan National Research Technological University in Kazan, Russia were organized into teams to work on projects for industry [2]. The full project, which took place in the 2019 academic year, was interrupted by COVID and is described in an earlier publication. Disciplines related to innovation management are mainly introduced in the 2nd year. Starting in the third-year, students study the disciplines of project management including the management of an innovative enterprise, strategic planning in innovative organizations, and the financial and economic analysis of the enterprise. This study involved 39 students in the last two years of the degree program. The demographics of these students are as follows: 25 female, 14 male, 15 Russian, 20 Tatar, 1 Uzbekistan, 1 Komi, 2 Chuvach. Additionally, the fourth-year students were formed into six teams according to their interest solving technical problems for a large mattress manufacturer in Kazan. [3] The

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demographics for the teams are shown in Table 1 including the leader of each team. The student that was the leader evolved within the team with no assistance from the instructors.

3 Surveys Used in the Research (www.itpmetrics.com) The website www.itpmetrics.com offers multiple surveys to assist in understanding team dynamics. These surveys were developed and validated by the Department of Psychology of the University of Calgary [4]. This suite of surveys includes five surveys investigating factors that impact successful team performance: individual personality, style of conflict management, style of leadership, a peer-to-peer contribution assessment, and a survey analyzing the health of the team in the CARE model described later in this paper. All of these surveys have been extensively validated over the past five years. The psychometric properties including reliabilities (internal consistency) for the CARE model are favorable and summarized in reference [20] and as well as the conflict management survey in [19]. Reliability analysis conducted by O’Neill et al. [17] on the five dimensions of teamwork competencies based on ratings of 30,466 ratees revealed an excellent Cronbach’s alpha of 0.92 which indicates reliability of these dimensions in measuring teamwork competencies. Note that use of these surveys is available without charge or fees and are readily available from the web. Previous studies by Tasse et al. [18] and Kuok Ho [16] have found a lack of significant association between personality traits and teamwork. Therefore, during this study, the conflict management style survey and the team CARE model were selected to analyze the performance and demographics of the teams. One of the postulates was that some styles or mixtures of styles of conflict management may not be conducive to a healthy team environment. 3.1

Conflict Management

The conflict management survey characterizes the individual’s approach to decisionmaking and resolving disagreements along five different styles as defined by Rahim and Bonoma [5]: dominating, avoiding, compromise, accommodating and integrating. These styles are aligned along two axes: concern for self as opposed to concern for others as shown in Fig. 1. Dominating: Persuading or forceful behavior in order to satisfy your own needs, at the expense of the other party. Avoiding: fails to satisfy the needs of either party, although avoids a volatile and escalating situation. Compromising: both parties give up something in order to come to a mutually acceptable decision. Accommodating: the individual puts the needs of other parties before his/ her own especially when the issue is not important to him/her.

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Integrating: This style is considered the highest style and is a “problem solving” style because the individual seeks to find a solution that fully satisfies both parties, the true win/ win scenario. These five styles were used to assess Fig. 1. The orientation of conflict management styles relative to the conflict manage- concern for others and self. (taken from www.it-pmetrics.com) ment style mix in the team and compare that mix with the project results. 3.2

Team Health- The CARE Model

This survey assesses the health of the team based on feedback from team members in in CARE model: Communications, Adapt, Relate, Educate. These categories contain thirteen sub-elements using 52 interrelated questions. Communications: Creating a cooperative environment with clear role clarity in the team, and the ability to develop a clear course of action for teamwork. Adapt: Coordinating efforts in response to changing task demands, monitoring team members’ progress, and provide mutually supportive backup. Relate: Reducing interpersonal conflicts and arguments regarding how to accomplish work focusing on building trust and providing a safe place for taking risks and sharing ideas. Educate: Learning from other team members, recognizing team member unique skills and positively capitalizing on them, and providing each other with constructive feedback. Students in the team respond to 52 questions supporting these 13 elements and the team is given an integrated score in each area. The survey items are randomized to minimize ordering bias when answering the items. The reader is encouraged to explore further description at www.itpmetrics.com and in the references [13, 14].

Characteristics of Team Dynamics Influencing Success

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4 Results and Analysis 4.1

Gender and Cultural Differences

All students in the two classes responded to the conflict management survey. In addition to the survey, the students provided cultural and gender information. One of the interesting aspects of this body of engineering students is the high number of women. In the U.S. less than 10% of the engineering students are female. In this study over 60% of the students were female. The results of the survey are shown in Table 2. While the sample size is small, the data suggests some differences in style between the four groups. The dominant style for all the students was integrating. As will be discussed in the team analysis, a high level of integrating styles will be beneficial in team dynamics. Culturally Russians seem to avoid less and dominate more (particularly the Russian men) than Tatars while Tatars (particularly the women) seem to be more prone to accommodate. The women as a group, but particularly the Tatar women, tend to favor compromise. 4.2

Table 1. Demographics of the fourthyear teams. Team 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 41 41 41 41 41 42 42 42 42 42 51 51 51 51 52 52 52 52

Culture Tatar Tatar Tatar Russian Russian Tatar Tatar Russian Tatar Russian Russian Tatar Tatar Russian Tatar Tatar Russian Tatar Tatar Russian Tatar Tatar Russian Russian Tatar Tatar Komi

Gender Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Male

Role leader

leader leader

leader leader

leader

Team Dynamics and Conflict Management Style

The fourth-year class participated in team projects. Even though the COVID pandemic prohibited completion of the projects, the students experienced five months of teamwork, gave preliminary project presentations, and completed the thirteen-element team health survey. The demographics for the teams are shown in Table 1 including the leader of each team. The leader evolved from within the team with no assistance from the instructors. Table 2. Cultural and gender differences in conflict management styles

Sample size Russian men Russian women

Integrate 7 8

Russian All

15

Tatar men

5

Tatar woman

15

Tatar All

20

4.00 0.63 3.89 0.39 3.94 0.50 3.74 0.57 3.80 0.56 3.79 0.55

Avoid Dominate Accommodate Compromise 2.48 3.51 2.93 3.46 0.96 0.45 0.47 0.47 2.98 2.95 3.10 3.59 0.61 0.92 0.44 0.40 2.74 3.21 3.02 3.53 0.80 0.77 0.44 0.42 3.03 3.04 3.23 3.20 0.62 0.67 0.25 0.48 3.13 3.04 3.40 3.60 0.68 0.63 0.41 0.67 3.11 3.04 3.36 3.50 0.65 0.62 0.38 0.64

Average Std Dev. Average Std Dev. Average Std Dev. Average Std Dev. Average Std Dev. Average Std Dev.

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The results of the survey are given in Table 3. The class in general was very strong in the five attitudes of successful teams as show in blue which are very consistent with the strong integrative styles of the group: cooperative conflict management, adapt (3), and constructive controversy. The weakest areas were healthy fact driven conflict and contribution equity. Table 3. Results for the team health survey Communicate

Relate

Team SaƟsfacƟon

Educate

Confidence in Ability to Succeed

ConstrucƟve Controversy

ExploitaƟve Learning

Relate

Exploratory Learning

LogisƟcal Alignment

4.67 3.83 4.83 4.33 4.50 4.75

Educate

ContribuƟon Equity

Trust

4.36 3.77 4.93 4.44 4.41 4.46

Lack of Personal Conflict

Adapt

4.25 3.94 4.94 4.42 4.63 4.75

Healthy, FactDriven Conflict

CoordinaƟon

Emphasizing Goal Progression

3.90 4.28

4.50 4.20 4.80 4.47 4.50 4.60

Team Monitoring and Backup

4.35 3.65 4.45 4.27 4.55 4.35

Communicate

Role Clarity

Class Average

3.90 3.05 4.15 3.93 4.40 3.90

CooperaƟve Conflict Management

Strategy FormulaƟon

Team Number 2 3 41 42 51 52

Adapt

4.25 3.63 4.47 4.22 4.48 4.28

4.63 3.88 4.94 4.50 4.25 4.44

4.20 3.50 4.90 4.40 4.35 4.20

3.83 3.17 3.58 3.78 4.25 2.92

4.20 4.10 4.50 2.67 3.50 4.90

4.08 3.17 3.67 2.67 3.25 4.50

4.50 3.83 4.25 2.67 3.75 4.67

4.20 3.57 4.15 3.36 3.88 4.27

4.00 3.45 4.20 4.33 4.35 4.15

3.90 3.80 3.95 4.07 4.35 4.25

4.28 4.03 4.81 4.46 4.41 4.50

4.06 3.76 4.32 4.29 4.37 4.30

4.38 3.19 3.56 4.25 3.50 4.63

4.20 3.00 4.85 4.40 4.45 4.35

4.52 4.23

4.47

4.29 4.49 4.42 4.50

3.60

3.96

3.55

3.93 3.90

4.09

4.04

4.43 4.19

3.93

4.24

The two columns in grey were separate questions in the survey which were used to establish a linkage between the skill and the outcome: confidence in the team’s ability to succeed and team satisfaction. Strong linear correlations were found between team satisfaction and these same strengths: all the “Adapt” skills (R2 = .92) of goal progression, coordination, and monitoring plus cooperative conflict management (R2 = .84), and constructive controversy (R2 = .79). The strength in trust was only moderately correlated to team satisfaction (R2 = .28). This is very positive from an instructional point of view since these are related to the basic project management skills taught in class. It was expected that a negative correlation would be found with both lack of personal conflict and contribution equity, but none existed even though the scores in these areas are the lowest in the survey. No correlation between team confidence in success and any of the 13 team health elements was found which was surprising. However, confidence in success may be more related in this case to the technical skills of the team rather than team operational skills. The topics for these projects required the students to stretch beyond their normal course work and this is known to make students nervous [6]. One of the expectations for this research was that conflict management styles impact how well a team works. To that end, the average team score for each style was commuted and compared to the team confidence for success. Only dominating with a mild positive influence (R2 = .36) and avoiding with a mild negative influence (R2 = .37) could be found. In addition, all the scores from all styles on the team were briefly analyzed to see if diversity of styles could be beneficial or detrimental. The standard deviation in the scores was found to have only a mild negative impact: confidence in success (R2 = .29) and team satisfaction (R2 = .33). Lastly, what was the impact of team leader styles on team satisfaction. A strong positive linear correlation (R2 = .82) with team satisfaction was found between the integrative style of the leader and a mild negative correlation (R2 = .37) with

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avoidance. This correlation of integrative style with team satisfaction and lower stress has also been noted in studies where random leader selection has been used as in this case [15]. No correlations were found between satisfaction and the other three styles in the leader. This study was faced with numerous limitations. The first obvious limitation is the quality of responses to the ITP metrics surveys. The surveys are in English and, while most of the students were reasonably proficient in English, there may be misunderstanding and cultural influences in their responses. The students were briefed and introduced to the surveys but the condition under which the surveys were taken were not controlled and there was no opportunity for questions and clarifications. Additionally, the sample size was limited and there is the potential of demographic influences. Finally, teams were not allowed to complete the projects due to the rise of COVID. This was the first time this approach to final year capstone projects were introduced and start up difficulties could also influence the results.

5 Conclusion Overall, the results suggest that conflict management styles of the team and its leader may impact team satisfaction and performance. The planning and coordination activities in a team are a strong influence on team satisfaction and these skills can be taught. More quantitative results are needed to gain confidence in using these surveys to form high performing teams. In the future, the availability of the surveys in Russian is being explored.

References 1. Schneider, M.: Google Spent 2 Years Studying 180 Teams. The Most Successful Ones Shared These 5 Traits (2017). https://www.inc.com/michael-schneider/google-thought-theyknew-how-to-create-the-perfect.html 2. Sultanova, D., Maliashova, A.: Development of the direction at the Kazan National Research Technological University. Innovation 12(254), 2–5 (2019) 3. Sultanova, D., Sanger, P.A., Maliashova, A.: Introducing real-world projects into a chemical technology curricula. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1328, pp. 362–370. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68198-2_33 4. O’Neill, T.A., McLarnon, M.J.W., Hoffart, G.C., Woodley, H.J.R., Allen, N.J.: The structure and function of team conflict state profiles. J. Manag. 44(2), 811–836 (2015). https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0149206315581662 5. Rahim, A., Bonoma, T.V.: Managing organizational conflict: a model for diagnosis and intervention. Psychol. Rep. 44(3), 1323–1344 (1979) 6. Sanger, P.: Integrating project management, product design with industry sponsored projects provides stimulating senior capstone experiences. Int. J. Eng. Pedagogy 1(2), 13 (2011) 7. Yarullin R.A.: Petrochemistry of Tatarstan Will Grow in Siberia, Time and Money, no. 2 (2012). https://www.e-vid.ru/index-m-192-p-63-article-39381.htm 8. Galloway, P.D.: The 21st-Century Engineer: A Proposal for Engineering Education Reform. ASCE, Reston (2008)

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9. Barron, B.: Doing with understanding: lessons from research on problem- and project-based learning. J. Learn. Sci. 7, 271–311 (1998) 10. A Regional Summit: Meeting Western North Carolina’s Needs Through Higher Education. Western Carolina University (2003). http://www.wcu.edu/chancellor/presentations/ regionalsummit_Feb2003.html. Accessed 21 Feb 2003 11. McVey, M.A., Luchies, C.W., Villicana, A.J.: Impact of high-performing teams on student learning. In: 2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Columbus, Ohio (2017). https:// doi.org/10.18260/1-2–28465 12. Heinricher, A.C., Quinn, P., Vaz, R.F., Rissmiller, K.J.: Long-term impacts of project-based learning in science and engineering. In: 2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Atlanta, Georgia (2013). https://doi.org/10.18260/1-2–1988 13. Allen, N.J., O’Neill, T.A.: Team composition and performance: considering the project team challenge. In: Kelloway, E.K., Hobbs, B., Chiocchio, F. (Eds.) The Psychology and Management of Project Teams: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, pp. 301–328. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2015) 14. Sheridan, P.: Student Development of Team-Effectiveness Behaviours in Engineering Teams. Doctoral Dissertation University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada (2018) 15. Haslam, S.A., McGarty, C., Brown, P.M., Eggins, R.A., Morrison, B.E., Reynolds, K.J.: Inspecting the emperor’s clothes: evidence that random selection of leaders can enhance group performance. Group Dyn. 2, 168–184 (1998) 16. Ho, K., Tang, D.: Personality traits, teamwork competencies and academic performance among first-year engineering students. High. Educ. Skills Work-Based Learn. 11(2), 367– 385 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1108/HESWBL-11-2019-0153 17. O’Neill, T., et al.: Introducing a scalable peer feedback system for learning teams. Assess. Eval. High. Educ. 44(6), 848–862 (2019) 18. Tasa, K., Sears, G.J., Schat, A.C.: Personality and teamwork behavior in context: the cross level moderating role of collective efficacy. J. Organ. Behav. 32(1), 65–85 (2011) 19. O’Neill, T.A., et al.: Constructive controversy and reflexivity training promotes effective conflict profiles and team functioning in student learning teams. Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 16(2), 257–276 (2017) 20. Rahim, M.A.: A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict. Acad. Manag. J. 26(2), 368–376 (1983)

Where Are we with Inclusive Digital Further Education? Accessibility Through Digitalization Meinhardt Branig, Christin Engel(B) , Jan Schmalfuß-Schwarz, Emma Franziska M¨ uller, and Gerhard Weber Technische Universit¨ at Dresden, Dresden, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. For eLearning there is a need for collaborative approaches that support inclusion for successful lifelong learning. Employees with disabilities may lose their ability to master new digital tools for their work due to a lack of accessibility in further education and even have difficulty participating in meetings. This paper provides an overview of digital approaches for collaboration among students with disabilities for successful communication, coordination, and control in learning settings. We first analyzed current tools and platforms that support teachers in providing accessible teaching materials and those that address learners with disabilities in regard to their accessibility. Afterward, we conducted an online survey to gather data on the current state of digital accessibility in further education. Finally, we developed an inclusive didactic model that covers computer-mediated collaborative work between participants with and without disabilities, taking assistive technology and human assistance into account. Keywords: Accessibility · Further education Inclusion · Digital learning · Design for all

1

· Collaboration ·

Introduction

Despite decades of experiences with eLearning there is a lack of collaborative approaches supporting inclusion for successful lifelong learning. If adult education is inaccessible, employees with a disability may lose their ability to master new digital tools for their job, fail to learn about changes in workflows, and even struggle to participate in meetings. For self-study, Wikis, Webinars, or MOOCs can be made accessible. Learners can utilize their assistive technologies such as screenreader, magnifiers, or voice control to digest the learning content, participate offline and provide feedback. If M. Branig, C. Engel, J. Schmalfuß-Schwarz and E. F. M¨ uller—Contributed equally to this research. c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 21–33, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_3

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teaching materials are accessible, they can do so without revealing their disability to their peers and trainers. But few trainers have the necessary competencies to present teaching material in workshops or classes without excluding some of the learners who rely on assistive technologies. One of the reasons for this may be that accessibility has not yet been included as part of digital competencies, especially for teachers, in Germany’s national digitization strategies (e.g. [6]). Overall, digital formats enable the inclusion of a larger group of people, especially due to the lower mobility requirements, the possibility to use their own familiar hardware, and the improved flexibility in terms of time. However, collaboration as one of the four core competencies that are highly important in the 21st century (4c model of learning [2]) must also be supported by digital learning methods to be able to solve the complex social problems of the future. This requires that learning environments be accessible and usable for all people with individual means and methods in different digital scenarios. This paper provides an overview of digital approaches for collaboration among learners and discusses requirements to realize interactive, collaborative, accessible learning scenarios. We first analyzed current tools for collaborative work in terms of their accessibility to identify current possibilities for inclusive collaborative work. Afterwards, we present the results of an online survey that point out current practice and challenges of teachers that arise in digital teaching scenarios and thus show the need for support. We summarize our findings by proposing an inclusive didactic model.

2

Related Work

Digital, collaborative learning scenarios include aspects of didactics, digital media design, and digital accessibility. In the field of didactic, numerous models and methods aim to support the planning and implementation of education from different points of view. In particular, the commonly known Didactic Triangle illustrates the relationship between students, teachers, and the learning content [9,11]. This model is rather unspecific, neglects environmental factors, and includes teaching methods and the use of digital media just indirectly. In contrast, the Hamburg Model [13] considers both media and environmental factors whereby the latter distinguishes between external condition factors and teaching decision factors. The teaching goals, the starting position of the individual, the mediation variables, such as methods and media, and the success control are mutually dependent [12]. Media are primarily used for communicating knowledge. Frohn et al. [7] present the Didactic Model for Inclusive Teaching and Learning (DiMiLL) which is based on the Hamburg Model and the theories of Klafki [10]. DiMiLL includes process features, structural elements, and specific contextual conditions that need to be taken into account in the planning and implementation of inclusive teaching. The processes features include participation, communication, cooperation, and reflection - basic principles for teaching in heterogeneous learning groups. Following the Hamburg model, structural elements

Accessible Digital Further Education

23

include topics and contents, methods and media, the initial situation, success control and influence the individual competence development. Summarizing, didactic models do not explicitly address challenges of digital teaching. Here, media are considered only as mediators of learning content. In digital scenarios, in particular, media are the primary means of communication between stakeholders. However, the principles of the learning models should also be applied in the development of digital, collaborative learning environments. Furthermore, students need to learn special competencies to master the demands of the digital world [8]. The 4C model (critical thinking, communication, collaboration, creativity) [2] therefore defines necessary skills learners should acquire in the 21st century. What is particularly missing from these models are the requirements for digital media in an inclusive classroom to be accessible and useful for all participants. In this context, assistive technologies used by some people with disabilities, such as assistive persons (e.g., sign language interpreters, assistants) or assistive technologies (e.g., screenreaders and screen magnifiers) must also be taken into account. Since digital media have an impact on learning content and communication between participants, there is a need to discuss which media are appropriate to teach different skills and types of content. Therefore, the survey “wbmonitor”, conducted by respected German institutions, investigated the use of digital media in further education in 2019 [5]. Accordingly, text (62%) is used most frequently, followed by video (24%) and audio (10%). 15% of the institutions were using digital learning platforms or learning management systems, e.g. moodle or ILIAS, in most or all of their courses to provide digital media and communication between teachers and students and students among each other. The study shows that digitalization in further education was already in progress in 2019 – 80% of providers use digital media and formats in a supplementary or supportive way in face-to-face teaching. Although face-to-face teaching dominated in 2019, pure online courses (18%) or hybrid courses (combinations of face-to-face and online phases, 36%) already existed, while the number of online courses increased as a result of the Corona pandemic [4]. According to this survey, 32% of ongoing face-to-face or hybrid events were converted to online-only formats which involves additional work for the teachers. Unfortunately, the surveys did not collect data about the accessibility of online or hybrid courses, tools and materials. While there are no general regulations for providing accessible teaching materials, general guidelines and laws exist for digital accessibility (e.g. the Barrier-free Information Technology Ordinance (BITV) [3], Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) [1]). In Germany, the BITV provide guidelines to enable an unrestricted, accessible design of modern information and communication technology. Digital information and services from public agencies need to be accessible and usable for people with disabilities. This includes all offers, services and applications by public agencies, e.g. Websites, mobile applications or online documents and media. Accordingly, all public institutions in Europe are obligated to make all digital offers, services and applications accessible (conformity level AA is required). In order to provide accessible media, for

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example, text alternatives for non-text content, sign language for audio content, captions for audio-only media, or audio description for videos, the WCAG 2.0 also describes international standards. Accessible interactions, especially in collaborative or interactive systems, are not addressed here because, for example, keyboard accessibility, is the primary focus in terms of interaction. Although keyboard accessibility, for example, is also addressed in terms of interaction, solutions for highly interactive, synchronous formats are lacking. Although there are a number of regulations, best-practices, and rules regarding the accessibility for various digital media, the implementation of the same is challenging for many teachers. In particular, the time-related components, which play an important role especially for the realization of accessible, synchronous methods, are still given little consideration. Nevertheless, the creation of accessible materials is an important step to ensure equal educational opportunities for all and a basis for the application of various didactic methods in the digital world. Teachers must not only be supported by the software in creating accessible, collaborative online courses, but the software must also be accessible.

3

Analysing the Accessibility of Tools for eLearning

In this section we analyzed 28 commonly used collaborative learning tools in regard of their accessibility. We further provide a brief overview of methods to create accessible learning materials. 3.1

Collaboration Tools for eLearning

Our analysis includes 28 collaboration eLearning tools categorized as conferencing tools (11), digital whiteboards (7), live polling tools (5) and collaborative document editors (5). Therefore we compared VPAT (Voluntary Product Accessibility Template) based accessibility conformance reports or similar documents, as well as statements provided by the producers of the tools. Conferencing Tools like Zoom or BigBlueButton play an important role in most synchronous online learning courses. They allow verbal and textual communication between participants and the presentation of lectures. Most conferencing tools enable the communication in smaller groups in breakout rooms. Some also include a digital whiteboard or a polling option to let the audience answer short questions. While Zoom, BigBlueButton, Google Meet, Cisco Webex, Microsoft Teams and Adobe Connect provide a detailed VPAT based accessibility conformance report and meet, according to the producers, at least the WCAG 2.0 AA criteria (with exceptions), other tools do not provide such statements. GoTo Meeting, Jitsi or Slack cannot be considered accessible due to serious accessibility issues, for instance barriers when using a screenreader. As they report, their developers are at least aware of the shortcomings and currently fixing them. The German institute for the blind “Blista”, developed a screenreader accessible version of Jitsi with improved accessibility for homeschooling

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during the Corona pandemic1 . We also included proximity chats in the analysis. Those allow the user to navigate a virtual world with an avatar and establish a video call depending on the avatars’ position relative to each other. Such systems are suitable to support more versatile, digital group work settings being more flexible than classic breakout sessions. However, the proximity tools wonder.me and gather.town, are not accessible for users with blindness. Instead, gather.town supports a function where blind people can follow a sighted person. However, independent interaction is not possible in an accessible way. Digital Whiteboards can be used for all sorts of collaborative tasks in class, like brainstorming, mind mapping or collecting information on specific topics. Some of the conferencing tools, such as Zoom and BigBlueButton have an integrated digital whiteboard for collaborative usage. Because whiteboards are often used in a rather visual way, providing accessibility for blind and partially sighted people is challenging. The integrated whiteboards from Zoom and BigBlueButton, which represent two of the seven whiteboards analyzed, do not currently support screenreaders or other assistive technologies. Conceptboard, Miro and Awwapp are also not accessible. While Mural and Microsoft Whiteboard both have WCAG compliance statements, they are not overall accessible for screenreader users. Most functions can be used via keyboard controls and also the whiteboard canvas can be explored with major limitations. The Microsoft Whiteboard provides the possibility to add alternative texts to every element, whether it is text, a picture or a freehand scribble. However, this has to be done manually by the user. Nevertheless, the versatility of tools available to sighted people is far from being covered for blind people. Blista replaced digital whiteboards with a modified Etherpad (“blistaPad”) for collaborative text editing that does not provide similar functionality. To enhance participation, live polling tools can be utilized to ask questions to students during class. Mentimeter, sli.do, AnswerGarden, Zoom and BigBlueButton support answering and voting for screenreader users, while only sli.do and BigBlueButton support exploring a summary of the results, too. Mentimeter is designed to show the visualized results in the teachers presentation, which is mostly done via screen sharing in online classes. Thus, students with blindness do not have independent access to the results and are disadvantaged compared to sighted students. Besides BlistaPad, we analyzed further collaborative editing tools for documents of various kinds. The office suites of Google, Apple and Microsoft allow collaborative editing of texts, spreadsheets and slideshow documents and support people with special needs. ONLYOFFICE, which is an open source alternative to the latter, does not offer support for assistive technologies. Our analysis is limited by our methodology and choice of selected tools. Since we have not evaluated the accessibility of the tools ourselves, the prerequisite for the correctness of the results is that the statements of the producers are valid. However, we could give a rough overview of common collaboration tools 1

https://www.blista.de/Homeschooling 4-Tipps-aus-der-blista (last visited: June 01, 2021).

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and features for accessibility. We could further show the need for more accessible tools in all of the addressed categories. While some producers already have an awareness of accessibility and provide good solutions, other producers do not even provide an accessibility statement. None of the tools seem to be fully accessible due to the numerous exceptions given. Visual concepts in particular (e.g. whiteboards) still have major barriers although they play a major role in online classes. Therefore, in particular users with blindness should better be supported. 3.2

Providing Accessible Material

In order to implement inclusive online courses the teaching materials and content that are collaboratively created in synchronous methods (e.g. providing the content of whiteboards as pdf file for later learning) must be accessible, too. For example, when presenting slides in video conferencing systems, both the conferencing system and the imported slides must be accessible. Appropriate tools to achieve digital accessibility essentially depend on the type of the media and format. For instance, WAI-ARIA tags can be used, to improve the accessibility of web content, while the Plugin WAVE checks the accessibility conformance of websites. Moreover, various applications make it possible to create accessible PDF files or to check them for accessibility such as PAC 3, axesPDF Quickfix or Adobe Acrobat Pro. Other formats such as video or audio excerpts can be made accessible for people with hearing impairments or deafness through captions or sign language interpreters. In this regard, there are already partially automated solutions [14].

4

Survey on Inclusive Digital Further Education

In the wake of the Corona crisis, face-to-face events could not take place at all or only partially in 2020 and 2021, even in the area of education. For this reason, many educational institutions switched to online or hybrid teaching, so that numerous new online formats were created in a short time. With this in mind, this study aims to find out who offers online or hybrid teaching, what challenges arise, what media and tools are used, and what role accessibility already plays. 4.1

Procedure

The study was designed as an anonymous online survey and addresses teachers, especially of further education courses. We invited interested participants via e-mail were we sent about 330 invitations to teachers and trainers as well as educational institutions in Germany with a focus on further education. The email addresses were publicly available on the internet. Approximately one week after the initial study invitation, a reminder e-mail was sent to participate in the study. Participants were recruited within a self-selecting process - everyone who received the link could participate anonymously in the survey. Participants were required to acknowledge a privacy statement prior to the start of the study and

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indicate that they had not previously participated in the study. The survey can be used in an accessible manner. The data is stored securely on servers at the university. Participants who have filled out the survey completely had the chance to win one of two vouchers of 25 Euro at the end. For this purpose, respondents were able to leave an e-mail address at the end of the study, which is stored separately from the survey data. The survey consists of three parts: (1) Demographic Data: 13 questions regarding age, gender, professional qualification and current activity in the field of education (2) Digital Media in Education: maximum 12 questions regarding moving to online teaching, media and tools used in teaching, and challenges in realizing online teaching (3) Accessibility in Education: Six questions regarding the implementation of accessibility in primarily digital learning scenarios At the end, participants could provide further comments relating to the whole study. 4.2

Participants

Overall 58 persons took part in the survey. Six data sets were excluded from the analysis because these persons did not hold any courses in the past year. The majority of participants is between 40 and 59 years old (63%). Male (24) and female (27) participants were about equally represented. Five participants stated to have one or multiple impairments. The disciplines that participants teach are very diverse (e.g., trades, engineering, social sciences, language education, artificial professions), with pedagogical or special education professions (21%) and commercial professions (29%) being the most common. The majority of the participants (85%) have more than five years of professional experience in their field. In average, each participants hold 7.6 courses in 2020. Participants offer courses from a variety of educational fields, with professional education and training (50%), subject-specific (40%) and general further education courses (27%) being primarily represented, whereby half of participants teach in more than one education field. About 59% of the respondents offer special courses for people with impairments. Here, special offers for people with mental (32%) and cognitive impairments (29%) or visual impairment (21%) are addressed in particular. Special courses for people with blindness (6%) or people with deafness (0%) were rarely or not addressed. 4.3

Results

In this paper, we present only parts of the results that have a strong relation to the content of the paper. Following this, we summarize the results with focus on the challenges in online teaching, usage of different media and tools as well as the accessibility of teaching materials. Digital and Online Teaching. Overall, the majority of respondents offered at least one course in an online or hybrid format in 2019 and 2020. Just five participants have only given face-to-face courses. 69% of respondents taught fewer

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face-to-face courses in 2020 than in 2019 because those courses were not allowed to take place due to the Corona crisis. Of those persons, 39% reported changing existing courses to online or hybrid format, 22% developed new online/hybrid courses, and 11% reported that face-to-face courses were cancelled due to Corona. All in all, most of all participants had to change their courses to online or hybrid formats. The change was associated with a higher workload for the majority of these individuals (60%), 28% saying that the workload is course dependent. Many teachers have reported that the switch to online courses required a redesign of the didactic concepts. Most respondents use texts (83%) and images (69%) frequently or very frequently in digital teaching, while audio is only used frequently by around 30%. In contrast, video (17%) or animations (12%) are rarely used frequently. With regard to the tools used, video conferencing systems (75%), e-mail (67%) and digital learning platforms (33%) are the most frequently used tools. Collaborative applications, such as digital whiteboards (17%) or collaborative text editors (15%) are rarely used frequently. In contrast, digital whiteboards integrated in conference systems (such as BigBlueButton) were used more often frequently by 29%. Furthermore, many respondents provide explanation about challenges that arises in regard of online teaching. In addition to technical difficulties, many people, especially those in the skilled trades, report that the content is difficult to convey online. The most frequently cited problem is getting and maintaining the attention of learners in online lessons. Nevertheless, about 77% would continue to integrate forms of digital teaching into face-to-face teaching or replace part of classroom teaching with online teaching in the future, when face-to-face teaching is fully possible again. Accessibility in Teaching. 77% of the respondents make adjustments to educational materials for accessibility issues. 46% of them digitize their materials, and the same number make adjustments to improve contrast. In addition, about a third convert accessible PDF files, while just as many produce large prints. 34% of those indicate in this regard that they always adapt their materials, while 23% make these adaptations only when people with impairments participate in the course. Most of all participants who do not make adaptions for accessibility stated to have no need for this. For 75%, challenges arise in the preparation of accessible materials (see Fig. 1 left). In contrast, there is also a lack of necessary tools (e.g. software, devices) or knowledge on how to use them, as well as knowledge on how to implement accessibility for different user groups. While 47% did not use or did not know if they used tools to support accessibility, accessible conference tools, accessibility checker for PDF-files and tools that generates automatic subtitles for videos were predominantly used (see Fig. 1 right). Almost all respondents (92%) also indicated a need for more support in the provision of accessible materials in the future. Most respondents would particularly like to see support through the providing of accessible templates (38%) and instructions on how to create them (38%), training opportunities (36%), information on accessible applications (28%), providing applications for creating accessible materials (26%) as well as the providing of accessible materials (26%) and a contact center for individual questions (26%).

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Overall, the study shows that many challenges have arisen in the move to online teaching, especially in the creation of accessible teaching content. It is clear that the potential of online teaching has not yet been fully explored and that static media and asynchronous methods are being used predominantly. Teachers also need extensive support in implementing digital, inclusive teaching, especially for interactive online formats. Just as in the wbmonitor study [5], our study shows that primarily textual materials are used in further education. At the same time, there are differences in the use of video and audio formats. Furthermore, there is an interest in the design of inclusive learning content and the associated applications that simplify it. At the same time, people with blindness or deafness are currently being considered less frequently.

Fig. 1. Challenges (left) and tools (right) to support accessibility

5

Towards an Inclusive Further Education

Our previous analysis and survey have shown that the switch to online formats within further education has been a major challenge. At the same time, digitalization offers opportunities for inclusive teaching. Moreover, the application landscape is broad, but tools that are explicitly developed for the needs of teachers and learners with and without disabilities and collaborative online learning scenarios are missing. In order to address this gap, we need to promote the awareness of teachers for inclusive digital teaching and have to show what kinds of assistance are used by learners with disabilities and how they work. Furthermore, there is a need to raise learners awareness and to instruct the coordination of inclusive groups. Another requirement to accomplish this is to design specific tools to overcome the given challenges. 5.1

Assistance for Learners with Disabilities

In order to implement inclusive further education, teachers have to know about the different needs of the students and how content can be made accessible for different teaching scenarios and didactic methods. For example, different types

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of media for presenting content like digital text, video or audio formats require different kinds of assistance to be accessible for students with impairments. Furthermore, the form of assistance (e.g. assistive technologies or human assistance) influence several levels between teachers, students and learning content and have to be selected by context. Therefore we need to instruct teachers how they can made their lessons accessible. The first step is to provide a overview about the different disabilities and what kind of assistance are used by people (see Table 1). The next step is to discuss the specific influence of different teaching scenarios and methods. Table 1. Exemplary overview of currently used digital learning materials (see Sect. 5.1) and possible assistance for people with impairments Digital media

Example format

Most freq. used

Assistive Technologies (AT), Human Assistance (HA) and aids for people with ... Blindness

Deafness

Low vision

Hearing imp.

Digital text material

PDF

83%

Screenreader, Braille display, image description (AT)

-

Screen magnifier, montrast (AT)

-

Videos

Videotutorials

17%

Audio description (HA)

Sign language interpreter (HA)

Contrast (AT)

Captions (AT)

Digital audio materials

Podcasts, audio files

30%

-

Audio transcription (AT)

-

Captions (AT)

5.2

Inclusive Didactic Model

Various digital media in further education, play a central role for conveying learning content and in supporting inclusive learning, but their relationship plays only a secondary role in didactic models. Contrary to this, it is essential, that teachers know about assistive technologies and human assistance for students with disabilities. This is a prerequisite for gainful digital inclusive teaching. For example, this knowledge can be used by teachers to plan tasks in such a way, that they can be completed synchronously by the students, although the processing is done differently. At the same time, the communication between students with and without disabilities represent a challenge within collaborative learning scenarios. These can also be countered with appropriate assistance which must be compatible with each other. The inclusive didactic model presented in Fig. 2 addresses these issues by taking media and assistance as a higher-level component into account that influence all three parts of the didactic triangle. It visualizes the influence of this topics on various levels. Additionally, it serves to sensitize teachers, as the ongoing digitalization of teaching increases the chance of inclusive education and thus the equal opportunities, too.

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Fig. 2. Didactic Model for Digital Inclusive Education

Influence on the Content Level. In addition to the goal of sensitizing people for inclusion, it is also important to teach how to use appropriate tools for implementing inclusive work. Furthermore, the 4C model takes the heterogeneity of inclusive working groups into account but only on a limited level. In a digitally connected world with its associated opportunities to network with people from different countries and to facilitate access for people with disabilities, working groups will become more and more diverse. The associated challenge lies in the organization of work equipment as well as applications for an efficient exchange of knowledge and in the scheduling of processes, where people with different needs generate knowledge together. This means, there is a 5th skill in the coordination of all the people inside a working group (including assistive technologies and human assistance) and of the required aids in the temporal context of the entire work process, which has to be taught. Influence on the Learning Level. At the same time, the various digital tools as well as human assistance influence methods for knowledge acquisition. For example, assistive technologies like screenreader or automatically generated captions, influence the way of collaboration in groups and thus the didactic methodology. Therefore, it is essential for teachers to adapt their methods based on the composition of the learning group. The various requirements of the students necessitate a differentiation of the used resources. Influence on the Relationship Level. Finally, the relationship level is influenced by the inclusion due to the associated assistance, too. For example, a human assistant results in a change in communication between teachers and learners. Moreover, the different digital assistance systems also require individually learning aids and various communication forms. 5.3

Development of Specific Applications for Inclusive Collaborative Teaching

To release the described challenge it is important to support teachers with applications for designing accessible materials. Moreover, it is important to inform about types of conference tools which are suitable for heterogeneous groups of

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students. At the same time, the previous solutions for digital collaboration represent a great variety, but mostly do not address the special context of inclusive education. For example, the creation of content within the lesson requires that it is directly accessible. In order to manage this, it is essential to develop a tool that takes different teaching scenarios into account and focus on the needs of teachers and learners with and without disabilities. This is the greatest challenge and can only be achieved through interdisciplinary research.

6

Conclusion

In this paper, we showed that the current digitalization process offers opportunities for inclusive further education as well as the labor market. In this regard, the individual needs of learners, especially those with disabilities, must be known in all facets and integrated into the developments from the beginning. For teachers to be able to create accessible courses, it is not only necessary to know about special needs, but also to be able to address them in digital learning environments. Not only teachers and learners have to be sensitized and supported in the implementation of digital inclusive courses, also the field of educational software development as well as concerning didactic methods, inclusive approaches have to become an established part. This is necessary to provide accessible learning materials on the one hand, but also accessible collaboration and communication on the other. Therefore, better collaborative eLearning tools, that support assistive technology as well as human assistance, are needed. This results in our Didactic Model for Digital Inclusive Education, which demonstrates how those aspects should be integrated as well as in the call to face the problem in interdisciplinary research groups.

References 1. Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0. web, December 2008. http:// www.w3.org/TR/WCAG20/ 2. Bernie, T., Charles, F.: 21st Century Skills. Learning for Life in Our Times. Jossey Bass, San Francisco (2009) 3. Bundesministerium der Justiz und f¨ ur Verbraucherschutz: Verordnung zur Schaffung barrierefreier Informationstechnik nach dem Behindertengleichstellungsgesetz (Barrierefreie-Informationstechnik-Verordnung - BITV 2.0) (2019) 4. Christ, J., Koscheck, S.: Auswirkungen der Corona-Pandemie auf Weiterbildungsanbieter - Vorl¨ aufige Ergebnisse der wbmonitor Umfrage 2020 (2021) 5. Christ, J., Koscheck, S., Martin, A., Ohly, H., Widany, S.: Digitalisierung – Ergebnisse der wbmonitor Umfrage 2019 (2020) 6. Die Bundesregierung: Digitalisierung Gestalten–Umsetzungsstrategie der Bun¨ desregierung. Aktualisierung M¨ arz 2019, 4. Uberarbeitete Auflage (2019). https:// www.bildung-forschung.digital/files/pdf-umsetzungsstrategie-digitalisierungdata.pdf. Accessed 2 June 2021 7. Frohn, J., Brodesser, E., Moser, V., Pech, D.: Inklusives Lehren und Lernen. Verlag Julius Klinkhardt, Allgemein- und fachdidaktische Grundlagen. Bad Heilbrunn (2019)

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8. Handajani, S., Pratiwi, H., et al.: The 21st century skills with model eliciting activities on linear program. In: Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 1008, p. 012059. IOP Publishing (2018) 9. Jank, W., Meyer, H.: Didaktische Modelle. Cornelsen-Scriptor (2002) 10. Klafki, W.: Neue Studien zur Bildungstheorie und Didaktik. Beltz (2007) 11. Reusser, K.: Empirisch fundierte Didaktik—didaktisch fundierte Unterrichtsforschung. In: Meyer, M.A., Prenzel, M., Hellekamps, S. (eds) Perspektiven der Didaktik. VS Verlag f¨ ur Sozialwissenschaften, pp. 219–237 (2009). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-531-91775-7 15 12. Schrader, J., et al.: Lehren und Lernen: in der Erwachsenen-und Weiterbildung, vol. 1. wbv (2019) 13. Schulz, W.: Unterrichtsplanung. 3., erw. Aufl., M¨ unchen (1981) 14. Stoll, S., Camgoz, N.C., Hadfield, S., Bowden, R.: Text2Sign: towards sign language production using neural machine translation and generative adversarial networks. Int. J. Comput. Vis. 128(4), 891–908 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11263-01901281-2

Critical Teaching-Learning Situations in Higher Education and Vocational Education – A Qualitative Analysis of the Use of Digital Approaches and Tools in Virtual Collaborative Learning Environment Dörte Görl-Rottstädt1(&), Maik Arnold1, Michael Heinrich-Zehm1, Marcel Köhler1, and Vera Hähnlein2 1

Faculty of Applied Social Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Dresden (FHD), Güntzstraße 1, 01069 Dresden, Germany [email protected] 2 Catholic University of Applied Sciences (KHSB), Köpenicker Allee 39, 10318 Berlin, Germany

Abstract. Due to internal and external events, such as the current Covid 19 pandemic, there are multiple changes in almost all life situations, thus also in pedagogical contexts of the education sector. In this context, concepts of learning guidance and learning support are of outstanding importance for development in higher education and vocational training. In particular, the immediate challenge is to transfer the tasks of learning guidance and learning support to virtual teaching and learning spaces in higher education and vocational training [1, 2]. For this purpose, the open-source online learning platform ILIAS™ and the web meeting software Adobe Connect™ were investigated in order to analyze critical teaching-learning situations in online learning and to derive recommendations for action. The results shown suggest that the development towards virtual teaching scenarios, which has become a necessity under the enforced conditions caused by the COVID-19 blocks, will also have an enormous impact on teaching and learning processes in the future in terms of didactics tailored to different learning groups and needs in and outside the classroom. Keywords: Virtual collaborative learning and teaching
Learning counselling

1 Introduction Due to internal and external events, such as the current Covid-19 pandemic, there are many changes in almost all areas of life. In this context, concepts of the education sector and especially the resulting challenges for learning guidance and counselling have to be considered critically. This paper therefore explores the question of how the use of online-based collaborative tools – the online learning platform ILIAS™ and the video conferencing © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 34–45, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_4

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software Adobe Connect™ – to support teaching-learning processes in higher and vocational education contexts. For this purpose, the article first introduces the concepts of learning guidance and learning support. Based on this, the tasks for learning counsellors and learning guides derived from this are presented and aligned to the necessity in high school apprenticeships and vocational schools. Afterwards, the paper will present findings from the analysis of critical situations in digital teaching-learning processes concerning lecturers, students and pupils at a university of applied sciences and at five vocational schools in Germany between 5 June and 12 June 2020 [3]. Finally, approaches to digital learning guidance and learning support will be derived from the results shown.

2 Approaches to Digital Learning Guidance and Learning Support in Educational Processes Following Pätzold, learning guidance and counselling are understood as activities “to help learners determine their learning needs, derive learning goals, identify learning resources, develop a strategy, implement it and evaluate their own learning success” [4, p. 7]. When considering the degree of external and self-direction of educational processes, a large number of suggestions from the concept of learning guidance and learning counselling by Reuter and Klein [5, 6] can be transferred to the field of investigation of higher education and vocational training [7, p. 65]. The focus here is primarily on the tasks of lecturers as learning advisors or learning facilitators [8]. Above all, a look at the modules developed for self-directed learning [8] and the current further development of these ideas in form of a digitalised methods tool kit [9 and https://methodenkoffer-sgl.de] seems worthwhile. The concepts of guidance and learning support are very closely related and overlap in their perception. Guidance always implies support and counselling. The primary task for teachers is no longer to impart knowledge but to create a conducive learning environment, i.e., to initiate, accompany and moderate learning processes. In addition, it is your task to keep an eye on the learning goals and to support the participants in the learning process. As a learning counsellor, you should discuss the learning process together with the learners and give them suggestions for their individual learning process design [8]. The need to take on advisory tasks is confirmed by the current results of the 2019 first-semester survey at the university of applied sciences under review. In this survey, 12% of full-time students and approx. 13% of part-time students stated that they expect intensive counselling and support [10, p. 21]. This is to be related to the result that 15% of full-time students and 25% of part-time students see the special challenges in studying in self-organisation and time management [10, p. 22]. In her research, Knospe [11] emphazises the fundamental importance of resources, especially personal resources, which every student can draw on. In this context, the development of resilience is particularly important. Since resilience factors can be learned and trained, the development of these resources already plays a decisive role in the educational

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phase for later employability. This allows us to derive initial implications for lecturers on how to structure their studies in a way that promotes resilience. When dealing with the use of digital tools, there are definitely advantages and disadvantages of the digitisation process from a didactic point of view. Obvious advantages are the development of media competence as well as flexibility in terms of location and time and automation approaches. However, the activation of participants before, during and after the use of digitalised tasks still requires a high level of attention that should not be underestimated [7, 12]. For the technical implementation, there are currently numerous forms of offerings available within or outside of known learning platforms (Table 1). In addition to the more traditional and familiar approaches of email, telephone and personal counselling [12], lecturers are increasingly deciding to use the learning management system (LMS) ILIAS™ used at the university and vocational school. Here, among other things, the lecturers primarily pursue a low-threshold approach to digital support. Simple functions such as upload, test, forum or exercise are integrated to accompany the development stages in the processing of the assignment. Particularly against the background of the pandemic-related restrictions during the study phase, the possibility of combining the ILIAS™ learning platform with the Adobe Connect™ web conferencing software and the tools there for synchronous collaboration was increasingly used. With the presented approach of digitally supported learning guidance and counselling, the concern of media competence enhancement can certainly be systematically supported [7, 12, 13]. Table 1. Offers for digital learning guidance and learning support (own presentation) [12]. Formats

Within a learning platform Outside a learning platform

e.g., ILIAS™ Opal™, OLAT™ Moodle™ Big Blue Button™ etc. E-mail consultation

Web conferencing software: Adobe Connect™, Zoom™, MicrosoftTeams™, Cisco Webex™, Skype™ etc. Personal counselling, telephone counselling

Learning resources and tools for the representation of development processes of students and pupils Upload, submission folder, tests, forum, blog, exercise, surveys, wikis, working groups, portfolio Use of the comment function in Word and PDF files for asynchronous feedback Camera, microphone, chat, voting, notification, download, status, sharing, workgroup pod for synchronous feedback Facial expression, gesture, voice for synchronic feedback

Reflecting on one’s own actions as a teacher at this point requires rethinking the previously familiar tasks as a learning advisor and learning facilitator to meet the recent digital challenges. Not only the increasing adoption and mastery of the tools of ILIAS™ and Adobe Connect™ are crucial here, but also didactic interventions to

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provide adequate learning arrangements as an essential task of learning guidance need to be considered. Since the learning environment was not chosen voluntarily by teachers and students but was determined by the lockdown through Covid-19, it is a joint exploration of possibilities to advance analysis of existing learning strategies and support for changing them. Particularly, if actually learning counsellors and learning guides provide learners’ orientation, they also have to work on their own orientation in the new learning environment. This shows how everyone can become a learner. As presented in the following, the analysis of critical situations should lead to the development of new ideas on how the further tasks of learning guidance and counselling such as support to uncover barriers to learning, encourage learners’ engagement with learning offers, support to discover learning needs, etc. can be worked out.

3 Qualitative Analysis of Critical Teaching and Learning Situations in University and Vocational Schools 3.1

Study Design and Methodological Approach

The results originate from an online survey conducted June 2020. The population consisted of employed teachers, honorary lecturers, students, and pupils. 135 respondents took part in the survey of the university of applied sciences, which corresponds to a response rate of 25.10% out of 526 persons contacted by e-mail. In the survey of the schools, there were 418 responses from our mailing of 2,430 (response rate 17.2%). So far, the evaluation of the data was carried out by means of descriptive statistics to determine frequency distributions and mean value calculations. It showed regarding the usage behaviour that all available tools were known, but were used with varying intensity [3, p. 404]. Following the evaluation process in a previous paper [3], the research team focused in this paper on the qualitative analysis of critical teaching-learning situations of the open-ended questions in the data collected in 2020 at the university and the vocational schools. This should help to identify barriers in the learning process and to better understand the behaviors of learners themselves. Additionally, the experienced situations are a starting point for thinking about adapting the tasks of teaching and learning advisors to the virtual learning environment and for further developing our didactic considerations. Qualitative data were collected within a questionnaire using the critical incident technique (CIT) which was originally developed in psychology [14] and is widely used in social work education in a variety of ways to facilitate the integration of theory and practice [15, p. 59]. Critical incidents are short, mostly spontaneous and unplanned narratives about past or current events and experiences or observations that can have positive or negative attributions and which ‘mark significant turning points or change in the life of a person or an institution or in some social phenomenon’ [16, p. 27]. Regarding the qualitative methodological approach, all data were first cleaned separately for the different institutions interviewed in one data table and then all parts relevant for qualitative data evaluation were extracted for the analysis. For the individual questions, frequencies were first visualized with the help of word clouds (here

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e.g., wordclouds.com). Word clouds are used as relevant data mining and visual analytics tools [17], which can be used to indicate idiosyncratic structures and be easily presented in a visual form (see examples in Fig. 1). Secondly, all data were analyzed by a detailed semantic analysis using thematic categorizations [18; see Table 2], examining the data lists in terms of singularities and frequencies, and differentiations. In this study, critical incidents were collected from participants with an open to semi-structured questionnaire which consists of five sections: (1) the use of the learning management platform ILIAS™, (2) the use of Adobe Connect™ as video-/audio-/chatbased meeting software, (3) participation in virtual collaboration, (4) description of critical situation in virtual learning and (5) coping with conflicts and mediation regarding group dynamics.

Fig. 1. Example of word clouds for critical situations (university left, vocational schools right)

Table 2. Main and sub-categories; U = university, V = vocational schools (own presentation). Main categories Desired use of ILIAS™ tools Desired use of Adobe Connect™

Participation opportunities and barriers to participation in the virtual environment

Critical situations in online teaching

Approaches to solving tensions and conflicts in the group during Online teaching

Sub-categories Importance of LMS features (U) Unspecific responses to user experiences (V) Use of voting, chat and whiteboard features as well as working groups (U) Technical Issues and limited usability (U) Meeting software as chance and barrier for participation (U) Perceived stress in virtual environments (U) Ambiguous user experiences in LMS (V) Student’s engagement in virtual meetings (U) Impact of circumstances on learning (U) Feedback in asynchronous teaching (V) Need for compromise, direct communication, de-escalation strategies, respect, etc. (U/V) Communication outside LMS (U/V)

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In the following, the results from the university and the vocational schools are presented based on the category system introduced above. 3.2

Results

Desired Use of ILIAS™ Tools. In general, the responses of all institutions show that ILIAS™ features such as exercises, tests and forums were predominantly used, as measured by the frequency of their mention. This is not entirely in line with the results of the quantitative questionnaire’s previous questions on the use of ILIAS™ tools [3]. The indication “none” refers to the fact that a large number of respondents at vocational schools have “no indication” and thus have not yet had sufficient experience with the various features. In the verbal responses, we noticed that respondents often referred to terms such as “online meetings/events” and “Adobe Connect™”, which were not only out of context, but also support the assumption that these different design elements for virtual teaching could not be exactly distinguished in a professional way at the time of data collection. Desired Tools in Adobe Connect™. A large number of respondents replied here also with “no indication”, “not used so far” or “no idea”. Only a more detailed semantic analysis could bring light into dark. Respondents from the university made more frequent use of the functions voting, chat and whiteboard as well as working groups (also referred to as “group work” or breakout rooms). It was also pointed out that Adobe Connect™ rarely worked stable during the online sessions and that program crashes occurred. Reference has been made to other useful meeting software (e.g., Zoom) that are “much more user friendly and convenient” (quote from the university data). Individual answers also contain evidence that students felt uncomfortable in Adobe Connect’s™ virtual classrooms and highlighted frequently that they had deliberately enrolled into a presence university and not a distance learning course. Responses of the vocational schools show that they did not make extensive use of Adobe Connect™ at the time of the survey. Participation Opportunities and Barriers to Participation in the Virtual Environment. From the results of the survey on the obstacles in the context of virtual teaching at the university, it can be seen that participation takes place in particular via the microphone and chat function. Both synchronous and asynchronous teaching methods took place and provide both chances and limits for learning participation. The majority of students did not make use of the video function, which is regarded as an obstacle in virtual learning. However, a limitation was noted that the quality of the sound transmission was too poor (both the quality of transmission and the playback on their own speakers) and frequently there were connection problems, or the microphone was not working at the time. Although learners used regularly the chat to communicate, it could also happen that participation was not possible for various reasons: “sometimes you rely heavily on other people” and “does not feel addressed when asked”. The following two answers are to be given as an example: (1) “I was always ready to participate in the lessons, unfortunately, the program was often not working stable enough, to have multiple cameras and microphones running, in addition, it often stalled

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or hung up, which has undermined any participation despite motivation to participate.” (Quote from university) (2) “I don’t participate. It’s not my way of learning. Already the information for accessing the meeting (links, registration, apps, etc.) and the prerequisites for learning in the virtual environment were stressful for me. I regularly download all scripts and recordings of the virtual lectures from ILIAS™.” (Quote from university). The evaluation of the responses from the vocational schools shows that for the most part no information was provided on possible obstacles (most frequent responses were “no idea” or “no indication”). There was less concern about technical problems, as the teaching was basically asynchronous in the summer term and tasks were distributed clearly on the learning platform ILIAS™. As a result, these findings are difficult to compare between different types of institutions. Assignments and tasks made available were only carried out to the extent it was necessary or the teaching material appeared to be interesting. All data in the learning platform could be easily accessed, but the visual structure was often not comprehensible or sometimes appeared to be confusing. However, there were also individual voices that say that they did not participate in virtual teaching at all. Participation in discussions was possible, in particular, via the forum and chat function. Critical Situations in Online Teaching. Participants from the university mentioned various critical events: Most often technical connection problems were reported. In addition, the use of the camera is considered an invasion of privacy. When questions were asked by lecturers, either no one feels addressed or lecturers fall into “self-talk”, which is often perceived as unpleasant. It was said to be unfair to the lecturers if only a fraction of a seminar group was present in the actual meeting or when too few students contributed to the presentation of group results. Certain functionalities of the meeting software (e.g., sharing function) may have not been available. Events that have been conducted asynchronously were considered detrimental or less beneficial to their own learning process. The virtual rooms were also partly used after the meeting for a 1:1 exchange between lecturers and students. Various other obligations at workplace at home (family, other jobs, home schooling, health concern) caused special circumstances and led to stress. There are also reports that online teaching can be used to create positive learning experiences, e.g., time savings, promotion of self-directed learning and for recording. The critical interaction situations described in vocational schools are just as diverse, with the following topics being predominantly: Technical problems have been reported (e.g., non-presence of a printer or corresponding end devices for school tasks, availability of data on ILIAS™, data could not be uploaded to the drop box folder of ILIAS™). It was considered positive and negative that feedback was provided on online exercises (negative: if teachers did not respond quickly enough or failed to do so; positive: if individual evaluations were provided). The exchange with other students has been missed, e.g., to ask questions or to exchange ideas in general. It has also been reported that some teachers had problems with the software setting for ILIAS™ tasks (e.g., for tests) in order to get the platform working correctly and safely, sometimes the tasks set were too confusing, marks were not immediately apparent during online checks or tasks were formulated imprecisely or were too extensive. Overall, the

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majority of the feedback received was considered positive. It is also apparent that some students have had difficulties with existing learning restrictions: “I have a recognized reading and spelling disability that is not noticed on the website, therefore, I think the page s***.” (Quote from one vocational school). Approaches to Solving Tensions and Conflicts in the Group During Online Teaching. With regard to the question on how to manage tension and conflicts that could arise in the classroom, the majority of the participants at the university answered that it is difficult to integrate into the virtual environment and to resolve any conflicts that may arise there. Nevertheless, it was also stressed that, in the virtual environment, there is also a need for willingness to compromise, direct communication, de-escalation strategies, respect, empathy and active listening. Private chat messages, constructive conversations with all those present in the virtual room or via other channels outside the platform (e.g., WhatsApp™; most frequently mentioned) are considered as adequate communication channels. It was often reported that there had not been many conflicts or tensions in the classroom: “There are no conflicts or tensions. And if so, we talked objectively with everyone involved in the situation and looked for a common solution.” (Quote from university). Participants in vocational schools also emphasized that direct addressing of problems and possibly “team-building measures” were regarded as helpful (Note: Participants reported that they asked for more knowledge about addressing problems and not about its implementation in the classroom). As indicated in the results of the university survey above, respect, mutual assistance, direct contact/communication as well as inclassroom instruction are also considered important by the respondents at the vocational schools for the resolution of tensions and conflicts. For some of the respondents, the distance learning opportunities made possible via ILIAS™ were highly appreciated and the greater potential for conflicts was rather seen in (“normal”) classroom teachings (compared to asynchronous virtual teaching). Regarding adequate media and communication channels for resolving tensions, participants referred to e.g., e-mails and group chats on ILIAS™ as well as communication outside the teaching platform (e.g., phone call, WhatsApp™). Some feedback shows that the question of “tensions” may not have been properly understood (e.g., “What tensions?”; Quote from one vocational school). In other words, tension was not perceived directly or to a serious extent: “Tensions or conflicts did not happen to me or in the group so far, I think it’s all [virtual learning] a little more regulated. But if there would arise such tensions, I think we can solve it relatively quickly.” (Quote from one vocational school). 3.3

Discussion

With the help of a qualitative analysis of the critical teaching and learning situations, the results show that learning guidance and learning support are required in the transition to a virtual learning and teaching environment in higher educational and vocational training institutions. Previous research [8] has shown that teachers in this context can be understood as learning advisors, learning designers, learning facilitators, moderators or coaches and should be able to perform the activities as shown in Fig. 2:

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• Providing adequate learning arrangements; • Analysis of existing learning strategies and support for changing them, if necessary; • Providing learners’ orientation; • Supporting learners in monitoring the learning outcomes; • Support to uncover barriers to learning; • Encourage learners´ engagement with learning offers; • Support to discover learning needs; • Advising learners in making decisions about learning paths; • Advising learners in making decisions about learning content.

Fig. 2. Tasks of learning guidance and learning support [8].

The findings in this article support most of the mentioned teaching and learning support ideas (highlighted in blue) [8]. In addition, the results show that also other guidance of learners will be necessary in the virtual environment (highlighted in yellow): • Providing feedback on learning achievements on a regularly basis: Learners in our study often mentioned that providing feedback on online assignments was assessed ambiguously (negative, if teachers did not respond quickly enough or failed to do so and positive, if individual evaluations were actually provided). We recommend that feedback processes need to be pro-actively supported and reinforced in the transition to virtual platforms.

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• Group dynamics need to be recognized and openly addressed: Concerning the mediation of conflicts or tensions that arise in the learning environment, all participants made it clear that mutual respect, a positive and appreciative attitude is required to solve problems. Nonetheless, learners need to be supported in the development of a higher sensitivity to recognize, understand and solve group conflicts in the virtual learning environment. • Encourage students’ participation in the virtual classroom: Participants noted it to be unfair to the lecturers if only a fraction of a seminar group was present in the actual meeting, participated in exercises or if too few students contributed to group work activities. The task of learning advisors is to guide the learners in their self-directed learning process. This means to support, advise and promote the definition of the learning objectives and content as well as the methodical design (learning paths). This does not lead to a decline of instructor’s field of responsibility, but to a change in the proportion of their tasks and priorities in the teaching-learning process. The term “learning advisor” should highlight the changed role of the instructor [8]. The support of the learners includes, among other things, counselling during learning activities. The task of a learning advisor is to inform the learners about learning content and learning paths before starting an educational measure and to provide them with guidance. During the educational process, the advisory role of the teacher is in the foreground in addition to the observing function. In this way, learning advisors can support learners in dealing with learning offers, help them to change unsuitable learning strategies and/or show them ways of checking and assessing the learning outcomes [8]. The self-learning environments shown in this study are complex arrangements that provide learners with the opportunity to pursue an individual and/or cooperative learning path and to be professionally supported by the learning guide. The advantage of selflearning environments is that the learners not only learn on the factual or content level, but also systematically acquire knowledge with regard to their own learning strategies. This knowledge leads to an expansion of competencies, since access to one’s own learning strategies forms the basis to successfully design lifelong learning processes [8]. Hence, in order to support learning, teachers can be understood as “learning advisors” who have many different tasks in creating and facilitating a self-learning environment. They not only convey knowledge, but also advise, inform, observe, control, support, promote and assess learning activities. These tasks can only be mastered if an awareness of the changed task is developed, the role is actively perceived, and the professional instruments of action are further developed. The learners are sensitive to their learning environment. Time, space, equipment and staff can promote self-directed learning, but they can also hinder it. The learning advisors should try to shape the framework as optimal as possible for the learners. Their efforts are not to be seen in isolation from the educational institution [8]. Last but not the least, the results of this study are subject to certain restrictions. The present study included a relatively homogenous group of participants from different institutions and professions. Due to the limitation of space, only few “critical” situations have be presented in this paper. Future research would need to focus on the mitigation of this limitations.

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4 Conclusion and Outlook With this contribution, the behaviour of the users of the tools could be analysed from the perspective of teachers and learners. The in-depth qualitative study clearly showed the barriers of virtual teaching. In the opinion of the team of authors, the results can be used to derive initial indications for the development of a concept for (digital) learning guidance and learning support. The results serve as a basis for examining one’s own digital media competence and are an occasion for further personal, didactic and organisational developments in the institutions. In this sense, the deepening of the cooperation between the university and the vocational schools on digital offers and a collegial exchange of experiences should also be strived for. Critical interaction situations are key here, because as a learning counsellor one should not be afraid to experience diverse learning opportunities oneself to experience learning difficulties. Those who have had to deal with failures can thus understand the learning difficulties of others [8].

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8. Wiesner, G., Kruse, U., Frenzel, S., Weichert, D., Ebert, A.: Erweiterung von Selbstlernkompetenzen Erwachsener – Weiterentwicklung Professionellen Handelns der Weiterbildner zur Initiierung und Begleitung Selbstgesteuerter Lernprozesse. Technische Universität Dresden, Modul Lernberatung (2002) 9. Dyrna, J., Riedel, J., Schulze-Achatz, S.: Wannist Lernen mit digitalen Medien (wirklich) selbstgesteuert? Ansätze zur Ermöglichung und Förderung von Selbststeuerung in technologieunterstützten Lernprozessen. In: Köhler, T., Schoop, E., Kahnwald, N. (eds.) Gemeinschaften in Neuen Medien. Forschung zu Wissensgemeinschaften in Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft, Bildung und Öffentlicher Verwaltung, pp. 155–166. TUD Press, Dresden (2018). https://tud.qucosa.de/api/qucosa%3A33827/attachment/ATT-0/. Accessed 28 May 2021 10. Schulz, M.: Ergebnisse der Befragung der Erstsemester an der Fachhochschule Dresden, Wintersemester 2019/2020 (Internal University Report) (2019) 11. Knospe, Y.: Personale Ressourcen und Psychisches Gesundheitliches Empfinden. Dissertation an der Helmut-Schmidt-Universität Hamburg (2013). https://edoc.sub.uni-hamburg. de/hsu/frontdoor.php?source_opus=3026&la=de. Accessed 28 May 2021 12. Görl-Rottstädt, D., Riedel, J., König, K., Pittius, K.: Zwischen digital und analog - Ein Vergleich klassischer und digitaler Ansätze von Lernberatung und Lernbegleitung im berufsbegleitenden Studium, Tagung “Perspektiven für den Studienerfolg - Gelingensbedingungen, Stolpersteine, Wirkungen”, virtuelle Tagung der Technischen Universität Kaiserslautern und der Hochschule Kaiserslautern, 02th–03th September 2020 (in press) 13. Görl-Rottstädt, D., Pittius, K.: Professionalisierungstendenzen in der Sozialen Arbeit im Kontext von Medienbildung und Medienpädagogik. In: Köhler, T., Schoop, E., Kahnwald, N. (eds.) Gemeinschaften in Neuen Medien. Forschung zu Wissensgemeinschaften in Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft, Bildung und öffentlicher Verwaltung, pp. 114–121. TUD Press, Dresden (2018). https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:bsz:14-qucosa2-336844. Accessed 28 May 2021 14. Flanagan, J.C.: The critical incident technique. Psychol. Bull. 51(4), 327–358 (1954) 15. Papouli, E.: Using the critical incident technique (CIT) to explore how students develop their understanding of social work values and ethics in the workplace during their final placement. J. Soc. Work Value. Ethics 13(2), 56–72 (2016) 16. Green Lister, P., Crisp, B.R.: Critical incident analyses: a practice learning tool for students and practitioners. Practice 19(1), 47–60 (2007) 17. Jayashankar, S., Sridaran, R.: Superlative model using word cloud for short answers evaluation in eLearning. Educ. Inf. Technol. 22(5), 2383–2402 (2016). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s10639-016-9547-0 18. Vaughn, P., Turner, C.: Decoding via coding: analyzing qualitative text data through thematic coding and survey methodologies. J. Libr. Adm. 56(1), 41–51 (2016)

Internationalization in Microbiology and Bioengineering Courses: Experiences Between Mexico and Ecuador José F. Álvarez-Barreto1 , Jorge Membrillo Hernández2,3 Gloria A. Chapa-Guillén2, Fernando Larrea1 , and Rebeca García-García2(&)

,

1

Chemical Engineering Department, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito 170901, Ecuador 2 Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, 64849 Monterrey, NL, Mexico [email protected] 3 Writing Lab, Institute for the Future of Education, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico

Abstract. A Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL) program was carried out between a microbiology course at Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico, and a Bioengineering class at Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Ecuador. The objective was to potentiate the learning experience of students at both institutions by joining efforts to work on a biotechnological challenge, while applying acquired knowledge and strengthening their negotiation skills, teamwork and leadership in a multicultural and international environment. A project-based learning approach was followed, with continuous assessment on student satisfaction and skills developed. The introduction of learning and engagement strategies through greater social interaction enhanced the collaboration. This allowed students to not only develop important technical skills, such as better understanding microbiology and bioprocess concepts, but also soft skills like intercultural sensibility, teamwork and adaptability to international contexts. Students at both institutions showed a high degree of satisfaction from the collaboration. This experience has had an important impact on the preparedness of future engineers to work in multi- and intercultural environments, as well as in an international context. Keywords: Educational innovation
Higher education
Bioengineering
COIL/Global classroom collaboration
Complementary fields: microbiology and bioprocess engineering
Culture influence on technical issues-diversity in perspective

1 Introduction In Engineering, online education has been developed mainly in electrical and computer engineering, due to important technological advances. However, other disciplines, such as chemical and food engineering, face different challenges to implement © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 46–53, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_5

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comprehensive online programs. It has been generally perceived that face-to-face instruction is more appropriate to develop practical skills, and students prefer to learn difficult concepts and ideas face-to-face, believing that this would provide deeper understanding [1]. Nevertheless, the COVID-19 pandemic abruptly forced rapid changes from face-toface to online modalities in courses not traditionally considered appropriate for the latter. Innovative solutions to important challenges such as replacing hands-on laboratory training, relating course content to real life experiences, and maintaining student interest in the subjects, have had to be found [2]. An important tool to tackle some of these problems is project-based learning, where students develop critical thinking and other relevant skills, such as organization and leadership [3]. There is already evidence of the importance of project-based learning to support lockdown conditions and achieve important learning outcomes in science and engineering courses [4, 5]. The use of different online tools, such as social media, collaboration applications (i.e., Trello, MindMeister, Slack), along with other forms of presentations (i.e., Presi and Canva), and the different platforms for team online work, such as Zoom and Google Teams, potentiate the effectiveness of online collaborative learning. But there is another arista that is easily incorporated in the virtual environment: internationalization. It is widely reported that internationalization in online engineering courses help in improving interpersonal communication, team work and sensitivity to cultural diversity, as well as deepening in technical knowledge and skills [6]. Moreover, as the engineering practice becomes more globalized, incorporating internalization in class curricula is pivotal to preparing engineers that can work effectively in culturally diverse contexts [7]. The Tecnológico de Monterrey (TEC) in Mexico, and Universidad San Francisco de Quito (USFQ) in Ecuador have established an important Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL). In this case, two courses, Microbiology (5th semester) from the Department of Bioengineering at TEC, and Bioengineering I (Bioprocess engineering, 8th semester) from the Chemical Engineering Program at USFQ, have partnered to develop a joint project-based collaboration, and take advantage of multiculturality and course complementarity. Thus, the objective of this study was to potentiate the learning experience of students at both institutions by joining efforts to work on a biotechnological challenge, while applying acquired knowledge and strengthening their negotiation skills, teamwork and leadership in a multicultural and international environment.

2 Methodology 2.1

Project-Based Learning (PBL) Methodology

A project-based learning methodology has been followed. Teams composed of at least five students from both universities were created, and then a project with microbiology and industrial process characteristics were selected and developed throughout the semester, applying concepts and ideas from course contents in every stage. The chosen

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bioprocesses were related to the production of vitamin C, lactase, xanthan gum, vancomycin and polyhydroxyalkanoates. Each project had to cover the following topics: 1. Metabolite activity, importance, and production history and statistics. 2. Microorganisms used to produce the chosen metabolite, including culture conditions, media and kinetics (microorganism growth and metabolite production curves). 3. Bioreactor design for industrial metabolite production, compared to laboratory scale processes. 4. Product separation and purification, including a block diagram of the entire production process. 5. Environmental and regulatory framework. Projects were evaluated through five components: a) progress reports, b) conceptual maps done in MindMeister showing their brainstorming process, c) infographics, d) short presentations, and e) a final report including the feedback provided during the semester. 2.2

Collaborative Interactions

Periodic synchronic meetings, through zoom, were held to give instructions, answer questions, work planning and assess student satisfaction. Additionally, team members have been in communication through Zoom, Slack, Whatsapp and Google Drive. Intercultural activities were also organized to talk about cultural differences between Mexico and Ecuador, and between both institutions, and a final discussion was included to compare the estate of bio-process industry in both countries. Before starting the collaboration, students introduced themselves by uploading a video on Padlet, and posting comments on other students´ posts. Similarly, at the end of the collaboration, students uploaded a final reflection on the experience. 2.3

Assessment of Student Progress and Satisfaction

Students were surveyed at throughout the collaboration on satisfaction with the professors, activities and interactions with team members from the other university. In these surveys, they were also given the opportunity to propose new ideas for activities and changes in the collaborative environment. When needed, according to specific team performance, special meetings would be held between the instructors and team members to mediate and work difficulties that hindered successful collaboration.

3 Results and Discussion Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL) is not a concept developed during the COVID-19 pandemic, and has been defined as a new approach to teaching rather than a technological platform. However, as it has demonstrated to allow efficient interactions between students at different locations, its application during the pandemic has become increasingly appropriate [8]. In the field of engineering, COIL has not only

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proved to improve collaboration skills and efficiently help students gain an intercultural dimension, but also it allows them to perform better in project-based courses [9]. The success of a COIL program largely depends on the planning stage and the openness of the instructors to obtain feedback from students throughout the process. After careful and thorough planning of the collaborative experience, and introducing it to students at TEC and USFQ, it was important to assess their expectations about the interaction. As seen in Fig. 1, most of them were excited or astonished about the experience, even after the first synchronous interaction. Regarding the skills that could be developed, most of the students pointed out that collaborative work and interculturality (81.2% and 72.7% of the students, respectively) would be the most relevant assets they would take away from the COIL program, followed by problem solving skills, and to a lesser extent, leadership and intellectual curiosity. Additionally, over 95% of them “agreed” or “strongly agreed” that the collaboration would contribute to developing a global perspective and instruction within the framework of liberal arts, pillars of institutional philosophy at TEC and USFQ, respectively. It is then clear from these results that students had high expectations from the collaboration and understood its significance and potential.

Fig. 1. Initial assessment on student expectation of the COIL experience.

In the middle of the semester, when the students already had experience working in teams, a second survey was applied. Students evaluated the interaction with the team, interaction with the professors, activities carried out and their length, and the challenge level (Fig. 2). They gave a value between 1 and 10, which was converted to an arbitrary scale established by the COIL program. In this, a value less than or equal to 6 meant that the student did not have a good experience (detractor), a value of 7 and 8 indicated that the students were indifferent (passive) and, 9 and 10 meant that the student had a positive experience (promotor). The results show that the students were satisfied with

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the COIL experience; out of 10 items evaluated, the students considered 8 of them positive aspects. However, 50% of the students surveyed interactions with their teams and the duration of the program as a passive experience. Thus, their initial expectations were not completely met, and they were not entirely satisfied, an indication of important improvement opportunities. Pieces of evidence sustaining this result are some of the comments made by the students, where they point out that they would have liked more interactions with their colleagues from the other University, suggesting also social activities in addition to the academic ones.

Fig. 2. Mid-semester survey on student satisfaction from the COIL experience.

Analyzing the results from this mid-term survey, social activities were introduced. These included exchanges on cultural highlights of Mexico and Ecuador, sharing relevant features and philosophical basis of their universities, and comparing the state of the biotech industry in both countries. These were done in the form of jeopardy and other forms of games as a way of integrating learning and engagement strategies (LESs). Clarke et al. (2020) integrated gamification and social interaction into the application LESs in software engineering courses, achieving improved student performance and satisfaction [10]. After the final project presentation, students answered a last survey (Fig. 3). The results show that the students “agreed” and “strongly agreed” with the overall collaboration based on the evaluated parameters. They strengthened abilities such as collaboration and communication with people from different cultures, adaptability to an international context, and increased awareness about global issues.

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Fig. 3. Final survey on skills developed by students during the COIL experience.

Likewise, the students evaluated the level of COIL experience satisfaction, and the results are shown in Fig. 4. Students were satisfied with the overall experience and would have liked more interaction with their international classmates. Finally, the last question in the survey was if the students will recommend another student participate in a COIL experience. The answer (Fig. 5) was positive since 65% of the students would recommend it. However, 18% would not recommend the COIL experience. This answer could be due to the desire from students to have more interactions with their international counterparts early-on in the process. The continuous assessment was not limited to multiple choice questions (i.e. agree, strongly agree or disagree). Open questions were also formulated to allow students to express their ideas more freely. In this, a very interesting insight into the collaboration was gained. Students at TEC were taking Microbiology at junior level, while those at USFQ were taking Bioengineering at the senior level. The former felt they benefited from the experience of the latter on writing reports and doing literature search. Students at USFQ expressed benefitting significantly from the microbiological perspective, learning about cell culture techniques in conditions, and their counterparts at TEC learned from the industrial perspective of the chemical engineering majors in Ecuador. Interestingly, the majority realized that, by explaining their knowledge to their teammates from the other institution, they were able to consolidate and more deeply understand topics covered in their respective courses. Furthermore, this process was more effective due to the social activities, which helped them feel closer and more confident to share their experiences.

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Fig. 4. Final survey on student satisfaction from the COIL experience.

Fig. 5. Likelihood of recommendation of the COIL experience

4 Conclusions The COIL program implemented between the microbiology course (Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico) and Bioengineering I (Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Ecuador) consisted of a project-based learning approach. Nonetheless, these collaborative processes cannot be rigid, and a continuous assessment is important to optimize the experience. The introduction of learning and engagement strategies through greater social interaction enhanced the collaboration. This allowed students to not only develop important technical skills, such as better understanding microbiology and bioprocess concepts, but also soft skills like intercultural sensibility, teamwork and adaptability to international contexts. Perhaps, these are the most valuable takeaways for students who will have to perform in an increasingly global work environment, particularly in engineering and science. The results here described will be useful for the design of ne bioengineering courses [11, 12].

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Acknowledgments. The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of Writing Lab, Institute for the Future of Education, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico, in the production of this work. The authors would also like to thank the International Programs Office at Universidad San Francisco de Quito for their support in the COIL project.

References 1. Lee-Post, A., Hapke, H.: Online learning integrity approaches: current practices and future solutions. Online Learn. 21(1), 135–145 (2017). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v21i1.843 2. Asgari, S., Trajkovic, J., Rahmani, M., et al.: An observational study of engineering online education during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS One 16, 1–17 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1371/journal.pone.0250041 3. Mills, J.E., Treagust, D.: Engineering of engineering. Australas. J. Eng. Educ. 04, 1963 (2003) 4. Llorens Largo, F., Villagrá Arnedo, C., Gallego Durán, F., Molina Carmona, R.: COVIDproof: cómo el aprendizaje basado en proyectos ha soportado el confinamiento. Campus Virt. Rev. Científ. Iberoam. Tecnol. Educ. 10, 73–88 (2021) 5. Hernáiz-Pérez, M., Álvarez-Hornos, J., Badia, J.D., et al.: Contextualized project-based learning for training chemical engineers in graphic expression. Educ. Chem. Eng. 34, 57–67 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ece.2020.11.003 6. May, D.: Cross reality spaces in engineering education – online laboratories for supporting international student collaboration in merging realities. Int. J. Online Biomed. Eng. 16, 4 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijoe.v16i03.12849 7. Jesiek, B., Zhu, Q., Woo, S.E., et al.: Global engineering competency in context: situations and behaviors. Online J. Glob. Eng. Educ. 8, 1 (2014) 8. Coelen, R., Gribble, C. (Eds.): Internationalization and Employability in Higher Education, 1st edn. Routledge, New York (2019). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351254885 9. Appiah-Kubi, P.: A review of a collaborative online international learning. Int. J. Eng. Pedagog. 10, 109–124 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijep.v10i1.11678 10. Clarke, P.J., Thirunarayanan, M., Allala, S.C., et al.: Experiences of integrating learning and engagement strategies (LESs) into software engineering courses. In: ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition, Conference Proceedings, June 2020 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 18260/1-2–34630 11. Membrillo-Hernández, J., García-García, R., Lara-Prieto, V.: From the classroom to home: experiences on the sudden transformation of face-to-face bioengineering courses to a flexible digital model due to the 2020 health contingency. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 488–494. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3030-68201-9_48 12. Castillo-Reyna, J., et al.: Teaching and learning microbiology for engineers in a digital world: the case of the FIT courses at the Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico. In: Auer, M.E., Tsiatsos, T. (eds.) ICL 2018. AISC, vol. 916, pp. 914–922. Springer, Cham (2020). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11932-4_84

Innovative Capacity of Faculty Development Programs Olga Y. Khatsrinova, Anna V. Serezhkina, Inna M. Gorodetskaya(&), and Elina I. Murtazina Kazan National Research Technological University, Karl Marx, 68, Kazan, Russia

Abstract. Exponential growth of medical knowledge, rapid development of the new health-care technologies and challenges of our time demand not only very high level of theoretical and practical medical training, but also relevance of the knowledge to the modern problems. To provide the quality of professional training, the university teachers need to improve and update their knowledge constantly. In the COVID-19 pandemic digitalization of professional education is becoming more and more urgent. The case of the faculty development program conducted during the pandemic among the medical university faculty showed that digital technologies in education are efficient and may be applied for various staff development courses. Keywords: Advanced Development Program Competency
University Teacher


Professional Educational

1 Introduction 1.1

Current Challenges for the Advanced Professional Development of University Faculty Members

Training and development of university faculty is widely discussed. Educational community nowadays demands continuous lifelong education. The main goal of additional professional education of university faculty is to form the need for continuous self-improvement and self-determination, self-fulfillment and self-development, embracing the global and national cultures, awareness of the social and individual significance of cultural factors in professional performance. It should be noted that additional professional education of university teachers is the most movable and flexible element of the integral system of continuous education. It is a creative developing environment that may introduce innovations into the whole system. Professional thinking, information culture, awareness about scientific progress determine the new content and structure for the professional development of university faculty members within the system of advanced professional education. Therefore, a professional development program should anticipate and stay ahead of the professional and personal development processes. In the constantly changing information environment the better an educator is ready to manage his personal cognitive progress, personal growth and compatibility, the greater his contribution is to enhancing the educational © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 54–66, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_6

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opportunities. Advanced training and professional training of university teachers should create the environment for activity, involvement and motivation for the trainees’ professional and personal development. It is therefore advisable to organize on-the-job advanced training of the university faculty, i.e. simultaneously with their professional activities, to focus on the real professional problems, needs and life experience of the trainees and to create the context where the trainees acquire the personally significant professional experience. Teachers are involved in developing a special product, for example, a package of teaching materials for their discipline, an educational and methodological complex of an integrated module or an educational program as a whole, a system for monitoring and assessment of the students’ educational results, etc. The designed product is tested in practice, the results are discussed and the needed corrections are made. Exponential growth of medical knowledge, rapid development of the new healthcare technologies and challenges of our time demand a very high level of theoretical and practical medical training, relevance of the knowledge to the modern problems and fluency in digital educational technologies. To ensure the quality of professional training university teachers need to improve and update their knowledge constantly. As Dijk et al. [1] point out, the major part of university professors are academics who typically combine research, teaching, and sometimes other professional tasks (e.g., clinical work or management). 1.2

Medical University Faculty and Digitalization of Education

Medical university faculty is a peculiar group of university educators. They have special functions, job conditions and methods, unique qualification and individual traits. Being engaged in teaching, a doctor must fully combine both educational and clinical work. In his performance, the teacher is guided by the fact that medical universities prepare specialists for work in the rapidly changing health care system, when many new tasks arise and the structure if improving. Accordingly, medical university teachers are more responsible for the results of the educational process. During the COVID-19 pandemic digitalization of education becomes very important. The authors Scherer et al. [2] analyzed the willingness and capability of university faculties for efficient online teaching. They concluded that university educators show very different level of digital competence. The researchers divide their respondents into three groups of expertise: educators with a stable high or low level and with a nonpermanent level of competence. Bruggeman et al. [3] note that to support university teachers in the transition to a more digital educational environment it is important to understand the reasons why teachers accept or deny some online educational practices. For the mixed format of education, it is necessary, first of all, to be fully aware of the pedagogical need for changes. Not only a teacher should be trained to organize education, but a student ought to learn how to behave in the new context, to search for new information, interact and socialize, ensure information security in the digital environment. However, learning is a very special reality that demands constant knowledge acquisition and formation of new skills. In the online format it is often less likely that students ask questions, get answers and discuss results with classmates. Students does not always have a chance to write his question in a public chat, sometimes he can

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hardly follow the teacher’s lines of reasoning. One of the main tasks of the professional development program was to organize an efficient educational process in the digital context. In 2020 the European Commission published the Digital Education Action Plan (2021–2027). It outlines the vision for high-quality, inclusive and accessible digital education. It emphasizes that digital skills and competences of teachers and educational staff are a prerequisite for the main competences of the XXI century. Modern approach for professional development of university educators requires a more profound understanding of the difference in digital skills and information literacy, and consideration about multiple factors [4]. The pandemic will end, but the necessity to use digital technologies and organize online educational options for training a highly qualified professional will stay. The advanced training program for university teachers aims at mastering technologies to organize the learning process in the future, to be able to implement the content in accordance with all regulatory documents and demands of our times. The teacher should be encouraged to build up a new type of educational environment - an integrative system that will include the object environment (content, technologies and means, teaching materials), the spatial environment of the university (classrooms, laboratories, libraries), and the social environment (communication, values, relationships, reflection, feedback). The advanced training program for medical university teachers was carried out in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. This experience has shown that online teaching has given expectedly good results and can be replicated for various forms of training.

2 Current State of Advanced Professional Training for Medical Educators 2.1

Competences in the Modern University Teachers’ Training

Regulatory authorities in medical education all over the world have come to the unanimous conclusion that medical graduates are not able to fully meet the social needs for modern medical services. In some countries, healthcare is unable to cope with the increasing number of patients. To cope with this challenge societies should to pay even more attention to medical education. Different frameworks (such as ACGME, CanMeds, etc.) may be used to form the needed competences. Modi et al. [5] note that to solve this problem medical curriculum should be focused on developing the key competencies of graduates. Indian scholars [6] discuss the idea of competency-based medical education and the stages of curriculum planning and implementation& the authors attempt to develop a portfolio structure for the design and implementation of any health professional education curriculum. Chinese researchers revised methods for assessing the competence of clinical teachers [7]. Among the most popular scales for assessing the abilities of clinical teachers, the authors name Clinical Teacher Competence Inventory (CTCI), Clinical Teacher Effectiveness Inventory (NCTEI), Ideal Teacher Competence Inventory, etc. Wang et al. concluded that assessment results of post-graduate students were lower

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than self-assessment of teachers in clinical practice. At the same time, the respondents were aware of their insufficient research ability. Therefore, the authors emphasize that the clinical educators training should be carried out immediately in order to strengthen their comprehensive abilities, especially their research skills. Dută and Rafaila [8] consider competence as an integral and dynamic set of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that together form strategies for solving problems, forecasting, assessing the probability of certain events, and diagnosing situations. Competence provides efficiency, accuracy, confidence - and allows a person to solve difficult situations within certain a context they were developed. I.S. Osadchiy et al. [9] note that competencies should be interpreted both in terms of general abilities that go beyond the scope of specialties and in terms of the peculiar specialties. 2.2

The Case of the Professional Development Program for the Nukus Health-Care University Faculty Members

Reflection of the international and domestic practical experience of advanced, additional and life-long education allowed defining the current tasks that resulted in the faculty development program for the Nukus Health-care University. As an independent educational body, the university began to make its own developmental strategy. It seemed relevant to use the experience of the Russian staff development system for this purpose. The goal of the faculty development program “Topical issues of research and educational activities of a university teacher in the information environment” was to provide informational and methodological support for the faculty members to facilitate the educational process, use digital technologies, select and implement the modern quantitative and qualitative methods in the health and educational researches, and apply relevant research findings in the professional activities. The principles of evidence-based medicine were widely presented in various modules of the program. The program had an applied focus. The authors assumed that the implementation of the advanced training program for teachers of a medical university would help to improve pedagogical knowledge, ensure the quality of teaching, and allow solving various types of professional problems: psychological and pedagogical; organizational and innovative; research; informational and educational. The professional development program for the university educators aims at developing of various professional competences, for example: to create educational environment and provide the quality of professional training for the health-care system in accordance with international standards; to organize the students’ research work; to reveal and define relevant scientific tasks; to integrate contemporary scientific achievements into academic disciplines; to present research findings in the form of scientific reports, articles or presentations; to use information technologies in the educational and research work; to successfully manage educational process with the use of information and communication digital technologies, etc. A university professor can form the students’ professional competencies only if he can influence the professional and personal development of future doctors in the process of education and upbringing. Therefore, a medical university professor is not only a specialist in medicine, but also as an expert who develops cognitive activity of students, their professional clinical thinking in the educational process. He can correctly select and use specific interactive

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techniques when working with the audience; influence the professional and personal development of students - future doctors; analyze their own work from the point of view of psychology; and realize educational goals through the taught subject. Thus, new priorities of medical education are caused by changes in educational paradigms, transition from mass-reproductive teaching forms and methods to activity and creativity, increasing requirements for the general cultural training and specialization of medical graduates, training future specialists for professional competent entry into the labor market and the ability to solve new problems. Medical university graduates are encouraged to constant professional self-education. Therefore, the new medical educational paradigm actualizes the need for professional development of medical university faculty throughout the entire professional life.

3 Approach and Methodological Basis of the Professional Development Program Pedagogical competencies enable medical educators to organize the students learning methodically with the focus on recovery and health preservation of their future patients, to expand the area of this activity and to develop its content qualitatively. Besides, the development of the pedagogical basis of the modern doctor will make it possible to form a new professional position of a medical physician in the learning process and thereby transform the model of professional activity in accordance with the requirements of the time. Educational science gives a possibility to investigate professional problems; organize one’s own researches; highlight the stages, means, methods and criteria for self-control in profession. In other words, educational knowledge makes it possible for a medical university professor to meet the modern requirements. Educational science is necessary for doctors as it helps building relationships with patients, participating in preventive and educational programs and events. Therefore, it becomes the basis for the implementation of the urgently needed functions of medical activity: medical and health-care; psychological and educational; social and organizational. The following principals were chosen by the authors when the professional development program was developed: 1. Openness of the educational process, which makes it possible for the trainees to independently track the educational route in accordance with personal wishes and traits, the level and quality of previous training. 2. High intellect technological effectiveness of teaching based on new educational intellect technologies adapted to the specific group of trainees. 3. Accessibility of educational technologies. 4. Various formats of teaching: face-to-face, mixed, e-learning. 5. Modularity – integrative and comprehensive view of each unit of the program, localized in each particular topic, and possibility to vary the content of the module. It seems appropriate to make the professional development program for the medical university faculty on a modular basis. The authors believe that the concept “module” has to do with organizational peculiarities of the training process, and not a mere structure of the program itself. The developed educational program “Topical issues of

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research and educational activities of a university teacher in the information environment” includes 144 academic hours. Every module comprises a set of units and is complete and finalized. Systematic approach forms the general scientific basis for the professional development of university teachers, focus on personality and activity is its theoretical and methodological strategy, and competency-based approach is its practice-oriented tactics. Competence is a prerequisite for the successful fulfilment in profession. The structural logic of the advanced training is reflected in the discrete-successive connection between educational areas that ensure the continuous development of professional competence. Project-based, contextual learning technologies focused on practical actions and development of critical thinking provide the professional development of university teachers. On the one hand, professional development should help every university teacher to be involved into the professional culture, provide selfdevelopment and self-realization, and on the other hand, create pedagogical conditions for acquisition of pragmatically significant competencies for successful professional work. Knowledge management is another theoretical basis. The concept of knowledge management can be applied to teaching, upbringing, advanced training of teachers, the formation of special competencies, because all these processes are the essence of knowledge acquisition, if knowledge is considered in its integral form. Therefore, nowadays knowledge management and management of the educational process are two complementary processes that are increasingly converging and supported by innovative universities. The experience of engineering universities [4, 10–12] shows that education always includes academic tasks. The authors believe that the professional development program for the medical university teachers should also be based on solving academic tasks. Thus, the trends in engineering education were transferred to the advanced training of medical specialists. A separate professional function or operation, and the types of tasks or situations to be solved in professional activity (for example, learning a particular educational technology or a new computer program) can be considered as a unit for structuring the educational information into modules. At this point, the theoretical (fundamental) aspects of educational science may be taught as fragments of applied disciplines or subject methodology. The modular model of the educational process makes it possible to significantly change the structure and ratio of the classroom and extracurricular work. The trainees spend more time educational and methodological literature and electronic educational resources, working independently. In this paradigm, the number of lectures is steadily decreasing, and the number of practical classes focused on the acquisition of professional skills (competencies), (internships, seminars, trainings, practicums) with closer interaction between students and teachers, significantly increases. The presented professional development program for the medical university teachers includes four modules: • Psychological and pedagogical fundamentals of professional work of a medical university teacher, • Design and organization of professionally focused training ay a medical university, • Digital technologies at a medical university, • Scientific and educational competence of a medical university professor.

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Each module may be updated for a specific group of trainees. The willingness to innovate in medical practice as the baseline for the professional effectiveness. This factor needs to be presented in every module as it integrates personal and professional aspects of a doctor’s life. Baring in mind the peculiarities of innovation process and the fact that there is no complete technology for organizing the professional work of a doctor in the innovation system, we point out the characteristics of the professional readiness of doctors to innovate in profession: • needs and motivation to innovate in profession; • awareness about the responsibility for implementing innovations in profession; • actualization and mobilization of knowledge, skills, abilities and relevant personality traits to implement innovations in profession; • research skill, when individual does not follow a pattern or algorithm, but discovers something new; • social attitudes for innovations in medicine and, therefore, for professional fulfilment in the sphere of health-care, stability of professional interests. Each module has stages of professional and pedagogical training of medical university teachers in accordance with the structure of the teacher’s professional and educational competencies, which includes information, activity and reflective components. Information processing stage includes its comprehension, structuring, search for solutions, planning actions based on the knowledge acquired. At this stage, cognitive teaching methods (methods of educational cognition) are used - problem statement, partial search and research. The training is carried out in the following formats: frontal, differentiated-teamwork, individual-teamwork, cooperativeteamwork. Information interaction technologies are mainly used: problem-oriented technologies (action-oriented technologies) and programmed learning technologies. The second - activity - stage focuses on professional cases, practical tasks, technological charts and classes with students and their analysis. Teaching methods are based on algorithmic prescriptions and instructions. They allow trainees to resolve professional situations by “pointing” at their possible solutions and provide them with the opportunity to create their own educational products. These are methods of an intuitive type: brainstorming, the method of empathy, the method of synectics, morphological box, heuristic conversation, professional problem solving, etc. At this stage, the development of didactic material (sample, algorithm) is important: a proposal to search for a new algorithm; verbal instruction, using the rules for organizing independent work. Teamwork format is predominantly used. Learning interaction requires technologies for building contacts with other people, teamwork technologies, technologies for accepting a social norm or social role, technologies for counseling and providing assistance, preventing or resolving conflict; positional learning technologies, peer learning, business games, workshops, web quest, projects, and telecommunication technologies. On the final - reflexive - stage the trainees comprehend the acquired experience and personal changes, make the strategies of their future work. The forms of educational reflection are different: written discussion, questionnaires, graphic representation, etc. Reflection is necessary both for the trainees and for the educators in the program to see

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the frame of educational activities, to design training in accordance with their goals and programs, to be aware of the emerging problems and other results. At this stage, roleplaying games, personal growth trainings, case studies are used. The educational environment provides students with the opportunity to fulfil in various areas: educational and search, collective, independent, group, analytical, etc. In this situation the trainees discover their “points of personal growth”, develop their own trajectory of professional and personal self-development. Many scholars nowadays point out the importance of digital skills of university teachers. For example, the accumulated ITexperience makes it possible to predict the level of development of digital information skills; digital literacy of teachers allows them to use digital technologies in their work; the best way to promote using digital technologies in education is to hold on-the-job training in digital skills [13]. Information skills are key skills that university teachers pass on to new students in the learning process. Digital skills are consistent, following each other. In our opinion, the IT-training of university educators should be carried out in two directions – informational worldview (basic) and information-technology (applied). The information technology competence of a university teacher includes motivation and values, i.e. a positive attitude towards information technology and computerized activity, as well as personality traits that contribute to effective digitalization of professional work. The developed program took into account the peculiarities of trainees and aimed at the development and formation of professional competencies.

4 Results and Discussion Education was carried out in a flipped classroom format. The platform LMS MOODLE was used for independent learning, where a course was made with all the educational material and tasks for homework. The instrumental system DOCENS was used for designing the educational software [12, 13]. The work was carried out both in face-toface and online formats. Online part was in the ZOOM platform, that allows interpersonal interaction and communication. It gave an opportunity to analyze the main theoretical issues and to discuss practical questions and solve problems in webinars. In the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of e-learning was the only opportunity to carry out the program. This form of education has a number of advantages, i.e.: no geographical or time restrictions; individualization and adjustment for each student; the teacher’s freedom in choosing the methods and techniques of teaching; motivation and interest of trainees; saving information, etc. Besides, the statistics of various surveys of the Ministry of Education showed that teachers are organizationally ready to switch to distance learning formats, and students think that online format was quite high and satisfactory. The face-to-face part was represented by informational, pedagogical and psychological blocks. All classes were conducted in the form of teamwork, workshops for professional and personal development, and individual consultations. Classes lasted all day long, the teachers moved from one group to another. Thus, an immersive educational environment was created that provided the ability to acquire and use scientific knowledge, integrate it through clinical thinking, implement and transfer it in work

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with patients, colleagues, students, guided by ethical principles. At the final stage of training, the trainees solved project tasks that showed the personal development in research and education in the information environment. The faculty members were also given a questionnaire to consider the results of the program. To identify the strengths and weaknesses of the training process, a survey of trainees (112 people, 41% men, 59% women) was conducted on the initial stage of the professional development program. The average age of the interviewed university teachers was 40.4 years. The average experience of scientific and educational work was 21.4 years. 27% of professors, 23% of associate professors, 18% of senior teachers, 32% of assistants. Half of the teachers (48%) teach general professional disciplines, 33% teach special subjects, 19% of teachers teach humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines. The teaching staff of the trainees was quite homogeneous. Most of the trainees 61% came to work at the university, after clinical practice at hospitals. Only 10% of the respondents started their career at the university. Accordingly, most of the students had little experience in teaching. Moreover, only 10% of interviewed university teachers planned to teach being a university student, and 63% did not think about it. The main motives for work as a university teacher were the opportunity to teach - 56%, the desire to do scientific researches - 25%, care for the future generation 9%, etc. The hierarchy of the main areas of the medical university teacher is presented at Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Areas of activity of medical university faculty members.

Working at the university, 56% of teachers believe that teaching to a greater extent provides an opportunity for personal fulfilment. 26% of interviewees appreciate the high intellectual potential of the team. Positive emotions are experienced by 18% of the respondents. They note that it is interesting to work at the university with its benevolent, favorable moral and psychological environment. However, only half of the university teachers think that they have a teaching talent (56%), 38% of teachers were uncertain, and 6% of teachers were sure that they do not have good teaching skills. The respondents also self-evaluated their methodological basis, knowledge of educational technologies and techniques. 61% of medical university teachers had an average level of methodological knowledge, and one third of them (32%) believed that

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knew educational technologies on a high level. It is interesting that only half of the teachers (53%) were sure that the success of their professional performance depended on the level of their professional competence. The second half of the respondents were convinced that their professional success as university professors either depends insignificantly (31%), or does not depend in any way on professional competence (16%). The rating of professional and educational competencies and self-assessment of the level educational skills of the medical university teachers are presented in Figs. 2 and 3.

Innovative mobility Scientific searching skills Strive for innovations, scientific creativity Open mind Teaching skills Profound knowledge of the discipline

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 2. Ranking of professional and educational competences of university teachers (1 – the most significant, 6 – the least significant)

Level of educaonal skills 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 Ability to organize Ability to Ability to model extracurricula organizestudents' the educaonal acvies research work process Level of educaonal skills

Fig. 3. Self-assessment of educational skills of university teachers

Different answers were received regarding personal plans for the career development. 37.5% of teachers have a clear plan for the development of their career at the university. 34% of teachers doubt that it is possible to make plans for the future. 28.5% of university employees either do not have a plan at all, or there is a plan, but it is rather vague. At the same time, 99% of teachers are satisfied with the teaching work. The questionnaire carried out at the initial stage of the program showed that the faculty members pay much attention to the development of test materials for students (92%), syllabuses and teaching aids (96%). These results may by easily explained by the local specifics. There are three working languages at the university: Uzbek, Kara-Kalpak and

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Russian. Only 74% of the respondents focus on the systemic research work. Although nowadays the leading universities all over the globe put research work of the faculty as a priority, because it attracts grants, additional funding, and international students and post-docs willing to participate in innovative research projects. Thus, one of the main tasks of the program was to encourage the faculty to be more involved in the research activities. Among the main forms of communication with students, teachers choose the “subject-to-subject” format (74%) and joint creativity (23%). 71% of teachers answered that the rating system is an optimal tool to evaluate a teacher’s work, 21% of teachers noted that the rating system is quite appropriate, and only 8% of teachers do not understand how it works. The revealed weaknesses and strengths gave the basis for adjusting the program for the specific university. On the final stage of the program the students presented their projects that showed their personal growth landmarks in the research and educational activities in the digital media. The faculty members were also given a questionnaire to consider the results of the program. The survey showed that the majority of respondents (94,6%) were fully satisfied with the training process. 64% of teachers appreciated the practical focus, the importance of new scientific and educational information for the educational process at the university. 36% of teachers were interested in the ongoing professional development, noting that they would like to continue their studies in the future. The training showed individual weaknesses and strengths and determined the future professional development. Among the main challenges they named the problems of learning theory (32%), advanced teaching experience (40%), and new educational technologies (28%). The motivation for advanced training included mainly the need for new knowledge (46%), the desire to do job better (33%), the desire to keep up with colleagues (21%). It is curious that no one noted learning motivation, needs to broaden horizons and to raise the educational and cultural level among the leading motives. The survey showed that the majority of respondents (94,6%) were fully satisfied with the training process. 97,3% of the faculty members noted that they learned more about innovative educational technologies. 89,1% significantly reconsidered the idea and the content of research work. The major part of the group (84,7%) pointed out that they got acquainted with all the necessary information sources for the efficient professional educational activity. 82% of the respondents highly valued the new communicational skills needed for interpersonal and global professional contacts. 80,1% of the audience stated that their professional self-esteem considerably grew. During the individual consultations with the program teachers the faculty members pointed out that the innovational forms of training contributed greatly to the professional competency development, and the new knowledge and skills acquired in the training increased their professional and personal self-confidence and therefore helped them to implement their plans and projects. Thus, as a result of the training course the following competences were fully developed: innovational (97% of the trainees), research (97%), information (84,7%), personal professiona (84,7%) and interpersonal intercultural (82%). The results are quite indicative. After the professional development program, the trainees had positive dynamics in the development of professional competencies. In particular, information and personal competence have significantly increased.

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5 Conclusions The modern paradigm of education, the principles of the Bologna process, the lifelong education demand continuous updating of knowledge, skills and abilities. The priority of medical education today is to improve the quality of health care. The COVID-19 pandemic altered the educational requirements and lead to the necessity to improve the quality of the teaching and learning process digitalization. The co-called mixed training technique includes some new structural elements: presentation of the material as educational modules, activation of cognitive activities and new means of control. Transition to the next educational unit is possible only when the previous one is fully complete. Health practitioners should be ready to organize not just their own research work, but also the students’ researches, summarize and review different research findings (i.e. student projects); reveal and define current scientific and educational challenges, and incorporate modern medical knowledge into their academic disciplines. Thus, the use of digital educational resources and the active position of students contribute to improvement of teaching, ensure the development of the teacher’s individuality, form his ability to think autonomously, analyze and develop willingness for self-education and designing the trajectory of personal and professional growth. Personal activity technologies are designed to optimize learning the ever-increasing scientific knowledge. It can be concluded that nowadays educational science and medicine can be integrated at the socio-cultural, constitutional-preventive and didactic level of interaction, that include different types of educational work of a doctor.

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8. Dută, N., Rafaila, E.: Training the competences in higher education – a comparative study on the development of relational competencies of University Teachers. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 128, 522–526 (2014) 9. Osadchiy, I.S., Serezhkina, A.E.: Project-based education as a cross-functional competences development approach. Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng. 2020, 115161Y (2020) 10. Khatsrinova, O.Y., Vodopyanova, S.V., Galikhanov, M.F.: Methodological aspects and practical implementation of the program of additional professional education. Eng. Educ. 24, 122–128 (2018) 11. Khatsrinova, O.Y., Seliverstova, O., Khatsrinova, J., Tarasova, E., Barabanova, S.: Active learning - competency development strategy. In: Auer, M.E., Hortsch, H., Sethakul, P. (eds.) ICL 2019. AISC, vol. 1134, pp. 267–276. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-030-40274-7_27 12. Serezhkina, A.E., Dmitriev, M.E., Dmitrieva, L.M.: Comparative analysis of intellectual attitude towards information technologies of postgraduate students of humanitarian and chemical-technological orientation. Sustain. Dev. Manag. 5, 109–114 (2019) 13. Dmitriev, M.E., Serezhkina, A.E.: Docens: tool system for the educational software design. Bull. Technol. Univ. 1, 98–103 (2020)

The Role of Inter-institutional Cooperation in Engineering Training Svetlana Karstina(&) Karagandy University of the name of Academician E.A. Buketov, 28, Universitetskaya St., 100028 Karaganda, Kazakhstan

Abstract. The search of effective forms of inter-institutional interaction in engineering training for Kazakhstani education is a very actual problem. This is due to the fact that the modern system of engineering training is influenced by global and national trends, global competition between providers of educational services. At the same time, national enterprises are usually not ready to mutual cooperation with universities for forming regional innovation environment, universities are not considered by them as the main resource for professional development of industrial society. In accordance with this, the article focuses on the search for effective forms of involvement of various stakeholders in engineering training, development of recommendations for the development of corporate educational programmes taking into account measurability of their results and attractiveness for consumers. Based on the analysis of literature data, questionnaire survey results and expert evaluation, proposals on the need to expand the range of competencies acquired by students within educational programmes, to use external educational resources, training and evaluation services, to involve key stakeholders in the development and implementation of educational programmes have been prepared. The proposed approach to interinstitutional environment of engineering training is universal and can be recommended as an educational model taking into account constantly changing requirements to specialists’ qualifications and gradation of skills, employment criteria, impact of digital and technological transformations. In this paper, we propose a new toolkit, which, based on the analysis of ongoing changes, suggests new drivers to improve the efficiency of inter-institutional interaction. Keywords: Engineering education


Stakeholders
Skills and competencies

1 Introduction In Kazakhstan, in order to improve the sustainability of society, political and economic system of the country, considerable attention is focused on balanced territorial development, disclosure of regional potential, promotion of territorial mobility of human This research was carried out as part of international projects 598506-EPP-1-2018-1-PT-EPPKA2CBHE-JP ENTER “EngineeriNg educoTors pEdagogical tRaining” and 618835-ERP-1-2020-1-KZEPPKA2-CBHE-SP Kazdual “Inplementing Dual Systems in Kazakhstan”, co-funded by the Erasmus + programme of the European Union. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 67–74, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_7

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resources, modernization of educational infrastructure, creation of new jobs, development of low-carbon development concept, introduction of high-tech innovation in energy sector, increasing the production of electronic industry, created a new generation of electronic products, creating a smart ecosystem for decision-making and building an effective model for risk prediction and prevention. In this context universities should constantly prove their value, be open to all stakeholders, offer flexible and diverse ways of interaction, establish various innovation chains with key partners in engineering training, joint research and creation of innovative, high-tech products, find new variative forms of sustainable inter-institutional contacts. Joint (corporate) educational programmes for targeted training of specialists for specific industry in the region in partnership with the business community and with the support of state authorities and public organizations occupy an important place in this process [1, 2]. The combination of these actions should lead to differentiation of educational process, formation of innovation growth points, provide feedback between industry and education, create conditions for gradual transformation of universities into real economic entities, provide training of personnel in accordance with adequate requirements of market economy and their professional mobility. At the same time, enterprises of the country, as a rule, are not ready for mutual cooperation for formation of regional innovation environment, universities are not considered by them as the main resource of industrial society development, holder of expert knowledge and innovative practices, a full-fledged participant of production process. Scientific entrepreneurship and management in engineering and technology are underdeveloped. The results of the scientific and technical activities remain poorly sought after by businesses and are not applied by enterprises in their production processes. There is no system for assessing the impact of the results of S&T activities on socio-economic development. In this context, the search for new forms of inter-institutional cooperation in engineering training for Kazakhstan’s education is a very urgent goal. At the same time, universities should be ready to respond flexibly to the influence of global and national trends, global competition between educational service providers, to outsource the solution of individual complex tasks or problems requiring technical or scientific knowledge, to offer well-algorithmic, technological, attractive for consumers training programmes with clearly measurable results. To solve this problem, the article attempts to propose an effective model of inter-institutional interaction between HEIs and various stakeholders in engineering training and to prepare recommendations for the development of educational programmes in engineering profile.

2 Methods of Research The article analyzes modern trends, forms and directions of interaction between HEIs and regional enterprises, assessing the prospects and conditions of their development, including from the perspective of key stakeholders. For this purpose, a series of studies including expert assessment, questionnaire survey and interviewing of engineering students in universities and colleges in Southern, Northern and Central regions of Kazakhstan, as well as teachers of universities, colleges and employees of partner enterprises have been conducted. The questionnaires offered to respondents assessed

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the main factors influencing the renewal of educational programmes: 1) change of companies’ requirements to graduates’ competencies, 2) changes of regulatory requirements to the content of educational programmes, 3) changes in the labour market structure, 4) new professions emerging, 5) requests of students, 6) competition at the market of educational services, 7) rating indicators of educational programmes, 8) staff potential, 9) material and/or laboratory basis of the university/college. Based on the results of the questionnaire, the correlation coefficient r between the responses of respondents from different target groups: university teachers - enterprise employees (rUE ), university teachers - college teachers (rUC ), college teachers - enterprise employees (rCE ) was made by the formula: P P P n xy  ð xÞð yÞ ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi; r ¼ r ð1Þ P 2 P 2  P 2 P 2 n x  ð xÞ n y  ð yÞ where x and y are the arrays of respondents’ responses to the questionnaire of the two compared target groups, n is the number of questions in the questionnaire. The correlation coefficient r ¼ 1 corresponds to a strong correlation. There is no correlation between the responses of the respondents of the compared target groups at r ¼ 0. The respondents were also asked to assess the main problems faced by universities/colleges in implementing educational programmes. The results of the survey allowed the formation of a list of key problems. Within the framework of the conducted research, it was also of interest to find out the students’ assessment of satisfaction with the content of educational programmes in engineering, processing and construction industries, information and communication technologies. For this purpose, a questionnaire was developed to assess the relevance of practical training and practice to graduates’ employment plans, employers’ involvement in the educational process, students’ understanding of learning objectives and outcomes, students’ self-assessment of skills for professional activities, employment prospects after graduation. The students participating in the survey were divided into four groups: 1–2 courses students, 3–4 courses students, master students, college students. The total number of survey participants was more than 600 people. To analyse the results of the survey, the weighted average method was used.

3 Research Results As part of inter-institutional cooperation programmes in engineering training, universities educate and reproduce a “technocratic elite”, conduct research and create technological innovations. Engineering education is strongly connected to the development of social economy and industrial modernization in the country [3]. It combines the theory of science and engineering technology with the practice of modern production technology. Global competition in economy and technology raises the question: how to train engineering and technology professionals in accordance with the requirements of the time. Countries in Europe, the USA and Japan have started a new round of engineering education reform, using training models based on the needs of enterprises.

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In Kazakhstan, dual training programmes in universities and colleges are also gaining popularity. This is exemplified by the tasks undertaken by participants in the international KazDual project, implemented by universities and colleges with the participation of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan and accreditation agencies. However, the fast development and gradual transformation of the social economy is exacerbating the problem of engineering graduates mismatching the requirements of industry and the goals of sustainable development. This is evidenced by the results of a survey involving university and college teachers, students, graduates, industry representatives and education management departments. According to the survey results, engineering graduates have a number of shortcomings: they have narrow professional knowledge, low social adaptability and sense of social responsibility, no team spirit, poorly developed skills of independent decision-making, analytical work and reporting. During the adaptation period young specialists are faced with the lack or shortage of problem solving and situational analysis skills – 38,9%; technological skills – 38,9%; practical skills – 27,8%; skills in working with professional documentation – 27,8%; knowledge of foreign languages – 27,8%; management and organizational skills – 22,2%; professional communication skills – 16,7%; career development skills – 16,7%. In addition, learning objectives and learning outcomes are not always formed correctly and clearly for students, education does not take into account social reality, training and research are unbalanced, there is a lack of engineering practice, etc. The data we obtained showed that the degree of correspondence of the content of practical training and practice to the plans of students for employment is on average 46%. However, less than 50% of college and undergraduate students and 72% of master’s students give a positive assessment. It follows that educational programs are not practice-oriented enough, especially at the college and bachelor’s program levels. It is important to note that students in engineering, manufacturing and construction (45%) and information and communication technology (43%) give the lowest scores for the degree of relevance of the content of practical training and practice to the employment plans. For example, students in natural sciences, mathematics and statistics give a higher score (63%). Students lack systematic guidance and effective management in professional training and career planning. In addition, enterprises do not consider universities as a factor of innovative development, a full-fledged participant of the production process, they are not ready for mutual cooperation [4]. For example, according to the respondents’ average weighted evaluation, the list of basic problems facing universities/colleges in implementing educational programs includes low involvement of industries in training – 34,10%, low investment in staff training – 33,50%, slow introduction of innovative technologies and best practices – 33,30%, educational institutions do not feel themselves partners of businesses – 33,10%, low cooperation university/college – businesses – 32,50%, poor communication between the parties concerned – 32,50%, insufficient quality of entrants – 31,90%, weak interdisciplinary interaction – 28,90%. There is a discrepancy between the goals of engineering education modernisation and the problems of economic development of specific regions. To overcome these problems an effective model of cooperation between universities and enterprises is needed, which takes into account not only specific forms and directions, but also financial, managerial, motivational, normative

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and socio-cultural conditions of interaction. Due to the increased functions of the university and the growing complexity of the environment, modern models of interinstitutional interaction should combine social ecology, knowledge production and innovation, and include interaction between the university, the state, industry and civil society in new scientific, technological and production collaborations. This model should create economic benefits, technical and technological advantages for partner companies and optimise production. The most effective innovation models for interinstitutional cooperation are those that bring together diverse and complementary capabilities from around the world, “non-obvious” partners of different profiles, integrate digital and other rapidly developing technologies, and are integrated with the digital world. The right model of inter-institutional interaction allows to use own and partners’ resources effectively, to develop relevant research and innovation projects and to implement their results. Thus, in order to form a model of effective inter-institutional cooperation in engineering training universities need: 1) to maintain the goals of openness, sustainability and autonomy; 2) to create value propositions for interaction with key business partners; 3) to apply modern digital technologies in all spheres of activities; 4) to ensure adaptability and updatability of educational programmes depending on consumer demands; 5) to be open to internal and external initiatives; 6) to involve business partners in the processes of expertise, evaluation and modernisation of educational programmes, creation of conditions for on-the-job training, evaluation of professional competencies of graduates, training and retraining of specialists; 7) to develop new products and services, to implement marketing innovations and new processes in management of educational activities; 8) to use original business-models that would allow converting technological innovations into commercial success; 9) to build mutually beneficial relationships with all stakeholders that contribute to the innovation ecosystem of the university by supporting education and research; 10) to evaluate the impact of its activities on society on a regular basis. It is important to approach the creation of a model of inter-institutional interaction based on the emphasis on different constituent elements [5, 6]. These include the structure and relationships between the main business processes of a university, mechanisms for planning, control and correction of university activities, evaluation of key success factors [7, 8]. Such an approach makes it possible to view the organization of education in four projections: perspectives on innovation, learning and growth, perspectives on customer satisfaction, perspectives on development and financial perspectives. Based on different expert opinions, the following formats of interaction can be distinguished: 1) short-term or long-term educational and service provision, 2) integration into the production process, 3) integration into the educational process, 4) joint technological development, 5) joint research on a long-term basis, 6) integration interaction of universities and specific enterprises on a parity basis (dual training in universities, corporate educational programs, etc.). At the same time, not all of the presented interaction formats are used in practice. The main incentive for the formation of long-term partnership relations is mutual interest in improving the quality of specialists’ training, forecasting labour market needs and ensuring early employment of university graduates [9]. For example, the evaluation of factors, which influence the renewal of educational programs, given by employees of enterprises, differs significantly from similar evaluations given by professors of universities and colleges (see

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Fig. 1). The exception is three factors: changes in companies’ requirements to graduates’ competencies (factor 1), staff potential (factor 8), material and/or laboratory basis in university/college assessment (factor 9). The standard deviation of respondents’ responses for factor 1 was 0,8%, for factor 8 it was 0,94%, and for factor 9 it was 0,55%. At the same time, the calculations of rUE ,rUC and rCE according to formula 1 indicate a weak correlation of the responses of college teachers with the responses of university teachers and enterprise employees (rUC = 0,505, rCE = 0,447). There is a high correlation (rUE = 0,873) between the responses of university teachers and enterprise employees. The obtained result is important and should be used in the implementation of point 6 of the proposed model of effective interinstitutional cooperation in engineering training.

Fig. 1. Assessment by teachers of universities, colleges and employees of partner enterprises (share of respondents, %) of the main factors influencing the updating of educational programmes: 1 - changes in companies’ requirements to graduates’ competencies, 2 - changes in regulatory requirements to the content of educational programmes, 3 - changes in the labor market structure, 4 - emergence of new professions, 5 - requests of students, 6 - competition in the market of educational services, 7 - rating indicators of educational programmes, 8 - staff potential, 9 - material and/or laboratory bases of the university/college.

Educational programmes should include students in the innovative activities of industrial enterprises. This ensures targeted training of specialists in accordance with the real needs of existing production and the level of its development, early integration of the student into the production process and adaptation to the professional environment, involvement of tutors from enterprises, resource provision of educational programmes, conducting joint innovative developments and their implementation in production. Such training creates high motivation of students to form professional competences. Partner enterprises in engineering staff training should be the leaders in their industry and constant consumers of staff. Practical activity of a student at an enterprise within the framework of professional internships and work placements should vary depending on the degree of his/her readiness to perform professional tasks independently. To increase the chances of employment in addition to basic training, trainees should be able to obtain additional qualifications that are in market demand and have prospects in the future [10, 11]. Teachers play an important role in ensuring the

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quality of engineering training. They should know the technical equipment of enterprises, participate in the development and implementation of technical innovations [12]. Such an approach will erase the distinction between production and trainingprofessional tasks, between teachers and enterprise specialists. Effective implementation of engineering education requires educational infrastructure that provides students with free access to modern technologies and innovative engineering platforms. Thus, as the research results show, inter-institutional networking is a complex multifunctional process, which implies the use of a variety of methods and forms.

4 Conclusions The proposed approach to the formation of inter-institutional environment for engineering training has a universal character and can be recommended as an educational model, taking into account constantly changing requirements for specialist qualifications and gradation of skills, employment criteria, the impact of digital and technological transformations. The paper proposes a new toolkit that allows, based on the analysis of changes taking place, to propose new drivers to improve the efficiency of interaction with key stakeholders in order to create a holistic corporate educational environment. The approach to the development and implementation of engineering education programmes proposed in the paper should ensure the training of graduates to perform various professional functions and allow universities to respond flexibly to changes in the work environment. Based on the results of questionnaire survey and expert assessment, proposals have been made on the necessity to include a wider range of competences beyond specific professional activities, use external to the educational institution educational resources, learning and assessment services, involve key stakeholders related to strategic guidelines of regional economic development and regional labour market formation in educational programme development and implementation.

References 1. Rajalo, S., Vadi, M.: University-Industry Innovation Collaboration: reconceptualization. Technovation 62(3), 42–44 (2017) 2. Shuklina, E.A., Pevnaya, M.V.: Enterprises and University of the Region: the Forms of Network Interactions. Universitetskoe upravlenie: praktika i analiz [University Management: practice and analysis] 22(3), 86–99 (2018). https://doi.org/10.15826/umpa.2018.03.029 3. Chen, C.H., Tian, S.H., Tan, Y., Xiong Yang, X.: Research on the cooperation model of cooperative education in deep integration of universities and enterprises. Adv. Soc. Sci. Educ. Human. Res. 416, 1075–1080 (2020). In: Conference: 4th International Conference on Culture, Education and Economic Development of Modern Society (ICCESE 2020) 4. Shabaeva, S.V., Kekkonen, A.L.: Practical Research of University-Business Cooperation in Russia and the EMCOSU Countries. Universitetskoe upravlenie: praktika i analiz [University Management: Practice and Analysis] 21(6(112)), 93–100 (2017)

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5. Ovchinnikova, N.E.: University-Industry Interaction: Evolution, Necessity, Barriers and Prospects. Universitetskoe upravlenie: praktika i analiz [University Management: Practice and Analysis] 22(3), 61–72 (2018). https://doi.org/10.15826/umpa.2018.03.027 6. Teshev, V.A.: Dual education as a factor in the modernization of the social partnership of universities and enterprises. Vestnik Adygeiskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Seriya 1: Regionovedenie: filosofiya, istoriya, sotsiologiya, yurisprudentsiya, politologiya, kul’turologiya [The Bulletin of the Adyghe State University. Series 1: Regional St udies: Philosophy, History, Sociology, Jurisprudence, Political Science, Culturology] 1(135), 144– 150 (2014) 7. Santoro, M., Chakrabarti, A.: Firm size and technology centrality in industry-university interactions. Res. Policy 31(7), 1163–1180 (2002) 8. Schaeffer, P.R., Dullius, A.C., Maldonado, R., Zawislak, P.A.: Searching to bridge the gaps: a new typology of university-industry interaction. Academia Revista Latinoamericana de Administración 30(4), 459–473 (2017) 9. Khatsrinova, O., Galikhanov, M., Khatsrinova, J.: Interaction experience “universityindustrial enterprise” for improving preparation of engineering personnel. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 209–221. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_22 10. Karstina, S.G.: Educators training in the context of socio-economic and technological trends of Kazakhstan. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 68–75. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_7 11. Karstina, S.G., Makhanov, K.M., Kovalenko, O.L.: The Impact of Digital Transformation on Engineering Training. Upravlenie ustojchivym razvitiem [Manag. Sustain. Dev.] 5(30), 94– 99 (2020) 12. Khatsrinova, O., Barabanova, S.B., Khatsrinova, J.: The main trends in the development of engineering education: the role of the university teacher in systemic changes. In: ICL2018 21th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning, 25–28 September 2018, pp. 1223–1231, Kos Island, Greece ISI (2018)

Linguistic Personality: Requirements to a Modern Textbook Elena Volkova(&), Olga Y. Khatsrinova, and Mansur Galikhanov Kazan National Research Technological University, Kazan, Russia

Abstract. This research focuses on the development of a comprehensive personality of a student, a future professional, who is able to complete tasks in the specific time and in the target situation in all parts of the world. For bringing up such a personality, it is necessary to design the teaching materials in such a way that they reflect modern requirements in the profession. It is very important to immerse a student in the language every minute for developing a lexicogrammatical model of linguistic competence on the basis of communication in vocationally-oriented language. Therefore, new initiatives of modern world apply requirements to the construction of teaching materials with the aim of forming linguistic personality, who is thinking, reading, writing and communicating in the international language. To work out such a textbook is not simple. The main requirement for this textbook is maintaining student’s interest in professional language environment. This environment must be created within university campuses and it is necessary to work out the complex of exercises so that a student could speak English on the professional topics of the specific field of study. Suggested teaching materials were researched and tested in the student’s environment and made the base of survey. The results show high knowledge of students and their motivation to study foreign languages for special purposes, personality development and self- evolution. Keywords: Vocationally-oriented foreign language interaction
Professional discourse


Interpersonal

1 Introduction 1.1

Actualization

Our conceptual research of the problems of language interrelation and human personality begins with words of outstanding Russian linguist, Ruben Budakov, who wrote that “a language is the most important social phenomenon which always goes with people everywhere in the process of their labor and rest, during their thought process and emotional experiences, ups and downs, a language, in and of itself, is human” [1]. The problem of forming and developing a linguistic personality throughout all life is one of the most topical issues of modern education, and it is reflected in the Federal Law of the Russian Federation, which mentions that one of the main goals of higher education is “to meet the needs of the individual in intellectual, cultural and moral © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 75–84, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_8

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development, deepening and expanding education, scientific and pedagogical qualifications” [2]. A language reflects social consciousness and changes in it, the features of the economic and social organization of society and its differentiation, ethnic and demographic processes, development in the field of morality, culture, science, etc. The influence of language on a human personality is great. Changes in a language begin with changes in the speech of native speakers. The more regular mass speech changes are, the more readily they are adopted in the language, the higher is probability of influencing ideology through communication between people. Thus, forming a linguistic personality, one can achieve a directional change in the semantic field of the recipient, i.e. personality, which is under the linguistic and informational impact. The problem of the correlation between ideology and language, if it is necessary, can be formed as a practical task of strengthening the influence of certain ideas through a language. Linguistic manipulation of public and individual consciousness occurs just through a language. The most natural way for achievement of this change runs through linguistic meanings, through the appropriate selection of words and words combinations, their organization in speaking. However, a language is the only system of signs that affects the formation of purposeful thinking and the consciousness of a person, their spiritual world through the speech activity of an individual directly. Youth ambitions for studying foreign languages are connected to integration of Russia into world communities. Now Russian education is aimed at developing a vocationally-oriented linguistic personality of a student within the university walls, who is capable to realize not only in our country, but also in other countries. At this moment, the professional aspect of training in foreign languages is one of the most important directions of language departments of technical universities. Learning and teaching materials for development of vocationally-oriented foreign language with the aim of developing a linguistic personality of a student are worked out in dependence on training programs. A wide range of textbooks of the English language is for future electricians, healthcare professionals, biologists and other professions. In foreign countries, a large amount of works are also devoted to the concept of a vocationallyoriented foreign language. The main advantage of training in foreign language of specialists in international universities is the opportunity of full immersion in the language professional environment through foreign trainings. The teachers of foreign languages use materials from foreign textbooks which are build on communicative teaching methods very often in class. These things revive academic activity but don’t always reflect lexical material of future professional activity of a student, but they don’t immerse a student in professional language environment, that block developing a linguistic personality of a student. There is training in an English language for special goals which consists of skills transfer and speaking ability in a professional language for deciding highly specialized tasks. English for Academic Purposes is necessary for training scientists who are able to write scientific articles and annotations, work in English speaking research environment. The Kazan national Research Technological University is involved in international activity and maintains an active policy of development of students training in foreign languages. In the last few years the interest to university graduates has been increased from part of foreign

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companies like “Honeywall” and “Yokogawa Electric”. These companies are looking for future specialists for their departments at the beginning of study, based on knowledge of vocationally-oriented English. They are recruiting students, who are thinking in a foreign language and are constantly involved in professional communication. Therefore, working out new educational methodological complexes, development of professionally-oriented content and introduction of modern methods of learning of foreign languages are currently important for the educational process of an engineering university. The subject of the research in this article is to work out the requirements for construction of a textbook for students who take the Bachelor Degree and Master programs in technical fields of education with the aim of developing their linguistic personality. The analysis of professional standards showed that today it is necessary to form a “universal cultural competence”, comprising both a «lexico-grammatical» model of linguistic and communicative competences, which are results of «language teaching» but not «linguistic socialization». Namely, an engineer should not « be a proficient in language», but he should «know the language», because facing complex imported equipment and work manual of poor quality, an engineer is in a very difficult professional situation. A modern communicative language teaching is not expendable here, and in this situation we see contradiction in management of the educational process. That is why, it is necessary to work out new kinds of a textbook focusing on development of a linguistic personality, possessing a professional competence in foreign language and improving theoretical knowledge in its profession. Government documents secured support for young scientists-engineers so that these young engineers could become the advance guard in the future in building Russian industry and a high-tech state as a whole. In the course of an anonymous survey of 124 students, we found out that bachelors are motivated for future professional activities (81% of the respondents), but necessity of studying disciplines, which are away from reality of professional life, is not clear for them. Consequently, we need new ways to increase interest in learning of vocationally-oriented foreign languages with the aim of developing a linguistic personality of a student [3]. 1.1.1 Methods and Approaches The methodological basis of our study consisted of two main scientific directions, communicative and competency building approaches. In the framework of the competency building approach, we determined the general principles of educational process to achieve the goals of our study, namely: the selection of the content of teaching materials, the organization of the educational process in classrooms by the way of linguistic immersion and evaluating of educational results. Using a communicative approach gave the opportunity to track the results of educational activities, namely, how students use vocationally-oriented english for professional purposes [4]. As part of the communicative approach, we used interactive immersion technologies in professional environment to obtain information about the influence of language changes on a personality of a student in dependence on a particular communicative situation among its participants. We formed and developed the ability to think in english, organize professional communication and participate in communication. Within the framework of the competence-based approach, we used the methods of anonymous survey in order

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to determine the level of development of the student's linguistic personality in the professional sphere, the ability of a student to create, read and understand texts of professional direction (for example, decision of business issues, interviews, dialogs, reports about just a routine questions, holding a meeting, contracting, project review), the ability to maintain a conversation even with a limited lexical and grammatical base. Nowadays, for the development of a student's linguistic personality, it is necessary to provide students with educational materials which can meet the needs of the time, be interesting and accessible 24 h a day. It is necessary to take care to ensure that the student always wanted to contact them, in spite of his workload in studies and work. Now only those textbooks are currently important whose basis consists of complex development of intelligent and speech skills of students who will be necessary them for job task execution. We suggest that quazi-professional activity realizing by the means of introduction of vocationally-oriented situations, stimulates the interpersonal interaction of students and is the possibility for obtaining of primary experience of professional activities even on the stage of training at the university. We base on the following principals for selection of the content: the principal of professional direction; the principal of entirety in the educational system; the principal of motivation stimulating and favorability of students to subject matter. Our textbooks stimulate permanent change of roles that requires the correct choice of communicative strategy and facilitates emotional tension and concentration. So, for example, a task can follow for a description of situation in which one of the students will play the role of an expert, a client, a top manager of a company, an analyst and etc. As a result of solving the tasks, proposed in the manual, on the technology of analyzing situations, an independent transfer of theoretical knowledge to practice is formed, a vision of the problem occurs in a familiar or new professionally-oriented situation, a search for a new, alternative approach to solving the problem is realized due to mental activity stimulated by tasks. When using a structural-functional approach to the selection and methodological organization of the material, gradually more and more accent is put on its functionality that is the communicative orientation in using the linguistic material. 1.1.2 Progress of Work The phenomenon of a linguistic personality in Russian literature is associated with the name of the linguist and philologist, the Doctor of Philology, Yury Karaulov, who was the foremost authority in the field of linguistics. Under the linguistic personality, he considered “the totality of the abilities and characteristics of a person that determine his creation of speech works” [5]. Issues in the field of the theory of a linguistic personality, surrounding its social status, are considered in the works of such famous scientists as V.I. Karasik and V.G. Kostomarov. The works of N.D. Galskova and N.I. Gez are devoted to the analysis of issues related to the linguistic personality and its role in the theory of teaching foreign languages. These scientists define a linguistic personality as some readiness “to creation and manipulation by sign systems, as a human correlate of Language with a “capital letter”. In the understanding of a language expert, a linguistic personality is a multi-layer and multi-component set of linguistic abilities and skills, readiness to implementing speech actions of a varying difficulty level, actions that are classified, on the one hand, by types of speech activity, and on the other hand, by language levels

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[6].” A conceptual study of this issue is continued by B.A. Serebrennikov, focusing on the individual’s perception of the global picture and the role of man in the communication process. The simplest line of reasoning about this concept allows us to imagine a linguistic personality as a person who carries out speech activities aimed at the introverted and extraverted development of the individual, at his “ability to implementing linguistic strategies of behavior in a concrete life multicultural situation; at the development of spiritual maturity and the formation of spiritual and moral qualities, the ability to act as a “participant in communication [7]. Such scientists in this sphere as N.D. Galskova and N.I. Gez in their work “The theory of learning theory by foreign languages” analyze the conception of I.N. Karaulov about the level arranging of a linguistic personality. The three level structure is presented in his conception, based on the principle from lower to higher level. The zero level presents informative sign perception of the global picture by an individual. And it is named as verbal-semantic because corresponds to a degree of usual language proficiency. At this stage isolated words and simple phrases and grammar, semantic and associative connections between them take part in linguistic personal becoming. For example: to go on holidays, buy a car, have dinner in the family circle and etc. The first level supposes the intellectual cognitive activity of a personality in the form of speech communicative interaction, based on using the certain vocabulary by a personality. For example, proverbs and folk saying, different descriptions, aphorisms, stable colloquial phrases and expressions. Here, it is just from the first level, as noted by Yu. N. Karaulov, the formation and development of a linguistic personality begins, because individual choice of linguistic means and personal preferences of one concept to another becomes possible only at the first level. The second level characterizes the activity behavior of the individual (goals, motives, attitudes) in intercultural communication and social interaction, the ability to formulate the problem correctly in a planned situation and coordinate his speech behavior for successful communication [8]. Scientists–linguists, philologists (L.V. Shcherbe, V.V. Krasnykh, A.M.Shakhnarovich, T.M. Nikolaeva, V.I. Karasic) consider a structure of a linguistic personality based on conclusions that linguistic consciousness is realized through human speech activity, that is, it is expressed in the processes of speaking, writing and understanding. Researchers identify five main aspects in the speech organization of a person from the standpoint of the discourse theory: the linguistic ability, communicative need, communicative competence, linguistic consciousness and speech behavior. The language ability is considered as a personality factor to organize successful language communication using the mental and somatic abilities of the individual. The communicative need focuses on the participants in communication, the speech community and representatives of culture. The communicative competence is the ability to communicate in specified conditions in order to achieve successful communication. Linguistic consciousness is considered as a reflection of the external world in the inner world of a person. Speech behavior is a system of actions revealing the character and lifestyle of a person. The research work in the sphere of studying the linguistic personality involves inescapably those issues in the sphere of interests that unite specialists from different fields of science who study a person from the point of view of various scientific

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directions. The most important issues in the field of the theory of a linguistic personality include the following: the identification of types of linguistic personalities and a detailed coverage of approaches to their study. The typology of a linguistic personality is quite variable and is considered from the point of view of psychology, sociology, linguistics. This method of scientific knowledge is interestingly traced in the works of V.I. Karasik. He proposes a conditional differentiation between the following types of linguistic personalities: 1) a human personality, which carries out natural communication in his native language; 2) a person, who freely communicates in a foreign language in his communicative environment, here we are talking about a xenolect, i.e. the kind of language that is used, for example, by emigrants,/or people who live for a long time in a foreign country, or people who use the language of international communication for the purpose of natural communication, for example, scientists who make reports in English at conferences; 3) a person, who speaks a foreign language for educational purposes, and his communication is not a natural communicative environment for him (for example, foreign language classes) [9]. The two last types are interesting for developing within the walls of a university. It is not easy to bring up a linguistic personality of such a level. Today, the reforming system of Russian education demands new innovative approaches, which could respond to challenges of the modern society. However, creating something new, special in education is always considered as innovative. The idea of “advancement of education in the center of problems of world and social development” is reflected in the national project “Education” of Russian Federation for 2019–2024 years. The common requirements to public policy of Russian Federation Subjects in the sphere of education read that the priority activity is actions which are directed on increasing effectiveness of activities of educational organizations of professional and higher education taking into account their specialization. The main directions of planning changes in the sphere of higher education are the next: “diversification of educational programs in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard, application of higher education programs to the real needs of employers, the introduction of applied bachelor's programs” [2]. These strategies enter firmly in the existing system of higher education. The realization of these guidelines brings on search of new innovative decisions with the aim of training of a future specialist, who is able to create innovative products in the market. In this respect, the role of foreign languages and the requirements to them are mainstreamed. Opening new training programs and profiles in education, which are reinforced by normative documents directs, sets sights teachers of foreign languages on the achieving training goals, such as: a) competence building in foreign languages about intercultural communication; b) teaching how to use communication skills in a situation at hand; c) ability for self-organization and self-education. Making the work program in foreign languages in the given direction demands the creating new textbooks. That is why, our inventive manuals must correspond to the needs of motivational sphere of students. When developing a course, it is necessary to rely on the methodology of the specialty. The course must comply with the lexical, grammatical and linguistic standards accepted within the specific specialty and equally

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cover discourse, register and genre. The application of the above principles in combination with exercises allows not only to motivate students interest to learning English, but also to make studying be interesting and exciting process [10]. The developed maquette of the manual was submitted for review to forth year students in the form of an anonymous response to the questionnaire. Students should determine the degree of satisfaction by learning process when using the manual, elicit the problems in studying English, show arisen difficulties. Answers were presented in the form of the degree of agreement and disagreement. Students noted not only increasing in the level of motivation learning English (45%), but also highly appreciated the content component of the materials (74%), noting that they had mastered some professional and theoretical knowledge for the first time (39%). This decision was based on the fact that single – purpose textbooks in engineering profiles had not been written yet, as like, in many other new specialties and directions. That is why, great prospects about the creating of new courses, textbooks, best participatory practices co-authored with specialists of graduate chairs are opened for teachers of foreign languages. These collective authors textbooks and courses must fulfill the requirements of Federal Educational Standard and must be aimed at forming and developing common cultural and professional competences and a linguistic personality as a whole. For this purpose it is necessary to think through the structure of a future book, the content of which will promote the successful Oral and Written communication both in Russian and foreign languages for problem solving of interpersonal intercultural cooperation. We suggest distributing the educational content in the textbook in the following way. Paragraphs for reading in specialty, grammar and communication and a test must be present in every unit. Dividing on these units creates opportunities for forming knowledge, skills and abilities, which are necessary for development of universal cultural and professional competences. The paragraph “Reading” in specialty gives tone to a lesson, focuses a student on professional environment, introduce the professional vocabulary, which takes a student around over the period of the whole course. Grammar exercises must be made on the basis of professional lexis and promote to faster understanding material and focusing a student on professional and linguistic environment. Communication is just the unit of a textbook, which teaches students to communicating in the professional key. And lastly, “testing allows the teacher to control learning of educational resources and developing universal cultural competences” [3]. Exercises in listening comprehension skills are obligatory for creating textbooks of its kind because only they create the foreign atmosphere during a lesson providing linguistic environment for a student. In the result of pandemia, when the face-to-face interaction has become limited, tools of remote technology became to use very often and new opportunities for learning activity have been in teaching situation. However, it is important to clearly understand that the principles of constructing paper textbooks and electronic textbooks built into the curriculum are completely different. Uploading an electronic version of a paper textbook to a distance learning course would be a gross mistake for purposes of teaching foreign languages. Such approach will not only discourage students’ desire to study foreign languages, but in no way, it will not contribute to the development of the

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student’s linguistic personality. When preparing electronic textbooks, it is important that this manual is spectacular, colorful, situational, so that the student is always in a situation of communication or discussion of some professional problems. We insist on the obligatory electronic presentation of each unit of the electronic textbook so that the student can read it during his lunchtime at work or in public transport on the way to the university, keys to each task are required. Compliance with these requirements will expand the boundaries of independent study and assimilation of topics. The electronic textbook should be as accessible as possible from anywhere in the university campus. We propose to divide the teaching material in the manual as follows. Each unit must have subsections for reading in specialty, grammar, communication and test. Since the manual will be posted on the MOODLE platform, it will contain URLs to materials from the Internet. For example, watching of short videos in specialty that can be found on YouTube.com facilitate developing of listening comprehension skills more than traditional listening of audio recordings. It is preferable to fill the e-learning course with an author’s video with participating foreign English-speaking students. These measures will support the motivation to learn foreign languages when students see their classmates. In addition, you can give a task to students to shoot such a short video themselves. As a rule, students are sanguine about this task. The idea of learning foreign language using a computer (CALL resources) and digital technologies is not new. In Internet environment a teacher can find the most diverse forms of Needs Analysis, take the most suitable one or make the compilation from several forms [11]. Difficulties in creating such textbooks arise, first of all, when adapting and submitting specialized material in a foreign language. It is necessary that the textbook would be easy, communicative, promoting to the fast and deep mastering of universal cultural and professional competences and increasing the motivation of students to learning a foreign language. Integrating educational materials into the development of distance learning courses of a foreign language for different directions is another solution promoting to intensifying the teaching process to foreign languages. In this matter, the problem to be solved by the creators of textbooks and courses in a foreign language is the competent selection of exercises that can be performed remotely, while forming and developing universal cultural and professional competencies and a linguistic personality of a student. The solution of this problem is within the power of only a team of authors, since the involvement of different experts contributes precisely to the implementation of the professional world view in practice.

2 Conclusion Well selected and exact structured educational material gives chance to students to be acquainted with variety of languages standards in the frame work of friendly teaching environment, in conditions, when students discuss, write, analyze and use in practice more typical languages structure and/or lexical units for the region of interest. Our developing manual includes vocationally-oriented tasks which demand both using experience and provided theoretical data and development of fresh thinking in searching process of creative solutions. In this way, the substantial basis of the vocationallyoriented textbook should be composed of subjects of the professional cycle, integrated

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in such a way, that the language acts not only as a tool, that carries knowledge, but also stimulates students to self-knowledge and to generating new knowledge through communicating with age-mates and a teacher in the process of solving vocationallyoriented goals. Cooperation with specialists from graduate chairs will change the world view of a foreign language teacher and will push him to search for both new methodological solutions and study of professional specialized vocabulary. In its turn, the specialists of graduate chairs will have the opportunity to introduce a whole stream of students into the specialty, starting from the first year, to acquaint them more closely with the profession which they have chosen and to form professional competencies in students from the very beginning of their studies at the university. Today our society needs the specialists, qualified in further independent life activity, who are competent for solving practically important and professional problems [12]. So, a linguistic personality a student is not, by nature, a non-dimensional constitution, but it is a set of knowledge, skills, abilities, the formation of competencies, psychological characteristics. The types of linguistic personalities are distinguished depending on the approach to the subject of study, which is carried out from the point of view either a person or a language. The topic of the forming and developing a linguistic personality will always be currently central because human communication is possible if people have mutual understanding and interpenetration into spiritual worlds of each other and the linguistic personality acts, like a kind of, real vital stuff where educational phenomena and processes proceed, as a necessary dimension, giving the conclusions the volume of life realities [13]. Crossing of mental worlds happens in the result of communication, an advanced linguistic personality can and must become the total of this process [14]. Forming and developing a linguistic personality influence on changing of a social status of a person in a society through the reducing the social distance between participants of communication, touch upon a public subjects of political correctness, when using and interpreting of individual words, words combinations and topics and therefore influence on the development of a society in whole.

References 1. Budakov, R.: A Man and His Language. MSU Publisher, Moscow (1976) 2. URL http://273-фз.pф/zakonodatelstvo/federalnyy-zakon-ot-29-dekabrya-2012-g-no-273fz-ob-obrazovanii-v-rfst69 3. Khatsrinova, O., Galikhanov, M., Khatsrinova, Y.: The method of formation of the students of the engineering university competence to innovative professional activity. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 818–829 (2020) 4. Volkova, E., Semushina, E., Tsareva, E.: Developing cross-cultural communicative competence of university students in the globalized world. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 1328, 405–416 (2021) 5. Karasik, V.: A Lingual Circle: A Personality, Concepts, Discourse. “Gnosis” Publisher, Moscow (2004) 6. Galskova, N., Gez, N.: The Theory of Foreign Language Teaching. Linguodidactics and Methods. “Academy” Publisher, Moscow (2008)

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7. Serebryanikov, B., Kubtyakova, E., Postovalova, V., Teliya, V., Ufimtseva, A.: A Role of a Human Factor in a Language. A language and A worldview. «Science» Publisher, Moscow (1998) 8. Volkova E.V.: Different approaches to the problems of intercultural communicative competence. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Interactive collaborative learning and 42-nd International IGIP Symposium on Engineering pedagogy. Book of Abstracts. Edited by Claudio da Rocha Brito, Melany M. Ciampi– September 25–27, 2013, pp. 456–457, Kazan, Russia (2013) 9. Karasik V.: A Language of a Social Status. “Gnosis” Publisher, Moscow (2002) 10. Valeeva, E.E., Kraysman N.V.: The impact of globalization on changing roles of university professors. In: Proceedings of 2014 International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning, ICL 2014, 7017901, 934–935 (2014) 11. Valeeva, R., Valeeva, E.: Promoting creativity of engineering students in the foreign language classroom. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 1329, 191–198 (2021) 12. Volkova E., Zinurova R., Tuzikov A.: Formation experience of sociocultural competence in the system of additional foreign education. In: Lee, G., Schaefer, G. (eds.) Social Sciences, 4th International conference on Social Sciences and society (ICSSS) 2015, pp. 144–147, Paris, France (2015). http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=WOS& search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=1&SID=2DD7begH5NWdz2TjcsY&page=1&doc=1 13. Tregubova, T.: Comparative researches in the sphere of professional education: main trends and adaptation problems. Kazan Pedagog. J. 3, 33–39 (2013) 14. Kupriyanov, R.V., Romanova, G., Valeyeva, N.S., Nugmanova, D.R., Valeyeva, E.: The effect of socio-psychological workshops on the process of first-year students’ adaptation. In: The Proceeding of the ASEE International Forum, Columbus, Ohio (2017). https://www.jee. org/29303

Acceptance of ICT in Institutional Collaboration in Vocational Education. Empirical Findings Based on Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) Nadine Schaarschmidt(&), Maybritt Schrader, Felix Schilk, Helge Fischer, Silvia Blass, and Thomas Köhler Technische Universität Dresden (TUD), Dresden, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. The dual system of vocational education and training in Germany is characterized by the cooperation between different educational institutions as vocational schools and companies. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), e.g. digital report portfolios, are used to organize and strengthen the cooperation between those involved in vocational education. The main question in this article is which factors influence the use of digital portfolios in vocational training. By presenting findings from an online survey, factors are examined that may improve the digitalization of collaborative learning between vocational schools and companies by using digital report portfolios – from the perspective of both apprentices and in-company trainers. Keywords: (online-) cooperation of different learning venues
Collaborative learning
Vocational education
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology
ePortfolio
Digital report portfolio

1 Introduction The digitalization in the education in Germany sector is taking place not only in the context of innovative teaching methods and educational technologies, but also in the educational organization of cooperative relationships at both individual and institutional levels. This is particularly evident in dual vocational training. The cooperation between the learning venues ‘company’ and ‘vocational school’ within dual vocational education consists of aspects ranging from those that are content-related and organizational to pedagogical aspects. In vocational education and training, the new requirements resulting from digitalization are resulting in an increased cooperation between learning venues. From the learners’ point of view, however, it is particularly interesting how and whether the processes of formal learning (in the vocational school) could be successfully combined with those of non-formal learning (in the company).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 85–94, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_9

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There are positive effects especially in the transparency of the training processes as well as in regard to metacognitive reflection processes, which could be strengthened by a digital report portfolio. For effective cooperation between trainers, vocational school teachers and trainees, the ICT tool “BLok”,1 an online report system for dual training occupations, was developed at the TU Dresden. Using BLok, apprentices can manage their activity reports online as an ePortfolio or digital portfolio2. The responsible in-company trainers have the opportunity to view and approve the reports regardless of time and location, as do the vocational school teachers and the inter-company trainers. “BLok” depicts the potentials of ICT for learning venue cooperation and provides the starting point for research in the “DiBBLoK”3 project.

2 Research Design 2.1

Research Aim and Question

The German dual system of vocational education and training is characterized by the cooperation of different learning institutions. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), in this particular case the digital report portfolio “BLok”, are used in order to support and organize the cooperation between vocational schools and companies, more specifically between trainers and vocational school teachers. In this paper the conditions for success of digital education are examined. The main objective is to investigate which factors influence the use of digital portfolios in vocational training. For this purpose, an online survey was conducted. Findings from this research show factors fostering the digitalization of collaborative learning between vocational schools and companies from the perspective of apprentices as well as incompany trainers. 2.2

Research Methodology

For the study, a model based on current research of technology acceptance was developed. In this research field, the reluctance to use technologies has been systematically investigated [1, 2] focusing on the various factors that influences the intention to use digital applications.

1 2 3

www.online-ausbildungsnachweis.de. Both terms are referred to synonymously. Diffusion of digital technologies in vocational education and training through cooperation between learning venues.

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Fig. 1. Reference Research Model based on User Acceptance of Information Technology (UTAUT), own illustration according to Davis et al. 1989 [1] & Venkatesh et al. 2003 [2]

Following the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) [2], that has already been tested in the context of educational technologies [3], a model was devised, adapted for the current study [4] and revised after the data has been analyzed (see Fig. 1). Personal factors such as age, gender, personality, or digital competencies were systematically addressed in addition to perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, perceived availability, and skepticism. These factors were assessed in autumn 2020 by conducting a nationwide online survey. The survey was published on the landing page of “BLok”, the online report system for vocational education. By this means, all companies (5993) and apprentices (20721) participating in the report portfolio could be addressed. The final data pool includes 762 participants, composed of 656 apprentices and 106 in-company trainers. The average age of the apprentices is 21.6 years, ranging from 16 to 51 years. The gender ratio is almost balanced (49.9% men, 49.5% women, 0.6% diverse). The average age of the in-company trainers is 40.1 years, ranging from 21 to 62 years. Among the in-company trainers, more men (63.7%) than women (36.3%) participated in the survey. The results were compared with international research studies. For this, 15 studies between the years 2011 and 2021 were selected that assess the use of technologies similar to the ICT tool “BLok” (a digital report portfolio) for education purposes in America, Europe, Asia, Australia and Africa. The main criterion for selecting these studies was that their analyses were based on TAM models as reference models. In addition, this researches study similar factors that influence the acceptance of web-based technologies like ePortfolios.

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3 Investigation Results 3.1

Analytical Methods and Approaches

From the reference research model, eight directed and undirected hypotheses were derived. The following hypotheses were analyzed and the results are reported below: 1. The higher the perceived usefulness of ICT for learning venue cooperation, the higher the frequency of use. 2. The easier ICT for learning venue cooperation are to use, the higher the frequency of use. 3. There is a correlation between digital media literacy and the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation. 4. There is a correlation between the personality patterns and the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation. 5. There is a correlation between the motivation to perform well and the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation. 6. There is a correlation between the perceived ubiquity and the perceived usefulness of ICT for learning venue cooperation. 7. There is a negative correlation between skepticism and the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation. 8. There is a correlation between the perceived level of digitalization of the learning venue ‘company’ and the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation. The frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation was parameterized via the item “I access BLok frequently”. The Likert Scale ranged from 1 to 5. The ICT tool “BLok” is a digital report portfolio used in dual vocational education in Germany, as described in Sect. 1. Correlations were calculated using Spearman’s coefficient rs. According to Cohen [5] rs > .10 corresponds to a small effect, rs > .30 to a medium effect and rs < .50 to a large effect. Comparisons between two groups were conducted using the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test. The applied significance level was based on p < .05. 3.2

Results

1. The perceived usefulness of ICT for learning venue cooperation was determined by evaluating the following statements, among others: • The use of ICT for learning venue cooperation is a good idea. • The use of ICT for learning venue cooperation increases the effectiveness of my work. The perceived usefulness for apprentices correlates significantly with the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation (rs = .333, p = .000, n = 563) which is a medium effect. The perceived usefulness of in-company trainers correlates significantly with the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation (rs = .621, p = .000, n = 89). This represents a large effect.

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2. The Ease of Use of ICT for learning venue cooperation was assessed by evaluating the following statements, among others: • The interactions with ICT for learning venue cooperation are clear and easy to understand. • Using BLok does not require much mental effort from me. The perceived Ease of Use for apprentices correlates significantly with the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation (rs = .39, p = .000, n = 616). This turns out to be a medium effect. The perceived Ease of Use for in-company trainers also correlates significantly positively with the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation (rs = .60, p = .000, n = 97). This finding depicts a large effect. Of the 15 international studies reviewed, the correlation between perceived ease of use and the attitude of use or frequency of use of ICTs is widely supported in 12 of them. Examples can be seen in [6–9]. 3. Digital media literacy of both apprentices and in-company trainers was measured along two dimensions: operating competencies and competencies with regard to data privacy and security. The operating competencies focus on skills of varying degrees of complexity, ranging from handling simple device to mastering programming languages and were assessed by evaluating the following statements, among others: • I am able to create texts or presentations on the computer or perform calculations using a spreadsheet program (e.g., Excel, Word, or PowerPoint). • I am able transfer files such as photos from one device to another. The competencies with regard to data privacy and security including awareness, knowledge, and actual practice of preventing or counteracting data misuse, loss, or manipulation were assessed by evaluating the following statements, among others: • I put only few personal data on the internet for privacy reasons. • I am able to make the necessary security settings on my devices or in my applications. Apprentices’ operating competencies show no significant correlation with the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation (p = .069, n = 575). Even though the apprentices’ competence with regard to data privacy and data security is significantly correlated with the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation (rs = .110, p = .008, n = 574). However, this turned out to be a very small effect and should be discarded. The operating competencies of in-company trainers correlate significantly with the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation (rs = .332, p = .001, n = 90). This portraits a medium effect. However, the competence regarding data privacy and data security of the in-company trainers does not reveal a significant correlation with the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation (p = .094, n = 90). To summarize the above-mentioned data, it can be concluded with regard to the apprentices that there is no significant correlation between digital media literacy and the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation. In spite of the fact that, on

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average, apprentices had significantly higher operating competencies (x = 4.1)4 than in-company trainers (x = 3.93; Mann-Whitney-U-Test: U = 21193, p = .000), the incompany trainers exclusively showed a moderate correlation between operating competence and frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation. This is particularly remarkable, as the apprentices’ well-developed operating competencies do not appear to positively influence the frequency of ICT use for learning venue cooperation. Positive effects can only be detected among the in-company trainers. Increasing the comparatively lower initial level of operating competence of the in-company trainers can still have a positive effect on the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation. However, enhancing the existing higher level of the apprentices’ competencies has no further effect on the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation. 4. Personality patterns were operationalized using the Big Five Inventory-10 (BFI10) [10]. The key dimensions covered the following personality properties [11]: extraversion (e.g., gregariousness, ability to be assertive), agreeableness (including altruism and trust), conscientiousness (e.g., self-discipline), neuroticism (including vulnerability, anxiety) and openness (including aesthetics, fantasy). Neither for the apprentices nor for the in-company trainers the aforementioned dimensions indicated significant correlations with the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation (p > .05). 5. The motivation to perform well was analyzed by rating the following statements, among others: • I enjoy working on problems that are a bit difficult for me. • I'm attracted by situations where I can test my skills. Regarding the apprentices, no significant correlation can be found between the motivation to perform well and the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation (p = .091, n = 541). However, a significant positive correlation between the motivation to perform well and the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation was identified among the in-company trainers (rs = .26, p = .007, n = 88). This effect can be classified as small. 6. The perceived ubiquity was conceptualized by the following items, among others: • I can access ICT for learning venue cooperation at any time. • I think that ICT for learning venue cooperation is generally accessible to everyone. Apprentices’ ratings of perceived ubiquity correlates significantly with perceived usefulness of ICT for learning venue cooperation (rs = .261, p = .000, n = 569). This reflects a medium effect. The in-company trainers’ opinion on perceived ubiquity correlates significantly with the perceived usefulness of ICT for learning venue cooperation (rs = .356, p = .000, n = 92). This appears to be a medium effect.

4

Higher values represent a higher level of digital media literacy. The scale ranged from 1 (low competencies) to 5 (high competencies).

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Unlike in the present study, perceived ubiquity is not a factor that is widely analyzed in the reviewed international studies. Seemingly, with the improvement of mobile learning and learning infrastructures, ubiquity appears to be evident, especially in countries of Europe and the USA. Access to ICTs and ubiquity are factors that are analyzed mainly in learning environments where technological access, specially to the Internet, is not completely guaranteed, as is the case within developing countries in America, Asia, Africa, and especially within rural areas [12–14]. In these studies, the perceived ubiquity is not only a variable that influences the attitude of use, but also the perceived usefulness, the intention of use and the real use of ICTs in a learning environment. 7. The skepticism towards ICT for learning venue cooperation was gauged on the basis of compliance to the following items, as well as others: • I think the use of ICT for learning venue cooperation always involves a certain risk. • I think the use of ICT for learning venue cooperation implies risks for me. Among apprentices, skepticism about ICT for learning venue cooperation correlates significantly negatively with the frequency of use (rs = −.242, p = .000, n = 558). The effect can be characterized as small. Among the in-company trainers, there is a significant negative correlation between the skepticism towards ICT for learning venue cooperation and the frequency of use (rs = −.508, p = .000, n = 87). This corresponds to a large effect. Like in the presented study in which a large effect among in-company trainers has been proven, media skepticism is generally presented as one of the main barriers to the adoption of ICTs in learning environments. This barrier has a social tinge, since it is mostly based on other people’s experiences. International studies show that this factor can determine the success, failure and also the speed of the adoption of ICTs for the learning process, especially if this social barrier is widely spread among the potential users [14–16]. 8. The in-company trainers were asked to assign their company to a specific level of digitalization in the questionnaire, using a three-step scale ranging from “technically at the top” to “technically still lagging behind” and even “deliberate restraint with regard to technical equipment for digital learning”. Among the in-company trainers, there proves to be a significant positive correlation between the level of digitalization in the company and the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation (rs = .219, p = .018, n = 92). This effect can be evaluated as small. Furthermore, the influence of factors such as age and gender on the use of ICT for learning venue cooperation was examined. Neither for the apprentices (p > .05, n = 543) nor for the in-company trainers (p > .05, n = 85) a significant correlation between age and the frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation could be found. Unlike the results found in this study, in the analyzed studies, age plays the role of a moderating variable which influences the correlations within the proposed models. In study groups of various age ranges, significant differences can be seen in terms of perceived ease of use, usefulness and frequency of use [9, 14]. In almost all of the models, age also moderates the correlation

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between computer literacy and intention of use, as well as the correlation between the motivation and intention of use. In [9], it is shown that the youngest students are the most motivated. In some studies age is a variable that also moderates the relationship between social influence and the adoption of ICTs [17, 18]. It can be seen that skepticism towards the use of ICTs is bigger in older age ranges [14]. There is also a difference between the influence of age on the adoption of ICTs for learning processes in developing countries and in developed countries. In most of the studies conducted in developing countries of Latin America, Asia and Africa, age generates differences in the use of ICTs between age ranges [9, 12]. However, in studies in developed countries, age did not make any significant difference as also observed in the present study [6, 7]. This may also be due to the fact that in the developed countries the number of ranges was smaller, meaning almost all the participants were in the same age group. In order to analyze whether the categorical variable gender affects the target variable frequency of use of ICT for learning venue cooperation, the distribution of the frequency of use in both groups was tested for independence using the Mann–Whitney U test. Regarding the apprentices (p = .000) the hypothesis of independence has to be rejected at a significance level of 0.05, regarding the in-company trainers (p = .146) it has been confirmed. The descriptive analysis of the distribution shows that female apprentices access ICT more frequently than male apprentices do. However, this is a rather spurious correlation caused by a gender-specific distribution of the training occupations in the sample, where female apprentices (61%) are overrepresented in office jobs – for which the use of digital devices is more common – compared to male apprentices (24%). In most of the reviewed studies, gender as a moderating variable did not affect the correlations of the models. However, the moderation of the variable could be unclear in studies where there is a clear difference between the number of males and females due to the area of application. Only one study of the 15 showed an influence of gender in students’ attitudes toward the ePortfolio. This correlation may be due to a differentiation of the intention to use between men and women. The women in this study were more motivated to use an ePortfolio to record their achievements [19].

4 Conclusion The present study analyzes the acceptance of ICT in the learning venue cooperation in vocational education and training among directly involved actors: apprentices and incompany trainers. The findings show how the readiness for use of digital tools in this field should be promoted from the stakeholder’s point of view. To address the research question initially presented regarding apprentices large to medium effects on the use of digital portfolios in vocational training have been detected in this order for Perceived Ease of Use, Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ubiquity. Small effects have been detected in this order for Skepticism and Competences regarding data privacy and data security. No significant effects have been detected for Operating Competencies, Personality Patterns and Motivation to perform well. Regarding in-company trainers large to medium effects on the use of digital portfolios in vocational training have been detected in this order for Perceived Usefulness,

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Perceived Ease of Use, Skepticism, Perceived Ubiquity and Operating competencies. Small effects have been detected in this order for Motivation to perform well and Level of digitalization. No significant effects have been detected for Competences regarding data privacy and data security and Personality Patterns. In contrast to the apprentices, the perceived benefit of technologies is decisive for the use of ICT for in-company trainers (hypothesis 1). In-company trainers attach great importance to the ease of use of ICT; the in-company trainers’ usage behavior depends on their operating skills (hypotheses 2 and 3). However, these variables show little effect on the use of ICT for learning location cooperation by apprentices. For the adoption and dissemination of ICT for learning venue cooperation, technologies and services should therefore be adapted to the requirements of in-company trainers and instructors. The user-friendliness of the systems must be guaranteed, as well as training courses to increase operating competence. Flexible access to technologies is an important criterion, especially for trainers in companies, which emphasizes the role of mobile devices (hypothesis 6). The findings also clarify the role of technology skepticism as a barrier to the use of ICT, especially from the point of view of the incompany trainers (hypothesis 7). Progressive digitalization in the participating institutions must therefore be accompanied by change management to counter skepticism. The general level of digitalization of the institutions involved, on the other hand, has positive, but rather small effects on the frequency of ICT use (hypothesis 8). Digitalization in vocational education and training and the associated cooperation between learning venues can be seen as an important indicator of the advanced state of digitalization in the participating institutions. Consequently, the findings from the quantitative data analysis can be utilized to derive criteria for successful cooperation between learning venues and therefore make an important contribution to the further improvement of processes within vocational education and training.

References 1. Davis, F.D., Bagozzi, R.P., Warshaw, P.R.: User acceptance of computer technology: a comparison of two theoretical models. Manag. Sci. 35(8), 982–1003 (1989) 2. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M.G., Davis, G.B., Davis, F.D.: User acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view. Manag. Inf. Syst. Q. 27(3), 425–478 (2003) 3. Nistor, N., Wagner, M., Heymann, J.O.: Prädiktoren und moderatoren der akzeptanz von bildungstechnologien. die unified theory of acceptance and use of technology auf dem prüfstand. Empirische Pädagogik 26(3), 343–371 (2012) 4. Barczik, K., Weinhold, N., Grabe, S., Schröder, J.: Digitalisierung als Treiber der beruflichen Bildung – Entwicklung eines Instruments zur Erfassung von Indikatoren für die Akzeptanz von virtuellen Lernortkooperationen. In: Köhler, T., Schoop, E., Kahnwald, N. (eds.) Gemeinschaften in neuen Medien: Von hybriden Realitäten zu hybriden Gemeinschaften. 23th Workshop GeNeMe’20, pp. 452–469. Dresden (2020) 5. Cohen, J.: Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Routledge, London (1988) 6. Hsieh, T.C., Chen S., Hung, M.C.: Longitudinal test of ePortfolio continuous use: an empirical study on the change of students beliefs. In: Cakir. A (ed.) Behaviour & Information Technology, vol. 34(8), pp. 838–853 (2015)

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7. Emmett, D.J.: Student Engagement with an ePortfolio: A Case Study of Pre-Service Education Students. Professional Doctorate Thesis. Queensland University of Technology, Queensland (2011) 8. Rokhsareh, M., Azizah, A.R., Mojib, M.: Electronic portfolios acceptance and use in higher educations: a systematic review. J. In. Syst. Res. Innov. 4, 11–21 (2013) 9. Ciesielkiewicz, M., Méndez-Coca, D., Méndez-Coca, M.: Factores motivacionales intrínsecos en el uso de ePortfolios por el estudiantado en programas de Máster en Formación del Profesorado. Revista Electrónica Educare (Educare Electronic Journal) 25(2), 1–14 (2021) 10. Rammstedt, B., John, O.P.: Measuring personality in one minute or less: a 10-item short version of the big five inventory in English and German. J. Res. Pers. 41, 203–212 (2007) 11. Rammstedt, B., Kemper, C.J., Klein, M.C., Beierlein, C., Kovaleva, A.: A short scale for assessing the big five dimensions of personality – 10 item big five inventory (BFI-10). Method. Daten Anal. 7(2), 233–249 (2013) 12. Soediono, B.: Factors Influencing Cloud-Computing Technology Adoption in Developing Countries. Professional Doctorate Thesis. Capella University, Minneapolis (2012) 13. Blass, S.: Student readiness for online learning - A case study in rural Bolivia. In: Köhler, T., Schoop, E., Kahnwald, N. (eds.) Gemeinschaften in neuen Medien: Wissensgemeinschaften in Wirtschaft, Wissenschaft und öffentlicher Verwaltung. 20th Conference GeNeMe’17, pp. 172–182. Dresden (2017) 14. Blass S., Köhler, T.: Digitalization in schools - An empirical study of teachers’ attitude towards the use of ICTs after the introduction of a ‘One Laptop per Teacher’ initiative. In: Communities in New Media: Researching the Digital Transformation in Science, Business, Education and Public Administration. 22nd Conference GeNeMe’19, pp. 57–69. Dresden (2019) 15. Rath, M.O., Delere, M: Media skepticism as a prejudice – attitudes of german prospective teachers towards digital media. In: Gómez, L. López, A., Candel, I. (eds.) 14th International Technology, Education and Development Conference, pp. 5851–5858. Valencia (2020) 16. Fischer, H.: Die adoption von technologischen innovationen. In: Fischer, H. (ed.) ELearning im Lehralltag: Analyse der Adoption von E-Learning-Innovationen in der Hochschullehre, pp. 73–122. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden (2013). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-02182-5_5 17. Fischer, H., Köhler, T.: Adopter types of e-learning innovations in higher education. empirical findings. In: Bastiaens, T., Ebner, E. (eds.) Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications, pp. 3298–3306. Chesapeake (2011) 18. Nassar, A., Othman, K., Mohd, N., Mohd, A.: The impact of the social influence on ict adoption: behavioral intention as mediator and age as moderator. Int. J. Humanit. Soc. Sci. 9 (11), 963–978 (2019) 19. Mahasneh, O.M.K.: A proposed model for the university students’ E-Portfolio. J. Educ. eLearn. Res. 7(1), 28–33 (2020)

Designing an Architecture for Structuring Didactic Concepts, Methods and Tools Veronika Thurner and Axel B¨ ottcher(B) HM Hochschule M¨ unchen University of Applied Sciences, Munich, Germany {veronika.thurner,axel.boettcher}@hm.edu

Abstract. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, education was digitized massively and in a very short time. A vast variety of didactic concepts, methods and tools came into use, quite often as an ad-hoc solution that coped with a specific need. However, the extreme circumstances of the pandemic left little to no room to reflect in depth on how these different elements integrate into a big picture. As a consequence, all stakeholders involved in the educational process need to gain orientation within these new settings and possibilities, as a prerequisite for taking suitable decisions within their respective scope. To support this need for orientation, we introduce an architectural model that structures didactic concepts, methods and tools into a big picture, which is formulated using the notation of class diagram as known from software and requirements engineering. Keywords: Taxonomy for teaching methods Learning technologies · Didactic architecture

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Motivation

The Covid-19 pandemic brought about a massive digitalization in many areas of our lives – education being one of them. To cope with and compensate for the physical distancing that was necessary to limit the spreading of the disease, teachers on all educational levels had to transfer their activities into a purely virtual mode. This transition had to be accomplished practically overnight and in highly challenging circumstances, leading to improvised solutions generally denoted as emergency remote teaching [11], to contrast them to intricately designed digital teaching and learning approaches that are developed at leisure and with ample staff support. In the context of these efforts, a vast variety of didactic concepts, methods and tools came into use, quite often as an ad-hoc solution that coped with a specific need. However, the extreme circumstances of the pandemic left little to no room to reflect in depth on how these different concepts, methods, tools and technologies integrate into a big picture, when to use what, and which aspects have to be considered and addressed to create solutions that work effectively towards achieving specific learning and teaching objectives. c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 95–106, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_10

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This observable lack of clarity creates a challenging situation for a variety of stakeholders: Lecturers need to newly learn how to select from the multitude of new options a subset that is suitable to promote their teaching and learning objectives within a specific setting, and then getting this subset into practice. Decision makers in educational strategy and politics need orientation for deciding how to most effectively spend the available monetary resources, where possible investment areas range from hardware devices (tangible and thus easy to be aware of) to the development of didactic methods (highly abstract and thus often forgotten). In the organizational dimension, university governance needs to be aware of the lecturers’ needs for enablement and support that arise from the new ways of teaching and learning that evolved in the wake of the pandemic. And last but not least, students need orientation as well, including an explicit understanding of why-to-do-what along their individual learning path. Therefore, on the verge of progressing into the era of post-pandemic teaching practices, it is advisable to clarify these issues and develop some sort of systematic structuring of educational concepts, methods and tools – integrating both the virtual and the on-site educational world, and thus to provide orientation for all stakeholders involved. To contribute to this challenge, we introduce an architectural model for didactics in the context of constructive alignment.

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State of the Art

For many years, course design – no matter whether online, on site or blended – has been the subject of intensive research. In their survey on instructional design models, Branch and Dousay focus on the overall process of instructional design from a rather high level and comprehensive perspective, thus addressing the entire system and life cycle of teaching and learning, organized into the five core elements of analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation (abbreviated as ADDIE). In their research, they distinguish three different types of models for instructional design – classroom oriented, product-oriented and system-oriented [5]. All in all, the collected models give a good impression of the complexity of instructional design and of a variety of aspects that have to be considered, but remain highly abstract and thus provide little guidance when devising a specific course or teaching unit. Closely related to instructional design is the notion of instructional strategy, which is used throughout literature in a highly heterogenic way, which emphasizes the rather vague notion of the different concepts involved. For example, the term instructional strategy is used to denote some underlying mindset or principle (e.g. ‘task-centered’ or ‘topic-centered’ [13]), a pattern of didactic measures that are expected to generate a specific effect in learners [10], a specific kind of teaching and learning activity or method (such as ‘highlighting’ [19]), or a mixture of several of these aspects (such as ‘group discussion’ or ‘projectbased learning’ [16]). Akdeniz provides an overview of different classifications for instructional strategies [1].

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The Global Learning Landscape [6] visually structures different aspects of innovations in education, similar to the periodical system of chemistry, thus aiming to provide a taxonomy for the future of education. Filtering the “elements” for “Higher Education” results in a selection that comprises a highly diverse set of elements, such as “Teacher”, “STEM/Coding” or “MOOC”. Each of these leads to a set of links that is assumed to contribute to the element; e.g., “MOOC” links to platforms such as Coursera or Udacity. However, the platform itself remains on an very high-level view and thus provides little to no orientation as needed for realizing day-to-day teaching. The Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Guidelines [8] establish a set of guiding principles for teaching and learning and offers concrete suggestions for their implementations. However, these remain highly abstract, focussing on ethical values rather than operations, and provide only little guidance for putting them into practice. On a level that is closer to day-to-day teaching design, several sites provide lists or glossaries of didactic concepts or teaching methods, but tend to intermingle different aspects, such as teaching and learning activities, media or even the artefact generation process (e.g., [12], e-teaching.org). Early on in the Covid-19-crisis, many educational institutions or organizations published documents that aim at providing guidance for the transition from on-site to purely virtual teaching and learning. Some of them provide a well balanced mixture of fundamental principles and hands-on-instructions for their individual adoption (e.g., [16]). As well, the OECD published a selection of online resources that may help to support education continuity during the pandemic, focussing on curriculum resources, professional development resources and tools [17]. Other institutions offered guidance documentation on instructional design even before the pandemic (e.g., [9]) and thus pursue a more holistic view on the topic, rather than focussing merely the quick transition from on-site to online teaching. Although many of these works provide a host of valuable information, none of the sources we viewed so far provides an overview of the entirety of didactic concepts, methods, tools and their interrelations. Therefore, we are still missing some kind of map that helps to orient oneself for an effective instructional design, the realization of day-to-day teaching and for designing university governance to ensure optimum support.

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Goals

To remedy the situation, we define an architectural model that reflects classes of didactic elements (such as didactic concepts, methods, and tools) and their interrelations. Furthermore, we relate the model to the teaching delivery process, to clarify in which way the different classes and their concrete instantiations contribute to the overall teaching performance.

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On this basis, we structure concrete didactic elements such as methods, artefacts or tools (e.g., “Blended Learning”, “script”, “video conferencing system”) into the classes of our architecture model, thus providing pools of possible instantiations for each class. The resulting structure helps to select a concrete set of concepts, methods and tools that are appropriate for a specific teaching and learning context, thus customizing one’s individual tool box on the basis of the architectural model.

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Approach

Coming ourselves from the lecturer’s perspective, we place the core question of “What do I address how, and why?” into the centre of our concept, where the “why” denotes the goal, intended learning outcome and corresponding didactic function, whereas the “how” corresponds to the method, media and tools involved. We embed our core question into the concept of Constructive Alignment as a foundation for modern constructivist didactics [3], which revolves about carefully aligning intended learning outcomes as well as teaching and learning activities with the assessments that are employed to formally evaluate the learning outcomes that were actually achieved. In this setting, we focus on the systematic deduction of teaching and learning activities as well as corresponding assessments from intended learning outcomes, by connecting these aspects via the notions of didactic function or goal, method, media and tool. All these aspects are embedded in organizational regulations that specify a study program. As well, we incorporate into the model the teacher and their underlying attitude as an important aspect of teaching delivery. Methodically, we employ a meet-in-the-middle approach, starting from a collection of didactic buzzwords (bottom-up), clustering these buzzwords via an abstraction process and then using the identified clusters to structurally organize the buzzword collection (top-down). In addition, we specify the interrelations between the identified clusters, thus clarifying the respective contributions of the different aspects to the total whole. Correspondingly, the resulting model comprises different levels of abstraction, from high-level overview via types of “things” down to to specific instantiations (e.g., “tools” to “video conferencing tool” to “Zoom” or “Big Blue Button”). The existence of these different levels helps the different stakeholders to quickly identify the area – and depth or level – of the map or model that is suitable for their individual need in a specific perspective and situation. The initial collection of didactic buzzwords was gathered both from existing literature such as [12] or e-teaching.org, and from institutional surveys that were executed in the wake of the Covid-19-pandemic, in the attempt to document the vast variety of approaches and solutions that was created in the emergency remote teaching phase. In addition, to appropriately reflect the pandemicinduced rise of video as an educational medium, we supplemented the didactic buzzword collection with concepts, tooling and a development process model from the area of media production.

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Note that for a complete mapping, the teaching delivery process should be considered in its entirety. This would add even more complexity to the map, and thus significantly exceed the limits of a conference contribution. Therefore, in this work we focus on the static view, i.e. the structural view, whereas the dynamic view dealing with process aspects will be subject of future research.

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Architecture Model

To provide a comprehensive overview as well as detailed information, our architecture model comprises both a high-level overview of the map, as well as the detailed map itself. For visualizing the detailed model, we use the notation of class diagram that is well established in the domain of software and requirements engineering and specified as part of the Unified Modeling Language UML. For the high-level overview, we add some notational elements inspired by UML component diagrams, but refrain from using those elements intended for representing technical detail. Core element is the concept of a class, which denotes a generic term that subsumes specific instances of the same kind. Classes are represented by rectangles. For the high-level overview, we combine several closely related classes into a component as a larger unit that abstracts from detail that is irrelevant at the overview-level. To visualize interdependencies between classes or between components, we connect them by lines, which my be enhanced by further information such as arrows, line formats or annotating text or numbers. Note that directed lines (i.e., lines with an arrow) point from the dependent element to the independent one. Thus, our maps on both levels show a network of rectangles and lines. 5.1

High-Level Overview

Our high-level overview comprises the following seven components (Fig. 1): – Study Program Specification represents relevant aspects of the organizational specification of a study program, such as the set of modules that is recommended for a specific course of studies, or the study plan that suggests an appropriate ordering of attending these modules. – Goals symbolizes the area of intended learning outcomes, to be defined in a competence-oriented way. – Didactics summarizes a variety of didactic aspects, such as the organizational decomposition of a course module (that extends across a whole term) into smaller units. As well, it comprises the didactic functions and methods that are employed when executing these units. – Assessments represents all aspects of determining an achieved learning outcome, either in a formative or in a summative way.

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Fig. 1. High level overview of architectural model

– Media symbolizes any kind of medial artefact that is created for and during the educational process. – Tools denote technological (e.g. Zoom) as well as “traditional” instruments (e.g. blackboard) involved within the educational process. – Teachers and their underlying attitudes and beliefs influence educational delivery essentially, e.g. in their choice of didactic methods they preferably employ. To reflect this, teachers are explicitly included in the model. These high-level components are interconnected in several ways. The Study Program Specification as organizational framework for the underlying course of studies defines and addresses qualification Goals that students are expected to meet when graduating. Correspondingly, adhering to the idea of constructive alignment, both the Didactics and the Assessments do address Goals as well, albeit on a different level of granularity than the entire study program. Furthermore, teaching and learning activities should be properly aligned with assessment methods. Adhering to the idea of “test first” that is a wide-spread rule in software engineering, it would make sense to design the intended formative assessment before term even starts, to clarify the baseline that has to be reached for passing the course. This would clarify expectations both for the students and for the teacher, and help the latter to select appropriate teaching and learning activities that systematically help students to pass these assessments at the end of term. However, in practice, Didactics and Assessments quite often are developed hand in hand within an iterative and incremental process, resulting in a bidirectional dependency between both components. Both the Didactics and the Assessments will be influenced by the overall regulations of the study program, which may specify e.g. class types (such as lecture or lab session) or exam types to be used. Therefore, both the Didactics and the Assessments depend in some way on the Study Program Specification. As well, both the Didactics and the Assessments require Media, such as slides, source code, video material or assignment papers (virtual or haptic). In addition, executing the teaching itself or the assessments usually involves some sort

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of tooling, such as computers, specific software products, pen and paper or laboratory equipment. Therefore, Didactics as well as Assessments use Media and Tooling. In addition, the creation of any kind of Media requires some sort of Tooling, so that Media depends on Tooling as well. Last but not least, the Teacher as part of the educational system is influenced by, and thus depends on, the Study Program Specification. As well, the Teachers’ attitudes, beliefs and personality greatly influences their choice of preferred didactics. Therefore, the Didactics depends on the Teacher. 5.2

Detailed Structure

Having established this high-level overview, as a next step we introduce the detailed map of our didactic architecture, which is visualized in Fig. 2. Here, rectangles represent classes and are thus on a finer granularity level than the components in Fig. 1. Some of the classes subsume different possible types of a certain element. For example, a Media Artefact can be a Text, an Image or a Video. This relationship is represented by the concept of inheritance, symbolized by a dependency-line ending in an unfilled arrow head. In our map, specialization classes are represented by unfilled rectangles, to distinguish them from their superordinate generalizations. In the class diagram, dependencies are richly annotated, both by text and by numbers or asterisks. The textual annotation increases the map’s readability by expressing the semantics of the dependency, to be read in the direction of the filled triangle that points along the dependency line. The annotated numbers and asterisks express the multiplicity of the class instances on either side of the relating dependency. Here, the asterisk denotes any non-negative whole number, including zero. When reading the multiplicity along a dependency between two classes, the multiplicity at the dependency’s starting point is always assumed to be 1, so that the annotated numbers merely describe the multiplicity at the dependency’s end point for the respective reading direction. For example, one Course of Studies is realized by any number of Study Plans, whereas one Study Plan relates to exactly one Course of Studies. In contrast to this, while one Study Plan is composed of many (or any number) of Modules, each Module may belong to many Study Plans. In the following, we will describe the detailed map depicted in Fig. 2 and elucidate the different elements and their interdependencies. To facilitate orientation, the detailed map adheres to the same colouring as the high-level map. Note that it also comprises some classes depicted in purple, a colour that occurred merely once in the high-level model, in the bidirectional arrow that related Didactics and Assessments. The purple area in the detailed model in Fig. 2 denotes elements that are closely related to both Didactics and Assessments, indicated by purple being the colour mixture of red (Didactics) and blue (Assessments). We start our explanation in the top left corner of the diagram, with the study program specification depicted in grey. A Course of Studies is realized by any

Fig. 2. Class diagram of didactic architecture

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number of Study Plans, each of which is composed of any number of Modules. Each Module addresses many Goals as intended learning outcomes. Goals are to be specified in a competence oriented way. Therefore, each Goal addresses one Topic to be covered in the class, as well as a corresponding Skill Level. Skill Levels can be denoted by any taxonomy of teaching and learning objectives, such as Bloom’s taxonomy [4] or its modern version as revised by Anderson et al. [2], each of which defines six different levels of expertise. Using other models is fine as well, e.g. [18] or [14] which distinguish three different levels each. Note that in order to correctly interpret the Skill Level information, it needs to be documented which taxonomy is used. Within the teaching delivery process, a Module is usually composed of many Teaching and Learning Units. In traditional learning settings, these usually correspond to a weekly session of lecture, maybe in combination with a correlated lab session and some homework or self study, where all these parts interact together to generate a meaningful learning outcome. In a learning setting that comes without the traditional on-site weekly schedule, a Teaching and Learning Unit is arranged around some strongly coherent content and the corresponding competences that are aspired. As a Teaching and Learning Unit denotes still quite big a chunk (albeit smaller than a Module), it is further partitioned and thus realized by smaller parts we refer to as Learning Nuggets. Each Learning Nugget realizes a specific Didactic Function, such as motivate students, present factual knowledge, cognitively activate students, or practice a specific competence. To allow for a possible reuse of Learning Nuggets in a different context, or the exchange of one Learning Nugget by another in the sense of a modular pool of Learning Nuggets, it is advisable to design Learning Nuggets in a way that each Nugget addresses at most one Goal. Note that Learning Nuggets do not necessarily have to address a Goal, depending on the Didactic Function they realize. An example would be a Nugget that attempts to physically activate students as its Didactic Function. When partitioning a Teaching and Learning Unit into Learning Nuggets, a vital question is how to methodically structure this Teaching and Learning Unit in a way that fosters the intended learning outcomes while being attractive to students at the same time. To achieve this, it is helpful to structure a Teaching and Learning Unit according to well-established Patterns that specify a sequence of Didactic Functions that has proven to lead to appropriate learning outcomes. Typical examples for these kinds of Patterns are Just-in-Time Teaching (JiTT) [15] or the BCSE 5E instructional model [7]. To operationalize a specific Learning Nugget so that it realizes a Didactic Function as desired, we employ a didactic Method that serves just this Didactic Function. The existing didactic tool box contains a huge variety of different Methods to choose from, leading to a host of specializations of the class Method. Examples for specializations that serve the Didactic Function of presenting factual knowledge would be a teacher’s Monologue (regardless of whether it is performed live and on-site in class, live via video conferencing or asynchronously as a recorded lecture), or a self-study activity as known from JiTT that involves

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a Media Artefact of specialization type Text (i.e. a JiTT-script) or Video. In addition to Media Artefacts, some Methods may involve some kind of Haptic Material. One important specialization of the general didactic Method is the Execution oriented Method, which denotes any kind of method that gets students actively involved in dealing with the subject matter at hand. The class of Execution oriented Method is further refined into specializations such as Quiz, Lab Assignment, Exercise or Group Work. In order to let students know what is expected of them, each Execution oriented Method involves at least one Task that specifies some sort of instructions and deliverables. As well, the Task may comprise supplementary information, such as a sample solution or a student result artefact, which are indicated as attributes within the class symbol of the Task. We distinguish different types of Task as specialization, e.g. Practical Tasks or Multiple Choice. Note that each Execution oriented Method may involve any number of Media Artefacts as required, which is represented in the model indirectly via Method as the superordinate class for all methods. In the notion of Constructive Alignment, teaching and learning activities are closely related to assessments. In our architectural model, we consider assessments to be some special kind of unit that always serves the Didactic Function of assessing a student’s skill level, either formatively or summatively. As this Didactic Function is mandatorily set for any kind of assessment, we reduce redundancy in our model usage by extracting the Assessments component from the general Didactics component. Analogously to the Didactics component, we subdivide our Assessments component into several classes. Here again, each Module from an organizational Study Program Specification comprises any number of Assessment Units. We distinguish various specializations of Assessment Units, such as Written Exam or Presentation. Just as a Teaching and Learning Unit, an Assessment Unit is a rather big chunk that needs to be further partitioned to be employed effectively. Therefore, analogously to Teaching and Learning Units that are realized by many Learning Nuggets, we compose our Assessment Units from many Assessment Nuggets, thus creating a modular structure for our assessments as well. Each Assessment Nugget addresses exactly one Goal. As assessments need to involve students in actively dealing with the subject matter at hand, each Assessment Nugget comprises one or many Execution oriented Methods, which again involve at least one Task, as well as some Media Artefacts, as implicitly indicated via the dependency between the superordinate class Method and Media Artefact. Thus, we close the Constructive Alignment circle, from goals or intended learning outcomes via teaching and learning methods to assessments. When operationalizing either specific Learning Nuggets or Assessment Nuggets in our day-to-day educational business, both kinds of Nuggets are realized in a specific Execution Mode. This Execution Mode differentiates both local and temporal aspects, distinguishing between virtual, hybrid or on-site as well

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as synchronous or asynchronous mode. Depending on the Execution Mode that is preferred by the teacher, prescribed by the institution or enforced by a global situation (such as Covid 19), a certain set of Tools is required to put the respective Nuggets into effect. Furthermore, Tooling is required to prepare or process the Media Artefacts that are involved in the selected teaching or assessment Methods. Last but not least, each Module is carried out or supervised by a Teacher. Each Teacher adheres to some sort of Attitude or Paradigm of teaching, such as student-centered vs. lecturer-centered teaching, or a preference e.g. for gamification. These Attitudes influence the didactic Patterns the teacher will employ or their choice of preferred Methods.

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Conclusions

The architecture model developed in this paper helps to structure didactic concepts, methods and tools, thus creating a map that provides orientation for different stakeholders and along the teaching delivery process. It distinguishes clearly between different classes of didactic concepts and so clarifies the contribution, suitability and limitations of the usage of concrete didactic concepts for specific purposes. Therefore, it helps to detangle the multitude of possible approaches and to evolve from emergency remote teaching to a systematic design of teaching and learning.

References 1. Akdeniz, C.: Instructional strategies. In: Akdeniz, C. (ed.) Instructional Process and Concepts in Theory and Practice: Improving the Teaching Process, pp. 57–105. Springer, Singapore (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2519-8 2 2. Anderson, L.W., et al. (eds.): A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing. A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,. 1 edn. Longman, New York (2001) 3. Biggs, J., Tang, C.: Teaching for Quality Learning at University. SRHE and Open University Press Imprint, McGraw-Hill Education (2011) 4. Bloom, B., Engelhart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., Krathwohl, D.: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals Cognitive Domain. Handbook I. David McKay Company, New York (1956) 5. Branch, R.M., Dousay, T.A.: Survey of Instructional Design Models, 5th edn. AECT - Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Bloomington (2015) 6. Brothers, P., Spies, M.: Global learning landscape (2021). https://www. globallearninglandscape.org/. Accessed 6 June 2021 7. Bybee, R.: The BSCS 5E instructional model: personal reflections and contemporary implications. Sci. Child. 051, 10–13 (2014) 8. CAST: Universal design for learning guidelines version 2.2 (2018). http:// udlguidelines.cast.org. Accessed 6 June 2021

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9. Cornell University – Center for Teaching Innovation: Teaching at cornell guide. https://teaching.cornell.edu/teaching-resources/teaching-cornell-guide. Accessed 6 June 2021 10. Gagne, R., Wager, W., Golas, K., Keller, J., Russell, J.: Principles of instructional design. Perform. Improv. 44, 44–46 (2005) 11. Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., Bond, A.: The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning, March 2020. https://er.educause. edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-andonline-learning. Accessed 6 June 2021 12. Lathan, J.: The complete list of teaching methods. https://onlinedegrees.sandiego. edu/complete-list-teaching-methods/. Accessed 6 June 2021 13. Merrill, M.D.: First principles of instruction. In: Instructional Design Theories and Models: Building a Common Knowledge Base, vol. III. Routledge Publishers, New York (2009) 14. Metzger, C., N¨ uesch, C.: Fair pr¨ ufen. Ein Qualit¨ atsleitfaden f¨ ur Pr¨ ufende an Hochschulen. Hochschuldidaktische Schriften. 6. IWP, St. Gallen (2004) 15. Novak, G., Gavrin, A., Patterson, E., Christian, W.: Just-in-Time Teaching: Blending Active Learning with Web Technology. Prentice Hall Series in Educational Innovation. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River (1999) 16. O’Keefe, L., Rafferty, J., Gunder, A., Vignare, K.: Delivering highquality instruction online in response to covid-19 – faculty playbook, May 2020. https://www.everylearnereverywhere.org/resources/delivering-high-qualityinstruction-online-in-response-to-covid-19/. Accessed 6 June 2021 17. Reimers, F.M., Chopra, V., Currimjee, A., Dini, I.S.Z., et al.: Supporting the continuation of teaching and learning during the covid-19 pandemic (2020). https://www.oecd.org/education/Supporting-the-continuation-ofteaching-and-learning-during-the-COVID-19-pandemic.pdf. Accessed 6 June 2021 18. Schneider, W.: Foliensatz “Einf¨ uhrung in die Wirtschaftsp¨ adagogik”. Eigendruck, Wien (2002) 19. Wolfe, E., Granger, J., Alessi, N., Farrell, L., Maraj, C.: The implementation of instructional strategies for training in a virtual environment: an exploratory investigation of workload and performance. In: Stephanidis, C. (ed.) HCI International 2017 - Posters’ Extended Abstracts, pp. 88–94. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58753-0 14

Exploring Pre-service Computer Science Teachers’ Perception of Collaborative Learning in Online Teaching from a TPK Perspective Bernhard Standl(B) and Nadine Schlomske-Bodenstein Institute for Informatics and Digital Education, Karlsruhe University of Education, Karlsruhe, Germany {bernhard.standl,nadine.schlomske-bodenstein}@ph-karlsruhe.de

Abstract. The integration of group work in seminars for future computer science teachers already played an essential role in face-to-face seminars before the Covid-19 pandemic. Due to the change to online teaching, some teaching concepts on group work had to be adapted, but it remained open how these new concepts affected the learners. This paper examines online group work in a seminar for prospective computer science teachers and analyses it in light of teacher competencies in technology, content, and pedagogy (TPK). For this purpose, we describe the seminar and the group work and evaluate the effect of this group work on the TPK perception of future computer science teachers from open text answers. The results show that especially events on the pedagogical level were perceived positively by students. Keywords: Collaborative learning science teachers

1

· TPK · Pre-service computer

Introduction

Teaching with digital tools has a high priority in the national and international context and is assumed to enable elaborated learning processes [1]. Computersupported collaborative learning is designed to put learners in situations where they use digital tools to solve problems together, share knowledge and opinions and analyze their learning progress [4]. It is essential to consider the size of a learning group, which influences the degree of achieving the learning goals in collaborative settings [3,10]. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the use of technology in online instruction has become an emerging issue. However, break-out rooms in standard videoconferencing systems can have shortcomings, such as not being able to interact directly with other participants in other groups [6]. Therefore, a conferencing tool is required that allows a high degree of interaction during the collaborative learning phases. One of these tools is gather.town 1 , which enables 1

https://www.gather.town.

c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 107–113, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_11

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free moving with individual avatars, face-to-face video communication, groupwork, and lecture-settings on a virtual room map [5]. Especially in pre-service teachers’ training, we consider the reflective integration of methods as a necessary prerequisite [2,11]. Furthermore, the teachers’ different levels of knowledge in technology integration was described with the TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) framework [8]. In considering this, we use the subset TPK (technology and pedagogy) to categorise qualities of student collaboration. Hence, this study aims to explore aspects of collaborative group work in online teaching. Based on the theoretical background of collaborative learning, the following research question is of interest: How is collaborative learning in online teaching perceived by computer science students in pre-service teacher training from a TPK perspective?

2

Method

A single case study [12] was conducted in a seminar to investigate how pre-service computer science teachers perceive collaborative group work. The seminar took place in the winter term 2020/21 at a university of teacher education and focused on the basics of the didactics of computer science for secondary schools. The sample consisted of 9 pre-service computer science teachers and was conducted on the virtual collaboration platform gather.town. 2.1

Setting

Since subject didactic concepts of computer science and their methodical integration are discussed in this seminar, lesson planning on a methodical and competence-oriented level is also part of it. Table 1 shows the schedule of this seminar. Each lesson represents one 90 min session a week. The seminar was characterised by group work on all different topics during the semester. In addition, there was group work in each course session, which lasted approx. 5–25 min, depending on the task. Part of the seminar was also the competence-oriented implementation of the state curriculum of Baden-Wuerttemberg2 (Germany) in lesson planning and was discussed in units 8 and 9. In order to practice using the curriculum and to develop competence-oriented lesson plans from it, parts of the curriculum are analysed with students. Figure 1 gives an example from the course slides, where procedures of competence-oriented lesson-planning are described. The first sentence, “Competence Goal” is the description of the competence in the curriculum. In order to be able to develop the corresponding lesson planning from this, the so-called operators are identified: Describe and Interpret. Both operators are assigned to a different requirement area, which provides further information on how the goals should be addressed in the lesson plan. During a group phase in the online seminar, students worked together to generate ideas on a specific 2

https://www.bildungsplaene-bw.de/,Lde/LS/BP2016BW/ALLG/SEK1/INF7.

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Table 1. Semester schedule: Didactics of computer science I Lesson Topic 1

Preliminary discussion, organisational matters, introduction

2

Learning theory basics, subject didactic, teaching practice

3

Overview: subject didactics and methods

4

Concepts of computer science, subject didactics and methods

5

Concepts of computer science, subject didactics and methods

6

Concepts of computer science, subject didactics and methods

7

Concepts of computer science and the school curriculum

8

Lesson planning

9

Lesson planning

10

Teaching CS to novices at school

11

Teaching CS to novices at school

12

Students’ workshop presentations

13

Students’ workshop presentations

14

Reflection

topic (in this case, binary numbers) how this can be transferred into a school lesson. The collaborative phases had a concrete work assignment and provided a framework that encouraged students to reflect and share their knowledge and opinions.

Fig. 1. Slide from the lecture showing the competence oriented process

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For better orientation for the students, the following group work task was presented to the students before the group work phase on the topic of “competenceoriented lesson planning”. In addition, the teacher announced the duration of the group work. 1. Form 4 teams on the tables in gather.town, which are assigned to 4 content areas on Padlet 3 2. Go to the group work tables in Gather.town 3. Open the state curricula for computer science grade 7 4. Choose one area from the content-related competences - One team for each area. 5. Outline a competence-oriented teaching approach for implementation 6. Map this idea in the Padlet The teacher presented the content areas of computer science in advance, and the students then went to the chosen tables in gather.town. The task was that from the areas of the state curriculum, the students had to work out a rough outline for competence-oriented implementation in class, following the procedure with the operators described above. The solutions were written down in a shared Padlet. The methodological approach was that the four groups worked separately but still saw the progress of the other groups via a shared Padlet. Since this group works combined contents from computer science, a tool, and the didactic/pedagogical approach, the levels of TPK were addressed. 2.2

Instrument

To explore the impact of such situated group work along TPK, we assessed pre-service computer science teachers’ perception of collaborative group works through the following three open-ended questions. 1. How did you perceive the group-phases in the break-out rooms compared to face-to-face teaching? Briefly describe it. 2. Which aspects of the student collaboration in the break-out rooms did you perceive as efficient? Briefly describe it. 3. Which challenges did you experience during the group-phases in the break-out rooms? Briefly describe it. The students’ text responses are analysed through a qualitative content analysis [7]. Two trained raters rated the responses through a coding scheme based on the TPK model’s theory. In the next step, they rated them and enhanced the TPK-model into categories that worked well or were challenging. For this purpose, we developed a basic category system, which is shown in a simplified form (without anchor examples) in Table 2. Based on the categorizations along with the TPK model, the categorized students’ text responses are then given into an objective hermeneutic process for an extended explanation of each student’s subjective statement [7,9]. 3

https://padlet.com.

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Table 2. Basic structure of coding scheme Variable

Subcategory

C1: successful TPK features

C1.1: technical issues that succeeded C1.2: pedagogical issues that succeeded C1.3: other issues that succeeded

C2: obstructive TPK features C2.1: challenging technical issues C2.2: challenging pedagogical issues C2.3: other challenging issues

3

Results

Table 3 shows the number of topics found on successful and challenging pedagogical and technical aspects. From the TPK perspective, the results show that the most frequently mentioned aspects were found in topics that students perceived as good from a pedagogical view. From the technical point of view, almost equal numbers of topics were found in both categories - either successful or challenging. For aspects perceived as not working, more aspects were found in technical topics than in pedagogical topics. The Krippendorf revealed r = 0.85, which is good. Table 3. Identified key features of TPK Categories Issues Examples C1.1

11

Finally, the instructor could be heard

C1.2

29

The group work was more efficient. I was able to learn something

C1.3

1

C2.1

12

We were not able to communicate at the same time. Sometimes there were internet-connection problems in the learning platform

C2.2

6

It was difficult to work in groups that were too big. It is likely to end in chaos then

C2.2

0

Total

59

Within the framework of objective hermeneutics, corresponding text data are explicated at the category level based on the research questions for identifying the meaning of the student answers, as exemplary stated in Table 1. To give an insight into the feedback and the corresponding coding, we present some examples.

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– C1.1 • We could all work on the screen at the same time. • Through the Gather Town tool, it was very realistic with the group work. – C1.2 • The group work phase is introduced by the teacher, then people move to the group tables. • You could choose your group members. – C2.1 • You have to rely on all group members having the right technique. • The white board in the middle of the group work tables could be improved. – C2.2 • Communication was difficult. • In on-site courses, you usually get to see how the other groups work.

4

Discussion

This single-case study aimed to explore the pre-service computer science teachers’ perception of collaborative learning from a TPK perspective. There has been considerable reporting on TPACK in recent years, focusing on quantitative outcome instruments [11]. This study chose a qualitative approach to better understand realized student collaboration phases in online courses. While from a subject didactics’ perspective, the big picture on all areas of content, pedagogy, and technology are essential for technology-enhanced teacher competencies, it is also worth taking a focused look at the two areas of technology and pedagogy (TPK). The qualitative approach presented here shows how students’ text-responses can be utilized to identify TPK components that are perceived in collaborative online learning. The results indicate that pre-service computer science teachers are confronted in collaborative online learning phases rather with technical challenging issues than with pedagogical issues. This implies a need in teacher education to precisely prepare teachers to handle technical issues in online teachings.

References 1. Backfisch, I., Lachner, A., St¨ urmer, K., Scheiter, K.: Gelingensbedingungen beim Einsatz digitaler Medien im Unterricht - Kognitive und motivationale Voraussetzungen von Lehrpersonen. In: Vielf¨ altig herausgefordert. Forschungs- und Entwicklungsfelder der Lehrerbildung auf dem Pr¨ ufstand. T¨ ubingen University Press (2021) 2. Baier, F., Kunter, M.: Construction and validation of a test to assess (preservice) teachers’ technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK). Stud. Educ. Eval. 67, 100936 (2020) 3. Brown, R.E.: The process of community-building in distance learning classes. J. Asynchronous Learn. Netw. 5(2), 18–35 (2001) 4. Donitsa-Schmidt, S., Ramot, R.: Opportunities and challenges: teacher education in Israel in the Covid-19 pandemic. J. Educ. Teach. 46(4), 586–595 (2020)

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5. Latulipe, C.: A CS1 team-based learning space in gather. Town. In: Proceedings of the 52nd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, p. 1245 (2021) 6. Li, L., et al.: Facilitating online learning via zoom breakout room technology: a case of pair programming involving students with learning disabilities. Commun. Assoc. Inf. Syst. 48(1), 12 (2021) 7. Mayring, P., Gl¨ aser-Zikuda, M.: Die Praxis der Qualitativen Inhaltsanalyse. Beltz (2008) 8. Mishra, P., Koehler, M.J.: Technological pedagogical content knowledge: a framework for teacher knowledge. Teach. Coll. Rec. 108(6), 1017–1054 (2006) 9. Oevermann, U., Allert, T., Konau, E., Krambeck, J.: Die Methodologie einer “objektiven Hermeneutik” und ihre allgemeine forschungslogische Bedeutung in den Sozialwissenschaften. In: Interpretative Verfahren in den Sozial-und Textwissenschaften, pp. 352–434. Stuttgart (1979) 10. Standl, B.: Conceptual Modeling and Innovative Implementation of Personcentered Computer Science Education at Secondary School Level. Ph.D. thesis, University of Vienna (2014) 11. Valtonen, T., Lepp¨ anen, U., Hyypi¨ a, M., Sointu, E., Smits, A., Tondeur, J.: Fresh perspectives on TPACK: pre-service teachers’ own appraisal of their challenging and confident TPACK areas. Education and Information Technologies, pp. 1–20 (2020) 12. Yin, R.K.: Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Sage Publications, London (2008)

A Review: Status Quo and Current Trends in E-Learning Ontologies Sudath Rohitha Heiyanthuduwage(&) Darlinghurst Campus, Study Group Australia, Level 1, 63 Oxford Street, Darlinghurst NSW2010, Australia [email protected]

Abstract. With proliferation of publications on ontology-based e-learning systems (OBELS) ontology has become an important component that underpins the enhancement of e-learning systems. E-learning systems proposed in published articles have deployed ontologies to specify and deal with different aspects of e-learning, from e-learning content design to assessment. This review paper aims at finding answers to the questions: What types of ontologies are used in e-learning systems? What are the current issues in e-learning? How ontologies have been used as solutions to them? What are the gaps and limitations in OBELS research? A Systematic Literature Survey (SLS) is conducted on published scholarly work available in several popular electronic library databases. Articles related to the research have been collected using automated and manual search techniques. This paper provides an analysis of the 22 Q1 journal articles that were short listed from 154 articles as well as answers to the research questions. A large number of articles predominantly discuss about ontologies used in their work to overcome issues in e-learning. Based on this review of articles four main types of ontologies are identified: domain ontology, course ontology, educational resources ontology and user ontology. Besides that, this study identifies some key issues in e-learning and how ontology has become a solution to them. Keywords: Ontology


e-learning systems
Systematic literature review

1 Introduction An OBELS is synonymous to Semantic Web-based Education Systems (SWBES) or could be considered as a subcategory of it. A SWBES is considered as an e-learning system, or another type of educational system that is supported by Semantic Web technologies or methodologies [1]. Ontology is considered as the backbone of Semantic Web. Ontology plays a significant role in Semantic Web (SW) technologies in the e-learning and offer many benefits in the areas of e-learning: search and find resources, using current resources and generating new resources that satisfies learner and using user-resources for dynamically adapting features to a specific user [2]. In this review, articles that have discussed about ontology as a key component to support any part of e-learning and teaching is considered as an OBELS.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 114–125, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_12

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An ontology helps to explicitly specify a particular conceptualization [3]. Ontology become a means of providing a common and shared understanding of a domain for communication between people and across application systems [4]. When these two definitions are considered, they include some features and benefits of ontology. To build an ontology initially, the concepts, relationships among concepts and the constraints need to be identified. Then, a conceptual model of the domain could be built to specify the domain. If an ontology is to be formally specified, an ontology language is required. Current standard ontology language Web Ontology Language (OWL) 2, proposed by Word Wide Web Consortium (W3C), is an extension of OWL. Many different OBELSs have been proposed and evolved over time. They have solutions to numerous issues related to e-learning. It is important to understand what role ontology has played in e-learning systems so that they could be enhanced further. Below Table 1 lists the research questions that are used to get an understanding of ontologies used in e-learning systems. Table 1. Research questions # 1 2 3 4

Research question What types of ontologies are used in e-learning? What are current issues in e-learning? What solutions have been proposed for issues in e-learning? What are the gaps and limitations in OBELS research?

This review is constrained to review the literature in two decades, from the year 2000 to the year 2020 to gain insight into how the research in this area has changed and what significant contributions have been made to ontology-based e-learning. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Review method is introduced in Sect. 2 and Sect. 3 provides an analysis of results of this systematic literature survey (SLS). Based on the SLS done in this work, answers to the research questions are elaborated in Sect. 4. Section 5 provides discussion and conclusion of this paper.

2 Review Method This review was conducted by following the SLR method [5] with the intension of conducting a comprehensive and unbiased analysis of a selected collection of research articles relevant to the study. An SLR process includes three main phases: 1. Planning the review - In this phase, specifying the research questions, developing, and evaluating a review protocol are done. 2. Conducting the review - In this phase, what research to be conducted, selecting primary studies, conducting a quality assessment of primary studies, extracting data and data synthesis are done, and 3. Reporting the review - In reporting phase, formatting and evaluating the report and specifying dissemination mechanisms are done [5].

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The review protocol includes background, research questions, searching for primary studies, study selection criteria, study selection procedures, study quality assessment checklists and procedures, data extraction strategy, synthesis of the extracted data, dissemination strategy, and project timetable [5]. The research questions are listed in Sect. 1. The dissemination strategy of this review is the publication of findings in an international conference proceeding. The project timetable included the rest of the stages of review protocol in a sequence with sufficient time allocation to be followed by the author. Reporting the results of this review are done in Sect. 3 and Sect. 4.

3 Results of Systematic Literature Review This section provides some statistics of this SLR. The 22 Q journal articles [6–27] that were included in this review are presented with their sources of publication, citation rates, year of publication and context of research. The SLR results are elaborated in below subsections. 3.1

Publication Sources

Majority of the articles, over 50% (81/154) found in initial search, were shortlisted based on selection criteria. Over one third of those selected articles, 31 (38.3%) have been published in reputed journals. Majority of the selected articles, 47 (58%) have been published in renowned international conferences. There were 2 (2.5%) book chapters and 1 (1.2%) workshop paper. Due to the paper limitations, this paper presents analysis that is based on 22 (27.2%) Q1 journal articles. 3.2

Citation Rate of Q1 Journal Articles

The distribution of the citation rates of the 22 Q1 journal articles by 28th May 2021 is given in Table 2. The minimum citation rate for a single article is 8 and the maximum is 392. Majority of the articles, 14 have a citation rate between 1 and 100. There are 4 articles in the citation rate 101–200 whereas there are only 2 articles in each range of citation rates, 201–300 and above 300. Table 2. Citation rate Citation rate Count Articles 1–100 14 [8, 9, 11, 12, 15–18, 21, 22, 24–27] 101–200 4 [13, 14, 20, 23] 201–300 2 [6, 19] >300 2 [7, 10]

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Publication Years of Articles

The number of articles published in every 5 years’ time period from the year 2001 to 2020 are given in Table 3. The lowest number of publications, 3 (13.6%) are between 2001–2005 whereas the maximum number of publications, 8 (36.4) are between 2006 and 2010. Closer to average number of publications, 5 (22.7%) and 6 (27.3%) are found between 2011–2015 and 2016–2020. Table 3. Publications by year Citation rate 2001–2005 2006–2010 2011–2015 2016–2020

3.4

Count & % 3 (13.6%) 8 (36.4%) 5 (22.7%) 6 (27.3%)

Articles [7, 10, 25] [6, 8, 9, 13, 14, 19, 26, 27] [11, 14–16, 20, 21] [16–18, 22, 23]

Context of Research

Articles have been published in different research contexts. According to the results (Table 4), majority of articles, 11 (50%) have been published on personalized access to learning resources. Learning design has been the focus of 4 (18%) articles. Context of 7 (32%) articles have been in 7 different areas: recommendation of contents to learners, competency management, progress monitoring, interoperability learning systems, reusability of learning resources, management of learning resource and assessment of users.

Table 4. Context of research publications Context Count Articles Context Personalized access 11 [8–13, 16, 17, 20, 22, 26] Interoperability Learning design 4 [6, 14, 15, 24] Reusability Recommendation 1 [23] Resource Mgt. Competency Mgt. 1 [19] Assessment Progress monitoring 1 [18]

Count 1 1 1 1

Articles [7] [27] [25] [21]

4 Results of Research Questions In this section, we present the results for the research questions based on the 22 Q1 journal papers. In analyzing them, they were grouped together, considering the nature of how similar those studies are. The below subsections present the results for each research question given in Table 1.

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What Types of Ontologies are Used in E-Learning?

The e-learning systems elaborated in each article includes specific ontologies to serve the purpose of each system. Some of the proposed e-learning systems have deployed more than one e-learning ontology to specify different aspects of the system. The assessment ontology network (AONet) proposed [21] include five different ontologies: 1. Educational Resource Specification Ontology, 2. Course Domain Specification Ontology, 3. LOnto ontology, 4. Assessment ontology, 5. Assessment Instrument ontology. Again, article [27] has proposed five different ontologies: 1. Document Ontology (DOC-ONTO), 2. Domain Ontology (DOM-ONTO), 3. Instructional Role Ontology (IRO-ONTO), 4. Competence Ontology (CMP-ONTO) and 5. Instructional Learning Theory Ontology (ILTONTO). With the intention of increasing the reusability, learning designs, learning objects and contexts of learning objects have been differentiated in learning design by introducing three ontologies in [13]. They are: 1. Learning Object Context Ontology (LOCO) – based on the IMS Learning Design Information Model, 2. Abstract Learning Object Content Model (ALOCoM) – an existing ontology that models the structure of LOs, 3. LOCO-Cite – the relationships between the classes in LOCO and ALOCom have been defined to bridge the above two ontologies. A Machine-Readable Ontology (MONTO) that has been proposed for Teaching Word Problems in Mathematics includes four ontologies: 1. system or pedagogy ontology, 2. strategy or task ontology, 3. domain ontology and 4. learner ontology [15]. E-learning ontologies discussed in the 22 articles are grouped into 6 main categories and the number of articles that discuss on each type of ontology is given with article reference in Table 5. 1. domain ontology–9 (41%), 2. Learner (user) ontology–8 (36.4%), 3. educational resources (learning objects) ontology–5 (22.7%), 4. learning process ontology, learning activities or task ontology and teaching methods ontology–4 (18.2%) 5. course or subject ontology–3 (13.6%), and 6. assessment ontology–1 (4.6%). Table 5. Types of e-learning ontology. Cat. # Type of ontology Count Articles 1 Domain ontology 9 [7, 8, 15, 16, 18, 21–23, 25] 2 Learner ontology 8 [7, 11, 15, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23] 3 Resource ontology 5 [13, 17, 21, 23, 27] 4 Learning process ontology 4 [6, 7, 15, 17] 5 Course/subject ontology 3 [9, 22, 26] 6 Assessment ontology 1 [21] Note: In their e-learning systems, some articles use more than one type of ontology

Majority of the articles have deployed domain ontologies that have a broader scope of e-learning. Some articles have paid special attention to learner (user) ontology and have used it as one of the several ontologies. Resource ontology, also known as learning object ontology, has been used in some articles to specify the contents of e-learning systems repository that is eventually made accessible to the learners. Course

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ontology and subject ontology that describe one or more courses and concepts related to a course is closely related to resource ontology. Learning process (or learning tasks or learner activities) have been specified in learning process ontologies. Assessment ontology specifically focuses on student assessments in an e-learning system and defines the concepts related to assessment items and relationships between them. 4.2

What are the Current Issues in E-Learning?

The review we conducted on primary studies lead to identifying 11 issues in e-learning. Some authors have mentioned more than one issue in their articles. Those issues are summarised in Table 6 and snippets of them are provided in this section. Table 6. Current issues in e-learning. I# Type of issue

Count Articles

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5 4 4 4 2 2 2

[11, 13, 20, 25, 27] [9, 13, 15, 24] [17, 19, 22, 23] [12, 16, 20, 26] [6, 21] [9, 10] [11, 18]

1 1 1 1

[9] [7] [14] [8]

Issues in reusability and managing components Knowledge representational issues Issues in learner modelling Adaptation issues of e-learning systems Representational and learning design issues Access Issues Focusing on technical aspects rather than learning and teaching or organizational requirements 8 Issues in collaboration among users 9 Interoperability among educational systems 10 Issues in search methods 11 Issues in using metadata elements

Issue #1: Authors of [27] believe that even though reusability of learning objects has always been a hot issue, current works on e-Learning have failed to discover a durable answer. Developments in Web technologies have led to the generation of lots of learning resources. Additionally, there is a need for managing and reusing them to achieve ‘on-demand’ e-learning in the Web [25]. Identifying reusable learning components has been identified as an issue in [13]. It has been regular practice to define adaptation of Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) at design time [11]. Still, not addressing modularity in ITS has been identified as an issue. Authors of [20] have also mentioned about issues in reusing learning contents in Web 3.0. Issue #2: Issues in digital library (DL) systems related to knowledge representation, annotating users, and building collections have been mentioned in [9]. Article [13] has identified issues in conceptualizing learning designs for numerous learning units, for example lessons and course. Representational issues of word problems and mathematical knowledge to improve thinking and problem-solving skills of students have been pointed out in [15]. Furthermore, representational issues in mapping the relations among the learning materials to the relations among knowledge points have been listed in [24].

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Issue #3: It has been highlighted in [17] that current literature has introduced common standards for modelling learner, but they have ignored the dynamic aspects. Besides, these standards have paid no attention to characteristics that are important in the personalization of contents. Despite gaining new competencies being the primary goal of using any education system and issues in modelling and managing competencies being addressed in [19]. Authors of [22] argues that current techniques used for learner categorization have several issues. 1. Academic attributes have been considered subjectively, 2. Learners’ behavioral and demographic attributes have been ignored, 3. Learners have been just sorted as good or bad, 4. Already categorized learners’ information have not been reused and 5. Difficulty of aligning contents to the learners before and after assessment [22]. There are issues in recommending contents to learners, historic information, missing information on rating and insufficient knowledge on what level a learner is in [22]. Article [23] also argues that there are issues in recommending learning contents accurately to the learners. These difficulties arise as current methods neglect the differences in various learner characteristics, including knowledge level, learning style and sequential learning patterns [23]. Issue #4: Finding a solution to overcome the issues in user adaption to e-learning systems has been considered as important in [16]. Addressing issues in acquiring learners’ knowledge requirements and analysis of them have been considered as important for adaptation and personalization of e-learning systems for learners [26]. In their work [12] dynamic adaptability of ITS to physical devices has been proposed as an issue. Article [20] points out that e-learning systems developed for Web 2.0 assumes ‘one-size-fits-all’ in content delivery is acceptable even though an adaptive, personalized, and upgraded content delivery approach is more appropriate for the Web 3.0. Issue #5: Authors of [6] have identified some representational issues of learning design. Article [21] has also pointed out that IMS Learning Design (LD) Specification has the issue of difficulty of understanding due to the informal specification of the IMS information and complexity of its behavioral models. Issue #6: Issues of digital library (DL) systems related to access methods have been mentioned in [9]. Applications should consider individual needs and provide individually optimized access to learning contents [10]. Issue #7: Authors of [11] point out focusing more on technical aspects of designing elearning systems rather than learning and teaching or organizational requirements as the reason for not satisfying individual needs and not achieving organizational success. Article [18] has also identified similar issues in the e-learning platform SIDES. They have identified issues with not satisfying user requirements. Issue #8: It has been pointed out in [9] that there are issues in supporting collaboration among learners in e-learning systems. Issue #9: Issues in achieving interoperability among e-learning systems evolving from distributed intelligence to collaborative intelligence has been highlighted in [7].

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Issue #10: Article [14] has argued that current search methods are primarily based on keyword search and lack methods for searching content. Both instructors and learners have faced issues in finding contents relevant to specific learning objectives. Issue #11: Learning Object Metadata (LOM) types give some idea of the contents of learning resources to applications. It has become an issue when the same metadata item implies different meanings in different contexts [8]. 4.3

What Solutions Have Been Proposed for Issues in e-Learning?

Different e-learning ontologies have been deployed in e-learning systems as solutions to the issues identified in Sect. 4.2. Those solutions are briefly introduced below. Solutions for Issue #1: As a solution to issues in reusability of components authors of [5] have introduced semantic and ontological descriptions of components (the user’s mobile context, the learning approach). The ontology-based solution proposed in [13], is a conceptual model that separates learning objects from the contexts of them with a higher level of reusability. They have created Learning Object Context Ontology (LOCO), ALOCoM ontology and mappings between those two ontologies which have been specified in an ontology named LOCO-Cite [13]. Using ontology semantics to capitalize existing learning resources has been the aim of the [27]. Authors of [25] have used an ontology between e-learning databases to integrate them. Mediated ontology has helped to integrate heterogeneous e-learning databases and to reuse the localized resource. Subontologies of this whole ontology have been used to represent contextspecific resources and the reuse of resource. Solutions for Issue #2: Attempts have been made to solve the issues in knowledge representation in several works. One solution is using a knowledgebase with an ontology schema layer to seamlessly connect the digital resources to the services of the DL system to support e learning [9]. Authors of [13] have proposed a conceptual model that separates learning objects from the contexts of them and have created LOCO ontology and two more ontologies. They offer several benefits: 1. Ranking learning designs returned by searches using different weight factors; 2. Users’ reviews of both learning designs and learning objects; 3. Using ontology-defined competencies. Ontology for problems and problem-solving strategies proposed in [15] have been used for describing problems and mathematical thinking, based on the four components: resources, heuristics, controls and beliefs. The work done in [24] has focused on designing a course-centered ontology first focusing on individuals and then the class. This ontology has helped to assist learning by embodying the relations among knowledge points and the relationships among the learning materials. Solutions for Issue #3: Authors of [17] have attempted to enhance the learning environment by creating separate ontologies for each part of the learning process. An ontology with learner competencies that aims at designing and managing competencybased learning applications has been proposed in [19]. An attempt has been made to enhance an e-Learning system with different contents for recommendation of contents to learners in [22]. Also, a knowledgebase recommender has employed ontologies that have the intrinsic ability to represent learning objects and their relationships.

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The problem of not incorporating learner characteristics such as knowledge level, learning style and sequential learning patterns has been addressed in [23]. A hybrid approach, a knowledge-based recommender that uses sequential pattern mining and ontology to recommend resources to learners has been proposed in [23]. Solutions for Issue #4: The ITS proposed in [12] includes the components that adapt to the users’ context and mobility requirements. A subject Ontology has been proposed in [16] as a cognitive tool and to support adaptation and provide personalized content to learners. Ontology-based Personalized Adaptive E-learning system using FPN and HMM (OPAESFH) [20] collects the details of learners’: background knowledge, learners’ ability, level of knowledge and learning path they follow. These have been helpful in achieving a highly adaptive e-learning system. Article [26] has used two different approaches to gather users’ requirements for learning content and system adaptation. 1. Accumulating historical data by using a question-answering process. 2. By collecting learners’ reading behavior logs based on the e-documents that the learner reads. Solutions for Issue #5: Article [6] describes how to enable the learners to go for their learning goals by allowing them to use learning resources, perform learning activities and building an LD ontology that stores the above. To overcome this issue, learning design ontology has been proposed in [21] with new concepts and relations that enrich the descriptions provided on elements of the IMS LD Spec. Solutions for Issue #6: A knowledgebase with an ontology schema layer has been introduced in [9] to seamlessly connect the digital resources to the services of the elearning system to support e-learning. Article [10] has attempted to achieve personalized access to e-Learning contents by introducing a semantic framework. It uses specific description formats and automatically generates hypertext structures from metadata. Ontologies are built for the user, domain, and observation. Solutions for Issue #7: An ontology has been deployed for the conceptualization of elearning concepts in [11] for a Key Performance Indicators (KPI) oriented e-learning system. Article [18] has proposed a domain ontology specifying the learning objects such as courses, learning resources, assessments and the learning process. Solutions for Issue #8: Supporting community collaborations has been one of the goals in building a knowledgebase with an ontology schema layer in [9]. Solutions for Issue #9: Authors of [7] have worked towards semantic-driven interoperability framework, with the intension of sharing and reusing learning objects. The content creation has been done using ontology-driven authoring tools to achieve modularized e-learning systems that can operate with other e-learning systems. Solutions for Issue #10: A solution for automated and personalized searching for learning resources has been described in [14]. Solutions for Issue #11: As a solution for issues in using metadata, an ontology-based semantic annotations to extend the IEEE LOM standard has been used in [8]. They have extended and combined two alternative methods for the indexing of textual resources and have achieved better results.

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What Are the Limitations and Gaps in OBELS Research?

Though much research has been done in OBELS, this review shows that knowledge and work done in some areas are limited. Therefore, there is a greater need to carry out further research not only in these areas but also in the well-established areas. When the issues that were identified in Sect. 4.2 are considered, majority of work (issues #1 to #4) has happened in the areas of reusability and managing learning objects, knowledge representation, learner modelling, recommendation and adaptation or personalization of learning contents. Still, what granularity levels of learning objects are ideal for each situation of reusability and how the integration of them should happen are not yet clear. In recommending materials to learners in most cases, what materials to be recommended is determined beforehand by the educators, not dynamically [28]. When the issues #5, #6 and #7 are considered, they received a moderate amount of attention from the researchers. Most work have focused on learning design using IMS LD specification. Still, limitations in expressiveness of the ontology languages and reasoning capabilities need more attention. In relation to access issues, query languages for the Semantic Web and capabilities of them also have gained less attention. Use of ontology to solve issue # 8 to # 11 in [7–9] and [14] have gained very limited attention. So, there is a greater opportunity to do research in these areas, even how metadata can be integrated with the search for e-learning contents and how to enhance interoperability between e-learning systems.

5 Discussion and Conclusions This article presented a study on a highly researched area of OBELS based on articles published during 2001–2020. According to the SLS method, a rigorous process was followed to search for articles available in journal databases and to select relevant articles. Some articles were excluded as they did not meet the selection criteria. The other articles were selected after a careful study of the title, abstract and reading the primary studies. Even though articles [11] and [18] argue that user requirements have not been considered much compared to technical aspects, many other works [17, 19, 22] and [24] have worked on modelling users and [12, 16, 20] and [26] have worked on adaptation of learning contents to the learners. Interoperability among e-learning systems can bring benefits to educational institutions that are related to user requirements [7]. Still, this would be viable among the systems belonging to the same institution. However, for the interoperability among e-learning systems of different institutions, ontologies would be required to handle policies and discrepancies among the institutions. In conclusion, this study helped to identify four main types of e-learning ontologies used as part of solutions to the issues in e-learning. Among them domain ontology has been widely used and covers many aspects of e-learning. Hence, domain ontology could be recommended as the main ontology in an OBELS. Other types of ontologies, namely course ontology, educational resources ontology and user ontology could be

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deployed as subontologies of domain ontology. Additionally, this study provided an overview of the proposed solutions to the current issues in e-learning and helped to gain some knowledge on them. This would help the researchers and practitioners in OBELS to get an idea of the work done and receive directions for future research. This study has found that there are many articles published in OBELS. Even though majority of the articles have been published in reputed international conferences, we found a considerable number of articles published in Q1 journals. A limitation of this study is presenting results only of the Q1 journals. If results of Q2, Q3 journal papers and international conference papers were included, a much broader view of the literatures could be provided in this article. It is expected to expand this study to include articles belonging to other categories in a future publication.

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16. Miranda, S., Orciuoli, F., Sampson, D.G.: A SKOS-based framework for subject ontologies to improve learning experiences. Comput. Hum. Behav. 61, 609–621 (2016) 17. Ouf, S., Ellatif, M.A., Salama, S.E., Helmy, Y.: A proposed paradigm for smart learning environment based on semantic web. Comput. Hum. Behav. 72, 796–818 (2017) 18. Palombi, O., Jouanot, F., Nziengam, N., Omidvar-Tehrani, B., Rousset, M.C., Sanchez, A.: OntoSIDES: ontology-based student progress monitoring on the national evaluation system of French medical schools. Artif. Intell. Med. 96, 59–67 (2019) 19. Paquette, G.: An Ontology and a Software Framework for Competency Modeling and Management. J. Educ. Technol. Soc. 10(3), 1–21 (2007) 20. Rani, M., Nayak, R., Vyas, O.: Anontology-based adaptive personalized e-learning system, assisted by software agents on cloud storage. Knowl. -Based Syst. 90(2015), 33–48 (2015) 21. Romero, L., Gutiérrez, M., & Caliusco, L.: Towards semantically enriched e-learning assessment: ontology-based description of learning objects. In: 14th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, pp. 336–338. IEEE (2014) 22. Sarwar, S., Qayyum, Z.U., García-Castro, R., Safyan, M., Munir, R.F.: Ontology based elearning framework: a personalized, adaptive and context aware model. Multimedia Tools Appl. 78(24), 34745–34771 (2019) 23. Tarus, J.K., Niu, Z., Yousif, A.: A hybrid knowledge-based recommender system for elearning based on ontology and sequential pattern mining. Futur. Gener. Comput. Syst. 72, 37–48 (2017) 24. Wang, J., Mendori, T., Xiong, J.: A language learning support system using course-centered ontology and its evaluation. Comput. Educ. 78, 278–293 (2014) 25. Wu, Z., Mao, Y., Chen, H.: Subontology-based resource management for web-based elearning. IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng. 21(6), 867–880 (2008) 26. Zeng, Q., Zhao, Z., Liang, Y.: Course ontology-based user’s knowledge requirement acquisition from behaviors within e-learning systems. Comput. Educ. 53(3), 809–818 (2009) 27. Zouaq, A., Nkambou, R.: Enhancing learning objects with an ontology-based memory. IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng. 21(6), 881–893 (2009) 28. Tunde, F., Sunday, A., Perpetual, O.: Ontology-based model for e-learning management system (O-Bmems). Int. J. Comp. Sci. Issues (IJCSI) 12(3), 118–126 (2015)

Design of a Vehicle for Modern Mobilities in Metropolitan Areas Dan Centea(&)

and Seshasai Srinivasan

McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada [email protected]

Abstract. The design of a vehicle for modern mobility expectations involves a combination of technical and business-related analyses and decisions. This paper describes a course related to the conceptual design of a vehicle that is expected to be used for carsharing services in metropolitan areas. The technical and business specifications of such a vehicle are listed. The course delivery approach that creates a learning environment able to ensure that engineering design principles are followed is presented. The balance of engineering and business analyses that leads to the design of a vehicle for the given mobility service is assessed in several steps of the conceptual design. Design approaches for an environment-conscious vehicle are presented. The need of connected vehicle solutions and advanced driver-assistance systems assistance that could be included in the vehicle design are discussed. A final design assessment strategy carried out by experts from the automotive industry is presented. Keywords: Vehicle design
Mobility solution
Modern mobility
Mobility in metropolitan area

1 Introduction Today’s world faces a constant process of urbanization that leads to increased mobility challenges. These challenges are even more difficult at metropolitan scale where the transportation services are extremely difficult to be optimized with standard approaches. The solutions adopted by many mega-cities include implementing modern and sustainable mobility solutions and creating infrastructures for smart cities. The published literature presents various modern mobility solutions for mega-cities [1, 2]. Ride sharing platforms are solutions that provide trip planning and carpooling platforms to find and coordinate a match for a given route [3]. Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a solution that allows combining new mobility with traditional public transportation means such as taxis, and relies on digital platforms based on the Internet of Things (IoT) frameworks to support intelligent transportation systems in smart cities [4]. MaaS prepares a future of transportation in which big data and focus investments facilitate the integration of mobility options within cities [5]. Mobility solutions that do not involve car ownership are in continuous development [6, 7]. Between the possible solutions, carsharing services promise sustainable, socially responsible, and technological solutions to the issues of congestion, pollution, and individual driving behaviors [8]. Bellos et al. [9] analyzed the key issues of carsharing © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 126–133, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_13

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and its impact on urban sustainability, and identified seven research topics of the carsharing situation in Europe, namely sharing, economy, model, systems, electrical carsharing, policy and travel. An original equipment manufacturer analyzed carsharing, designed its product line by accounting for the trade-off between driving performance and fuel efficiency, and found that the fuel efficiency of the vehicles increases through carsharing [10]. An analysis of an electric free-floating carsharing system [11] shows that few charging stations are enough to make the system self-sustainable if the customers voluntarily return the cars to charging stations when available. Meanwhile, peer-to-peer (P2P) carsharing is a form of shared-automated mobility that is relevant in light of the current hype surrounding vehicle automation [12]. On the other hand, carsharing systems have not always been successful. Since 1998, 94 carsharing programs have been deployed in North America but only 40 are operational (18 in Canada, 21 in the United States, and one in Mexico). Moreover, the three largest carsharing operators in the U.S. and Canada accounted for 91% and 86% of the total membership, respectively [13]. Although some MaaS solutions use only vehicles with traditional propulsion systems, several solutions involve electric vehicles [14–16]. A research presented in reference [17] examined whether it is optimal to use electric vehicles (EVs) in the carsharing market and what is the environmental impact of the optimal choice on the car mix. They found that it is optimal to use EVs only if their charging speed, number of charging stations, and range are large enough. Among these three conditions, the recharging speed was discovered to be is the most important. Another research [18] shows that sharing and private battery electric vehicles (BEVs) behave differently. When compared to the privately own BEVs, the car-sharing BEVs had longer daily and trip driving range with the users showing higher speed demand and reduced tolerance towards the low-range driving situations. To address the modern mobility expectations, challenges, and policies related to transportation in current and future cities, each year, the automotive industry implements new solutions for building environment-conscious vehicles. The knowledge in this field evolves every year. The role of the automotive engineering programs is to produce graduates that are aware of these evolutions, use research-based learning to develop knowledge and skills, and apply them to design innovative solutions for modern mobilities. The course described in this paper presents an approach in which students collaborate in a Problem-Based Learning (PBL) environment that allows them to acquire the appropriate knowledge and develop these skills through the development of a conceptual design for carsharing mobility. A conceptual design delivers a combination of technical and business outcomes. Students are expected to use engineering design and business analysis methods that have been taught in previous courses. They are also required to search, identify and read relevant research related to the design of modern and environment-friendly vehicles, and need to be aware of the current vehicle mobility trends that provide sustainable mobility solutions for current and future metropolitan cities. The course is offered to automotive students in an engineering program who are naturally inclined to find it easier to complete these tasks from an engineering perspective rather than addressing business related issues. Therefore, to hone this skillset, an important aspect of the weekly collaboration between students is to place the business analysis and

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decisions at the same level of importance as the technical analyses and solutions. The paper presents the steps used in preparing a conceptual design and describes the engineering and business analyses and decisions that need to be performed. The question addressed by this paper is to find the optimal ratio between engineering and business components of the design, and to identify the course requirements and design elements that lead to innovative and realistic vehicle designs.

2 Conceptual Design The conceptual design steps used in the course include defining the problem, conducting background research for the vehicles and business, adopting design requirements, selecting vehicles and service specifications, brainstorming for each design topic, evaluating options, developing a solution that meets the design requirements, and communicating results. The overall goal of the course is to engage teams of students in project-based collaborations to develop conceptual designs of environment-friendly vehicles for a mobility service in a metropolitan area. The type of propulsion system of the vehicle and the mobility service are changed every year to follow mobility trends towards smart cities. In the previous versions of the course [19–23], groups of students were asked to design electric or hybrid electric vehicles for car rental or taxi services. In the course presented in this paper, teams of students are asked to prepare conceptual designs of vehicles with hybrid propulsion systems for carsharing mobility services that will be used in metropolitan areas in about three years. The experience accumulated by the course instructor after eight years of delivering the course indicates that the best design solutions were those proposed by effective teams. Effective teamwork is an important transferable skill that students need to learn. Multiple minds focused on the same topic provides an increased motivation to succeed, fosters creativity and innovation, develops organizational and planning skills, and increases efficiency by accomplishing tasks faster with the help of others. Several of these benefits come with challenges caused primarily by human factors, such as team composition, level of technical knowledge, participation, involvement, engagement, motivation, and effective communication between team members. An important aspect of creating an educational environment that exploits the many benefits of teamwork in a project-based setting is the proper selection of the teams. The course described in this paper used various ways to select the members of each group based on objective or subjective criteria. The objective criteria that mimic real-life teams, where colleagues are not necessarily friends, included selecting students by alphabetic order or based on personality tests, and led to a combination of effective and ineffective teams. The subjective criteria allowed students to self-select their groups based on subjective grounds; the members of these groups got along well, helped each other, respected their leader, and were better motivated to succeed. Project management principles are used to teach effective teamwork ethics. Teams of four students perform group collaboration and submit their work to a team manager. Each student twice played the role of the team manager during the length of the course. They are expected to conduct the initial brainstorming exercise, take notes of the

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discussions, facilitate reaching a consensus on the approach that will be developed, divide the work between the other three group members, lead the discussions outside the classroom, assign academic tasks, collect the partial reports from the group members, assemble a weekly report, and present and defend the report in front of the class.

3 Development of the Conceptual Design Conceptual designs are developed in a PBL environment by teams of students who cover the course topics through eight problems. A problem, usually taking a week, is analyzed through a series of learning elements that include collaborative teamwork in a classroom environment facilitated by the course instructor; inquiry-based group work outside the classroom; report writing; and weekly presentations. Although the topics of some problems sound very technical, many of them need to address technical challenges and business constrains before adopting a solution. The technical and business solutions are interconnected. One of the questions that the paper tries to address is identifying the level and depth of the business analysis that would lead to designs that are balanced from the engineering and business viewpoints. The engineering part of the conceptual design assumes a basic vehicle with no powertrain and no autonomous features. Although in the previous versions of this course the basic vehicle was either selected by students based on their own preferences or it was imposed by the instructor to be common for all teams, the current version of the course asks teams to select a basic vehicle based on the expectations of the carsharing service. After having selected a basic vehicle, the next steps of the conceptual design involve adopting the vehicle specifications as a combination of vehicle technical specifications (VTS) and the specifications of the carsharing service. The two specifications are interconnected, and the balance of identifying the technical and carsharing service specification can pull strongly in one of the two directions, often based on human factors. A learning environment that produces a balance with respect to the technical versus business analyses and decisions is accomplished through a clear list of topics on which the student teams need to focus. With a basic vehicle and an initial list of VTS and carsharing service specifications already adopted, the next step in the conceptual design is to carry out market research. The market research is an essential component in adopting the final vehicle’s specifications as they must answer users’ needs and expectations. This course is offered to automotive engineering students who are trained to carry out engineering analyses but are less trained in understanding the business side of the design decisions. Producing a vehicle without understanding the customer’s need can lead to significant market failures. To ensure that students understand the importance of market research, a full week of the conceptual design was initially allocated to market research. The feedback, obtained from engineering managers who are assessing the course every year, suggested a significant increase in the time spent for market research. In the current version of the course, 20% of the design time is used for market research and only 10% is used to select the technical specifications. This heavy leaning toward the business component of a vehicle’s conceptual design allows students to carry out business analyses that

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includes a study of the competition, defining a business model, performing customer analysis, conducting primary and secondary research, analyzing the results of the primary research (online surveys) and comparing it with secondary research (published data), and ultimately preparing a business plan. These steps involve significant online research and allow students to use their imagination and creativity to often suggest impressive solutions. Customer analysis plays an important role in the market research. The teams are required to prepare several user personas that would use a carsharing service instead of owning a car or using taxis or public transportation. In the automotive industry, the auto makers contact a very large pool of potential customers and inquire about the specifications of a vehicle that they would consider buying, prepare an initial design that identifies the user expectations that can be met, and again contact the pool of potential buyers to report on their suggested designs. This activity can be simulated in an academic environment but at a significantly lower scale. The user persona is therefore a combination of the actual answers obtained through online surveys and confirmed by secondary research with imaginary user personas. Furthermore, several user personas need to be identified as various users are biased in selecting a carsharing service. Research shows that the factors that have a positive influence on carsharing in the round-trip model include being male, having higher income, and having a higher level of concern for the environment, while for round-trips. The people who are most likely to choose carsharing are actually those who do not own cars and those who frequently use public transportation [24]. Although the user personas are partially a guess, they are expected to be used by students in supporting some of their technical decisions. The most difficult part of the market research is the business plan. Each team needs to prepare a plan based on the initial costs, the financial model of the carsharing service, operational and maintenance costs, and expected revenues. These costs are difficult to estimate. Yoon et al. [25] present a carsharing cost estimation model based on different kinds of scenarios related to travel distance, number of travellers, rate of non-public transit users, rate of non-private sheltered mode users, rate of no-car ownership, and three different cost structures. Their analysis did not include business operation costs such as office rent, telematics technology for shared vehicles, computer supplies, credit card processing, labor costs, telecommunication, marketing, and utilities. For the purpose of the course presented in this paper the students are given some data available in the published literature but are asked to estimate many costs. This rough estimation creates a biased financial model that cannot be used to justify business decisions but gives students a sense of the complexity of a real business model for a carsharing service. The next engineering steps in developing a conceptual design include selecting the architecture and components of an environment-friendly powertrain; adopting electrical storage systems; selecting communication systems to obtain a connected and automated vehicle (CAV); choosing several types of sensors for the advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS); and adopting autonomous features to make the vehicle ready for smart cities. The environment-friendly part of the design consists in selecting a hybrid powertrain that can include either an electric motor, a battery, and an engine; or an electric

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motor and a hybrid electric storage system. The choice between these options depends on the purpose of the vehicle and on the expectations of the user. Automotive companies use various methods to identify the user needs and find the market expectations. This activity is also simulated in this course through the market research. Again, business analyses need to support engineering decisions. When students are at this stage of the design, they have already understood that any technical decision needs to be financially viable. They will not choose the best engine, the most powerful motor, or the battery that provides the largest electric driving range as they are aware that all decisions are compromises between performance and costs. This is where the data on user personas are useful as they help students to learn the balance between performance and costs in one direction or another. Carsharing users have different expectations from the service. On one end of the spectrum are users who would like to have many CAV and ADAS features and are ready to pay a premium for them. On the other end there are users who favor the lowest carsharing rental instead of CAV and ADAS features. It is impossible to design a vehicle with only one VTS. The user personas defined by student teams and some components of the business model help them design a family of vehicles with different trims based on a balance between performances and price.

4 Assessment Strategy of the Final Design The final design is assessed by a panel of judges that includes engineering managers from major automotive related companies, and faculty members whose main research is related to electric and hybrid vehicles. When presenting design solutions in front of possible future managers, students have an opportunity to showcase their accomplishments to relevant people in the industry. There is a certain level of anxiety at these presentations since the students expect to be questioned by knowledgeable people in the automotive field. This assessment strategy keeps the students motivated to prepare very good conceptual designs. The external judges assess the level of technical knowledge covered in the course, students’ creativity in preparing innovative business concepts, and students’ skills in defending their engineering solutions and business model. Students need to convince the judges that this combination of technical solutions and business decisions can be implemented in the industry within 3 years. Furthermore, the student teams need to convince the judges that the suggested business model can turn to profit in a maximum of three years.

5 Summary The paper describes a course that allows students to prepare open ended projects that combine engineering solutions with a business model for the development of a conceptual design of a hybrid electric vehicle expected to enter the carsharing market in three years. Students are encouraged to include advanced but realistic solutions with a minimal environmental impact, and propose vehicle designs ready for smart cities.

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Conceptual designs prepared by teams of students who collaborate throughout the entire course include combinations of technical analyses and business decisions. The paper presents the steps taken to develop conceptual designs in a PBL environment, addresses a question related to the optimal ratio between engineering and business solutions, and proposes several answers to the question in various steps of the design. The final assessment of the course, carried out by managers from the automotive industry, ensures that students propose innovative and realistic technical solutions and business decisions, and provide students the confidence that the outcomes of the course are consistent with the expectations and forecasts of the automotive industry.

References 1. Chow, J.: Informed Urban Transportation Systems: Classic and Emerging Mobility Methods Towards Smart Cities. Elsevier, Cambridge (2018) 2. Detter, H.: Satisfying transportation needs in fast-growing metropolitan areas: mobility solutions for mega-cities in developing countries: Mobility solutions for mega-cities. OPEC Energy Rev. 39(4), 418–444 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1111/opec.12068 3. Griffin, G.P.: Co-producing mobility: lesson from ridesharing for a more just and sustainable autonomous future. In: Riggs, W. (ed.) Disruptive Transport: Driverless Cars, Transport Innovation and the Sustainable City of Tomorrow. 1st edn. pp. 139–155, Routledge, New York (2019). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429464652-10 4. Elshenawy, M., Abdulhai, B., El-Darieby, M.: Towards a service-oriented cyber–physical systems of systems for smart city mobility applications. Futur. Gener. Comput. Syst. 79(2), 575–587 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2017.09.047 5. Baumgardner, W., Cassidy, C., Ruhl, M.: The promise of seamless mobility – Autonomous vehicles and the mobility-as-a-service revolution. In: Riggs, W. (ed.) Disruptive Transport: Driverless Cars, Transport Innovation and The Sustainable City of Tomorrow. 1st edn. pp. 11–20, Routledge, New York (2019). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429464652 6. Cieśla, M., Sobota, A., Jacyna, M.: Multi-criteria decision-making process in metropolitan transport means selection based on the sharing mobility idea. Sustainability 12(17), 7231 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12177231 7. Freudendal-Pedersen, M., Kesselring, S., Zuev, D.: Sharing mobilities: new perspectives for the mobile risk society. Routledge (2020). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429489242 8. Arcidiacono, D., Duggan, M.: Sharing mobility, mobility justice, and the right to the city. In: Sharing Mobilities. pp. 40–52, Routledge (2019). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429201288-3 9. Roblek, V., Meško, M., Podbregar, I.: Impact of carsharing on urban sustainability. Sustainability 13(2), 905 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020905 10. Bellos, I., Ferguson, M., Toktay, L.B.: The car-sharing economy: interaction of business model choice and product line design. Manuf. Serv. Oper. Manag. 19(2), 185–201 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1287/msom.2016.0605 11. Cocca, M., Giordano, D., Mellia, M., Vassio, L.: Free floating electric carsharing design: data driven optimization. Pervasive Mob. Comput. 55, 59–75 (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.pmcj.2019.02.007 12. Shaheen, S., Martin, E., Hoffman-Stapleton, M.: Shared mobility and urban form impacts: a case study of peer-to-peer (P2P) carsharing in the US. J. Urban Des. 26(2), 141–158 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2019.1686350

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13. Shaheen, S., Cohen, A.: Innovative mobility: carsharing outlook carsharing market overview, analysis, and trends. UC Berkeley Transp. Sustain. Res. Center (2020). https:// escholarship.org/uc/item/9jh432pm. Accessed 29 May 2021 14. Jnr, B.A., Petersen, S.A., Ahlers, D., Krogstie, J.: Big data driven multi-tier architecture for electric mobility as a service in smart cities: a design science approach. Int. J. Energy Sect. Manag. 14(5), 1023–1047 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJESM-08-2019-0001 15. Nikitas, A., Kougias, I., Alyavina, E., Njoya, T.E.: How can autonomous and connected vehicles, electromobility, BRT, Hyperloop, shared use mobility and mobility-As-A-Service shape transport futures for the context of smart cities? Urban Sci. 1(4), 36 (2017). https://doi. org/10.3390/urbansci1040036 16. Ruggieri, R., Ruggeri, M., Vinci, G., Poponi, S.: Electric mobility in a smart city: European overview. Energies 14(2), 315 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020315 17. Abouee-Mehrizi, H., Baron, O., Berman, O., Chen, D.: Adoption of electric vehicles in carsharing. Prod. Op. Man. 30(1), 190–209 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1111/poms.13262 18. Wang, W., Zhang, Q., Peng, Z., Shao, Z., Li, X.: An empirical evaluation of different usage pattern between car-sharing battery electric vehicles and private ones. Transp. Res. Part A 135, 115–129 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2020.03.014 19. Centea, D., Srinivasan, S.: Collaboration with industry in the development and assessment of a PBL course. In: Auer, M.E., Centea, D. (eds.) ICBL 2020. AISC, vol. 1314, pp. 181–188. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67209-6_20 20. Centea, D., Srinivasan, S.: Assessment in problem-based learning using mobile technologies. In: Auer, M.E., Tsiatsos, T. (eds.) IMCL 2018. AISC, vol. 909, pp. 337–346. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11434-3_37 21. Centea, D., Srinivasan, S.: Enhancing student learning through problem-based learning. In: Guerra, A., Rodriguez, F.J., Kolmos, A., Reyes, I.P. (eds.) Social Progress and Sustainability: Aalborg Universitetsforlag, 6th International Research Symposium on PBL (IRSPBL 2017), Bogota, Colombia, July 3–5, 2017, pp. 376–385 (2017) 22. Centea, D., Srinivasan, S.: A comprehensive assessment strategy for a PBL environment. Intern. J. Innov. Res. Educ. Sci. (IJIRES) 3(6), 2349–5219 (2016) 23. Centea, D., Srinivasan, S.: Problem-based learning in the conceptual design of hybrid electric vehicles. In: Proceeding of the Conference on the Learner in Engineering Education (IJCLEE 2015), Donostia - San Sebastian, Spain, July 6–9, 2015, pp. 149–154 (2015) 24. Yoon, T., Cherry, C.R., Jones, L.R.: One-way and round-trip carsharing: a stated preference experiment in Beijing. Transp. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 53, 102–114 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.04.009 25. Yoon, T., Cherry, C.R., Ryerson, M.S., Bell, J.E.: Carsharing demand estimation and fleet simulation with EV adoption. J. Clean. Prod. 206, 1051–1058 (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.124

How to Overcome the Difficulties Emerged When Applying Student-Centered Approach? Júlia Justino1,2

and Silviano Rafael1(&)

1

Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal, Setúbal School of Technology, Campus do IPS Estefanilha, 2914-508 Setúbal, Portugal {julia.justino,silviano.rafael}@estsetubal.ips.pt 2 CINEA - Centre for Energy and Environment Research, Setúbal, Portugal

Abstract. This paper presents the difficulties, and solutions, emerged during the implementation of the student-centered approach in a mathematics’ course unit of a higher technological course in a Portuguese polytechnic by a teacher that only had as training reference the traditional teacher-centered approach. Taking into account the objectives of the course unit, the application of a new pedagogical approach is not easy, since it requires a progressive mindset and the teacher’s willingness to constant reflection and adjustment on the new pedagogical structure developed to deal with the difficulties emerged in terms of the objectives and curricula of the educational institution, from the teacher’s point of view, from the students’ point of view and also from the points of view of the educational environment and pedagogical culture. The application of a pedagogical structure to support the teaching activities and the related active learning techniques in the classroom was established in order to integrate the mathematics’ course unit into project-based learning, which was the active learning technique applied in all other course units. Also, the active learning techniques chosen intended to boost the students’ soft skills, thereby enhancing the students’ academic performance. Keywords: Student-centered approach


Collaborative learning

1 Introduction The adaptation of the training objectives of a higher educational institution to the rapid technological evolution and current needs of employers and society is no longer, for quite some time, compatible with the traditional teacher-centered approach. In fact, this kind of pedagogical methodology remains theoretical in focus, doesn’t foster the development of key competences needed by students for the modern economy and reduces the applications of the subjects on problems of the real world [1, 2]. Nevertheless, this approach is still widely applied in Portuguese higher education since academic staff are not required to have pedagogical training in order to enter into the career structure. In fact, for most university teachers having technical and scientific skills on its teaching area is considered enough to start and build a career [3]. Moreover, there is nowadays a lot of scientific studies and papers pointing out the student-centered approach as the suitable pedagogical methodology to be applied in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 134–140, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_14

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higher education institutions, by active and collaborative learning [4]. But there is few scientific works addressing a pathway to foster the change from the teacher-centered approach to the student-centered approach, in particular for teachers of technology or engineering field. So, this change and the dissemination of the student-centered approach, is not an easy task.

2 Context of Application In 2014 a new type of short-cycle higher educational programme (2 years – 180 ECTS) was added to the range of course offerings in polytechnics of Portugal, called Curso Técnico Superior Profissional (CTeSP). This programme has a significant practical and technological component and stronger links to the labour market needs, suitable for students from vocational education to whom higher education is usually not attractive. In the setting of one of the CTeSP given at the Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal, the pedagogical strategy adopted was the project-based learning (PBL), which triggered the changeover to the student-centered approach in the mathematics’ course unit whose contents were usually taught within the traditional teacher-centered approach. Indeed, PBL can coexist with teacher-centered approach, however the PBL’s full potential is not reached since the students’ soft skills are neglected and students adopt a passive attitude in classroom with this traditional approach. Thus, a changeover from an active attitude (concerning PBL) to a passive one (regarding teacher-centered approach) and/or vice versa does not contribute to an ongoing evolution of the students’ competences due to the lack of functional, cognitive and behavioural consistency. This changeover raised a great challenge for the teacher that only had as training reference the traditional teacher-centered approach, involving a deep reflection on how to present the mathematics’ contents and choose suitable learning activities in order to facilitate the students’ learning process and hold them responsible for it [5]. During this journey, several difficulties emerged but solutions were found to overcome them.

3 Difficulties Mathematics is a cross-cutting scientific area whose contents, although necessary for students’ training, are usually given within the traditional teacher-centered approach, which is not appropriate with PBL that operates with projects of strong technological nature. This situation led to the necessary change of the pedagogical approach in the mathematics’ course unit of this CTeSP. However, difficulties were encountered at several levels during the deep reflection taken about how to perform this change: in terms of the objectives and curricula of the educational institution, from the teacher’s point of view, from the students’ point of view and also from the points of view of the educational environment and pedagogical culture.

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Objectives and Curricula of the Educational Institution

In Portuguese higher educational institutions teaching technological and engineering courses there is still a widespread emphasis on the development of technical and scientific research, compared with the scarce research carried out in pedagogy, which is not so valued, although in practice the consequences of this research work may also last over time. There is an almost fundamental line of thought that links scientific and technical publications to the measurability of the quality of teaching and learning, as if they were a reliable quality indicator of the advocated teaching, despite the use of a pedagogical methodology centered on content or on the teacher. But what is the impact of scientific research on students’ learning outcomes in this context? Furthermore, regarding the course’s curricula, if it consists of a rigid structure, focused on the contents, it is not simple to implement a new pedagogical approach, different from others applied on classical course units. Moreover, the existence of graduate traineeships in the course’s curricula ended up in practice with the freshman year students’ research participation under the teacher’s supervision. Indeed, technological and scientific innovations could be developed by these students, allowing greater creativity from the most talented ones. In this case study, although PBL was the pedagogical strategy adopted for the CTeSP, the mathematics’ course unit was not included on the learning activities by projects, unlike all the other technical course units. So, a suitable learning strategy had to be established within the student-centered approach, assuring a harmonious and balanced integration with PBL. 3.2

Teacher

How to implement the student-centered approach from the teacher’s point of view? Due to the low relevance given by the education institution on the implementation of innovative or differentiated pedagogical methodologies, as well as the increase of the amount of work required to perform a change or transition of methodology, this issue is an inhibiting factor in engaging a personal commitment, dedication and effort towards the pedagogical development and the setting-up of the desired learning environments. Moreover, this work effort cannot be shown through a measurable form as by the number of papers published in a journal or presented in a conference. New pedagogical knowledge has to be learned, assimilated and organized by the teacher in order to develop the necessary skills to design all stages of the new pedagogical structure of the course unit that will characterize the new behavioral and management attitudes on the learning environment. Thus, the teacher has to be openminded in order to build a new pedagogical mindset. All this requires, at a first stage, time for teacher’s training, time for the development of the new pedagogical project and time for experimentation and support, which translates into an investment that calls for the teacher’s personal motivation and belief in its application skills as well as an appropriate choice of pedagogical techniques to implement. Overall, the subjects concerning pedagogical knowledge are: the setting of learning outcomes regarding the contents and competences of the course unit, the selection of the teaching-learning techniques according to the learning outcomes to be achieved by students; the

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development of didactic resources for students’ study and work; the setting of learning activities for each learning objective and the definition of the valuation method [6]. In this case study, the mathematics’ teacher attended previously three training sessions of six hours each in PBL. This training action was provided for all teachers of the CTeSP by the educational institution in order to support the integration of this new pedagogical strategy. However, the training sessions were too theoretical and impractical, in a sense that it was explained what PBL was but not how should it be implemented. Worse still, the mathematics’ course unit was not included on the course projects’ learning activities by the decision makers. So, the choice of the teaching method and its related techniques to be applied, considering the diversity of learning styles and learning habits that students from vocational education carry over into the classroom, hampered this course unit’s preparation and timely planning. 3.3

Students

How do students realize the application of a new pedagogical practice in a classroom? Students may find it hard to change from a passive attitude, typical of the lecturer’s expository method of contents, to an active attitude in a student-centered approach, in which they do not know their role on the learning process. Initially some students passively resist, feeling uncomfortable and unprepared to take responsibility for their own learning [7]. They may even think that they pay academic fees to be taught instead of learning differently than what they were used to in previous study cycles. The inadaptation to teamwork due to the lack of discipline to undertake tasks requiring autonomous work is also often detected. In fact, the time difference in the students’ personal dynamics, such as reaction, interaction and study time of each individual within a group, may be an inhibiting and disintegrating factor of cohesion and mutual assistance in a team. Also, the differentiated way of thinking of each student, as well as the incapacity for listening or for exchanging ideas constructively, can undermine teamwork. Sometimes hitches appear from the best students because they do not want to be subjected to a drop rating and so they play the team’s leader, dragging all the other team members in achieving the learning objectives without respecting the learning space of their peers. Last but not least, in this case study most of the students came from vocational education and did not demonstrate the same academic preparation as students from the daytime courses, which contributes to a deficit in general knowledge, in particular the mathematical knowledge, and skill imbalances. 3.4

Educational Environment

Most classrooms are not physically prepared for the implementation of the studentcentered approach: rectangular tables lined in equal rows, classical whiteboards that are hard to follow by students that are sitting at the edge of the classroom, bad room acoustics that prevents sound propagation and inappropriate room temperature. Moreover, students don’t have multiple means in the classroom to show their works simultaneously and difficulties in accessing the Internet is often a reality.

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In this case study, the classroom also had little space to host students and its necessary hardware equipment. 3.5

Pedagogical Culture

The changeover in the pedagogical approach requires a cultural change inciting learning more than teaching, giving more importance to the students’ learning conditions and resources rather than to the amount of content lectured. Moreover, ongoing failure rates in course units of cross-cutting scientific areas, as mathematics, are seen as a “natural problem” and no amendment in the teaching approach is requested or recommended by the course coordinator or by the coordinator of the scientific area, which can be frustrating for the academic community concerning the ensuing institution’s bad performance.

4 Solutions As the difficulties above-mentioned emerged, suitable solutions for each type of difficulty were designed, taken and/or implemented. Regarding the difficulties in implementing the course’s objectives in the mathematics’ course unit, that wasn’t included on the learning activities by projects in the context of PBL, other active learning techniques, such as collaborative working group, jigsaw [8] and gallery walk [9], were implemented in this course unit to guarantee a smooth integration with PBL and the ongoing soft skills’ development of this CTeSP. Regarding the teacher’s difficulties in implementing the student-centered approach in the mathematics’ course unit, the sharing and support throughout term time given by faculty colleagues that had already experienced a pedagogical approach changeover, was crucial for the good implementation of this approach, together with the previous construction of the entire pedagogical structure supported by a detailed planning [10]. The pedagogical structure consisted of setting the course unit’s learning outcomes, according to the Bloom’s taxonomy, resources and techniques to be applied for each learning activity and assessment, properly aligned. Another relevant point is a good communication management in explaining the learning activities to students, which is crucial for the students’ motivation by the transparency about what to learn and why, whilst emphasizing the ongoing feedback on students’ performance during term time [11]. Regarding the students’ difficulties in adapting to the student-centered approach, they were addressed by the development in the classroom of their key competences, such as teamwork, communication, problem-solving, time management, work ethic, evaluation of peers, critical thinking, discussion, basis and defense of ideas. In fact, these difficulties are linked to the lack of the students’ behavioral competencies or emotional intelligence that should have been developed before entering a higher education institution but that is not what happens in reality. Moreover, the students’ preparation for student-centered approach is facilitated and more efficient the better the learning objectives of the course unit are outlined and the reason for the application of active learning techniques are explained.

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Regarding the difficulties of the educational environment in implementing the student-centered approach, since it was not possible to place round tables in the classroom, tables were joined together forming work group islands for students to develop their learning activities. Also, since it was not possible to place an interactive whiteboard in the classroom, each working group had a different paper learning assignment whose results were shown and discussed using the teacher’s personal computer displayed on the wall by a projector. Regarding the difficulties of the pedagogical culture in implementing the studentcentered approach, the answer is to boost the acquisition of soft skills as well as technical and scientific skills in all course units. This line of reasoning is better adopted if spread and experienced both horizontally by teachers and vertically by institution hierarchy.

5 Outcomes In the academic year 2017/18 the implementation of the student-centered approach in the mathematics’ course unit of the CTeSP taught in PBL was carried out to a class of 16 freshman year students. The application of collaborative working group in the classroom environment, in addition to other active learning techniques as jigsaw and gallery walk, contributed to the development of the students’ soft skills while the mathematical learning outcomes were being achieved [12]. Also, the pedagogical alignment established in the entire pedagogical structure of the mathematics’ course unit, resulted in a good students’ academic performance by the end of the term time, contributing to the freshman year students’ adaptation to academia and the consequent reduce of the drop-outs rate in this CTeSP [13].

6 Conclusions Mathematics is a cross-cutting scientific area whose contents hardly fit into projects of strong technological nature. So, the application of active learning techniques establishes links with the other technical course units of a course taught in PBL, contributing for the development of the students’ key competences. The collaborative working group contributed to improve the students’ self-esteem, mutual assistance and responsibility, changing their typical passive attitude to an active one in the classroom environment, resulting in a good students’ academic performance by the end of the term time. Also, the application of collaborative learning contributed to the increase of confidence in the implementation of the student-centered approach. The sharing of the difficulties encountered when applying student-centered approach for the first time, after several years of traditional teacher-centered approach, and the solutions found to overcome those difficulties, can motivate and encourage other academic colleagues interested in changing its pedagogical methodology.

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References 1. OECD: Review of Higher Education, Research and Innovation: Portugal. https://www.oecd. org/portugal/oecd-review-of-higher-education-research-and-innovation-portugal9789264308138-en.htm. Accessed on21 Feb 2019 2. Evans, C., Rees, G., Taylor, C., Fox, S.: A liberal higher education for all? The massification of higher education and its implications for graduates’ participation in civil society. High. Educ. 81(3), 521–535 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00554-x 3. Guerreiro, S.: Pedagogical Knowledge and the Changing Nature of the Teaching Profession, OECD Publishing, Paris (2017). https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264270695-en 4. Barkley, E., Major, C., Cross, K.: Collaborative Learning Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty, 2nd edn. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco (2014) 5. Weimer, M.: Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice, 2nd edn. JosseyBass Publishers, San Francisco (2013) 6. Coleman, T.E., Money, A.G.: Student-centered digital game–based learning: a conceptual framework and survey of the state of the art. High. Educ. 79, 415–457 (2020) 7. Seidel, S., Tanner, K.: “What if students revolt?”—considering student resistance: origins, options, and opportunities for investigation. CBE–Life Sci. Educ. 12(4), 586–595 (2013) 8. Aronson, E., Patnoe, S.: The Jigsaw Classroom: Building Cooperation in the Classroom, 2nd edn. Addison Wesley Longman, New York (1997) 9. Chin, C.K., Khor, K.H., Teh, T.K.: Is gallery walk an effective teaching and learning strategy for biology? In: Gnanamalar Sarojini Daniel, E. (ed.) Biology Education and Research in a Changing Planet, pp. 55–59. Springer, Singapore (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981287-524-2_6 10. Justino, J., Rafael, S.: The expansion of pedagogical alignment – a step for the learning success. In: The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), vol. 12, pp. 32–36. ISRES Publishing (2019) 11. Trigwell, K., Prosser, M., Waterhouse, F.: Relations between teachers’ approaches to teaching and students’ approaches to learning. High. Educ. 37, 57–70 (1999) 12. Justino, J., Rafael, S.: Teaching mathematics in tertiary education through collaborative work. In: 3rd International Conference of the Portuguese Society for Engineering Education (CISPEE), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2018) 13. Justino, J., Rafael, S.: Enhancing collaborative learning through pedagogical alignment. In: Martínez Álvarez, F., Troncoso Lora, A., Sáez Muñoz, J.A., Quintián, H., Corchado, E. (eds.) CISIS/ICEUTE -2019. AISC, vol. 951, pp. 227–234. Springer, Cham (2020). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20005-3_23

Smart Pedestrian Crossing - An EPS@ISEP 2020 Project B´arbara Cruz Caruso1 , Charlie Stenstkie1 , David van Duivenboden1 , Jan Starosta1 , Jens Hoernschemeyer1 , Solenne Peytard1 , Benedita Malheiro1,2(B) , Cristina Ribeiro1,3 , Jorge Justo1 , Manuel F. Silva1,2 , Paulo Ferreira1 , and Pedro Guedes1,2 1

ISEP/PPorto - School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal [email protected] 2 INESC TEC - Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, Porto, Portugal 3 INEB - Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Porto, Portugal https://www.eps2020-wiki6.dee.isep.ipp.pt/

Abstract. This paper reports the development of WalkSafe, a Smart Pedestrian Crossing solution, by a multinational and multidisciplinary team of students during the spring semester of 2020. The team was enrolled in the European Project Semester (EPS), a project-based capstone programme offered by Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto (ISEP). Motivated by the idea to reduce the number of pedestrians hit by cars at road crossings, and associated injuries and deaths, the team surveyed pedestrian behaviour to conclude that people often ignore pedestrian crossings. Thus, this project intended to motivate people to use pedestrian crossings, increasing the safety of both pedestrians and drivers. The proposed solution can be implemented on any pedestrian crossing and involves up to three components: (i) a box to be fixed on each side of pedestrian crossings with a radio-frequency identification reader as well as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi interfaces; (ii) a smartphone mobile app; and (iii) a personal bracelet for children and elderly, with a passive radio-frequency identification tag. Keywords: Engineering education · Collaborative learning · European Project Semester · Smart cities · Intelligent mobility

1

Introduction

The European Project Semester (EPS) is a one-semester capstone project/ internship programme offered to engineering, product design and business undergraduates [1] by 19 European engineering schools (the EPS Providers), corresponding to 30 European Credit Transfer Units (ECTU). EPS aims to prepare This work was partially financed by National Funds through the Portuguese funding agency, FCT - Funda¸ca ˜o para a Ciˆencia e a Tecnologia, within project UIDB/50014/2020. c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 141–152, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_15

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future engineers to think and act globally, by adopting project-based learning and teamwork methodologies, fostering the development of complementary skills, addressing sustainability and multiculturalism, while having a pervasive concern with sustainable development within EPS projects [4]. The syllabus of EPS course implemented at the School of Engineering of the Porto Polytechnic (ISEP) - EPS@ISEP - comprises Project (20 ECTU), Project Management and Team Work (2 ECTU), Marketing and Communication (2 ECTU), Foreign Language and Culture (2 ECTU), Energy and Sustainable Development (2 ECTU) plus Ethics and Deontology (2 ECTU). Apart Foreign Language and Culture, the 2 ECTU modules are project support seminars oriented towards each team project [8,9]. In the spring semester of 2020, a team composed of six students chose to design and develop a Smart Pedestrian Crossing solution intended to reduce the number of pedestrian crossing accidents. The members were a Brazilian designer student, a Scottish electrical power engineering student, a chemical engineering student from The Netherlands, a Telecommunication and Computer Science student from Poland, a materials engineering student from Germany, and a mechanical engineering and ergonomics student from France. The students started by performing a state-of-the-art analysis on existing solutions regarding pedestrian crossings all around the world. This study was complemented with a survey to understand the behaviour of people concerning their use of pedestrian crossings. After several brainstorming sessions and many ideas, the decision was to create a system of rewards, convertible into public transport discounts, for the pedestrian crossing user. It was also decided that sustainability should be one of the main features of the system, aiming to have minimal waste materials. Next, motivated by the idea of transforming the prototype into a product, the students identified a market niche and developed the marketing strategy, considering both competitors and stakeholders - it was during this phase that the system brand/name was defined: WalkSafe (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Walk-Safe logo

In the sequel, the team addressed the sustainability, ethical and deontological issues related to the project development and manufacturing process, i.e., from the design until the market. Next, they modelled the envisioned system, encompassing a scanner box and a promotional reflective bracelet, in 3D and

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chose adequate dimensions and materials. In parallel, the team developed the mobile app to collect and redeem points. Finally, they built a simulation of the system to test and enable the collection of possible results. This paper, which provides an overview of the learning process followed by the team to accomplish this project, comprises four additional sections: Sect. 2 surveys innovative pedestrian crossing solutions and analyses the related marketing, ethics and sustainability perspectives; Sect. 3 presents the concept, design and architecture, together with the development and simulation of the proposed solution; Sect. 4 discusses the results of the project; and Sect. 5 concludes with a summary of the project and personal outcomes.

2

Background Studies

The background studies, which included a survey on related products together with marketing, sustainability and ethics analyses, allowed the team to derive WalkSafe’s requirements. 2.1

Related Solutions

Research was done on different types of safe road-crossing options currently in use to decrease the number of accidents occurring when pedestrians cross roads. The solutions found can be divided into three different groups, namely: Signalised crossings are crosswalks with signs and/or lights to indicate the presence of the crosswalk. Different types of signalised crossings exist, with different types of signalling. The most common ones are the zebra crossing (Fig. 2a), the pelican crossing and the puffin crossing. All of them have beacons, a give way line and road markings. They can also have audible signals and can be provided with traffic lights, buttons or sensors. Physical Aids help the pedestrian to cross the road faster and safer or make the crosswalk more visible. Often used aids are curb extensions (an extended sidewalk), as depicted on Fig. 2b. Its objective is to slow down drivers, reduce the length of the crossing and increase visibility of pedestrians. Another option is the median refuge islands (Fig. 2c), an “island” in the middle of the road and a safe place for pedestrians between two driving lanes. It takes less time and it makes it easier and safer for the pedestrian to cross the road. A final example is the raised pedestrian crossing (Fig. 2d), which has two main advantages: (i) the road surface is raised at the location of pedestrian crossings, slowing down the traffic and (ii) increasing the visibility of pedestrians. Smart crossings are pedestrian crossings which make the crosswalk safer by using smart electrical components. Most of these smart products can be implemented in already existing crosswalks. The polish company “SmartPass” designed a smart box that can be attached at lamp poles near the crosswalk [12]. The SmartPass has motion sensors, extra lighting, LED lights, monitoring cameras, sound signals and an anti-skidding system. When a pedestrian wants to cross the street, the driver gets warned with colour changing LED.

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(a) Zebra crossing [3]

(b) Curb extensions [5]

(c) Median refuge island [6]

(d) Raised crossing [6]

Fig. 2. Types of pedestrian crossings

2.2

Marketing

To determine WalkSafe’s positioning in the market, the team carried out a marketing analysis. This allowed the team to develop a dedicated marketing plan for the WalkSafe success. First, the advantages, disadvantages and improvements to increase the safety of the user of conventional crossings were identified. After detailed research into existing solutions and user behaviour, the team concluded that the issue was not so much the crossing itself but the user’s motivation to use the crossing. To identify internal and external factors impacting on the product success, the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis was applied alongside with the market research survey on user usage of pedestrian crossings. This helped to identify the market niche and delineate the marketing strategy. To increase user safety and differentiate WalkSafe from competition, the team decided to make people to use crosswalks rather than following existing approaches such as increasing pedestrian visibility or providing drivers with additional information through a variety of lights and sensors. The team’s idea to innovate in order to motivate is the main aspect of this product, which allows to stand out from its competitors, Consequently, the goal of WalkSafe is to motivate pedestrians to use crossings by earning discounted public transport tickets.

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In summary, the two core ideas and benefits behind WalkSafe are: (i) increased user safety, as most road accidents occur in areas where pedestrians don’t use the available crossings; and (ii) increased air quality, by encouraging locals to walk more and, once they have gained enough credits, get discounts on their city public transports – both ways try to deter people from car use. As with any new product, promotion is a key aspect to the success of the product. To enhance WalkSafe odds on the market, the team decided to use multiple promotion channels, such as social networks and hard copy posters around the city of Porto. 2.3

Sustainability

Sustainability helps to satisfy the needs of the present without damaging the planet and compromising next generation needs. To find a sustainable solution for the city of Porto, the team considered the use of eco-friendly solutions and the local environment. Transport is the biggest source of CO2 in the Europe Union (EU), responsible for the emission of over a quarter of all greenhouse gases [11]. Furthermore, transport is the only sector in which emissions have grown since 1990, contributing in 2015 to the increase in the overall EU emissions. If EU is to achieve the Paris climate goals, it is likely that transport emissions must be reduced by 94 % from 2005 levels. These numbers confirm that it is needed to push the people from cars into public transport. The WalkSafe is contributing to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by motivating the society to increase the use of public transport. In fact, it is aligned with United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 11: make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. 2.4

Ethics

Regarding the ethical and deontological concerns considered, four different topics were addressed: engineering ethics, sales and marketing ethics, environmental ethics and liability. Concerning Engineering Ethics, the Code of Conduct for European Chartered Engineers, as issued by the European council of Engineers Chambers (ECEC) [2], was taken into account since this project is based in Europe. In relation to the Sales and Marketing Ethics, the team adhered to the approach sometimes referred to as Conscious Business, or the Economy of Meaning [7]. In what respects Environmental Ethics the team considered the morality of sustainability measures related to the environment while developing WalkSafe. Finally, and regarding Liability, during the development of this project the following European directives were taken into account: – – – – –

Machine Directive Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive Low Voltage Directive Radio Equipment Directive Restriction of Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive

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Background Studies Summary

By thinking outside the box and looking at ways to improve sustainability, WalkSafe allows urban areas to become safer whilst, at the same time, promoting the use of public transport systems and, overall, creating a healthier environment. The performed studies have shown that public transport has a more positive impact on the environment compared to the single user car. The core principle behind WalkSafe – offering promotional discounts on public transport to motivate the use of crosswalks – contributes to make communities safer and more sustainable.

3 3.1

Proposed Solution Concept

The team’s idea was to develop a concept to promote the reduction of the number of pedestrian accidents. A survey was conducted to understand the reasons why people neglect the use of pedestrian crossings. The answers indicated that it was in part due to lack of time and motivation. Therefore, it was decided to concentrate on this last aspect. The survey also showed that a significant part of the respondents used public transports: among 171 respondents, 159 always, often or sometimes use public transports. This lead to the idea of implementing a reward system for people that use pedestrian crossings. Based on this, the WalkSafe system was conceived as a scanner box. Before crossing the road, people scan their Andante card, their phone with the WalkSafe app or the WalkSafe reflective bracelet. Then, they cross the road and scan it again on the other side. This process accumulates points which, after 100 crossings, grant a free trip on a public transport. For the app, the user has to create an account. The app informs about the operation of the solution, the number of accumulated points, and provides access to the Andante website for information about public transport in Porto. The reflective bracelet has many roles: a promotional object as well as a collector of points. It is intended for people without smartphone, such as kids and elderly. Moreover, it is easier and faster to use than a card, since it is wearable around the wrist. This bracelet is reflective given that most accidents at pedestrian crossings occur at nigh time. The idea of adding a reflective aspect aims to improve the visibility of the pedestrian at night and, therefore, increase pedestrians safety. 3.2

Design

Three systems were designed: the scanner box, the bracelet and the app. The scanner box must be deployed on both sides of the pedestrian crossing, as shown in Fig. 3a. When a pedestrian presents a compatible personal WalkSafe component to the scanner box, the screen displays the date, hour and accumulated credit points. The box can be attached to any pole (lamp, traffic lights, traffic signal, etc.) near the pedestrian crossing, as depicted on Fig. 3b.

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(a) Scanner box

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(b) Bracket system [10]

Fig. 3. WalkSafe scanner box design

To accumulate points the pedestrian has to present the personal reflective bracelet, illustrated in Fig. 4a, or personal card, the multimodal Andante card in the case of Porto. Both the bracelet and the card have a radio-frequency identification (RFID) tag, which is scanned by the box. Moreover, the bracelet reflects the light so that, at night time, the pedestrian visibility is increased. Finally, there is the mobile app. Once installed on the smartphone of the pedestrian (shown on Fig. 4), it displays the accumulated credit points, informs about the WalkSafe solution and provides access to the Andante card website. 3.3

Simulation

This section describes the simulation of the WalkSafe system due to the COVID19 pandemic. With ISEP facilities closed and team members back to their countries, it was not possible to develop a proof of concept prototype. 3.4

WalkSafe System Architecture

The WalkSafe system architecture is presented in Fig. 5. The system comprises a control unit, included in the scanner module, responsible for reading the inputs (from the Andante card or from the reflective bracelet) and communicating with the database to update the user credit points. For prototyping purposes, this control box was going to be implemented using an Arduino Uno control board.

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(a) Bracelet

(b) App steps

(c) App milestones

Fig. 4. Reflective bracelet and mobile app

3.5

Control

To simulate a virtual Arduino board, the team adopted Tinkercad software. However, since not all required electrical components were available in the software, the team had to use substitutes. Moreover, there was no RFID sensor and, for this reason, a different component was used to represent the output of this sensor. The main purpose of the simulation was to show that the control system authenticates the user based on the ID of the passive element radio-frequency sensor. When the ID is correctly identified, the system adds points to the user’s account.

4 4.1

Discussion Interpretation

The goal of this project was to design a smart pedestrian crossing in order to reduce pedestrian accidents in urban environments. The initial survey indicated that there are several options to make the streets of Porto safer, and it was decided to focus on motivating people to use crosswalks. By creating a mobile app, designing a reflective bracelet and using the existing Andante card, the team believes that WalkSafe ensures that everyone will be able to use it, not only young people but also the elderly. 4.2

Implications

The WalkSafe is an innovative approach for pedestrian crossings. Although there are already smart pedestrian crossings solutions on the market, WalkSafe is an affordable solution that contributes to make cities safer and more sustainable. The reward system was conceived to work closely together with Porto’s public

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Fig. 5. Control system

transport multimodal card (Andante) as a means to motivate people to use crosswalks. In the end, it is beneficial for both parties: the Andante network gets more clients from WalkSafe and WalkSafe crossings get more pedestrians from the discounts granted on the Andante network. 4.3

Limitations

While the findings of this study show that is is technically feasible to effectively implement RFID based service to promote pedestrian safety, this study does not determine the actual effectiveness of such a service. Particularly, it is unclear whether a system such as WalkSafe would attract enough users in order to have a positive effect on the safety of pedestrians in the city of Porto. Furthermore, the system has some possible limitations, like potential queue-forming in front of scanner boxes that might mitigate the positive effect of the system. 4.4

Recommendations

To overcome these limitations, studies on the effectiveness of the WalkSafe system need to be performed. A suggested first step would be to execute a targeted, representative survey among the population of Porto in order to get an idea of the willingness of pedestrians and other road users to use the WalkSafe system. This could be followed by a small pilot test in different areas of Porto, taking into account the kind of users in these areas (e.g. tourists, commuters, elderly, youth). Once proven effective through the pilot test, the WalkSafe system could be deployed in the whole city.

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5.1

Project Outcomes

The team involved in this project designed and simulated a complete system composed of a scanner box, a mobile app and a reflective bracelet to improve the safety of pedestrians. However, the goal of EPS@ISEP is more important than building prototypes, is to make students contribute with their distinct visions converge into a common solution. This process is not always easy, since at this educational level the students are not usually used to collaborate with colleagues from different nationalities (implying distinct cultural origins) and from different backgrounds (students from engineering areas tend to think differently from students from business and product design). These tasks are demanding for the students since they are not used to this type of decision process, i.e., they must always reach consensus. However, this approach develops communication, negotiation, and collaboration skills, which are usually lacking in students following more “traditional” paths. This year the degree of difficulty was even greater as students had to work remotely, with all the difficulties inherent to this process. 5.2

Personal Outcomes

Due to the worldwide Covid-19 pandemic outbreak, the team was not able to complete the project in Porto. It succeeded to finish the project remotely but, in their unanimous opinion, they would have preferred to do it in person. This would have allowed the team to discuss project work in a easier way and share good moments together. Regarding the EPS learning experience, the team members shared the following testimonies: “The EPS was a really good experience for me because I worked with an international team for the first time. I learnt how to conduct a complete project respecting current issues like the ethics and sustainability questions. Moreover, I met nice people, I discovered other cultures with our discussions, and I improved my English partly thanks to them. Because of Covid-19, the communication and the collaboration were harder, but we succeeded to achieve our objectives.” – Solenne. “Taking part in the European Project Semester was a really good decision. I learned how it is to work with students from all over the world, I improved my English and I made new friendships with nice people. Furthermore, I got a great insight in the Portuguese culture. I am very glad to be part of the EPS.” – Jens. “Taking part in the European Project Semester was a great experience. During this semester I met many wonderful people, I learned about other countries’ culture, especially about the Portuguese culture. I improved my English and I think taking part in the EPS was one of the best decisions I’ve ever made.” – Jan.

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“Even though it is unfortunate that we were unable to complete our project in person due to the Covid-19 pandemic, I look back to a great European Project Semester. I met and became friends with people from all over the world and briefly got to experience the Portuguese culture. Finishing the project online has been a valuable experience as it helped me work on my online communication skills.” – David. “Working on the European project semester has allowed me to meet many nice people that I hope to keep in contact for the rest of my life. Along with friends, I believe it has improved my teamwork skills, challenging me with situations such as different cultures and backgrounds of other and making me adapt in a way which benefited everyone. With the world perpetually changing I think it’s one of the most important things is to be understanding and considerate of others methods and cultures. The EPS exchange has been a fantastic opportunity to explore another country learning about yourself as well as others on the way I would highly recommend it to anyone considering it.” – Charlie. “Working on this project was a wonderful opportunity for me and something that I will definitely take into my professional and personal life. Despite the pandemic’s misfortune, I believe that each of us improves our communication skills, empathy, teamwork and much more. As a person from outside Europe, I realised how different and rich our cultures were and I was privileged to get to know them a little more.” – B´arbara.

References 1. Andersen, A.: The European project semester: a useful teaching method in engineering education. In: de Campos, L.C., Dirani, E.A.T., Manrique, A.L., van Hattum-Janssen, N. (eds.) Project Approaches to Learning in Engineering Education: The Practice of Teamwork, pp. 15–25. SensePublishers, Rotterdam (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6091-958-9 3 2. European Council of Engineers Chambers: Code of conduct for european chartered engineers (2021). https://www.ecec.net/fileadmin/pdf/ECEC-Code-of-Conduct. pdf. Accessed July 2021 3. Drivingtesttips.biz: Zebra crossing (2021). https://www.drivingtesttips.biz/zebracrossing.html. Accessed July 2021 4. Duarte, A.J., et al.: Engineering education for sustainable development: the European project semester approach. IEEE Trans. Educ. 63(2), 108–117 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/TE.2019.2926944 5. Federal Highway Administration: Curb extensions (2021). http://pedbikesafe.org/ PEDSAFE/countermeasures detail.cfm?CM NUM=5. Accessed July 2021 6. Global Designing Cities Initiative: Pedestrian refuges (2021). https:// globaldesigningcities.org/publication/global-street-design-guide/designingstreets-people/designing-for-pedestrians/pedestrian-refuges/. Accessed July 2021 7. Klomp, K.: Bloei! Werken aan geluk in Organisaties. Milinda Uitgevers BV, Belgium (2012)

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8. Malheiro, B., Silva, M., Ribeiro, M.C., Guedes, P., Ferreira, P.: The European project semester at ISEP: the challenge of educating global engineers. Eur. J. Eng. Educ. 40(3), 328–346 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2014.960509 9. Malheiro, B., Silva, M.F., Ferreira, P.D., Guedes, P.B.: Learning engineering with EPS@ISEP: developing projects for smart sustainable cities. Int. J. Eng. Pedagog. (iJEP) 9(4), 33–49 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijep.v9i4.10259 10. MSP Decoline Gmbh.: Schildhalter f¨ ur 60 mm rohre - t-ausf¨ uhrung (2021). https:// www.schilder-befestigung.de/schildhalter-fuer-60mm-rohre-t-ausfuehrung. Accessed July 2021 11. Muzi, N.: Environmental groups tell EU leaders to green all investments and explore Eurobonds (2020). https://www.transportenvironment.org/. Accessed July 2021 12. SmartPass: Smartpass (2021). http://smartpass.city/en. Accessed July 2021

Foldable Disaster Shelter - An EPS@ISEP 2020 Project Daniela-Andreea Popescu1 , Eduardo Pereira1 , Gabriel Givanovitch1 , Jelte Bakker1 , Lore Pauwels1 , Vladimir Dukoski1 , Benedita Malheiro1,2(B) , Cristina Ribeiro1,3 , Jorge Justo1 , Manuel F. Silva1,2 , Paulo Ferreira1 , and Pedro Guedes1,2 1

ISEP/PPorto - School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal [email protected] 2 INESC TEC - Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, Porto, Portugal 3 INEB - Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Porto, Portugal https://www.eps2020-wiki3.dee.isep.ipp.pt/doku.php Abstract. This paper reports the research and design of a foldable disaster shelter for people left homeless due to natural disasters, by a multinational team composed of six students, from six different countries. The team was enrolled in the European Project Semester (EPS), a projectbased capstone programme offered by Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto (ISEP), to students who have completed at least two years of undergraduate studies. The main objective of the project was to design, simulate and test an ethics and sustainability driven foldable shelter. This goal was pursued by conducting a series of studies to derive the solution requirements, involving a survey on shelter concepts and solutions, a review on worldwide natural disasters, as well as an analysis of the shelter market. The latter led to the definition of a business plan, a marketing strategy, a logo and a brand name. The solution comes with a Web application to help rescue organisations to follow the scheduled maintenance plan and keep track of the deployed units. Keywords: Collaborative learning · Project-based learning · European Project Semester · Sustainability · Multicultural · Multidisciplinary

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Introduction

The European Project Semester (EPS) is a one-semester capstone study programme offered by 19 European engineering schools, including Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto (ISEP), to 3rd and 4th year engineering, business and product design students. EPS adopts project-based learning and teamwork methodologies to prepare engineering undergraduates to think and act globally, This work was partially financed by National Funds through the Portuguese funding agency, FCT - Funda¸ca ˜o para a Ciˆencia e a Tecnologia, within project UIDB/50014/2020. c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 153–164, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_16

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with all the necessary skills to face the challenges of today’s world economy. This approach fosters the development of complementary skills together with ethics, marketing and sustainability. The EPS programme provided by ISEP – EPS@ISEP – is a package of 30 European Credit Transfer Units (ECTU) with two thirds of the credits (20 ECTU) assigned to the project module and one third (10 ECTU) to complementary project support modules, comprising Project Management and Team Work (2 ECTU), Marketing and Communication (2 ECTU), Foreign Language (2 ECTU), Energy and Sustainable Development (2 ECTU) and Ethics and Deontology (2 ECTU). Apart Foreign Language, the 2-ECTU modules are project support seminars oriented towards the specificities of each team project [5,6]. In the spring of 2020, a team of six students decided to develop together a safe foldable disaster shelter for people left homeless due to natural disasters. Team members were a Portuguese automotive mechanical engineering student, a Romanian industrial engineering student, a French structural materials engineering student, a Belgian product engineering student, a Dutch physical engineering student and a North Macedonian digital business informatics engineering student. Together, they started by conducting a review on worldwide natural disasters and researching the shelter market, from emergency to animal shelters, in order to support a decision on the type of shelter best suited for the project. This study also aimed to determine in which situations the shelter could be deployed and to specify the desired characteristics, so the product would be able to set itself apart from others and have a meaningful impact on the market. The work done during this phase led to the definition of a business plan, a marketing strategy, a logo and a brand name: SafeBIS (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. SafeBIS logo

In the design phase of the project, Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) tools were used intensively to draw, model, simulate and test virtually the entire prototype of the shelter. The functionality of the prototype was assessed performing simulations with CAD software R R and CAE software Solidworks Simulation. A prototype was conSolidworks ceived but, in the end, the team was unable to create a physical prototype of the shelter due to the constraints caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. During the design process, all decisions considered the sustainability and ethical impact of the alternatives at stake. This paper provides an overview of the learning process the team followed during this project. There are four additional sections: Sect. 2 surveys existing solutions and analyses the related marketing, ethics and sustainability

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perspectives; Sect. 3 presents the concept, design and architecture, together with the development and simulation of the proposed solution; Sect. 4 discusses the results of the project; finally, Sect. 5 concludes with a summary of the project and personal student outcomes.

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Background Studies

The background studies focused on the basic principles that define a shelter, its main functions, existing designs and the possible features and functions that can be added. A brief market survey on related products was done, as well as on applicable standards, together with ethics, marketing and sustainability analyses. This allowed the team to derive SafeBIS’s requirements. 2.1

Applicable Standards

To grasp what an emergency shelter should be like, what purposes it must serve, it is necessary to understand what it really is. For that, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) created the Emergency Handbook, a guide to humanitarian responses [9]. The standards presented here represent the minimum set of internationally recognised quantifiable standards applicable throughout all operational stages [2]. Emergency Shelter Standard. According to UNHCR, “a shelter is defined as a habitable covered living space providing a secure and healthy living environment with privacy and dignity”. The basic requirements of any shelter are: – Protection from the elements, space to live and store belongings, privacy, and emotional security; – Provision of blankets, mats, and tarps; – Promotion of cultural, social and family roots and, when possible, adoption of local materials; – Resistant to local seasonal weather patterns; – Empowerment of refugees by providing the necessary organisational and material support to build their own shelters. The last requirement helps dwellings to meet the occupant’s needs, generating a sense of ownership and self-reliance while reducing costs and construction time considerably. However, it can only be followed if the materials and tools are locally available. Otherwise it is advised that the shelters and/or the necessary materials be brought into the area. Shelter Design. The design of a shelter must contemplate the following aspects: – Follow standards regarding the minimum dimensions, which are dependent on the type of climate where the shelter will be deployed;

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Consider the climate and the time people will spend inside the shelter; Endure strong winds, heavy rains and snowfall; Protect from debris; Include protected and heated sanitary and kitchens facilities; Protect the human body from heat loss, particularly during sleep; Create a living space; Maintain a comfortable temperature;

Shelter Solutions. UNHCR [10] presents some other characteristics and concerns to be considered when designing a shelter as well as an Emergency Shelter Catalogue [8]. The location will impact the response, therefore, the specific characteristics of an urban shelter differ from those of a rural one. Shelter responses need to be adapted to the local context and climate, cultural practices and habits, local skills, and available construction materials. Rarely one shelter solution fits all the needs of the displaced populations. Table 1 summarises the various settlement options with their most associated shelter solutions. Table 1. Various settlement options and most associated shelter solutions [10]. Settlement

Most frequently used solutions

Planned and managed camps

Tents; Shelter kit; Plastic sheeting; Transitional/Temporary shelters; Local construction materials

Hosting villages

Shared accommodation or shared property Plastic sheeting; Shelter kit; Local construction (one room); Cash assistance

Dispersed self-settlement without legal status

Tents; Plastic sheeting; Shelter kit; Cash assistance

Short-term land, house, apartment, or room tenant

Individual or shared accommodation - Cash assistance; Plastic sheeting; Shelter kit; Local construction

Collective centres, non-functional public building, transit centres

One room accommodation - Plastic sheeting; Shelter kit; Local construction (adaptation)

2.2

Related Solutions

The research on shelters included recreational and animal shelters. Recreational shelters, ranging from rooftop or instant tents to inflatable or origami shelters, have characteristics that can be considered for the project: – The rooftop shelter brings an interesting way to unfold the tent and the possibility to place it on every desired place. However the price is high and the disassembly process requires skills that can only be learned over time. An example of a rooftop shelter is illustrated in Fig. 2a.

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– The inflatable shelter has the advantages of being light and easy to repair. However, being forced to stand on flat ground is a downside, as well as requiring a pump to fill it with air. An example of an inflatable shelter is illustrated in Fig. 2b. – The instant tent is light, quick to set up and easy to repair. However, when choosing the tent spot, the angle and roughness of the terrain must be taken into account as the bottom of the tent is made with only one layer of fabric so changes in terrain are noticeable. An example of an instant tent is illustrated in Fig. 2c. – Cardborigami is an origami tent that aims to provide long-term shelter for homeless people. The cardboard structure requires no tools to assemble and can be compacted easily and stored. The origami shelter is light as well, besides providing privacy, comfort and protection [3]. As the origami shelter is also heavy weather resistant, this type of shelter brings together the best qualities to be a disaster shelter. An example of the origami shelter is illustrated in Fig. 2d.

(a) Rooftop tent [12]

(b) Inflatable tent [7]

(c) Zomake instant tent [1]

(d) Cardborigami tent [4]

Fig. 2. Recreational shelters

Shelters for animals encompass: (i) makeshift shelters - temporary (up to 7 days), low quality, foldable, lighweight and easy to transport; (ii) covered areas divided into several smaller spaces by fences; and (iii) constructions for pets.

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Marketing

While working on the market/economic analysis, the team broadened its vision and gained a better perspective of the market environment surrounding SafeBIS and emergency shelters. During the demographic analysis, primary and secondary targets were listed. The analysis of historical worldwide data, which shows a rising number of natural and man-induced disasters, involving the destruction of buildings and population relocation [11], indicates both the need and potential demand for disaster response shelters. The SafeBIS brand was defined and strategies were delineated to ensure a strong market entrance. To establish the presence of SafeBIS on the market and reach a large audience, the team decided to explore social media, investing on paid advertising and actively posting materials. Moreover, they created a logo and a website for dissemination and retention of clients. The logo is a reflection of the brand, where the colour orange represents the sense of a warm atmosphere and black of strength (Fig. 1). The honeycomb pattern refers to the shape of the shelters. The team intends, through social media, to share and connect more easily with clients. A close relationship with clients will help to know what they want, how and where to reach them, consolidating SafeBIS position on the market as a known brand and a trusted company. 2.4

Sustainability

To achieve the highest level of sustainability, each of following pillars must be considered: the environmental, the social and the economical. Considering this approach, SafeBIS will focus on eco-friendly materials and on the adaptation to the local environment. The selected materials need to be eco-friendly and able to withstand harsh weather circumstances, as this ensures a long life-span for the shelters. The team pursued this by using natural and 100 % recyclable materials, while designing an easy to assemble and disassemble product. The team also focused on using the minimum number of materials and components as possible. The packaging solution is designed to be compact to minimise transportation costs to the disaster areas, allowing 18 shelters to be placed in a single container. Regarding the production of SafeBIS, the team decided to choose solely eco-friendly facilities. SafeBIS, thus, contributes to two of the United Nations’ sustainable development goals: Good health and well being and Sustainable cities and communities. 2.5

Ethics

The team wanted SafeBIS to comply with ethical and deontological values, ensuring a good reputation for the company and the product. The company’s values, strategies and actions influence the perception of the product and its purpose, so operating and applying human laws and requirements is of paramount importance. Concerning Engineering Ethics and the field of applicability, the utmost

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concern during the development of the product is with safety, health, and wellbeing of the public. Embracing trustworthiness, dependability and punctuality is a priority. From the early beginning of the design till the distribution of SafeBIS shelters, adopting a sustainable strategy and being in accordance with the principles of ethics is essential to ensure the connection between user and product. Regarding the marketing of the product, the team defended the adoption of an honest and transparent attitude towards customers as well as competitors. All aspects, engineering, marketing, sales, environmental must be taken into account in each step of this process. The main contribution of environmental ethics is to find the balance between social, economic, and environmental aspects while always attempting to make sustainable decisions. 2.6

Background Studies Summary

The different types of shelters analysed helped the team to reach a consensus about the essential shelter requirements, such as shape, structure and insulation. The shape of the disaster shelter was considered the most important characteristic. A honeycomb shape was chosen because it is: (i) more efficient regarding the use of space when placing multiple tents; and (ii) an aesthetically pleasing organic shape. A decision was made to build a structure with as few loose components as possible. So techniques like inflation, pipes and a hardshell outer layer were the main options. The final design of the shelter relies on a combination of hardshell and tubes to grant stability as well as foldability. Regarding the materials for the shell, they need to provide thermal insulation, be relatively lightweight and eco-friendly to manufacture. The team believed that a combination of polymeric materials or fabric was the best choice.

3 3.1

Proposed Solution Concept

The team’s goal was to develop a shelter for people affected by a natural disaster around the equatorial area. The shelter is intended to offer four people a sleeping/living place. An hexagonal shape was chosen so a scaled community could be easily created by connecting several shelters together, allowing large families to live together. The shelter should have a good ventilation and be water resistant to provide a pleasant, temporary living place. The projected average period of use is between two to three weeks. All things considered, the SafeBIS shelter concept is comfortable and safe for users and easy to (dis)assemble, handle and transport for operators due to the integrated folding mechanism.

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Design

To meet the requirements of the UNHCR, a minimum living area of 14 m2 is needed to shelter four people, as every person requires a minimum area of 3.5 m2 . Moreover, the shelter should withstand a maximum internal load of 780 kg and winds up to 75 km/h. The folding structure is made of aluminium square profiles of 50 × 50 mm2 and the walls and ceiling of the cocoon are in cotton fabric. The floor has a lower layer in aluminium sandwich panel and a top layer in cork to create a pleasant and homely atmosphere. The hexagonal outer structure has a 16.3 m2 area, with 2.56 m edges, 5.11 m maximum width, 2.85 m maximum height and 0.3 m height legs. The living cocoon offers a 14.3 m2 area with a 4.7 m width and 2.30 m height. When folded in the storage container, the shelter has a 1.22 m width, 4.39 m length and 0.73 m height. The structure weighs 75 kg, the fabric 30 kg, the floor 72 kg and the cork layer 10 kg, totalling 187 kg. Figure 3 shows a full view of the shelter model.

Fig. 3. Shelter model R Structure. The structure of the shelter was designed using Solidworks CAD software and consists of six vertical columns, combined with foldable roof and bottom substructures. When pushing the vertical columns together, the shelter is compacted so it can be transported easy. When pulling the columns away from each other, a strong hexagonal shaped structure is deployed. The structure is reinforced with three steel cables, each cable connecting one top corner to the opposite top corner, helping maintain the integrity of the structure. The resulting system is easy to (un)fold and has no loose parts. Figure 4 illustrates the folding mechanism.

Thermal Protection and Ventilation. The thermal protection is deemed an essential requirement for equatorial areas, where shelters will be placed, due to extreme high temperatures, heavy rain falls and humidity. To address this issues, the shelter’s design includes:

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(c)

Fig. 4. Folding mechanism

– supports to maintain the floor elevated, so no water enters the shelter, and provide adequate ventilation underneath. – a two-layered cocoon design, made of two types of cotton fabric, where the outer layer is waterproof. This design allows fresh air to flow between both layers, keeping the interior cool. – a mesh fabric on the inner layer of the doors and window for ventilation. The users should open the outer layer and keep the inner layer closed. Modularity. As the main objective was to design a shelter for large families to stay together, a honeycomb shape was chosen for the design of the shelters. This shape makes it possible to connect multiple shelters and create a community. Every shelter features three doors, which can be used to connect with other shelters. This is accomplished by using an extendable piece of fabric to connect two shelters together. Figure 5a illustrates the connection of three shelters. Packaging. An innovative packaging solution was conceived by using the floor as a storage box for the remaining shelter parts. To transform the floor into a storage box, the floor splits in five parts which are able to fold as they are all connected to each other through designed hinges. This way, SafeBIS becomes very easy to transport, reducing costs and the impact on the environment. The storage container is shown in Fig. 5b.

(a) Modular shelter

(b) Folded packaged shelter

Fig. 5. SafeBIS features

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Tracking Website. To make the communication process between SafeBIS and the shelter owners more efficient, the team concluded that the best way was to create a website with a back-end database, for shelter owners to share information on their shelters. This information can only be accessed through authentication by the system administrator and the shelter owner. 3.3

Development

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, this section describes the work developed by the team in order to simulate SafeBIS. ISEP closed on March 12th and team members returned to their home countries, making it impossible to build a proof of concept prototype. Simulation Tests. To ensure that the final design withstands the load requirements due to the weight of the occupants and their belongings, numerical simTM ulations using the finite element method were performed with Solidworks R Simulation CAE software. Several iterations were performed, enabling a reduction of the total weight of the structure and the floor, while maintaining an adequate safety factor. Figure 6 shows the simulation of the structure. The numerical simulations identified the hinges, connecting the columns of the foldable structure, as weak points. To address this issue, several models of hinges were designed and numerically simulated until they passed the aforementioned tests.

Fig. 6. Numerical simulation of the structure

4 4.1

Discussion Simulations

The mechanical behaviour of the structure when subjected to the weight of its occupants and their belongings was numerically simulated. Additionally, according to UNHCR requirements, a family tent for hot climates must be able to withstand the effect of 75 km/h winds, be strongly attached to the ground and tensioned without any damages. The team was unable to do this simulation as the software used is not ideal to simulate fabric behaviour, so further development should address this issue.

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Prototype

Due to restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, it was not possible to make a 1:1 scale prototype. The team created a scale model to get a better perception of the looks and operation of SafeBIS, but several limitations persisted. Namely, it was impossible to test if: (i) the cotton cocoon stays inside the structure while folding the shelter to its compacted configuration; (ii) the compacted configuration of the structure and cocoon fit perfectly in the storage box; and (iii) the proposed ventilation scheme maintains a pleasant internal temperature. Future work should then include building a 1:1 scale prototype to check the listed limitations.

5 5.1

Conclusion Project Outcomes

The team embraced the challenge of creating a successful business based on providing safe temporary shelters. To pursue this goal, team members created: (i) a marketing plan to promote the product to target people and organisations; (ii) a detailed business plan to specify logistics, costs and funding, supplies, and target consumers; (iii) an ethical and sustainability driven design for a packaged foldable shelter; (iv) a website with a back-end database; and (iv) multiple simulations to refine the design. Another outcome of EPS@ISEP was the learning experience gained by team members by working together in the design of a solution to a real problem, in a multidisciplinary, multicultural environment. In the end, an excellent domain of soft skills was evident in the coordination of the work, despite having been done mainly online due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Each member of the team developed communication, negotiation, and collaboration skills, while contributing and consolidating his/her previous knowledge and acquired knowledge in other disciplines, such as marketing and sustainability. 5.2

Personal Outcomes

Team members unanimously agree that the EPS@ISEP was a very enriching experience not just for personal development but also for their future professional careers. Regarding personal outcomes, the opinion of team members was very positive. This can be illustrated by the following testimony: – “It was the biggest challenge ever thrown at me! Working with a bigger group than what I am used to and, as a plus, developing a product of which I knew nothing about was interesting to say the least. It was a lot of fun and invigorating, but also somewhat frustrating at times. Throwing in a global pandemic in the mix made it extra interesting. But overall, it was an experience that I would happily do again! ” – Eduardo.

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References 1. Amazon: Zomake automatic camping tent 2 3 person - 4 season backpacking tent portable dome quick up tent (2021). https://www.amazon.co.uk/ZOMAKEAutomatic-Camping-tent-Person/dp/B07S5R7WWG. Accessed July 2021 2. Sphere Association (ed.): The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response, 4th edn. Practical Action Publishing, UK (2018) 3. Cardborigami: Cardborigami (2021). https://www.cardborigami.org/. Accessed July 2021 4. Brennan, J., Briscoe, T.: Cardborigami: A pop-up solution to reshaping the la homelessness crisis (2018). https://upswellarchive.org/2018/08/13/cardborigamia-pop-up-solution-to-reshaping-the-la-homelessness-crisis/. Accessed July 2021 5. Malheiro, B., Silva, M., Ribeiro, M.C., Guedes, P., Ferreira, P.: The European project semester at ISEP: the challenge of educating global engineers. Eur .J. Eng. Educ. 40(3), 328–346 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2014.960509 6. Malheiro, B., Silva, M.F., Ferreira, P.D., Guedes, P.B.: Learning engineering with EPS@ISEP: developing projects for smart sustainable cities. Int. J. Eng. Pedagog. (iJEP) 9(4), 33–49 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijep.v9i4.10259 7. Attwoolls Outdoors: Vango Capri 500xl Airbeam Tent 2019 (2021). https://www. attwoolls.co.uk/vango-capri-ii-air-500xl-airbeam-tent. Accessed July 2021 8. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees: Shelter Design Catalogue (2016). https://cms.emergency.unhcr.org/documents/11982/57181/Shelter+Design+ Catalogue+January+2016/a891fdb2-4ef9-42d9-bf0f-c12002b3652e. Accessed July 2021 9. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees: Emergency Shelter Standard (2018). https://emergency.unhcr.org/entry/36774/emergency-shelter-standard. Accessed July 2021 10. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees: Shelter Solutions (2018). https:// emergency.unhcr.org/entry/57186. Accessed July 2021 11. Ritchie, H., Roser, M.: Natural disasters. Our World in Data (2014). https:// ourworldindata.org/natural-disasters. Accessed July 2021 12. Front Runner: Roof Top Tent (2021). https://www.frontrunneroutfitters.com/en/ us/front-runner-roof-top-tent.html. Accessed July 2021

Floating Trash Collector - An EPS@ISEP 2020 Project Andrea-Bianca Serafia1 , Ant´ onio Santos1 , Davide Caddia1 , Evelien Zeeman1 , 1 Laura Castaner , Benedita Malheiro1,2(B) , Cristina Ribeiro1,3 , Jorge Justo1 , Manuel F. Silva1,2 , Paulo Ferreira1 , and Pedro Guedes1,2 1

ISEP/PPorto - School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal [email protected] 2 INESC TEC - Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, Porto, Portugal 3 INEB - Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Porto, Portugal https://www.eps2020-wiki1.dee.isep.ipp.pt/

Abstract. Each year millions of tons of plastic end up in the oceans, lakes and rivers. In the spring of 2020, an European Project Semester team, composed of multicultural and multidisciplinary undergraduate students, decided to tackle this problem. This was achieved by designing, modelling and simulating a floating trash collector named Soaksy. The collector is expected to operate continuously and automatically on lakes at the view of everybody, becoming an educational and an environmental tool. This paper reports the team’s journey from the initial studies, through the design, till the final simulation and tests. Keywords: Engineering education · Collaborative learning · European Project Semester · Sustainability · Trash collector · Smart cities

1

Introduction

The European Project Semester (EPS) is a programme offered by several European universities, including Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto (ISEP). During EPS, students from various countries and study backgrounds work together to design a new product and create a prototype. A team of Industrial Design and Engineering, Product Development, Electrical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Civil Engineering and Applied Mathematics undergraduates from Portugal, Romania, Italy, The Netherlands and Spain joined efforts to design a floating trash collector. Plastic is so light and abundant that it ends being washed down drains by rainwater or blown by the wind into bodies of water, ultimately, accumulating in the ocean at an estimated rate of 8 million tons per year [2]. To make matters more challenging, not all This work was partially financed by National Funds through the Portuguese funding agency, FCT - Funda¸ca ˜o para a Ciˆencia e a Tecnologia, within project UIDB/50014/ 2020. c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 165–176, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_17

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plastic is floating on the surface of the water [4]. Only less than 1 % of the plastic in the ocean floats on the surface [10]. This paper describes the floating trash collector for lakes designed by this multidisciplinary and multinational team. This document comprises, after this introductory section, three more sections. Section 2 describes the preliminary studies, Sect. 3 details the proposed solution and Sect. 4 presents the conclusion.

2

Background

This section describes the studies on related solutions, ethics, marketing and sustainability. 2.1

Related Solutions

Collecting floating trash in natural waters can be done in different ways. The technology to collect plastic pollution from waterways, namely, macroplastics, microplastic or both, focuses mostly (59 %) on removing macro or both types of plastics [6]. These pollution capture devices can be classified as: (i ) booms or barriers that guide debris or prevent their continued flow; (ii ) receptacles or containers that accumulate and hold debris in a confined space; and (iii ) watercraft vehicles, including robots, that travel on or in the water to retrieve debris [3]. The performed research targeted bins, robots and barriers. Water Bin: The original idea of floating trash bins was first introduced by two Australian surfers in 2015. The Seabin Project (Fig. 1a) incorporates a bin, a pump, and a net. The pump makes water and debris converge into the bin, while the net ensures that only water and small particles escape. Since then, two upgrades were made in the last five years. The first one added a filter to absorb liquids other than water and the second, still under testing, includes a second bin to collect microplastic and fibres [7]. Water Robot: In 2016 the Dutch company RanMarine developed a water robot, called WasteShark [5] (Fig. 1b). This drone is modelled on the whale shark and is designed to clear plastics, bio-waste, and other debris from the water in ports and canals. With a capacity of 160 L and on-board Global Positioning System and camera sensors, the WasteShark also measures the water quality (temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, oxidation-reduction potential, depth, turbidity). There are two models on the market: the autonomous and the manually controlled WasteShark [5]. Barrier with Collector: In 2014, Mr. Trash Wheel (Fig. 1c) was installed by the Waterfront Partnership of Baltimore, USA [11], comprising two barriers and a collector. The two barriers, which have an underneath skirt, are placed on both sides of a river or canal and the collector is placed in the middle, facing the current. This way, the trash is guided into the collector, placed on a conveyor belt, and stored in a dumspter. This system is powered by a water wheel or, if there is not enough current, by solar panels. When the dumpster is full, it is

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Fig. 1. Water trash collectors

replaced by an empty dumpster [12]. A similar collector with barrier, called the Interceptor, is produced by The Ocean Cleanup [8]. The water bin represented by the Seabin Project is a small product that stays in place and uses a pump to suck water and debris into it. The second type is the water robot, represented by the WasteShark. A water robot is a small moving product that collects trash by pushing the trash to one location. Thirdly is the barrier with a trash collector represented by the Mr. Trash Wheel. A barrier with a trash collector is a static big product that uses the flow of the river and the barriers to collect trash. Considering that the places closest to the populations will be the ones that are most polluted, a water bin or water bot would be ideal for lakes and community ponds. The advantage of such places is that the water tends to be calmer, making the product easier to install and maintain, when compared to places with high water flows, where the barrier products are recommended. Products for calm waters also have the advantage of lower production costs, as they are smaller than dynamic water products, leading to less visual impact on the environment. Among these products, the water bin stands out for its energy efficiency, as it does not spend energy moving when collecting floating trash, as the water robot type operates. With the benefit of greater energy efficiency also comes greater up time, since the water bin type can be powered by the mains, including renewable power sources, while the water bot depends on batteries to operate. Based on this review, the best choice for a floating trash collector for lakes or ponds is a water bin. Furthermore, the team was confident that they could design a more affordable and easier solution than existing water bins. 2.2

Ethics

Ethical and deontological concerns are increasingly important to the society. They should be regarded as key design factors since they directly affect trade. A morally wrong case can have huge worldwide impact on the reputation of the company involved. When this happens, people lose confidence, potentially leading to a decline in sales and stock market. Although the team concentrated on the design of a solution, it also contemplated the possibility of creating an

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ethically aligned company to transform the proposed solution into a product. Therefore, general ethical and deontological concerns were carefully considered throughout the project, as they are key factors for any global business. The design of Soaksy followed an ethically and sustainability driven approach to create an environmentally friendly, safe product for the people, the planet and the company. However, competition within the market inevitably leads to a clash between different players. Such clashes can sometimes lead to unprofessional behaviour, such as price competition, branding wars and the use of unfair practices. Instead, the team decided to consider ethical marketing. Ethical marketing is not a real strategy, but it is more a school of thought in which responsibility, fairness and honesty are promoted. As such, the team decided that: (i ) the product should have a fair price, i.e., one that covers the costs and ensures a profit for the company. The goal is to keep the price and the ecological footprint as small as possible. (ii ) the producing company must accept its responsibilities and comply with existing laws. Therefore, the following European Union (EU) directives were strictly considered: Machinery Directive, Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive, Low Voltage Directive, Radio Equipment Directive and the Restrictions of Hazardous Substances in electrical and electronic equipment. (iii ) the Soaksy brand has to be registered since the registration ensures legal certainty and strengthens the position of the holder, for example, in the event of a dispute. 2.3

Marketing

The team started by analysing the market of floating trash collectors on the macro, meso and micro level. Following the market analysis, the SWOT analysis was performed to identify the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats of the Soaksy company and product. The result is shown in Table 1. The SWOT product analysis indicated that existing water pollution awareness makes it easier to get sponsors or government investment and helps gathering the high investment required to develop the product. Nevertheless, in an emerging market there is always the threat of new competitors as well of established companies like The Ocean Cleanup or The SeaBin Project. Next, the team performed a marketing mix analysis based on the 4 P – Product, Price, Promotion and Place – to devise a marketing strategy for the floating bin. As a result, the team identified municipalities as their main target and as focus to keep local lakes free of floating trash. Product differentiation from competition should emerge from the lower price and the sustainability driven design. The product was named “Soaksy”. 2.4

Sustainability

Sustainability is a complex and fundamental concept. When applied to product design and development, it translates into creating a product to improve

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Table 1. SWOT product analysis Helpful External S

Sustainable and efficient

Harmful W High investment needed

Made of recycled materials

Not autonomous

Renewable energy source

Has to be manually emptied

Easy removable bin

Needs external power supply

Raises awareness of water pollution Internal

O Product is increasing in popularity

T

Pandemic recession

Government investment

New appearing competitors

Emerging market

Established competitors

People empathise with product

Limited time and budget

living conditions. The most often quoted definition comes from the UN World Commission on Environment and Development: “Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. In the charter for the UCLA Sustainability Committee, sustainability is defined as: “The physical development and institutional operating practices that meet the needs of present users without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, particularly with regard to use and waste of natural resources. Sustainable practices support ecological, human, and economic health and vitality. Sustainability presumes that resources are finite and should be used conservatively and wisely with a view to long-term priorities and consequences of the ways in which resources are used” [9]. The team carried out an analysis of the sustainability of Soaksy and made choices to meet, in the best possible way, environmental, economic and social sustainability. The team decided to equip Soaksy with a solar panel as well as with traditional powering methods, making it hybrid and usable in adverse weather conditions. The solar panel absorbs sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity. From the point of view of energy autonomy and sustainability, it is necessary to make the most of available solar energy technologies, minimising greenhouse gas emissions. Considering the envisaged building materials, although they use non-renewable resources, they are recyclable and reusable at the end of the product’s life cycle. Defective products should be sent back to the factory for repair and those not repairable should be replaced, recycled or their parts or materials reused. Soaksy is to be built in countries where workers are protected and receive fair wages. The resulting slight price increase, reverts in the well-being of people and of the environment. To reduce costs, the company should adopt exclusively an online sales model and partner with a logistics company for logistics and storage. The idea is to find a central warehouse for the product from where it could be shipped globally in an effective way.

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Proposed Solution Concept

The initial goal was to develop a sustainable and efficient floating trash collector, involving the design, building, and testing of a prototype. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was converted into the design and simulation of a prototype. The identified project requirements were based on the state of the art, project management, marketing, sustainability and ethical considerations. The team aimed to develop a continuous operation solution, made of recyclable material, with low power consumption and easy maintenance. 3.2

Design

The three variants analysed in Subsect. 2.1 were compared, taking into account aspects such as the type of water in which the product will operate (low or high flow), collection capacity and efficiency, power needs, price, dimensions compared to the capacity. Based on this study, the team agreed to design a fully automated solution inspired in the Seabin Project for the collection of floating trash. The product is to float on a lake, helped by three floaters in case of small weight or water level variations. While floating, the level of the lake rises to the margin of the inner bin, allowing only a thin layer of water to enter the bin, as displayed in Fig. 2a. The water enters the system like a waterfall and is pumped out through the bottom, retaining the trash in the inner container. The system uses an ultrasonic sensor to measure the trash level, a water level sensor to measure the water level inside the bin and a temperature sensor that monitors the outlet of the pump. The data from these sensors are processed, communicated and, finally, presented to the user on a website. This continuous process, illustrated by the diagram in Fig. 2b, is interrupted when the user turns off the pump. In terms of materials, Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) was selected for the main body because it is tough, durable, and inexpensive. The parts exposed to Sun will be in done in Ultraviolet (UV) resistant plastic, Polymethyl Methacrylate, known as acrylic, which is also most commonly used in outdoor applications. When it comes to the metal components, stainless steel will be used due to the operation environment. The mesh bag will be made of nylon. Buoyancy is governed by Archimedes’ principle, which states that any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. There are three types of buoyancy: positive, negative, and neutral. Positive buoyancy happens when the submerged object is lighter than the fluid it displaces. The object floats because the buoyant force is greater than the weight of the object. Negative buoyancy occurs when the object is denser than the fluid it displaces, so the object will sink because its weight is greater than the buoyant force. The last type is the neutral buoyancy, meaning that the weight of the displaced fluid is the same as the weight of the object.

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(a) 3D model

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(b) Black Box Diagram

Fig. 2. Solution

Soaksy should have a positive buoyancy overall because it always floats. However, it is necessary to ensure that when it floats, the water level stays at the very top of the inner part, allowing a very thin layer of water to enter the bin, as a waterfall. With the water level staying at the very top of the inner bin, the overall weight of the bin corresponds to the weight of the water the bin displaces. The volume of displaced water consists of the sum of the volumes of the body submerged, the pump, and of the air inside the body (where the water falls into). The volume of displaced water is approximately 47 L. The density of water changes with temperature and, very slightly, with pressure. However, its density is approximately 1 g/cm3 , meaning that 47 L correspond to 47 kg. These 47 kg need to be balanced by a body that weighs 47 kg. Without an extra weight, the product weighs approximately 16.5 kg. By adding a small body of water to allow the pump to run, another 4.5 kg are added. To balance the remaining mass, a 26 kg steel ballast was added at the bottom of the container. The system was designed to be powered by the electric grid or by a solar panel. In the case of the photovoltaic panel, it is necessary to include a converter to regulate the voltage and, in the case of using the grid, it is necessary to convert AC from the grid to DC. Both sources have to output 12 V DC and include protection against electric current reversal. Based on Table 2, it is possible to conclude that the system has a power consumption of approximately 6 W and can operate with water temperatures from 10 ◦ C to 30 ◦ C and air temperatures from −40 ◦ C to 70 ◦ C. 3.3

Development

The system uses three sensors to maintain a normal operation: (i ) the ultrasonic sensor measures the level of trash within the collector; (ii ) the water level sensor measures level of water inside the collector; and (iii ) the temperature sensor measures the water temperature. The microcontroller uses these readings to assess the system status and notify the human operators.

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Name

Temperature (◦ C) Consumption (W)

Pump

Velleman VMA421

−10 to +60

4.200

Ultrasonic sensor

JSN-SR04T-2.0

−10 to +70

0.150

Water level sensor

Water level sensor

+10 to +30

0.066

Temperature sensor

DS18B20

−10 to +85

0.003

Microcontroller

Espressif ESP32Dev −40 to +85

1.650

Logical level converter 3.3 V to 5.0 V

–

–

MOSFET

−55 to +150

–

BS170

Fig. 3. ThingSpeak dashboard: instantaneous and historical data

The water pump is the most important part of the system. It prevents the inner part to fill with water, thus, allowing the whole system to function. The automatic pump control is based on the sensor information, while manual control is performed by an operator. The IoT platform presents the system information regarding the status of the system in an intuitive and accessible way. The ThingSpeak online platform was chosen for the following reasons: free version with enough options for an intuitive and complete presentation, easy registration and sharing of dashboards, and the fact that it is the only free IoT platform able to connect to the Tinkercad circuit simulation platform. The dashboard displays the capacity of the trash bin and the status of the water pump (Fig. 3). 3.4

Simulation

The simulation involved two aspects of the project: the physical integrity of the system and validation of the control system. The goal of stress simulations is to make sure that the main body, which carries most of the loads, resists in any circumstance. A worst-case scenario simulation eliminates any doubts when it comes to potential flaws in the design. In this case, the worst-case happens when Soaksy is hold only by one of the floaters. However, this case is unlikely to happen, because it is easier for the user to hold the main body by two folders with both hands. This can happen both outside of the water and inside. The following simulations were performed:

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Stress Simulation Out of the Water. The main load that acts on the product is the weight of the stainless steel body. It weighs around 26 kg, which, as a load, is the equivalent to 255 N. To make this scenario even worse, we will consider a load of 260 N, and gravity force. Figure 4a shows the minimum safety factor that occurs in the body, and that it resists very well in this situation. Figure 4b shows the stress on the body in MPa. Stress Simulation in the Water. The difference between the case where the body is out of the water is that there is not only the weight of the stainless steel body, but also the hydrostatic pressure. It was considered a load of 260 N, hydrostatic pressure, and gravity force. Figure 4c shows the minimum safety factor in the body, and that it has no potential to break. Figure 4d shows the stress on the body while functioning.

(a) Safety factor out of the water

(b) Stress out of the water

(c) Safety factor in the water

(d) Stress in the water

Fig. 4. Stress analysis

The results showed that the body resists to the applied loads, both in and out of the water, meaning it will not break. The system is well balanced as long as the internal tank remains with the projected water volume. In real life, the internal volume of water fluctuates between two close levels (thanks to the water level sensor). A slight raise in the internal water volume makes the product sink a few millimetres, increasing the difference between the lake level and the inner bin edge, and augments the debit of the incoming water. Real world tests are required to fully characterise this behaviour.

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The control system simulation used Tinkercad, an online simulation platform. The system was then integrated with the ThingSpeak IoT plataform and a dedicated dashboard was created. The simulated control circuit is shown in Fig. 5. Table 3 lists the functional tests performed.

Fig. 5. Tinkercad: simulated control circuit Table 3. Control system: functional tests Test

Validation

Voltage regulators

Power supply

Water level and temperature sensors Water pump Communication with Thingspeak

Dashboard

Ultrasonic sensor

Dashboard

Inconclusive reading

Dashboard

No data available

Dashboard

In terms of electrical and IoT results, the dashboard displayed the simulated operation status. It provides the user with the relevant system information. Although the simulations cover most situations, there are limitations. When the ultrasonic sensor measures the distance on irregular surfaces, it can make erroneous readings. The system is prepared to overcome these situations by classifying the reading as inconclusive. Nonetheless, readings can still be wrong. Another major simulation limitation, is the absence of the ambient temperature sensor.

4

Conclusion

Considering the project outcomes, the team was able to design an innovative solution for the collection of floating trash in lakes. Following the preliminary

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studies and design thinking, the team defined the concept and designed the solution. This included the creation of technical drawings, both structural and electrical, the 3D structural model and the control system schematic. The next stage was the selection of electrical components (based on the power budget) and structural materials. Finally, simulation was used to validate the structure as well as the control of Soaksy. As future developments, the team envisaged the inclusion of sensors to monitor environmental pollution as well as filtering systems to remove microplastics and oil from the water. Regarding personal outcomes, the achievers left the following testimonies on the EPS@ISEP learning experience: Ant´ onio – “I entered the EPS course with the expectation of learning to develop a multidisciplinary product while working in a multicultural team. I also longed for the opportunity to live daily with my colleagues, learning about their cultures. Despite the pandemic, which forced the course to migrate online, my expectations were fulfilled. I had less interaction with my colleagues than I expected, but I am grateful for this experience. I learned a lot more than I expected, even with the online classes. I can say that I have basic knowledge in the areas of project management, marketing, study of ethical and deontological concerns and measures for sustainability, which I am sure will be useful in my professional life.” Bianca – “When I entered the EPS@ISEP programme, I knew that it was, above all, an opportunity to get out of my comfort zone, to work in a team while combining different fields of study with living and travelling in a beautiful city and country. Unfortunately, COVID-19 made me leave the country in April, after a month of staying in the house. However, it did not matter as much as what I have learnt. I have realised that it does not always matter if you do not have the knowledge or if you feel insecure. This experience teaches you on-the-go and brings out what is best in you. You only have to bring the willingness and motivation to develop on a personal and professional level.” Davide – “Participating in the European Project Semester was a wonderful experience, which taught me a lot, specially regarding time management and teamwork. Unfortunately, our experience was affected with the arrival of COVID-19 in March, leading to online lectures and meetings. However, ISEP was able to timely adapt and we managed to continue the project without difficulty. I am glad I was part of EPS@ISEP and of my team.” Evelien – “Due to the corona measures, the EPS@ISEP programme was not what I hoped for. Unfortunately, I did not get to know my team very well, one of my team members even left the team and we were unable to build the prototype together. Fortunately, ISEP really anticipated well on the corona crisis. The classes and meetings were online in no time. That way, I was still able to learn the basics of ethics, sustainability, marketing, communication, project management and even some Portuguese. Also, my team collaborated well. Thanks to the quick anticipation of ISEP on the corona crisis and the good collaboration of my team, I was able to complete the EPS@ISEP.”

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Laura – “I came as an Erasmus student to EPS at the ISEP campus. During the course, I learned to work and coordinate with teammates from other fields of study in the design of our product, overcoming the language barrier. Thanks to the classes and the help of project coaches, we clarified our doubts and broaden our vision of the project. In spite of the pandemic situation, that lowered our spirits and made it more difficult to concentrate, we were able to maintain the team dynamics. Overall, I can say that it has been a very gratifying experience where I have learned a lot together with my colleagues and the constant support of the teachers and the EPS@ISEP.”

References 1. DrSails: Europe’s first solar-powered seabin is cleaning up Spinola Bay (2018). http://drsails.buzz/projects-that-rock/. Accessed May 2021 2. Glascock, T.: The Problem of Ocean Trash (2016). https://oceanconservancy.org/ blog/2016/08/22/the-problem-of-ocean-trash/. Accessed May 2021 3. Helinski, O.K., Poor, C.J., Wolfand, J.M.: Ridding our rivers of plastic: a framework for plastic pollution capture device selection. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 165, 112095 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112095 4. Jacobo, J.: World Ocean Day 2019: Ocean plastics problem isn’t going away, but here’s what you can do to help (2019). https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/worldocean-day-2019-oceans-plastics-problem/story?id=63324490. Accessed May 2021 5. RanMarine Technology: WasteShark (2021). https://www.ranmarine.io. Accessed May 2021 6. Schmaltz, E., et al.: Plastic pollution solutions: emerging technologies to prevent and collect marine plastic pollution. Environ. Int. 144, 106067 (2020). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106067 7. Seabin Project: Seabin Project - Cleaner Oceans for a Brighter Future (2021). https://seabinproject.com. Accessed May 2021 8. The Ocean Cleanup Technologies: The Ocean Cleanup (2021). https:// theoceancleanup.com/rivers/. Accessed Dec 2020 9. UCLA Sustainability: What is Sustainability? (2021). https://www.sustain.ucla. edu/about-us/what-is-sustainability/. Accessed May 2021 10. Utrecht University: All about plastic soup—Plastic can be found everywhere in the ocean (2021). https://plasticsoep.sites.uu.nl/en/plastic-found-everywhere-ocean/. Accessed May 2021 11. Waterfront Partnership of Baltimore: Trash Wheels (2016). https://www. waterfrontpartnership.org/healthy-harbor/trashwheels/. Accessed May 2021 12. Waterfront Partnership of Baltimore: Mr. Trash Wheel Technology (2021). https:// www.mrtrashwheel.com/technology/. Accessed May 2021 13. Wikipedia: Mr. Trash Wheel (2018). https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr. Trash Wheel. Accessed May 2021

Does Gender Gap in Confidence Explain Gender Gap in Academic Achievement? Yasmine Guemouria1, Ivan Acebo2, Maria Jose Rosales-Lopez2,3, and Samira Hosseini2,3(&) 1

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Emines-School of Industrial Management, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Benguerir, Morocco Writing Lab, Institute for the Future of Education, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico [email protected] School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico

Abstract. Decades of inequality generated a lack of self-esteem in women in several aspects of life. The gender gap in confidence is an intrinsic societal issue that has its roots in early childhood. As girls grow into women, they face stereotyping and a general belief that they are less capable, which may later transform into a central belief in women’s understanding and judgment of themselves and thus translate into lower self-evaluation in different areas of competencies. In particular, in academia, women have proven to lag behind men in academic development and achievement. They are less likely to accept mentor positions, specifically if the mentee is a male peer. This study is dedicated to analyzing a network of mentors and mentees at the faculty level of higher education and their academic achievements as a result of the established mentor-mentee interactions. The participants self-evaluate themselves in different competency areas ranging from English level to analytical abilities and academic achievement. The present work concentrates on the level of confidence between the genders within the network of mentors and mentees. We compare the perceived competency levels in both genders with respect to their roles and their academic achievements to find out if gender gap in confidence translates into gender gap in academic achievement. Keywords: Higher education innovation
Confidence


Academic mentor
Gender gap
Educational

1 Introduction In several countries around the world, women have gained the right to vote, to go to university, and to work for a little more than a century. With the lost opportunities, more men are expectedly positioned in key roles in society than women. Given decades of historical oppression against women, inequalities between genders in the workplace, in the level of professional success and achievement, and in the multiple roles each gender is traditionally expected to play remain as challenges women continue to face. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 177–189, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_18

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An overall labor force participation rate for women is *49% while this rate for men is *75% [1]. It is also understandable that in the workplace, women often fail to reach their full potential and may present a lower level of confidence in their capabilities. A number of research projects were conducted to further investigate the women’s self-evaluation of their job performance and the likelihood of believing in their promotional merit. Literature provides insight on the confidence level in both men and women as opposed to their actual performance on the basis of statistics and mathematical modeling [2]. Moreover, psychological measurements indicate the existence of gender patterns in personality traits and their contributions to wage imbalance [3]. In an attempt to increase the productivity of faculty members, a network of peertutors was created in which both mentors and mentees have volunteered to join the program. Through a self-evaluating questionnaire, we have measured the perceived 1) English level; 2) commitment level; 3) involvement in research; 4) analytical abilities; 5) main motivators; 6) past publications and academic achievements; and 7) writing skills. The data were categorized based on the gender of the participants to assess which gender is more likely to take on a mentorship role and which gender is to perform better as a mentor or as a mentee. Our study sheds light onto the correlation of confidence in one’s academic abilities and the impact of gender gap on academic performance of the faculty members.

2 Literature Review Over the years, women have shown a lack of self-esteem in different aspects of modern day-to-day life. Perhaps, no research has successfully brought to light an absolute and certain causes of this gap in gender confidence; however, many studies have demonstrated that the issue does indeed exist, and pointed to several explanations. Studies have revealed that the contrast in confidence among the two genders can be observed in a child’s earliest years. For example, international data reveal that boys express more positive attitudes toward math than girls. For eight graders, the statement “Math is one of my best subjects” was more frequently agreed upon among young boys than girls [4]. In this regard, Wang and Degol (2017) have shown that individual differences in cognitive capacity, competence beliefs and motivation can be linked to biological processes and experiences in broader sociocultural contexts [4, 5]. Parents shape children’s expectancies and performance by communicating their own gender-biased beliefs about how girls and boys should perform in certain school subjects. Women may be avoiding challenging careers in Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) not only because they erroneously believe that innate intelligence is needed for success in these fields but also because they believe that they belong to a group that is less likely to possess the qualities needed for success in these fields [5]. It has been shown that women’s lack of confidence in their abilities permeates their own perception of selfefficacy and financial literacy. Researchers have documented correlations among math performance and perception, financial confidence, financial literacy, and financial decision-making. Women’s lower self-perceived math capabilities might reduce

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investment in financial literacy and therefore financial confidence. Men, on the other hand, were less likely to be impacted by their perception of math ability [6]. It is interesting to see, however, that despite this perception towards a school subject in early life, research has also shown that women outperform men in terms of enrollment and graduation indicators in higher education. This increase in female academic access and progress is due to the increasing improvement of the preparation received in secondary school. This consideration and the attitude of female students to work harder and more consistently for academic performance helps to explain women´s academic success in grade average and beliefs about ability [7]. In that light, while it has been established that female undergraduate students outperform their male counterparts during their college years in all the five schools, as studied by Middle East Technical University (METU) in Turkey only 62% were able to find a job upon graduation [8]. A recent survey examining the gender of all Wikipedia contributors, conducted by the United Nations University, found a similar surprising result: less than 15% of contributors to Wikipedia are women. This study has found four main factors that explain the observation: i) women’s less confrontational nature; ii) men are more likely to have a stronger belief in their abilities and are more likely to assert their opinion; iii) the nature of sharing information through Wikepedia fosters a type of knowledge competition which men tend to dominate as a result of their overconfidence and proneto-competition attitude, and iv) women might simply not have enough time to allocate to contributing to Wikipedia as they may be involved in other community services, taking care of their family or personal responsibilities [9]. One might attempt to contextualize the problem within a geographical perimeter, but further research conveys a somewhat counter-intuitive finding; male domination in the STEM fields, for instance, was more apparent in countries with higher gender equality. The same study has also linked enrollment in STEM fields in higher education to overall life satisfaction levels [10]. When it comes to achieving senior academic positions, studies revealed that not all potential talent is used and that initiatives to increase the share of female researchers in senior positions are still needed. Maureen Baker (2010) points at the “research productivity cycle”, i.e. female researchers produce fewer publications and therefore obtain less funding to finance their research, as a probable cause [11]. Moreover, managers seeking to hire capable confident women in their companies are facing challenges finding the right candidates. Carlin et al. (2018) stipulate that women are more likely to step back from applying for a job if they believe themselves to lack one of the enumerated job qualifications whereas their male counterparts tend to apply for a job even if they believe they lack one or more of the required selection criteria [12]. Some researchers discuss this situation as a result of a difference in women’s and men’s personal aspirations. In a recent study on career progression in New-Zealand, when asked “Do you expect to reach the rank of (full) professor before retirement?”, most women lecturers and senior lecturers answered with an immediate ‘No!’, giving reasons such as lack of intelligence and/or ambition; insufficient time, energy or publications; or no desire for additional responsibilities [13]. Away from the academic world, in a study done on women’s presence in Wall Street, Ralph and Hosseini (2010) have found women to be substantially more reluctant to making a

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decision concerning an investment and/or to be significantly less confident in their decision when they do take one [14]. The gender gap in confidence is an inherent issue in society that may expand its root way earlier in the stages of life, and certainly interacts with several factors throughout the professional and personal development of both women and men. What one experiences during their upbringing of course translates into characteristic traits that shape the personality, but studies have found that more nuanced relations are at stake, significantly impacting women’s perceived abilities and real access to life opportunities.

3 Methodology In an attempt to increase the productivity of faculty members, a network of peer-tutors was created in which both mentors and mentees have volunteered to join the program. The studied sample consisted of 192 mentees (111 men and 81 women), and 87 mentors (64 men and 23 women). These faculty members represent different academic levels, were hired based on different contract types (temporary and permanent), and have different academic profiles in research and publication. Upon their registration, the participants were requested to answer seven questions that would allow them to selfevaluate their: 1) English level; 2) commitment level; 3) involvement in research; 4) analytical abilities; 5) main motivators; 6) past publications and academic achievements; and 7) writing skills. The participants of this study agreed to the use of this survey data for research purposes. The data were analyzed anonymously and the participants had the right to drop out of the research project if they preferred. RStudio was used to analyze the answers of female and male faculty members. A thorough data cleaning and pre-processing was performed prior to the analysis. Moreover, label encoding was necessary for some categorical variables. We have classified the information based on the gender of the participants to study not only the likelihood of taking on a mentorship role by female and/or male candidates but also analyze how each gender perceive their abilities as mentors or as mentees. Furthermore, we have associated these self-evaluations to the actual performances of the mentors and the mentees and their achievements as a result of established mentor-mentee interactions over a period of two years (2018–2020).

4 Results and Discussion The analysis of the database of mentors and mentees shows distinct differences in gender distribution among the participants. Our findings (Fig. 1) suggest that while there is a 16% gender gap when taking mentee role, there is a considerably larger gender gap in taking on the mentor role between male (75%) and female (25%). Detailed studies of literature on mentors and mentees indicate that there are more male mentors than female mentors across disciplines, particularly in management and leadership domains [15, 16]. One issue can be the time constrain as a result of multiple roles females have traditionally accepted. With a number of barriers women face in

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managing their time, it is sequentially expected to spend the extra time on advancing their career and on achieving their professional objectives rather than helping their peers [17]. Literature also suggests that while women and men have similar qualifications when entering organizations, women’s careers begin to lag behind those of men in a matter of five or six years [15, 16], which, in turn, is a call for additional effort on women’s behalf.

Fig. 1. Male and female faculty members taking on mentor and mentee roles.

Our analysis of the qualifications of the both genders shows that female mentors self-evaluated themselves lower than male mentors in several areas of the analysis, and therefore it is of no surprise that this gender gap in confidence results in a clear gap in assuming the mentor role and offering their expertise to their peers as well. A detailed analysis of these qualifications is further presented in the text. Assessing the distribution of mentors and mentees across the schools provides further insight. Figure 2, summarizes this information in the frame of the following schools/divisions across 36 campuses: SEC - School of Engineering and Sciences PT - Prepa Tec (High school) SB - School of Business SHE - School of Humanities and Education SAD - School of Architecture and Design SM - School of Medicine SSG - School of Social Sciences and Government Other - (administrative staff) Regardless of the gender and the role (mentor and/or mentee), SEC was found to be heavily involved in research and publication and is evidently the highest contributor to this initiative as well. Expectedly, the number of male participants, both as the mentors and the mentees, outnumbers the number of female participants from this school. This is in line with significantly lower number of females represented in different areas of STEM either as students or as faculty members.

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Fig. 2. Distribution of male and female participants across different schools.

Our detailed self-evaluation of participants’ qualifications including English level (Fig. 3), commitment level (Fig. 4), involvement in research (Fig. 5), analytical and research abilities (Fig. 6), writing skills (Fig. 7), and past publications and academic achievements (Fig. 8) are presented based on the judgments of the individuals and how they perceived themselves. Female participants underrated themselves in most areas of analysis from English level, to research and analytical skills as well as writing abilities. Figure 3 shows how mentors and mentees self-evaluate their English proficiency which is one of the main components of writing journal and/or conference papers targeted for international media. While male and female mentors have seemingly demonstrated a comparable level of confidence in their English skills, the female mentees perceived their English level to be generally lower than their male counterparts (Fig. 3). When assessing the commitment to the process of peer-tutoring, the mentees have rated their commitment levels similarly regardless of the gender. This agrees with what can be observed from mentors’ database as both genders seem to have a high level of commitment to the interactions with their mentees (Fig. 4). The involvement level in different areas of research and investigation seems to be also comparable for both categories, mentors and mentees, regardless of their genders (Fig. 5). However, male mentees who participated in this program perceive themselves at a higher level of research competencies than their female counterparts (Fig. 6 (a and b)), which is contrary to the results that we have obtained for mentors.

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Fig. 3. The self-evaluation of the mentors and the mentees of their English proficiency.

Fig. 4. The self-evaluation of the mentors and the mentees of their commitment level to the process of research and publication.

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Fig. 5. The self-evaluation of the mentors and the mentees of their involvement level in the process of research and publication.

Figure 6 (c and d) shows that female mentors rate themselves slightly higher than male mentors in their research skills and abilities. Past few decades have shown a rise in the number of female faculty members in the upper echelons of academic hierarchy [16] which, in turn, may translate into a wider range of trainings provided by prominent female professional in the future.

Fig. 6. The self-evaluation of the mentors and the mentees of their research skills and analytical abilities.

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With respect to the writing abilities which is one of the main requirements for excelling in scientific publication, the mentees self-evaluation shows a slightly higher level of assessment for men when compared to women (Fig. 7). This is while male mentors see themselves as more competent academic writers than their female counterparts (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. The self-evaluation of the mentors and the mentees of their writing skills at the level of international journal or conference publication.

Presented results in Fig. 8 further confirms that male mentors also perceive themselves as higher academic achievers than female mentors. With a small fluctuation in the results, this is also true for the male mentees (Fig. 8). Overall, after assessing 279 participants (175 males and 104 females) from across disciplines, a clear gender-based gap in confidence level can be observed. We identify that this gap is larger among mentors than mentees. To further understand the nature of this gap, we interpreted our results in the context of their actual performances (mentors and mentees). For this purpose, we have gathered the results of their peer-tutoring (mentor-mentee interaction) calculated based on the number of journal and/or conference papers they have produced over the course of two years (Table 1).

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Fig. 8. The self-evaluation of the mentors and the mentees of their research performance.

Table 1. Academic production of the mentors and mentees (2018–2020) based on their gender Academic achievement as a result of mentor-mentee interaction (2018– 2020) Mentor Mentee Female Male Female 52 32 Male 67 75

The presented results in Table 1 clearly demonstrate that each gender has had a higher academic achievement when assigned to the same gender. The female mentors have produced 52 articles with their female mentees while male mentors have surpassed this number by producing 75 articles with their male mentees. Male mentors have had a greater production (67 articles) with their female mentees as well, which is contrary to the case of female mentors when working with the opposite gender (32 articles). When assigned to male mentees, female mentors have produced considerably lower number of articles compared to their counterpart or even compared to their performance with their female mentees. Literature suggest that females are facing inequality in being accepted as academic mentors/advisors. Christina and Michael Hilmer conducted a research on gender configuration in student-advisor connection [16]. The authors reported that only *9% of the students agreed to work with female dissertation advisor as opposed to

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other *91% who preferred to have male advisors. Nevertheless, statistics provide evidence that there is no significant difference in working with female and male advisors [16]. In fact, different reports suggest that female students with female advisors have had a higher chance of securing academic positions within US education system. In line with the reports of the literature, our results depict a high performance of female mentees with their female mentors. Having a female mentor, essentially, provides female mentees with a role model that can play a critical part in their academic formation [17]. A female who is trained by a female mentor is likely to become one herself. Nevertheless, studies have reported that masculine behaviors are more likely to be attributed to success than feminine behaviors [18]. From the cross-sex mentoring perspective, however, literature suggests that there are more male mentors with female mentees than there are female mentors with male mentees. This can be also clearly seen in our database of mentor-mentee interaction (Fig. 1). There are several contributing factors that may prevent the formation of this academic interaction between female mentors and male mentees [15]. While individuals may be drawn to the same sex in a mentoring relationship for similar attitudes, beliefs, and experiences, there are other reasons why they may be reluctant to work with the opposite gender. One can be gender stereotyping which may lead to a general belief that women have less power and ability than they actually have [18]. The literature suggests that men may hold the perception that women lack managerial abilities and are unfit for facing challenging circumstances [19]. Similarly, women may experience a certain level of defensive reluctance in accepting male mentors as a result of the known stereotyping. Moreover, senior female advisors may prefer to mentor female mentees based on a belief that, in academia, women need more assistance than men. Many high potential women, on the other hand, prefer to choose male advisors at different levels of academic and corporate world. Whether the cause of this significantly lower performance of female mentors when working with male mentees is the lack of self-esteem and confidence in one’s abilities or a possible rejection of their role and qualifications, this topic is subject to further research for profound understanding of the causes. Despite the overall lower confidence level in female participants, we observe an interesting result: female mentees are superior in their performance and production compared to their male counterpart. With a total of 119 articles, female mentees have outperformed male mentees (107 articles) despite the fact that male mentees outnumbered the female counterparts by 16%. Our results shed light onto the capability, potentials, and qualifications of female academics both as mentors and mentees and is an invitation to a more reflective approach and assessment of confidence in the context of genders and their academic achievements.

5 Conclusion This study presents an analysis of the confidence level in genders when accepting the role of mentor and/or mentee in a peer-tutoring interaction. While past academic achievements of the mentors demonstrate similar levels of competencies for both the male and the female mentors, the male mentors have higher confidence in their abilities

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and a greater success with their mentees. Our findings suggest that while there is a 16% gender gap when taking mentee role, there is a considerably larger gender gap in taking on the mentor role between males (75%) and females (25%). Female mentors underrate themselves in almost all areas of analysis from English level, to research and analytical skills as well as writing abilities. When analyzing their performances as academic mentors, men outperform women regardless of the gender of the mentees they advise in the process. What marks an interesting observation, however, is the fact that female mentees are superior in their performance when compared to the male mentees regardless of the mentors’ gender. Further investigations are required to establish a clearer correlation between the level of confidence and academic achievements.

References 1. International Labour Organization. Published in December 2017; Updated in March 2018. https://www.ilo.org/infostories/en-GB/Stories/Employment/barriers-women#footer 2. Chiesi, F., Primi, C.: Gender differences in attitudes toward statistics: is there a case for a confidence gap? (2015) 3. Risse, L., Farrell, L., Fry, T.R.: Personality and pay: do gender gaps in confidence explain gender gaps in wages? Oxf. Econ. Pap. 70(4), 919–949 (2018) 4. Wang, M.-T., Degol, J.L.: Gender gap in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM): current knowledge, implications for practice, policy, and future directions. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 29(1), 119–140 (2017) 5. Wang, M.-T., Ye, F., Degol, J.L.: Who chooses STEM careers? Using a relative cognitive strength and interest model to predict careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. J. Youth Adolesc. 46(8), 1805–1820 (2017) 6. Al-Bahrani, A., Buser, W., Patel, D.: Early causes of financial disquiet and the gender gap in financial literacy: evidence from college students in the Southeastern United States. J. Fam. Econ. Issues 41(3), 558–571 (2020) 7. Barnett, R.C., Hyde, J.S.: Women, men, work, and family: an expansionist theory. Am. Psychol. 56(10), 781 (2001) 8. Dayioğlu, M., Türüt-Aşik, S.: Gender differences in academic performance in a large public university in Turkey. High. Educ. 53(2), 255–277 (2007) 9. Collier, B., Bear, J.: Conflict, confidence, or criticism: an empirical examination of the gender gap in Wikipedia. In: Proceedings of the ACM 2012 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW 2012), Citeseer, pp. 383–392 (2012) 10. Stoet, G., Geary, D.C.: The gender-equality paradox in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education. Psychol. Sci. 29(4), 581–593 (2018) 11. Baker, M.: Career confidence and gendered expectations of academic promotion. J. Sociol. 46(3), 317–334 (2010) 12. Carlin, B.A., Gelb, B.D., Belinne, J.K., Ramchand, L.: Bridging the gender gap in confidence. Bus. Horiz. 61(5), 765–774 (2018) 13. Baker, M.: Women graduates and the workplace: continuing challenges for academic women. Stud. High. Educ. 41(5), 887–900 (2016) 14. Estes, R., Hosseini, J.: The gender gap on wall street: an empirical analysis of confidence in investment decision making. J. Psychol. 122(6), 577–590 (1988) 15. O’Neill, R.M., Blake-Beard, S.D.: Gender barriers to the female mentor–male protégé relationship. J. Bus. Ethics 37(1), 51–63 (2002)

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16. Hilmer, C., Hilmer, M.: Women helping women, men helping women? Same-gender mentoring, initial job placements, and early career publishing success for economics PhDs. Am. Econ. Rev. 97(2), 422–426 (2007) 17. Ragins, B.R., Cotton, J.L.: Gender and willingness to mentor in organizations. J. Manag. 19 (1), 97–111 (1993) 18. Powell, G.N., Butterfield, D.A., Parent, J.D.: Gender and managerial stereotypes: have the times changed? J. Manag. 28(2), 177–193 (2002) 19. Noe, R.A.: An investigation of the determinants of successful assigned mentoring relationships. Pers. Psychol. 41(3), 457–479 (1988)

Bonding in Times of Pandemia—A Concept for Purely Virtual Kick-off Days to the Student Entry Phase Sabine Hammer, Sarah Ottinger, Veronika Thurner(B) , and Benedikt Z¨ onnchen Hochschule M¨ unchen University of Applied Sciences, Munich, Germany {sabine.hammer,sarah.ottinger,veronika.thurner,zoennchen.benedikt}@hm.edu

Abstract. As many students struggle with the transition from secondary school to academic education, many institutions host a variety of special events to smoothen the student entry phase. However, as many of these events involve the physical gathering of students at a location, they are not feasible in times of a worldwide pandemic. Nevertheless, the needs of students for bonding, orientation and support remain the same or are even greater under the current circumstances of Covid-19 and the related contact reduction. Therefore, as a first step we analyzed which special skills students need when entering into their studies in times of Covid-19 pandemia. On this basis and as a second step, we then devised a concept for purely virtual student entry days, which we put into practice in the winter term 2020/21. Keywords: STEM study programs · Student entry phase emotional bonding · Virtual teaching

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Experience shows that many students struggle with the transition from secondary school to academic education. For helping students to quickly adapt to the challenges of the new learning context, many institutions host a variety of special events to smoothen the student entry phase. However, as many of these events involve the physical gathering of students at a location, they are not feasible in times of a worldwide pandemic. Nevertheless, the need of students remains the same - or is even greater under the current circumstances of Covid-19 and the related contact reduction. To remedy the situation, we transformed our concept of an in-class action day for first-semester students into a purely virtual offering, focussing on getting students bonded with each other, the lecturers, the institution and the technical domain that they chose. We achieve this by integrating a variety of activities that bring students into interaction with each other via electronic devices. As well, we incorporate our initial diagnostic tests as well as inducements for self-reflection and for networking. c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 190–199, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_19

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Learning is a holistic rather than merely a cognitive process. Thus, we need to address not merely our students’ brains, but their hearts and emotions as well. During the first semester of the Covid-19 pandemic (summer term 2020), we quickly realized that while we are well versed in addressing the brainy part both in the physical and in the virtual classroom, we are much less experienced and thus find it harder to involve our students emotionally when teaching in the virtual classroom, rather than in a physical one with direct personal contact. Therefore, with the aid of a greatly experienced virtual facilitation coach, we designed a two-day long purely virtual kick-off event for our first year students, in order to help them to get interconnected quickly with their fellow students, and to establish the emotional bonding that is so crucial for studying successfully, especially if the chosen course of studies turns out to be challenging and needs some perseverance. Our work is guided by the following research questions: 1. What special skills do students need when entering into their studies in times of Covid-19 pandemia, and how do we foster these in our students? 2. Assuming a purely virtual interaction setting, how can we create the students’ emotional bonding with their fellow students and us lecturers, as well as an identification with their chosen course of studies? 3. How can we induce in our students an attitude of active learning and self efficacy by using purely virtual means?

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To answer our first research question, we did an extensive literature research. Clark and Lovric analyzed changes that students must learn to cope with at their transition from secondary to tertiary education. Some of these are of a rather general nature, affecting virtually all students, independently of their chosen course of studies, while others are more closely related to the specific domain and the corresponding didactics. On the general level, many students experience personal changes due to a shift to a more independent living and a studying situation that involves large class sizes, both of which require selforganization and time management skills. Other issues that are specific to the domain of mathematics that was focussed in their study reveal changes such as the need for a higher level of conceptual understanding, advanced mathematical thinking skills as well a the ability to cope with a large variety of the instructors’ individual teaching styles [1]. Similarly, Guzm´ an et al. too emphasize the relevance of meta-level skills, such as the ability to optimize one’s personal resources. As well, they stress the importance of the reflectory competence required for self-diagnosing occuring difficulties. When focussing on the more cognitive aspects of the study process, they emphasize the necessity of being able to organize one’s knowledge and to apply it not merely on an isolated and purely technical level, but within larger

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contexts and in various modes [3]. To remedy the situation and help students to overcome these challenges of the student entry phase, Guzm´an et al. suggest to establish orientation activities that make explicit these differences between the tertiary education institution and the secondary one. Thus, they want to help student to better – and more quickly – understand the implicit rules that regulate their new habitat, and to become aware of what is expected of them. Teachers’ are requested to support this process by clearly stating their expectations in class [3]. In their research on psychological characteristics associated with students’ well-being in the Covid-19 situation, Holzer et al. investigated in how far the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, especially relatedness, corresponds with issues such as an intrinsic learning motivation. They state a potencial relevance of social relatedness for intrinsic learning motivation, and thus for academic success, both in traditional and in distance learning settings. Furthermore, they showed that experiencing competence is highly predictive for positive emotion [4]. Traus et al. ran a survey to determine the most grievous disadvantages that students experienced within the Covid-19 situation. On the negative hit list, ‘no direct contact with others’ scored highest (82,3). ‘More autonomous learning’ ranked second (47.7%), and ‘poor compatibility of family duties and studying’ ranked third (29.2%) [5].

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Approach

At the beginning of the conception process, we documented in writing our goals for the event, using the goals definition from our on-site version of the kick-off days as a basis and incrementing it with goals that are due to the pandemic situation and its resulting mainly virtual teaching and learning processes, as well as the rather insecure and unpredictable general situation. As a next step, we discussed these goals with the virtual facilitation coach via video call. In addition, we shared with the coach our previous, on site concept and communicated some basic information on what to expect in terms of number of participants, available teaching and support personnel, relevant data regulations of our institution and resulting restrictions on tools that may be employed in virtual formats, and so on. On this basis, the facilitation coach and her team designed suggestions, which were rounded off and detailed appropriately in a succession of video workshops of the coaching team and our faculty’s teaching and learning support team. Throughout these workshops, our faculty’s team was enabled in these issues of virtual facilitation. As the concept took shape, it was documented in detail, thus creating a script for all the personnel that was to be involved in running the virtual student entry days. For each item on the agenda, the script detailed on its goals and the intended duration. Furthermore, it provided detailed instructions on how to introduce and explain the item to the students, requirements for the technical set-up, additional execution instructions and tips and tricks for the instructors.

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Two weeks prior to the virtual student entry days, the faculty’s teaching and learning support team held an instructional workshop to introduce the concept to the involved teaching personnel and support staff.

5

Concept

When designing the concept for our student entry event, we explicitly listed the skills to be fostered and aspects to be addressed, to ensure that we properly cover all these issues in our concept: – – – – – –

Self-organization and time management Self-perception and optimization of personal resources Self-reflection and self-diagnosis Experience competence Get connected and related to fellow students Clarification of expectations from institution and professors

Tables 1 and 2 outline the itinerary for the student entry days. The event goes on for two days, from 10 am to 5 pm on the first and from 10 am to 4 pm on the second day. Each day comprises a 90 min lunch break, which incorporates a communication assignment, to be done via telephone while going for a walk. At the end of the first day, an informal after work event is integrated which involves the entire faculty. When preparing both the concept and the media to be used in our student entry days, we adhered to some best practice advice for facilitating effective online discussions [2]: – Most important of all, we were careful to make everything highly explicit, both visually, in writing and on the auditive channel. As body language is hard to perceive in a virtual setting, signals have to be as clear as possible. – We provided explicitly formulated discussion prompts, which we chose to be very closely related to our students situation and thus, hopefully, would be meaningful for them. – For structuring the students work or discussion process, we provided guidelines and instructions, to ensure that students know what to do. – Finally, we specified what we expected as a result.

6

First Experiences and Outcomes

The pilot run of our purely virtual student enty days took place in the second week of October 2020. Participation in the event was recommended, but not mandatory. Nevertheless, about 400 first year students participated (out of a total of 424 freshmen), all of them enrolled in computer science related courses of study on the Bachelor level. Show-up was approximately the same on the second day. I.e., we had no

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Table 2. Program structure of day two of student entry days

recognisable losses from first to second day, which we interpret as being a positive verdict on the quality of the event. Students were subdivided into groups according to the study programs they are enrolled in, resulting in one cohort of 30 students and five cohorts of 65 or more students.

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In the AfterWork-event that took place in the late afternoon of the first day, about 80 freshmen students participated, along with many of the staff and faculty members. During the event, each cohort was led by either two professors or by one professor and one experienced tutor. As well, in case of emergency, there was technical support staff available in the background, one tutor to spare who could hop in if needed, and the faculty’s teaching and learning support team as an ongoing support in any questions or issues that arose during the workshop days. Technically, all went well, meaning that the department’s server infrastructure that hosts the BBB-platform was sufficiently robust and powerful to deal with the number of participants. 6.1

Student Feedback

Fig. 1. Results from the centrally organized freshmen student survey (translated from German)

Right at the end of the student entry days, students gave a highly positive feedback on the event and its preparation. In the Chatterfall activity at the check-out on the second day, many students voiced highly positive feedback in writing (translated from German): – “Thank you for the effort invested into making the student entry days as great as possible! That is not a matter of course. And we had fun :)” – “Many thanks for two super days” – “Very good student entry days!! Many thanks and you helped me a lot :D.” – “Very helpful event! Thanks!” – “Great and enlightening introductory event, many thanks!”

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Furthermore, students especially mirrored that they got interconnected with other students, as intended. As well, they quickly started to self-organize their communication and networking after the kick-off days, via channels such as WhatsApp or Discord. Figure 1 shows the results of the centrally organized freshmen student survey for those items that concern the faculty’s student entry offerings. Note that the response rate was rather low (27 answers out of 424 students, corresponding to a response rate of 6.4%). This might be partly due to the fact that the survey was run mainly during the spring break and the first few days of the second term. Most students that participated in the survey were well satisfied with tipps and tricks on how to organize their study process. Preparation for the first weeks of studying was rated as being ok to good, as was the awareness of relevant contact persons. The most variation in the students rating was for the item “Getting to know fellow students”, ranging from “highly dissatisfied” to “very satisfied”. Especially in this area, there is high potential for improvement. 6.2

Feedback from Professors

The feedback of the professors that were involved in running the event was mostly positive as well. They were especially impressed by the fact that attendance was rather constant accross the two days, indicating that students appreciated the offering. One suggestion for improvements concerned the program of the second afternoon, which was experienced as being somewhat redundant to previous activities. So it was suggested to modify one of the tasks, in order to generate a greater variety of activities and thus ensure to keep students enthralled. 6.3

Lessons Learned

Considering that offering purely virtual student entry days was a first for everybody involved, the event went remarkably well. However, there is always room for improvements. Therefore, although we hope to be back on campus and thus be able to welcome our new freshmen cohort on-site next fall, we nonetheless aspire to improve our concept and draw the maximum benefit from our lessons learned. One aspect that we intend to improve is the information flyer and invitation material for the event. The first version was rather “technical” in its optical appearance, meaning that it provided the appropriate information, but emotionally was not exactly appealing. So the first impression we left through this material was one of being somewhat dry and nerdy. As we want our students to emotionally bond to our institution, this needs to be improved.

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Another thing that we intend to install at the next round is a follow-up survey that reaches students after a few weeks into their first term. This follow-up will evaluate in which aspects the student entry days are deemed to be beneficial. As well, it should reveal where our first year students still struggle most, and what additional information, support, measures or activities they would deem to be helpful to improve their situation. For our initial cohort, some kind of follow-up information was gathered selectively, mostly from counselling meetings of the didactic support team with individual student as well as from bilateral student-professor-communication. From these individual cases, we realized that although the initial bonding activities were experienced as being helpful, they were still too short to become routine or to bring along stable networking. Therefore, in years to come we intend to systematically incorporate bonding activities into our freshmen students’ study activities, e.g. by having them work in stable teams for several weeks in the different classes. Although this might reduce the number of fellow students they interact with, we hope that it will intensify a certain number of contacts, and thus form the basis for a stable network. Another idea along the same line is to establish mentoring relationships between an experienced student and a (small) group of freshmen students. In addition to bonding with the experienced student as role model, and learn some important tipps about the study process, this could also help to intensify the bonding within a specific mentoring group, thus leading to sustainable networking within the cohort. Finally, we hope that next fall, the pandemic situation will be stable enough to permit some kinds of on-campus activities, at least in small groups. If that is indeed possible, we will complement our virtual offerings with selected face-toface activities, such as a campus rallye to be done in small teams.

7

Conclusions

The Covid-19 pandemic disrupted our traditional, well established ways of teaching and learning and by brutal necessity accelerated the digitization of our didactic approaches. Although many teachers and students alike yearn for getting back into “real” contact, i.e. in a physical classroom, we nonetheless want to retain some of the new practices that we developed when forced. One of them is to be able to systematically involve students holistically into their learning process, i.e., both with their brain and emotionally, no matter whether the teaching and learning setting is a physical or a virtual one. By developing the concept for purely virtual kick-off days for the student entry phase that explicitly address our students emotionally and socially, we developed a format that smooths the path for our freshmen students into the new phase of their educational process. As well, we broadened our portfolio of our teaching methods and activities, which are applicable in future virtual offerings for large cohorts.

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References 1. Clark, M., Lovric, M.: Suggestion for a theoretical model for secondary-tertiary transition in mathematics. Math. Educ. Res. J. 20(2), 25–37 (2008) 2. Faculty Focus: Resource guide for transitioning your class online. Special Report (2020). https://www.facultyfocus.com. Accessed 26 May 2021 3. Guzm´ an, M.D., Hodgson, B., Robert, A., Villani, V.: Difficulties in the passage from secondary to tertiary education. In: Proceedings of the international Congress of Mathematicians, Berlin, Germany, Documenta Mathematica, vol. 3, pp. 747–762 (1998) 4. Holzer, J., et al.: Higher education in times of COVID-19: university students’ basic need satisfaction, self-regulated learning, and well-being. AERA Open 7, 1–13 (2021) 5. Traus, A., H¨ offken, K., Thomas, S., Mangold, K., Schr¨ oer, W.: Stu.diCo - Studieren digital in Zeiten von Corona (2020). https://hildok.bsz-bw.de/frontdoor/index/ index/docId/1157. Accessed 26 May 2021

A Collaborative Approach to Scaffold Group Discussion Skills Using Video Recorded Feedback Dipali Dilip Awasekar(&) and Shashikant Annarao Halkude Walchand Institute of Technology, Solapur, Maharashtra, India

Abstract. Campus placement is a buzzword these days in most of the engineering colleges and has become the core issue in the educational and industry sectors. In general the steps followed in campus placement are pre-placement talk, online aptitude tests, group discussion (GD), technical interview, Human Resources (HR) interview. Group discussion is considered as mass elimination round in recruitment process of IT companies. From student’s perspective, during the campus placement, GD is considered as one of the toughest and most unpredictable phase of the recruitment process. However, often students with excellent academic score and technical skills, crack the aptitude and technical written test for campus placement but are unable to qualify the GD round. The objective of this case study is twofold: to investigate the impediments in gaining and strengthening group discussion skills for campus placement and to examines the effectiveness of video recorded feedback on final year students’ group discussion performances, and their ability to learn and improve from such data for enhancing employability skills. In this paper, we report findings from a twogroup experimental study (N = 80). Forty participants each were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. Students in the experimental group enjoyed the engaging aspects of using video recordings and found it easy to improve their next presentations after watching their first video recordings. However, students in the control group reported: “It is extremely difficult to assess yourself without being able to review video data.” Although students showed both positive and negative attitudes towards video-recorded feedback, all admitted that this feedback had a great impact in helping them realize their mistakes while preparing for GD. Keywords: Video recorded feedback placement
Communication skills


Group discussion
Campus

1 Introduction Engineering is a field of innovation and creation. The number of engineering colleges in India has increased exponentially in the last decade and thus hundreds of thousands of engineering students graduate every year. This increase in the number of engineering graduates has caused serious turbulence in the job market and the employability of graduates. Campus placement is a buzzword these days in most of the university colleges, especially in engineering institutions. The campus placement process has © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 200–208, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_20

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become the core issue in the educational and industry sectors. Today’s job market in India is quite demanding and challenging. The engineering graduates are expected to possess employable qualities when they appear for job interviews. Outcome “g” of the ABET 2000 Engineering Criteria (ABET, 2007) requires engineering programs to demonstrate that, by the time of graduation, students have the ability to communicate effectively. A performance criterion is defined as a specific, measurable statement identifying the performance required to meet the outcome, confirmable through evidence. Students studying in final year of engineering (all courses) face campus recruitment process. The criteria for campus recruitment differ with respect to recruiting company and also the job profile. However, there are a few things that are common to campus recruitment processes. The general campus placement procedure for colleges includes: Pre-placement Talk (Introduction of the company, eligibility criteria), Round I: Aptitude test, Round II: Technical Test, Round III: Group Discussion (applicable for select companies), Round IV: Personal Interview (Technical and/or HR based on the job profile). The recruiters consider Group discussion as one of important round in recruitment process of companies. They conduct a GD round of the students who have qualified for aptitude and technical test. The author is a faculty in an Engineering College and also the coordinator of Personality Development cell at the institute. The author experienced that, often students with a very good score and technical skills, lack in their soft skills specifically the Group Discussion. However there are various professional coaching, online courses, YouTube videos for learning aptitude and technical skills. However GD involves a lot of group dynamics, that is, it involves both -person to person as well as group interactions, individually student can prepare for the content but hardly can get the feel of GD and can evaluate the lacunae’s in ones performance. This necessitates the need to develop an instructional scaffold to enhance GD skills. Unfortunately, empirical studies do not unequivocally support this claim. To improve on this situation and enforce the enhancement of the GD skills for the students appearing campus, use of video recorded feedback have been recommended. Videorecorded feedback, or video feedback, “refers to a structured process whereby students review their recorded communication with the benefit of some guidance and/or evaluation from an instructor or peers [4, 5]. The objective of this case study is twofold: to investigate the impediments in gaining and strengthening group discussion skills for campus placement and to address these issues through a proper instructional scaffold. This paper describes a study carried out by the authors to enhance their Group Discussion skills of engineering students appearing for campus placement by using video recording feedback. The students get to watch their group discussion performances on video tape, and are given the opportunity to evaluate their performances, prior to delivering a second group discussion, which is also assessed and evaluated. Also to show evidence that immediate feedback scaffolding motivates students to enhance their GD skills for next GDs and become lifelong, independent learners. The remaining of the paper is organized as below; in Sect. 2 we present the related work on video recorded feedback. In Sects. 3 and 4 we describe group discussion and reasons for non performance in GD. Details of research questions and methodology respectively are discussed in Sects. 5 and 6. The results are in Sect. 7 followed conclusion in Sect. 8.

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2 Literature Review There is abundant literature suggesting that the use of video data can significantly help improve communication skills and this technique has been widely used in teacher education [1]. The positive effects of video-recorded feedback in public speaking courses have been firmly asserted by several researchers as stated in [3–5]. Video-recorded feedback, or video feedback, “refers to a structured process whereby students review their recorded communication with the benefit of some guidance and/or evaluation from an instructor or peers” [4]. Video recording, considered “a third eye as a tool for performance enhancement”, proves to be a powerful instructional aid in public speaking courses due to its capacity to preserve students’ performances for later analysis and self-reflection. In this sense, and within the scope of the current study, video-recorded feedback is closely defined as self evaluation feedback. In addition, the reports from video study conducted at Stanford University as stated in [2], revealed that microteaching/presentations without video recordings, compared to the ones with video recordings, were less effective in terms of skill mastery because the student teachers were deprived of the opportunity to see any errors. Lee and Wu (2006) conducted a video study in a Teaching Practicum course. All of the participants of the study indicated that the use of video recordings effectively enhanced their teaching experience and skills. From the Cooper Union School of Engineering, reported that videotaping of oral presentations took place in his school in 1982. In the assessment, many students singled out videotaping feedback as a significant learning tool. Findings from the above [4, 6] reported that, the experiments were conducted for using video recording for giving oral presentations. Participants were either provided with the tapes to improve student learning and educational outcomes for a specified course. There are several studies establishing the benefits of video recordings for enhancing student’s presentation. In addition, most of these studies have been conducted for teaching faculty and for public speaking courses, in which, student deliver oral presentation and improve their performance at secondary level, however there is no experimental data on the use of video recorded feedback to improve the group discussion skills of students facing campus preparation for enhancing employability skills. So we feel that our study would be a useful contribution in recommending the engineering institutes for organizing recorded GD sessions for practice for excellent student’s placements.

3 Overview of Group Discussion A group discussion is essentially an arrangement wherein a group of individuals (generally applicants to professional degree courses or certain job profiles) are made to sit in a group (usually of ten to twenty) and asked to share their opinions on a certain topic of discussion and use rationale to conclude at the end. The exchange of ideas takes place in a systematic and structured way. The participants sit facing each other almost in a semi-circle and express their views on the given topic/issue/problem. The rules of the GD – the time limit, panel’s expectations etc. are explained after the initial introduction by the panel, soon after the topic or case to be discussed is given to the

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group members. Each candidate is supposed to express their opinion either supporting or against the topic. The discussion carries on till the panel signals termination. It is left to the discretion of the panel to extend or cut short the given time. HR (Human Resource) experts of the company will observe and evaluate the members of the team. Relevance of GD in Campus Recruitment Process In campus recruitment process Group discussion is considered as a mass elimination round. GD acts as an elimination round where only the qualified candidates are selected and others can be easily eliminated. Group Discussion help the recruiter filter out candidates.

4 Reasons for Non-performance in GD The author interacted with students and found the communicative apprehensions and various reasons for their poor performance during GD: 4.1

Lack of Knowledge of GD and Practice Session

One of the most important reason for poor performance of GD observed by the author based on the students feedback is that the students do not get a group for practice, even if the group of friends is present, everyone is on a different interest level so they mutually do not benefit the aspiring candidates. Further the faculty who can give feedback on the performance is also not available frequently. Further lack of proper communication skills during the group discussion amplifies the problem. The students are lost for words. They were not able to construct proper sentences. It was also further noticed that the teaching faculty and parents stress importance on enhancing the technical and programming skills and hardly any preference is given on GD and personal interview preparation. Students lack the practice and preparation required for GD owing to its conventional approach and setup limitation. Participants are not of the same abilities with content knowledge, English knowledge and communication abilities. Many engineering students come from vernacular medium. Most of the teachers of vernacular medium schools have low levels of proficiency in English and therefore they do not conduct the group discussion with quality and purpose, but teach for name sake. 4.2

Problems that the Students Face for GD

Absence of Team Identity: Members may not feel mutually accountable to one another for the team’s objectives. There may be a lack of commitment and effort, conflict between team goals and members’ personal goals, or poor collaboration. Difficulty Making Decisions: Team members may be rigidly adhering to their positions during decision making or making repeated arguments rather than introducing new information. Poor Communication: Team members may interrupt or talk over one another. There may be consistent silence from some members during meetings, allusions to problems

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but failure to formally address them, or false consensus (everyone nods in agreement without truly agreeing). Inability to Resolve Conflicts: Conflicts cannot be resolved when there are heightened tensions and team members make personal attacks or aggressive gestures. Lack of Participation: Team members fail to complete assignments. There may be poor attendance at team meetings or low energy during meetings. Lack of Creativity: The team is unable to generate fresh ideas and perspectives and doesn’t turn unexpected events into opportunities. Groupthink: The team is unwilling or unable to consider alternative ideas or approaches. There is a lack of critical thinking and debate over ideas. This often happens when the team overemphasizes team agreement and unity. Ineffective Leadership: Leaders can fail teams by not defining a compelling vision for the team, not delegating, or not representing multiple constituencies.

5 Research Questions 5.1

Establishing the Need for Research Work

The difficulties encountered during GD by final year students facing campus placement are well-known, however much attention focusing GD preparation is not undertaken owing to its nature of execution. As a result most of the students who are shortlisted for the GD round have never ever participated in GD or practiced it owing to reasons mentioned in Sect. 4. As a result, shortlisted students coming from rural areas and vernacular medium backgrounds face lot of difficulties during placements and eventually build and carry forward some misconceptions regarding the campus recruitment process. When preparing for campus placement, the author observed that students give more emphasis on aptitude and technical (programming) preparation often ignoring GD and personal interview. As a result the author observed that the students qualifying for round I, round II and who appeared for the GD round (Round III) got disqualified in the GD round owing to their poor performance in GD. They could qualify the aptitude test and technical interviews but failed in the GD round. The question arises why the students are not able to qualify as communicative skills are required for an engineer who aspires to prosper in the global arena. In pursuit of the aforesaid goals, this research seeks to address the following questions: This is operational zed into the following specific questions: 1) How does video-recorded feedback affect the students’ group discussion performance? 2) What are the students’ attitudes towards the application of video-recorded feedback for enhancing group discussion skills?

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6 Methodology 6.1

Sample

All the participants of the study were computing majors enrolled for engineering course from P.A.H. Solapur University, Maharashtra. A total of 80 out of 83 students participated in the experiment. The remaining students were not part of campus placement owing to the fact they were preparing for higher studies, not satisfying the eligibility criteria, family business et. The participants were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. Half of the participants were assigned to the “experimental group,” and the other half to the “control group.” The purpose of randomly assigning participants to the experimental and control groups was to ensure that the two groups were roughly equivalent. Establishing the equivalence of groups beforehand was important because it eliminated the possibility that students who were more confident, better communicators, etc. were also more likely to volunteer to be in the experimental group. It also eliminated the possibility that highly motivated students would be in one group, with relatively indifferent participants in the other. There was a random distribution of participants and was almost exactly balanced with treatment groups which were a prerequisite step for the experimental study. These 80 students were further grouped into 10 teams consisting of 8 participants in each team equally divided for experimental and control group i.e. five teams each. 6.2

Data Collection

Initially, 80 students participated in the study. Data collection for our study included video recorded tapes of group discussion, reflection form and pre-post test GD performance scores on a rubric. 6.3

Instruments

Video Recording All presentations were video recorded with the instructor’s camera. Recording of each student contained his/her fifteen minute group discussion presentation and author’s feedback on Group discussion was given to every student. Reflection Forms and Questionnaires Each student was advised to view his or her video-recorded presentation and fill in the questionnaires and reflection form. Questionnaires were designed to deliver before and after the course (pre-test and post-test), aiming to investigate the impacts of videorecorded feedback on the students’ communication competence and communication apprehension. 6.4

Procedure

In this section we describe the experimental design and method. We first explain the design of the experiment.

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Experimental Design We have two-group posttest-only randomized experimental design for our study. The main independent variable is topic for the group discussion. The dependent variable is operational zed by the video-recorded feedback given to the students before the second group discussion. Experiment Method We followed the following steps to conduct the experiment: The 40 students each from the experimental and control group were further grouped into 5 teams consisting of 8 participants in each team. All students’ teams were assigned team numbers; one after the other GD was conducted. The study consisted of 5 GD sessions of 15 min each. Each team had different topic for group discussion. The author of the paper was the observer for all the five group discussion for both the control and experimental group. The presentations were conducted in the English language which, although it was not the primary language of most of our students, it is the language used in the professional engineering world. The GD process began by the announcement of the topic to every the group, which was followed by a preparation time of 3 to 5 min. At the end of the prep time, the author signaled the group to commence the discussion. This means that the discussion was not moderated or ‘anchored’ by a panelist. The group members discussed the topic as they deem appropriate without any kind of suggestion from the panel. The panel expects neither particular order of speakers to be followed nor a minimum or maximum duration of speaking to be followed by individual participants. The evaluator (observer) looks at various aspects of the participants’ content and delivery. The GD ended after the 15th minute. Arrangement The control and experimental groups were tested in separate rooms and on consecutive days. A typical classroom, rather than a studio, was used to conduct group discussion for the experimental and control group. The camera used was a SONY, model DCRDVD201. It uses DVD disks of 3.0 inch diameter. The camera was mounted on a 5–1/2 foot tripod during video recording. The camera was always aimed at the presenters. For feedback, the disks were replayed directly from the camera to the 13 inch monitor and were also given to the students on their pen drive. All the students signed a release form to allow the video recording to be used in any educational setting. Treatment The methodology is same in both the groups. Although for control group the students did not have access to the video tapes also neither the observer feedback, mentioning where they went wrong. All of the participants had their two presentations videotaped. Participants in the experimental group had access to their two videotaped presentation recordings while writing their reflections on their performances during the presentations; those in the control group did not have access to their recordings until they completed two of their reflections. Experimental group students viewed their first presentation in the monitor before they delivered their second presentation. They rated their performances using the rubric.

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7 Discussion Effect of video recorded feedback on students GD performance: Students’ Comments on Aspects of Video-Recorded Feedback. The findings revealing students’ attitudes towards video-recorded feedback were collected from students’ reflection forms and indepth interviews, which display both positive and negative attitudes. Positive Aspects All student-participants (40 out of 40) from experimental group shared the same opinion that video recorded feedback was a useful technique as because of it, hey recognized the limitations in their performance. Student One Noted: “I can see what and how I acted during my performance. This technique helps us see our strengths and weaknesses as on viewing, we ourselves become audience.” Student Two: “The application of video-recorded feedback encouraged students to make more well-prepared presentations. The recording reminded us to try our best in order to have a few-of-mistake performance.” Some student-participants pointed out that this modern teaching aid, together with the new teaching technique, inspired them to learn and helped boost their confidence in long-term presentation skills development. Negative Aspects Besides the above mentioned benefits, the negative sides of video-recorded feedback should also be taken into due consideration. “The camera was also a great distracter for students. It turned out to be a source of fear and pressure for many in the first few days. I feel uncomfortable with the camera. When presenting, I paid much attention to it and sometimes I forgot my scripts”. “I felt a bit nervous and trembling when I saw a camera facing me.”

8 Conclusion The main purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of video data in helping improve group discussion skills. Findings from multiple data collections revealed that the use of video recordings helped improve students overall presentation skills, body language communication skills in the area of verbal and non-verbal communications, organization, and engagement of the audience. This study adds to the research knowledge base about the effectiveness of video data and can help guide instructors and educators in the best use of video data for effective student training, learning, and assessment preparing for campus recruitment to make them industry ready. Although students showed both positive and negative attitudes towards videorecorded feedback, all admitted that this feedback had a great impact in helping them realize their mistakes. This technique is very useful for students appearing for GD in campus placement preparation and should be adopted by the training and placement cell of the every engineering institute.

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References 1. Ball, D.L., Lampert, M.: Multiples evidence, time, and perspective. In: Lagemann, E.C., Shulman, L.S. (eds.) Education Research: Problems and Possibilities, pp. 371–398. JosseyBass, San Francisco (1999) 2. Olivero, J.S.: Microteaching: Medium for Improving Instruction. Charles Meril and Co (1970) 3. Bankston, R.G., Terlip, L.A.: The effects of videotaping on student performances in the basic communication course. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association, New Orleans, LA (1994) 4. Dupagne, M., Stacks, D.W., Giroux, V.M.: Effects of video streaming technology on public speaking students’ communication apprehension and competence. J. Educ. Technol. Syst. 35 (4), 479–490 (2006) 5. Hinton, J.S., Kramer, M.W.: The impact of self-directed videotape feedback on students’ selfreported levels of communication competence and apprehension. Commun. Educ. 47(2), 151– 161 (1998) 6. Quigley, B.L., Nyquist, J.D.: Using video technology to provide feedback to students in performance courses. Commun. Educ. 41(3), 324–334 (1992)

Material Demo Lab - Selection Criteria for Methods Training Business Model Generation and Design Prototyping with Material Scientists Jasmin Schöne1(&) , Florian Sägebrecht1, Lenard Opeskin2, Anne-Katrin Leopold3, Jens Krzywinski2, Stefan Schwurack3, Martin Kunath4, and Peter Schmiedgen1 1

Fachhochschule Dresden, University of Applied Sciences, Güntzstraße 1, 01069 Dresden, Germany {j.schoene,f.saegebrecht,p.schmiedgen}@fh-dresden.eu 2 Dresden University of Technology, George-Bähr-Street 3c, 01069 Dresden, Germany {lenard.opeskin,jens.krzywinski}@tu-dresden.de 3 Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden, Hohe Street 6, 01069 Dresden, Germany {leopold,schwurack}@ipfdd.de 4 Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies and Systems IKTS, Winterbergstraße 28, 01277 Dresden, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. Former research has shown that material scientists face several challenges in the later stages of the innovation process, especially in market placement meeting the needs of business customers and other stakeholders. Problems are e.g. too complicated communication of their work, missing understandable business cases, and uninspiring demonstrators. These developing issues could already be prevented in an early TRL level by using and combining product design and business modeling methods. But already existent method compilations lack in instructions which methods are suitable for this constellation. The paper presents a decision model for the selection of product design and business modeling methods in the innovation process in the field of advanced materials science. First, the appropriate selection criteria is defined by a) literature analyses, b) a survey of material scientists, and c) observations in conception, implementation, and evaluation of trainings in the “Material Demo Lab” as part of a research project addressing the topic. Then, the decision model is applied to the set of product design and business modeling methods of the “Delft Design Guide” as one popular handbook in the field. In addition, intervening factors are described that were observed during the work with the methods and limit the field even further. As a result, in addition to the decision model, the filtered, appropriate methods are presented. For further application the paper delivers a decision model and a selection of adequate methods for similar cases to enforce the innovation outcome of material scientists.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 209–219, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_21

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Prototyping
Science

1 Introduction Companies are already cooperating and collaborating with partners and customers along the value chain and nowadays in early stages of the innovation process in order to increase the market potential of new products. In fundamental scientific research, especially in research institutions, the development for potential business models and the design are downstream processes that start at later stages of the Technology Readiness Levels (European Commission 2014). There is considerable scientific and economic high potential in combining different material and technology domains (BMBF 2015). To unfold the potential the innovation process in material science needs to be rethought, so that material scientists can make their research and its application understandable in early stages for the industry and targeted users that are not experts in basic research. Within this research project “SIMPROMAT2”, which is coordinated by the Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research Dresden and also involves the Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies and Systems IKTS, the Leibniz Institute for Materials Research Dresden (IFW), the Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technologies (ICT) and the Fraunhofer Institute for Microstructure of Materials and Systems (IMWS), started in 2019, the Chair of Technical Design at the TU Dresden and the Chair of Business Administration, in particular Marketing and Event Management of the University of Applied Sciences Dresden (FHD) started the conception by designing the training sessions for the participants. The sub-study, which is presented in the paper, is part of the research project SIMPROMAT2 which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, the so called Material Demo Lab (MDL). In the so-called MDL, workshops using design and business design methods take place with the material scientists. The main focus for this paper is on the selection criteria of the methods used for the project. The selection of methods and a possible modularization during the different work phases, represents an important element in the project. There is still limited research knowledge in the area of material research in connection with design as well as business design methods. The Material Demo Lab, in which the formats are carried out, presents implementation possibilities and findings, which have been generated from results, observations and evaluations.

2 Background 2.1

Relevance of the Subject

The phase between basic research results and proof of concept is known as the valley of death (Ellwood 2020). This is consistent with newer models of innovation policy that stress interaction between the different agents across the innovation process. In addition to that, the problem of commercializing scientific discoveries has been widely explored, however it is still an issue and existing literature does not provide a clear

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description of the activities needed for the transition from the scientific laboratory to market (Mesa et al. 2019). The solutions proposed by literature to bridge the valley of death do not explain the process to develop an early-stage technology (Wessner 2005). However, the methodology of product design and business modeling can provide an alternative way to bridge the valley of death covering the activities required to transform an advanced, but basic technology application idea into a product prototype. Besides this issue, it is not always easy for non-experts to understand that scientific knowledge is usually provisional. This is what makes research work. Today’s findings are not wrong because of this. But they can always be called into doubt. This shows that, processes and methods of science need be explained more accessible for stakeholders. For example, that there are pre-publications so that they can then be openly discussed with other experts, even across disciplines. Communicating is a very important part of science communication. Discourse is part of the essence of science. Enduring it is sometimes a challenge. It is important and valuable (BMBF 2020). With the use of design and business design methods in the innovation process, it is possible to counteract these problems. In order to be able to evaluate the named methods for use in the field of materials science later on, the use of a decision model is required. 2.2

Decision-Making Models

In order to achieve the goal of classifying the design and business design methods of e.g. the Delft Design Guide (van Boeijen et al. 2013), a decision model is required, which is then transferred to standardization later on. Decision models allow the evaluation and selection of alternatives based on a desired objective. They allow to determine the best possible course of action to achieve the objective. Basis for the evaluation are one or more objectives, which are defined by the decision maker. The concrete framework or environmental conditions as well as the available options for action serve as input for the evaluation. Decision models contain descriptive and explanatory elements (Kleindienst 2017). 2.3

Modeling Process

Model development and modeling is a multi-stage process, the exact design of which depends on the framework conditions of the specific application (see Fig. 1) a general process that serves as a guideline for the procedure. A rational decision can only be made if there are objectives with the help of which the alternatives considered can be compared with each other with regard to their consequences. An objective is characterized by the fact that a future state is aimed at, which is generally different from the current (initial) state and is referred to as the final state. Regarding the decision model for the material scientists the following aspects are taken into account. The following is a decision model based on Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. Process of model development and analysis (own representation based on Homburg 1998)

1. Identification and definition of the problem: Need 1: Overcome the “Valley of Death” by the creating inspiring business models (Mesa et al. 2019) Need 2: Communication and understanding of their research skills (BMBF 2019). Need 3: Creation of a design demonstrator by using product design and business modeling methods in the development of new technology can improve its potential for future application in order to meet the commercial needs (Moultrie 2015) 2. Analysis and description of the relevant section of validity: This paper refers explicitly to the problem definition and the solution approach for the field of material science. This test field was realized by a grant of the BMBF. Statements are based on existing scientific knowledge, expert input in the decision model and a survey from January 2020 in which 16 material scientists participated for the test bed. 3. Design of the model: The model should show (suitable/not suitable) as a result. The following sketch supports this idea: 4. Model analysis: For the model analysis it is checked whether the problems and needs from 1. (Identification and definition of the problem) and 2. (Analysis and description of the relevant section of validity) are sufficiently considered in the model and whether it is appropriate for the target.

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5. Model validation: Rather, it is a matter of reflecting on its cognitive potential and perspectives with regard to the research question and cognitive interest. In doing so, it may also become necessary to rethink, modify or redevelop methodological tools (To validate the model, further tests are recommended in order to achieve a scientific establishment (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Example of the assessment model

3 Purpose and Goal More than two-thirds of all technical innovations are directly or indirectly attributable to new materials. This applies to almost all sectors of the economy (BMBF 2015). This development shows a high potential for product development in numerous areas. The general goal in the long term is to improve the needs and to solve the problems of scientists (see Sect. 2.1 Relevance of the issue) by using methods with the purpose to simplify the situation. The purpose is to enforce the material scientist during the innovation process, even in an early TRL (European Commission 2014) stage. To make this big goal possible, solutions are needed in the more detailed area - the decision-making process for the methods. The goal is to realize a decision model for the use of design and business design methods for the field of material science. The decision model is then used to select design and business design methods to solve targeted needs. These methods are obtained from the Delft Design Guide (van Boeijen et al. 2013). For this decision model, criteria are identified and defined, which substantiate the decision and evaluation process.

4 Approach 4.1

Criteria Definition

In a January 2020 survey, 16 materials scientists, including research staff, research group leaders, or even project managers) at research institutes were asked about their knowledge and prior experience of design and business design methods. Participants were asked about prior knowledge of the following methods in the design and business design field. The answer option was yes or no:

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scenario analysis target group analysis development of user profiles User Experience Design business model development Prototyping Storytelling The following results can be determined:

• • • • • • •

scenario analysis (yes: 1/no: 11) target group analysis (yes: 2/no: 10) development of user profiles (yes: 0/no: 12) User Experience Design (yes: 1/no: 11) business model development (yes: 1/no: 11) Prototyping (yes: 5/no: 7) Storytelling (yes: 0/no: 12) 4 participants did not answer the section in the survey.

Within the survey from January 2020, 16 materials scientists at research institutes were asked about their knowledge and prior experience of design and business design methods. Furthermore, the following motivational aspects were ranked from a selection: • • • • • •

collaborative work on demonstrators discover methods of other scientific field networking insights into other fields of material science discover methods of product development discover methods of business model development

After evaluating the results, the following ranking and weighting can be stated. The ranking is descending. The aspect with the number 1 is the most selected and the aspect with the number 6 is the least. The ranking was completed by adding up the individual rankings. The aspect with the smallest sum is the most important for the participants and the aspect with the largest sum is the least important. The amounts are in parentheses 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

collaborative work on demonstrators (27) networking (34) discover methods of other scientific field (37) insights into other fields of material science (40) discover methods of product development (41) discover methods of business model development (51)

4 of 16 participants did not answer the section in the survey. In one of the 16 surveys, only 3 aspects were considered instead of 5.

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Based on these answers, the following results can be inductively established and the following criteria can be concluded: Since the paper deals with methods from the field of design or business design, it can be stated as a criterion that a method must be assigned to “design or business design method”. The information provided by the survey respondents, who stated that motivation is built up by learning methods that are not related to the their research field of study, also has a supporting effect. Nevertheless, the data show that this indication comes in third in the ranking. Since the desire for collaborative work on demonstrators was chosen as the most important aspect, the methods must show “suitability for team processing” in order to realize collaborative work patterns. For the most part, participants indicated that they had no prior knowledge of any of the methods queried. Concluding the criterion “no previous knowledge” is set up for the decision model. Since the materials scientists stated that they would like to learn more about methods outside their field of expertise, methods of product development as well as methods of business model development, the “combinability” of different methods emerges as a requirement and criterion. The concept of “Constructive Alignment” (Biggs and Tang 2011) by psychologist John Biggs serves to describe and derive another criterion that is crucial for success. Basically, it justifies the need to align the targeted learning outcomes with the teachinglearning processes in the courses and the examination (Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf 2016). This concept is followed in the innovation process of the workshop settings as well. According to this theory, the criterion “structurability” arises. Which outcome is achieved when choosing a certain alternative also depends on variables that the decision maker cannot influence (Kleindienst 2017). The coronavirus urged people to make their working methods more digital (Bundesregierung 2021). Now the selected methods had to have “digital feasibility”. This is to be defined as a further criterion. A project team also has to adhere to a certain time limit within the bounds of its possibilities. The material scientists perceived the participation in the described workshops as further training. In order to achieve the desired results, it was a given that a method had to be carried out within a “time frame of no more than 2 h”. This size was fixed by the contracting authority. In general, language, a method is a planned procedure to achieve a specific goal (Leipzig University n.d.). Creativity techniques and creativity methods can basically be divided into intuitive and discursive approaches. Intuitive approaches provide many ideas in a short time (IHK Hannover 2015) and have especially the benefit of idea generating. For this reason, the criterion “in note form” will be included in the decision model in order to first consider the time limitation and to enable the quantitative generation of ideas. 4.2

Method Evaluation by Decision Model and Selection Criteria

In the following, the methods to be evaluated are first listed and given a number in order to make an assessment. The respective number will then be found in the illustration, the evaluation. Methods were provided inspired from the Delft Design Guide (van Boeijen et al. 2013). A method is selected as suitable if it meets all selection criteria.

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Methods take are going to be evaluated: Staging Design Activity (1), Reasoning in Design (2), Basic Design Cycle (3), Product lnnovation Process - 1 (4), Product Innovation Process – 2 (5), Creative Problem Solving (6), Vision in Product Design (ViP) (7), Design for Emotion (8), Brand Driven Innovation (9), Service Design (10), Cradle to Cradle (11), Rise of the Pyramid (BoP) & Emerging Markets (12), Contextmapping (13), Cultural Probes (14), User Observations (15), Interviews (16), Questionnaires (17), Focus Group (18), Customer Journey (19), Mind Map (20), Strategy Wheel (21), Trend Analysis (22), Function Analysis (23), Ecodesign Strategy Wheel (24), Ecodesign Checklist (25), Process Tree (26), Fast Track Life Cycle Analysis (27), Human Power (28), SWOT Analysis (29), Search Areas (30), Ansoff Growth Matrix (31), Miles & Snow Business Strategies (32), Porter Competetive Strategies (33), VRIO Analysis (34), Porter five forces (35), Perceptual Map (36), Value Curve (37), Written Scenario (38), Problem Definition (39), List of Requirements (40), Business Model Canvas (41), Marketing Mix 4Ps (42), Fish Trap Model (43), Analogios & Metaphors (44), Synetics (45), Brainstorm (46), Brain Written & Drawing (47), Morphological Chart (48), SCAMPER (49), WWWWWH (50), How Tos (51), Interaction Prototyping & Evaluation (52), Product Usability Evaluation (53), Product Concept Evaluation (54), Emotion Measurement Instrument (55), Harris profile (56), EVR Decision Matrix (57), C-Box (58), Itemised Reponse/PMI (59), Votum Method (60), vALUe (61), Weighted Objectives (62), Cost Price Estimation (63), Role Playing (64), Design Drawing (65), Technical Documentation (66), Three Dimensional Methods (67), Video Visualization (68).

Fig. 3. Evaluation by criteria design and business design methods (1) to (34) – Part 1/2

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Fig. 4. Evaluation by criteria design and business design methods (35) to (68) – Part 2/2

In order to evaluate the methods in the decision model and by the selection criteria the procedure is used, which was already presented in Sect. 2 (see Sect. 2.1 Model processing). Use in decision model through defined selection criteria:

5 Results As can be seen in the figures (see Fig. 3 and Fig. 4), the results are as follows: Out of the 68 methods analyzed in this paper, 42 met all the criteria in the application domain and were classified as suitable. The classification into a particular phase of the innovation process is not done in this paper and will be disregarded in the results analysis. The illustrated 42 methods are in principle suitable for use in a workshop setting with materials scientists to clarify their needs (see Sect. 2.1 Relevance of the issue). Of the methods that were rated as not suitable, most failed the criterion: “no foreknowledge”. This criterion also represents a high weighting, as the survey (see Sect. 4.1 Criteria definition) showed that the majority of participants have no previous knowledge in design and business modeling. For this reason, the criterion is rated as highly relevant for the whole selection process. From the criterion already mentioned, the other unsuitable methods failed on the criteria: time, design or business method: “time frame of no more than 2 h” and “design or business design method”. In this case, the criterion “time frame of no more than 2 h” is classified as variables that the decision maker cannot influence (Kleindienst 2017). The time frame is considered to be given. The criterion “design or business design method” equally belongs to this category and is already given and intended to be evaluated. Almost all methods are also digitally feasible, can be combined with other methods, demonstrate a structurability, can be carried out in note form, and can be performed in collaborative teamwork. There are criteria, which are already given, because no influencing can be done on it and criteria, which can be defined by the analysis of literature, surveys and observations. Rather, it

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is a matter of reflecting on its cognitive potential and perspectives with regard to the research question and cognitive interest. In doing so, it may also become necessary to rethink, modify or redevelop methodological tools (Leipzig University n.d.).

6 Conclusion In summary, it can be stated that the evaluation of design and business design methods for the field of application in material sciences is possible by applying a decision model. Through this selection it is possible to enforce the users during the innovation process. This decision model is extended by defined selection criteria. The criteria must be relevant for the field of application, adapted to the target group and suitable for the general project. There are criteria, which are already given, because no influencing can be done on it and criteria, which can be defined by the analysis of literature, surveys and observations. With the methods selected as “suitable”, it is now easier for materials scientists to address their needs in a more targeted manner.

References Biggs, J., Tang, C.: Teaching for Quality Learning at University, 4th edn. Open University Press, Maidenhead (2011) Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF). Wissenschaftskommunikation starker in der Wissenschaft verankern (2020). https://www.bmbf.de/de/karliczekwissenschafts kommunikation-staerker-in-der-wissenschaft-verankern-12620.html. Accessed 20 May 2021 Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF): Grundsatzpapier des Bundesministeriums für Bildung und Forschung zur Wissenschaftskommunikation, pp. 2–3. BMBF, Berlin (2019) Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF). Vom Material zur Innovation. Rahmenprogramm zur Förderung der Materialforschung (2015). https://www.bmbf.de/de/ vom-material-zur-innovation-1130.html. Accessed 24 Mar 2021 Bundesregierung 2021. Homeoffice überall da, wo es möglich ist. https://www.bundesregierung. de/breg-de/themen/coronavirus/verordnung-zu-homeoffice-1841120. Accessed 06 June 2021 Ellwood, P., Williams, C., Egan, J.: Crossing the valley of death: five underlying innovation processes. Technovation 109, 102162 (2020). ISSN 0166-4972 European Commission. Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) (2014). https://ec.europa.eu/ research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2014_2015/annexes/h2020-wp1415-annex-g-trl_en. pdf. Accessed 24 Mar 2021 Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf. Methodensammlung. p. 101 (2016) Homburg, C.: Quantitative Betriebswirtschaftslehre, 2nd edn, p. 37. (1998) Kleindienst, B.: Performance Measurement und Management, p. 37. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden (2017) IHK Hannover. Methoden und Techniken für kreative Lösungen, Hannover, p. 1 (2015). https:// www.reutlingen.ihk.de/fileadmin/user_upload/www.reutlingen.ihk.de/Existenzgruendung_ und_Unternehmensfoerderung/Handel/Standorthelden/Leitfaden_Standorthelden_PDF/ Leitfaden_Kreativtechniken.pdf. Accessed 06 June 2021

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Mesa, D., Thong, C., Ranscombe, C., Kuys, B.: Integrating the product development process in scientific research. Bridging the research-market gap. In: Proceedings of the Design Society: International Conference on Engineering Design, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 2805–2814 (2019) Moultrie, J.: Understanding and classifying the role of design demonstrators in scientific exploration. Technovation 43–44, 1–16 (2015) uni.leipzig.de. Was sind Methoden? (n.d.). https://home.uni-leipzig.de/methodenportal/was_ sind_methode. Accessed 03 June 2021 van Boeijen, A., Daalhuizen, J., Zijlstra, J., van der Schoor, R.: Delft Design Guide: Design Strategies and Methods. BIS Publishers, Amsterdam (2013) Wessner, C.: Driving innovations across the valley of death. Res. Technol. Manag. 48(1), 9–12 (2005)

POSTER: Education for Sustainable Development in the H2-InnoCampus TUD Antje Goller1(&), Frances Zedler2, Antonio Hurtado2, and Jana Markert1 1

TU Dresden, Nutrition and Home Economics and Vocational Didactics, Dresden, Germany [email protected] 2 TU Dresden, Hydrogen and Nuclear Energy, Dresden, Germany

Abstract. Sustainable Development is necessary to secure a save and healthy life for living and future generations. Therefore we look for sustainable alternatives e.g. in agriculture, mobility or energy management. Hydrogen provides a huge potential in this area of research. In the H2-InnoCampus TUD we seek to build a unique infrastructure for research and transfer, which aims to investigate the synergy of technologies within energy- and safety-related, economic as well as social aspects. Education for Sustainable Development is necessary to support vocational education and training in the H2-InnoCampus TUD. Therefore it will promote the innovations sustainability by helping teachers to teach sustainable and (prospective) professionals to develop competencies to design future visions. It also provides them with tools to develop transition strategies commonly and to put their ideas into practice. We will use a research based Train-the-Trainer approach to support teachers and learners in the H2-InnoCampus TUD. Keywords: Education for sustainable development development


Hydrogen
Regional

1 Sustainable Development Sustainable Development “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED 1987). This claim affects all areas of life like economics, social and environmental issues as well as all regions like global north and global south. In regional development we face “wicked sustainability problems” (Sparks 2012, p. 283) that evolve from the need to take care of all tree dimensions (Fig. 1). Therefore, conflits of aims are inherent and can be worked on successfully by multi-perspective and transdisciplinary approaches.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 220–225, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_22

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Fig. 1. Three pillars of sustainably, Own representation based on Vorage (2019)

2 H2-InnoCampus TUD Mobility and energy supply are central issues in the discussion on Sustainable Development and as such assigned to the global Sustainable Development Goals. Hydrogen as an energy carrier can act as a sustainable alternative and a central innovation for the mentioned sectors. The secondary energy carrier hydrogen is gaining more importance in a national and international range with respect to climate protection and sustainability. The Technische Universität Dresden intends to contribute to the establishment of a sustainable hydrogen economy with the H2-InnoCampus. The H2-InnoCampus is a unique infrastructure for research and transfer, which aims to investigate the synergy of individual technologies within energy- and safety-related, economic as well as social aspects. For this purpose, the individual parts of the hydrogen value chain production, storage, infrastructure and application are analyzed holistically. Furthermore, comprehensive safety and risk analysis are performed as basis of acceptance concepts. To include the civil society, communication models are developed. Another crucial element for a sustainable hydrogen economy is suitable vocational training.

3 Vocational Education for Sustainable Development in the H2-InnoCampus TUD To support a broad understanding for sustainable innovations and to foster it´s transfer to all areas of economic and social life, specific concepts of education are needed. Our approach focusses on promoting learners key competencies for Sustainable Development (Sect. 3.1) by training trainers to know and use key methods (Sect. 3.2) and develop teaching competencies (Sect. 3.3) in Education for sustainability. In this chapter we describe the scientific groundwork our concept is based on.

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Key Competencies in Education for Sustainability

In 2020 Brundiers et al. (based on Wiek et al. (2011) and Wiek et al. (2016)) presented a revised model of key competencies in sustainability in higher education. As shown in Fig. 2 the authors describe nine competencies and show their connections. Learners achieve systems-thinking to understand a complex problems current state and history as well as futures-thinking to anticipate future scenarios and to create sustainability visions. Strategic-thinking and implementation competency help to successfully transfer from a current state to these sustainability visions. Collaborating with others is as essential to deal with “wicked sustainability problems” as a mindset of e.g. high selfefficacy expectation and frustration tolerance. An integrated problem-solvingcompetency is seen as necessary in all stages. Values-thinking is considered a leadcompetency that should define thinking and acting in all areas.

Fig. 2. Key competencies in sustainability in higher education (Brundiers et al. 2020)

3.2

Key Methods in Education for Sustainability

Pedagogical approaches to develop these competencies are a learner-centered approach, action-oriented learning and transformative learning (Rieckmann 2018, p. 49). Rieckmann (2018, p. 50) adds the following key methods: • “Collaborative real-world projects such as a service-learning project and campaigns for different sustainability topics; • Vision-building exercises such as future workshops, scenario analyses, utopian/ dystopian story-telling, science-fiction thinking, and fore and back-casting; • Analysis of complex systems including community-based research projects, case studies, stakeholder analysis, actor analysis, modelling and systems games; • Critical and reflective thinking including through fish-bowl discussions and reflective journals.”

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In the H2-InnoCampus TUD we will support vocational educators to know and use these key methods for sustainability via a Train-the-Trainer approach. 3.3

Educators Competencies in Vocational Education for Sustainability

To successfully apply these methods, teachers in vocational education and training need specific qualities and competencies. Therefore the Environment and School Initiatives (ENSI) developed the CSAT model (Curriculum Sustainable Development, Competences, Teacher Education), that describes educators competencies for the realization of Education for Sustainable Development (Sleurs 2008). It defines a holistic approach of Integrative Thinking and Practice, the ability to envision change and to achieve transformation as core elements and differentiate a matrix of 39 corresponding competences. While being very elaborated, the model did not meet the needs of practitioners completely. Therefore in the ongoing international project “A Rounder Sense of Purpose” researchers refined the approach and formed 12 competencies for educators in different contexts (Fig. 3). In the H2-InnoCampus TUD we well support educators to develop the 12 competencies of teaching for sustainability via a Train-the-Trainer approach.

Fig. 3. A Rounder Sense of Purpose (RSP) competence framework (A Rounder Sense of Purpose, 2020; Scherak and Rieckmann 2020)

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A Whole Institution Approach

Derived from the above described models, we will implement Education for Sustainable Development in vocational education and training starting from the H2InnoCampus TUD. The project follows a Whole Institution Approach. Therefore sustainability is not only taught but also lived in the institution. Next to teaching and learning, core components of an educational institution are facilities, governance and community (Fig. 4). In the H2-InnoCampus TUD we well support a Whole Institution Approach by implementing working groups with representatives of all status groups in the educational institution.

Fig. 4. A whole institution approach (Deutsche UNESCO-Kommission e.V., 2014; Rieckmann 2018)

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This holistic concept will promote sustainability in the H2-InnoCampus TUD by helping vocational teachers to teach sustainable and (prospective) professionals to develop competencies to design future visions. It also provides learners with tools to develop transition strategies commonly and to put their ideas into practice. This way vocational Education for Sustainability supports a save and healthy life for living and future generations.

References A Rounder Sense of Purpose: A rounder sense of purpose: educator competences in learning for sustainability (2020). https://aroundersenseofpurpose.eu/wp-content/themes/rmwrk/ documents/RSP_Competences.pdf Brundiers, K., et al.: Key competencies in sustainability in higher education—Toward an agreedupon reference framework. Sustain. Sci. 16(1), 13–29 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625020-00838-2 Deutsche UNESCO-Kommission e.V. (ed.): UNESCO-Weltaktionsprogramm: Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung (2014). https://www.bne-portal.de/sites/default/files/_2015_ Roadmap_deutsch_0.pdf Rieckmann, M.: Learning to transform the world: key competencies in ESD. In: Leicht, A., Heiss, J., Byun, W.J. (eds.) Issues and Trends in Education for Sustainable Developement. UNESCO Publishing (2018) Scherak, L., Rieckmann, M.: Developing ESD competences in higher education institutions— staff training at the university of vechta. Sustainability 12(24), 10336 (2020) Sleurs, W.: Competencies for ESD (Education for Sustainable Development) Teachers: A Framework to Integrate ESD in the Curriculum of Teacher Training Institutes. csct-project (2008) Sparks, D.L.: Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press (2012) Vorage, M.: Nachhaltige Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung. GW-Unterricht 154(2), 2019 (2019) WCED: Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission On Environment and Development. Oxford University Press (1987) Wiek, A., et al.: Operationalising competencies in higher education for sustainable development. In: Barth, M., Michelsen, G., Rieckmann, M., Thomas, I. (eds.) Handbook of Higher Education for Sustainable Development, pp. 241–260 (2016) Wiek, A., Withycombe, L., Redman, C.L.: Key competencies in sustainability: a reference framework for academic program development. Sustain. Sci. 6(2), 203–218 (2011)

Educational Virtual Environments

Differentiated Approach When Studying “English for Special Purpose” Online in Technological University Ekaterina Tsareva, Elena Yurievna Semushina(&), and Roza Bogoudinova Kazan National Research Technological University, Kazan, Russian Federation [email protected]

Abstract. Using online learning technologies in combination with a differentiated approach can improve significantly the quality of teaching a foreign language in a technological university. The purpose of this article is to examine a differentiated approach to teaching foreign language to students using online support (study). In other words, a system of three basic individual trajectories, which include training listening, reading and writing skills in each module, is presented in the research. Online study (support) is a part of a course “English for Special Purpose” and is processed simultaneously to offline classes. Students are divided into three groups according to individual trajectories of online support: basic, intermediate and advanced. The study examines the organization of work online using the differentiated approach in the framework of online support of the course “English for special purpose”, developed for students of the master’s program “Chemical Technology” in Kazan National Research Technological University. When developing a personal learning path of students, the following stages are distinguished: diagnosis (students are divided into three basic trajectories); implementation (within each module, three types of tasks for all levels are presented); control (two types of testing: intermediate and final, including multiple choice questions and cloze tasks). Special attention in the research is paid to the way in which training reading skills is organized. The distribution of students in three trajectories, which are operated online, allows you to level the knowledge of students in the same group and to compensate for the absence of the student in the classroom. However, since the requirements for the exam are the same for all students, the student must complete the tasks of advanced level to get an excellent grade. Keywords: Online study
Individual trajectory English for special purpose


Differentiated approach


1 Introduction Today, using online learning technologies in combination with a differentiated approach can improve significantly the quality of teaching a foreign language in a technological university. The necessity of online learning in combination with differentiated approach is due to the following facts: © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 229–236, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_23

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• not all students can attend classes, • the number of hours allocated for learning a foreign language at university is constantly decreasing, • the students with different initial knowledge of the language may study in the same academic group. Online part of the course that is operated simultaneously with offline classes is called online (distant) support [1]. A differentiated approach to teaching a foreign language using online support for the subjects “English for Special purpose” leads to the following: • a student studies additional material at an individual pace, depending on his or her abilities; • the teacher can select elements in accordance with the level of knowledge and capabilities of each student; • the role of independent work and self-discipline of the student increases; • the teacher uses automated control (the student can do the test as many times a she wants, revising the material). • access to all modules of the course is open throughout the entire period of study. The latest advantage is especially important for students whose level of knowledge is significantly lower than that of the rest of the group [2]. Studying a foreign language when obtaining Master’s degree, the emphasis is put on the study of professional vocabulary, which is chosen according to the principles of consistency, frequency, compatibility, accessibility and communicative expediency. Besides, it is desirable to take into account the positive interference between languages, since most engineering terms in Russian are borrowings or transliteration from English. The following methods of introducing new vocabulary are considered optimal: the use of video material, word-formation analysis and translation. The material is fixed using the following exercises: translation (the task can be performed online or in the traditional form, depending on the trajectory of a student developed by a teacher), answer to questions, use of video material for revision, training exercises (choose a synonym / antonym, multiple choice, finish a sentence, insert a word into the text). When creating these tasks, the teacher removes the time limits and the number of attempts to complete the task, thus updating the learning effect of the tasks as the student can do the task several times. The final formation of lexical skills is carried out offline with the help of the following tasks: to make a text in the direction of scientific research, to make a summary, a dialogue, a report on scientific work, creative tasks [3, 4].

2 Purpose The purpose of this article is to examine a differentiated approach to teaching foreign language using online support. In other words, a system of three basic individual trajectories, which include training listening, reading and writing skills in each module, is analyzed. Online study (support) is a part of a course “English for Special Purpose” and is processed simultaneously to offline classes. Students are divided into three groups according to their initial knowledge of the language: basic, intermediate and advanced. The teacher can adjust the student’s work by adding a certain element of the

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module or closing access to it. The use of standard trajectories simplifies the work of the teacher and the student, but does not limit the possibilities of the student who wants to gain additional knowledge.

3 Approach The study examines the organization of work online using the differentiated approach in the framework of online support of the course “English for special purpose”, developed for students of the master’s program “Chemical Technology” in Kazan National Research Technological University. 100 students have been already trained with the help of this methodology. The following theoretical and practical research methods were used in the study: comparison of two forms of education, modelling, methods of data collection and accumulation, methods of control and measurement, methods of data processing and methods of implementing research results in pedagogical practice. Working out the content of the online support, the following methodological principles were used: communicative approach, reliance on the native language, visibility and availability of the material, gradual increase in the complexity of the material studied. When working out the tasks, selecting the material and form of assessment the authors used the principles of organization of international language exams (TOEFL, IELTS) and Unified State Exam in English (Russian standardized exam that is taken as one of a final exams at school) [5, 6]. When developing basic trajectories of students in the framework of a differentiated approach, the following stages are distinguished: • Diagnosis • A test consisting of three blocks of tasks was worked out: basic level (multiple choice tasks to check knowledge of grammar and matching tasks to check reading skills), intermediate level (transformation tasks to check knowledge of grammar and tasks aimed at finding logical and semantic connections to check reading kills and vocabulary) and advanced level (transformation tasks to check grammar skills and multiple-choice test to understand detailed information and to check reading skills and vocabulary). Depending on the results, students are divided into three groups: basic, intermediate and advanced. • Implementation • Within each module, three types of tasks for all levels are presented. The course was structured according to the modular principle, and each module has a specific topic and semantic completeness, each module contains three levels of vocabulary. The fact that a student started working on one of the trajectories does not exclude the possibility of completing tasks from another trajectory. • Control (assessment) • To assess the level of knowledge, two types of tests are used: intermediate (at the end of each module) and final (multiple choice and cloze tasks). In addition to the synchronous type of knowledge assessment (online tests), asynchronous assessment is actively used, when the translation task is sent to the teacher for verification.

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In 2019, three types of online training reading skills (the most difficult and confusing part of training) were offered to student and the results were analyzed: • one and the same text was changed using Flesh-Kinkaid formular to suit three levels of study but the type of training tasks was the same; • different texts selected according to three levels of complexity on the same topic and the same type of training tasks; • different texts with different complexity and different tasks to them. The latest approach turned out to be the most effective according to the results of assessment and feedback of students.

4 Outcomes Typical trajectories of studying a foreign language by students of the major “Chemical Technology” are presented in Table 1. As the example, module 1 “What is Chemistry and Polymerization?” was chosen. Table 1. Typical trajectories of studying a foreign language by students of the major “Chemical Technology” using online support № Stage of study

Basic level

Intermediate level

Advanced level

1

Instructions

2

Introduction of new (professional) vocabulary Training of audio skills: tracks

Methodological recommendations Translation of vocabulary

Methodological recommendations Translation of vocabulary

Methodological recommendations Explanation of professional vocabulary in English

Video “Introduction to Chemistry” (3 min length)

Video “Chemical engineers” (4 min length)

3

4

4

6

7

8 9

Training of audio skills: tasks Training of reading skills: texts Training of reading skills: tasks Training translation skills Check of translation skills Intermediate control (assessment)

Audio “Interview with a Chemical engineer” (4 min length) Fill in the summary of the Fill in the summary of the Multiple choice video (words are given to video (words must be insert into the text) printed by a student) Skimming of the text Scanning of the text Reading for detailed “What is Chemistry and “Properties of chemical information Polymerization?” elements” “Polymerization of coatings” Match two parts of the Fill in the summary of the Multiple choice, match sentence text the type of polymer and the product Translation of sentences Translation of sentences Translation of a from English into Russian from Russian into English coherent text from Russian into English The file is sent to the The file is sent to the The file is sent to the teacher to check teacher to check teacher to check Cloze task (translate Cloze task (translate Cloze task (translate vocabulary from Russian to vocabulary from Russian vocabulary from Russian to English) English) to English)

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When developing the content for training online reading skills, the following steps were taken: 1. Text selection and processing When choosing texts for online study, the most important aspects are the following: • the subject of texts should correspond to the major of the students, • texts and tasks should correspond to the level of knowledge of the students, • a gradual increase in the complexity of the material studied should be preserved. When developing the course content, the Flash-Kinkaid Readability Index was used to determine the level of text complexity. When testing the course, it was revealed that texts with a readability index of 60–70 points are suitable for the basic level, for the intermediate level - 50–60 points, for the advanced level - 30–50 points [7]. As it turned out, it is impossible to select a text that initially meets the required level of complexity and at the same time corresponds to other necessary characteristics, so the texts were processed, simplified or complicated from a linguistic point of view. 2. Developing tasks The type of task chosen depends on two factors: • what type of reading you need to train at this stage: • at what stage of working with the text the task is done (pre-reading, the reading itself, or post-reading). Approbation has shown that skimming and scanning are effective at the basic level, scanning and reading for detail - at the intermediate level, and reading for detail - at the advanced level. The pre-reading stage of working with the text should not only identify the target of the task and reduce the level of language difficulties, but make students remember what they know about their major. At this stage, the tasks “Learn the words” (search for translation of terms) and “Match the equivalents” (find equivalents among expressions of Russian and English) are used. The words are presented in three blocks, with the first block being obligatory for all three groups, the second block - for intermediate and advanced, and so on. The reading itself is based on the need to control the understanding of the text. Unfortunately, the choice and formulation of tasks are limited to the MOODLE format, i.e., tasks are made out through the TEST option, so only the following types of tasks are possible: • • • •

to to to to

search for a match of all types, do multiple choice, fill in the text with a word or part of a sentence, enter the correct answer in the form of a word or several words.

For the basic level, tasks are offered to determine the main topic and to search for specific information, that is, tasks for choosing the title of the text, determining true and false information, tasks for connecting parts of a sentence. For example, “Study the information about polymerization and match the halves of the sentences:

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Part 1 There are the following types of polymerization There are the following ways of addition polymerization In free radical and cationic was of polymerization Part 2 A) free radical, cationic, and anionic type. B) chain grown and step grown. C) the following stages are observed - chain initiating, chain propagating and chain terminating. Tasks aimed at determining logical and semantic relationships and search for specific information are offered for intermediate level. They check understanding of the structure of the text and general meaning, and restore the missing details of the text. For example, Fill in the summary of the text “Properties of chemical elements”: The speaker started studying chemistry at college when the professors explained why the 1) __________ stretches. She understood that it would be interesting to know how the 2) _________ are connected. Chemistry is the study of 3) _________, its structure and composition. This information can be used to predict its 4) _________. For example, ozone consists of three oxygen atoms and has 5) _______ structure. Based on this we can predict its properties, such as ability to 6) _________ ultraviolet radiation. Searching for specific information is presented in the following example, when a certain word needs to be dragged to the desired part of the table: Study the list of properties and choose the ones that metals, properties and non-metals have. Properties: malleable, brittle, ductile, dull, shiny, excellent conductors of heat and electricity, poor conductors, moderate conductors, lose electrons and form positive cations, gain electrons and form negative anions, have positive and negative charges. For the advanced level, multiple choice tasks are offered, which simultaneously test the general reading comprehension, the establishment of logical connections of the text, and the detailed understanding of the text. As shown by the approbation, the correct formulation of questions and answers is particularly important, namely, it is necessary to ask about the fundamental aspects, and not minor details, the answers should be unambiguous, special attention should be paid to the formulation of questions with NOT, EXCEPT, as they cause maximum difficulty for students. The following types of multiple-choice questions are used: • • • • • • •

explanation of a term (Three-dimensional that can be melted are called ______.); quality description (Amorphous polymers are often ______.); structure and content (The backbone of the polymer is ____.); definition of the goal (Nowadays paint and varnishes are used for ____.); comparison (The most important characteristic of primer is ____.); casual-effect relations (The grinding should be fine because in this case _____.); negative question (Environmental agents that can influence pigments does NOT include ___.).

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The post-reading stage of working with the text is carried out orally in the classroom or online. The purpose of these tasks is not only to make students produce a certain text, but also to update inter-subject connections [8, 9]. For example, to complete the following task, students have to remember the information that is provided to them during their lectures on Chemistry: Match the type of polymer (low density polythene, high density polythene, polytetra Fluro ethylene, polyacrylonitrile) and the product that can be made from it: buckets, insulation of wires, oil seals, squeeze bottles, commercial fibers, non-stick coated utensils, toys, dustbins, flexible pipes.

5 Conclusions The use of distance support in higher education institutions makes it possible to actualize a differentiated approach to studying English. The distribution of students into three basic trajectories, which are operated online, allows to level the knowledge of students in the same group and to compensate for the absence of the student in the classroom. After conducting diagnostic testing, the teacher identifies three groups of students who study the material, following one of three typical trajectories, depending on the level of knowledge of the student: basic, intermediate and advanced. The elements of each module should include the following aspects: listening, reading, translation, speaking and vocabulary. Since the requirements for the exam are the same for all students, the student must complete the tasks of advanced level to get an excellent grade. The results showed a significant increase in test scores and students’ willingness to learn.

References 1. Semushina, E.Y. Volkova E.: Training professional vocabulary on-line when studying “English for special purpose”. In: Technological University. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 1328 AISC, pp. 663–670 (2021) 2. Giliazova, D., Valeeva, E.: Poster: engineering education: outcomes assessment. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 1329, 552–557 (2021) 3. Valeeva, R., Valeeva, E.: Promoting creativity of engineering students in the foreign language classroom. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 191–198. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_20 4. Kraysman, N.V., Shageeva, F.N., Pichugin, A.B.: Modern pedagogical techniques in teaching French to prepare engineering university students for academic mobility. In: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 1329 AISC, pp.107–117 (2021) 5. Shageeva, F.T., Erova, D.R., Kraysman, N.V.: Poster: social-psychological readiness of engineering university students for academic mobility to european countries. In: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 1135 AISC, pp. 719–724 (2020) 6. Semushina, E.Y., Ziyatdinova, J.: Studying English on-line as a part of a course “English for special purpose” in technological university. In: Auer, M.E., Hortsch, H., Sethakul, P. (eds.) ICL 2019. AISC, vol. 1135, pp. 21–29. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-030-40271-6_3

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7. Semushina, E.Y., Ziyatdinova, J.N.: Final project of graduate engineers as realization of principle of combinatory when teaching English in distant form. In: Proceedings of 2015 International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning, ICL 2015, pp. 296–298 (2015) 8. Volkova, E., Semushina, E.Y. Tsareva, E.: Developing cross-cultural communicative competence of university students in the globalazed work. In: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 1328 AISC, pp. 405–416 (2021) 9. Tsareva, E., Gulnaz, F., Murtazina, E.: Developing students’ intercultural competence during the professional oriented course in English as a foreign language. In: IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference, EDUCON. т.1. pp. 1110–1114 (2020)

ADVANCED EDU-AR-VIZ: a Framework for Selecting Appropriate Visual Augmentations in STEM Education Isabel Lesjak1(B) , Christian Guetl1 , Johanna Pirker1 , and David Lowe2 1 Graz, Austria [email protected], {c.guetl,johanna.pirker}@tugraz.at 2 The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2074, Australia [email protected]

Abstract. In today’s world, there is a growing demand for professionals with skills in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. At the same time, teaching STEM subjects can be a challenging task, as students struggle to understand abstract concepts and complex phenomena in lectures and textbooks. This has given rise to a new approach to learning called active learning, with the use of interactive simulations and three-dimensional visualisations to improve conceptual understanding. In this paper, we focus on the use of mobile AR as a tool to facilitate active learning for a new generation of learners. We introduce a framework for choosing appropriate visual augmentations for educational purposes. As a practical use case, we describe the design, development and evaluation of a mobile AR Android app for learning about magnetism. Our findings indicate that the use of AR on mobile phones is indeed interesting to students, even with prior knowledge of magnetism. Keywords: Augmented reality Visualisation · STEM

1

· Education · E-learning ·

Introduction

In order to meet the growing demand for professionals skilled in STEM subjects, it is necessary to teach these subjects in an interesting and engaging way to motivate learners to pursue STEM degrees further. It has been shown that traditional, more passive approaches such as lecturing are not as effective as more modern, active learning approaches for enhancing conceptual understanding and raising learners’ motivation [26]. Active learning requires students to think about what they are doing and involves hands-on “learning by doing” activities, such as laboratory experiments, peer discussions, or collaborative work [27]. Especially for conveying abstract, theoretical knowledge in physics classes, active learning can be enhanced by the use of digital tools such as interactive, three-dimensional visualisations or simulations [28] and modern technologies such as Virtual Reality or Augmented Reality (AR). Augmented Reality allows to superimpose the c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 237–249, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_24

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view of the real world with additional virtual information and does not isolate users from their physical surroundings. This paper contributes a novel framework for guiding the design process of Augmented Reality learning experiences and applies it to design a mobile AR app to teach electromagnetism concepts by augmenting magnets. This mobile AR app is then evaluated in a preliminary user study with regards to learning, motivation, and usability.

2

Related Work

In the field of STEM education, various pedagogical models and technological tools are being applied. Whereas the traditional, teacher-centred approach involves passive methods such as lecturing or reading textbooks, the more modern, student-centred approach of active learning actively involves students in the learning process. Various strategies can be used to encourage active learning: for example, with the use of digital tools in Technology-Enabled Active Learning [29], through gamification in Motivational Active Learning [30], or by a workflow similar to the scientific method in inquiry-based learning [31]. In order to appeal to the needs of a new generation of learners, the so-called “digital natives” [32], modern technologies can be used to make active learning methods more flexible, mobile and engaging. One such technology is Augmented Reality which overlays the perception of reality with virtual information and data. AR is characterised by the real-time, interactive and three-dimensional combination of real and virtual [33]. There are two main types of AR applications, (1) image-based and (2) location-based AR [34], which are used within STEM education to support simulation, exploration or inquiry-based activities [35]. With AR applications, students can simultaneously see both their physical surroundings as well as virtual information in 3D, which improves conceptual and spatial understanding [36]. Additional related work can be found in a prior thesis [1].

3

Design Framework

This section is based on prior work by [1] and [13]. Designing meaningful AR applications without causing visual information overload with augmentations [25] can be quite challenging, as there are different types of (interactive) visualisations to choose from. In order to provide a decision-helper tool, we are thus proposing a new guiding framework for selecting appropriate augmentations to fulfill different augmentation purposes within the realm of education. We call this framework “ADVANCED EDU-AR-VIZ”. In essence, the framework acts as guidance along with three core questions: (1) What kind of learning activity to augment?, (2) Why is augmentation needed for this learning activity? (= augmentation purpose) and (3) How can this learning activity be augmented? (= augmentation types). As depicted in Fig. 1, the user should first choose a particular learning activity that shall be augmented.

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Fig. 1. Workflow process with three questions directing towards appropriate visual augmentations.

Then the user has to decide on a specific purpose for augmentation of this learning activity - i.e. why would it need to be augmented? Depending on this chosen purpose, different visual augmentation types are being recommended. At its current state, our framework can help to answer the second and the third question. The first question remains to be addressed by future work, i.e. proposing a list of generic learning activities such as collaboration, hypothesis generation, experimentation, or observation, reflection etc. For the second question, we offer four choices for the augmentation purpose (adapted from [13]) and each purpose comes with two recommended augmentation types (for the third question). As shown in Table 1, the mapping between augmentation purposes and visual augmentation types results in a matrix-like form for decision-making. For example, to fulfill the purpose of “Making Invisible Visible”, one can choose between two recommended augmentation types: (1) adding virtual information to physical object, or (2) representing physical phenomena. The augmentation types listed in Table 1 are only high-level concepts, which are further refined with a list of concrete examples in Table 2. For instance, the visual augmentation type “represent physical phenomena” can be implemented by visualising magnetic fields around magnets, by moving propagation of sound waves in AR, or by other visualisations listed in Table 2. Table 1. Framework for choosing visual augmentations suitable to achieve a particular augmentation purpose. ADVANCED EDU-AR-VIZ FRAMEWORK Augmentation purpose (adapted from [13])

Visual augmentation type

1) Make invisible visible

2) Comparative modelling

3) Draw user attention

4) Create artificial reality

Add virtual information to physical object

Visualise alternative model for comparison

Display hint

Modify space

Represent physical phenomena

Visualise simulated scenarios

Display instructions

Modify time

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Table 2. Overview of visual augmentation types and corresponding examples with sources. Visual augmentation type

Examples

Sources

Add virtual information to physical object

Overlay organ locations and names on top of a body, display current velocity of moving objects

[5, 6]

Represent physical phenomena

Magnetic field around a magnet visualised with field lines, azimuth compass needles, or vector field; false-color representation of temperature; moving electrons and ions; sound waves

[7–12]

Visualise alternative model for comparison

Visualize “ghost” model, visualize predicted vs. actual trajectory of motion

[13–15]

Visualise simulated scenarios

Virtual version of double slit and [16–19] optical lens experiment; dynamically changing parabola equation, airflow around virtual ball

Display hint

Highlight important physical area

[13]

Display instructions

Step-by-step text, animations

[20–22]

Modify space

Visualize virtual liquids or virtual instruments (ruler, scale, multimeter)

[11, 13, 21, 23]

Modify time

Visualize process in slow-motion

[24]

In Table 1 and 2, it is important to distinguish between the visual augmentation types, as different types are suited for different augmentation purposes. Visualising an alternative model for comparison (i.e. a ghost model) might be more useful when the learning activity consists of hypothesis generation and verification and not so useful when the learning activity is to observe physical phenomena. In contrast, overlaying a body with virtual organs (i.e. adding virtual information to a physical object) is probably more appropriate to achieve the purpose of making the invisible visible. To make the examples listed in Table 2 more accessible, some are explained in more detail here: For the purpose of making invisible things visible, it is suggested to add virtual information to physical objects. For instance, virtual force vectors can augment a swinging, physical pendulum to convey the invisible forces of gravity, tension, and motion [13]. Another visualisation suggestion for this purpose is to represent physical phenomena, such as a false-color temperature visualisation on a metal rod [9] or iron fillings and compass needles to visualise a magnetic field [7,8]. For the purpose of comparative modelling, Augmented Reality can be used to visualize “ghost” models on top of real objects, such as for a swinging pendulum [13] or snapshots of the moving trajectory of

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a ball [14]. Even whole scenarios such as a light refraction experiment [16] can be simulated to allow comparative modelling. For the purpose of drawing the user’s attention, it is suggested to display hints or instructions, such as a virtual, blinking arrow to guide the user’s gaze or highlighted borders of an object once it has been selected. Instructions that are conveyed through a hands-free AR display like the Microsoft Hololens also avoid the split-attention effect [9] by allowing the user to keep an eye on both instructions and the environment. The creation of an artificial reality can be another augmentation purpose when something which would otherwise not be present is visualised using AR. This can be achieved by modifying space or time. Virtual measuring instruments (i.e. a ruler) in AR are replacing physical objects with their higher measuring accuracy [23]. The modification of time in the form of slow-motion virtual playback has been showcased as well [24]. Overall, the framework postulates that a certain learning activity can be augmented to achieve a certain purpose. Again, each augmentation purpose can be achieved by using appropriate types of visual augmentation. If the framework workflow is followed in correct order (i.e. by answering the three questions), the implemented augmentations could likely be more meaningful, i.e. there is a good reason why augmentation A is employed rather than augmentation B for learning activity X and its augmentation purpose Z. A more detailed elaboration on this framework can be found in a prior master’s thesis [1].

4

Design and Development of the Mobile AR Application

In order to demonstrate a use case for the “Advanced EDU-AR-VIZ” framework described in the previous section, we have made use of it to design and develop a prototypical, mobile AR application. The whole design process of the AR application was guided by the three main questions proposed in the aforementioned framework, which are (1) what to augment (learning activity), (2) why to augment it (augmentation purpose), and (3) how to augment it (visualisation type). To begin with, the first question addresses the learning activity which is being augmented - in our case, the particular learning activity is to actively explore and observe magnetic fields around magnets. We have chosen this activity as it is also frequently used in high schools to teach the concept of magnetism. To answer the second question, we can consult the options for augmentation purposes within our framework. The most suited purpose is in fact to make the invisible visible, as magnetic fields are usually an invisible phenomena. As specified in Table 1 of our framework, there are two recommended visualisations to fulfill our particular purpose. For the smaller scope of this prototype, we have chosen to only implement the first visualisation type: representation of physical phenomena, in the form of virtual field lines and vector field arrows around real magnets. These design decisions are then implemented in the form of a mobile AR application using marker-based AR [3] with printed image targets acting as

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markers. The AR device on which the AR application was developed and tested is the Pixel 3a1 , which is a mid-class Android smartphone released in May 2019. The target user group are high school students aged between 15 and 18 as well as their teachers. These students would usually be learning about magnetism in their regular physics classes anyway and thus could use our mobile AR application to deepen their conceptual understanding. The following features are required to be part of the app: – 2 visualisations: Users can view virtual magnetic field lines and a vector field around real magnets attached to printed image targets (the markers) – Dynamic exploration: Users can adjust magnetic field strength and switch visualisations on/off via UI buttons – Tangible interface: Users can move real magnets and the corresponding augmentation changes accordingly With regards to actual implementation in code, we are in fact building upon already existing code from MaroonVR [4] and extending it with new functionality for visualising magnetic field lines of two dynamically interacting magnets. We have contributed several performance optimizations required to enable the AR application to run on mobile devices, and we have also contributed in terms of newly designed 3D models and specific user interface for smartphones. The use of physics code to run in AR instead of VR also opened up necessities for code adaptions, such as the rotation and movement of objects which had to be possible in all directions and not restricted in any way in AR. Figure 2 and Fig. 3 show screenshots of the mobile AR app in use, with UI elements and real magnets being overlaid with virtual magnets and virtual field lines as well as a virtual vector fields with directional arrows. These screenshots depict the AR visualisation for the two main magnet constellations (attracting and repelling magnets).

5

User Study

5.1

Study Goals

In order to validate the mobile AR application, a preliminary, small-scale user study was carried out to assess user experience, motivation, and learning. With this user study we aim to answer the following main research questions: – RQ1: Are users satisfied with the mobile AR application in terms of usability? (SUS, ratings) – RQ2: Does the mobile AR application motivate users to learn concepts about magnetism?

1

https://store.google.com/?srp=/product/pixel 3a.

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Fig. 2. Screenshot of mobile AR application with the magnetic field of two attracting magnets.

5.2

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Fig. 3. Screenshot of mobile AR application with the magnetic field of two repelling magnets.

Method and Procedure

Study participants tested the mobile AR application using the mid-end Samsung A40 smartphone (5.9 in. Super AMOLED display, 4 GB RAM). This also involved the use of real magnets which were attached to printed image targets. First, all participants were asked to fill out a pre-questionnaire with questions about their demographics and previous physics knowledge. Then they were handed a smartphone plus the real magnets attached to image markers to play with. At the same time, they were also given a paper worksheet with five questions on magnetism to answer. The five questions are as follows: – Q1: Draw the magnetic field lines and their direction for the following configuration of magnets: (an illustration of two horizontal magnets attracting each other) – Q2: Draw the magnetic field lines and their direction for the following configuration of magnets: (an illustration of two horizontal magnets repelling each other)

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– Q3: How does the field strength influence the look of the magnetic field lines? – Q4: How can magnetic fields be represented? – Q5: How is the vector field of a magnet aligned? During the test session, their assigned task was to play with the mobile AR application in such a way that they could answer these questions. After completing the test session and filling out the paper worksheet, the participants were asked to rate their user experience, learning motivation and system’s usability in an online survey. The preliminary user study involved 19 participants in total but the gender ratio was not balanced. All participants were male students from one school class at an Austrian higher technical school (HTL Pinkafeld), between the ages of 16 and 19 years. Out of 19 participants, 9 had a visual impairment. When asked to rate their previous knowledge on a scale from 1 (beginner) to 5 (expert), the participants rated themselves as experts of computer usage (AVG = 3.84, SD = 0.83), and even more as experts in video games (AVG = 3.95, SD = 0.91). In contrast, they did not see themselves as experts in Virtual Reality (AVG = 1.32, SD = 0.67) nor in Augmented Reality (AVG = 1.42, SD = 0.69). With regard to previous usage of VR, many of the participants had heard of at least some VR tools (Occulus Rift = 18, HTC Vive = 16, Hololens = 7), though fewer had used them (Occulus Rift = 3, HTC Vive = 3, Hololens = 1). While access to specialised hardware was rare, the participants had indeed already used several AR features in popular mobile apps (Snapchat face filters = 8, Pokemon Go=8, Instagram face filters = 6). This shows the potential of mobile AR, as these wellknown and highly-used AR features run on mobile devices which are an integral part of everyday life for most people nowadays. Participants were also asked to rate their physics knowledge, on a scale from 1 (nothing) to 5 (expert). None rated themselves as experts in physics, indeed most of the participants rated themselves at a 3 (8 votes), and the average rating was 2.95 (SD = 0.78). When asked to rate their current understanding of magnetism, 4 participants rated themselves as experts, with an overall average rating of 3.74 (SD = 0.87). 7 participants rated themselves as experts for the understanding of field lines (AVG = 4.05, SD = 0.91). 18 out of 19 participants use e-learning tools for learning, however no one claims to use simulations for learning. All 19 participants except for one think that it is a good idea to use a Virtual Reality or Augmented Reality environment for learning physics. 5.3

Results

User Experience: Qualitative results obtained by asking participants an openended question about their overall impression show that the majority of participants (14 out of 19) had a positive impression of the AR application. A participant stated that “It’s quite interesting and although I’m not very interested in physics, it was still fun”. The remaining participants still found it good, but also remarked the need for it to be improved with regards to precision and visualisation. When asked to specify what they liked about the AR application,

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12 participants mentioned an aspect related to the visualisation of field lines (simple, easy to grasp, making it visible). Several participants also enjoyed the fact that the experience was quite tangible, involving the use of real magnets and markers. In contrast, participants did not like the fact that field lines were displayed too big (not completely visible on smartphone screen). When asked about the use of AR in the context of learning about magnetism, 16 participants responded very positively. Participants experienced the interaction with the printed image targets as neither really good nor really bad, mostly due to the still prevalent tracking and movement issues. The interaction with the touch display was experienced more negatively, with participants describing it as “cumbersome” and “non-intuitive”, which refers to the need to select a magnet via a tap before being able to change its field strength. Participants also gave feedback on what could be improved, such as the size and visibility of field lines, the magnet detection mechanism, and the overall stability (frames, visualisation). Other educational topics for which they would like to use this kind of AR app for learning include chemical reactions, electric circuits, gravity, Van De Graaff generators, acoustics, and geography. In addition to collecting qualitative data on user experience, we also asked participants to fill out the standardized questionnaire of the System Usability Score (SUS). Overall, the average SUS score from all 19 participants was at 80.39 (SD = 12.44) which puts it in the “Good” range and above the average SUS of 68 [2]. This score is almost the same as the score (AVG = 80.88, SD = 11.24) reported in a previous study by [1] where the same mobile AR application was tested against a similar AR application for the Microsoft Hololens. Motivation: To assess the learning motivation of participants, they were asked to rate 17 statements from a questionnaire on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (fully agree). The statement with the highest agreement was the following: “The AR application is a good supplement to regular learning.” (AVG = 4.42, SD = 0.96). Nevertheless, participants rated the statement “I learned something with the AR application” at a lower value (AVG = 3.47, SD = 1.02). While the AR app experience did not really inspire them to learn about physics (AVG = 3.21, SD = 1.23), participants still found it more motivating than compared to ordinary exercises (AVG = 4.21, SD = 0.85). Moreover, participants would prefer to learn with the AR application in the classroom (AVG = 4.05, SD = 0.97) rather than at home (AVG = 3.74, SD = 1.05). Learning: Finally, the quiz worksheet contained five theoretical questions to answer. Whether or not learning had taken place in fact cannot be deducted with merely a post-quiz as assessment, but nevertheless we want to highlight that the majority of participants answered most questions correctly. Drawing magnetic field lines around magnets received more correct answers (15) in the case of attracting magnets while the case of repelling magnets received more wrong answers (only 11 correct). In both cases, many participants were able to draw field lines, but forgot to indicate their direction via arrows - this could have

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been due to them overlooking the exact question wording. When asked about possible visualisations of a magnetic field, most participants only stated field lines and did not mention the vector field (only 5 participants had fully correct answers). This might indicate that the purpose of a vector field (i.e. that it acts as one representation possibility for a magnetic field) has not been conveyed correctly through the app alone and thus might require additional explanation. Limitations: First of all, the study subjects were all male, there was no female among the 19 participants as the gender ratio at this technical high school was strongly skewed towards males. Given that our mobile AR app was still an early prototype, its usability and design could still be improved, as was also mentioned by several participants. Furthermore, it is important to note that this user study also required participants to test another, unrelated Virtual Reality application on the HTC Vive before or after the AR session. Therefore, their AR experience might have been tainted with previous VR exposure. In addition, the language of the whole user study (app interface, paper worksheet, online surveys) was in German.

6

Conclusion

In this paper, we have argued that different visual augmentation types are recommended to fulfill different augmentation purposes. With our proposed “Advanced EDU-AR-VIZ” framework, we provide an aid to facilitate the design of meaningful AR applications and enhance specific learning activities. In a mobile AR application prototype, we have implemented the AR visualisation type “representation of physical phenomena” to achieve the augmentation purpose of “making invisible phenomena visible”, i.e. the phenomena of magnetic field (lines) around magnets. In a preliminary study, 19 participants have indicated their overall “good” satisfaction in terms of usability and their preference to learn with the AR application (vs. ordinary exercises) in the classroom rather than at home. In terms of learning, we conclude that the visual representation of invisible magnetic field lines in AR has at least not prevented most students from correctly re-drawing them during the assessment phase. The mostly positive survey results and student feedback could indicate that AR is an engaging learning experience and also provide a first confirmation for the partial validity of our design framework, namely that the use of a certain visual augmentation type is indeed recommendable to achieve the augmentation purpose of “making the invisible visible”. Overall, the augmentation of representing the magnetic field with virtual field lines and vector fields has served well to make the invisible phenomena of magnetism visible to students in a hands-on, mobile and flexible manner. Yet, additional theoretical explanations on field representations as well as tracking and performance enhancements might be necessary to further improve students conceptual understanding and user satisfaction with the AR app.

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Acknowledgements. This research work was supported by the Study Abroad mobility programme at Graz University of Technology and was also partly carried out as a research collaboration with the University of Sydney.

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Virtual Environment Smart House for Hybrid Laboratory GOLDi Yevhenii Yaremchenko1 , Johannes Nau2 , Detlef Streitferdt2 Karsten Henke2 , and Anzhelika Parkhomenko1(&)

,

National University “Zaporizhzhia Polytechnic”, Zhukovskogo str. 64, Zaporizhzhia 69063, Ukraine [email protected] Technische Universität Ilmenau, Helmholtzplatz 5, 98693 Ilmenau, Germany 1

2

Abstract. The necessity to integrate virtual laboratories into the study process is becoming more significant, especially in pandemic time. Virtual based elearning is seen as a reliable and effective support of teaching and learning process in different fields of study. The hybrid laboratory GOLDi uses the possibilities of remote and virtual experiments actively. At the same time, the implementation of the new experiment for teaching students in the area of Smart House systems will expand the functionality of the laboratory. The implementation of virtual experiments in the field of home automation systems provides an interactive learning environment that allows to engage students in an active educational process and increase their motivation to study modern information technologies and processes. The paper presents the results of the development of educational virtual environment for learning basics of Smart House systems development and control. Keywords: GOLDi
Virtual environment MQTT data transfer protocol


Smart House
Game engine


1 Introduction Nowadays, the technologies oriented on home automation, centralization and intellectualization become more relevant [1, 2]. This is due to the fact that the urbanization processes of cities have great influence on the development of Smart Cities and Smart Houses concept [3]. Thus, specialists in the area of the Internet of Things technologies and Smart House (SH) systems development are in demand [4]. Such labour market demand requires investigation and development of new approaches to education processes in practical studying in those areas. One of such approaches is based on the usage of special demonstration laboratory stands in the study process. However, the development of such stands is a complex task that also needs financial investments [5]. Another approach which becomes more popular especially in pandemic time is the usage of Remote and Virtual laboratories [6, 7]. Such the laboratories can be used in different areas of science and education. For example, in the area of electrical and electronics engineering, in particular in the subject of circuit theory and practice [8], or for teaching automatic control concepts for © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 250–257, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_25

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students of engineering specialties [9]. However, Remote and Virtual laboratories for studying in the area of the Internet of Things, Smart Cities and Smart House systems have not been widespread enough yet, although the relevance of these technologies is constantly growing [4]. The implementation of hybrid laboratories is one of modern approaches for distance learning. Such the laboratories, which combine a real equipped remote laboratory with a computer simulation of the same experiment, are the most effective for users today [10]. The hybrid laboratory GOLDi (Grid of Online Lab Devices), developed at the Technische Universität Ilmenau, Germany [11], actively uses the capabilities of remote and virtual experiments. However, the adding new experiment for studying basics of home automation systems development and control is relevant. The goals of this work are research and development of Smart House Virtual Environment (SHVE) for GOLDi functionality expansion. To achieve these goals, the methodology that combined the following stages was implemented: the investigation of the structural and functional features of existing virtual environments (VE) and simulators for SH systems; the formation of functional and non-functional requirements for the developed SHVE; the development of system architecture; the selection of development technologies taking into account JS/HTML5 compatibility with GOLDi software; SHVE implementation and testing.

2 State-of-the-Art Investigations have shown that creating of SHVE is an actual task for today’s researchers and developers. Results of the development of VE and simulators for SH systems are presented in several works [12–16]. The Multiple Sensors Mounted Smart House Simulator [12] provides SH researchers with a 3D graphical user interface (GUI) for spatial perception using a set of sensors. Realized set of equipment contains different types of sensors, that provide vibration, motion detection, pressure, temperature and contact control. Also, the system gives the possibility to work with RFID tags and receivers. This simulator can be used by engineers for prototyping sensors locations at the beginning stages of SH system design. However, the developed system does not provide enough equipment types, which should be taken into account by engineers (for example, switches and actuators). The Interactive Smart Home Simulator is presented in work [13]. This system is developed for architects and designers and provides them with useful tool for simulation and research the ways of interaction between environment and people as well as the impact of widespread technologies on life. However, VE is presented in 2D and the ability to move the character and his interaction with elements are limited. The work [14] presents creation of a virtual tour for SH, which can be used to control the house state by user via mixed reality device Microsoft HoloLens. The developed system consists of three parts. They are the server with database, the computer, on which the tour is running in Unity 3D engine environment and the Arduino-family microcontroller. The microcontroller is used to connect Microsoft HoloLens and sensors, which simulate the house environment to Unity. The limitation for the usage of such a system is rather high cost of the mixed reality device.

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The paper [15] presents the development of a multi-purpose SH simulation system, which provides tools to design and simulate SH environment. This system allows to create the house plan with areas, sensors and equipment. Also, this SH simulation system supports scenarios and can be connected to the real SH system via the server. Therefore, this system can be used for remote control of real SH and for testing SH prototype by engineers. However, proposed realization does not have a sufficient level of interactivity and attractiveness to engage students. VE for SH system studying [16] provides web-oriented virtual model for remote laboratory Smart House & Internet of Things as well as 3D VE for the virtual reality helmet. The Unity game engine was used to provide high-quality visualization for webmodel and 3D VE for the virtual reality helmet. This system allows students to gain experience with SH systems development technologies, human behavior simulating and creating control scenarios for SH systems. The experience of this project can be useful for SHVE development for GOLDi. The teaching basics of SH systems development and control should include issues of microcontrollers programming as well as capabilities of secure and reliable connection of different equipment and sensors into one integrated system [17]. As shown in work [18], different data transfer messaging protocols are used for the IoT and SH systems realization (for example, COAP, MQTT, XMPP, AMQP, HTTP etc.) Popular data transfer protocol HTTP, as shown in work [19], can cause a large overhead. Therefore, it is rarely used in area of the IoT and SH systems development. The authors of works [20, 21] consider the MQTT data transfer protocol as one of the most suitable protocols for IoT and SH systems implementation. MQTT is a standardized publish/subscribe Push protocol [20]. It means that in the architecture of such system publishers and subscribers are present. The MQTT broker is a “bridge” between publishers and subscribers. Messages are published in topics by publishers and can be received from topics by subscribers. Thus, this protocol can be recommended for SHVE development. The results of investigations of structural and functional features of exist environments for studying the basics of SH systems allowed to formulate functional and non-functional requirements for developed SHVE for hybrid laboratory GOLDi [22].

3 Smart House Virtual Environment Implementation Developed Smart House virtual environment for the hybrid laboratory GOLDi provides the ability for students to study SH software and hardware and to interact with SH system by popular data transfer protocol MQTT. The idea is to create VE to which student can connect his program or device (client) developed to work with SH system by MQTT data transfer protocol. The student will cause events in VE and handle them in his client. He also will be able to create events in his client and the reaction on them will be presented in VE. The educational tasks and the experience of solving which student can get, are presented in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. Student’s educational tasks

Requirements for the developed SHVE were collected and analysed. The main of them are the following: • To create 3D model of a house, which includes the basic types of equipment (switches, controllers, light sources, walls, doors and windows, etc.) and sensors (lightness sensor, temperature sensor, humidity sensor and movement sensor). • To provide accessibility of the system online (students must have access to the system via Internet browser). • To provide the ability for users to move around SHVE and to interact with the equipment. The result of the interaction should be reflected in the model and the appropriate data should be transmitted to connected client via the MQTT data transfer protocol. • To provide the ability for students to send commands from their client to the VE. The graphically visible effect on SH state or error on the wrong command must be seen. Also, client must be able to receive notifications about changing in the equipment state, which can be caused by students’ actions in VE via browser. In the connecting step a student must go to the website on which SHVE will be hosted to start the simulation. All the students who start the experiment will perform separate simulation process. The student will receive his session ID by which he can connect his client to his instance of SHVE. The developed system consists of two parts (see Fig. 2). They are the server and the graphical representation of the simulation process. The server performs connection of the user’s clients to his instance of VE. The server can be considered as a router of messages.

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VE performs all the above-mentioned functions related to simulation. Communication between the server and VE/clients occurs by sockets by MQTT data transfer protocol. However, the server has the API entry point by which the simulation process can receive the session ID.

Fig. 2. The architecture of the developed system

Based on the research of solutions proposed by other authors, we decided to use a game engine to implement SHVE. Unreal Engine 4 (UE4) [23] and Unity [24] are the most popular game engines for today. Both have powerful capabilities for 3D graphic rendering and simulation realistic behavior of SH inhabitants. They also have a sufficient set of tools and already implemented object models which can reduce the development time. It is also important to note that both engines can compile the project for Web environment. However, as it was found out that the MQTT client plugin had already been implemented for UE4 [25] and can be bought in the marketplace. Thus, UE4 was chosen for development of SHVE for GOLDi. The created SHVE (see Fig. 3) is based on WebAssembly and Emscripten technologies. UE4 compiles the project in HTML5 and Javascript using these technologies. The models were taken from starter content which UE4 can add to the project if such option is selected, and from free resource [26].

Fig. 3. Virtual Environment Smart House for hybrid laboratory GOLDi

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The Node.js framework was chosen for the development of the server due to the features of architecture of hybrid laboratory GOLDi. With this in mind, the research of available MQTT broker modules for Node.js environment was carried out. It showed that two modules Mosca [27] and Aedes [28] can be used. Mosca was unmaintained. Therefore, Aedes MQTT broker was chosen for the server realization. To ensure compatibility between clients and the server of the system, students’ clients must be able to work with TCP/IP sockets using the MQTT data transfer protocol. The MQTT topics have the following format: session ID/room ID/equipment_type/equipment ID. The experimental representation of the system data is presented in Table 1. Table 1. Experimental representation of the system data. Topic f84d592/Room1/Door/Door1

Payload opened

f84d592/Room1/LightSource/LS1

turn_on

f84d592/Room1/LightSource/LS1/color

58, 49, 91 60

f84d592/Room1/CCS/CCS1/humidity

SHVE reaction Open the door Door1 in the room Room1 Turn on the light source LS1 in the room Room1 Set the color of the light source LS1 to yellow (HSV color format) Set the humidity for the climate control system CCS1 to 60%

As it was mentioned earlier, the developed SHVE is intended for training students in developing software (clients) for SH system control. However, students have possibility to use a free MQTT client [29] to work with the developed SHVE (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Free MQTT client for developed SHVE control

Thus, the developed VESH for hybrid laboratory GOLDi provides new educational tool, with interesting possibilities of moving the character around the house and interacting with equipment for practical studying the basics of home automation systems control and development by students of different areas of study.

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4 Conclusion The developed system provides students with the ability to create scenarios of work with the basic SH subsystems like lighting and climate control based on VE character activity. The use of VE which is similar to the role-play game is of interest to students, since they are well aware of the game mechanics. The proposed practically-oriented teaching approach, based on the usage of SHVE, allows lecturers to create different realistic tasks related to SH systems functioning problems, based on human behaviour. Students have the opportunity to solve these problems and in such a way gain practical skills in the field of home automation systems and technologies realization. Today the developed web-oriented Smart House Virtual Environment is under final testing phase. Further work will be aimed at the implementation of new SH subsystems and adding a new settings related to the session ID to SHVE.

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11. Henke, K., Vietzke, T., Hutschenreuter, R., Wuttke, H.-D.: The remote lab cloud “GOLDilabs.net”. In: The 13th International Conference on Remote Engineering and Virtual Instrumentation, Madrid, Spain, pp. 31–36. IEEE (2016) 12. Lee, W., Cho, S., Song, W., Um, K., Cho, K.: UbiSim: multiple sensors mounted smart house simulator development. In: The IEEE 11th International Conference on Dependable, Autonomic and Secure Computing, Chengdu, China, pp. 450–453. IEEE (2013) 13. Nguyen, T.V., Kim, J.G., Choi, D.: ISS: The interactive smart home simulator. In: The 11th International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology, Gangwon, Korea (South), pp. 1828–1833. IEEE (2009) 14. Kučera, E., Haffner, O., Kozák, Š.: Connection between 3D engine unity and microcontroller Arduino: a virtual smart house. In: The 29th International Conference on Cybernetics & Informatics, Lazy pod Makytou, Slovakia, pp.1–8. IEEE (2018) 15. Jahromi, Z.F., Rajabzadeh, A., Manashty, A.R.: A multi-purpose scenario-based simulator for smart house environments. Int. J. Comput. Sci. Inf. Secur. 9(1), 13–18 (2011) 16. Parkhomenko, A., et al.: Virtual environments for Smart House system studying. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1328, pp. 569–576. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68198-2_52 17. Parkhomenko, A., Tulenkov, A., Sokolyanskii, A., Zalyubovskiy, Y., Parkhomenko, A., Stepanenko, A.: The application of the remote lab for studying the issues of Smart House systems power efficiency, safety and cybersecurity. In: Auer, Michael E., Langmann, Reinhard (eds.) REV 2018. LNNS, vol. 47, pp. 395–402. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-319-95678-7_44 18. Tukade, T.M., Banakar, R.M.: Data transfer protocols in IoT – an overview. Int. J. Pure Appl. Math. 118(16), 121–138 (2018) 19. Yokotani, T., Sasaki, Y.: Comparison with HTTP and MQTT on required network resources for IoT. In: The 2016 International Conference on Control, Electronics, Renewable Energy and Communications (ICCEREC), Bandung, Indonesia, pp.1–6. IEEE (2016) 20. Soni, D., Makwana, A.: A survey on MQTT: a protocol of Internet of Things (IoT). In: The International Conference on Telecommunication, Power Analysis and Computing Techniques, Chennai, India, pp.1–5. IEEE (2017) 21. Atmoko, R.A., Riantini, R., Hasin, M.K.: IoT real time data acquisition using MQTT protocol. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317391853_IoT_real_time_data_ acquisition_using_MQTT_protocol 22. Wuttke, H.-D., Parkhomenko, A., Tulenkov, A., Tabunshchyk, G., Parkhomenko, A., Henke, K.: The remote experimentation as the practical-oriented basis of inclusive engineering education. iJOE 15(05), 4–17 (2019) 23. Ferro, L.: Unreal Engine Blueprints Visual Scripting Projects: Learn Blueprints Visual Scripting in UE4 by Building Three Captivating 3D Games, 528 p. Packt, Birmingham (2017) 24. B-de Byl, P.: Holistic Game Development With Unity: An All-in-One Guide to Implementing Game Mechanics, Art, Design and Programming, 504 p. A K Peters/CRC Press, USA (2019) 25. BP MQTT. https://www.unrealengine.com/marketplace/en-US/product/bp-mqtt. Accessed 25 May 2021 26. TurboSquid. https://www.turbosquid.com. Accessed 25 May 2021 27. Mosca. https://github.com/moscajs/mosca. Accessed 25 May 2021 28. Aedes. https://github.com/moscajs/aedes. Accessed 25 May 2021 29. BP_Mqtt. https://github.com/damody/BP_MQTT_Demo/releases/download/1.6/BP_Mqtt. zip. Accessed 6 July 2021

Code-Switching in EFL Virtual Lessons: Ambato Case Study Josué Arévalo-Peralta(&) , Ruth Infante-Paredes , Cristina Páez-Quinde , and Wilma Suárez-Mosquera Grupo de Investigación Language and Education, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas y de la Educación, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ambato, Ecuador {jarevalo3676,rutheinfantep,mc.paez, wilmaesuarezm}@uta.edu.ec

Abstract. The present research is expected to cover an investigation with the following topic “Code-switching and the English language” which essentially investigates the relationship between the variables and how students are affected by code-switching during their academic performance. The present research study was conducted for 3 months, 5 h a week. This investigation was lead and coordinated by applying the quali-quantitative approach in validated surveys that allows the examiner to know the relationship between the variables. The subjects of the examination were all the “Unidad Profesionalizante” Fourth to Seventh-semester university students and teachers of the “Carrera de Idiomas” at Universidad Técnica de Ambato. To evaluate the efficacy of this study all the data was collected and analyzed in the IBM SPSS software to get the results as genuine and assertive as possible. To verify the hypothesis of the present research paper, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was applied to measure the sample data and to get the genuine sample results. Discerning the results of the present investigation the conclusion is drawn as the following. ESL students are influenced by code-switching when learning or teaching the target language. Consequently, code-switching (English-Spanish) during an English lesson is greatly beneficial for ESL students’ academic performance. Keywords: Code-switching
English
Spanish
Language skills
Receptive skills
Productive skills

1 Introduction Code-switching (English and Spanish) has been unconsciously applied for ages within ESL and EFL students. This learning tool has been seen as harmful for second language acquisition worldwide and Ecuador is not apart. Learning a second language is not an easy job and many ESL and EFL students have been struggling to learn different foreign languages for a long time, especially mature students who need a better and easier way of learning them [1]. Nowadays, that we are living under a coronavirus outbreak the education has been affected in countless ways where students haven’t made big progress due to this difficult situation that does not allow them to learn as effectively as it used to be. As a © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 258–265, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_26

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result, students and teachers have been looking for the most effective and encouraging teaching and learning strategy for e-learning that grants them learning [2]. In second language acquisition, there are numerous strategies and learning tools that foster learning but Are those really effective in online classes? One of the most challenging roles of being a teacher is making students learn and improve their receptive (reading and listening) and productive (speaking and writing) [3] English skills within different activities that foster learning and contribute to their academic performance. As a consequence, codes-witching has been seen as an aid in second language acquisition since it permits the teacher to explain any topic precisely and to know their students’ needs and attitudes towards second language learning [4]. The main purpose of this study was to find out how the use of code-switching affects students’ second language learning and their academic performance. It was also considered as an objective to determine the reasons and situations when code-switching is applied during virtual English lessons and the effect it causes in a learning environment. During this study, 2 validated surveys were applied to a group of students and teachers from Technical University of Ambato [5]. The population considered for this study were 229 students fourth to seventh semester and 12 teachers in total. Besides, this study was proposed to analyses how frequently code-switching present during this program is and how this learning tool affects students [6] that are learning a target language to master it and teach it in a near future. The surveys were sent throughout students’ and teachers’ institutional emails to fill out in Microsoft forms and later confirmed the information via WhatsApp. Students and teachers were asked to complete 20 questions related to codeswitching during an EFL class. In the end, the results positively contributed to the research accepting the alternative hypothesis and rejecting the null hypothesis. The correct application of code-switching affects positively students’ academic performance and contributes to e-learning with a more constructive and effective way of getting the target Language. All the data was collected and analyzed in the IBM SPSS software for more valid and real results of the study.

2 State of the Art There has never been in the past a language spoken more widely in the world than English is today. The English language is a West Germanic language first spoken in early medieval England which eventually become the leading trade language worldwide. Why does the English Language become so popular around the world? According to [7] a professor of Cognitive Neuroscience establishes that the English language has been denominated as a “lingua franca” in international business, world diplomacy, science, and education. In the educational field in a publication concerned with the use of vernacular languages published in Paris in 1953, UNESCO defined a lingua franca as ‘a language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different to facilitate communication between them.’

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In education, [8] argues that “English is the medium of a great deal of the world’s knowledge, especially in such areas as science and technology, and access to knowledge is the business of education” (p. 110). For instance, the better universities around the world speak English and that motivates people to learn the language. Consequently, the author further added that many nations have in recent years made English an official language or chosen as their chief foreign language in schools, one of the most important reasons is of course education [9]. Nominated as the “target language” denotated as the language learners are studying, and also the individual items of language that they want to learn, or that a society wants them to learn. The issue of the balance that teachers should seek between using the target language (TL) and the students’ first language (L1) in the second language classroom is controversial. The controversy concerns not so much the value of using the TL since some paradigms proposed by people have claimed that the acquisition of a second language must and should be taught only in the target language. Whereas [10], proposes that learning the English language as a second language should focus on students understanding and motivation. For instance, in Latin American countries, learning the English language has not shown positive results since Latin America has the lowest English speakers worldwide. This phenomenon happens for the lack of instruction and motivation from ESL teachers. Ever since the 1950s, code-switching has become a fascinating zone of conversation with regards to connection to bilingual or multilingual discourse networks. In general, some experts agree on defining code-switching as the alternating use of two or more languages in the same utterance or conversation. In code-switching there will always be the most dominant language called the matrix language and the embedded language is the one which holds the lesser role [11]. For instance, when 2 Spanish native speakers are having a conversation in Spanish and they suddenly switch it to English in between is called code-switching, where Spanish is the matrix language and English is the embedded language [12]. Perhaps, the most concrete and top to bottom investigation on code-switching was finished by [13] where he sub-arranges code-switching into conversational codeswitching and situational switching. He characterizes conversational code-switching as “the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems” (p. 59). Subsequently, conversational code-switching will in general happen subconsciously as the speakers are motivated by factors within the conversation itself when it takes place. As a result, people who code-switching between languages are often unconscious of their switching since code-switching tries to avoid misunderstanding and tries to motivates speakers from different countries to communicate [14]. Regarding the educational aspect, educators have been told to show excellent English in English only study management. Where the target language must be taught within high-performance teaching just in the target language to ensure students learning success. All language classroom input must be in the matrix language an effective model of language use can ensure that the intended learning was successful [6]. However, recent studies on classroom management have shown different results since students are not getting the most sustainable language input they will be needing

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in a real environment [15]. Consequently, the declining level of English capability among students has achieved the need to discover how to handle the issue. Educators, therefore, have been utilizing code-switching as a method for giving students the chance to convey and upgrading their understanding. Consequently, code-switching helps to facilitate the flow of classroom instruction since the teachers do not have to spend so much time trying to explain to the learners or searching for the simplest words to clarify any confusion that might arise [16]. According to [17] teachers code-switch when the level of English used in the textbook or to be taught is beyond the learner’s ability or when the teachers have exhausted the means to adjust his speech to the learner’s level, so that, the teacher will code switch to ensure learners understanding on the topic. The main purpose of using code switching in a class is to gain students confident in the acquisition of a target language, so that students and teachers attitudes towards learning will maintain a confident and easy environment to study [18].

3 Methodology For this investigation, to have a general and genuine reflection of teachers’ and students’ code-switching in the classroom, both qualitative and quantitative research methods were applied, since it is important to consider, on the whole, the overall integration of a specific situation without dividing it into a study of its section. This research is based on data collection methods such as descriptions, validated surveys including numerical measurement. The principal objective is to demonstrate reality as observed in the analysis of the validated survey results by all the members of a certain social system. During this study, all the information was intended to be collected as genuine as possible, that is why all the information was taken directly from a group of students and teachers from Technical University of Ambato. The population were 229 students fourth to seventh semester and 12 teachers in total. Students and teachers were asked to complete 20 questions related to codeswitching during an EFL class. The study was conducted for 3 months, 5 h per week.

4 Results In this section, the results taken from students’ and teachers’ answers will be exposed. For this investigation, 2 validated surveys were sent to students and teacher institutional mail to answer 20 questions related to Code-switching in EFL classrooms. The results were analysed in IBM SPPS software for more valid and exact results. The study was developed in 3 months 5 h per week (Table 1).

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J. Arévalo-Peralta et al. Table 1. Students’ switching topics Scale Frequency Percentage Trend Politics 123 26% 26% Religion 82 17% 17% Personal information 46 10% 10% Educational issues 87 18% 18% Emotional issues 72 15% 15% Other 69 14% 14% 479 100% 100% Author: Arévalo J. (2020)

Afterward analysing the SPSS and the results taken from the surveys the learning of English language is positively influenced by code-switching (E-S) during The English lessons. Consequently, the 26% expressed that they codeswitch specially when talking about politics, 17% for talking about religion, 10% for sharing personal information and lastly 18% codeswitch when talking about educational Issues (Figs. 1 and 2 and Table 2).

Fig. 1. Students’ switching. Author: Arévalo J. (2020) Table 2. Teachers’ switching reasons Scale Frequency Percentage Trend To manage the class better 45 11% 11% To define unknown vocabulary items 122 31% 31% To introduce back- round information 32 8% 8% To check comprehension 101 26% 26% To give grammar instructions 30 8% 8% Others 63 16% 16% 393 100% 100% Author: Arévalo J. (2020)

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Fig. 2. Teachers’ switching reasons. Author: Arévalo J. (2020)

Afterward analyzing the SPSS and the results taken from the surveys learning the English language is positively influenced by code-switching (E-S) since most of students and teachers use both English and Spanish as a means of communication in English virtual lessons. Consequently, the 42% of students answered that teachers codeswitch to define unknown vocabulary items, 33% argue that teachers codeswitch to check comprehension and 17% to manage the class better. Finally, students answered that codeswitching is present during the virtual English lessons and that it is greatly beneficial for ESL students’ academic performance. For the development of this research, non-parametric statistics were used, employing the Kolmogorov - Smirnoff Test selecting the chi-square statistic as the most appropriate for a descriptive investigation in which qualitative-quantitative variables were analyzed that contributed to the final decision in the selection of the hypothesis (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Difference. Author: Arévalo J. (2020)

As can be seen in the Kolmogorov - Smirnoff Test, according to the chi-square test and the selection of the most representative questions in this investigation, undoubtedly, the Alternative Hypothesis was approved with an element of the centrality of 0.5. Despite this, the Null Hypothesis was excluded. H_0: Code-switching does not influence the English language. H1: Code-switching influences English language learning.

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5 Conclusions As a way of conclusion, there is a relationship between Code-switching and the English Language resulting in a positive effect on students’ academic performance. Employing code-switching in the exact moment, situation, and instruction will have a positive impact on students’ learning during the English lessons and for further use of the target language since it alludes better comprehension of a certain topic in the mother and embedded language. In addition, teachers can use code-switching for clarification, comprehension, procedure, and directions given, classroom management, and as a learning strategy for language proficiency. On the other hand, students can function it as clarification, better understanding, translation, and response of the target language. As future research, code-switching is needed to be applied when learning a target language since it fosters a supportive learning environment, both teachers and students are always looking for a better comprehension of the embedded language, asking for clarification and understanding the instructions clearer so implementing this learning style will positively contribute to the well-being of the learning process. Acknowledgments. Thanks to the Technical University of Ambato, to the Research and Development Department (DIDE-UTA) for supporting our research project “Development of Web 3.0 tools for Education as a support for collaborative learning” SFFCHE5, and being part of the research group: Research in Language and Education”.

References 1. Ahmad, F., Barner-Rasmussen, W.: False foe? When and how code switching practices can support knowledge sharing in multinational corporations. J. Int. Manage. 25(3), 100671 (2019) 2. Rossi, E., Dussias, P.E., Diaz, M., van Hell, J.G., Newman, S.: Neural signatures of inhibitory control in intra-sentential code-switching: evidence from fMRI. J. Neurolinguist. 57, 100938 (2021) 3. Fernandez, C.B., Litcofsky, K.A., van Hell, J.G.: Neural correlates of intra-sentential codeswitching in the auditory modality. J. Neurolinguist. 51, 17–41 (2019) 4. Sreeram, G., Dhawan, K., Priyadarshi, K., Sinha, R.: Joint language identification of codeswitching speech using attention-based E2E network, pp. 1–5. IEEE (2020) 5. Ganji, S., Dhawan, K., Sinha, R.: Novel textual features for language modeling of intrasentential code-switching data. Comput. Speech Lang. 64, 101099 (2020) 6. Hamed, I., Elmahdy, M., Abdennadher, S.: Building a first language model for code-switch Arabic-English. Procedia Comput. Sci. 117, 208–216 (2017) 7. Ismail Azlan, N.M.N., Narasuman, S.: The role of code-switching as a communicative tool in an ESL Teacher Education classroom. Procedia. Soc. Behav. Sci. 90, 458–467 (2013) 8. Gross, M.C., Lopez, E., Buac, M., Kaushanskaya, M.: Processing of code-switched sentences by bilingual children: cognitive and linguistic predictors. Cogn. Dev. 52, 100821 (2019) 9. Olson, D.J.: Phonological processes across word and language boundaries: evidence from code-switching. J. Phon. 77, 100937 (2019)

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10. Kheder, S., Kaan, E.: Cognitive control in bilinguals: proficiency and code-switching both matter. Cognition 209, 104575 (2021) 11. Ganji, S., Dhawan, K., Sinha, R.: IITG-HingCoS corpus: a Hinglish code-switching database for automatic speech recognition. Speech Commun. 110, 76–89 (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.specom.2019.04.007 12. Wang, L.: Distance and word order between lexical heads and noun dependents in ChineseEnglish code-switching. Lingua 223, 67–85 (2019) 13. Wyngaerd, E.V.: C0 and Dutch-English code-switching. Ampersand 7, 100060 (2020) 14. Long, Y., Li, Y., Zhang, Q., Wei, S., Ye, H., Yang, J.: Acoustic data augmentation for Mandarin-English code-switching speech recognition. Appl. Acoust. 161, 107175 (2020) 15. Tsoumou, J.M.: Analysing speech acts in politically related Facebook communication. J. Pragmat. 167, 80–97 (2020) 16. Osborne, D.: Codeswitching practices from “other tongues” to the “mother tongue” in the provincial Philippine classroom. Linguist. Educ. 55, 100780 (2020) 17. Khan, A.A., Khalid, A.: Pashto-English codeswitching: testing the morphosyntactic constraints of the MLF model. Lingua 201, 78–91 (2018) 18. Beatty-Martínez, A.L., Dussias, P.E.: Bilingual experience shapes language processing: evidence from codeswitching. J. Mem. Lang. 95, 173–189 (2017)

Technological University Faculty ICT Barriers During the Pandemic Gulnara F. Khasanova(&) , Farida T. Shageeva and Natalia V. Kraysman

,

Kazan National Research Technological University, Kazan, Russian Federation

Abstract. The current study aims to identify the ICT barriers that educators faced after the outbreak of the pandemic. To achieve these objectives, the authors surveyed 62 faculty members at the Kazan National Research Technological University. Attitudes towards thirty-three barriers were evaluated by Fisher angular transformation co-efficient tests depending on respondents’ faculty position, scientific degree, teaching experience, age, gender, and group of taught disciplines. As a whole, the conducted research revealed that the issue of insufficient technical support at Kazan National Research Technological University is so urgent that it requires an immediate solution from the university administration. The urgent nature of the problem is confirmed by the fact that educators evaluated this barrier similarly regardless of position, length of service, age or gender. We concluded that special attention and providing support as regards ICT barriers might be important for younger faculty members, educators with smaller teaching experience and those delivering social and humanitarian subjects. Keywords: Technological University Faculty


ICT barriers
Online tools

1 Introduction During the coronavirus pandemic, faculty members were faced with the need to suddenly transfer the entire educational process to an online format. Universities found it difficult to quickly organize and unify this process for their educators [1]. The current study aims to identify the ICT barriers that educators faced after the outbreak of the pandemic and their preferences of the various online tools they used during this period. To achieve these objectives, the authors surveyed 62 faculty members at the Kazan National Research Technological University.

2 Overview of Researches of ICT Barriers in Education Researchers analyze challenges and barriers university faculty face during the shift to the teaching online [2–8]. Buchanan, Sainter and Saunders (2013) interviewed 114 university teachers in the UK to find out the factors and barriers that affect the use of learning technologies. The © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 266–273, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_27

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two main barriers identified are the structural constraints at the university and the subjective assessment of the usefulness of the tools [9]. A British Educational Communications and Technology Agency review of literature on ICT barriers adoption (2004) cites the following factors: confidence in the use of the technology, the extent of ICT use, the amount of technical support available, and the scope and quality of available training. The barriers also include inappropriate teaching, which does not pay due attention to pedagogical aspects, lack of time to develop educational resources using online and multimedia content, technical problems in the absence of the necessary technical support, resistance to change, and lack of understanding by teachers of the benefits of using ICT [10]. Peggy A. Ertmer (1999) identifies external or primary barriers (availability of equipment, training, technical support) and internal barriers (ideas about the roles of teachers and students, features of academic disciplines, assessment practices) [11]. Schulz, Isabwe and Reichert (2015) interviewed 45 teachers from 10 countries in Europe, Africa, and Asia about the use of ICT tools in the teaching. 3 categories of influencing factors were identified: the first category includes the level of teachers’ skills and attitudes to ICT tools; the second category includes internal factors, such as teacher satisfaction, level of interest and involvement; the third category includes compliance with teachers’ requirements in relation to ICT tools, such as usability, degree of interactivity, adaptability and ensuring learning [12]. Shelton (2014), based on a survey involving 795 teachers from 27 British universities, divides technologies into the “core” ones, such as PowerPoint presentations, and “marginal” ones, such as blogs. The study shows that the use of certain technologies is influenced by the specifics of certain disciplines, which universities should take into account when developing institutional policies [13]. The impact of academic disciplines on the presence of barriers to the use of digital technologies was investigated by both Mercader and Gairín (2020). They identified 4 types of barriers: personal, professional, institutional, and contextual. The survey involving 527 teachers showed that the dominant barriers are professional, and the most affected are the humanities teachers [14]. As part of their study of institutional drivers and barriers to teacher acceptance of blended learning, Porter and Graham (2015), interviewed 214 faculty members at an American university. The results show that the greatest impact on the adoption of blended learning is made by such factors as appropriate infrastructure, technical support, pedagogical support, assessment data, and the institutional goal for the adoption of blended learning [15]. Bingimlas (2009) identified two groups of barriers to ICT integration in the learning process: at the teacher level (teacher uncertainty; teacher’s lack of competence; resistance to change and negative attitude) and at the school level (lack of effective learning; lack of access; lack of technical support) [16]. MynăRíková and Novotný (2020) identified age and gender differences in the use of various digital tools and the manifestation of barriers in ICT use by secondary school teachers. The authors point out the importance of social support and systematic further education in this area [17]. Singhavi and Basargekar (2019) found that indisposition is the main barrier to the use of ICT in the classroom among school teachers [18].

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Lloyd et al. (2012) identified the dominant barriers to online learning, which include interpersonal, institutional, learning and technical support barriers, and cost-toacquisition barriers. Interpersonal barriers include lack of personal relationships with students; an impersonal atmosphere; the impact of interpersonal barriers on the quality of the course; lack of visual feedback from students; lack of social interaction in the classroom. Institutional barriers include lack of policies or standards for online courses; lack of copyright control; lack of faculty involvement in course decision-making; the relevance of working on online courses to career prospects. The barriers associated with training and technical support include insufficient teacher training; inadequate technical support; frequent technological failures; rapidly changing software and hardware. The barriers associated with the cost-to-acquisition ratio include increased workload; increased time costs; lack of time for student assessment/assignments and feedback; insufficient compensation for [19]. Gutiérrez-Santiuste, Gallego-Arrufat and Simone (2016), analyzing students’ barriers in online communication, conclude that technical barriers are particularly pronounced [20]. Berge (2013) identified such groups of communication barriers in distance education as cognitive, contextual, cultural, emotional, linguistic, pedagogical, physical, psychological, social, technical, and temporal [21, 22].

3 Methodology and Results of the Survey on Faculty ICT Barriers A questionnaire was developed including 33 statements concerning difficulties faculty members had been experiencing in their online-communication with learners since the beginning of the pandemic. The list of major ICT barriers included the following statements: (1) Internet access problems at the workplace. (2) Internet access problems at home. (3) Unavailability of necessary equipment (computer, headphones, microphone, webcam). (4) Hardware compatibility Issues. (5) Software availability Issues. (6) Software compatibility Issues. (7) Insufficient technical support at the university. (8) Lack of ICT training. (9) Inadequate ICT training. (10) Untimely ICT training. (11) ICT training is not a priority at the university. (12) Lack of support in the development of pedagogical design of distance education materials. (13) Lack of motivation to use ICT. (14) The constant evolution of ICT, which is difficult to keep pace with. (15) I do not have enough time to introduce ICT into training. (16) I do not know the available programs and digital resources to use in my subject of study. (17) I do not have sufficient skills and competencies to use ICT. (18) I am worried about the Internet security. (19) I do not know how to teach using ICT. (20) I feel that there is a generational gap in ICT use between teachers and students. (21) I may lose the proprietary rights to my materials. (22) I lack experience in ICT use in training. (23) As I feel insecure about using ICT, I prefer traditional training methods. (24) It takes a long time to upload videos and other content on the Internet. (25) During online classes there are difficulties displaying the screen. (26) It is difficult to respond to all students’ e-mails. (27) It is difficult to adjust the pace of online

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lectures due to the lack of feedback from students. (28) Students do not always check their e-mails. (29) Some students do not have an effective Internet connection. (30) During online classes, it is difficult to track written messages in chats. (31) During online classes, it is difficult to determine whether the material is clear to students or not. (32) During online classes, it is difficult to determine whether the students are perceiving the material or are busy with other things. (33) Mastering ICT requires too much efforts from me. Sixty-two educators took part in the survey conducted in February 2021. Attitudes towards thirty-three barriers were evaluated by Fisher angular transformation coefficient tests depending on respondents’ faculty position, scientific degree, teaching experience, age, gender, and group of taught disciplines.

Faculty Information and Communication Barriers 31 28 25 22 19 16 13 10

0,00

0,50

1,00

1,50

2,00

2,50

3,00

3,50

4,00

4,50

Fig. 1. Faculty information and communication barriers.

According to the results, top 5 ICT barriers include difficulty of determining in the process of online classes whether students perceive the material or they are busy with other matters; lack of effective Internet connection among some students; insufficient technical support at the university; lack of support in the development of pedagogical design of distance education materials; and difficulty to determine whether the material is clear to students or not during online-classes (see Fig. 1). Significant differences were revealed in the assessment of barriers by faculty members, depending on the position, length of service, age, gender and group of disciplines [23, 24]. For example, it was more difficult for younger teachers to understand whether students understood the material than for their more experienced colleagues. Men, compared to women, were more likely to find it difficult to adjust the pace of an online lecture due to a lack of feedback from learners. Teachers of social and

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humanitarian disciplines, to a greater extent than teachers of engineering and technical disciplines, have experienced problems with the availability of the necessary equipment (computer, headphones, microphone, webcam). The share of senior teachers who absolutely disagree or disagree with the presence of barrier “29. Some students do not have an effective Internet connection”, was significantly higher compared to a similar proportion of associate professors (uemp = 2.728, p = 0.01). Significant discrepancies were also identified with respect to barrier “31. During online classes, it is difficult to determine whether the material is clear to students or not.” Among those who fully agree or agree, there are age differences. The number of such teachers in the group “under 35” is significantly higher than among the “40 years old and above” teachers (uemp = 2.325, p = 0.01), 45 years and older (uemp = 2.585, p = 0.01), 50 years and older (uemp = 2.554, p = 0.01). Gender differences were identified in the evaluation of barrier “27. It can be difficult to adjust the pace of an online lecture due to lack of feedback from students.” Women were more likely than men to completely disagree or disagree with this formulation (uemp = 2.59, p = 0.01). In the evaluation of barrier “3. Problems with the availability of the necessary equipment (computer, headphones, microphone, webcam)”, the differences were due to work experience and the group of subjects taught. Teachers with at least 25 years’ experience were less likely to fully agree or agree with the presence of this barrier than their colleagues with under 20 years’ experience (uemp = 2.791, p = 0.01), less than 15 years (uemp = 2.441, p = 0.01), less than 10 years (uemp = 2.539, p = 0.01), and teachers with more than 25 years of experience than those with less than 20 years of experience (uemp = 2.524, p = 0.01). Representatives of engineering and technical disciplines also showed a greater degree of agreement than those of social and humanitarian disciplines (uemp = 2.531, p = 0.01). Less often, the presence of barrier “13. Lack of incentives to use ICT” is absolutely disagreed and disagreed with by teachers with less experience: under 20 years compared to over 25 years (uemp = 2.747, p = 0.01) and at least 25 years (uemp = 2.773, p = 0.01). Barrier “21. I may lose ownership of my materials” was more often absolutely recognized and recognized by teachers with less experience: under 20 compared to over 25 years’ experience (uemp = 2.806, p = 0.01), not less than 25 (uemp = 2.525, p = 0.01). Work experience also influenced the attitude to barrier “5. Problems with software availability”. Teachers with at least 25 years’ experience perceive it to a significantly smaller extent than their colleagues with under 20 years’ experience (uemp = 2.791, p = 0.01). Work experience and age determined the differences in attitude to barrier “14. Constant evolution of ICT difficult to keep up with.” This was significantly more often fully agreed or agreed with by teachers with at least 30 years’ experience compared to their colleagues with under 20 years’ experience (uemp = 2.345, p = 0.01), under 15 (uemp = 3.081, p = 0.01), under 10 (uemp = 2.628, p = 0.01); teachers with at least 25 years’ experience compared to colleagues with under 15 years’ experience

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(uemp = 2.636, p = 0.01). Among the age groups, teachers under 35 were less likely to fully agree and agree with this compared to their colleagues of at least 50 (uemp = 2.554, p = 0.01) and of at least 45 (uemp = 2.585, p = 0.01). Age and gender differences are identified in relation to barrier “15. I don’t have enough time to introduce ICT in training.” Teachers under 35 are less likely to fully agree and agree with lack of time compared to their colleagues of at least 45 (uemp = 2.6, p = 0.01) and at least 40 (uemp = 3.095, p = 0.01); teachers under 40 – with colleagues of at least 40 (uemp = 2.404, p = 0.01). Men are more likely to feel lack of time to introduce ICT in training than women (uemp = 2.549, p = 0.01). In relation to barrier “11. ICT training is not a priority in higher education” differences of opinion between men and women were also evident. Men expressed a greater agreement (uemp = 2.404, p = 0.01). Insufficient experience in the use of ICT in education (barrier 22) is usually recognized by professors and doctors. Professors were significantly more likely to fully agree and agree with the impact of this barrier compared to associate professors (uemp = 2.706, p = 0.01), and doctors – compared to PhD (uemp = 2.746, p = 0.01). In relation to barrier “33. Mastering ICT requires too much effort from me”, there were significant differences between teachers with at least 20 years’ experience and those with under 10 years’ experience. The latter more often expressed absolute disagreement and disagreement (uemp = 2.492, p = 0.01). Barrier “16. I am not aware of the available software and digital resources to use in my subject” revealed the difference between teachers of at least 40 and those under 40 and 35. Teachers at the age of 40 or above were significantly less likely to completely disagree and disagree with the presence of this barrier than their colleagues under 40 (uemp = 2.657, p = 0.01) and 35 (uemp = 2.568, p = 0.01). The share of professors who fully agreed and agreed with the presence of barrier “19. I do not know ICT-based teaching methods” was significantly greater than that of associate professors (uemp = 2.505, p = 0.01) and the share of doctors – than that of PhDs (uemp = 2.511, p = 0.01). Men were less likely to express absolute disagreement and dissent than women (uemp = 2.404, p = 0.01).

4 Discussion According to the research results, associate Professors are more aware of the problems with the Internet among students than senior instructors. Professors and Doctors of Sciences are more likely to be conscious of lack of experience in the use of ICTs in teaching; they are less proficient in ICT-based teaching methods. Faculty under 35 are less likely than older instructors to understand whether the material is understandable to students. Younger instructors more often face lack of equipment. Older instructors more strongly feel lack of time for ICT introduction; they note that they do not know the available programs and digital resources to be used in the disciplines they teach.

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Faculty with less experience note lack of incentives to use ICT, problems with software availability, and are concerned about the loss of ownership of materials. Instructors with long experience note difficulties related to ICT evolution that is difficult to keep up with and believe that mastering ICT requires too much effort. It is more difficult for men than for women to adjust the pace of an online lecture due to lack of feedback from students. Men are more likely to feel lack of time for ICT introduction; they largely agree that ICT training is not a priority in higher education; they more often admit that they do not know ICT-based teaching methods. Instructors of engineering and technical disciplines more often face lack of equipment. As a whole, the conducted research revealed that the issue of insufficient technical support at Kazan National Research Technological University is so urgent that it requires an immediate solution from the university administration. The urgent nature of the problem is confirmed by the fact that educators evaluated this barrier similarly regardless of position, length of service, age or gender. We concluded that special attention and providing support as regards ICT barriers might be important for younger faculty members, educators with smaller teaching experience and those delivering social and humanitarian subjects.

References 1. Gafurov, I.R., et al.: Transformation of higher education during the pandemic: pain points. Vyss. Obraz. v Ross. (High. Educ. Russ.) 29(10), 101–112 (2020) 2. Galikhanov, M.F., Khasanova, G.F.: Faculty training for online teaching: roles, competences contents. Vyss. Obraz. Ross. 28(2), 51–62 (2019) 3. Khasanova, G.F., Galikhanov, M.F.: Poster: development of faculty competences in online teaching. In: Auer, M.E., Hortsch, H., Sethakul, P. (eds.) ICL 2019. AISC, vol. 1134, pp. 376–381. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40274-7_38 4. Kondratyev, V.V., Kazakova, U.A., Kuznetsova, M.N.: Features of the system of advanced training and professional retraining of educators of higher technical schools in modern conditions. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 24–35. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_3 5. Goncharuk, N., Evgeniya, K.: The development of future engineers intellectual competence. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning, ICL, pp. 198–202 (2013) 6. Starshinova, T.A., Makletsov, S.V.: Primenenie sredstv elektronnogo obucheniya dlya formirovaniya informatsionnoi kompetentnosti. Vestn. Kazan. Technol. Univ. 15(17), 330– 333 (2012) 7. Khasanova, G.F., Zaripov, R.N.: Poster: the usage of open educational resources and practices in training engineers for the IT sector. In: Auer, M.E., Hortsch, H., Sethakul, P. (eds.) ICL 2019. AISC, vol. 1134, pp. 849–854. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-030-40274-7_82 8. Khasanova, G.F., Zaripov, R.N.: Pedagogicheskii potentsial otkrytykh obrazovatelnykh resursov. Kazan. Pedagog. zhurnal 4(129), 68–72 (2018) 9. Buchanan, T., Sainter, P., Saunders, G.: Factors affecting faculty use of learning technologies: implications for models of technology adoption. J. Comput. High. Educ. 25 (1), 1–11 (2013)

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10. Jones, A.: Areview of the research literature on barriers to the uptake of ICT by teachers (2004) 11. Ertmer, P.A.: Addressing first- and second-order barriers to change: strategies for technology integration. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 47(4), 47–61 (1999) 12. Schulz, R., Isabwe, G.M., Reichert, F.: Investigating teachers motivation to use ICT tools in higher education. In: 2015 Internet Technologies and Applications, ITA 2015 – Proceedings of 6th International Conference, pp. 62– 67 (2015) 13. Shelton, C.: Virtually mandatory: a survey of how discipline and institutional commitment shape university lecturers’ perceptions of technology. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 45(4), 748–759 (2014) 14. Mercader, C., Gairín, J.: University teachers’ perception of barriers to the use of digital technologies: the importance of the academic discipline. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 17(1), 1–14 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-0182-x 15. Porter, W.W., Graham, C.R.: Institutional drivers and barriers to faculty adoption of blended learning in higher education. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 47(4), 748–762 (2016) 16. Bingimlas, K.A.: Barriers to the successful integration of ICT in teaching and learning environments: a review of the literature. Eurasisa J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ. 5(3), 235–245 (2009) 17. Myna, L., Novotnỳ, L.: Knowledge society failure? Barriers in the use of ICTs and further teacher education in the Czech Republic. Sustainability 12(17), 6933 (2020) 18. Singhavi, C., Basargekar, P., Somaiya, K.J.: Barriers perceived by teachers for use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the classroom in Maharashtra, India. Int. J. Educ. Dev. Inf. Commun. Technol. 15(2), 62–78 (2019) 19. Lloyd, S.A., Byrne, M.M., Mccoy, T.S.: Faculty-perceived barriers of online education. J. Online Learn. Teach. 8(1), 1–12 (2012) 20. Gutiérrez-Santiuste, E., Gallego-Arrufat, M.J., Simone, A.: Barriers in computer-mediated communication: typology and evolution over time. J. e-Learn. Knowl. Soc. 12, 107–119 (2016) 21. Shageeva, F.T., Kraysman, N.V., Gorodetskaya I.M., Ivanov, V.G.: Socio-psychological competence of future engineers. In: 2013 ASSEE International Forum (2013) 22. Berge, Z.L.: Barriers to communication in distance education. Turkish Online J. Distance Educ. 14(1), 374–388 (2013) 23. Shageeva, F.T., Erova, D.R., Kraysman, N.V.: Poster: social-psychological readiness of engineering university students for academic mobility to European countries. In: Auer, M.E., Hortsch, H., Sethakul, P. (eds.) ICL 2019. AISC, vol. 1135, pp. 719–724. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40271-6_71 24. Shageeva, F.T., Gorodetskaya, I.M., Khramov, V.Y.: Development of cross-cultural competence of engineering students as one of the key factors of academic and labor mobility. In: Proceedings of 2015 International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning, ICL2015, pp. 141–145 (2015)

Network Simulator Software Utilization as a Teaching Method for Distance Learning Dimitrios Magetos, Ioannis Sarlis, Dimitrios Kotsifakos(&), and Christos Douligeris Department of Informatics, University of Piraeus, Piraeus, Greece {dmagetos,sarlisj,kotsifakos,cdoulig}@unipi.gr

Abstract. During the Covid-19 pandemic period, the transition from a physical classroom into a virtual online environment led to the redesign of the teaching practices so that it is pedagogically and technologically adapted to distance education. The main questions raised by the research concern, on the one hand, the possibilities for improvement in terms of benefits through modern Information and Communication Technologies and, on the other hand, the directions for building optimal teaching and learning solutions for the existing teaching method. This paper aims to verify whether the use of remote online learning environments positively enhances learning outcomes. For this purpose, we used weighted online questionnaires, which we submitted to our students. In particular, we investigate the pedagogical effectiveness of the internet version of the “Packet Tracer Anywhere” as applied in the teaching of computer networking courses. Through the presentation of the positively enhances learning outcomes, we describe the benefits and the pedagogical significance of the operation as a whole. Teachers and researchers need to know in detail, in which way specific types of software’s as Network Simulator Software, activate students in distance learning and teaching situations. What we achieved through this research is to record the degree of activation and the degree of satisfaction from the involvement of the students in this specific educational environment. Keywords: Network Simulator Software
Teaching methods and asynchronous distance learning, and teaching


Synchronous

1 Introduction The new reality of the coronavirus lockdown has prohibited the students’ physical presence in laboratories, such as in computer networks or other physical sciences laboratories, which are necessary for the realization of the objectives of the courses and prepare students to be able to practice their skills. There was a need for a transition from a physical classroom into a virtual online environment, which led to the redesign of the teaching practice so that it is pedagogically and technologically adapted to distance education [3, 9]. Administrators, teachers, and students had to think of new alternatives to hold meetings by adopting a virtual format and through the development of rapidly available

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 274–285, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_28

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and broadly accessible online resources [2]. This situation forced everyone to discover new teaching approaches to continue the educational process smoothly. In this article, we propose the use of computer network simulation software as a teaching method in the form of an e-learning environment. In this context, we support the teaching of the computer networks course, utilizing this open-source and cost-free simulation software. We explore the effectiveness of this approach in a mixed digital environment of modern and asynchronous education [11]. Simulation environments also offer a degree of flexibility to the teachers, as they allow them to manage information in multiple ways and at the same time accommodate the presentation of knowledge in different ways so that students learn through different types of teaching suggestions. Some of these teaching suggestions are network simulators.

2 Study Purpose and Goals 2.1

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the pedagogical effectiveness of the “Packet Tracer Anywhere” (PTA) Internet Simulator [7], as applied in the teaching of computer networking courses, during the Covid-19 pandemic period. PTA is a network simulation software that is widely used in desktop or laptop computers, as well as in mobile devices [14], and it has become a very important element in the support of the students’ learning in the Greek secondary and post-secondary education environment [13]. Firstly, we verified whether the use of online learning environments has indeed improved the student learning outcomes, and, secondly, whether these groups are metacognitively aware of the impact of such an advanced web-based system [15]. Through the presentation of the results of the evaluation, we describe the benefit and the pedagogical significance of the operation as a whole. The broader questions raised by the research concern, on the one hand, the possibilities for improvement in terms of benefits through modern Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and, on the other hand, the directions for building optimal teaching and learning solutions for the existing teaching method. At the end of this study, we present the feedback of the evaluation made by the students about the usability of the PTA software [8] and the degree of satisfaction regarding their involvement in the specific educational environment. 2.2

Goals of the Study

In this study, several scientific questions were posed: on the one hand, about the possibilities for improvement of providers of Synchronous and Asynchronous ICT and, on the other hand, about adopting extensions to the existing system based on the answers. In this light, we must study the conclusions and the feedback of the evaluation by the students themselves and, above all, the recording of the degree of activation from their use and satisfaction from their involvement in the specific educational environment. As a part of the analysis, we checking out the results of the effectiveness of the specific teaching approach which is used in this project [6]. Our research

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established learning benefits provided by the application of computer network simulation through PTA software [10]. Additional objectives include the evaluation of the training scenarios (Fig. 1) in the application of PTA technology in digital online learning environments that we utilized during the Covid-19 period. The learning benefits from its implementation were captured through questionnaires completed by students (Vocational Lyceum), apprentices (4th post-secondary year), and trainees, who participated in computer networking courses during the pandemic period. The application of the simulation for the teaching of computer network courses through the PTA in distance education was done in the context of mixed learning, with the use of both asynchronous and synchronous distance learning. Network simulators [4], such as PTA, are easy to use, thus enabling a considerable interaction between students and the computer lab, within the context of deep lifelong computer network learning. This research was made initially to verify whether the use of online educational environments improves student learning outcomes [5]. Three classes of students participated in this effort: • trainees who attend IT courses at Vocational Training Institutes, who are usually adults and who during the pandemic period participated in the educational process only remotely, • students of the third grade of the Specialties of Informatics and Electronics of Vocational High Schools, and • students of the Specialties of Informatics and Electronics of the 4th post-secondary year - apprenticeship class of Vocational High Schools.

Fig. 1. The default network topology of PT anywhere, which consists of a single router, a single switch, and two personal computers.

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3 Results The effectiveness of our proposal was studied through indicators of satisfaction on the part of students, as regards the teaching objectives and their degree of satisfaction with this approach. We have tested the results of this effect with the appropriate graded intermediate and final evaluation questionnaires. This was done within an introductory computer-networking course, which will be carried out remotely. The total duration of this course was fifteen weeks, with four hours of teaching per week, which includes theory and the corresponding laboratory exercises. The results have been recorded from the analysis of learning statistics. Actual or Anticipated Outcomes The courses that students take part in this research were: a) “Introduction to Computer Networks” at the Vocational Lyceum and b) “Computer Networks” of the Specialty “Computer Network Technician” of the Vocational Training Institutes. The period that this research took place was during the coronavirus lockdown in academic years 2019– 2020 and 2020–2021. About fifteen students per class attended the lessons remotely, using both the asynchronous e-class platform and the modern Cisco WEBEX platform. The teaching of the PTA simulator was done in five three-hour weekly classes for the Vocational High Schools, and in five two-hour weekly classes for the students of the Vocational Training Institutes, where the students and the trainees aimed at designing the basic topologies and as a total activity the mapping of the network infrastructures. Students filled online questionnaires (https://tinyurl.com/745v2y32) after the use of the online PTA simulator in the online classes (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Online questionnaire of PTA Learning Benefits and PTA Usability

To date, large-scale distance education has not been required in public schools. In the pandemic phase, the simple application of the scenarios was not enough as the supervisory control of whether something was working was not possible with a physical presence. Our main intention was to find a way to check if the remote-control application works. We did this on the one hand with the students’ answers and their assignments, and on the other hand with the questionnaires. Researchers also used the

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“Packet Tracer Anywhere” online simulator, to face this difficulty, and by this way, all trainees were able to have access to the online educational process. 3.1

Response Distribution of PTA Learning Benefits (Questions A1–A8)

The evaluation method that was used for the outcomes of this study was based on four axes: a) b) c) d)

the the the the

psychological-pedagogical parameters, technical-functional parameters, organizational-economic parameters, and, social-cultural parameters [1].

Throughout the development of the article, we should not forget that the mandatory use of remote-control technologies such as PTA is due to conditions of exclusion due to Covid-19 [12] New learning methods are acquired for the virtual collaborative environments, such as constructive, active, adaptive, interactive, collaborative, discursive, and reflective methods. Apart from the design of the course and the methodologies that were used, teachers also used some known tools to “build” the microcosm and modeling of the computer networks. The crucial point of this research was that the “interactive” model “teacher-student-learning content” had to be organized remotely. Teachers conducted and monitored all the learning activities, maintaining the interaction with the student at the same time. This interaction has to do at the first level the descriptionpresentation of the lesson, and at the second level the reaction with the virtual world, to define the learning goals in each section. After the use of PTA software, students filled a questionnaire to record their experience from using PTA software. The outcomes of the processing of these questionnaires are presented in this paper. 3.1.1 Responses to Questions A1 Through A4: PTA Learning Benefits See Table 1. Table 1. Level of agreement with the PTA learning benefits: responses to questions A1–A4 Mean Median Std. Deviation Skewness Std. Error of Skewness Kurtosis Std. Error of Kurtosis Percentiles 5 6 7

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5,65 6 1,461

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−1,117 −0,657 −0,666 −0,151 0,512 0,512 0,512 0,512 0,672 0,992

−0,765 −0,502 0,433 0,992 0,992 0,992

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A1. The PTA simulation software helped me understand the basic concepts of computer network design. There was a very strong agreement to this question. A percentage of above 65% answered positively to this question. Only 10% of the respondents had a very weak agreement. A2. The PTA simulator helped me design composite networking scenarios precisely. In this question, more than half of the students (55%), strongly agreed and an additional 20% answered also positively. 15% of the students had a negative opinion. A3. After the end of the PTA simulator basic training, I can discover wrong design choices very easily. Half of the students had a very strong agreement with this question. 15% had a very weak agreement to this. A4. Without the help of the instructor, I couldn’t handle the basic commands of the PTA simulator. A very strong percentage of 60% had a moderate opinion concerning this question. That means that the students’ opinions are not very clear about this (Fig. 3).

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3.1.2 PTA Learning Benefits Responses to Questions A5 Through A8 A5. The PTA simulator helped me create multiple representations of computer network topologies? 65% of the students strongly agree with this statement and 35% weakly agree. A6. The Learning Process of the PTA simulator motivated me to deal with computer network design at a personal level? 35% of the students have a very weak agreement about this statement, 25% have a neutral agreement and 40% strongly agree.

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A7. The engagement with the PTA simulator helped me to further experiment with computer networks. Only a few students, 20%, have a strong agreement with this statement. 15% have a neutral opinion and a very large percentage (65%) of the students have a very weak agreement. A8. After the engagement with the PTA simulator, I have been convinced that simulators are valid representative mechanisms. The students answered in a large percentage (65%) that their agreement is very weak. 15% showed a moderate (neutral) agreement and another 15% agrees with it but not very strongly (Table 2 and Fig. 4). Table 2. Level of agreement with the PTA learning benefits: responses to questions A5–A8 Mean Median Std. Deviation Skewness Std. Error of Skewness Kurtosis Std. Error of Kurtosis Percentiles 25 50 75

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4,85 5 1,496 −0,241 0,512

3,8 4 1,795 0,151 0,512

4,95 5 1,468 −0,348 0,512

4,7 5 1,559 −0,738 0,512

−0,875 −0,704 −0,73 0,992 0,992 0,992

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Response Distribution of Application Usability (Questions B1–B7)

Students also filled a questionnaire to record their experience from using PTA software. After the statistical analysis of the answers that were given by the students, we created the statistical Tables 3, 4, and 5 and detailed diagrams in Figs. 5 and 6. Table 3. Level of agreement with application usability: responses to questions B1–B7 Level of agreement B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 1 30% 5% 25% 10% 5% 2 15% 5% 25% 10% 0% 3 25% 0% 15% 0% 0% 4 5% 15% 10% 25% 20% 5 10% 25% 20% 10% 40% 6 10% 20% 0% 30% 20% 7 5% 30% 5% 15% 15%

3.2.1

B6 5% 15% 5% 15% 25% 25% 10%

B7 0% 25% 35% 25% 10% 5% 0%

Hours 0–1 h 1–2 h 2–3 h 3–4 h 4–6 h 6–8 h >8 h

Responses to Questions B1 Through B6: Application Usability

B1. I faced many problems during the use of the PTA simulation software. 70% faced not so many problems and only 25% of the students faced many problems. 5% of the students had a neutral opinion. B2. The PTA simulator is useable for designing composite networking scenarios. In this statement, we have a very strong agreement of the students that is 75%, and a very small percentage (10%) considers PTA simulator is not useable for designing composite networking scenarios. B3. Very hard work was required by me to learn the basic PTA simulator commands. Only 25% of the student agreed with this statement. Most of the students (65%) learned PTA simulation commands very easily. A small percentage of them (10%) moderate (neutral) with this statement. B4. I learned to use the PTA simulator very quickly. Most of the students in 55% percent agree with the fact that they learn PTA simulator very quickly. Another 20% of the students agree not very much, and 25% of the students are neutral. B5. I am absolutely satisfied with the use of the PTA simulator. 3 out of 4 students (75%) have a strong agreement with this statement and 20% of the students are neutral. A very small percentage of 5% disagrees with it. B6. I feel satisfied with the fact that the simulator is available online, and that it supports teamwork. Students answered in their majority (60%) that they agree with this statement. A small percentage is neutral and 25% of them have a weak agreement with this statement.

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−0,612 1,078 0,992 0,992

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Fig. 5. Responses to questions B1–B4: distribution of agreement with application usability

3.2.2

Responses to Question B7: Application Usability

B7. To be able to operate easily and feel comfortable with the PTA simulator, I spend hours. Most of the students, 60%, spent from 1 to 3 h to be able to easily operate and feel comfortable with the PTS simulator. A quarter of them spent about 4 h and 15% of them spent more than 4 h.

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Table 5. Level of agreement with application usability: responses to question B7 B7 Mean Median Std. Deviation Skewness Std. Error of Skewness Kurtosis Std. Error of Kurtosis Percentiles 25 50 75

0-1 h

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4 Conclusions/Recommendations/Summary During the coronavirus lockdowns, distance education became compulsory and the use of a web-based simulator software was a necessity in teaching computer networking classes. The use of an installable open-source network simulation software for trainees was preferred, although many students had not the necessary equipment and basic knowledge to do this installation. For some of the students, the conditions to use a stand-alone network simulator were almost prohibitive: these students barely had the appropriate equipment and they could not install this kind of software into their computers. Concluding this research, the experimentation of the participants through

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the questionnaires is accurately recorded, and the conclusions of their active participation in the creation of network simulations are examined. The results of the questionnaires verified that the use of remote online learning environments positively improves learning outcomes. The research highlighted the pedagogical effectiveness of the online version of “Packet Tracer Any-Where” as applied to the teaching of computer networking courses. Through the presentation of positively improved learning outcomes, we described the benefits and pedagogical significance of the operation as a whole. Teachers can through software such as Network Simulator Software positively activate students in distance learning and teaching situations. Through the research, we recorded that locally, in our classrooms, and where we applied the specific software, a high degree of participation and also a high degree of satisfaction of students from their involvement with the specific software. Acknowledgment. This work has been partially supported by UPRC (University of Piraeus Research Center) and by COSMOTE through a PEDION24 grant.

References 1. Barari, N., RezaeiZadeh, M., Khorasani, A., Alami, F.: Designing and validating educational standards for e-teaching in virtual learning environments (VLEs), based on revised Bloom’s taxonomy. Interact. Learn. Environ. 0(0), 1–13 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820. 2020.1739078 2. Bellini, M.I., Pengel, L., Potena, L., Segantini, L., ESOT COVID-19 Working Group: COVID-19 and education: restructuring after the pandemic. Transpl. Int. 34(2), 220–223 (2021) 3. Clark, J.T.: Distance education. In: Clinical Engineering Handbook, pp. 410–415. Academic Press (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813467-2.00128-0 4. Cherniltsev, A., Berezina, E.: Review of network modeling and simulation software. In: International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference: SGEM, vol. 20, no. 2.1, pp. 275– 282 (2020). https://doi.org/10.5593/sgem2020/2.1/s07.036 5. El-Sofany, H., El-Haggar, N.: The effectiveness of using mobile learning techniques to improve learning outcomes in higher education. International Association of Online Engineering (2020). https://www.learntechlib.org/p/216981/. Accessed 10 Mar 2021 6. Kotsifakos, D., Vichou, M., Douligeris, C.: Organization of a teaching network routing algorithms scenario in a Learning Management System (LMS). In: ECEL 2018 17th European Conference on e-Learning, p. 263. Academic Conferences and Publishing Limited, November 2018 7. Mikroyannidis, A., Gómez-Goiri, A., Smith, A., Domingue, J.: PT anywhere: a mobile environment for practical learning of network engineering. Interact. Learn. Environ. 28(4), 482–496 (2018) 8. Mikroyannidis, A., Gomez-Goiri, A., Smith, A., Domingue, J.: Online experimentation and interactive learning resources for teaching network engineering. In: IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), Athens, Greece. IEEE Education Society Publications (2017) 9. Onyema, E.M., et al.: Impact of Coronavirus pandemic on education. J. Educ. Pract. 11(13), 108–121 (2020)

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10. Rosewell, J., et al.: Open Networking Lab: online practical learning of computer networking. In: The Online, Open and Flexible Higher Education Conference: Blended and Online Learning: Changing the Educational Landscape. Aarhus University, Denmark (2018) 11. Samoylenko, N., Zharko, L., Glotova, A.: Designing online learning environment: ICT tools and teaching strategies. Athens J. Educ. 8, 1–15 (2021). https://doi.org/10.30958/aje.X-Y-Z 12. Shamir-Inbal, T., Blau, I.: Facilitating emergency remote K-12 teaching in computingenhanced virtual learning environments during COVID-19 pandemic-blessing or curse? J. Educ. Comput. Res. 59(7), 1243–1271 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633121992781 13. Seralidou, E., Douligeris, C., Gralista, C.: EduApp: a collaborative application for mobile devices to support the educational process in Greek secondary education. In: 2019 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), pp. 189–198. IEEE, April 2019 14. Liu, Y., Yu, M.: Verification and analysis of mobile communication network simulation method based on reverse coverage test. In: Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 1437, no. 1, p. 012003. IOP Publishing (2020) 15. Viberg, O., Khalil, M., Baars, M.: Self-regulated learning and learning analytics in online learning environments: a review of empirical research. In: Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Learning Analytics & Knowledge, pp. 524–533, March 2020 16. Zimmerman, B.J., Moylan, A.R.: Self-regulation: where metacognition and motivation intersect. In: Dalam Hacker, D.J. (ed.) Handbook of Metacognition in Education, pp. 299– 316. Routledge, New York (2009)

Legal Aspects of Using Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education Timofej G. Makarov1, Kamil M. Arslanov1 , Elena V. Kobchikova1, Elena G. Opyhtina1, and Svetlana V. Barabanova2(&) 2

1 Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia Kazan National Research Technological University, Kazan, Russia

Abstract. Currently, artificial intelligence techniques are actively used in various areas of social life. In higher education, using these techniques is of special interest to both teaching staff and legal community. Statutory regulation of artificial intelligence in the system of higher education is at a not very high level as of today, despite using at some universities really advanced artificialintelligence technologies. Authors of this paper have tried to develop a comprehensive scientific concept of the legal aspects of using artificial intelligence in higher education. We analyzed the notion of artificial intelligence and other terms in the area under research, considered the matter of the legal nature of artificial intelligence systems, defined the prospects of legally regulating the relationships to using artificial intelligence in education, and investigated the possibility of instituting civil-law sanctions for artificial intelligence operation in education. Undoubtedly, onrush of and using artificial intelligence systems in higher education need sound legal support. Legal enactments to be adopted in the area under research must consider both artificial intelligence techniques that are currently used by the institutions of higher education and those to be developed in the nearest future. Keywords: Law


Artificial intelligence
Higher education

1 Context Currently, artificial intelligence (AI) can be a helping hand to both students and teachers. However, there are some limitations on its complete implementation in the Russian educational environment. When introducing artificial intelligence into higher education, some issues become apparent, including legal ones. First, there is no legal definition of artificial intelligence, which generates some questions, including that of whether there is any legal identity of artificial intelligence and, if yes, what its essence and operation regulations are. Or should artificial intelligence be considered as a civil matter, categorizing artificial intelligence as a sui generis matter, in a similar way to the structures of this type that already exist in the Russian civil law (Art. 137 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation [1] (hereinafter, CC RF))? Obviously, the term of “artificial intelligence” must be defined within the

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 286–295, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_29

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Russian legislation, and its legal regulation must be specified, including by civil and educational legislation. Second, there is some inertia of the system of higher education, and the process of mastering AI tools by teachers is apparently long. Currently, the problem is acute relating to training the teachers in the special aspects of working with AI systems. Third, there are certain difficulties related to developing and implementing AI techniques in the system of higher educations, rather than anywhere else, including the following ones: Underfunding of these processes, some university management’s lack of interest in digitalizing their institutions or in implementing advanced AI systems into their practices, and some other issues. Forth, there is a problem of ensuring the information security of students when operating artificial intelligence systems, which can be solved by adjusting technical devices in such a manner that access to dangerous content is blocked, as well as through giving explanations to students.

2 Purpose As of now, artificial intelligence is considered my most researchers as an item subject to legal regulation, although there are some attempts to confer legal personality to it, such as in P.M. Morhat’s doctoral thesis [2, pp. 31–32]). In our opinion, no subjective rights or obligations can be vested in one AI technique or another. Artificial intelligence itself has not been clearly regulated by any law. There is no definition of artificial intelligence, which aggravates the problem of categorizing artificial intelligence as a “person” or “thing” at law in terms of civil circulation/educational process. This brings up the following question: Who becomes the obligor regarding the actions of AI systems, and who must be liable for such actions (this means the enforcement of norms stated in Chapters 50, 59, etc. of CC RF)? Seemingly, at the current stage of AI development, the above obligations should be imposed on a person or entity that uses the relevant AI technology. Therefore, discussing the legal personality of artificial intelligence would be premature. Artificial intelligence should be deemed an “object of civil law rights” in accordance with Art. 128 of CC RF. However, it is necessary to consider the matters of categorizing artificial intelligence as sui generis objects, i.e., special treatment objects (similar to Art. 137, 140-141.1 CC RF). Investigating the legal aspects of using artificial intelligence in higher education will allow us to determine some milestones of legally influencing the AI techniques used in higher education. Addressing the AI matters related to exactly higher education is associated with the fact that it is higher education that may become an educational site that allows testing and starting the relevant AI processes/techniques. Then this may become a basis to distribute such processes in preschool, primary, secondary (basic) general, and secondary (complete) general education. A similar approach is already used by educational systems abroad. This study is aimed at developing a comprehensive concept of the legal aspects of using artificial intelligence in higher education.

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This goal determines solving the following research tasks: – Analyzing and generalizing the notion of artificial intelligence and other terms necessary in investigating the legal aspects of using artificial intelligence in higher education; – Studying the legal nature of AI systems; – Determining the prospects of legally regulating the relationships involving (today and in future) artificial intelligence in education; and – Investigating the possibility to impose civil law sanctions for the operation of artificial intelligence in education.

3 Approach In studying the legal aspects of using artificial intelligence in higher education, the following scientific cognition methods were used: Comparative law research and technical legal analysis. Artificial intelligence techniques penetrate educational environment deeper with each passing year. For example, the Russian startup Parla, which has created an application for learning English. The application is based on a program that learns with the student and adapts to his tasks and progress. Already at the stage of registration in the application, the program can analyze data from social networks and offer an individual training program based on the interests of a particular person. At the same time, there is obviously not enough legal support for implementing and using the intelligence systems under research. Among regulatory documents on artificial intelligence, we should emphasize Decree No. 490 of the Russian President, dated October 10, 2019 On Developing Artificial Intelligence in the Russian Federation, which approved the NATIONAL STRATEGY of developing artificial intelligence until 2030 [3]. According to Clause 22 thereof, “using artificial intelligence techniques in social sector promotes creating conditions for improving the living conditions of people, including due to … enhancing the quality of educational services, including adjusting educational process to the needs of students and labor market demands, performing the system analysis of learning performance …, and automating knowledge assessment and performance analysis.” The National Strategy defines artificial intelligence as a set of process design solutions allowing simulating human cognitive functions, including self-learning and searching for solutions without any predefined algorithms and, in performing specific tasks, obtaining results that are at least comparable with the results of human intellectual activities. The set of process design solutions includes information and communication infrastructure, software products, including those based on using machine learning methods, and processes/services aimed at data processing and searching for solutions. Thus, we can rely on more or less definitive notion of artificial intelligence at legal level. An important role in developing the problems under research belongs to Decree of the Government of Russia No. 2129r dated August 19, 2020: On Approval of the Development Framework to Regulate the Relationships in Artificial Intelligence Technology and Robotics until 2024 [4]. Clause 10 thereof states that “using artificial intelligence and robotic systems as better functioning ones as compared to conventional systems, has the potential of enhancing the

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life quality of consumers,” including those consuming services provided by higher education. No special regulatory instruments on using artificial intelligence in education, including higher education, have been adopted. For this reason, amendments should be made to the Russian Federal Law on Education [5] and to other regulatory instruments and bylaws related to higher education, and new regulatory instruments must be adopted in the area under research. What are the existing approaches to artificial intelligence? Researchers divide AI systems into 2 types: Strong (universal) AI and weak (applied) AI [6]. AI systems that are currently being used in higher education are the latter one, because they can only solve field-specific problems, such as identifying the authenticity of research texts, scoring the students’ points for their activities during a semester, etc. It is assumed that strong AI comparable with human intelligence will allow solving the problem of personalized learning, i.e., adapting the training processes to the specific needs of a student. Using artificial intelligence will allow university teachers to make teaching/learning processes more interesting, change learning pace, and perform personalized assessments of students’ knowledge. Students, in turn, will get additional support and assistance in learning some elements of their curricula, which cause difficulties. In the experimental mode, artificial intelligence must primarily be used by higher education, since these are higher educational institutions that are fitted with all necessary equipment, have internet access, and access to necessary information for training. Aspects of using artificial intelligence in education are least investigated from the legal perspective. Just a few works deal with these matters. As of today, most researchers consider artificial intelligence as a matter subject to legal regulation, though there are some attempts to confer legal personality to it. In November 2017, A.V. Neznamov and V.B. Naumov, researchers at the Research Center of the Problems of Regulation of Robotics and Artificial Intelligence, developed the Draft International Model Convention on Robotics [7]. In this Project, robots are considered as persons at law and can independently enter legal relationships. O.A. Serova emphasizes that there are no differences in the definition of legal statuses of a legal entity and a robot, since the statuses of both are, in fact, a legal fiction that does not have any appropriate real content [8]. Upon D. Grishin’s request (Grishin Robotics), V. Naumov and V. Arkhipov developed the Draft Federal Law on Introducing Amendments into the Civil Code of the Russian Federation regarding Improvements to the Legal Regulation of Relationships in Robotics [9], in which the authors propose to amend the first part of the Civil Code with the chapter titled Agent Robots (in this case, such robots are entitled to represent individuals and legal entities). Like it is a case with a legal entity, according to the above instrument, the legal personality of an agent robot arises as soon as it is registered by the state and the relevant record is made in the Unified National Register. In his doctor’s thesis, P.M. Morhat notes that “the legal personality of an AI unit must be a kind of “floating,” depending on the AI unit type, on its original expectative or current real functional and target-based load…” [2]. However, drawing such a conclusion, the researcher emphasizes that “legally introducing the specific legal personality of AI units as “electronic person” is premature” [2]. According to foreign researchers, Joanna Bryson, Mihailis Diamantis, and Thomas Grant, “the language concerning “electronic persons” indicates a clear intent to confer

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on some intelligent artefacts legal-person status, such as is also enjoyed by most humans” [10]. Russian researcher A.V. Nechkin writes that “analyzing the provisions of Chapters 1 and 2 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation provides evidence that its text, along with the notion of “human,” also contains terms, such as “citizen”, “person,”, and “personality.” At the same time, unlike “citizen” or “person,” the term of “personality” has not been defined legally in the legislation, for which reason some researchers assume that this term is broader than that of a “human” [11]. Therefore, non-human can be a personality, provided that the said non-human enjoys human rights and freedoms” [12]. Thus, some researchers recognizing the legal personality of artificial intelligence confer it with some qualities of a legal entity or of a “derivative personality,” while others consider it to be a “special personality,” and confer it with rights and obligations, proposing to enshrine them in the Declaration of the Rights and Liberties of Man and of the Citizen. Some authors note that artificial intelligence is not a subject, but a modern “quasisubject of law” recognized by civil law and by private international law. Particularly, E. V. Ponomareva emphasizes that “fundamentally, subjects of law, such as individuals, legal entities, or state, as participants of legal communications, differ from quasisubjects through the fact that they have both subjective rights and legal obligation. As to quasi-subjects of law, according to the common rule, they are only recognized as holders of rights, but not obligors; i.e., in the communicative sense, they are not real, actual subjects of legal relationships.” “… artificial mind and robotized standalone systems cannot be subjects of law. They have neither will in the legal sense nor their own interests, they cannot develop a subjective attitude toward actions they perform, and they cannot be legally liable due to no feeling of guilt. Act of recognizing their legal personality by legislature will not make them actual subjects of law, but it may cause damage to legislation as a communicative system” [13]. G.A. Gadzhiev notes that “artificial intelligence can be recognized as a new object of law with amending civil legislation, but not as an independent subject. However, development of artificial intelligence may reasonably lead to the occurrence of the necessity of recognizing it as a subject of law, namely as a special type of legal entities or as a quasi-subject of law” [14]. Despite many Russian and foreign studies on legal issues related to artificial intelligence, the researchers’ opinions regarding what artificial intelligence represents in the legal sense are absolutely different. However, all are of the same mind regarding the fact that, given the current state of the art of AI techniques, robots cannot yet perform all actions that are performed by humans and, therefore, robots must still be controlled by humans on a permanent basis. Since there is no answer now to the question of whether artificial intelligence can ever harm the mankind, practically all international instruments state the presumption of danger of artificial intelligence. According to Art. 31 of the Model Convention, “developers, researchers, and persons that fund research in artificial intelligence and in related sectors must proceed from the presumption of danger of artificial intelligence, which implies that any AI technology created or being created is dangerous for humans, until proven otherwise” [7]. Due to the unpredictability of the consequences of

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the AI activities, it is premature to discuss the independency and autonomy of artificial intelligence today. Not least, this is due to the fact that recognition of AI autonomy may result in its acquittal of crimes. Given that, the matters of regulating artificial intelligence in a manner similar to that of Art. 1079 CC RF: “liability for activities related to using artificial intelligence shall be borne by persons using this artificial intelligence as a high-risk facility” [15, p. 90]. Robotized and AI systems must function under the permanent human control. Therefore, it is logical to acknowledge that exercising subjective rights and committing rightful and unrightful acts are not performed by an AI system, but by its developer, owner, or user. Liable persons must be the owners and users of AI systems as sources of high risks (Art. 1079 CC RF), as well as the developers of such systems, because an AI system owner can technically affect the operation of artificial intelligence or predict the behavior of a robot. At the same time, an AI system can be understood as defective product (Art. 1095 CC RF) [15, p. 92]. A curious example is the “attempt taken by Microsoft to create a self-learning program intended for maintaining the communications within the Internet. After just a short time, the program that had communicated with other users for a while permitted itself to “say” abusive and radical statements, such as “Hitler was right” or “Feminists must end up in hell,” which can be judged as the signs of crime, if considering them from the viewpoint of the Russian criminal law.” These can be crimes stipulated in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, such as “Rehabilitation of Nazism” or “Incitement of hatred or enmity, as well as humiliation of human dignity.” “We should note that the program was created to study the communication of adolescents on the Internet, and this behavior turned out to be unpredictable for its developers” [10, p. 466]. Indeed, the risks arising from the autonomous operation of self-learning programs become complex, volatile, and unpredictable. It should be noted that selfstudy programs (we have already mentioned in the article an application for learning English, developed by the Russian startup Parla), is planned to be introduced into the education system in the future. At the same time, the given example clearly demonstrates what sad consequences the thoughtless implementation of such programs can lead to. In this regard, it is necessary to constantly monitor the work of these programs by the pedagogical community. We should also mention the necessity of controlling the use of various technical devices by students during educational process, and more than that. Today, as A. Kurpatov mentions in his report [16], just the physical presence of a smartphone alone near the student is enough to reduce their cognitive abilities, such as speech, thinking, reasoning ability, attention, ability to make decisions, etc. Therefore, the degree (limit) of using artificial intelligence in education must be established by law. For example, it would be reasonable to amend the Russian Federal Law on Education mentioned above with a provision, according to which the time used by students to master the course content using AI systems might not exceed 30% of the total learning time. Functioning of robotized systems and artificial intelligence must permanently undergo human control. Therefore, it would be logical to accept that exercising subjective rights and committing legal or illegal deeds are not inherent to the artificial intelligence system itself, but to its developer, owner, or user. Respectively, we should owners and users of artificial intelligence systems as the sources of increased danger (Art. 1079 CC RF) should be considered responsible persons, as well as the developers

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of such systems, since the owner of an artificial intelligence is not always able to technically affect the operation of artificial intelligence or, to the same extent, predict the behavior of a robot. At the same time, analogy with defective products that, in this case, mean the artificial intelligence system in question (Art. 1095 CC RF). [11, p. 92].

4 Anticipated Outcomes A.S. Slavyanov and S.S. Feshina state in their research paper that “an artificial intelligence system of educational process must include the following: • Information retrieval system to ensure forming the database of learning process…; • Automatically updatable library of electronic learning guides, teaching aids, and recommended practices; • An academic performance rating system…; • A library of tests that can be automatically adjusted to the attainment level of each students according to their academic performance; • An automated system for making lesson schedules and distributing the academic loads; and • A service system to ensure the communications between the student and the educational institution” [12, p. 157]. Many questions arise regarding academic assessment, in case of involving artificial intelligence in this procedure. Viewed in this way, the regulations must be developed for higher educational institutions at the local rule-making level. As a matter of fact, local regulation is reasonable for each element of the artificial intelligence of educational process. However, it is most likely the matter of time to see how reasonable it would be to delegate the legally important decisions during the final and interim academic assessment. Thus, we analyzed and generalized the notion of artificial intelligence and some other terms within the area under research. We consider the AI definition provided in the National Strategy of Developing Artificial Intelligence until 2030 [3] to be the most optimal. We also considered the matter of the legal nature of AI systems and concluded that it would still be premature to discuss the legal personality of artificial intelligence. Prospects were determined of legally regulating the relationships involving (today and in future) artificial intelligence in education. Particularly, we proposed to amend the Federal Law on Education in the Russian Federation with the provisions on setting the limits for using artificial intelligence by students during their learning process. As we emphasize herein, the idea of such amendments results from the growing problem of reducing cognitive abilities when using AI techniques. According to various studies, using artificial intelligence by students may provide some adverse effects upon their cognitive abilities. Therefore, a degree (limit) must be enshrined in law regarding using artificial intelligence in education. It would be reasonable to amend the Russian Federal Law on Education mentioned above with a provision, according to which the time used by students to master the course content using AI systems might not exceed 30% of the total learning time.

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The authors also investigated the possibility to impose civil law sanctions for the operation of artificial intelligence in education. Approach is proposed, according to which the owners and users of AI systems must be liable, as AI systems are the sources of high risks (like it is stated in Art. 1079 CC RF), and in some cases, the AI developers, as well (like it is stated in Art. 1095 CC RF). Summarizing our study, we can say that, undoubtedly, the onrush of and using AI systems in higher education need sound legal support. Legal enactments to be adopted in the area under research must consider both artificial intelligence techniques that are currently used by the institutions of higher education and those to be developed in the nearest future. Such enactments must generally determine the legal framework for using AI techniques and solve the problems of the legal liability for the actions of artificial intelligence by both its users and developers. We think that legal regulation of artificial intelligence within the system of higher education will allow legally minimizing the monotonous routine activities of teaching staff, particularly by automating the processes of marking tests performed by students during the semester, scoring the points for the ongoing activities of students, etc., providing teachers with more time for performing their creative activities, developing their teaching excellence, and unlocking their creative potential.

5 Conclusions In their work [17, p. 85], R.A. Amirov and U.M. Bilalova categorize the following as promising trends in using artificial intelligence in higher education: – Adaptive and personalized learning implying the selection of training contents in accordance with every student’s needs, – Automated assessment system that provides the unbiased estimates of students’ knowledge, – Ability of game-based training that suggests using game techniques and training simulators, – Proctoring system that helps evaluating the behavior of students during examinations, and – Some other benefits. Signing up to the above authors, we would like to note as follows. When implementing artificial intelligence in learning processes within the system of higher education, it should be considered that it cannot fully replace humans, including because artificial intelligence is not intended for solving nonstandard situations. It means that now AI can be considered as a supportive means to achieve the educational goals in higher education. It should be understood that developing artificial intelligence and using it in educational activities represent a complex phenomenon, which suggests developing the relevant education competencies in teachers and students, general secondary school-based training, and developing blockchain economy. Summarizing our study, we can say that the active development of artificial intelligence is too fast for today’s legislation. Relationships that arise in higher education due to using artificial intelligence have not been properly regulated yet.

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There are issues related to terminology. Both educators and lawyers cannot always understand what one term or another shall mean, which creates difficulties in law enforcement. Expanding definitive norms in the relevant legal enactments appears to be a solution of this problem. Problem of training teaching staff in using AI techniques has not been solved legally. Teachers’ lack of relevant knowledge and skills may lead to failures or malfunctions of AI systems. We think that this problem can be solved by gradually upgrading teachers’ skills in the area of artificial intelligence. As we have already noted above, there are certain difficulties in developing and implementing AI techniques in the system of education nowadays. The problem may be solved by increasing the funds allocated for developing and implementing AI systems in educational environment and in heightening the interest of some university managements in digitalizing their institutions and implementing advanced AI systems into their practices. Acknowledgement. This study was funded by RFBR according to the research project grant No. 19-18-00202.

References 1. Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Part One) No. 51-FZ dated November 30, 1994. In: Rossiskaya Gazeta, vol. 238–239, 8 December 1994 2. Morhat, P.M.: Legal personality of artificial intelligence in intellectual property law: civil law problems. Thesis in support of the doctor’s degree in law, Moscow (2018). [Electronic resource]. http://dis.rgiis.ru/files/dis/d40100102/Morhat/morhat_p_m_dissertaciya.pdf. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 3. Decree No. 490 of the President of Russia, dated October 10, 2019: On Developing Artificial Intelligence in the Russian Federation. [Electronic resource]. http://www.kremlin.ru/acts/ bank/44731. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 4. Decree of the Government of Russia No. 2129-r dated August 19, 2020: On Approval of the Development Framework to Regulate the Relationships in Artificial Intelligence Technology and Robotics until 2024. [Electronic resource]. https://www.garant.ru/products/ipo/prime/ doc/74460628/. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 5. Federal Law No. 273-FZ dated December 29, 2012: On Education in the Russian Federation [Electronic resource]. http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_140174/. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 6. Proydakov, E.M.: Current state of artificial intelligence. In: Naukovedcheskiye issledovaniya [Res. Sci. Stud.] 2018, 129–153 (2018) 7. Naumov, V.B.: Model convention on robotics and artificial intelligence. Rules for the creation and use of robots and artificial intelligence. In: Naumov, V.B., Neznamov, A.V. (eds.) Law & Information: Theory and Practice Questions. Proceedings of the VIIth International Scientific and Practical Conference. N.A. Shepeleva, Science Editor: B.N. Yeltsin Presidential Library, pp. 210–220 (2017) 8. Serova, O.A.: Robots as digital economy participants: issues of legal nature determination. Grazhdanskoye parvo [Civil Law] 3, 22–24 (2018)

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9. Naumov, V.B.: Draft federal law on introducing amendments into the civil code of the Russian Federation regarding improvements to the legal regulation of relationships in robotics. In: Naumov, V.B., Arkhipov, V.V. (eds.) Law & Information: Theory and Practice Questions. Proceedings of the VIIth International Scientific and Practical Conference. N.A. Shepeleva, Science Editor: B.N. Yeltsin Presidential Library, pp. 220–228 (2017) 10. Mosechkin, I.N.: Artificial intelligence and criminal liability: problems of becoming a new type of crime subject. In: Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Law, vol. 3 (2019). [Electronic resource]. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/iskusstvennyy-intellekt-i-ugolovnayaotvetstvennost-problemy-stanovleniya-novogo-vida-subekta-prestupleniya. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 11. Laptev, V.A.: Concept of artificial intelligence and legal lability for its operation. Law J. Higher School Econ. 2, 79–102 (2019) 12. Slavyanov, A.S., Feshina, S.S.: Artificial intelligence technologies in education as a factor of enhancing the quality of human capital. In: Ekonomika i biznes: teoriya i praktika = Economics and Business: Theory and Practice, vol. 7, pp. 156–159 (2019)

Communicative Competence in Virtual Environments Code-Switching Carlos Mayorga-Gaona(&) , Ruth Infante-Paredes , Mayorie Chimbo-Cáceres , and Wilma Suárez-Mosquera Grupo de Investigación Language and Education, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas y de la Educación, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ambato, Ecuador {cmayorga7300,rutheinfantep,elsamchimboc, wilmaesuarezm}@uta.edu.ec

Abstract. This present research is expected to describe the relationship between “codeswitching and the communicative competence,” considering the switching from English to Spanish in EFL classrooms. The present study was conducted in about 3.5 months and 5 h per week. This examination was coordinated using a qualitative-quantitative methodology by administering a validated questionnaire to about one hundred and forty respondents from the target population. The purpose of this questionnaire was to analyze the usage of codeswitching and its contribution to the communicative competence. The subjects of the questionnaire were university students of the first, second and third semesters and teachers of the Pedagogy of National and Foreign Languages (PINE) program at the Technical University of Ambato. To analyze all the data collected efficiently the IBM SPSS software was used to obtain the most genuine and assertive results. Thinking about the results of the present investigation, it can be seen that the use of codeswitching in ELF classrooms aids the communicative competence, since students see codeswitching as a tool that allows them to have a better communication both between classmates and with their teachers together. Keywords: Codeswitching competence


Learning
English
Spanish
Communicative

1 Introduction The use of a foreign language with an emphasis on English has gone from being a privilege to a necessity due to the globalization process. This phenomenon has been the main reason why English has gained importance worldwide to the point of being considered today as the universal language of business. The young generation in our current world is being bombarded with foreign content on a daily basis [1]. The result of this allows better comprehension of a language as a whole in both aspects of culture and lifestyles. Learning English opens up numerous doors of opportunity, but the harsh reality about learning a new language is the process of acquiring it. The process does not happen overnight, it takes years of studying and putting it into practice. There are establish set of pillars about learning any language; © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 296–302, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_30

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the first one is being exposed to the target language as much as possible and the second is not involving the mother tongue at all. In a way, this is understandable and logical from one perspective [2]. On the other hand, using two set of codes (languages) has many benefits for new learners and teachers since it eliminates future confusing scenarios that both parties can face. The purpose of this study was to find out the usage of codeswitching and its contribution to the communicative competence by using technological tools such as Microsoft forms and zoom [3]. Teachers can realize that the use codeswitching in the classroom can be a benefit and not a sign of inadequacy or necessarily an indication of low proficiency level. For example, by students using code-switching they are able to interact in a fluent way and have better communicative competence both with their classmates and with their teachers. The approach underwent by applying two validated surveys which were applied to a group of students and teachers from the Technical University of Ambato. The population was 140 students from the first to the third of basic education and 12 teachers in total. This investigation expected to describe the relationship between codeswitching and the communicative competence. The surveys were sent throughout students’ and teachers’ institutional emails in order for them to complete a questionnaire. The results obtained were positive since the alternative hypothesis was accepted and the null hypothesis was rejected. All the data was collected and analyzed through the use of the IBM SPSS software [4]. The use of codeswitching overall is a useful tool which is use by students to be able to interact in a fluent manner and have better communicative competence both with their classmates and teachers. Also, it can be seen in the results of the survey, 86% of those surveyed consider that codeswitching contributes efficiently to the development of the communicative competence.

2 State of the Art Ecuador the center of world attracts many tourists from all over the world year to year. As a result, English has gained momentum and has become the language parcel of all the fields of learning found in almost all the educational, technical, and business domains of Ecuador. Therefore, English has been taught throughout Ecuador for a long time with the motive to aid and forge future professionals into taking full advantage of the language. Code-switching has been applied involuntarily at the moment of teaching English. The usage of the mother tongue at the moment of teaching the target language for many individuals it shouldn’t be included at all since it brings negative long-term consequences [5]. However, using two set of codes has many benefits for learners and teachers since it eliminates future confusing. [6] led a study that indicated that codeswitching creates a conversational and relational effect that makes communication easier. This helps students and teachers participate and interact with each other more freely. Code switching in addition aids in building and strengthening interpersonal relationships between the teacher and the student.

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Furthermore, it also established that codeswitching breaks the social barriers making communication flow more free [7]. Finally, this study established that codeswitching is an effective tool in adding emphasis on points like making clarifications on a set of instructions or making difficult concepts more comprehensible. [8] Conducted an investigation which demonstrated that there was an attitude change between teachers and students with regard to codeswitching. It is important to realize that the use of codeswitching in the classroom setting can be a beneficial factor and is not a sign of inadequacy or necessarily an indication of low proficiency level. This study has shown, teachers have very distinctive attitudes and use of codeswitching in the classroom. A small-scale study like this, with only twelve teacher informants, has shown that attitudes towards codeswitching vary. From a quite negative attitude to an attitude that views codeswitching as necessary, to an extremely positive attitude that views it as something that facilitates learning. This attitude relates to the teachers’ personal experiences of teaching languages and seems to be connected to how they choose to use codeswitching in their classrooms. [9] Carried out a study that showed that teachers and students of the Carrera de Idiomas use less morphological structures of those that denote opposition, prefixes that give meaning to the word and formation of the plural related to other languages. In addition, this study established that the linguistic resources that need to be improved are: phonic, syntactic and semantic since these are part of the optimal development of communicative competence [10]. Finally, it also indicates that morphological structures notably improve the development of communicative competence, since the management of the formation of morphological structures is totally related to the inference of meanings of complex words and a wide variety of expressions that can only be used by a competent user of the English language [10]. Considering the fact that there are investigations that focus on the two variables like in the case of codeswitching with the use of the qualitative, and the descriptive methodology and in addition, the type of instruments that have already been validated can be applied. Regarding the communicative competence, it can also be studied from different angles, as from the point of view Bachman and Palmer or from the Common European Framework [11]. Code switching is defined in different manners by various authors. Largely, it is “the most well-known, unexceptional and particular element of bilingual behavior” [12]. Therefore, it is a characteristic and successive wonder firmly associated with the bilingual condition. As indicated by [13] codeswitching is “the variation of two dialects inside a solitary discourse, sentence or constituent.” [4] Additionally, mentioned to the substitute usage of at least two or more languages in a similar articulation or discussion. Code is here perceived as a solitary language, yet as [14] puts it, it could allude not exclusively to various dialects, yet additionally to assortments of similar language just as styles inside a language. [15] identifies four different types of contextualization cues that play an important role in the co-construction of conversation: (1) prosody, which includes intonation, stress, stress, and pitch changes; (2) paralinguistic signs, which include rhythm, pause and hesitation, and conversational synchrony; (3) code choice, which consists of code change, style change, phonetic, phonological and morphosyntactic options; and

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(4) lexical forms and expressions of formulas. Contextualization cues are readily available for bilinguals. Consequently, when code change is used for contextualization purposes in bilingual situations, it is often accompanied by changes in intonation, pitch, and rhythm [16]. [17] states that the use of codeswitching can be beneficial in the classroom for students and teachers since they allow better communication for effective functions, repetitive functions and changing the subject within the class. Teachers can use codeswitching to successfully build good rapport. In a way codeswitching can aid teachers to create a manageable linguistic ambient in the classroom. The repetitive function is the latest codeswitching change function. In some cases, the teacher could be clarifying a phrase or concept by switching to the mother tongue to transfer the necessary knowledge. Instruction in the target language may be followed by a repetition in the student’s native language, thus emphasizing the importance of foreign language content for effective understanding [18]. The term communicative competence incorporates two words, the blend of which infers competence to communicate. This clear lexico-semantical investigation uncovers the way that the central word in the syntagm communicative competence is the word competence. Competence is a standout amongst the most questionable terms in the field of general besides, associated semantics. First, involvement in phonetic talk has been by and large connected with Chomsky (1965) who in his outstandingly influential book “Aspects of the Theory of Syntax” drew what has been today observed as an incredible refinement between ability the monolingual speaker-crowd’s learning of language and execution the genuine usage of language in authentic circumstances [19]. Chomsky (1965) mentioned that competence is the theoretical knowledge of the language; acting is the actual use of language in everyday life. Then, [14] broadens this definition of communicative competence by establishing that communicative competence is the capacity that encompasses the knowledge of the language and the ability to use it. The acquisition of such competence is mediated by social experience, needs, motivations, and action, which is at the same time a renewed source of motivations, needs as well as experiences [15].

3 Methodology This present study consisted of a field research by applying two validated surveys which were applied to a group of students and teachers from the Technical University of Ambato. The population was one hundred and forty students from the first, second and third of the basic unit and 12 teachers in total from the PINE program. The surveys were sent throughout students’ and teachers’ institutional emails for them to complete a questionnaire of a total of 20 questions related to the relationship of codeswitching in the communicative competence. For this investigation, to obtain the most genuine and assertive results both the qualitative and quantitative approach were applied using IBM SPSS software. Qualitative because it allowed to describe, analyzed, and interpreted the benefits that codeswitching brings to table for effective communication.

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Quantitative since it permitted to process all the numerical data from the surveys to perform the comparative analysis. The whole study was conducted in 3.5 months and 5 h per week (Table 1).

4 Results Table 1. Do you consider code switching from English to Spanish benefits your learning? Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative percent Valid

Never 15 Occasionally 25 Sometimes 38 Often 31 Always 20 No Answer 11 Total 140 Missing System 133 Total 273 Author: Mayorga C. (2020)

5.5 9.2 13.9 11.4 7.3 4.0 51.3 48.7 100.0

10.7 17.9 27.1 22.1 14.3 7.9 100.0

10.7 28.6 55.7 77.9 92.1 100.0

The use of codeswitching and its importance in learning English and in the majority 63.5% a high degree of the population considers that the use of codeswitching generates benefits in their learning. This is evident since changing code encourages communication as it is considered; a useful instrument that students can use to improve their communication skills in the classroom and thus improve learning. Finally, the trend is positive since it was evidenced that the majority use codeswitching to improve their learning of the target language (Table 2). Table 2. One- sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test Details N Normal parameters a, b

Difference

Mean Standard deviation Most extreme differences Absolute Positive Negative Test statistic Asymptotic sig (2-tailed) Author: Mayorga C. (2020)

140 3.47 1.014 .199 .179 −.199 2.354 .000

According to what can be observed in the table below, the results are key components for the investigation. They affirm the importance of the use of code switching

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and its positive influence on the communication skills that students have in the class while they learn English. The results obtained are positive since it shows the use of codeswitching as a communication strategy. This aids the communication of students in the classroom and at the same time helps the student to improve their English (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Differences test Author: Mayorga C. (2020)

As demonstrated in the hypothesis table above, according to the chi-square test the null hypothesis is rejected. H_0: Codeswitching does not influence the communicative competence. H_1: Codeswitching influences the communicative competence.

5 Conclusions The results of this research demonstrate that the use of codeswitching is a useful tool. Students used it to be able to interact in a fluent way and have better communicative competence both with their classmates and with their teachers. In addition, it also allowed to improve the communication skills of the students in the most important aspects in which they needed to reinforce and verify information shared by the teacher. Overall, the results obtained in this study were positive since the alternative hypotheses was accepted and the null hypothesis was rejected further research can be done. Codeswitching can also be implemented not just in communicative competence, but we can make further studies with Sociolinguistics aspects. This can broaden the horizon by studying specific aspects of society mix within codeswitching to analyze the society’s effect on the language. Acknowledgments. Thanks to the Technical University of Ambato, to the Research and Development Department (DIDE-UTA) for supporting our research project “Development of Web 3.0 tools for Education as a support for collaborative Learning” SFFCHE5, and being part of the research group: Research in Language and Education”.

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References 1. Souad Kheder, E.K.: Cognitive control in bilinguals: Proficiency and code-switching both matter. Cognition 209, 104575 (2021) 2. Liu, C., Cheung, S.K., Chung, K.K.H., McBride, C., Lam, C.B., Li, X.: The roles of executive functioning and oral language skills in young Chinese children’s arithmetic competence. Learn. Individ. Differ. 77, 101810 (2020) 3. Anaza, N.A., Kemp, E., Briggs, E., Borders, A.L.: Tell me a story: the role of narrative transportation and the C-suite in B2B advertising. Ind. Mark. Manage. 89, 605–618 (2020) 4. Ganji, S., Dhawan, K., Sinha, R.: Novel textual features for language modeling of intrasentential code-switching data. Comput. Speech Lang. 64, 101099 (2020) 5. Rossi, E., Dussias, P.E., Diaz, M., van Hell, J.G., Newman, S.: Neural signatures of inhibitory control in intra-sentential code-switching: evidence from fMRI. J. Neurolinguistics 57, 100938 (2021) 6. Long, Y., Li, Y., Zhang, Q., Wei, S., Ye, H., Yang, J.: Acoustic data augmentation for Mandarin-English code-switching speech recognition. Appl. Acoust. 161, 107175 (2020) 7. Lemieux, M., Colazo, J.M., Kienka, T., Zhakyp, A.: A basis to be here: stories from international graduate students in the United States. Cell Reports Med. 1(6), 100100 (2020) 8. Olson, D.J.: Phonological processes across word and language boundaries: evidence from code-switching. J. Phonetics 77, 100937 (2019) 9. Gross, M.C., Lopez, E., Buac, M., Kaushanskaya, M.: Processing of code-switched sentences by bilingual children: cognitive and linguistic predictors. Cogn. Dev. 52, 100821 (2019) 10. Yeh, V.J.-H., Sherwood, G., Durham, C.F., Kardong-Edgren, S., Schwartz, T.A., Beeber, L. S.: Designing and implementing asynchronous online deliberate practice to develop interprofessional communication competency. Nurse Educ. Pract. 35, 21–26 (2019) 11. Wyngaerd, E.V.: C0 and Dutch-English code-switching. Ampersand 7, 100060 (2020) 12. Ganji, S., Dhawan, K., Sinha, R.: IITG-HingCoS corpus: a Hinglish code-switching database for automatic speech recognition. Speech Commun. 110, 76–89 (2019) 13. Ganji, S., Dhawan, K., Sinha, R.:Joint language identification of code-switching speech using attention-based E2E network, pp. 1–5. IEEE (2020) 14. Fernandez, C.B., Litcofsky, K.A., Hell, J.G.: Neural correlates of intra-sentential codeswitching in the auditory modality. J. Neurolinguistics 51, 17–41 (2019) 15. Ahmad, F., Barner-Rasmussen, W.: False foe? When and how code switching practices can support knowledge sharing in multinational corporations. J. Int. Manage. 25(3), 100671 (2019) 16. Wang, L.: Distance and word order between lexical heads and noun dependents in ChineseEnglish code-switching. Lingua 223, 67–85 (2019) 17. Ismail Azlan, N.M.N., Narasuman, S.: The role of code-switching as a communicative tool in an ESL teacher education classroom. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 90, 458–467 (2013) 18. Rogiers, A., Merchie, E., Keer, H.V.: Illuminating learning from informative texts in secondary education: a switching replication design study. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 64, 101946 (2021) 19. Hamed, I., Elmahdy, M., Abdennadher, S.: Building a first language model for code-switch Arabic-English. Procedia Comput. Sci. 117, 208–216 (2017)

Online Stories from the Moth to Improve the Speaking Skill: Ambato Case Yadira Gallardo-Niacato(&) , Ruth Infante-Paredes , Wilma Suárez-Mosquera , and Mayorie Chimbo-Cáceres Facultad de Ciencias Humanas y de la Educación, Research Group in Language and Education, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ambato, Ecuador {ygallardo7528,rutheinfantep,wilmaesuarezm, elsamchimboc}@uta.edu.ec

Abstract. This research project tries to investigate the influence of the Moth stories in the development of the speaking English skill. This is an experimental representation of the learning in form of storytelling method. This study had the participation of 39 students from the second semester “A” of Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extranjeros program at Technical University of Ambato. The whole experimental group (EG) was allowed to use online resources such as stories taken from The Moth web page to practice and complete some speaking tasks. To assess the speaking skill, a mock-up Key English Test (KET) speaking part was used as a pre and post-test. The speaking criteria were stated in the rubric provided by Cambridge which consisted of Grammar and Vocabulary, Pronunciation and Interactive Communication. The experiment was designed with the use of with the use of online stories according to student’s age and needs and obviously taking into consideration the COVID-19 pandemic. In order to analyze the experimental data that were represented in the paper, the SPSS program was used to apply a T-Student test. To conclude, the results showed that online stories taken from The Moth web page had positive effects on the development of the students’ speaking skill. Its interface, resource, structure, and methodology were engaging for students so they improved mainly the pronunciation and its branches which are the intelligibility, word-stress, intonation and phonological features. Thus, the positive effects of using online storytelling strategies were obvious in this research. Keywords: Online stories Intelligibility


Storytelling
Speaking skill
Pronunciation


1 Introduction In terms of learning new languages, digital resources have marked a before and after. Some teachers believe that internet resources, rather than conventional methods, help students’ to learn better. This research project was created to develop the speaking skill of students by using online stories taken from The Moth web page Green, G. D. (1997). Speaking has gained considerable significance in the history of English teaching as it is referred to an interactive process of meaning-building involving the creation, receipt © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 303–310, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_31

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and processing of information. Thereby, it is a good idea to use something external to develop this skill in a better way [1]. The viability of the experiment is due to the aid of technical tools such as offerings and applications from The Moth that work together with this organization, if things don’t work well, this variety of items may be beneficial. In addition, the participants of this research were 39 Ecuadorian students from second semester of “Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extrajeros” program at Technical University of Ambato. Moreover, there are some researchers and experiments related to the use of storytelling and the development of the Speaking skill. However, the originality of this project is due to the use of online stories taken from The Moth web page because apart from the fact that they weren’t used in other projects like this, they are podcasts, it means that they can be found on many internet sites and they are easy to download and use [2]. Additionally, those stories are real experiences of the storytellers and they are told in first-person to make them deeper and more catching for the listener. Finally, this experiment will benefit the participants of this project and also will help students who want to be English teachers because this can be a guide for their following researches related to this topic [3]. Besides, any teacher can apply this idea to improve students’ speaking production because the stories have a variety of topics, so people can use them according to the participants’ level and interests.

2 State of the Art According to [4], the original way of teaching is the storytelling strategy, which has the ability to encourage emotional intelligence and allows the learner to gain insight into human behavior. Thus, his study applied the Cooperative Storytelling Technique in Nepal Rastriya Chandraganga Secondary School, Gagretal, Surkhet to improve student speech skills of 11th grade students. This research was a collective study of classroom behavior whose main aim was to know whether or not the storytelling technique could enhance the ability of students to communicate. In the meantime, the basic goals were to describe: In order to develop their speaking skills, to introduce storytelling strategy in 11th grader students at our school. To increase their faith in the ability to talk and to build fluency in speaking [5]. The data from this study were derived from the results of the story telling contest and the speaking exam. The outcome has represented in terms of understanding, fluency, vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation were strengthened by storytelling. Therefore, it can be said that the strategy of storytelling will enhance the students’ speaking skill. [6], has a research that applied storytelling in a speaking class to ensure that novices are eager to speak English. This study was a collaborative classroom action study whose primary objective was to understand whether or not storytelling could enhance the ability of the students to communicate. In the meanwhile, the basic purposes consisted of explaining the actions of the instructor, the activities of the students, and the reactions of the students when storytelling was applied in the speech class [7]. The subjects were 23 Class N students from the second semester of Hasyim Asy’ari University’s Comprehensive English Program around the years 2016 and 2017. The information from this study was derived from the collaborator’s observations and the

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speech examination. The outcome showed that after the introduction of storytelling, there was an increase in the speaking capacity of students. The outcome of the speaking test in cycle two explained that there was strong improvement in the talking dimensions of the students [8]. Finally, other interesting article is “Effects of storytelling using Web-based multimedia framework to promote EFL speaking” [9]. In the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom, this study applied storytelling to encourage the speaking skill. By creating individual and interactive stories with a Web-based multimedia framework, students were asked to practice speaking EFL. In order to promote language learning, researchers sought to explore the feasibility of applying individual and interactive storytelling to speech skills and the possible effects of multimedia aids in storytelling [10]. In addition, they examined the relationships with learning achievement between research variables from this analysis, such as speaking output on individual and interactive storytelling, the amount of animation representations, and the actual use of the device [11]. In this study, four key findings were found. Second, students who used the framework to build stories outperformed students who did not use it in the post-test substantially. This result implies that the systemsupported storytelling practice was beneficial for enhancing speaking abilities. Second, the performance of speaking and the amount of animation representations correlated significantly with the achievement of literacy [12]. Third, the significant indicator of learning achievement was only the speaking output of individual storytelling. Students working on storytelling individually were independent; they were less distracted from others and had more practice opportunities [13]. Finally, the majority of students shared optimistic views and attitudes towards the method and teaching practices. Based on the results, researchers indicate that it could be helpful to promote speaking skills through storytelling learning activities assisted by the Web-based multimedia framework [14] and implementing them in the EFL learning classroom. Students can better recall new words, practice speaking skills more often, become fluent in speaking the target language, and increase the efficiency of learning [15].

3 Methodology This research project was based on field and bibliographic research. First of all, it is field because it was held with individuals at the Technical University of Ambato. The data and the whole information were collected with students from that institution. When knowing the problem, it was improved with the correct procedure in the same environment. On the other hand, this project was bibliographic since the information for this project was taken from official sources such as scientific articles, thesis, books, papers and other interesting sources all focused on the variables of this research or documents with related topics.

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Thus, as human resource, it was needed the participation of 39 Ecuadorian students from second semester of “Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extrajeros” program at Technical University of Ambato with an A2 Level of the CEFR. Furthermore, the lesson plan has the introduction, objectives, material, stages, time to use in each stage and the worksheets, all of this characteristics are necessary in a complete lesson plan in order to do the changes and complete the class hours by having an introduction, class development and a final result. Moreover, the rubric of this exam taken from Cambridge.org was important in order to test students in a good way. In addition, the rubric gives the idea of what area was going to be developed in this research was the pronunciation which tests the intelligibility and control over phonological features at utterance and word levels. All the graphics of results, individual results, the T test and other quantities were obtained by using the SPSS program which is full of commands.

4 Results The results of this research project were analyzed by using the SPSS program. It was used by the researcher to see if there is a relevant association among the variables and how the results of the pre and post- test changed. In this part, the pre-test and post- test results are shown by using graphic results, individual results, the T test, and other quantities and percentages which are important to know the validity of this study. 4.1

Pretest

In this study, the results obtained when applying the pre-test were necessary to know which speaking sub-skill the group needed to improve and also to have an idea about which parts can be modified to improve the shortcomings and the results. Additionally, the pre-test contributed to analyze if students have a similar average of frequency, valid percentage, and accumulated percentage. Table 1. Pre-test results Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative percent Valid 2,0 2 5,1 2,3 1 2,6 2,5 5 12,8 2,8 4 10,3 3,0 14 35,9 3,3 7 17,9 3,5 3 7,7 4,0 2 5,1 4,8 1 2,6 Total 39 100,0 Author: Gallardo Y. (2020)

5,1 2,6 12,8 10,3 35,9 17,9 7,7 5,1 2,6 100,0

5,1 7,7 20,5 30,8 66,7 84,6 92,3 97,4 100,0

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The results in Table 1 show us in the first column the average grades obtained by the students (2,0; 2,3; 2,5; 2,8; 3,0; 3,3; 3,5; 4,0; 4,8). We can also see the number of students who obtained the grades shown, getting a 3 out of 5 the most common since 14 students get that grade and these students represent the 35.9% that is represented in this table. In addition, our lowest rating is 2 out of 5, which was obtained by 2 students representing the 5.1% of the total and the highest rating is 4.8 out of 5, which was obtained by one student representing the 2.6%. 4.2

Post-test

Moreover, the numerical results of the post-test are necessary for this research since they help the researcher to see what is the contrast with the pre-test and to verify if there is an improvement in the results of frequency, valid percentage, and accumulated percentage in each student, and get clear and concise numerical results. Table 2. Post-test results Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative percent Valid 2,3 1 2,6 3,0 11 28,2 3,3 8 20,5 3,5 4 10,3 3,8 4 10,3 4,0 8 20,5 4,3 1 2,6 5,0 2 5,1 Total 39 100,0 Author: Gallardo Y. (2020)

2,6 28,2 20,5 10,3 10,3 20,5 2,6 5,1 100,0

2,6 30,8 51,3 61,5 71,8 92,3 94,9 100,0

The results in Table 2 show us in the first column the average grades obtained by the students (2,3; 3,0; 3,3; 3,5; 3,8; 4,0; 4,3; 5,0). We have the grade 3 out of 5 the most common since 11 students obtained it and represents the 28.3% that is represented in graphic 2. In addition, our lowest rating is 2.3 out of 5, which was obtained by 1 students representing the 2.6% of the total and the highest rating is 5 out of 5, which was obtained by 2 students representing the 5.1%. It is necessary to say that the lowest grade in this part exceeds the highest grade of the pre-test by 0.3 points and also, in the post-test the highest grade was 5, it means that there are improvements in the results because the highest grade in the post test was 4,8. 4.3

Hypothesis Verification

For this verification it was used a pre and post-test which were evaluates quantitatively since it was used the rubric from Cambridge to give them a numerical score. To verify

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if the null hypothesis of this project is accepted or rejected. The T test has been applied and thus obtain real results of the P-value (less than 0.05 is rejected) by comparing the pre and post-test results since this is necessary to see if the entire experiment worked or not (Tables 3, 4 and 5). Table 3. Paired samples statistics Mean N Standard deviation Mean standard error Pair 1 Pretest 3,036 39 ,5249 Postest 3,518 39 5619

,0841 ,0900

Table 4. Paired sample correlations N Correlation Sig 39 ,764 ,000

Table 5. Paired samples test Matched differences Mean Standard Mean deviation standard error Pair 1

PretestPostest

−,4821 ,3748

,0600

t gl Sig. (bilateral) 95% confidence interval of the difference Lower Higher −,6035 −,3606 8,033 38 ,000

According to the T-test analysis of the SPSS software, the P-value of 0.000 is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative one is accepted stating that Online Stories taken from The Moth web page influence in the speaking skill of students from second semester “A” of “Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extranjeros” program at Technical University of Ambato.

5 Conclusions To conclude, the speaking sub-skill that the students of this research needed to improve was the pronunciation sub-skill and some of its branches which are the intelligibility, word-stress, intonation and phonological features. These branches were the ones that according to the pre-test results, the students needed to improve. Although, phonemes and word stress were the ones that students practiced more in each class and developed altogether with The Moth stories.

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Moreover, online stories from The Moth applied were helpful for developing the speaking skill of the students because before the experiment the average of students was 3 out of five, after applying the experiment during 4 weeks the average is 3.5 out of five because in each class online stories and the activities were designed to develop the speaking skill of students. Finally, it is important to apply this preliminary project in order to prove if these online stories are helpful to develop the whole language skills. Acknowledgments. Thanks to the Technical University of Ambato, to the Research and Development Department (DIDE-UTA) for supporting our research project “Development of Web 3.0 tools for Education as a support for collaborative Learning” SFFCHE5, and being part of the research group: Research in Language and Education”.

References 1. Weyand, L., Juzwik, M.M.: Schooling activist evangelical literacy: Speaking, writing, and storying Christian faith in dialogue with public secondary literacy curriculum. Linguist. Educ. 55, 100789 (2020) 2. Giustini, D.: Interpreter training in Japanese higher education: An innovative method for the promotion of linguistic instrumentalism? Linguist. Educ. 56, 100792 (2020) 3. Liu, C., Cheung, S.K., Chung, K.K.H., McBride, C., Lam, C.B., Li, X.: The roles of executive functioning and oral language skills in young Chinese children’s arithmetic competence. Learn. Individ. Differ. 77, 101810 (2020) 4. Getto, G.: The story/test/story method: a combined approach to usability testing and contextual inquiry. Comput. Compos. 55, 102548 (2020) 5. Reilly, N.O.: Tell me the story: marginalisation, transformation, and school-based restorative practice. Int. J. Educ. Res. 94, 158–167 (2019) 6. Newcomer, S.N., Cowin, K.M.: The power and possibility of stories: Learning to become culturally sustaining and socially just educators. Rev. Educ. Pedagogy Cult. Stud. 1–22 (2021) 7. Shunsuke Nishioka, N.D.: Language and cultural reproduction in Malawi: Unpacking the relationship between linguistic capital and learning outcomes. Int. J. Educ. Res. 93, 1–19 (2019) 8. Beck, M.S., Sitzman, K.: Compelling reasons for using digital stories to teach: a descriptive qualitative study. Teach. Learn. Nurs. 14(4), 265–269 (2019) 9. Lin, Y.-L.: A helping hand for thinking and speaking: effects of gesturing and task planning on second language narrative discourse. System 91, 102243 (2020) 10. Anaza, N.A., Kemp, E., Briggs, E., Borders, A.L.: Tell me a story: the role of narrative transportation and the C-suite in B2B advertising. Ind. Mark. Manage. 89, 605–618 (2020) 11. Betsch, T., et al.: Paranormal beliefs and individual differences: story seeking without reasoned review. Heliyon 6(6), e04259 (2020) 12. Yeh, V.J.-H., Sherwood, G., Durham, C.F., Kardong-Edgren, S., Schwartz, T.A., Beeber, L. S.: Designing and implementing asynchronous online deliberate practice to develop interprofessional communication competency. Nurse Educ. Pract. 35, 21–26 (2019)

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13. Sripada, P.N., Masuram, J.: Developing speaking skills through task-based materials. Procedia Comput. Sci. 172, 60–65 (2020) 14. Lemieux, M., Colazo, J.M., Kienka, T., Zhakyp, A.: A Basis to be here: stories from international graduate students in the United States. Cell Rep. Med. 1(6), 100100 (2020) 15. Bashori, M., van Hout, R., Strik, H., Cucchiarini, C.: Effects of ASR-based websites on EFL learners’ vocabulary, speaking anxiety, and language enjoyment. System 99, 102496 (2021)

Internationalization of Teacher Education During COVID-19 Aleksandra Lazareva(&), Irina Ivashenko Amdal, Kjerstin Breistein Danielsen, and Eli-Marie Danbolt Drange University of Agder, Universitetsveien 25, 4630 Kristiansand, Norway {aleksandra.lazareva,irina.i.amdal, kjerstin.b.danielsen,eli.m.drange}@uia.no

Abstract. The COVID-19 pandemic has brought obvious challenges to student and staff mobility, thus impeding internationalization abroad. The goal of the project described in this paper is to identify and implement effective teaching methods to increase internationalization at home (IaH). The context of this research is Norwegian teacher education (TED). TED students in their secondyear pedagogy course at a Norwegian university participated in the project in the Fall semester 2020 and the Spring semester 2021. An action research approach was adopted as the main research approach. The action steps taken in the Fall semester 2020 (first cycle) were analyzed and revised before the implementation of adjusted action steps in the Spring semester 2021 (second cycle). The overall conclusion is that there is much potential in the digital technology for providing the opportunities for IaH. However, multiple aspects must be carefully planned for the IaH activities to be successful, such as close integration of the IaH assignments with the pedagogy course at home university, providing students with an easy access to the IaH assignments online, and taking consideration to the different academic calendars of international partner universities. The lessons learned from both cycles contribute to the revision of the action steps to be implemented in the Fall semester 2021 with the goal of increasing IaH. Keywords: Internationalization at home Teacher education


Digitalization
Higher education


1 Introduction 1.1

Background

Internationalization is a relatively new and broad concept in tertiary education. The most often referred to activity in internationalization is mobility, also described as “internalization abroad”. In the European context, this is often linked to the ERASMUS program based on collaboration through student and faculty exchange. The other key dimension of internationalization is “internationalization at home” (IaH), which can be actualized through the internationalization of curriculum and global citizenship development. While both components are of high importance, mobility has generally been receiving greater focus than IaH [1]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 311–321, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_32

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Development of technology is crucial for making IaH possible, which also requires digital competence. In teacher education (TED), the development of pedagogical digital competence for teacher students is a core issue which includes the exploration of innovative teaching methods. As partners in ITELab-project1 from 2017–2019, the university where this research takes place worked together with higher education institutions and industry partners to foster innovation and knowledge exchange in initial/pre-service teacher education (ITE) across Europe. The ITELab-project was a Knowledge Alliance project led by European Schoolnet, and digital competence and 21st century skills were important focus areas. In the project, partners worked together to develop new course modules and a massive open online course (MOOC) for teacher students building on the competences defined in the European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators, “DigCompEdu” [2]. An ITE University-ICT industry Forum was also established to work with a wider group of stakeholders. Through collaborative online learning teacher students who participated in the ITELab activities got the opportunity to both develop their digital competence as well as broaden their professional network by collaborating and interacting with teacher students from several other countries. Padlet2, video and social media were some of the important tools used, both in the MOOC and for collaboration outside the MOOC. Experiences from the ITELab project inspired the research team to use some of the same tools to work with IaH in a new project. Through working with digital tools including Padlet and trying out the MOOC “The Networked Teacher – Teaching in the 21st Century”3, the teacher students were to develop their pedagogical digital competence as well as broaden their view of internationalization. 1.2

Aim of the Project

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought obvious challenges to student and staff mobility, thus impeding internationalization abroad. The goal of the project described in this paper is to identify and implement effective teaching methods to increase IaH at the same time as developing teacher students’ pedagogical digital competence. IaH is understood as the “purposeful integration of international and intercultural dimensions into the formal and informal curriculum for all students within domestic learning environments” [3, p. 76]. The focus of the project is on the opportunities provided by digital technology for IaH, as distance education can integrate an international component without the necessity for physical mobility. While there is no data on the participation of international students in distance education initiatives, the impression is that it is rather limited [1].

1 2 3

http://itelab.eun.org/. https://padlet.com/. https://www.europeanschoolnetacademy.eu/courses/course-v1:ITELab+Networked_21C+2019/ about.

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Project Participants

The project was initiated in Spring 2020, and the practical implementation has taken place in both the Fall semester 2020 and the Spring semester 2021. The context of the project is Norwegian TED. Two batches of TED students taking a second-year pedagogy course at a Norwegian university participated in the project in the Fall semester 2020 (N = 98) and the Spring semester 2021 (N = 89). The research team consists of a teacher education advisor, an associate professor in foreign languages, and two associate professors in education, all employed at the same university.

2 Related Research: Internationalization at Home IaH is one of the several types of internationalization of TED described in the research literature. Since the purpose of this paper is to describe the opportunities provided by information and communication technologies (ICT) for IaH, we do not discuss internationalization through students exchange or the internationalization of curriculum [3, 4]. The research reviewed in this section builds on earlier investigation of the internationalization of TED at home and the impact of ICT on the internationalization of TED at home. The concept of internationalization of education was first introduced as “the process of integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the teaching, research, and service functions of the institution” [4]. This definition emphasizes that internationalization is a process of professional development of both teacher students and teacher educators [5, 6]. Later, the concept of internationalization of higher education developed from the dimension of institutional interest to the very core of national interests [7]. This development of the concept highlights the increasing globalization and the growing interest in internationalized activities and intercultural communication. The concept of IaH in higher education was introduced in 1998 at Malmö University in Sweden. IaH can be understood as a set of instruments and activities “at home” that are aimed at developing international and intercultural competencies in students [8]. IaH corresponds to activities, processes, and environmental experiences of teaching that contribute to the development of international understanding and crosscultural, curriculum-oriented skills that prepare students to participate in a globalized world [4, 9]. It can also provide opportunities for understanding of common values between different peoples and cultures and improve education quality through mutual learning [10]. Although IaH differs from physical cross-cultural situations, its development is still influenced by the ways faculty staff perceive the concept of IaH and its relevance for the needs of their subjects [11]. Research on IaH demonstrates that university teachers play a significant role in offering students learning experiences and promote their cultural ability to learn and work in a globalized world [11–13]. IaH also fosters a culture that supports international understanding and helps overcome international time and space limitations. According to Nilsson [14], IaH is an action-

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oriented practice that is realized through continuous discussions on potential obstacles faced by teaching staff and students and their specific solutions. In a globalized world characterized by transnational mobility, employment, and migration, teachers face a need to be capable of promoting equal learning opportunities to children with different learning and behavioral challenges, as well as to those with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. On this background, research has distinguished the need to integrate internalization dimensions in teacher preparation programs to increase teacher students’ pedagogical and didactical knowledge and skills to educate children from diverse backgrounds [15]. IaH implies “purposeful integration of international and intercultural dimensions into the formal and informal curriculum for all students within domestic learning environments” [3, p. 69]. Formal curriculum refers to the planned activities that the students participate in. According to Leask [16], students must undertake this activity to fulfil their degree program. Informal curriculum refers to the various support and activities that are not formally assessed [16]. The notion of being compulsory requires that IaH involves ICT, such as e-learning platforms or MOOC, opening opportunities for innovative learning approaches, as well as boosting the establishment of international campus networks and providing students with a cross-cultural environment without having to study abroad [9, 11]. ICT enables students to share a variety of viewpoints on specific issues, thus facilitating their experiences. Despite the numerous benefits that IaH brings to TED, it must be noted that the outcomes from intercultural activities can be challenged by contradictions between the understanding of aims of internalization of TED held by faculty staff abroad.

3 Research Approach: Action Research Action research, i.e., an “iterative process involving researchers and practitioners acting together on a particular cycle of activities, including problem diagnosis, action intervention, and reflective learning” [17], was adopted as the main research approach in this project. One of the benefits of action research is that this approach combines theory and practice and researchers and practitioners through reflection on a certain immediate situation, which allows for research to inform practice and practice to inform research. Action research consists of cycles of activities including such stages as problem diagnosis, action intervention, and reflective learning [17]. The iterative character of action research is one of its most recognized characteristics [18]. Action research allows for experimentation through intervention in real-world situations, as well as the reflection on the effects of this intervention. The reflection allows for making modifications to the theory and then trying it out in another iteration [17]. However, some scholars argue that reflection should not be singled out as a separate phase because reflection should occur throughout the whole process, i.e., reflection on current practices to identify areas for improvement, reflection during the phases of planning, implementation, and monitoring, and finally, ending the cycle with the reflection on the whole process as a whole [18].

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Action research has been largely used in the field of education, thus giving teachers a central role in research-into-practice. Much research literature can be found in various subject areas, e.g., English language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies [19]. Action research “employs recognized research techniques to inform the action taken to improve practice” [18]. A practical guide to action research [20] is employed in this study to define certain steps to be followed in the action research process. The research team started out by reviewing the current practices and identifying the aspects that need improvement. Afterwards, a way forward was planned, tried out and evaluated (Fall semester 2020). Then, the team moved on to the next cycle, where the plan was adjusted according to the documented observations. The adjusted plan was again implemented and evaluated (Spring semester 2021). Each following cycle is to follow the same pattern, until the desired outcomes are achieved [20]. Figure 1 illustrates the activities in each cycle in a more detailed way.

Cycle one (Fall semester 2020) •Describing the current situaƟon and professional pracƟces, idenƟfying the parƟcipants •Planning from themaƟc concern to the first acƟon step •ImplementaƟon of the first acƟon step and documentaƟon of who did what, when, where, how, and why •ReflecƟon on and documentaƟon of the outcomes (including the methods of data collecƟon and analysis) Cycle two (Spring semester 2021) •Planning from previous cycle to the second acƟon step •ImplementaƟon of the first acƟon step and documentaƟon of who did what, when, where, how, and why •ReflecƟon on and documentaƟon of the outcomes (including the methods of data collecƟon and analysis)

Fig. 1. Illustration of the two completed cycles of action research, based on Tripp [18].

3.1

First Cycle (Fall Semester 2020)

In the Fall semester 2020, the research team planned two main sets of activities for the second-year TED students taking the pedagogy course. The first set was a hands-on workshop in the Future Classroom Lab at the university. In the workshop, the students worked on various assignments aimed at exploring digital tools to use in the classroom to foster inclusion. In the second set, the students were asked to complete selected activities from the international MOOC “The Networked Teacher – Teaching in the 21st Century”. As indicated in the introduction, this MOOC was developed by the ITELabproject with the goal of facilitating knowledge exchange in teacher education. The course content includes video lectures and various assignments for the participants to collaborate on, e.g., through such tools as Padlet. The students were asked to work on

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selected assignments two times during the semester: first, they were asked to go through two assignments individually prior to their visit to the Future Classroom Lab at the university. Second, they worked on two other assignments in small groups during a seminar after the visit to the Future Classroom Lab. In both cases, the students were asked to post their reflections on the Padlet pages which were linked to from the MOOC environment, as well as read and reflect on thoughts shared by their TED student colleagues from other countries. The students were not asked to take all the MOOC activities as not all the activities were directly relevant for the pedagogy course the students were taking, and it could easily lead to work overload. However, the students were encouraged to explore the MOOC on their own if they wished so. The research team observed that the MOOC environment was somewhat challenging for the students to navigate. Therefore, a different approach was planned and implemented in Spring semester 2021. 3.2

Second Cycle (Spring Semester 2021)

In Spring semester 2021, the research team prepared three reflection assignments covering the topics of critical thinking, self-regulated learning, and adapted teaching. These are some of the central topics in the pedagogy course for the second-year TED students in Norway. For each of the three assignments, a password protected Padlet was created. The students were asked to post their reflections (individually or in small groups) on a Padlet after watching the video lectures on the given topic. Simultaneously, the research team members contacted some of the established international partners directly, inquiring whether they would be interested in participating in the project and sharing the reflection assignments together with the Padlet links with their TED students. The research team also created a blog introducing the internationalization project and including all the collaboration assignments. The blog is meant as a platform for showcasing the project activities and can be easily accessed by both established and potential collaborators. Also in the Spring semester 2021 a visit to the Future Classroom Lab was planned for a similar hands-on workshop as in the Fall semester 2020. However, it did not go according to the plan due to the unstable situation with the spread of COVID-19 in the region and changing restrictions.

4 Results: Reflections and Lessons Learned 4.1

First Cycle (Fall Semester 2020)

Three of the research team members were present at the hands-on workshop in the Future Classroom Lab, assisting the students during their practical work with the assignments. The research team observed that overall, the students demonstrated a positive attitude to learning about and practicing new digital tools. However, the research team did not gather any systematic data that would demonstrate to what extent the students used the tools in their practical period later the same semester. Therefore,

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the team planned for collecting more systematic feedback from the students on this matter in the Spring semester 2021. When it comes to the MOOC assignments, the MOOC environment was experienced by the students as somewhat confusing to navigate. This had likely happened because the students were asked to work on selected assignments only, instead of following the MOOC progression from the start to the end. As mentioned previously, the second MOOC assignment was completed by the students in small groups during a seminar session. After completing the assignment, some of the students mentioned that they perceived it interesting to read the reflections posted by teacher students from other countries. Some of the students pointed out certain similarities in the reflections across the different universities on the topic of adapted teaching. This in its turn led to a brief follow-up discussion with the rest of the class about the universal relevance of the topics covered by the students in the secondyear pedagogy course. Some other students, on the opposite, pointed out the contributions which were different from their own. Namely, some of the contributions described classroom situations which seemed to differ from the Norwegian schools in terms of available technology for facilitating adapted teaching. This opened for a discussion with the rest of the class on some of the ways to adapt teaching without involving advanced technologies. While the students were strongly encouraged to explore more of the MOOC (in addition to the selected assignments), the research team observed that this was done to a limited extent only. The team concluded that while the MOOC is highly relevant for TED students, the limited time resources, lack of tight integration of the MOOC with the pedagogy course the students were taking at the university, as well as the assignment being voluntary made the students opt out from exploring more of the MOOC. Thus, the research team designed another approach to be implemented in the Spring semester 2021. A dedicated Padlet account was created, and the tasks were posted there. The students (both at the university in Norway and partner universities abroad) received the links directly to these tasks. 4.2

Second Cycle (Spring Semester 2021)

As mentioned in Sect. 3.2, the planned hands-on workshop in the Future Classroom Lab did not happen according to the plan due to the COVID-19 situation in the region. Therefore, the research team had to postpone this part of the project until the Fall Semester 2021. Nevertheless, the three reflection assignments on the topics of critical thinking, selfregulated learning, and adapted teaching were distributed to the students. The students received the link to each of the assignments the same day they had a video lecture on the corresponding topic in the pedagogy course they were taking at the university. However, the overall number of contributions on the Padlet pages observed by the research team was limited. The research team concluded that this could have been caused by two major reasons. The first reason is a non-compulsory character of the reflection assignment and the fact that the task was given in connection with the asynchronous video lectures (and not during synchronous sessions). There are rather strict regulations in the Norwegian TED on how much compulsory work a TED teacher

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can require from the students. Nevertheless, the participation in such reflection assignments can be increased if the assignments are completed in small groups during the synchronous sessions. Secondly, an important challenge in the collaboration activities involving partners from different international institutions is the different academic calendars of the different countries involved. This may lead to students responding to the shared tasks at different points of time, supposedly decreasing motivation and curiosity of those who participate first (in this case, the Norwegian TED students), when there are not so many contributions from others. Thus, it is important to discuss the time frame for asynchronous participation in the different shared activities with each international institution involved. 4.3

Reflections on the Research Approach

While the action research approach was in general perceived by the research team as an appropriate choice in this project, allowing for several iterative rounds of planning, implementation, and evaluation, there are certain aspects that must be carefully considered for the approach to bring the best possible results. One of the challenges studying teaching practice through action research is the traditional definition of education research which separates two communities. On the one side, there is a research community responsible for rigorous research designs which often imply randomized samples and experimental setups. On the other hand, there is a practice community, which includes the practitioners themselves, including teachers [19]. In the present research team, two of the members shared the roles of the researcher and practitioner (i.e., teaching the pedagogy course to the students who participated in the IaH activities), which could have made the role division somewhat blurred. It is important to be aware of potential biases in action research [21]. Thus, the planning, as well as the discussions and reflections on the process were carried out in the team including all four members. This helped ensure that both the “insider” and “outsider” perspectives were present when evaluating the implemented activities. Another crucial issue is ethical considerations. During the first two cycles of the action research process, the research team did not carry out systematic data collection from the student group participating in the project. All the discussion, reflections, and evaluations were carried out on the background of the research team members’ general observations of the teaching and learning process during the semester and interactions with the students in the seminar sessions. While this approached allowed the team to make general observations and conclusions, as well as keep the anonymity of the student group, the research team considers it necessary to plan for a more systematic data collection in the future cycles of the project, both in terms of collecting data through the observation of the learning process (e.g., developing an observation protocol to be used in seminar sessions, or criteria for assessing Padlet contributions) and the feedback from the participating students (e.g., a student survey, or an interview with selected students). This will imply providing a more detailed information to the students about the project and getting the participants’ informed consent.

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5 Next Steps: Third Cycle It is planned for the project to continue in the academic year 2021–2022, both in the Fall semester 2021 and the Spring semester 2022. Following the process of action research outlined above, to optimize the potential of digital technology in providing the opportunities for IaH and developing students’ digital competence, the lessons learned from the first two cycles will be included in the planning and implementation of the next steps in the Fall semester 2021 (third cycle). First, the international collaboration assignments will be further adjusted to even better integrate with the topics covered in the second-year pedagogy course. The research team considers suggesting that students should work with the assignments during synchronous session, with the aim to increase participation. It is more probable that this way the international collaboration tasks will be experienced as a more natural part of the course progression. Another approach could be integrating the international collaboration tasks in one of the compulsory assignments or connecting the tasks to the practical activities students work with on campus. It could also be fruitful to integrate the presentation of the MOOC as one of the activities in the hands-on workshop in the Future Classroom Lab. Second, the team will search for effective ways to better align the distribution of assignments with the different academic calendars of the participating international partner universities. Third, the research team will plan for a systematic data collection from the participating student group. Another aspect that could potentially have been perceived as a challenge by the participating students is the language barrier (the students were asked to complete the project assignments in English), despite the generally high level of English competence among Norwegian youth. The research team has therefore concluded that it is important to formulate reflection tasks in a way that would not add much extra cognitive load to the students in terms of formulating their thoughts in a foreign language.

6 Conclusion This paper presents preliminary results of an action research project whose aim is to identify and implement effective teaching methods to increase IaH in the context of Norwegian TED. The project was initiated in Spring 2020, and the practical implementation has taken place in both the Fall semester 2020 and the Spring semester 2021, involving two batches of TED students taking a second-year pedagogy course at a university in Norway. Preliminary results demonstrate that there is much potential in digital technology for providing invaluable opportunities for IaH and developing students’ digital competence. At the same time, the research team identified several aspects that must be carefully planned to for the IaH activities to be successful. Some examples are close integration of the IaH assignments with the pedagogy course at home university, providing students with an easy access to the IaH assignments online, and taking consideration to the different academic calendars of international partner universities participating in the shared collaboration activities.

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The project will continue in the academic year 2021–2022, both in the Fall semester 2021 (third cycle) and the Spring semester 2022 (fourth cycle), and the lessons learned from the first two cycles will be included in the planning and implementation of the next steps. It is also important to note that the novelty of international activities in the context of Norwegian TED may have been a challenge in itself. Earlier reports demonstrate little international focus in the Norwegian education research, main research collaboration partners being the rest of the Nordic countries and English-speaking countries (namely, UK and US) [22]. The current national strategy for TED has a clear focus on including more international education research and collaboration in future Norwegian TED [23], which emphasizes the importance of finding appropriate ways to integrate IaH activities in the Norwegian TED.

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Learning Analytics of the Results of Faculty Further Education Gulnara F. Khasanova(&) and Alsu I. Samsutdinova Kazan National Research Technological University, Kazan, Russia

Abstract. In the context of the pandemic-related restrictions, faculty development programs at the KNRTU Institute for Faculty Continuing Professional Education were transferred to the online format and implemented on the Moodle platform with testing as a form of final certification. The aim of the study was to determine the characteristics of the Moodle tests and the applicability of the statistical indices’ accepted values to the contingent of university faculty using the statistical functions of Moodle. A statistical analysis of the test results in Moodle was conducted to assess the quality of the tests and make the necessary adjustments to bring them to the conformity with requirements. The quality of the tests and the possibility of their usage were assessed based on the facility and discrimination indices, and questions that did not correspond to the requirements were removed from the question banks. The tests were adjusted taking into account the applicability of statistical indices’ target values to the contingent of university lecturers. The results obtained can be useful for universities implementing further education programs for faculty in an online format. Keywords: Faculty professional development analysis


Online tests
Statistical

1 Introduction With the development of digital technologies, systems for the automated assessment of learning outcomes, implemented in the LMS, are being actively developed. With the transfer of professional development programs for faculty to a distance format in a pandemic situation, the scale of the use of online tests in assessing the results of program implementation has increased. In this regard, the statistical analysis of tests using the capabilities of learning management systems has become more promising. The Moodle platform provides wide range of statistical tools for usage in online teaching. Moodle testing of faculty as part of professional development programs secures adequate assessment of learning outcomes. The statistical tools available in Moodle make it possible to objectively assess learners’ knowledge and test materials, make changes to the tests and assignments and improve their quality to meet the requirements. At the same time, during the fast transfer of programs to the online format in the context of the pandemic, the main efforts of faculty were aimed at developing the tests themselves, and only a small part of them used the capabilities of their statistical analysis [1, 2]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 322–328, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_33

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Research is to be held to assess the effectiveness of online tests and their applicability. At the same time, while adjusting tests to the adopted ranges of statistical indices’ target values, one should take into account the characteristics of the tested contingent.

2 Methodology Two further education programs implemented at the KNRTU Institute for Faculty Further Professional Development in 2020 as part of the project “New opportunities for everyone” in the online format were selected for analysis - “Innovative Approaches to Teaching in a Digital Educational Environment” (IATDEE) and “Professional competence of a teacher of continuing education” (PCTCE). One hundred fifty eight teachers of engineering universities completed the first program, while the contingent of the second one consisted of 137 listeners, mainly teachers of institutions of additional education organizations. The programs were delivered through the Moodle learning management system. Data on passing tests and the number of attempts to pass tests were analyzed. IATDEE included eight modules, two of which were implemented synchronously, and six – asynchronously. Five asynchronous modules ended with testing. PCTCE contained five modules, all of which were held asynchronously and ended with testing. From the Moodle program, data were exported on the results of passing tests and the number of attempts to pass tests. The purpose of the study was to determine the characteristics of the tests used and the applicability of the usual values of statistical indices to the contingent of university faculty using the statistical functions of Moodle and, taking them into account, to adjust the tests for subsequent use. There is a wide range of opinions on the use of automated assessment systems, with various advantages and disadvantages noted (see Table 1). Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of automated assessment systems. Roles Students

Advantages Students receive immediate feedback [3] Students can analyze their mistakes [3]

Instructors

Students psychologically adapt, their anxiety decreases when passing tests [3] Early detection of student problems [5] The randomization of questions and answer options reduces the opportunities for students’ plagiarism [6] Built-in statistical functions let reveal the relationship between student responses and overall course performance [7] Providing instant feedback [7]

Disadvantages Possibility of violation of the student’s identity [4] Possibility of subsequent use of confidential information [4]

Creating multiple choice questions is time consuming [7] The analysis of test results also requires time from teachers [5]

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The question banks for both programs included various types of questions: multiple choice, selecting from a dropdown menu, entering a short text answer, drag-and-drop labels, and true or false. The distribution of questions of different types in the IATDEE and PCTCE programs shows that multiple choice questions dominated (see Fig. 1). The advantage of multiple choice questions is that they are instantly assessed, although they are time-consuming to develop, while essay questions, on the contrary, are quickly created but laborious to process [7]. In addition, in the course of a survey of trainees, the results of which are detailed in another paper contributed to the IGIP congress [8], it was found that instructors prefer tests with questions of the “multiple choice” type among the various formats of program’s final assessment.

Fig. 1. Distribution of different types of summative questions in the IATDEE (1) and PCTCE (2) programs.

The values of the facility index and discrimination index were analyzed for tests and questions. The facility index (FI) characterizes the percentage of subjects who completed the task correctly. Different sources suggest different ranges for selecting tasks that are too easy and too difficult: below 15 and above 85% [3], below 20 and above 90% [9], and below 10 and above 90% [7]. The discrimination index (DI) characterizes the relationship between the results of the answer to the question and the performance of the test in general. Values above 0.3 [10] are considered acceptable.

3 Results of Tests Statistical Analysis Using Moodle Calculation of FI for five tests of the IATDEE program showed that its values were in the range of 63–85%. The index values, being generally within the recommended interval, were quite high. This means that the tests were relatively easier comparing to the normal distribution of FI values found in student tests. The explanation can come from the specifics of the studied contingent – universities faculty, for whom it is objectively difficult to create tests of a high level of difficulty.

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Discrimination Index (DI) values indicate that in Test 1 eight (80%) questions were outside the target interval, and another two (20%) such questions took place in Test 2. The indicators of the remaining tests of the IATDEE program were in conformity with the accepted standards (see Table 2). Table 2. Psychometric analysis of Test1-Test5 (the IATDEE program).

Test1 Test2 Test3 Test4 Test5

% FI Range 78–85 69–77 71.5–80 71.5–81.5 63–74

DI 15–90 50+ 100 – 100 – 100 7 100 8 100 2

30–50 2 8 3 2 8

20–29 6 2 – – –

0–19 2 – – – –

= 4th year (>= 8th semester) Mean Rank

23,040

0,000

135,73

190,24

145,74

22,345

0,000

208,39

144,80

163,38

19,148

0,000

206,71

151,90

154,92

17,992

0,000

203,19

161,99

143,58

16,972

0,000

203,11

158,92

147,71

16,257

0,000

203,62

156,01

151,29

15,686

0,000

153,21

185,35

141,96

13,575

0,001

182,25

175,09

138,49

12,111

0,002

197,83

153,84

157,58

10,727

0,005

188,98

168,10

143,83

8,653

0,013

150,65

180,11

150,43

8,563

0,014

181,86

170,46

144,88

7,130

0,028

189,70

159,99

154,18

6,269

0,044

157,91

177,35

149,83

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Discussion of the Questionnaire Results

Based on the questionnaire results, depicted on Table 1 above, it can be said that female students’ answers seem to outweigh those of male learners in particular items (C1, C3 and C16). Analytically, female learners admit that they find the breakout rooms an interesting (171,20 females) and pleasant (170,88 females) environment compared to their male peers. Additionally, they express the fact that their self-confidence raises when in breakout rooms (179,09 females) because they work in small groups, a fact which is not so intense in the case of male learners (138,98). On the other hand, male students seem to feel that breakout rooms replace face to face groups effectively (186,17 males -item D1), thus, outweighing the female learners’ answers in this opinion. Similarly, male participants argue that they would like to spend equal time both in the breakout rooms and in the main room (183,30 males – item D5) which is a bigger percentage compared to their female peers (152,36). From the analysis of the questionnaire items, displayed in Table 2 above the following can be argued: There are significantly statistical results in a considerable number of questions. In particular, it can be seen that students seem to believe that: breakout rooms enhance communication and students’ social skills [C6], (0,000) (208,39 freshmen), the work in breakout rooms facilitates their understanding of the subject content [C15], (0,000), (206,71 freshmen), it facilitates learning due to working in small groups [C4], (0,002], (197,83 freshmen), it enhances autonomous learning [C7] (0,014) (181,86 freshmen) and cooperative/collaborative learning [C5], (0,028), (189,70 freshmen), the environment of breakout rooms is an interesting one to work in [C1], (0,000), (203,11 freshmen), it is pleasant [C3], (0,000), (203,62 freshmen), they like working in breakout rooms within online learning sessions [D2], (0,000), (203, 19 freshmen) and finally they would like to work in breakout rooms in most or all of their online courses/sessions [D3], (0,005), (188,98 freshmen) but they prefer to work with the presence of the tutor [C4], (0,002), (182,25 freshmen). It is noteworthy to mention here that freshmen students’ replies outweigh all other semester students’ answers in these results. On the other hand, statistically significant results were also found for the following: according to the results it is difficult for group members to decide which roles to take in breakout rooms for their tasks each without the tutor’s intervention [C11], (0,013) (190,24 2nd and 3rd year learners), shy and introvert learners find it difficult to work and cooperate with others in breakout rooms [C12], (0,000), (185,35 2nd and 3rd year learners), it is difficult for group members to decide which roles to take in breakout rooms, for their tasks each, without the tutors’ intervention [C11], (0,013), (180,11 2nd and 3rd year learners) and it is easy to get carried away and deviate from your learning goals in breakout rooms, without the tutors’ presence [C13], (0,044), (177, 35 2nd and 3rd year learners). Again, it is worth mentioning that 2nd and 3rd year learners’ answers here are more than those of freshmen or imminent graduate students’ answers. 4.4

Focus Group Results

The results, received from the interviews and focus groups indicate students’ positive views towards virtual breakout rooms. Specifically, and as regards the first question, the students argued that the breakout rooms “promoted social and collaboration skills”,

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gave “every student the opportunity to express their opinion freely without the fear of getting judged by others”, helped “each person have a means to coordinate with the rest of their team exchanging ideas and discussing”, allowed learners to “interact with their peers”, helped them “engage in conversations”, “encouraged communication without peer pressure within a large audience”. Furthermore, students revealed that the use of breakout rooms during the sessions gave them a sense of “being together”, made them feel “as in a real class”, gave them a sense of “companionship”, the feeling of “belonging” and “opening up to others”. According to the learners, working in breakout rooms helped them “feel close to one another”, “address monotony, loneliness and isolation” and “hang out and chat as in a conventional class” even though this was actually a virtual classroom, “helped introvert people take initiatives”, and “activated even the less active learners”. Additionally, students explained that breakout rooms “make team work creative”, “made learning easier”, “help fill in gaps in knowledge”, “offer a quick and efficient distribution of information”, “each individual can easily share their own part of work in the group”, “helps speed up working progress” and much more. What is more, and based on their answers, breakout sessions gave them the opportunity to “implement their tasks in their own pace”, thus, “facilitating their understanding”. In relation to the second question, students made some very interesting suggestions for the effectiveness of breakout rooms. As they suggested, they should be given more time for breakout room tasks for two reasons: one, to build efficient and longer-lasting relationships, thus, establishing effective communication and two, to have enough time to interact and exchange ideas. They argued that, when they are assigned to work in breakout rooms for the first time, tutors should be present for some time so as to help them familiarize themselves with this type of work and facilitate contact and cooperation among group members. Students believe that small groups (4–5 people) are more effective than larger ones as this would allow more time for interaction and minimize possible conflicts. According to the participants, tutors ought to apply certain rules for group work and should ensure their application by all group members. Breakout room duties should be equally distributed among students and tutors should assign peer evaluation after breakout room tasks to detect the extent to which groups work well together or things should be amended. They also argued that all members should be willing to cooperate and respect each member’s views and that tutors should make sure that all members in an online breakout room group contribute to a task depending on their different skills and abilities. All in all, students emphasized the importance of tutors’ guidance and that every student should be willing to prioritize the needs of the group over the individual needs or wishes, and that they should be open to changes and willing to try, for tasks to be successfully implemented. In reference to the third question and based on the students’ answers, a number of things were revealed: female learners seemed to enjoy working in breakout rooms more than their male peers as this gives them a sense of security and trust whereas, male learners like to work in breakout rooms more than female learners because it reminds them of the groups they hang around in conventional face-to-face classes and for this reason they wish to spend equal time both in breakout rooms and in the main room. What is more, breakout room sessions were found to be equally important by all semester learners but mainly more by freshmen. As freshmen explained, they were enthusiastic with the idea that, especially now with the pandemic, it was a wonderful way to meet

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classmates and have a feeling of the academic experience with peers, which otherwise they couldn’t have. However, older learners of higher semesters noted some drawbacks such as having to “cooperate with learners that did not share responsibilities”, “insufficient communication and misunderstandings due to non-communicative, shy or less willing to work people”, “being with people who may not approve, making it hard to work”. Based on their explanations, they were more worried of concluding their studies rather than meeting friends.

5 Discussion and Conclusions In this research we explored students’ opinion on virtual breakout rooms and the extent to which these can be effective, interesting and can enhance learners’ social skills and class cooperation. The study was conducted with 327 University students within the fall academic term of the year 2020–2021, when all educational institutions – Universities too - were closed and lessons were implemented online, due to the covid19 pandemic lockdown. A questionnaire was administered to the learners and interviews and focus groups were also conducted. A number of statistically significant results were revealed through this research. In particular, freshmen especially, found breakout rooms interesting and pleasant, allowing them to enhance their communicative and social skills. Based on their answers, the freshmen learners were very content about the work in breakout rooms and expressed their wish to work in breakout rooms much more than 2nd or 3rd year learners because this allowed them to continue being with people of their age, enjoy their company and learn together. However, the most important thing for them was the fact that they did not feel lonely. Students of higher semesters however did not seem to feel the need of breakout rooms this much and as they explained they had already met classmates and had formed friends and companies and were mainly concerned about how to continue their studies rather than getting to know people. For this reason, they felt annoyed when someone in a breakout room did not work equally with the other members. Additionally, female learners found breakout rooms interesting and pleasant and claimed that they gained self confidence in breakout rooms due to the small number of participants, to a greater extent than their male peers. On the contrary, male student believe that not only can breakout rooms replace face to face group work but that they would like to spend equal time in both the main channel and the breakout rooms, more than the female learners. In today’s reality of advanced technology working together in groups has never been easier. The introduction of virtual ‘breakout rooms’ on numerous e-platforms allow the implementation of group meetings and discussions, thus facilitating cooperation and communication and cognitive input. Although their effectiveness may be debatable in some points, students seem to enjoy them very much, and find them helpful for their learning. Breakout rooms allow them to interact effectively in the classroom and compensate for the loss of socializing and especially for those learners who have not yet had the opportunity to experience conventional teaching and learning within institutions. It is noteworthy that learners wish to continue working in virtual breakout rooms in all disciplines and propose some very interesting ideas as to how they can be more effective and interesting. Based on the findings it can be argued that breakout rooms were considered a

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great asset for freshmen, second and third year learners especially, as it gave them the opportunity to communicate with one another and discuss a great variety of topics. As the past months have been especially difficult due to the pandemic, causing a hard time to learners’ communication, this environment brought them together, encouraged them and helped them develop features such as leadership, cooperation, respect, responsibility, trust, academic expertise (public speaking, presentations etc.). As students explained this medium of communication was welcomed by them and it helped them create bonds and attend lectures with more interest and expectation. All in all, it was considered a “fascinating tool and innovation” that changed their routine and helped them overcome many problems – like isolation – which they experienced during the latest difficult times of the pandemic.

References 1. Di Pietro, G., Biagi, F., Costa, P., Karpinski, Z., Mazza, J.: The Likely Impact of COVID-19 on Education: Reflections Based on the Existing Literature and Recent International Datasets, European Commission, JRC Technical Report. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2020) 2. Kourgiantakis, T., Lee, E.: Social work practice education and training during the pandemic: disruptions and discoveries. Int. Soc. Work. 63(6), 761–765 (2020) 3. Policy Brief: Education during COVID-19 and beyond, August 2020, United Nations. https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_ policy_brief_covid-19_and_education_august_2020.pdf. Accessed 20 Apr 2021 4. Martin, F., Parker, M., Allred, B.: A case study on the adoption and use of synchronous virtual classrooms. Electron. J. E-Learn. 11(2), 124–138 (2013) 5. Ellingson, D.A., Notbohm, M.: Synchronous distance education: using web conferencing in an MBA accounting course. Am. J. Bus. Educ. 5(5), 555–562 (2012) 6. Tsihouridis, C., Batsila, M., Tsichouridis, A.: Towards the journey to accomplish the ‘joy of learning’. In: 21st International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning, 25–28 September 2018, Kos Island, Greece, pp. 1076–1087 (2018) 7. Nunneley, C.E., et al.: Leading synchronous virtual teaching sessions. Clin. Teach. Toolbox 1–5 (2020) 8. Rao, K., Eady, M., Edelen-Smith, P.: Creating virtual classrooms for rural and remote communities. Phi Delta Kappan 92(6), 22–27 (2011) 9. Martin, F., Parker, M.A.: Use of synchronous virtual classrooms: why, who, and how? J. Online Learn. Teach. 10(2), 192–210 (2014) 10. Brown, B., Schroeder, M., Eaton, S.: Designing synchronous online interactions and discussions. In: IDEAS 2016: Designing for Innovation Selected Proceedings (2016). https:// doi.org/10.11575/PRISM/5325 11. Serhan, D.: Transitioning from face-to-face to remote learning: students’ attitudes and perceptions of using zoom during COVID-19 pandemic. Int. J. Technol Educ. Sci. (IJTES) 4 (4), 335–342 (2020) 12. Wang, Y.: Distance language learning: interactivity and fourth-generation Internet-based videoconferencing. CALICO J. 21, 373–395 (2004) 13. De Weaver, B., Van Keer, H., Schellens, T., Valcke, M.: Roles as a structuring tool in online discussion groups: the differential impact of different roles on social knowledge construction. Comput. Hum. Behav. 26(4), 516–523 (2010)

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14. Lougheed, J., Kirkland, J., Newton, G.: Using breakout groups as an active learning technique in a large undergraduate nutrition classroom at the university of Guelph. Can. J. Scholarsh. Teach. Learn. 3(2), 1–15 (2012) 15. Chandler, K.: Using breakout rooms in synchronous online tutorials. J. Perspect. Appl. Acad. Pract. 4(3), 16–23 (2016) 16. Saltz, J., Heckman, R.: Using structured pair activities in a distributed online breakout room. Online Learn. 24(1), 227–244 (2020) 17. Carvalho, P.S., Sousa, A.S.: Rotation in secondary school: teaching the effects of frictional force. Phys. Educ. 40(3), 257–269 (2005) 18. Çakýroðlu, Ü.: Evaluating students’ perspectives about virtual classrooms with regard to seven principles of good practice. S. Afr. J. Educ. 34(2), 1–19 (2014) 19. Blackstone, B., Oldmixon, E.: Assessing the effect of breakout sessions on student success and satisfaction. PS Polit. Sci. Polit. 49(1), 117–121 (2016) 20. Hazari, S., Thompson, S.: Investigating factors affecting group processes in virtual learning environments. Bus. Prof. Commun. Q. 78(1), 33–54 (2020) 21. Carrington, D., Kim, S.K., Strooper, P.: An experience report on using collaboration technologies for distance and on-campus learning. In: Proceedings of the 12th Australasian Computing Education Conference (ACE 2010), Brisbane, Australia, vol. 103, pp. 45–52 (2010) 22. Krowinski, W.J., Steiber, S.R.: Measuring and Managing Patient Satisfaction. American Hospital Publishing, Chicago (1996)

Cross-Border Projects in Digital Education Ecosystems Carsten Wolff1(&) , Galyna Tabunshchyk2, Peter Arras3, Jose Ramon Otegi4, Sergey Bushuyev5, Olena Verenych5, Anatoly Sachenko6, Christian Reimann1, Bassam Hussein7, Elena Vitkauskaite8, Ekaterina Mikhaylova1, Areej Aldaghamin1, Anna Badasian1, Olha Mikhieieva1, Nargiza Mikhridinova1, Natalya Myronova2, Jasmin Hemmer1, and Thorsten Ruben1 1

Fachhochschule Dortmund, Otto-Hahn-Street 23, 44227 Dortmund, Germany [email protected] 2 National University Zaporizhzhia Polytechnic, Zaporizhia, Ukraine 3 KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium 4 University of the Basque Country, Bilbao, Spain 5 Kyiv National University of Construction and Architecture, Kiev, Ukraine 6 West Ukrainian National University, Ternopil, Ukraine 7 Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway 8 Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas, Lithuania

Abstract. Digital transformation and project orientation are defining trends in the future world of work. Relevant aspects for education include training for project work in the digital age, the project as a didactic format, (digitally transformed) project management, the workplace of the future, and the competence to drive the digital transformation with projects. Therefore, projects in the context of digital transformation are a relevant professional environment for many graduates and this should be reflected in higher education – especially if it is preparing for the job market. Project-based, problem-based, challenge-based and case-based learning are important didactic trends. Projects are inherently interdisciplinary, allow work on real tasks and train the competence area of practical skills. Nevertheless, most academic programmes hardly integrate these aspects. Often, a non-specialist lecturer offers a project management course that is not very well integrated into the curriculum. Interdisciplinary skills are not systematically addressed in the project work. This contribution proposes developing a Virtual Project Campus in the university that allows courses (and projects) to comprehensively integrate the “project competence” in a professional context and interlink it with the subject matter. The digital implementation increases the relevance for the professional field as well as the ability to multiply over different educational programmes and cooperate cross-border. The Virtual Project Campus bundles competences in an agile work environment, e.g., through specialist communities and project formats, as well as a digital education ecosystem (DEE). Keywords: Project orientation


Digital education
Virtual collaboration

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 382–394, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_39

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1 Introduction Projects are a common tool and organisational pattern for many employees, having a big influence on their work performance, daily routine and career. Projects help organisations pursue their goals and project performance has a high impact on their success [1]. Therefore, higher education has to prepare graduates for the projectised world. Apart from the technical (or scientific, domain specific) competences, professional competences and global competences [2] are very important. Project competences are partly falling into the technical competences, mainly into professional competences and to an increasing degree into the global competences, since the projectised world of work becomes more globalised, too. The scientific discussion on project management education in higher education is conducted intensively for at least two decades [3]. Key issues are: • The practical relevance of project management education in universities is lacking, since the relevant competences are expected to be learned only in realistic projects. • The scientific rigor and quality of project management education are too low, since – in many cases – project management is taught by scientists from other domains or – in some cases – project management isn’t considered to be a scientific domain. • Project management education isn’t integrated with other curriculum elements while it would be necessary to integrate technical, professional, and global competences in a holistic learning experience. Therefore, project management education in universities isn’t really authentic and realistic. • Project management competences and project competences are considered to be two separate areas. Project management competences has been seen for some time as mainly technical competences (e.g., using certain tools), while project competences were associated with soft skills (e.g., teamwork) as part of the professional competences. Meanwhile, both areas are considered to be connected in a combination of technical (practical), professional and global competences (e.g., IPMA Individual Competence Baseline [4]). For higher education, the challenge is to create learning experiences and learning situations that support the acquisition of such comprehensive sets of competences. In order to prepare graduates for the projectised world, the project management competences’ and the project competences’ acquisition has to be integrated with the do-mainspecific competences of their educational programme in a holistic learning experience instead of being taught separately. This is addressed by creating learning situations that resemble realistic and authentic workplace situations (including project situations). The research on Work-integrated Learning (WIL) shows that such learning experiences have a very positive effect on the job-related readiness of graduates [5] if conducted with the right (scientific) quality [6]. This contribution presents an approach for the integration of realistic and authentic project situations into educational programmes. In the following section, the challenges and problems related to such an approach are investigated based on a state-of-the-art review. A Virtual Project Campus is proposed as a possible setup in order to create the required learning situations and experiences. In Sect. 3, it is described how such a

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Virtual Project Campus is established and integrated into cross-border master education in the case study of the EuroPIM Virtual Master School [7]. Section 4 emphasises how this approach was digitally transformed (also due to COVID19) and conducted in a Digital Education Ecosystem (DEE) [8]. In Sect. 5, evaluation results are presented, which support the effectiveness of the approach while highlighting the current shortcomings and areas for further improvement.

2 Literature Review and Problem Statement The preparation of graduates for project work in the digital age, the digitally transformed and projectised workplace of the future, and the competence to drive the digital transformation with projects are very relevant tasks for higher education. Such learning outcomes reflect the long-term move of scientific education from preparing the learners for a mainly academic career (focus on a specific scientific domain) to preparing the learners for the labour market [9]. The goal is to achieve a higher practical relevance of education and to close the theory-practice gap. The European Commission’s Renewed Agenda for Higher Education states “Higher education should also allow students to acquire skills and experiences through activities based around real-world problems, include work-based learning and, where possible, offer international mobility.” [10]. Combining practical relevance and scientific quality is one of the main challenges in project management education at universities. Following the Mode2 discussion about the application-oriented, transdisciplinary production of knowledge, with the Rethinking project management education process, deeper reasoning about integrating a formerly mainly professional education (driven by practitioners) into higher education and scientific research was launched [3]. In order to increase the practical relevance, educational programmes at universities are in many cases interlinked with professional associations, and their standards (e.g. IPMA [4]) and projects are used as a didactic tool [11]. In general, project-oriented didactics like problem-based learning (PBL) and project-based learning (PjBL) are used and investigated [12]. A positive effect on a student’s project competences is confirmed if the didactic formats are applied properly [13]. Students’ projects are a common element of curricula where a variety of project management methods are used, e.g. Scrum as a lightweight method in software development projects [14]. A typical curricular element are capstone projects at the end of a semester or a study programme that integrate a lot of competences in a more complex setup [8]. Vertically integrated projects (VIP) are embedded into the curriculum as a cooperative activity over several semesters where a number of disciplinary study modules focus on the same project to deliver a holistic learning experience [15]. Nevertheless, such projects as a didactic element quite often lack the use of project management methods [16], and the quality of the delivered project competences or even project management competences can suffer from this [17]. Larger projects can be conducted cross-programme or even cross-border to support a multidisciplinary learning

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experience [18]. Again, with respect to the interdisciplinary learning experience, both problem-based learning (PBL) and project-based learning (PjBL) are used and investigated [12]. Recently, especially agile and lean project management approaches are of interest with respect to their effect on project-based learning and project competence [19]. One basic assumption is that practical relevance and job-related competences can be delivered by providing learning experiences similar to workplace situations [20]. This effect is amplified if such projects are conducted with companies [21, 22] which increases the authentic experience but also the effort and the challenges with respect to project management. The overarching concept is defined as Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) [5] which can range from work in a company as part of the curriculum to the use of case studies and examples from companies in the academic learning environment. The assessment of competence gained from project-oriented didactic formats is another area of research [23], including innovative approaches like peer-assessment of students [18]. In summary, using projects as a didactic and curricular element serves very well for delivering learning experiences with high practical relevance and job-related competences. But, it requires a very elaborated methodology, scientific rigour and quality, cooperation with practitioners and industry and a high level of project management competence. It is not a minor addendum in the curriculum but a core concept. Any student assignment, lab sessions (problem-based learning), bachelor and master thesis can obviously be projectised, even a degree study itself can be considered as a project in which it would be a matter of good practice to guide students through it with project management methodology. As such, all project management competences can be illustrated in a project which is of much concern to the student. A degree study has a clear goal (diploma), time frame with milestones, budget (in available working hours), and boundary conditions, so it meets the definition of the project as such. Using it day in day out as an example will show the actual context of a project, rather than stuffing projects in separate student tasks and assignment. In Master’s education, the concept of thematically focused, cross-university Master Schools is developed to deliver a high-quality learning experience with excellent scientific foundations and high practical relevance [8]. Such Master Schools define Overarching Learning Outcomes (OLOs) [24] stretching beyond academic topics and competences. Such transversal competences include project competence and elements from project management, especially in the soft skills domain. OLOs focus on professional and global competence [2] while being integrated with the technical competences in a holistic learning experience in one educational programme. The workplaces and the projects have seen a dramatic shift from presence to virtual cooperation which was very much accelerated due the COVID pandemic [25]. In project management, this shift to agile and virtual methods and tools has transformed the working environment for many people and has led to the emergence of digital project environments. This should – of course – also be reflected in project-based learning in educational programmes. Higher education is – also accelerated by COVID – becoming more virtualised and digitally transformed. The EU Digital Education Action Plan [9] defines as one of the priorities the need to foster the “development of a

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high-performing digital education ecosystems”. Therefore, the integration of digital project ecosystems and digital education ecosystems (DEE) is a very much straightforward approach for the development of more relevant and authentic learning experiences. Nevertheless, the new projectised and digitally transformed future of higher education faces a number of issues and deficits which are caused by the quality of the work-integrated learning (WIL) experience [6], the project management quality of the project-based learning [3], the quality of the interdisciplinary learning experience in cross-programme projects [12], the issues when involving industry [21], and – finally – the lack of competences and resources in the universities [20]. This cannot be solved with an activity within one single module or programme. We propose to set up a crossfaculty and even cross-university (or cross-border) cooperative community and platform which delivers the competences, tools and methods for a high-quality projectbased education into the educational programmes and puts them into interaction. By doing this, the Virtual Project Campus (described in the following sections) addresses shortcomings in educational programmes in the following areas: • Lack of networking and qualification of the teachers in project management (PM) • Lack of high-quality teaching materials, modules and didactic concepts • Inadequate quality and practical relevance of the curricula integration of projects (regarding project skills) • Inadequate curricular integration in terms of overarching learning outcomes (OLO) • Insufficient support with (digital) tools and cooperation platforms

3 The EuroPIM Virtual Master School The development of such a Virtual Project Campus is currently conducted in several European cooperation projects of the European Partnership for Project and Innovation Management (EuroPIM), a consortium of 5 universities in the EU and a number of associated universities in EU partner countries [7]. The authors of this contribution are conducting Master’s programmes with project-based elements, and they have connected these programmes with a cooperation pattern (see Fig. 1), which makes it a virtual, cross-border Master School. As a part of it, the project management competence of the consortium is mainly based on the European Master in Project Management (EuroMPM) network of 6 Master’s programmes [26] which are connected with double degree agreements. The concept of this cross-border cooperation is undergoing a digital transformation into a virtual community (apart from the transformation projects also driven by the needs due to the COVID-19 pandemic). The main cooperation formats are aligned with the curriculum and student journey of the Master’s programmes of the partner universities (see Fig. 1):

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Fig. 1. Cooperation and exchange formats of the EuroPIM virtual master school [8].

• The first two semesters contain “classical” modules, which are composed out of formats for knowledge delivery (e.g., lectures, online courses, literature), delivery of practical skills (e.g. project assignments, workshops) and reflective parts (e.g., reports, presentations) for the training of abilities, attitudes and scientific methods. Especially the project assignments and workshops are used for mixing students from different programmes, universities and countries in teams that are inherently international, intercultural and interdisciplinary (3  “i”). In combination with realistic tasks (e.g. involving industry partners), the first workplace-relevant learning experiences are created. • A bigger 3  “i” event is the summer school (there are also smaller spring and winter schools) with a number of parallel workshops containing professional training (and certificates), company involvement and a broader mix of teams. • The 3rd and 4th semester allow vertically integrated projects (VIP, this is planned in the 1st and 2nd semester but not yet implemented). This can be combined with an internship in a company or participation in a research project in the university. Both projects and Master thesis in this phase can be done in teams, e.g., as a capstone project which can be conducted cross-border or cross-university. • The 3rd semester can be done as a long-term stay at a partner university. The universities offer different specialisations (or minors), which increases the variety of choices for students. In combination with a jointly supervised Master thesis, this can lead to a double degree. The EuroPIM Virtual Master School supports project-based learning (PjBL) and conducts project management education with a variety of formats [8]: • A variety of project management modules with different depth and intensity are offered and can be shared cross-programme and cross-border.

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• The EuroPIM consortium has experts for specific aspects of project management (e.g. agile, change management, quality management) at the different partner universities who teach cross-university. • Students from project management are trained by IT students in using certain IT tools. On the other hand, students from project management are managing software development projects of IT students, for example. • Lecturers from different programmes do co-teaching in a group of students, teaching data analytics for project management students, for example. • Project assignments of different complexity, duration and competence requirements are designed based on real project cases or industry tasks. • A variety of soft skills training (e.g. intercultural training, presentation training, languages) and training on scientific methodology and digital literacy complement the curriculum and are recognised for credits. EuroPIM conducts a number of publicly funded projects in order to develop the consortium and the virtual Master School and to research in the respective field: • The DAAD Strategic Partnership European Partnership in Project and Innovation Management (EuroPIM) is conducted since 2015 by Fachhochschule Dortmund (University of Applied Sciences and Arts), Germany, KU Leuven, Belgium, Kaunas University of Technology (KTU), Lithuania, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain, and Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway. The funding is used to facilitate the exchange and the events (e.g., summer school, conferences) of the consortium. • Within the DAAD programme International Mobility and Cooperation Digital (IMKD), the EuroPIM consortium conducts the project Managing the Digital Transformation – Digital Education Ecosystem (ManDEE) in order to facilitate the digital transformation of the cross-border Master School. This includes the provision of a digital platform and tools (DEE) and the development of joint eLearning modules. Furthermore, didactic formats for virtual learning are explored. • The DAAD Ukraine/Digital Future project Virtual Master Cooperation Data Science (ViMaCs) involves the 3 Ukrainian partner universities, the West Ukrainian National University (WUNU), Ternopil, the Kyiv National University of Construction and Architecture (KNUCA) and the National University Zaporizhzhia Polytechnic (NUZP). It includes the extension of the Digital Education Ecosystem (DEE) to the 3 partners and the development of eLearning modules in data science. • The Erasmus+Knowledge Alliance Projects for the Digital Transformation (ProDiT) is a core element of the industry-university-cooperation of the EuroPIM consortium with the 5 partner universities from EU and 16 business partners, including the International Project Management Association (IPMA/AEIPRO) and the IEEE Technology & Engineering Management Society (TEMS). This project portfolio supports the development of a strong alliance in the field of projects and project management in the digital era.

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4 Digital Education Ecosystem (DEE) The core infrastructure for the virtual learning and teaching environment is a Digital Education Ecosystem (DEE) [8] which integrates digital tools seamlessly (see Fig. 2). The seamless integration of a comprehensive set of learning and teaching tools establishes an infrastructure where students can configure their individual student journey and navigate through the offers within one well-known environment [27]. A cross-university identity management allows a single-sign-on to the IT systems and platforms of the participating universities. The EuroPIM DEE uses Open Source software to a large extent and makes tools and infrastructure available cross-university in order to make it an Open Educational Ecosystem [28]. Apart from the virtual learning & teaching infrastructure, the EuroPIM DEE supports a number of applications and approaches which a useful for projects in particular: • A web-/cloud-based portfolio of project management and collaboration tools (e.g., Atlassian Jira, Confluence) is provided to learners and teachers, similar to the cloudbased project infrastructure in a company. Combined with file sharing and databases (e.g., Nextcloud, Git) and web servers for project and community web portals, this forms an IT environment for project work. Cooperation and conferencing tools (e.g., Microsoft Teams, Discord) and the coupling to a Learning Management Systems (LMS, e.g., Moodle) complement the infrastructure. • Digital project case studies with all relevant project data support the work with realistic industry cases. The adaptation and elaboration of the industry cases into usable and didactically refined learning cases is done with case study writing methods. One goal is to provide the cases as Open Educational Resources (OER). • A set of project management related eLearning modules that can be tailored to different workload and learner competence levels are provided in the LMS. • The teachers and experts form agile Open Communities of Practice (OpenCoP), which use the IT infrastructure to develop of learning content, case studies and for joint research and collaboration. • At the universities, rooms for teamwork (similar to co-working spaces) equipped with the respective digital systems (laptops, tablets, visualisation equipment) support the work in physical presence. • A train-the-trainer programme for the teachers helps to establish similar quality and educational standards cross-university. • A project management summer school is added to the event portfolio of the EuroPIM consortium and delivered as a hybrid (online + presence) event. Cooperation with professional associations (e.g. IPMA, IEEE) allows access to standards and guidelines, experts and (professional) certificates for achievements.

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Fig. 2. Digital Education Ecosystem (DEE) of the EuroPIM virtual master school [8].

The support infrastructure for project-based learning and project management was a hybrid (online + physical presence) environment already before COVID-19. Nevertheless, with the beginning of the pandemic in March 2020, the complete operations were moved to fully online immediately. More or less, all planned activities were conducted online, and only a few got postponed. For the future, a return to the hybrid approach is planned by the partners. Anyway, it will certainly contain more online and virtual elements than before the pandemic.

5 Evaluation of the Virtual Project Campus The operation of the learning and teaching activities of the EuroPIM consortium within the past 1.5 years has supported the development of some key assumptions about project-based learning (PjBL) and projects conducted cross-border and cross-university in a Digital Education Ecosystem (DEE): A1: One key assumption is that the learning experience can be delivered in a largely digital and virtual setup without significant quality or competence delivery losses. A2: The second relevant assumption is that learning situations that are close to a realistic and authentic workplace experience contribute positively to the experience. A3: Projects and project-related learning situations deliver a learning experience with high relevance and close to the real workplace experience. A4: The PjBL contributes positively both to the learners and teachers experience. A5: Especially interdisciplinary, international and intercultural competences (3  “i”) are trained in a cross-border project-based learning experience. A6: The 3  “i” learning experience suffers but can still be delivered in a much more digital and virtual learning experience compared to the pre-COVID times.

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For the evaluation, a survey was conducted, where the answers were collected from 67 (enrolled) Master’s student and 30 involved teachers, coordinators and scientific staff from the EuroPIM partner universities (EU + Ukraine) which took part in projectbased learning activities in 2020 and 2021. The students were asked almost 100 questions and the teachers/staff answered more than 70 questions. The survey is an intermediate evaluation since the projects are work-in-progress. Only selected answers are presented which should serve as first indications with respect to the assumption.

Fig. 3. Effect of missing physical mobility on the learning experience (students).

From the survey results presented in Fig. 3 it can be concluded that only a few students were able to travel to partner universities. Nevertheless, a considerable number attended joint events with international partners. Both the projects and the 3  “i” experience are rated very positively, supporting the assumptions A4, A5 and A6.

Fig. 4. Quality and (workplace) relevance of the virtual learning experience (students).

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Figure 4 supports the assumptions 1–3 since students rate the virtual experience as good and support the idea that it is specifically relevant for the future job. Figure 5 shows that the teachers and academic staff agree to A2, A4 and A6, even more than the students.

Fig. 5. Quality and (workplace) relevance of the virtual learning experience (teachers).

The survey results indicate that a virtual, project-based approach can deliver most aspects (evaluated in the other questions, not shown here) of the intended learning experience since it reflects the reality of many working situations in companies. Nevertheless, some aspects related to team experience and intercultural experience suffer if the formats are only conducted online. The comparison of the learning experience before COVID-19 (to a larger extent based on real mobility and workshops with the physical presence of the teams, based on evaluations from 2015–2019) and the virtual learning experience (2020–2021) suggests a combination into a blended format for the future. This again reflects workplace reality in many project-oriented organisations. Especially, it is relevant for project setups in such industries as IT and consulting industries, where often IT or senior consultant roles in the project are outsourced and, as a result, the project has to be managed remotely and virtually in an intercultural environment.

6 Conclusion and Outlook The main conclusion is that project-related, international and interdisciplinary learning situations resemble job-relevant competences. Many educational programmes lack realistic learning experiences in terms of project work and virtual cooperation, both in terms of quantity and quality. The EuroPIM consortiums suggests establishing a crossprogramme, cross-border Virtual Project Campus in order to support and facilitate such learning experiences in a way that is much similar to the workplace experience of future graduates. The conclusions are supported by the first evaluation results from ongoing cooperation and digital transformation projects. The focus of the future work is to develop and establish the Virtual Project Campus and the Digital Education Ecosystems (DEE) further and use it in learning and teaching. Furthermore, the evaluation will be continued in order to generate time-series of data that allow a detailed analysis of the effect on students’ competences and the effectiveness of the approach.

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Acknowledgements. This research is partly funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) within the DAAD Strategic Partnership “European Partnership for Project and Innovation Management (EuroPIM)”, (Project-ID 57172312), the DAAD IMKD project “ManDEE” (Project-ID: 57542858), the DAAD Ukraine project “ViMaCs” (Project-ID: 57513461), and the EU Erasmus+ programme within the Capacity Building Project “WORK4CE” (619034-EPP-1–2020-1-UA-EPPKA2-CFHE-JP) and the Knowledge Alliance “ProDiT” (621745-EPP-1–2020-1-DE-EPPKA2-KA).

References 1. Turner, R., Zolin, R.: Forecasting success on large projects: developing reliable scales to predict multiple perspectives by multiple stakeholders over multiple time frames. Proj. Manage. J. 43(5), 87–99 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21289 2. Rajala, S.A.: Beyond 2020: preparing engineers for the future. In: Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 100, pp. 1376–1383, 13th, May 2012. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2012.2190169 3. Berggren, C., Söderlund, J.: Rethinking project management education: social twists and knowledge co-production. Intern. J. Proj. Manage. 26(3), 286–296 (2008) 4. International Project Management Association (IPMA): Individual competence baseline 4th version (ICB4) (2015) 5. Ferns, S., Campbell, M., Zegwaard, K.E.: Work integrated learning. In: Work Integrated Learning in the Curriculum. HERDSA guide (2014) 6. Smith, C.: Evaluating the quality of work-integrated learning curricula: a comprehensive framework. High. Educ. Res. Dev. 31(2), 247–262 (2012) 7. EuroPIM Homepage. http://www.go-study-europe.de. Accessed 08 Apr 2021 8. Wolff, C., Reimann, R., Mikhaylova, E., Aldaghamin, A., Pampus, S., Hermann, E.: Digital education ecosystem (dee) for a virtual master school. In: Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE Smart Information Systems and Technologies (SIST) Conference, IEEE Xplore (2021) 9. European Commission: Digital education action plan (2018) 10. European Commission: Renewed EU agenda for higher education (2017) 11. de los Ríos Carmenado, I., Rodríguez López, F., Pérez García, C.: Promoting professional project management skills in engineering higher education: project-based learning (pbl) strategy. Int. J. Eng. Educ. 31.1, 184–198 (2015) 12. Brassler, M., Dettmers, J.: How to enhance interdisciplinary competence—interdisciplinary problem-based learning versus interdisciplinary project-based learning. Interdisc. J. Prob. Based Learn. 11(2), 12 (2017) 13. Lin, C.L., Tsai, C.Y.: The effect of a pedagogical STEAM model on students’ project competence and learning motivation. J. Sci. Educ. Technol. 30, 112–124 (2021) 14. Mahnic, V.: A capstone course on agile software development using scrum. IEEE Trans. Educ. 55(1), 99–106 (2012) 15. Marshall, S., Coyle, E., Krogmeier, J.V., Abler, R.T., Johnson, A., Gilchrist, B.E.: The vertically integrated projects (VIP) program: leveraging faculty research interests to transform undergraduate STEM education. In: Transforming Institutions: 21st Century Undergraduate STEM Education Conference (2014) 16. Moor, S.S., Drake, B.D.: Addressing common problems in engineering design projects: a project management approach. J. Eng. Educ. 90(3), 389–395 (2001) 17. Keogh, K., Venables, A.: The importance of project management documentation in computing students’ capstone projects. Int. J. Work Integr. Learn. 10, 151 (2009)

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18. Sonnenberg-Klein, J., Abler, R.T., Coyle, E.J.: Social network analysis: peer support and peer management in multidisciplinary, vertically integrated teams. In: Proceedings of the 2018 ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition (2018) 19. Mikhieieva, O.: Agile mindset competencies for project teams. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Research and Education in Project Management – REPM 2020, Editors: Jose Ramón Otegi, Nerea Toledo and Ianire Taboada, Asociación Española de Dirección e Ingeniería de Proyectos (AEIPRO), Spain (2020) 20. de Los Rios, I., et al.: Project–based learning in engineering higher education: two decades of teaching competences in real environments. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 2(2), 1368–1378 (2010) 21. Baaken, T., Kiel, B., Kliewe, T.: Real world projects with companies supporting competence development in higher education. Int. J. High. Educ. 4, 129–139 (2015) 22. Pollard, C.E.: Lessons learned from client projects in an undergraduate project management course. J. Inf. Syst. Educ. 23, 271–282 (2012) 23. Shariff, S.M., Zaimy J.J., Norina, A.J.: Assessment of project management skills and learning outcomes in students’ projects. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 90, 745–754 (2013) 24. European Institute of Innovation & Technology (EIT): EIT label. https://eit.europa.eu/ouractivities/education/eit-label. Accessed 31 May 2021 25. Mancl, D., Fraser, S.D.: COVID-19’s influence on the future of agile. In: Paasivaara, M., Kruchten, P. (eds.) XP 2020. LNBIP, vol. 396, pp. 309–316. Springer, Cham (2020). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58858-8_32 26. Wolff, C., et al.: Master level education in project management – the EuroMPM model. In: 9th IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Data Acquisition and Advanced Computing Systems (2017) 27. Walcutt, J.J., Schatz, S. (eds.): Modernizing Learning: Building the Future Learning Ecosystem. Government Publishing Office, Washington (2019) 28. Poldoja, H.: The structure and components for the open education ecosystem - constructive design research of online learning tools, Aalto University publication series doctoral dissertations, 175/2016 (2016)

Suddenly Online: Active Learning Implementation Strategies During Remote Teaching of a Software Engineering Course Simona Vasilache(&) University of Tsukuba, Tennodai 1-1-1, Tsukuba 305-8573, Ibaraki, Japan [email protected]

Abstract. The Covid-19 pandemic forced many academic institutions around the world to switch to online teaching. This shift occurred suddenly and with little preparation and this method of instruction was named “emergency remote teaching”. This paper will describe the effects of emergency remote teaching on teaching a software engineering course at a Japanese university, showing how the online environment was used as an alternative to cancelling classes. Strategies for implementing active learning and for engaging students during this software engineering course will be highlighted. Based on the results and observations gathered during the teaching of this course, important conclusions will be drawn. They will constitute a starting point for planning and implementing future software engineering courses and for making sure that active learning continues to remain an essential part of the instruction process. Keywords: Emergency remote teaching engineering


Active learning
Software

1 Introduction 1.1

Emergency Remote Teaching

At the end of March 2020, according to data from UNESCO, almost 1.5 billion learners in more than 170 countries were affected by the Covid-19 pandemic [1], which forced many academic institutions around the world to switch to online teaching. This shift occurred suddenly and with little preparation and this method of instruction was called “emergency remote teaching” (ERT) [2]. The term emphasizes the fact that this style is different from the well-prepared and organized, traditional “online” teaching, which took many years to evolve into a well-established teaching format. As a response to crisis conditions, the purpose of the ERT teaching style is to provide temporary access to instruction quickly and reliably [2]. This state of affairs appeared to shift the focus towards “the method of delivering instruction rather than the learning goals, leading to uncertainty around assessment for both teacher and student” [3]. In this context, engaging students in learning in general and active learning in particular proved to be a challenge for many instructors.

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Active Learning

In the traditional “passive” approach to education, students listen to experts who impart their knowledge [4]. In contrast to this approach, as expressed by Bonwell and Eison as early as 1991, during active learning, students “must do more than just listen: they must read, write, discuss, or be engaged in solving problems” [5]. Furthermore, they must “engage in such higher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation” [5]. The active learning approach has gained a lot of ground in the past decade, with many higher institutions focusing on involving the students as much as possible, arguing that an active learning approach is essential in preparing them for their future careers. Whereas the benefits of active learning have been highlighted by many researchers, the question asked at this point is whether the sudden transition to online teaching (more precisely to ERT), is successful in its pursuit of active learning. The following sections will present strategies for implementing active learning and for engaging students during an introductory software engineering course.

2 Software Engineering Teaching and Active Learning 2.1

Research Setting

Our study is based on the author’s experience of teaching an introductory software engineering course at the graduate level in a Japanese university. The course, named “Principles of Software Engineering”, has been offered for the past 6 years; it is taught in English and is mainly aimed at students majoring in computer science (comprising of both local, Japanese students, and international students). The object of this paper is the lessons learned and the data gathered during the latest edition, held online in spring 2021. For the first 4 years, the course was held in the classical, face-to-face format. During the pandemic in 2020, the course was suddenly switched to an online format, taking the ERT approach; the current year follows the same online format. The number of students enrolled in the current (2021) course is 53, with 49 students majoring in computer science and 4 students belonging to other departments. 42 of these students are in their first year of the master’s course, 10 are in their second year, whereas one participant is a doctoral program student. 2.2

Course Description

The main goal of the course is to teach several basic principles of software engineering, needed when creating a software application. During the 10 weeks of classes, the students learn about various topics: software development life cycle, agile methods, requirements engineering, user interface design, testing (verification and validation), project planning and management, tools (notations and IDEs) used in software engineering etc. The classes are held live during the designated days and times (as specified in the academic calendar and the course timetable); furthermore, they are recorded (with the recordings placed on Microsoft Stream [6]) and then made available for the students to watch on-demand. All the lecture materials along with the links to recordings are

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posted on manaba [7], which is the learning management system currently employed by the university. The lectures are held mainly using Zoom [8], with the occasional use of Microsoft Teams [9], where a dedicated team was created for the course, with all class participants. The group activities are managed using the breakout rooms feature of Zoom. 2.3

Implementing Active Learning

In striving to implement active learning, an increasing number of class activities were added throughout the years; the number of teams, together with the number of members in a team, were different each year. The type of activities, as well as the students’ involvement level, changed along with the different number of course participants. The first time the course was taught, only15 students enrolled; this was followed by a number of 26, then 35 and, the year before the pandemic, 65 students. In 2020, the year when ERT was abruptly implemented, the number of students decreased to 35. One of the possible reasons for this drop is the uncertainty that surrounded all aspects regarding the course: teaching style, availability of materials, evaluation method etc. One other reason (which quite possibly accounted for about 10 students dropping the course within the first two weeks) is culturally related: once the Japanese students realized that they shall have to actively participate in the classes, discuss, express opinions (in their non-native language) and generally actively interact with their peers and the instructor, they decided that it is preferrable to not enroll in this course. Numerous research papers focus on communication styles, group work preference etc. depending on different cultures (e.g. [10] and [11]). To briefly summarize, generally speaking, Japanese students belong to the category of “passive” learners, where they are used to listening to the instructors without asking questions (which could be perceived as challenging them). Moreover, the Japanese are part of “collectivistic” cultures: the needs of the group are above the needs of the individual. In a classroom, this is reflected, for instance, in a reluctance to ask questions, which may appear to benefit the individual only and may be seen as disrupting the class. Every week, new breakout rooms are created (with different members); however, the same breakout room componence is maintained during one lecture. Whenever a group activity is involved, one student in each group shares their screen in the breakout room; often the same students are those who offer to share and, in a way, act as leaders during activities. Throughout the weeks, the class progresses as follows. At first, a warm-up discussion takes place; it often includes small talk, sharing a cartoon or a joke (usually technology or science-themed) or a brief review of (interesting) past-week tech news. This is followed by a brief discussion that introduces the new topic to be studied. From here, either the instructor starts lecturing about the topic or a class activity takes place. Often the class activity’s purpose is to make a point which will help better understand the new concepts. Either way, for each new topic, both a lecture part and at least one activity part are included. A few minutes before the end of each class, a “cool-down” activity may also take place, as a way of summarizing the day’s topics. To give an example, during the class teaching about software testing, a dice game is introduced. Several teams are created and each team acts as a tester. The instructor

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comes up with an algorithm which gives a certain output, based on the input available. For instance, in the simplest example, if the input is 3 and 2 (two dice rolled, with the values of 2 and 3), the output is 5 (the sum of the values represented by the dice). Each group will try to guess how the output is obtained; they do this by “testing” their assumptions: they roll the dice (i.e. input) and they ask the instructor what the result is (i.e. output). Two, three or four dice can be used. The game may start in a simple version (like the one just described); gradually, more complex “algorithms” are used (for instance, the output is based on the number of odd dice, or a conditional output is present, e.g. if all values are larger than 3, the output is 1; if not, it is 0). After the more complex versions, the students are introduced to thinking “outside the box”; in these situations, the output often includes an external condition (e.g. whether the number of people in the group is odd or even, which is something not directly related to the rolled dice). The dice game was easily implemented in a face-to-face classroom, with each group created having their own set of dice. The instructor would walk around the classroom and participate in the “testing” process. In the case of the online version of the course, the groups were created in breakout rooms and each group would use an online program to “roll” dice. The instructor would visit the rooms one by one and give her “output” to the “input” provided by the group. For the purpose of the group activities, a shared online document was provided, where each group would have a couple of dedicated pages. The shared document contains the following sections for each group: Breakout Room Number, Attendees (names), Task Description (to be used only if it is a complex task or if it needs clarification), “TO EDIT” (the part containing observations, discussions, questions, solutions, i.e. the actual task that the group must perform), Conclusions/Questions (if any).With a shared document, everyone has access to everything recorded by all groups, and each group can see what the other groups are working on. In the past, one different document for each group used to exist, created (and shared) by one member in each group. This took time: to decide who will do it as well as to actually create the document. As a matter of fact, a single shared document was suggested by one of the students; this idea was immediately adopted, and it proved very effective. 2.4

Student Feedback

After the 6th week of the course, the students were given a questionnaire in which the instructor aimed to find out their perceptions of active learning and their thoughts on the experience in the software engineering classroom, along with their views of multicultural classrooms (this last aspect will not be considered in the current paper). 45 participants in the course answered the questionnaire. At first, the students were asked about their preference for online or face-to-face classes in general. The results show that 24.44% prefer face-to-face classes, 40% prefer online classes and 4.44% have no particular preference. Additionally, 31.11% responded that this depends on the course they are taking. This is an interesting result, which shows that almost one third of the students believe that different courses are better suited for different teaching styles. Next, the participants were asked what style

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of class they would prefer for an introductory software engineering course (lecture, discussion, combination or flipped). Their choices are summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Preference for software engineering class style. Style “Lecture” style: teacher speaking in front of the whole class, students listening “Discussion” style: new things are taught/learned through continuous discussions between students and teacher “Combination”: half lecture-style teaching by the instructor, half interactive communication/discussion with students “Flipped classroom: style: students read the new materials at home, then they come to class and ask questions, discuss etc Other (“Now […] is good”)

Percentage of students 40.00% 13.33% 37.78% 6.67% 2.27%

When asked if they are familiar with the concept of “active learning”, less than half responded “yes”, i.e. 21 students. After briefly explaining what active learning means, the students were asked if they believe that active learning can be helpful in teaching an introductory software engineering course. The results are highlighted in Fig. 1. We can observe that the majority of students (86.67% in total) either agree or strongly agree with this statement. This is an encouraging result, in particular for future software engineering classes.

"Do you believe that active learning can be helpful in teaching an introductory software engineering course?" 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% Strongly agree

Agree

Neither agree nor disagree

Disagree

Strongly disagree

Fig. 1. Students’ responses regarding helpfulness of active learning in a software engineering course

The instructor strongly believes that active learning has a crucial contribution to understanding the concepts better, to easily learn how they can be put into practice and,

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generally, that every student could benefit from a course employing active learning. Although practicing it, the instructor did not explain to the students the benefits of employing active learning. As stated in [4], it is important to “explain the relevance of the active learning approach, and contextualize the activities within a broader careerrelated perspective, tapping into the students’ motivation and engagement”. This is one important lesson learned by the instructor: it is imperative to highlight at the beginning of the course the benefits of active learning and periodically remind the students about these benefits, in the hope that they will be viewed more positively by all categories of class participants. The course participants were asked about the extent to which they find class activities useful, as well as enjoyable; a comparison between the two can be seen in Fig. 2. We can observe that, overall, the students find activities more useful than enjoyable. As a matter of fact, one other question in the administered questionnaire asked them what the most difficult issue is during class discussions/activities, in a multicultural classroom. Almost 80% of students responded that the language is an important issue, whereas almost 40% cited self-confidence issues; cultural differences accounted for almost 14% of responses. This explains why the students do not enjoy the class activities as much as they find them useful. On the other hand, when asked what they enjoy most about these activities, 73.33% stated that they enjoy listening to other people’s opinions; only 13.33% enjoy expressing their own opinion, whereas 4.44% enjoy both speaking and listening. It is worth noting here that 6.67% said that they enjoy “nothing”, i.e. they do not like discussions during classes.

Percentage of students finding the activities useful vs. enjoyable Not at all A little A moderate amount A lot 0

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Fig. 2. Students’ perception of class activities: useful vs. enjoyable

When asked to compare the activities/discussions in face-to-face classes with those in online classes, the students responded as shown in Fig. 3, i.e. more than 40% perceived these activities to be more successful if they take place face-to-face.

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"How would you compare the class activities/discussions in an online class vs. a face-to-face class?" 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% More successful About the same More successful if face-to-face if online

I don't know

Fig. 3. Comparison between face-to-face and online class activities

Finally, an open-ended question was included, where the students were encouraged to express any additional thoughts regarding teaching the software engineering class. Various opinions were expressed; for instance, one student stated that they appreciate active learning, but they prefer the flipped classroom style: “[…]active learning is important, but for a non-native speaker I need time to prepare, so I think the flipped classroom is the best”. Some other examples of students’ thoughts are included below. – “I strongly prefer face-to-face classes; however, depending on the current situation, I enjoy our online classes”. – “[…] there are many restrictions on online classes, and it is difficult for everyone to stay focused”. – “I hope we do a face-to-face class, I will enjoy doing discussion in offline” – “I like the active class” – “face-to-face is better, but I think online is also OK”. – “I feel like when classes are held online, people will be very hesitant to participate unless they are picked on directly”. – “I think the online environment keeps many people silent, or because they don’t speak and no one can see so they keep silent. Such discussions are not very effective and there will be problems in the allocation of discussion time”. – “I think that online classes can result in *more* discussion than face-to-face classes because students can work asynchronously and in different modalities. I don’t need to see someone or hear them to discuss, there are other ways of communication”.

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3 Conclusions This paper highlighted active learning implementation strategies employed during emergency remote teaching of a software engineering course. The observations and results obtained constitute a starting point for planning and implementing future software engineering courses and for making sure that active learning continues to remain an essential part of the instruction process. In order for the students to participate as much as possible and understand the benefits of active learning, one important lesson learned is that it is essential to continuously explain and remind the students about these benefits and to constantly encourage their active participation. Whether university teaching will continue to remain “emergency-determined” or whether it will slowly, but steadily turn into a new way of online teaching, the lessons learned will contribute to improving the online/remote teaching environment.

References 1. UNESCO: COVID-19 impact on education. https://en.unesco.org/covid19/education response. Accessed 7 June, 2021 2. Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., Bond, A.: The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Rev. 27, 1–12 (2020) 3. Whittle, C., Tiwari, S., Yan, S., Williams, J.: Emergency remote teaching environment: a conceptual framework for responsive online teaching in crises. Information and Learn. Sci. (2020) 4. Sandrone, S., Scott, G., Anderson, W.J., Musunuru, K.: Active learning-based STEM education for in-person and online learning. Cell 184(6), 1409–1414 (2021) 5. Bonwell, C.C., Eison, J.A.: Active learning: creating excitement in the classroom. 1991 ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports. ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education, The George Washington University (1991) 6. Microsoft Stream. https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/microsoft-stream. Accessed 7 June 2021 7. Manaba Homepage. https://manaba.jp/products/. Accessed 7 June 2021 8. Zoom: Zoom meetings & chat. https://zoom.us/meetings. Accessed 7 June 2021 9. Chat, Meetings, Calling, Collaboration: Microsoft teams. https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/ microsoft-365/microsoft-teams/group-chat-software. Accessed 7 June 2021 10. Tweed, R.G., Lehman, D.R.: Learning considered within a cultural context: confucian and socratic approaches. Am. Psychol. 57(2), 89 (2002) 11. Mercier, H., Deguchi, M., Van der Henst, J.B., Yama, H.: The benefits of argumentation are cross-culturally robust: the case of Japan. Think. Reason. 22(1), 1–15 (2016) 12. Piilikangas, A., Lindfors, E.: Stay online: student teachers’ views on online experiential learning in emergency remote teaching (ERT). Techne serien-Forskning i slöjdpedagogik och slöjdvetenskap 28(2), 294–302 (2021)

E-Teaching in Higher Education: An Analysis of Teachers’ Challenges Facing E-Learning in Mozambique Domingos Rhongo1(&) and Bonifácio da Piedade2 1

2

Catholic University of Mozambique FGTI, Pemba, Mozambique [email protected] Catholic University of Mozambique, FEC, Nampula, Mozambique [email protected]

Abstract. Higher Education in Mozambique has more than 50 educational institutions, about 230.000 students, and 14.000 teachers, and there is an attempt to implement e-Teaching emerging since 2020 particularly in higher education; considering that the Mozambican population presents basic problems, namely low digital literacy and socioeconomic problems, meanwhile, many institutions are migrating from conventional to virtual classrooms without proper preparation; for some teachers, teaching through the Internet is new and, therefore, the learning outcome is not unsatisfactory, raising several questions such as: a) do these teachers understand the e-Teaching model? Are these teachers in higher education institutions in Mozambique prepared for these profound transformations? Are their competences sufficient to teach effectively in the online model? At this level, teachers seek to promote active, reflective and critical learning and discussions about course content. These practices require ICT skills, e-pedagogy, didactics, communication resources and experience. As some of these elements are essential for effective training, what challenges do teachers face in order to such difficulties? this article aims to explore the main challenges that teachers face daily in the process of teaching didactic content online, through a case study of higher education teachers in Mozambique; in terms of methodology a quantitative approach was used, where a survey was made through a questionnaire in 15 Higher Education Institutions between public and private, to a total of 164 teachers; The results show that some teachers have e-Teaching skills, with the majority using Zoom (71%), followed by Google Meet (68%) for video conferencing, WhatsApp (64%) to communicate respectively and Moodle (86%), Google Classroom (83%) to manage and provide online content. Keywords: ICT skills


E-Leaning
E-Teaching
High education

1 Introduction The Information Society is characterised by the daily and permanent use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). This technologisation includes the use of mobile phones, whose users reach more than 5 billion [1].

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 403–414, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_41

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As for the Educational Institutions and the respective teachers, they also started to use a range of new strategies resulting from the integration of ICTs, in order to promote an efficient educational and training process, capable of bringing knowledge and learning opportunities to billions of students through the Internet [2]. The issue of using digital platforms is not recent, and for some time it has been considered a methodology capable of developing skills and competences through e-learning [3]; a concrete example of the implementation of this teaching method in Mozambique is the Catholic University of Mozambique, which has a 100% online course (at the Distance Education Institute) in which students use mobile and computer devices to access various platforms (Moodle, Google Apps educational and WebEx) for online sessions [3]. 1.1

General Context of Higher Education in Mozambique

Education in Mozambique plays a crucial role in the eradication of poverty [4], therefore the country has about 8.4 million students in the different education subsystems distributed by 14 thousand schools and guided by about 156 thousand teachers [5], higher education in Mozambique in 2020 was composed of a total of 53 education institutions, among 19 Universities, 27 Institutes, 4 Schools, and 3 Academies, where of this total 22 are public and 31 private and a total of 230.000 students, and teaching was provided by 14 thousand teachers [6, 7]. 1.2

The Use of ICTs in Education

The introduction of ICTs into education in Mozambique, as in many developing countries, is conditioned by the lack of electricity and telecommunications network infrastructure, which represents a major challenge, firstly because most of this infrastructure was affected by the civil war, but also due to economic difficulties [8]. This plan was divided into phases in order to materialize its ambitious goals, these phases according to Technological Educational Plan include: “In the first phase, which will take place during 2011, the logistical and operational conditions will be created. In the second phase, which will take place during the five-year period 2012– 2016 (the duration of the next Education Strategic Plan), the presence of ICT in the education system will be reinforced, initially covering teacher training, secondary education and technical education for a faster impact on the labour market. The third phase will last for two five-year periods (2017–2026), traversing the path to interactive education [9]”.

However, this plan brought little to the sector, so that only the year 2020 was a year that we consider of effective transformation of the higher education sector due to COVID-19 that made many universities implement the Hybrid and remote model. But in this same path, not all universities managed to successfully implement this model, but according to Daniel Nivagara Minister of Science, Technology and Higher Education, this moment should be seen as an opportunity to develop new skills for teachers and pedagogical organization of higher education institutions in the country, stating that hybrid education has conditions to generate a quality education, but for this purpose it is essential to use digital platforms rationally, efficiently and effectively, as well as the use of these platforms that requires a better and permanent training of teachers [10]. Looking at this ecosystem of digital environment and the Mozambican scenario, it

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can be stated that teaching mediated by ICTs cannot be effectively materialized without understanding conceptual aspects of what this model really means, how its actors should position themselves before the concept of e-Teaching. 1.3

E-Teaching - What Does It Really Mean?

The term E-Teaching means an electronic teaching, which is understood to be the same thing as conventional teaching, the only difference is that the medium used is electronic; where the internet brings an approach that is no longer new, though modern in teaching, where technology is used to deconfine the classrooms into iClass, where the resources and teaching materials are multimedia and videoconferences, increasing the width of the audience [11, 12]. 1.4

Problem Statement

If E-Teaching is used in an intelligent and sustainable way, it can break barriers of learning that the traditional model in classrooms presents [12], this idea cannot be linear in all levels of education. Higher education has been quite privileged with the new generation of students who use ICTs in daily life, in the article of [13], classifies generation of digital, that is, people who grew up with the internet, mobile phones and using the varied channels and methods of digital communication and the new teachers already have some proficiency in computer science, which makes higher education a fertile field for the mastering of e-Teaching. But this scenario is not linear in developing countries like Mozambique, where there is great disparity in terms of coexistence with ICTs. Higher education institutions in Mozambique are lagging behind when it comes to investments and implementation of a fully digital teaching, they invest little in trainings that provide necessary skills for teachers to deal with this very important process. Due to the emergence of COVID-19 higher education in Mozambique was marked by the race to implement e-Teaching. This emergence in some cases was not possible to unveil if the classes were well taught or not due to lack of exploratory studies and evaluation of soft skills competencies by university teachers in Mozambique. For some teachers, teaching through the Internet is new, and due to this, they have reached unsatisfactory learning outcomes from students. In the face of this new paradigm, the question is: do these teachers understand the meaning of e-Teaching? The reality shows that technologies introduced in the educational system bring new challenges to teachers as instructors, because higher education institutions are concerned with investing in equipment and ordering its use. From the statement another question arises: are these teachers in higher education institutions in Mozambique prepared for these profound transformations? Are their skills sufficient to teach effectively in the online model? At this level of teaching, teachers seek to promote active, reflective, critical learning and discussions about course content. These practices require ICT skills, e-pedagogy, didactics, communication resources and experience. As some of these elements are essential for effective training, what challenges do teachers face in order of such difficulties?

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This article aims to explore the main challenges teachers face daily in the process of teaching didactic content online, through a case study of higher education teachers in Mozambique.

2 Methodology Approach 2.1

Participants

The study was exclusively aimed at Higher Education Teachers, of which it was conducted through a questionnaire, based on a Quantitative approach. This approach was crucial, when looking at the objectives outlined for this kind of study. In terms of geographical area, the study took place in Mozambique in 15 higher education institutions. These Institutions are the ones with more Professors and experience at National level, where there are more than 50 and the respective programs are taught by about 14.000 professors [7]. A convenience sample of study participants was calculated from the total number of teachers in higher education of 14000. The result generated a sample of 164 teachers from the different universities. The confidence level was 95% and the confidence interval 7.6. 2.2

Data Collection, Procedures and Analysis

Teachers’ data was collected through Google form as a more flexible methodology to reach more people in a cost-effective and sustainable way. For data collection a questionnaire was designed in Google form, and sent to the respective institutional and personal emails, as well as in WhatsApp groups. In terms of procedures it was classified as an exploratory case study, as a broad research method on a specific subject in order to delve deeper into it, but equally as a research strategy that focuses on real-life context and answers the “how” and “why” questions [14]. For data analysis we had two phases, the first in which Google form is used to collect and analyse the answers, and the second in which done is a systematic review to promote the bibliography to support the data collected and provide a position and a field for discussion.

3 Results and Discussion This section presents the results and discussion making judge the answers of the questionnaire, the same are presented in section according to question. A. Teaching experience in higher education. Regarding the experience of teachers in higher education, the results show that 26.7% (43 answers) are teachers who have been teaching for more than 10 years; 20.5% (33) have been teaching for exactly 10 years, 18.6% (30) have been teaching for 5 years, 10.6% (17) have been teaching for 3 years, 8.7% (14) have been teaching for 4 years, 7.5% (12) have been teaching for 2 years respectively.

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B. Starting teaching through technological means, in particular the Internet. The question refers to the period when teachers first used digital platforms and other ICTs through the Internet. In this sense more than half 83 (51.6%) said they began teaching with technological resources before the pandemic, compared to 78 (48.4%) who began teaching through these means when it starts Covid-19 (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Starting teach over internet

C. The introduction Educational Technologies, was your institution prepared for this transformation. In terms of technological and infrastructural conditions some institutions at the time of the introduction of educational technologies faced with the needs in the last year when an avalanche of remote education began. Context only 9.3% (15) responded that the institutions were very prepared, 23.5% (38) responded that they were prepared, 49.4% (80) were minimally prepared and 17.9% (29) were not prepared (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Institution prepared for the technological transformation

By 2020, COVID-19 is estimated to have caused closure of a large proportion of educational establishments affecting 1198 million students due to lack of distance learning strategies [15]. A more practical analysis shows that investment in ICTs in higher education is considered only as a requirement for opening it and not as an auxiliary model for appropriation of an information society, where teaching opportunities can be broadened, accompanied with the respective pedagogical, methodological, technological and communication resources necessary for the teacher to prepare a class and administer it in a 100% digital environment. According to Guri-Rosenblit [16]: most universities are not implementing strategies to address digital literacy needs in their academia, it is notable that most professors are not taking the challenge seriously. The lack of preparedness is not only circumscribed in training but equally in the model and platform chosen, it is necessary to design the learning development model with instructional design approach for the system in education [17], which this can bring visible results on the ground.

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D. Faced with the introduction of Educational Technologies in the context of higher education, were you as a teacher prepared for this transformation. The introduction of technologies for remote teaching to respond has taken some teachers in higher education by surprise, including those more experienced, as well as some who teach ICT-related curricular units. The participants were very open about this question. In terms of positivity, only 14 (8.7%) were very prepared, followed by 39 which corresponds to (24.2%) were prepared, 70 (43.5%) answered that they were minimally prepared and 38 (23.6%) were not prepared respectively (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Teachers were prepared for the technological transformation

In 2011 Mozambique presented the Technological Plan for integration into the curricula, and in this context the first focus was on teacher training in the use of ICTs. On the other hand, the Teacher Training Institute promoted the use of ICTs as an incentive for future teachers. In higher education some Universities teach higher courses in computer science and ICTs [9]. In the same reflection, points out the study presented by Owolabi (2013) showed that in Nigeria first was that the old system has transitioned to the new without any exposure to ICTs, for in this study the author puts the reorientation and redirection of our value system to the modern system that will put our teachers in a state of readiness to face E-Teaching, to others he points out the only way to overcome this problem through teacher training programmes [11]. So when this joint transformation is not done as if it were a revolution, no teacher can be prepared to face the change and be the agent of transformation. E. Do you have enough skills to use and manage platforms. In terms of competencies for platform use and management, 66.7% corresponding to 108 teachers responded that they possess competencies in platform use and management, while 32.1% corresponding to 52 possess minimal competencies and the remaining 2 teachers which corresponds to 1.2% do not possess competencies in the use and even less in the management of teaching platforms. F. Tick the Platforms in your domain that you use for academic management. The platforms with the highest domain and most used for academic management of content and assessment were Moodle and Google Classroom. Positioned as follows: Moodle 86.8% (138), Google Classroom 83% (132), Blackboard Learn 13.8% (22), Open EdX 5% (8), Canvas 5% (8), SAP Litmos 2.5% (4), Schoology 1.9% (3) and lastly we have with 0.6%, i.e. marked by only one person the Chamilo LMS, Tomara Learn, D2L Bringhtspace respectively (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. Platform domain for academic management

The fact that the Moodle platform stands in the first position followed by Google Classroom confirms its popularity in Mozambique. A study on the evaluation of the use of the platform by teachers in higher education, shows 78% with an Excellent rating and the lowest rating was only 15% [19], showing the simplicity and usability of the platform, besides being free. It was developed by Prof. Martin Dougiamas, at Curlin University in the United States [22]. Its implementation took into consideration all teaching characteristics and a hierarchical structure of universities, colleges, courses, disciplines or learning modules (Mura & Rhongo, 2018). The Google Classroom platform comes integrated in the Google suite, therefore providing the possibility of its free use in the educational context. G. Choose the platform that you use for interaction with students. The remote teaching activities require the use of certain platforms that allow asynchronous communication and whose same allow interaction, and face to face, to minimize the absence in the conventional classroom. Of the platforms presented respondents said they used Zoom with a total of 114 responses from teachers, which corresponds to (70.8%), Google Meet 110 (68.3%), WhatsApp 103 (64%), Microsoft teams 28 (17.4%), Skype 19 (11.8%) and WebEx 1 (0.6%) (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Planform domain for interaction

For synchronous interaction, the most prominent platforms are three, Zoom, Google Meet and WhatsApp. Both Google Meet and Zoom have an equal rating of 4.5 stars out of 5 at Gartner. However, 88% of users recommend Google Meet (based on 178 reviews), while for Zoom (based on 927 reviews), it is 94% [23]. In the context of higher

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education in Mozambique was highlighted the use of WhatsApp and Skype in 163 organic units, Google Class room in 152, email in 125, zoom in 105 and Moodle in 41 organic units [7]. But then why WhatsApp intrudes in the Mozambican context? Due to its popularization in the social context and being pre-installed in most smartphones; WhatsApp is quite formally used in the university context, teachers and students use it as a tool of Pedagogical support in communication, feedback synchronously and asynchronously depending on the state of connectivity of the interlocutors [24–26]. H. Are you proficient at creating hands-on activities on e-learning systems. About the domain of creating practical activities 54.7% (88) answered yes, 34.2% (55) a little and 11.2% (18) answered no (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Ability to create hands-on activities

I. He points out some challenges he has faced in the e-teaching and e-learning process. In higher education teachers seek to promote active, reflective, critical learning and discussions about course content. These practices require ICT skills, epedagogy, didactics, communication resources, and experience. Among the teachers’ answers we found 109 (68.6%) presenting difficulties related to the lack of digital resources (computer and internet connection) on the part of students, followed by the lack of motivation of students in online classes 91 which corresponds to (57.2%), 56 (35.2%) presenting technical difficulties in the transformation of face-to-face classes into online classes, 55 (34.6%) present problems related to didactics in online classes, 49 (30.8%) present problems related to electronic pedagogy, 45 (28.3%) show having problems related to ICT skills, 44 (27.7%) point to lack of computer resources and internet connection as constraints and lastly 34 (21.4%) show lack of experience in this new teaching and learning environment (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Challenges faced during e-Teaching

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Technologies are providing numerous possibilities to enhance student learning as well as to develop teachers [12]. Some studies point out the new role of the teacher with the introduction of technology is to: provide programs, instructional resources, communication tools, and learning strategies; monitor and assess learning and provide feedback, remediation, and grading; identify and solve instructional, interpersonal, and technical problems; and create a learning community in which students feel safe and connected and believe their contributions are valid [16]. Reality shows that most teachers have not been prepared to assume these responsibilities and zealously create the competencies. Looking at the digital skills of teachers, there is a noticeable trend of e-learning dominating current teaching methods, but technology in itself is not enough, requiring a qualified and digitally confident teacher, taking on new responsibilities [16]. Principles of Good Practice that can be explored in the transition from an excellent traditional teacher to an excellent e-teacher, namely: (a) encourages contact between student and faculty, (b) develops reciprocity and cooperation between students, (c) encourages active learning, (d) gives rapid feedback, (e) emphasizes time on task, (f) communicates high expectations, and (g) respects diverse talents and way of learning [13]. With all these elements teachers can be in a position of creator of the elearning process [18]. Among the teachers’ answers we found 109 (68.6%) who have difficulties related to the lack of digital resources (computer and internet connection) on the part of students, followed by the lack of motivation of students in online classes 91 which corresponds to (57.2%), this result seems a disconnect between how students use, experience and interact with technology in their social lives and how they use technology in their roles as students [16]. In the case of Mozambique, where the mobile phone has a lot of expression but has also been little used for digital learning [3], students expect that all the necessary conditions for learning are created by the University and do not take advantage of the fact that many of them have smartphones connected to the Internet. Teachers should do more to encourage an institutional investment at this level, but also an individual investment from the students themselves, an effective digital culture and iClass. Another important element in e-learning is related to motivation, in the study by Mura and Eduardo showed that in a universe of 49 universities, 77, 60% stated that they do not offer e-learning training courses, due to the lack of interest of the teachers (45%), the lack of financial resources (40%), the lack of incentives from the ministry (40%) and, finally, the level of distrust in e-learning (38%) [27]. The lack of interest and difficulties presented cannot be left aside, too much in the Mozambican context, there is a common opinion in which students revealed weak mastery of independent study methods and techniques, something that is useful not only for online classes, but for lifelong learning. In the implementation process of remote teaching the students’ complaints about the lack of financial resources for a continuous connection during a class persist, and to overcome this deficit the government has tried to address this issue through partnerships with operators and has tried to support higher education through subsidised rates for unlimited Internet access, in payment conditions very low compared to the usual (Vodacom free, TMcel and Movitel at 100 MZN/month so that all

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Students, Teachers/Investigators and Technical-Administrative Staff can enjoy open and exclusive access to academic content [6, 28]. In higher education in particular, teachers need to modify their teaching methods to accommodate altered interaction patterns in the conversion from traditional to online classroom. The effective use of new technologies requires innovative teaching skills.

4 Conclusions and Recommendations This work sought to explore the level of teachers’ competence and information on the activity of remote teaching through digital platforms. In terms of the main objectives, the article sought to answer some questions about the soft skills of the main agents of e-Teaching in higher education in Mozambique. Almost half of these teachers, 48%, started teaching with technological resources after the compulsory requirement imposed by Covid-19, although almost 55% were trained by the institutions in the use of Moodle, Google classroom, Zoom, Google meet still have difficulties in teaching due to lack of computer resources, internet connection, deficiency in terms of soft skills, and issues related to the motivation of students in the e-Teaching adventure. After the pandemic, teaching will never be the same. Schools are called to a vision in which incoming teachers must have mastery of ICTs for teaching as a requirement, and their students must also look at ICTs with a different attitude, especially in terms of information and services. So that situations of total paralysis of the educational fabric do not come about, we have to focus on an inclusive approach, because to overcome gender situations we have to consider everyone’s effort and commitment. E-teachers must be able to guide students in the process of e-teaching and e-learning in the same way as they do in the conventional classroom [13]. Several studies conclude that the obstacles to the use of technologies in pedagogical practices are related to the lack of resources and training [19, 30]. Finally, a particular focus is proposed on e-Pedagogy supported by constructivism and an active construction of knowledge, where the teacher must be an agent of this active method [31]. But this does not show easy, it is necessary to endow them with experience and pedagogical creativity, through ways so that the e-Teaching is not a model of intolerant and demotivated. It is with this path that Mozambique can implement at the higher education level a hybrid model of reference. In addition to e-Pedagogy training to consolidate the digital learning and teaching process, three groups of e-Learning tools should be considered for teachers and students: a) Course management system (CMS), for this group comprises Moodle, hot Lava Mobile, Brainshark; b) Interactive E-learning tools (ILT), these tools include google meet, zoom, YouTube, facebook, google docs etc.; c) Authoring tools used to distribute digital learning content from teachers (e.g. Adobe Captivate, Gomo, Lectora etc.). By e-Teaching, being an independent learning modality teacher pay attention to students’ motivation in order to encourage participation in online classes. For future studies, an investigation of e-Teaching from the students’ perspective is proposed.

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References 1. Rowntree, O., Shanahan, M.: Connected Women: The Mobile Gender Gap Report 2020, p. 52 (2020). https://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/ GSMA-Connected-Women-The-Mobile-Gender-Gap-Report-2019.pdf 2. Junior, V.B.S., Monteiro, J.C.S.: EDUCAÇÃO E COVID-19: AS TECNOLOGIAS DIGITAIS MEDIANDO A APRENDIZAGEM EM TEMPOS DE PANDEMIA [Education and COVID-19: digital technologies mediating the learning process in times of a pandemic]. Rev. Encantar - Educ. Cult. Soc. 2, 1–15 (2020). NOVO CORONAVÍRUS (COVID - 19) Segundo o Ministério da Saúd 3. Rhongo, D., Mura, S., da Piedade, B.: The e-learning environment in developing countries: case of Catholic University of Mozambique. In: Auer, M.E., Hortsch, H., Sethakul, P. (eds.) ICL 2019. AISC, vol. 1135, pp. 86–98. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-030-40271-6_10 4. Mário, M., Nandja, D.: A alfabetização em Moçambique: desafios da educação para todos, pp. 1–11 (2006) 5. Brandao, B., Dos Anjos, M.: Retratos socioeducacionais Brasil-África em tempos pandêmicos: uma entrevista com Jorge Ferrão - Magnífico Reitor da Universidade Pedagógica de Maputo [Brazil-Africa socio-educational in pandemic times: an interview with Jorge Ferrão - Magnificent Rector]. Ensino, saude e Ambient. 13(3), 201–212 (2020) 6. MCTESTP: Comunicado de emprensa sobre o ponto de situacao de operacionalizacao das medidas de prevencao a pandemia do covid-19 nos subsistemas de ensino superior e tecnico profissional, Maputo, pp. 1–10 (2020) 7. CNAQ: Resultados preliminares do inquérito sobre e-learning em tempos de COVID-19, Maputo (2020) 8. Rhongo, D.L., De Almeida, A., David, N.: eGovernment in Mozambique: past, future and new prospects. In: IST Africa, vol. 2018, no. E-Government, pp. 1–8 (2018) 9. da Educacao, M.: Plano Tecnológico da Educação (2011) 10. Jornal Noticias: As TICs no ensino superior como oportunidade, May 2021 11. Owolabi, T.O., Oyewole, B.K., Oke, J.O.: Teacher education, information and communication technology: prospects and challenges of e-teaching profession in Nigeria. Am. J. Humanit. Soc. Sci. 1(2), 87–91 (2013). https://doi.org/10.11634/232907811301314 12. Nawaz, A., Khan, N., Miankheil, A.: Challenges of e-teaching: contemporary paradigms and barriers. Res. J. Inf. Technol. 3(2), 99–107 (2011) 13. Hoskins, B.J.: The art of e-teaching. J. Contin. High. Educ. 58(1), 53–56 (2010). https://doi. org/10.1080/07377360903524641 14. FIA: Estudos de Caso: O que são, Exemplos e Como Fazer para TCC, September 2020. https://fia.com.br/blog/estudos-de-caso/ 15. Ferreira, A.M.S., Principe, F., Pereira, H., Oliveira, I., Mota, L.: COVimpact: pandemia COVID-19 nos estudantes do ensino superior da saúde. Rev. Investig. Inovação em Saúde 3 (1), 7–16 (2020). https://doi.org/10.37914/riis.v3i1.80 16. Guri-Rosenblit, S.: E-teaching in higher education: an essential prerequisite for e-learning. J. New Approaches Educ. Res. 7(2), 93–97 (2018). https://doi.org/10.7821/naer.2018.7.298 17. Triyono, M.B.: The indicators of instructional design for e-learning in Indonesian Vocational High Schools. Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci. 204(November 2014), 54–61 (2015). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.109 18. Subramanian, A.: Teacher education from e-learner to e-teacher. Int. J. Res. GRANTHAALAYAH 5(4(SE)), 25–31 (2017). https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v5. i4(se).2017.1946

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19. Mura, S., Rhongo, D.: Análise da utilização da plataforma Moodle nos cursos de Doutoramento: estudo de caso da Universidade Católica de Moçambique. Educ. a Distância 8(1), 25–46 (2018). https://claretiano.edu.br/revista/169/revista-educacao-a-distancia 20. Sabbatini, R.: Ambiente de Ensino e Aprendizagem via internet: a plataforma moodle. Inst. EduMed 7, 36 (2007). http://www.renato.sabbatini.com/papers/PlataformaMoodle.pdf 21. Lisbôa, E., de Jesus, A.G., Varela, A.M., Texeira, G.S., Coutinho, C.P.: LMS em Contexto Escolar: estudo sobre o uso da Moodle pelos docentes de duas escolas do Norte de Portugal. Educ. Formação Tecnol. 2(1), 44–57 (2009). http://eft.educom.pt. 1646-933X 22. Nasrin, N.: University on web: a case study of using Moodle for course work 23. Mordy, J.: Zoom vs. Google Meet: which is the best video conferencing tool? (2020) 24. Paiva, F.: WhatsApp alcança presença recorde em 99% dos smartphones no Brasil, Mobile Time (2020). https://www.mobiletime.com.br/noticias/27/02/2020/whatsapp-alcancapresenca-recorde-em-99-dos-smartphones-no-brasil/. Accessed 22 Aug 2020 25. Gasaymeh, A.-M.: University Students’ use of Whatsapp and their perceptions regarding its possible integration into their education. Glob. J. Comput. Sci. Technol. G Interdiscip. 17(1) (2017) 26. Susilo, A.: Exploring Facebook and Whatsapp as supporting social network applications for English learning in higher education, pp. 10–24 (2008) 27. Mura, S., Eduardo, F.: E-learning in the process of classroom teaching and learning: a case study at Catholic University of Mozambique [E-learning no Processo de Ensino e Aprendizagem Presencial: Um Estudo de Caso na Universidade Católica de Moçambique Introdução]. Rev. Electrónica Investig. e Desenvolv. 1(11), 1–16 (2020) 28. Nhantumbo, T.L.: Capacidade De Resposta Das Instituições Educacionais No Processo De Ensino-Aprendizagem Face À Pandemia De Covid- 19: Impasses E Desafios. Rev. Educ. Educ. Soc. e Meio Ambient. XXV(2), 556–571 (2020) 29. Sultan, N., Al-Lail, H.J.: Creative Learning and MOOCs (2015) 30. Kybartaite, A., Nousiainen, J.: Review of e-teaching/e-learning practices and technologies, no. 2005, pp. 1–25 (2007) 31. Rizzon, G.: A Sala de Aula sob o olhar do Construtivismo Piagetiano: Perspectivas e Implicações. In: V Congresso Internacional de Filosofia e Educacao (2010). ISSN 2177644X

Evaluation and Outcomes Assessment

COVID-19’s Impact on the Quality of Educational Process and the Academic Performance as Viewed by IT Students: A Case Study in Text Mining Olga Dunajeva(&), Avar Pentel, and Natalja Maksimova Virumaa College of Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia {olga.dunajeva,avar.pentel, natalja.maksimova}@taltech.ee

Abstract. In this paper, we describe the results of the text mining and sentiment analysis case study with the aim to analyze the COVID-19’s impact on the quality of the educational process and the academic performance of IT students of Virumaa College of Tallinn University of Technology (TalTech) through an essay assignment. In this study, we analyze and compare students’ feedback about their studies in the lockdown during the first and the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. To identify students’ sentiments and determine the potential influencing factors descriptive textual analytics, sentiment analysis techniques and textual data visualizations are used. As a result of this study the recommendations were developed to improve online learning and students’ motivation and emotional state. The methodology of the analysis provided in this paper can be helpful for further using as well as implemented by any higher education institution. Keywords: Academic performance mining


COVID19
Sentiment analysis
Text

1 Introduction and Related Work The COVID-19 pandemic brought changes in the educational process worldwide. In an effort to contain the spread of the virus, universities and colleges around the world have been forced to suspend face-to-face or classroom learning and move to distance elearning. Estonia’s success in the digital revolution extends to higher education. When during the first wave of the coronavirus pandemic in March – June 2020 the country was forced to lock down, Estonia’s universities and colleges switched to re-mote teaching in just one day, because digital learning platforms and materials were already in use. Thanks for digitalization dropout rates did not increase in higher education institutions during this spring term. Through surveys conducted by the Estonian Quality Agency for Higher and Vocational Education (EKKA) and by Estonian universities and colleges themselves, the problems related to the forced distance learning were summarized. The results of these surveys highlights such global negative aspects as an increased workload, problems with practical works, social isolation, lack of direct © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 417–425, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_42

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communication, lack of learning motivation, mental and emotional issues. The lessons from the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic were carried out, this implies that for the period of full distance learning during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic from November 2020 to June 2021 some of these problems should be solved, but the results of new wide surveys are not published yet [1]. The TalTech Virumaa College has about 500 students enrolled in the three professional higher education study programs and in the two master’s programs. Among the professional higher education study programs, the most popular is the IT-related curriculum Telematics and Smart Systems, where the number of students enrolled is more than twice the total of the other two specialties. In the academic year 2020/21 the early dropout rate (by the end of first year) in Telematics and Smart Systems specialty increased compared to the academic year 2019/20 from 31.1% to 34.9%. The other two specialties have the same trend. As the main reasons for the attrition students named all the factors mentioned above related to the COVID-19 pandemic and also cited additional difficulties for students with families in this regard as they have to share their time and devices with their school-aged children. To get more detailed students’ feedback about their studies during the forced distance learning caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, such survey method as students’ essay analysis can be applied. The goal of this paper is to analyze the COVID-19’s impact on the quality of the educational process and the academic performance of Virumaa College students through an essay assignment. Using text mining techniques we analyze and compare students’ feedback about their studies in the lockdown during the first and the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic and find factors influencing the students’ academic performance, motivation and emotional state. We also provide the methodology of the analysis and develop recommendations for improving online learning. Previous related works on analyzing textual data in regard of COVID-19 are mainly based on social media posts as for example Reddit or Twitter [2], and as such these texts representing broader context. Closer to our study is the one [3] conducted with Ajivar app, which is an AI app for college students aiming to help them with mental health problems. However, in our study the student essays are more focused on particular topics concerning learning process in first and second wave of pandemics and is more connected to a similar study conducted by Ilieva et al. [4].

2 Methods and Results In order to examine students’ opinions, the following essay questions were formulated: (Q1) “How has the first wave of the COVID-19 changed studying in the Virumaa College? Please, discuss online learning platforms, tools, methods, changes in assessment.” (Q2) “How has the first wave of the COVID-19 changed your academic performance? Please, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of online learning.” (Q3) “How has the quality of the educational process changed in the Virumaa College after the first wave? Please, discuss the study process during the second wave of COVID-19 and the lessons learned from the first wave.” (Q4) “How has the second wave of the COVID-19 influence your academic performance? Please discuss your

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problems associated with online learning and suggest some ways to improve online education in the Virumaa College.” To identify students’ sentiments and determine the potential influencing factors descriptive textual analytics, sentiment analysis techniques, topics modelling and textual data visualizations are used in this study. 2.1

Dataset Description and Pre-processing

Since the essay assignment was offered to students as an additional bonus task in the course English Language for Specific Purpose only 44 valid responses were received during the period from 6 March to 25 May 2021. Of the 44 students, 32 (72.7%) were males. About 36% of the participants were daytime and 59% session-based students. Approximately 52% of the students were from the IT-related Telematics and Smart Systems specialty. A significant part of the respondents were the second and higher year students (84%). The dataset with students’ essays, demographic and academic data were imported into statistical software R. Students’ essays were imported as text strings. Data preprocessing were made using the R package tidytext. All collected essays and answers to each question (Q1-Q4) separately were converted into the corpuses. After the removal numbers, stop words and lemmatization the total number of words was 6183, the number of unique words was 1139, the total word numbers in each essay ranged from 17 to 411 with mean 141 and standard deviation 96 (Table 1). Table 1. Corpuses description. Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 All essays Words 1665 1464 1346 1708 6183 Unique words 547 513 469 617 1139

2.2

Frequency Analysis and Relationships Between Words

The numbers of words, unique words and the most frequent words were found using term-document matrices, the most important words were determined using the tf-idf (term frequency - inverse document frequency) technique [5]. The most frequent words and tf-idf most important words for the questions 1–4 are visualized as word clouds (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1. Questions 1–4: most frequent words.

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Fig. 2. Questions 1–4: most important words.

Using the same techniques, the most frequent and most important word sequences i.e. n-grams were also determined, which give insights about students’ problems and highlight some advantages of distance learning mentioned in the essays. The most interesting n-grams extracting such problems as lack of motivation, deficit of practice, needs to share time and devices with school-aged children and such advantage as easier accessibility of recorded lectures and lessons are shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Trigrams and quadrigrams.

To find most influencing words the frequent and significant collocations were defined with R package quanteda [6] (Fig. 4 and 5).

Fig. 4. Questions 1–4: most significant collocations.

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Fig. 5. Questions 1–4: most frequent collocations

Based on the keywords determined by words frequencies, tf-idf, n-grams and collocations and using the concordances extraction technique from the R package quanteda meaningful keywords in context (KWIC) were selected from essays. Concordances were created in two ways: with and without applying stop words removal (Fig. 6 and 7). We can conclude that when stop words are not removed the context of concordances becomes clearer and more readable, which can be more useful for automated survey response processing.

Fig. 6. Concordances with keyword “platform” after stop words removal.

Fig. 7. Concordances with keyword “platform” without stop words removal.

With the aim to extract most influencing factors from the students’ opinions the topic modelling technique was also applied in this study. We used Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) method [7], which through the Bayesian probabilistic modelling find patterns of words that appear together and group them into topics. The LDA topic model was calculated using the R package topic models. Different number of topics have been tried for each question, but unfortunately this method did not add any additional insights about students’ opinions and problems, to the results of the methods mentioned above.

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2.3

Sentiment Analysis

In this study sentiment analysis was performed using the R package quanteda. The lexicon-based technique addressed to the word dictionaries was applied to calculate polarity scores of the students’ essays. To determine the documents polarity (positive, neutral, and negative) the Lexicoder Sentiment Dictionary 2015 distributed with the R package quanteda was used. This dictionary has 2,858 “negative” sentiment words and 1,709 “positive” sentiment words by which the documents polarity was defined comparing words in each essay with words in the dictionary. [8]. The polarities of the answers to each of the questions and polarities for each of the questions by students’ profile, i.e., gender, study form and IT-relation of the specialty are shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Polarities by questions and students’ profile.

The estimations of polarities given by machine learning technique were manually controlled by three independent experts. The averages polarity estimations given by the experts are shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9. Polarities as evaluated by experts

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Keywords in Context

Applying n-grams and KWIC techniques the problems and advantages related to forced distance learning were extracted from the students’ essays (Table 2). For KWIC method the following keywords were used: advantage, change, disadvantage, difficult, good, improve, motivation, lack, need, platform, problem, study, quality, unclear. Table 2. Problems and advantages of forced distance learning extracted from the essays Problems Needs to share time and devices with schoolaged children, difficult to concentrate on studies at home, difficult to find a quiet place for study at home, needs to devote a lot of time to children at home, needs to reorganize work and family life Inconvenient and different online platforms, hard to find link to online meeting, bad internet, difficult to communicate with lecturer, more independent work, lack of practice, deficit of internship, hard to perform group work without direct contact, lack of condition to perform laboratory works, unclear e-course structure Lack face-to-face communication, lost motivation, lack motivation apathy, disappearance of interest in learning, laziness related to remote learning

Advantages Convenient if you live far away, no need to drive to school, can save time

Accessibility of recorded lectures, easier availability of online lectures and consultations, easy find necessary material, opportunity to revisit lectures

Can get enough sleep, can eat during lectures

Also were found that by students’ opinions the quality of the educational process in the period of the second wave of the pandemic improved much compared with the period of the first wave: teachers have adapted to distance learning, teaching methods become more interesting, most of the technical problems were solved.

3 Conclusion The aim of this study was to determine the effect of covid19 1st and 2nd wave isolation on the learning process by analyzing students’ essays using automatic text-mining methods. To do this, we found important keywords, sentiment and applied topic modeling techniques. Secondly, we wanted to evaluate the reliability of the text-mining results, by human experts. Therefore, the sentiment and important keywords of all these essays were evaluated by three experts and the results were compared with the textmining results. In conclusion, we can say that the automatic text-mining highlighted a number of important keywords, such as those that characterize both the positive and

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negative aspects of distance learning. Human experts highlighted the same main problems and advantages as automatic text-mining methods. On the negative side, during the distance learning, the volume of laboratory work and work with real equipment decreased. It was also mentioned that the home atmosphere was not suitable for learning. Many mentioned a lack of motivation and a lack of communication with fellow students. Some students mentioned that their home computer or internet connection was not good enough. Different online learning platforms and different course structures were found confusing. On the positive side, it was pointed out no need to wake up early and not to spend time on driving. An opportunity to re-watch recorded video lectures were highly appreciated. Similarly, it was mentioned, that distance learning gave a better opportunity to plan the time. The sentiment analysis showed a more positive sentiment in comments, about the organization of second-wave learning process. The results also showed that generally the human experts’ evaluated sentiment’s similarly to the results of the automatic sentiment analysis, although the human experts assessed the essay’s sentiment evenly more negatively. Human experts’ assessments of important keywords and topics largely coincided with the results of text-mining, although some of the keywords found using text-mining were not comprehensible without context. However, in general, we can say that the text-mining methods used in this study are still suitable for a very quick overview, and could uncover valuable information about content of free essays. Based on the disadvantages and advantages of distance learning that came out in this study, we can derive three main recommendations for improving distance learning. 1st, recording video lectures and opportunity to re-watch them are very important. 2nd, opening of all course material right at the beginning of the course with a precise description of what must be done to complete the course and what the exact deadlines are. 3rd, it is recommended that all teachers use the same platform for video communication and that the structure of online courses in the learning environment be the same for all courses.

References 1. Udam, M.: How did higher education institutions cope with the forced distance learning from March to June 2020, Estonian Quality Agency for Higher and Vocational Education (2020) 2. Das, S., Kolya, A.K.: Predicting the pandemic: sentiment evaluation and predictive analysis from large-scale tweets on Covid-19 by deep convolutional neural network. Evol. Intel. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12065-021-00598-7 3. Sharma, R., Pagadala, S. D., Bharti, P., Chellappan, S., Schmidt, T., Goyal, R. Assessing COVID-19 impacts on college students via automated processing of free-form text. In: 14th International Conference on Health Informatics. Press (2021) 4. Ilieva, G., Yankova, T., Klisarova-Belcheva, S., Ivanova, S.: Effects of COVID-19 Pandemic on University Students’ Learning. Information 12, 163 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/ info12040163 5. Robertson, S.: Understanding inverse document frequency: on theoretical argu-ments for IDF. J. Docum. 60(5), 503–520 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1108/00220410410560582

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6. Kenneth, B., et al.: Quanteda: an R package for the quantitative analysis of textual data. J. Open Source Softw. 3(30), 774 (2018) 7. Blei, D.M., Ng, A.Y., Jordan, M.I., Lafferty, J. (ed.). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 3(4–5), 993–1022 (2003). https://doi.org/10.5555/944919.944937 8. Young, L., Soroka, S.: Affective news: the automated coding of sentiment in political texts. Polit. Commun. 29(2), 205–231 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2012.671234

Students’ Readiness to Distance Learning: Results of Research in the Institutions of Higher Education Olga Banit1 , Alla Shtepura2(&) , Marina Rostoka3 Gennadii Cherevychnyi4 , and Oleksandr Dyma5

,

1

Ivan Ziaziun Institute of Pedagogical and Adult Education, National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine, 9/of. 533 M.Berlynskoho Street, Kyiv 04060, Ukraine 2 Nizhyn Gogol State University, 2 Grafska Street, Nizhyn 16600, Ukraine 3 V. O. Sukhomlynskyi State Scientific and Pedagogical Library of Ukraine, National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine, 9/of.31 M.Berlynskoho Street, Kyiv 04060, Ukraine 4 Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, 60 Volodymyrska Street, Kyiv 01601, Ukraine 5 Kiev National Economic University named after Vadym Hetman, 54 /1 k.131 Peremoge Avenue, Kyiv 03680, Ukraine Abstract. Assessing the readiness of students for distance learning is one of the main factors in the planning and implementation of distance learning. The purpose of this study was to identify and analyze the readiness of students to implement distance learning tools while learning English. The authors consider the students’ readiness to implement distance learning as a complex of cognitive, motivational, technological, and reflexive components. The paper analyzes various forms of diagnosing readiness levels, including surveys, questionnaires, interviews, and observations used in the study. The research demonstrated that distance learning presented some challenges to students on the one hand, and offered them new opportunities on the other hand. A list of factors that impeded English distance learning and benefits of distance learning were identified by students in this survey. The most notable is the growth of the high-level category of technological component. 83% of respondents indicated that they mastered new distance learning tools they had not previously used or used partially. On the plus side within the cognitive component we can admit gaining of new experience by students. Changes in the motivational and reflexive components were less noticeable. Keywords: Distance learning


Students’ readiness
Higher education

1 Problem Statement The dynamics of civilization progress, economic, social and cultural processes taking place in the modern society. Dramatic change in the ways of dissemination and use of information require a qualitatively new provision of the education system. An important

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 426–434, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_43

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place in this process is given to the active introduction of remote technologies as one of the areas of reform and strategic development of the educational system. This issue is especially relevant when educational institutions around the world are closing because of the pandemic. A lot of schools, colleges, universities and other educational institutions are forced to implement distance learning (DL). Hence, the need for online learning and digitalization of the education system is growing as never before. The concept of distance education which is progressively developed as part of the tertiary education reform provides for the development of various technologies, including DL technologies. Distance learning provides students with access to new sources of information, increases the efficiency of independent work, offers completely new opportunities for creative self-expression, consolidating various professional skills, and allows teachers to implement completely new forms and methods of teaching.

2 Analysis of Recent Research and Publications Nowadays researchers point out that DL has a number of both advantages – they can be following categories: 1. Pedagogical ‒ remote telecommunications keep students motivated, make learning more interactive, increases the number of potential participants, who quickly interact with each other through electronic networks, individual and creative learning, new approaches to the learning process [1–4]; 2. Psychological ‒ providing more comfortable, compared to traditional, emotional and psychological conditions for students self-expression, removing psychological barriers and problems, eliminating errors of oral communication, strengthening students’ motivation (multimedia strengthen users’ motivation by their diversity of web-based DL courses) [1–5]; 3. Informational ‒ increasing the availability of educational information stored on specialized servers and delivered to the student through interactive web channels, published on Internet, including teleconferences, emailing and other means of the Internet, increasing accessibility of high-quality education and information, modern technology and integrated media [1–5]; 4. Ergonomic ‒ students and teachers have the opportunity to distribute the time of classes at a convenient schedule and pace, choose and use the most suitable computer equipment, combine convenience and flexibility of educational process (freedom and flexibility of this mode of education implies new possibilities for choosing a course of study, ways, time, tools of study) [1, 3, 4]. However, despite the numerous advantages, DL has its disadvantages: technical (infrastructure, tools), organizational (standards, rules regulations) and educational (didactic-methodical, psychological). Technical problems are mostly because of costly and complex technology. Although we are living in the age of the Internet, the age of generation Z, many students and educators still find it difficult to use IT and have no access to the Internet. The disadvantages of organizational and educational components of DL are follows:

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indirect contact with teachers and students, lack of face-to-face interaction (oral communication), out-of-date programs, not enough (or even no) practical training, social isolation, low motivation, reputation of diploma [1, 6]. Institutions higher education which provide DL should take into ac-count both the advantages and disadvantages, their technological and methodological potential and the needs of students and teachers in the educational process.

3 Basic Material and the Substantiation of the Obtained Results This study is based on our previous research on training of future English teachers with distance learning tools. And now we focus on the effectiveness of the distance learning tools. The effectiveness of distance learning depends on quality of future English teachers’ professional training and their progress in mastering distance technologies as students. The past academic year revealed significant gaps in the readiness of students and teachers for DL. The sudden transition to distance learning for both students and teachers became a forced measure. The distance learning format to which educators had to transfer their classes on a rush basis was very much different from their properly planned traditional educational activities. Not all universities were ready for this radical rebuilding of the educational process because of objectively different levels of information infrastructure development, provision of disciplines with electronic educational resources and readiness of teachers and students to use digital platforms and services. This situation is stressful for all participants and it cannot but affect the attitude towards online learning and other DL technologies. Therefore, the purpose of the research was to analyses the readiness of students to DL. The methodology of research covers triangulation: research methods, techniques, samples and theories. Diversified readiness diagnostics, readiness scales, the qualitative analysis of the obtained results, the level of readiness were built, tested and determined. A 20 question survey was developed and applied for respondents. The students’ able to rate their opinions on a 5-point Likert scale, which ranged from strong disagreement (1) to firm agreement (5). The results of the survey were obtained in a sample of the study, which included 158 randomly selected future teachers of English. We consider the students’ readiness to implement DL as a unity of cognitive, motivational, technological and reflexive components [7]. Each component is revealed through the relevant indicators, which can determine the level of its formation. Thus, the cognitive component of students’ readiness for DL involves knowledge and understanding of the processes necessary for the implementation of DL: principles of operation of a personal computer and peripheral devices and work on the Internet; opportunities of the main educational resources of the Internet; basic types and general principles of functioning of telecommunication systems; features of the process of knowledge acquisition in DL; telecommunication etiquette. As far as technological component of students’ readiness of implementation of remote learning is concerned, it includes the ability of students to use modern information technology, correlate pedagogical tasks with available online educational

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resource, use e-mail and various telecommunications (teleconferences, real-time communication, etc.) to exchange information with other users, work with network information resources, to maintain a dialogue with other network users, work with modern hypertext and hypermedia systems, search the Internet for the information resources the most adequate to the learning objectives, prepare information for transmission over the network using various applications and the necessary utilities (archives, encoders, etc.). The motivational component has a big impact on DL. As practice shows, students differ from each other by the level of motivation rather than cognitive abilities. Learning activity and success depend significantly on the strength and structure of motivation. Hence, the principle of motivational support of the DL process is formed. The attitude and reflection on DL is reflexive and evaluative component. It includes the ability to organize their learning activities, develop an effective control system, and self-access their learning activities. In 2019, surveys and interviews with students were conducted according to the methodology described above. Table 1 summarizes the findings.

Table 1. Components of students’ readiness to implement distance learning Components levels Cognitive Motivational Technological Reflexive High 8% 5% 45% 5% Medium 32% 20% 35% 65% Low 60% 75% 20% 30%

As part of the cognitive component, we asked future English teachers whether they had had any DL experience. We were guided by the assertion that at the current stage of rapid scientific and technological progress, students are making extensive use of information and communication technologies, and probably could be interested in DL English, which would significantly help them to effectively master the language. We found that about 60% of the respondents had not taken any distance courses before. The motivational component included the question of necessity of DL of English in a higher education institutions (HEI). 75% of respondents appeared to show no interest in distance English learning in a HEI, 20% of respondents displayed interest in DL but only in combination with traditional forms of instruction (lectures, practical, seminars), i.e. blended learning, and only 5% showed a keen interest in this form of education. Respondents were also asked how much they would be interested in taking distance courses themselves. Given that 60% had no DL experience, it was natural that they were partially interested in distance English learning, as they didn’t actually understand how DL occurs. Taking into accounts the above consideration, we asked the respondents what impeded their use of new learning formats. Table 2 presents the respondents’ opinions on the obstacles that prevent tertiary institution from using DL tools when training future English teachers.

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O. Banit et al. Table 2. Obstacles in the introduction of distance learning of English Obstacles % Absence of distance learning of English courses in university 40 Poor motivation for independent learning/self-study 30 Poor Internet access 15 Lack of personal contact with other students and the teacher 25 Advantage of traditional methods of instruction at university 65 Inaccessibility of use distance learning tools (computer, smartphone, tablet) 0 Difficulties of learning on the Moodle platform 10

The analysis of the data contained in Table 2 clearly indicates that, according to the respondents, the main obstacle to the introduction of distance education is “human factor” associated primarily with low motivation for self-study, rather than the technological factor (inaccessibility of DL tools (computer, laptop, smartphone, tablet). It should be noted that one in ten respondents experienced difficulties with using the Moodle platform. Anytime, the new and completely incomprehensible causes difficulties. This seems strange, because today’s students are a young generation of “digital natives” who easily master digital technology. It is noteworthy that more than half of respondents considered traditional forms and methods of instruction dominant in today’s HEI of Ukraine. We can assume that these are the 60% who did not take any distance course before. Traditional forms and methods of teaching in educational institutions have been controlled and managed by teachers for many years. Educational institutions were focused on a high level of control over students success and “observation” of their studies, aimed at memorizing and reproducing specific content. Thus, students are used to learning under the guidance and control. Unfortunately, this does not stimulate the independence, responsibility and autonomy needed for distance learning. The technological component is primarily due to the fact that there has been little use of DL tools in the training of future English teachers in the vast majority of HEI in Ukraine. Another obstacle, or rather a shortcoming, which is most respondents noticed was the lack of personal contact with other students and teachers. Although respondents are “digital natives”, the young people born in the age of information technology, they cannot imagine learning without direct contact with a group of students and a teacher. As to the forms of DL of English, the students’ opinions divided. Most of them (65%) considered distance courses of English as the most appropriate form. 55% of them preferred games and chats, 40% choose webinars an’d language laboratories, and 35% liked video conferencing. Distance education, in addition to the above limitations, has many advantages. As part of the reflective component, respondents were asked to point out the greatest benefits of distance learning. The results were predictable, as the opportunity to study at any time and in any place is currently considered the greatest advantage of DL – 80%. It is important to individualize the pace and method of learning, as well as the combination of learning and work – 70%. It is worth to note that distance learning of English gives an opportunity to acquire and develop IT competences, however, only 5% of those surveyed consider distance learning to be an

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extra opportunity to earn more degrees. But none of the respondents considered distance learning of English more effective than traditional learning. We cannot either confirm or deny the validity of this hypothesis, but we can assume that a large number of respondents have never taken any distance course (60%), so they cannot compare the results of distance learning in English with traditional learning in the absence of experience. The opportunity to gain new experience and use IT as well as save time, confirms the hypothesis that digital natives prefer distance learning. The results are presented in Table 3. Table 3. Benefits of distance learning Advantages of distance learning of English in HEI % Possibility to study anywhere and anytime 80 Individual way and tempo of learning 70 Possibility to combine learning with work 75 Lower tuition fees 20 Opportunity to use up-to-date learning tools to facilitate learning 50 Time saving 50 More effective than traditional learning 0 Facilitates contact with the teacher 10 Opportunity to acquire IT skills 35 Opportunity to earn several degrees 5 Possibility to gain new experience 55

In the first half of 2020, students had to start studying remotely and complete the academic year in such a way. Right after the lockdown was imposed, the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine announced that it committed universities to organize distance learning. We observed the learning process, students’ successes and difficulties, their attitude towards distance learning. In September 2020, we conducted a follow-up survey and interviews using the same methodology. We found that the results have changed significantly. The results are presented in comparative Table 4. Table 4. Comparative table of 2019–2020 survey results Components Levels Years High Medium Low

Cognitive 2019 8% 32% 60%

2020 17% 56% 27%

Motivational 2019 5% 20% 75%

2020 9% 31% 60%

Technological 2019 45% 35% 20%

2020 61% 36% 3%

Reflexive 2019 5% 65% 30%

2020 6% 69% 25%

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On the one hand, students had some difficulties, and on the other hand, they discovered new opportunities during distance learning. As we can see, the most notable is the growth in the high-level category of technological component. 83% of respondents indicated that they had mastered the new distance learning tools that they had never used before or partially. Within the cognitive component, the medium and high levels increased significantly (from 32% to 56% and from 8% to 17%) respectively due to a decrease in low-level category (from 60% to 27%). The majority of students (56%) noted significant progress in using distance te’chnology. On the plus side, without any doubt, we can admit gaining of new experience by students. Some students embraced the new format with enthusiasm, as online learning freed up time for them to engage in other activities, allowed them to complete tasks at a convenient time and change the intensity of work to deadlines. In addition, students became more active in involving other resources in the process of learning English. The most popular were Quizlet, Kahoot, Answer Garden, Popplet, and Learningapps. Changes in the motivational and reflexive components were less noticeable. This was due to psychological problems, among which students noted the lack of live communication, a significant increase in home assignment, lack of time to complete tasks, the family responsibilities, limited access to the computer in their family because each family member had to work remotely. In addition, respondents noted the lack of individual counseling, increased time for correspondence with teachers, as online courses provide a more detailed description of homework than usual in classes. We used Fisher’s multifunctional criterion to compare statistically the results of the identified levels of readiness of future English teachers for the introduction of distance learning tools. To calculate this criterion, we used the formula to determine the value of u * in accordance with the percentage parts of the “effect” of each component (Table 5). Table 5. Dynamics of readiness levels for each component Components Levels Years High Medium Low

Cognitive

Motivational

Technological

Reflexive

2019 2020 + 9% + 24% -33

2019 2020 + 4% + 11% -15

2019 2020 + 16% + 1% -17

2019 2020 + 1% + 4% -5

As we can see from the table, the percentage of respondents with medium and high levels of readiness has a positive trend, each component of readiness has increased in comparison with 2019. The results of 2020 study show that the students’ level of readiness is generally medium. But considering the low level of the motivational component, we can state that students have unformed needs and interests, and the minimum amount of knowledge, skills and abilities needed to implement distance learning. Students in this group found it difficult to produce individual critical judgments about the distance learning system. They do not have the techniques to set their own distance learning goals. The creative aspect of this activity is poorly developed. Therefore, it is necessary to increase the creative activity of students, the way of

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gaining new knowledge by means of distance learning, developing their system of needs and interests for the level to become sufficient.

4 Conclusions Having analyzed the results of the research, we came to the conclusion that in order to increase the motivational and cognitive components of students’ readiness, it is necessary to create the following pedagogical conditions: 1. Motivate the future English teacher to implement distance learning. 2. Involve the future teacher in distance learning activities as a student to understand the difficulties experienced by those taught at a distance. 3. Together with future English teachers, organize distance English courses to master the process of creating courses. 4. Organize distance educational activities for future English teachers as trainees to practice basic skills, enable them gain experience and then as a teacher develop their own style of creating and delivering distance learning courses. 5. Evaluate the result. To obtain an objective answer, it is necessary to conduct both an internal assessment of the results of distance learning activities (carried out by the teacher) and external (students’ answers to questions and reflection). 6. Encourage cooperation between tertiary institutions and IT-companies to improve the IT infrastructure of universities and develop students’ digital skills more effectively. It is important to note that there are a lot of examples of partnerships between higher educational institutions and IT companies in Ukraine [8].

References 1. Cinar, M.. Ekici, M., Demir, O.: Medication or band-aid? revisiting university students‘ readiness for online education. Turkish J. Distance EducationIssue, 2(22), 176–191 (2021). https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/tojde/issue/61115 2. Yang, F.C.O., Wu, W.C.V., Wu, Y.J.A.: Using a game-based mobile app to enhance vocabulary acquisition for english language learners, 3(18), 1–24. (2020). https://www.igiglobal.com/journal/international-journal-distance-education-technologies/1078 3. Hafer, J.H., Mauch, M., Schumann, M.: Teilhabe in der Digitalen Bildungswelt. Münster, New York, Waxmann (2019) 4. Smyrnova-Trybulska, E.: Chronicle of the international scientific conference on theoretical and practical aspects of distance learning, University of Silesia, Poland. The New Educational Review. Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek Toruń, 53, 299–304 (2018). https://doi.org/10. 15804/tner.2018.53.3.25 5. Galizina, E.G., Palanchuk, N.V., Afonin, M.V., Krivova, A.L., Lyapunova, N.V.: Organization of distance learning for humanities students using Google-classroom. Revista Inclusiones 7, 526–539 (2020) 6. Pardanjac, M., Radosav, D., Jokic, S.: Advantages and disadvantages of distance learning (2009). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289708575_Advantages_and_disadvant ages_of_distance_learning

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7. Pientka, R., Müller, N., Seufert, T.: Lernereigenschaften von Präsenz- und Fernstudierenden und deren Bedeutung für Lernerfolg. Eine empirische Vergleichsstudie – In: Hochschule und Weiter bildung 2, 41–49 (2016) 8. Lukianova, L., Banit, O., Goretko, T.: Effects of global labor market trends on the content of professional training of future IT Managers. Inf. Technol. Learn. Tools, 70(2) (2019) https:// doi.org/10.33407/itlt.v70i2.2917

International Collaborative Research Center Criteria Assessment Sukanjana Lekapat1(&), Panarit Sethakul1,3, and Matheepot Phattanasak2,3 1

3

Welding Institute of Thailand, Bangkok, Thailand [email protected] 2 Department of Teacher Training in Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Technical Education, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand Faculty of Technical Education, King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand {panarit.s,matheepot.p}@fte.kmutnb.ac.th

Abstract. The criteria including indicators from the high council for evaluation of research and higher education (HCERES) has been developed to evaluate the international collaborative research center. The criteria and indicators were a new finding based on case-studies from the HCERES. One set of the questionnaire are used as instruments for performance evaluation of the criteria and indicators of international collaborative research center. Thanks to the agreement of the international expert reviewers. The criteria for assessment of the international collaborative research centers have been investigated. Six criteria with forty-eight indicators for every aspect based on the function of the research centers are considered. It can be used to evaluate the centers positively to convince all staff, including executive person and others, to work together to bring their centers and countries step forward to a prosperous economic country. Keywords: International collaborative research centers


Criteria
Indicators

1 Introduction To bring a country from a middle income trap, one may need research knowledge [1]. Learning from international expertise colleagues is a way to step from quickly. An international collaborative research institute is considered to be an effective way to boost educational progress, research contribution, and incubate new researchers [2, 3]. The Renewable Energy Research Center (RERC) is one of Thailand’s most successful international collaborative research centers supporting by the Thai-French innovation institute (TFII), King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok (KMUTNB) [2]. KMUTNB is a technological university, which focuses on Engineering and Technology under management of the autonomous University system. KMUTNB was established in 1959 through an academic cooperation agreement between Thai and German governments. At present, KMUTNB has more than 28,500 students and 178 academic programs from certificate up to doctoral degrees. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 435–447, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_44

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Consequently, in this paper, the criteria and indicators is developed and to be used for evaluating the international collaborative research center. Since RERC has many contributions linked to French laboratories; a guideline from French agency, the Higher Council for the Evaluation of Research and Higher Education (HCERES), responsible for evaluating higher education establishments and groups, research organizations and scientific cooperation foundations, is considered [5–8].

2 Purpose or Goal The Criteria and indicators for evaluating the international collaborative research centers are investigated to ensure that the evaluated centers may be guided in an appropriate way. Indicators for each criterion were a new finding based on case-studies from the HCERES in France.

3 Approach The criteria, including indicators from the HCERES were analyzed in order to obtain a suitable indicator for the international collaborative research centers [5–8]. Once the criteria and indicators were developed, they will be assessed by international experts. The research populations comprised predominantly selected foreigners and Thais who were executive chairperson, administrators, lecturers, and researchers. Moreover, opinions based on the populations’ duties, which are executive persons and officer positions, were also included. The criteria including indicators were evaluated by thirty-eight administrators, including twenty persons from the scientific council, vice president, directors, deputy directors, eighteen persons from lecturers, and researchers (18 from Thailand and 20 persons from 10 other countries). The research data were collected
and analyzed statistically with the help of well-known statistical tools such as mean X , standard deviation ðS:D:Þ, probability value (P-value), and Mann-Whitney U test. 3.1

The Criteria

The results of the analysis and synthesis of relevant documents of the criteria of the HCERES established in 2014 will be studied. In summary, the criteria for evaluating international collaborative research center can be found in the HCERES documents; it was found that the criteria and indicators have several contexts linked to education and research activities in France. Since research activities in middle-income countries are pretty different from high-income countries, including France, what criteria can be used to assess international research organizations, containing Thailand will be investigated. 3.2

Development of the Criteria

The criteria of the international collaborative research center were first established from the criteria of the HCERES in France. The opinions of five experts have confirmed their

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agreement with the draft criteria for evaluation of the International collaborative research center. Summarizing the overview of the criteria and indicators for assessing the international collaborative research center are six criteria: 1) Scientific Production and Quality with 11 indicators; 2) Academic Reputation and Appeal with 14 indicators; 3) Interaction with the Social, Economic and Cultural Environment with 5 indicators; 4) Organization and Life of the Institution with 9 indicators; 5) Involvement in Training through Research with 7 indicators; and 6) Strategy and Research Perspectives for the Next Contract with 2 indicators. There are a total of forty-eight indicators.

4 Analysis The research populations included mainly selected Thais and foreigners who were administrators, lecturers, and researchers. The research instrument is comprised of one set of questionnaire for the performance evaluation of the criteria and indicators of international collaborative research center. 4.1

Performance Evaluation of the Criteria and Indicators for Evaluation of International Collaborative Research Center.

The evaluation based on the opinions of experts for this part is summarized as follows. Table 1 shows that all respondents agree with the high level of the criteria No. 1 Scientific Production and Quality with 10 indicators and highest for No. 1.1 and compare the opinions of the executive officers and researchers, Thai and Foreign. They found no difference at the significance level of 0.05 (P = 0.05). Table 1. Summary of opinions on the criteria No. 1: Scientific Production and Quality No.

Indicator

Population

Total X

S:D:

Level

P

1.1

Articles in peer review journals

Total thais foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thai Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

38 18 20 20 18 38 18 20 20 18 38 18 20 20 18

0.686 0.575 0.754 0.826 0.511 0.838 0.857 0.813 0.887 0.802 0.882 0.826 0.912 0.826 0.963

Highest Highest High Highest Highest High High High High High High High High High High

– 0.101

1.2

1.3

Published papers in international conference proceedings

Invited papers, conference posters

4.55 4.72 4.40 4.55 4.56 4.00 3.83 4.15 4.05 3.94 3.92 3.72 4.10 3.95 3.89

0.534 – 0.271 0.609 – 0.160 0.841

(continued)

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S. Lekapat et al. Table 1. (continued)

No.

Indicator

1.4

Books, Chapters, Publication of texts, Lectured notes

Population

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher 1.5 Lectures, Invited lectures Total Thai Foreigner Executive officer Researcher 1.6 Patents Total Thai Foreigner Executive officer Researcher 1.7 The national and international repuTotal tation presences of scientific production Thai Foreigner Executive officer Researcher 1.8 Their impacts in Total academic terms Thai (Citations, References, etc.) Foreigner Executive officer Researcher 1.9 Originality of research works Total Thai Foreigner Executive officer Researcher 1.10 Theoretical and methodological Total breakthroughs, paradigm shifts, etc Thai Foreigner Executive officer Researcher 1.11 Research-based Creative Outputs, i.e. Total Scientific Digital-Media Productions Thai Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

Total X

S:D:

Level

P

38 18 20 20 18 38 18 20 20 18 38 18 20 20 18 38 18 20 20 18 38 18 20 20 18 38 18 20 20 18 38 18 20 20 18 38 18 20 20 18

0.900 0.943 0.834 0.718 1.079 1.050 0.725 1.294 1.124 0.985 1.044 0.857 1.146 0.801 1.278 0.781 0.826 0.754 0.821 0.752 0.679 0.616 0.716 0.607 0.752 1.183 1.572 0.605 1.188 1.200 0.725 0.767 0.681 0.686 0.786 0.906 0.963 0.875 0.834 0.998

High High High High High High High High High High High Highest High High High High High High High High High Highest High Highest High High High Highest High High High High Highest High Highest High High High High High

– 0.142

4.00 3.78 4.20 4.10 3.89 3.92 3.94 3.90 4.00 3.83 4.21 4.50 3.95 4.30 4.11 4.34 4.28 4.40 4.40 4.28 4.39 4.56 4.25 4.50 4.28 4.29 4.00 4.55 4.40 4.17 4.47 4.33 4.60 4.45 4.50 3.87 3.89 3.85 3.80 3.94

0.731 – 0.649 0.423 – 0.087 1.000 – 0.641 0.499 – 0.168 0.373 – 0.384 0.264 – 0.182 0.676 – 0.706 0.424

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Table 2. Opinions summary of the criteria No. 2: Academic Reputation and Appeal No.

Indicator

2.1

Participation in national and international collaborative research projects

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

S:D:

Level

P

38 18 20 20

4.39 4.44 4.35 4.45

1.054 0.784 1.268 0.826

High High High High

– 0.741

18 38 18 20 20

4.33 4.03 4.22 3.85 4.35

1.283 1.219 1.060 1.348 0.813

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

3.67 4.29 4.44 4.15 4.55

1.495 1.011 0.784 1.182 0.686

High High High High Highest

18 38 18 20 20

4.00 3.79 3.94 3.65 4.25

1.237 1.143 0.873 1.348 0.786

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

3.28 4.18 4.39 4.00 4.25

1.274 1.062 0.778 1.257 0.786

Medium High – High 0.358 High High 0.837

18 38 18 20 20

4.11 4.11 4.28 3.95 4.40

1.323 0.863 0.752 0.945 0.681

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

3.78 3.92 4.06 3.80 4.15

0.943 0.818 0.725 0.894 0.745

High High High High High

18

3.67 0.840 High

Population Total X

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher The existence of collaborations with other Total research laboratories Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Participation in national and international Total research networks Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Organization of national and international Total Conferences) Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Researchers, Doctoral and Postdoctoral students Total at the institution Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Prizes and distinctions awarded to members of Total the institution Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Participation in editorial committees, scientific Total committees of conferences Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

0.931

– 0.332 0.142

– 0.429 0.100

– 0.602 0.008

– 0.291 0.035

– 0.367 0.076

(continued)

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S. Lekapat et al. Table 2. (continued)

No.

Indicator

2.8

Responsibility or involvement in the national and international projects

2.9

2.10

2.11

2.12

2.13

2.14

S:D:

Level

P

38 18 20 20

4.34 4.22 4.45 4.50

0.781 0.878 0.686 0.607

High High High Highest

– 0.449

18 38 18 20 20

4.17 4.47 4.61 4.35 4.75

0.924 0.725 0.608 0.813 0.550

High High Highest High Highest

18 38 18 20 20

4.17 4.21 4.28 4.15 4.05

0.786 0.741 0.752 0.745 0.759

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

4.39 3.97 3.94 4.00 4.10

0.698 0.885 0.745 0.858 0.641

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

3.83 4.13 4.33 3.95 4.40

1.098 0.777 0.594 0.887 0.681

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

3.83 4.08 4.33 3.85 4.35

0.786 0.784 0.594 0.875 0.745

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

3.78 3.37 3.67 3.10 3.60

0.732 1.303 0.485 1.714 1.188

High Medium – High 0.636 Medium High 0.202

18

3.11 1.410 Medium

Population Total X

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher The Leader in the Research Networks Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher The High Standard of Foreign Researchers and Total Post -doctoral Students Recruited by the Thais Institution Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Responsibilities taken in International Academic Total Bodies Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher The Level and Reputation of Journals to which Total Members of the Institution Contribute Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher The Scientific Quality of the Peer-Review Total Journals in which Members of the Institution Thais Contribute in an Editorial role Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Invitation in Thesis Defense Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

0.295

– 0.339 0.010

– 0.581 0.160

– 0.962 0.608

– 0.178 0.024

– 0.068 0.024

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Table 2 shows that all respondents agree with the high level for criteria No. 2 (Academic Reputation and Appeal) with thirteen indicators and one medium level for No. 2.14 (Invitation in Thesis Defense). Comparison of opinions obtained from Thais and foreigners revealed no difference at the significance level of 0.05 (P = 0.05). For the executive officers and researchers, it was no difference at the significance level of 0.05 with 9 indicators (No. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.5, 2.7, 2.8, 2.10, 2.11, and 2.14) and difference at a significance level of 0.05 (P = 0.05) for 5 indicators, which are No. 2.4, 2.6, 2.9, 2.12, and 2.13. Table 3. Summary of opinions on the criteria No. 3: Interaction with the Social, Economic and Cultural Environment No.

Indicator

Population

Total

3.1

Outputs Directed at Various nonAcademic Stakeholders, Underpinned by Research Work

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

Commitment of nonacademic partners, as well as Visibility of the research Institution in the Socio-Economic or Cultural Field Innovations (New products, Techniques and Processes, etc.) Involving in Development of Industry, Social, Economic and Cultural Environment The Quality and Length of the Partnership Relationship

The Accreditation or Certification of Procedures Aimed at Public Use

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

S:D:

Level

P

38 18 20 20

X 4.03 3.89 4.15 4.00

0.944 1.023 0.875 0.858

High High High High

– 0.418

18 38 18 20 20

4.06 4.08 3.89 4.25 4.25

1.056 0.882 0.963 0.786 0.851

High High High High High

18

3.89

0.900

High

38 18 20 20

4.58 4.44 4.70 4.70

0.722 0.856 0.571 0.571

Highest High Highest Highest

18

4.44

0.856

High

38 18 20 20

4.03 4.00 4.05 4.15

0.636 0.485 0.759 0.745

High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

3.89 3.82 4.11 3.55 4.00

0.471 0.926 0.758 0.999 0.795

High High High High High

18

3.61

1.037

High

0.651

– 0.245 0.209

– 0.334 0.334

– 0.789 0.198

– 0.077 0.292

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From Table 3, the respondents agreed with criteria No. 3 (Interaction with the Social, Economic and Cultural Environment) at the high level for four indicators (No. 3.1, 3.2, 3.4, and 3.5) and at the highest for one indicator (No. 3.3). And by comparing the opinions of Thais and foreign leaders and researchers, it was found that there was no difference at the significance level of 0.05 (P = 0.05). Table 4. Summary of opinions on the criteria No. 4: Organization and Life of the Institution No.

Indicator

Population

Total

Level

P

The Presence of Objectives or a Scientific Strategy for the Past Period

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

38 18 20 20

X 4.29 4.17 4.40 4.20

S:D:

4.1

0.694 0.786 0.598 0.696

High High High High

– 0.379

18 38 18 20 20

4.39 4.18 4.33 4.05 4.25

0.698 0.865 0.840 0.887 0.851

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

4.11 3.89 3.61 4.15 3.95

0.900 1.060 1.243 0.813 0.887

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

3.83 4.45 4.39 4.50 4.50

1.249 0.645 0.698 0.607 0.688

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

4.39 4.07 4.22 3.93 4.05

0.608 0.790 0.647 0.893 0.826

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

4.08 4.03 4.06 4.00 4.15

0.772 0.854 0.725 0.973 0.671

High High High High High

18

3.89

1.023

High

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

Organization of the Research Institution into Teams or Themes

The Existence of Shared Platforms or Resources (e.g. Documentary Collections)

Scientific Coordination and Interactions between Teams, Themes and Disciplines

The Decision Making Process and Personnel Involved; Existence of a Laboratory Council a Functional Organizational Chart The role of Engineers, Technicians, Administrative Staff, temporary personnel (e.g. on fixed-term contracts) in the Research System of the Institution

0.379

– 0.301 0.638

– 0.139 0.938

– 0.658 0.470

– 0.287 0.839

– 0.899 0.504

(continued)

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Table 4. (continued) S:D:

Level

P

38 18 20 20

X 4.37 4.33 4.40 4.45

0.852 0.767 0.940 0.686

High High High High

– 0.591

18 38 18 20 20

4.28 3.87 3.83 3.90 4.00

1.018 0.935 0.786 1.071 0.725

High High High High High

18 38 18 20 20

3.72 4.03 3.94 4.10 4.00

1.127 0.915 0.802 1.021 0.725

High High High High High

18

4.06

1.110

High

No.

Indicator

Population

Total

4.7

Internal and External Communication

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officers Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

4.8

4.9

Communication of a Recruitment Policy

The Approach to Environmental and Health and safety issues and their articulation in Research and Training

0.744

– 0.676 0.535

– 0.386 0.430

From Table 4, the respondents agreed with criteria No. 4 (Organization and Life of the Institution) at the high level in all indicators. It was found that there was no difference at the significance level of 0.05 (P = 0.05) when comparing the opinions of Thais and foreigners who work as executive officers and researchers. Table 5. Summary of opinions on the criteria No. 5 (Involvement in Training through Research) S.D

Level

P

38 18 20 20

X 4.55 4.50 4.60 4.40

0.602 0.514 0.681 0.681

Highest Highest Highest High

– 0.358

18 38 18 20 20

4.72 4.34 4.28 4.40 4.25

0.461 0.708 0.575 0.821 0.716

Highest High High High High

18

4.44

0.705

High

No.

Indicator

Population

Total

5.1

Presence of Master’s degree trainees and doctoral students received in the research institution

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

5.2

Theses examined

0.126

– 0.369 0.369

(continued)

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Level

P

38 18 20 20

X 4.26 4.33 4.20 4.40

0.950 0.594 1.196 0.681

High High High High

– 0.796

18

4.11

1.183

High

38 18 20 20

4.29 4.56 4.05 4.25

0.732 0.511 0.826 0.786

High Highest High High

18 38 18 20 20

4.33 4.26 4.11 4.40 4.40

0.686 0.685 0.832 0.503 0.598

High High High High High

18

4.11

0.758

High

38 18 20 20

4.47 4.72 4.25 4.70

0.762 0.575 0.851 0.571

High Highest High Highest

18

4.22

0.878

High

38 18 20 20

4.16 4.06 4.25 4.30

0.789 0.725 0.851 0.657

High High High High

18

4.00

0.907

High

No.

Indicator

Population

Total

5.3

The existence of an induction and support policy for trainees and doctoral students (supervision rate, rate of funded doctorates, technical and financial support, scientific monitoring, thesis committees, etc.) Publications, Summary Documents, Educational Digital Tools and Products

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.7

Seminars for Doctoral Schools or Summer Schools for Young Researchers Designed and Coordinated by the Institution, alone or in Partnership; Doctoral Student Seminars Contribution to International Training Networks (ITN, Erasmus, etc.), Cosupervision of Theses with Foreign Universi ties or CoManagement with Universities from other Countries Involvement in Steering Committees for Master’s and Doctorate Training

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

0.519

– 0.052 0.799

– 0.321 0.234

– 0.061 0.071

– 0.320 0.328

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According to Table 5, respondents subscribed to criteria No. 5 (Involvement in Training through Research) at the high level for 6 indicators and highest for 1 indicator, which is No. 5.1 and comparing the opinions of Thais and foreign leaders and researchers, no difference was found with a significant level of 0.05 (P = 0.05). Table 6. Summary of opinions on the criteria No. 6: Strategy and Research Perspectives for the Next Contract No.

Indicator

Population

Total

6.1

The existence of a scientific policy-based and thesis objectives

Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher Total Thais Foreigner Executive officer Researcher

6.2

Strategy to achieve these objectives

S.D

Level

P

38 18 20 20

X 4.24 4.28 4.20 4.25

0.971 0.669 1.196 1.118

High High High High

– 0.689

18 38 18 20 20

4.22 4.18 4.17 4.20 4.20

0.808 1.182 1.200 1.196 1.105

High High High High High

18

4.17

1.295

High

0.609

– 0.860 0.761

From Table 6, it was found that respondents agreed with criteria No. 6 (Strategy and Research Perspectives for the Next Contract) at the high level and that when examining each indicator summited by thirty-eight respondents, they had found that they were of the same level. Comparing the opinions of Thais and foreigners, executives and researchers found that no difference was significant at the 0.05 level (P = 0.05). Summary of Evaluated the Criteria and Indicators for International Collaborative Research Centers. Level of Acceptance of the Questionnaire by the Respondent. They agreed for the forty-seven indicators at a high level and agreed in medium level for indicator No. 2.14 (Invitation in thesis defense) (X ¼ 3.37). The eighteen respondents from Thailand agreed with the high and highest level for forty-eight indicators, but twenty respondents from Foreigners agreed for forty-seven indicators in high level and agreed at the medium level for indicator No. 2.14 (Invitation in thesis defense) (X= 3.10). Twenty respondents who work as executive officers agreed at a high level with forty-eight indicators. Still, eighteen respondents who work as researchers agreed with forty-six indicators in high level and agreed in medium level with two indicators: No. 2.4 (Organization of national and international conferences) (X ¼ 3.28) and No. 2.14 (Invitation in thesis defense) (X ¼ 3.11).

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Test significance level more than P = 0.05 given by the opinions of Thai and foreign, executive officers and researchers found that from Thais and foreigners agreed with forty-eight indicators, and it was found that no difference at the significance level of 0.05 (P = 0.05) for five indicators, which are No. 2.4, 2.6, 2.9, 2.12, and 2.13. 4.2

Evaluation of the Criteria and Indicators for Assessing the International Collaborative Research Centers

They were evaluated by thirty-eight administrators, including twenty persons from scientific council, vice president, director, deputy director, eighteen persons from lecturers, and researchers (18 persons from Thailand and 20 persons from 10 other countries). Most of the anticipators (78.95%) are male, and 36.84% of them are 41– 50 years old. There are staffs with working experience of 11–20 years about 39.47%. Twenty persons of them (52.63%) are executive office and hold a doctorate (97.36%).

5 Actual or Anticipated outcomes The proposed criteria and indicators evaluated by five experts from three countries: Iran, Thailand, and France. There are six criteria: 1) Scientific Production and Quality, 2) Academic Reputation and Appeal, 3) Interaction with the Social, Economic and Cultural Environment, 4) Organization and Life of the Institution, 5) Involvement in Training through Research, 6) Strategy and Research Perspectives for the Next Contract. Each criterion comprises several indicators (a total of forty-eight indicators). The results obtained from the research populations reveal that the criteria and indicators were appropriate for this context. All experts agreed at a high level for 47 indicators and agreed at a moderate level for only one indicator, which is “Invitation in Thesis Defense”. For the Thai side, populations agree at the highest level for forty-eight indicators. However, foreign populations have agreed at the high level for 47 indicators as aforementioned. Based on the populations’ duties, one has found that the 20 executive officers agreed at a high level for forty-eight indicators. But for the 18 researchers, 46 indicators were agreed in a high level. The rest indicators, which are “Organization of National and International Conferences” and “Invitation in Thesis Defense”, were agreed on a moderate level.

6 Conclusion The criteria for assessment of the international collaborative research centers have been investigated. Six criteria with forty-eight indicators for every aspect based on the function of the research centers are considered. It can be used to evaluate the centers positively to convince all staff, including executive person and others, to work together to bring their centers and countries step forward to a prosperous economic country.

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References 1 Sethakul, P., Utakrit, N.: Challenges and future trends for thai education: conceptual frameworks into action. Int. J. Eng. Pedagogy 9(2), 4–12 (2019) 2 Lekapat, S., Sethakul, P., Phattanasak, M.: Management model for excellent world-class research center. In: 22nd International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning, ICL 2019, pp. 465–474. Bangkok, Thailand (2019) 3 Ministry of Science and Technology National innovation. Policy and Plan of Science National Technology and Innovation No.1 (2012–2021) National technology and innovation Ministry of Medicine and Technology (2012) 4 National Research Council of Thailand. Reform of the country’s research system. Mission, policy and research strategy of the National Research Council of Thailand (2012) 5 High Council for the Evaluation of Research and Higher Education. HCERES Criteria for the evaluation of research unit: The HCERES standards (2014) 6 Agence d’évaluation de la recherche et de l’enseignement supérieur. Report de l’AERES sur l’unite, Groupe de Recherche en Electrotechnique et Electronique de Nancy, Universite de Lorraine, pp. 9-10 (2011) 7 Agence d’évaluation de la recherche et de l’enseignement supérieur. About AERES. http:// www.aeres-evaluation.com/Agency/Presentation/Profile-of-the-Agency. Accessed 13 Sep 2013 8 Agence d’évaluation de la recherche et de l’enseignement supérieur. Evaluation-process. http:// www.aeres-evaluation.com/Evaluation/Evaluation-of-research-units/Evaluation-process. Accessed 13 Sep 2013

Smooth Transition from Text-Based Exams to Multiple-choice Gerhard Jahn(B) University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Softwarepark 11, Hagenberg 4232, Austria [email protected]

Abstract. Performance assessments in courses can be conducted in a variety of ways. For lectures, the usual way is a written exam at the end of the semester, which traditionally consists of questions with text answers. Another option is multiple-choice questions, which are particularly suitable for exams with many students because of the ease of correction. This paper describes a smooth transition from exams with text-based questions to pure multiple-choice exams: For several years the author has continuously increased the proportion of multiple-choice questions in the exam specifications. In this way, possible differences between these two types of questions in terms of evaluation became visible, also based on individual examination papers of individual students. The analysis shows that after some teething problems, no significant differences in scoring emerged. Furthermore, a tool for the efficient creation of such multiplechoice exams was developed, which allows writing question collections in a specially defined grammar.

Keywords: Multiple-choice questions Academic education

1

· Grading · Exams creation ·

Introduction

The process of grading students is one of the most disliked tasks for some lecturers. Teachers need to change their role from being a supporter to one that judges. Usually, at the academic level, the method to determine the grades is under the responsibility of the course lecturer. Several ways to find those grades exist. One of them is an oral exam, which is appropriate for a course with only a few students attending. When it comes to mass exams, a written test at the end of the semester is quite common. Benefits are a shorter timespan, students and teachers are scheduled for the actual exam, and teachers can give the resulting mark afterward, which allows them to have seen the answers from all students before the marks are issued. Usually, such questions are of type open-ended (OE). The answers can be text, or sketches, or both. But working through a lot of handwritten text – generated c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 448–453, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_45

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by students in a stressful situation – is an error-prone challenge. Especially if there are lots of students to grade, it is difficult to maintain a constant judgment. Also, during the COVID-19 pandemic, such an approach is not possible: It’s simply too unsafe to gather the students into a room for a written exam. One alternative is to use questions of types multiple-choice (MC, one correct answer) or multiple-response (more than one answer may be correct)1 . Such exams can be performed more easily online and synchronously. The effort to build these MCbased exams is comparable to traditional OE exams, but the labor-intensive part of the grading process can easily be automated. What then remains to the teacher is to map the points that students gathered by answering those MC questions to a mark. But is it fair, will the students still receive the grades they deserve? Under the assumption that exams exclusively containing questions with text answers are fair (in the above manner), one could judge the suitability of the multiple-choice type by combining both types to one exam and then compare the results from both parts for individual students. This document presents some efforts by the author within this context. The main idea is to first insert only a small amount of MC questions into written exams while the majority of the questions are of the OE type. After some evaluation, the rate of the MC questions can be increased. The subject matter is computer networks, where questions address both knowledge and understanding.

2

Related Work

Introductions to writing good MC questions can be found, for example, in Kehoe [1] and Haladyna [2]. MC exams are frequently discussed in publications. Reasons for this are (a) it is attractive to automate the scoring process, which is why they are often used, and (b) student responses are limited to marks on predefined answers, which makes a big difference from responses in oral or written exams, where much more information is given by the examinee. Millman et al. [3] established the term test-wiseness, which means that test takers do well on an exam not because of their subject knowledge, but because of the characteristics and format of the exam. In general, the use of MC tests is frequently discussed, f. e. see [4,5]. Rauch et al. [6] compare results of MC questions with OE questions in the area of reading comprehension. The majority of publications focus on classic MC questions (exactly one answer is correct). However, it is the author’s understanding that with multipleresponse type questions (more than one answer can be correct) understanding can be targeted better. Therefore, most of the questions used here are of the multiple-response type.

1

For reasons of readability, this paper will no longer distinguish between these two types of questions, but will use the term multiple-choice for both. In the case of exceptions, these will be explicitly pointed out.

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Phase A: Move from Open-Ended Exams to Multiple-choice Exams

3.1

Methods Used

The process of introducing multiple-choice questions started more than a decade ago. Before this, the author used paper-written exams with text answers only. Over the last ten years, multiple-choice questions were added to these paperbased exams. The evaluation of students’ answers was done on paper too. Technically, LATEX was used to build the exams. Especially the package qcm [7] made the generation of MC questions easy. It also typesets exam corrections automatically. Questions are defined and stored in a text-based database and then retrieved by their unique keys to form a particular exam. The exam results were collected over the years which gives about 2, 000 records from individual exams which contain questions of both types (MC and OE). 3.2

Results

Table 1 shows a summary of the data collected from exams. Note that the table does not contain the final grades. Instead, normalized points are presented, which means, 1.0 is the best obtainable result and 0.0 is the minimum. A few exams which did not contain any MC questions are excluded. OE shows the mean of all points gathered from text questions (open-ended), MC does the same for MC questions, and Together shows the mean of the combination within those exams. Also note that all of those values are quite similar, which means: Concerning the exams’ results, the type of questions does not matter. Table 1. Summary of the exams’ data, normalized points obtained by students Count Normalized points OE MC Together 1928

0.696 0.688 0.695

More insight gives a view that shows how individual exams distribute the points among open-ended questions and multiple-choice questions. This is presented in Fig. 1a. Ideally, the cloud of dots forms a straight line from (0,0) to (1,1) which would mean, that for each particular exam, the relative points gathered from OE questions are equal to those gathered from MC questions. In the real world, this is not true. The introduction of MC questions has winners (the ones above the ideal straight line) and losers (the ones below this line). But the majority of the dots in Fig. 1a are at least near this line. Naturally, much more dots are in the upper right quadrant than in the lower left. This means that most students obtained more than 50% of the points. Another observation is

Text-Based Exams to Multiple-choice

(a) Multiple-choice compared to open-ended

451

(b) Development over time, separated by question types

Fig. 1. Normalized points from the exams

that it seems to be easier to get 100% with multiple-choice questions than it is with open-ended questions. Another aspect to observe is the development over time. Figure 1b shows how the points gathered from both types of questions changed over the semesters. Surprisingly, during the first years, it was quite difficult to answer multiple-choice questions correctly. Fortunately, in the beginning, the majority of questions were open-ended which lowered the negative impact from the multiple-choice questions. Things changed after approximately four years and now the difference between the points gathered from both question types is within 10%.

4

Phase B: Domain-Specific Language for Questions

During the transition from OE questions to MC questions, hand-written exams were appropriate. But when most of the questions are of the MC type, some more potential for automation exists: Tool-based evaluation. The tool of choice is the learning management system (LMS) Moodle, because it is widely used, also by the author, and it has an elaborated system to manage questions of different types, question pools, and tests with and without automatic evaluation. Unfortunately, the task to insert questions into Moodle by using its graphical user interface is quite cumbersome. This is efficient only for a low number of questions. The idea was to import the existing questions of type MC into Moodle with a suitable interface. One of the formats Moodle understands is GIFT [8]. Among others, it supports questions of types multiple-choice and multiple-response, which is enough for our purposes. But GIFT’s syntax is somewhat cryptic. In

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addition, the author wanted some abstraction from a specific format to maintain flexibility regarding other target formats, even on other LMS. For this reason, a domain-specific language (DSL) was developed which allows writing question pools and exams like a conventional computer program. Figure 2 shows this grammar. A remarkable feature is the way strings are specified: They can either be quoted strings or eol strings. The latter one does not begin with a special terminal symbol like the classical double-quotes. It simply starts with its value and is terminated by the end of the line. This is very handy for texts of questions and their answers. Figure 3 shows a few examples of questions following this grammar. A tool called giftparser was developed. It translates questions from files that follow this grammar into the GIFT format. The GIFT files can then be imported into Moodle. This process seems complicated, but the main advantage is that exams now do not have to be created within Moodle directly. Instead, they are programmed separately, using a traditional text editor.

questions = [’cprefix’, prefix_text] {statement}. statement = category | quest. category = ’category’, category_text. quest = [’mc’ | ’sc’], title_text, question_text, [’fb’, feedback_text], answers. answers = answer, {answer}. answer = (’+’ | ’-’ | ’t’ | ’f’), answer_text, [’fb’ feedback_text]. *_text = string. string = quoted_string | eol_string. quoted_string = ’"’ characters (’"’ | EOL). eol_string = non_white_character, characters, EOL.

Fig. 2. Grammar of the tool giftparser

category geographics "eu-members" Which countries are members of the EU? + "Germany" + "France" - "United Kingdom" - "Turkey" - Switzerland sc capitals_1 What is the capital of Italy? + Rome - Berlin - Paris

Fig. 3. Example of questions file

Text-Based Exams to Multiple-choice

5

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Conclusions and Future Work

The transition from OE questions to MC questions is done. The author will omit text-based questions for most of the exams. As has been presented above, the exams’ results are pretty much the same, independently of the question type. The move from hand-written exams to Moodle quizzes was accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic – even exams are given in distance mode. What remains to be done are improvements in the giftparser program: – Although the vast majority of questions can be formulated as multiple-choice or multiple-response, additional question types would be useful. – Divide the process of creating exams into two parts: First, define questions independently from exams. Second, compose an exam by simply picking the questions by their names. – Create outputs in other formats. This would allow question types that GIFT does not support.

References 1. Kehoe, J.: Writing multiple-choice test items. Pract. Assess. Res. Eval. 4, 9 (1994). https://doi.org/10.7275/s3cc-7y76 2. Haladyna, T.: Developing and Validating Multiple-Choice Test Items. Erlbaum, Mahwah (2004) 3. Millan, J., Bishop, C., Ebel, R.: An Analysis of Test-Wiseness. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 25(3), 707–726 (1965). https://doi.org/10.1177/001316446502500304 4. Jimoh, M., Daramola, D., Oladele, J., Sheu, A.: Assessment of items prone to guessing in SSCE economics multiple-choice tests among students in Kwara state Nigeria. Anatol. J. Educ. 5(1), 17–29 (2020) 5. Joseph, D.: Randomize It: fair procedures when constructing multiple-choice testkeys. J. Eff. Teach. High. Educ. 2(1), 80–93 (2019) 6. Rauch, D., Hartig, J.: Multiple-choice versus open-ended response formats of reading test items: a two-dimensional IRT analysis. Psychol. Test Assess. Model. 52(4), 354– 379 (2010) 7. Verna, D.: QCM – A LATEXclass for making multiple choice questionnaires. https:// www.ctan.org/pkg/qcm 8. Moodle Docs 3.11 – GIFT format. https://docs.moodle.org/310/en/GIFT format

A Community-Approach to Item Calibration for Testing Math-Skills in Engineering Nilay Aral(B) and Stefan Oppl Center for Technology-Enhanced Learning and Educational Information Systems, Danube University Krems, Krems, Austria {nilay.aral,stefan.oppl}@donau-uni.ac.at

Abstract. Developing mathematical skills requires the opportunity to practice and receive immediate, individualized feedback on the misconceptions or mistakes made in the problem-solving process. Huge progress has been made in the last years in the design of feedback systems for fundamental math education. Applied mathematics education for engineering disciplines, however, lacks a large body of examples with pre-worked solution paths and known difficulty, which are necessary for providing learners with (semi-)automated feedback. This is mostly due to the need for domain-specific and situated tasks, which are not that widely deployable as generic items. The effort required for designing appropriate items, validating them in terms of the appropriateness for specific learning outcomes, and calibrating their difficulty cannot be borne by individual teachers and is also hardly justifiable for commercial providers of item pools. In this paper, we strive to show how these challenges can be addressed via a community approach to item design and calibration, supported by the methods from the computerized adaptive testing field. Keywords: Mathematics · Computerized adaptive testing · Item pool calibration · Crowdsourcing · Technology-enhanced learning

1

Introduction

Technology support in math education in the last years has developed rapidly towards tools that offer interactive and individualized means for practicing mathematical problem solving via scaffolding and provision of feedback on learning progress and mistakes made in the problem-solving process [11]. One field that contributes to this development is the Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) [17,24]. It provides means to determine individual competency levels of learners in an effective (in terms of accuracy) and efficient (in terms of testing times) way and so can support individualized tutoring and learning progress assessment [14]. CAT, however, relies on the availability of item pools (i.e., collections of tasks) for the competency to be assessed [26], where for each task its difficulty with respect to the specific competency is known [19]. The process of determining this c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 454–466, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_46

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difficulty in a statistically sound and reliable way is referred to as calibration [27] and basically requires the items to be administered in large numbers in testing settings and comparing the correctness of the answers against ground truth (i.e., answers to items with already known difficulty). The process of item pool (IP) population and calibration is particularly challenging for areas of math teaching which focus on the practical applicability of the acquired skills and thus rely on specific domain knowledge to construct relevant items, as the effort for item construction usually is higher than for generic cases, and the number of learners potentially contributing to calibration might be limited. One way of addressing these challenges is to distribute the effort of item generation and calibration over large numbers of stakeholders, who can benefit from the availability of such IPs. Still, they would not be able to pursue such an effort when working alone [25]. Here, it is of utmost importance to coordinate this process, both with respect to its CAT-dimension (how do we need to administer items to calibrate them in a valid way?) and its social dimension (who can contribute? what can they contribute?). The paper aims to assess strategies proposed in the state of research for both dimensions, discuss their potential suitability for addressing the challenges at hand and outline how they could be implemented in practice to advance the field of applied math education in engineering disciplines and provide practitioners with a toolkit that addresses their specific needs. We, therefore, formulate two research questions: RQ 1: How can community-submitted items be efficiently and effectively calibrated for domain-specific IPs in CAT? Our aim is to facilitate the item calibration process. Thus, many items should be calibrated in a short time. By efficient, we mean low up-front effort and by effective, valid, and accurate results. RQ 2: How can we distribute the item calibration workload to stakeholders (e.g., teachers in specific engineering disciplines) who contribute in an independent and asynchronous way? As argued above, the IP population is a process requiring high effort and a large number of testing samples, which, for disciplines with a narrow scope, can be harder to achieve. One strategy to counter these challenges is to distribute the sub-tasks of calibration to many people who have both expertise in the relevant domain and the opportunity to test items on a large scale, e.g., in classroom settings. Thus, the calibration effort per person is lower, and calibration is faster.

2

Background and Related Work

According to the definition of the US National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME), an adaptive test is a sequential form of individual testing in which successive items, or sets of items, in the test are selected for administration based primarily on their psychometric properties and content, in relation to the test taker’s responses to previous items 1 . Computers are beneficial in administering adaptive tests. Using CAT in engineering pedagogy has many advantages 1

http://www.ncme.org/resources/glossary.

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such as more accurate, motivating, faster estimates in comparison to traditional tests [3,28]. According to the Item Response Theory (IRT) [10], a CAT system draws the next items from an IP that contains all possible items for testing [22]. Choosing the next item is based on a large IP using the IRT. An accurately calibrated IP is essential for a valid computerized adaptive test. Calibration here refers to determining parameters that characterize each item, such as difficulty, discrimination (the amount of information the item provides for skill estimation), or guessing (the probability of guessing the correct answer) [30]. We adopt the 1-parameter-logistic-model, in which only the difficulty parameter is determined empirically [22]. One of the established techniques for automated item calibration is continuous calibration. It requires a small-sized pool of already calibrated items. During testing, it also administers uncalibrated items. The learners’ answers to such uncalibrated items do not affect the estimation of their skill level. But they calibrate the item gradually [2]. Another approach is the use of pre-existing test results for item calibration. If there is an existing database (e.g., items, learners’ answers, and skill levels), factor analysis can be used to convert it to an adaptive test IP [5]. This approach can also be used to establish a small-sized initial IP for continuous calibration. For continuous calibration, it is advantageous to make optimal assignments of uncalibrated items (instead of random items) so that the sample size (number of learners) can be smaller and uncalibrated items are targeted to the learners [15]. If the items are not targeted (for example, challenging items for struggling learners), the learner’s motivation is hurt. Moreover, there is less information that can be used for calibration. Such an approach requires an initial estimate of difficulty, which could be provided by domain experts (e.g., teachers). Authors in [27] consider and compare three methods for item calibration: ELO chess ratings, Joint Maximum Likelihood (JML), and Marginal Maximum Likelihood (MML). The main idea is to calculate the probability that a learner will answer an item correctly. After the answer, the learner’s skill level and item difficulty are updated in proportion to prior probability. These approaches neither require an already existing IP for continuous calibration nor pre-existing test results based on which the item difficulty can be determined in one calibration step. The effort required for a single test, however, usually is higher, as more items need to be administered until a learner’s skill level can be determined with a sufficient level of confidence (cf. Sect. 3). All item calibration techniques discussed so far have mainly be adopted for calibration settings under the responsibility of an individual teacher or a few teachers who work in a coordinated way. The challenge that we aim to address is distributing the calibration effort over a larger group of independent people who work asynchronously.

3

Approach

In this study, we follow a design science (DS) approach. DS, within the context of educational research, is interested in what education could be, in contrast to

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Fig. 1. Design science process adapted from [23]

conventional educational research, which is about education as it is or was. DS is also widespread in information system research. Authors in [23] propose a DS process in six steps as visualized in Fig. 1. It starts with identifying a problem and the objectives of a solution. Then, it goes to basic knowledge or theory in the literature to design and develop an artifact. In our case, testing algorithms and calibration processes are the basic knowledge we build upon, and the artifact is the actual testing engine. In this paper, we focus on the steps up to artifact development. We identify the challenges and survey the techniques to address them. Then, we transfer and apply them to our specific use case. In the envisioned item calibration approach, a CAT system uses a combination of the calibration approached described above: To initially establish an IP for a given area of competence, the Elo-approach [27] is adopted, as it allows to introduce new items to the calibration process without any further requirements on pre-existing data about them (such as pre-existing test results). In this way, item construction can be largely decoupled from the item calibration process, which is beneficial for the later distribution of tasks over several contributors. As soon as an initial IP is established (or already available via traditional means of calibration, e.g., via pre-existing test results), the calibration process switches to continuous calibration. There, the test system occasionally administers an uncalibrated item during the adaptive test. This item does not affect the learner’s skill level estimate, but the answer is logged. When a sufficient number of logs about an uncalibrated item is collected, the calibration process starts. Using learner skill levels (which are calculated based on already calibrated items) and learner responses to the uncalibrated item, the item difficulty can be estimated via adaptive item calibration techniques. For each uncalibrated item, the estimation of difficulty thus will become more accurate over time. When we are confident enough, the item is considered calibrated and moved to the IP in operation. Confidence can be assumed, for example, when the difficulty value is stabilized (e.g., when the standard deviation is less than one unit of difficulty level). However, such items are not yet used for calibrating future items. After calibration, the cross-validation process starts. This process requires the evaluation of the estimated difficulty with a new group of learners. This group needs to be different from the group used for estimation. According to the literature, cross-validation needs data from at least 1500 adaptive tests [18]. After that, the item can be used as a point of reference for future calibrations. As can be seen from these numbers, the process of item calibration requires an amount of effort that can hardly be put in by an individual contributor. We thus propose to use a platform where a community can contribute to the

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Fig. 2. The stages of item calibration

calibration process of a single item. Rather than an individual designing and calibrating, different persons contribute with either an item design or a fraction of the calibration data. Therefore, crowdsourcing [1,6] will be used as a mechanism to distribute the IP population effort. In crowdsourcing, the community participates in the task and delivers their effort, knowledge, etc. In our case, teachers bring their effort by creating and administering CAT. In return, they draw advantage from crowdsourcing, such as the satisfaction of an economic, social recognition or self-esteem need, or the development of individual skills. For instance, the proposed item calibration process will provide large IPs for the teachers, who will need to spend less effort on assessment.

4

Calibration Process

Given the domain-specific nature of the subject areas, which we aim at measuring skill levels for, dedicated IPs for each of these areas will be required. The calibration approach thus needs to be scalable and must not require pre-existing data on items for a new IP. This allows contributors to start new IPs from scratch without high upfront effort. Based on the calibration methods outlined in Sect. 2, we thus propose a two-stage process to combine the advantages of the different calibration approaches. Each IP is bootstrapped via Elo-based calibration, which does not require pre-existing data and later switches over to continuous calibration for more efficient calibration of additional items (cf. Fig. 2). 4.1

Initial Item Calibration

For the initial phase of item calibration, where no pre-populated IP is available, we adapt statistical methods for item calibration. Well-known examples of such

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statistical methods are Elo ratings [7], Joint Maximum Likelihood (JML) [9], and Marginal Maximum Likelihood (MML) [4]. Among these, the Elo rating is computationally the fastest and most suitable for online calibration [27]. Elo rating is developed originally for the chess games. The first step is calculating the probability of player A winning against player B (i.e., EAB ). In Eq. 1, rA and rB are their respective ratings. Therefore, EAB is directly proportional to the difference between their ratings. In the original chess rating, every player starts with a 1500 rating. At the end of the game, the ratings of both players are updated according to Eqs. 2 and 3. Here, S is the binary outcome of the game, which is one if the player A wins and otherwise zero, and K is a scaling factor, which shows the dynamicity of ratings. As an example, if EAB is very high (i.e., player A is expected to win), and the winner is actually A (S = 1), then A’s rating increases only slightly, and B’s rating decreases the same amount. On the other hand, if B wins, then B’s rating increases significantly, and A’s rating decreases relatively. 10(rA −rB )/400 1 + 10(rA −rB )/400

(1)

 = rA + K(S − EAB ) rA

(2)

 rB = rB − K(S − EAB )

(3)

EAB =

If we apply the same idea to item calibration, rA represents the skill level and rB item difficulty. Similarly, S = 1 means the learner answers correctly and vice versa. Moreover, the K value has to be adapted based on initial skill level, initial difficulty level, and rating scale. The probability of answering correctly (EAB ) increases as skill level is higher or item difficulty is lower. 4.2

Continuous Calibration

Continuous calibration as shown in Fig. 3, allows every contributor (e.g. teachers) to create items, which are added to the uncalibrated IP. If the contributor already knows about the item’s difficulty (e.g., via the previous calibration efforts), it can be directly added to the calibrated IP. Whenever a new computerized adaptive test is created, teachers can select the properties of the test, such as the maximum duration, other termination criteria, etc., and also opt in to contribute to calibration. When having selected this option, the learning platform administers both, calibrated and uncalibrated items to the learners in order to assess their skill level and to calibrate the uncalibrated items at the same time. In Sect. 5, the calibration system architecture is explained in detail. At the end of the test, the results are presented to learners, and the newly acquired data is used to re-calculate the difficulty of calibrated items. If the criteria for considering an item to be calibrated are met, it is added to the corresponding calibrated IP. Created items are saved in the learning platform in domain-specific IPs and can be used by other teachers. Therefore, a large number of learners are able to answer each item. Thus, calibration is both faster and more accurate. Moreover,

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DuraƟon, Number of Items, TerminaƟon CondiƟon etc.

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Fig. 3. Use case diagram for the envisioned community approach

teachers have the chance to access large calibrated IPs, and it would motivate them to contribute further to the platform. With respect to the criteria when to consider an item to be calibrated, we use an item state model following the approach originally presented by [20]. They propose to split the IP into screening and calibration samples to cope with errors in parameter estimation. Several strategies to reduce capitalization on error are recommended by [18]. One of those strategies is to cross-validate item calibration results before applying them in practice. Similarly, we imagine the model, which is shown in Fig. 2 including three states: uncalibrated, calibrated, and validated. Uncalibrated represents the new item without a difficulty value. After calibration, the item state is changed to calibrated, which can be used for estimating learner skill, but does not apply for calibrating other items. The last state is validated, which can be used for both. As shown in Sect. 3, update from uncalibrated to calibrated can be based on standard deviation and from calibrated to validated on sample count.

5

Overall System Architecture

We present the community-based calibration system architecture as a Sequence Diagram in Fig. 4. This diagram contains three major components, which are learner, learning platform, and CAT engine, and the data flow among those. In this work, GeoGebra software is chosen as the learning platform which provides the test interface described in Sect. 6. The CAT engine is used for the calibration and adaptive testing methods which we propose in this paper.

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Fig. 4. System architecture and sequence diagram.

To begin this process, the learner starts the test. Then, the learning platform sends IP metadata such as the list of item IDs (I) and difficulties (D) to the CAT engine. After receiving the metadata, the first item (i ) is selected either randomly or by average difficulty. At this point, the testing loop starts with getting the first item details such as item text, figure, and choices and with administering it to the learner by learning platform. Once the learner answers the item, the answer (a) is saved in the learning platform. If the item is calibrated, we update the skill level (s) based on the given answer (a) and item difficulty (d). When the given answer is correct, the skill level is increased and vice versa. We describe the methodology of estimating skill level in the Sect. 4. Additionally, we can fine-tune the item difficulty (d) similar to skill level (s). Alternatively, if the item is uncalibrated, we do not estimate skill level (s) because uncalibrated item difficulty (d) does not affect the skill level. Instead, the CAT engine logs the answer, item, and skill level for future reference. Once

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enough logs are accumulated for a specific item from different learners and different tests, we can finally estimate the item difficulty (d) as explained in Sect. 4. We can define enough logs based on, for example, the number of learners who answered this item or when estimated difficulties are stabilized. If the termination condition (t) is satisfied, the testing loop ends, and the skill level is its output. Otherwise, the next item can be chosen as an uncalibrated or calibrated one. According to IRT, the next item is a bit more difficult if the answer is correct and vice versa.

6

Implementation for Community Involvement

We need a large user base realizing the above-explained approach. This user base should comprise a large number of learners with different skill levels and teachers who contribute to item creation and calibration. In practice, we rely on an existing community platform to reach the mentioned user base and extend it with testing capabilities. GeoGebra [12] is a software for interactive geometry which allows algebraic possibilities, including direct equation entry. It supports many basic objects such as points, vectors, segments, polygons, straight lines, all conic sections, and functions in x. With GeoGebra, dynamic constructions can be done like in any other dynamic geometry system. Abstract concepts and their relationships can be visualised via GeoGebra. Therefore, the conceptual understanding of the learner is improved [13,16]. However, for assessment, it currently depends on other tools, for instance, the one proposed by [21]. GeoGebra is already integrated into a community platform referred to as GeoGebra Classroom. In its current version, it allows teachers to share learning materials and create manually assessed tests. In addition, students can use the platform for practicing. Integration of CAT in this platform will allow GeoGebra to be used for automatically assessed classroom questioning and providing formative feedback during practice sessions [8,29]. In that sense, GeoGebra Classroom is an online community platform that supports collaboration on a micro (=classroom) and macro (=applied mathematical domains) level. It allows teachers to assign interactive math tasks and tests and enables learners to track their progress and discover learning needs in a self-directed way. In Fig. 5, we present three mock-ups from the GeoGebra Classroom prototype. GeoGebra already includes over one million math and geometry activities, which can be turned into items and establish the initial IP. The calibration process itself will be largely transparent to users. They can contribute to calibration in two ways depending on their roles: (a) When using the platform for classroom-level testing via CAT, teachers can opt in to contribute to calibration. In this case, IPs in the second stage of calibration (i.e., continuous calibration) are used. Tests will comprise already calibrated items for learners’ skill level estimation but will also comprise a fraction of yet uncalibrated items, for which calibration data will be collected. The tests consequently include a few more items than required for

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Fig. 5. Three Mock-ups from the GeoGebra classroom interface.

the CAT process itself, but otherwise will be no different for users than non-contributing tests. (b) When learners use the platform for practicing, they can also opt in to contribute to calibration. In this case, each item they complete can contribute to calibration via the Elo algorithm. The aim of practicing usually is not necessarily to determine one’s skill level. Rather, the expectation is to be provided with items that fit one’s current practicing needs in terms of difficulty. Thus, the platform keeps track of an estimated skill level of each learner for each IP and provides them with fitting items. Following the Elo approach, each answer adapts the skill level estimation of the learner and the estimated item difficulty at the same time. This approach thus can also be used in stage 1 of calibration, where no pre-calibrated items are available. The fit between the expected and actual difficulty of items provided for practicing can be expected to improve over time. As soon as the difficulty estimate remains stable over time within a certain margin (following the Elo approach), the item can be considered calibrated and moved to the cross-validation stage, which ultimately qualifies them to be used as the foundation for continuous calibration.

7

Conclusion

This paper presents a community approach to address the social and technical challenges of item design and calibration in computerized adaptive testing. We have reviewed adaptive item calibration and crowdsourcing concepts proposed in the literature and transfer them to our context to show how they fit and can be integrated. The implementation of the system relies on the GeoGebra platform to gain access to a large user community and allow distributing the item design and calibration effort over many users. Consequently, calibrated item pools for specific domains and mathematical competencies can be generated with small contributions of individual users and still achieve the size and quality necessary for computerized adaptive testing. Moreover, new and existing items are continuously calibrated so that the estimation accuracy improves over time. The novelty of our approach lies in combining concepts of computerized adaptive testing, in particular those related to item calibration, with crowdsourcing approaches to

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distribute the overall effort and enable the faster and more accurate development of appropriate item pools. Our approach goes beyond the state of the art, as the availability of reliably calibrated item pools usually is either considered a prerequisite in existing studies or is described as a separate phase in CAT projects that is implemented independently from operations. We propose an process-integrated approach that enables users to voluntarily contribute to item generation and calibration via their activities on a community platform. At this point, we have completed the problem and artifact definition steps of the design science research process that we have adopted here. The next step of the artifact design and validation is currently proceeding in collaboration with GeoGebra. We will focus on demonstration and evaluation steps in future work, which will include classroom experimentation and data analysis to generate initial item pools. This process will also include the evaluation of statistical methods for item calibration with comparison to the Elo approach. Using crossvalidation, we will try to find the most appropriate calibration method in terms of efficiency and effectiveness based on the GeoGebra classroom testing results. Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank Eva-Maria Infanger for providing the mock-ups of items in Geogebra classroom.

References 1. Alonso, O.: The practice of crowdsourcing. Synth. Lect. Inf. Concepts Retr. Serv. 11(1), 1–149 (2019) 2. Arai, S., Mayekawa, S.I.: A comparison of equating methods and linking designs for developing an item pool under item response theory. Behaviormetrika 38(1), 1–16 (2011) 3. Aral, N., Oppl, S.: Towards comprehensive technology-supported formative assessment in math education – a literature review. In: ERME Topic Conference on Mathematics Education in the Digital Age (MEDA) (2020) 4. Ban, J.C., Hanson, B.A., Wang, T., Yi, Q., Harris, D.J.: A comparative study of on-line pretest item-calibration/scaling methods in computerized adaptive testing. J. Educ. Meas. 38(3), 191–212 (2001) 5. Bjorner, J.B., Kosinski, M., Ware, J.E., Jr.: Calibration of an item pool for assessing the burden of headaches: an application of IRT to the headache impact test. Qual. Life Res. 12(8), 913–933 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026163113446 6. Brabham, D.C.: Crowdsourcing. MIT Press, Cambridge (2013) 7. Brinkhuis, M.J., Maris, G.: Dynamic parameter estimation in student monitoring systems. Measurement and Research Department Reports (Rep. No. 2009-1). Arnhem: Cito 146 (2009) 8. Costello, E., et al.: Is it in the bin? Seeking authentic assessment in STEM: ATSSTEM. In: The 38th Pupils’ Attitudes Towards Technology Conference, p. 31 (2021) 9. Eggen, T.J., Verschoor, A.J.: Optimal testing with easy or difficult items in computerized adaptive testing. Appl. Psychol. Meas. 30(5), 379–393 (2006) 10. Embretson, S.E., Reise, S.P.: Item Response Theory. Psychology Press, New York (2000). https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781410605269/ item-response-theory-susan-embretson-steven-reise

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11. Faber, J.M., Luyten, H., Visscher, A.J.: The effects of a digital formative assessment tool on mathematics achievement and student motivation: results of a randomized experiment. Comput. Educ. 106, 83–96 (2017) 12. Hohenwarter, M., Fuchs, K.: Combination of dynamic geometry, algebra and calculus in the software system GeoGebra. In: Computer Algebra Systems and Dynamic Geometry Systems in Mathematics Teaching Conference, pp. 1–6 (2004) 13. Hohenwarter, M., Hohenwarter, J., Kreis, Y., Lavicza, Z.: Teaching and learning calculus with free dynamic mathematics software GeoGebra. In: 11th International Congress on Mathematical Education (2008) 14. Jia, J., Le, H.: The design and implementation of a computerized adaptive testing system for school mathematics based on item response theory. In: Lee, L.K., U, L.H., Wang, F.L., Cheung, S.K.S., Au O., Li, K.C. (eds.) Technology in Education. Innovations for Online Teaching and Learning. ICTE 2020. CCIS, vol. 1302, pp. 100–111 (2020). Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4594-2 9 15. Kingsbury, G.G.: Adaptive item calibration: a process for estimating item parameters within a computerized adaptive test. In: Proceedings of the 2009 GMAC Conference on Computerized Adaptive Testing (2009) 16. Lavicza, Z.: Factors influencing the integration of computer algebra systems into university-level mathematics education. Int. J Technol. Math. Educ. 14(3), 121 (2007) 17. Linacre, J.M.: Computer-adaptive testing: A methodology whose time has come. Technical report, MESA memorandum, Seoul, South Korea (2000) 18. van der Linden, W.J., Glas, C.A.: Capitalization on item calibration error in adaptive testing. Appl. Meas. Educ. 13(1), 35–53 (2000) 19. van der Linden, W.J., Pashley, P.J.: Item selection and ability estimation in adaptive testing. In: van der Linden, W., Glas, C. (eds.) Elements of Adaptive Testing. Statistics for Social and Behavioral Sciences, pp. 3–30. Springer, New York (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-85461-8 1 20. Lord, F., Novick, M.R.: Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores. Addison-Wesley, Reading (1968) 21. Olsher, S., Yerushalmy, M., Chazan, D.: How might the use of technology in formative assessment support changes in mathematics teaching? Learn. Math. 36(3), 11–18 (2016) 22. Oppl, S., Reisinger, F., Eckmaier, A., Helm, C.: A flexible online platform for computerized adaptive testing. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 14(1), 2 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0039-0 23. Peffers, K., Tuunanen, T., Rothenberger, M.A., Chatterjee, S.: A design science research methodology for information systems research. J. Manage. Inf. Syst. 24(3), 45–77 (2007) 24. Segall, D.O.: Computerized adaptive testing. In: Encyclopedia of Social Measurement (2004) 25. Tackett, S., et al.: Crowdsourcing for assessment items to support adaptive learning. Med. Teach. 40(8), 838–841 (2018) 26. Veldkamp, B.P., van der Linden, W.J.: Designing item pools for computerized adaptive testing. In: van der Linden, W.J., Glas, G.A. (eds.) Computerized Adaptive Testing: Theory and Practice, pp. 149–162 (2000). Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47531-6 8 27. Verschoor, A., Berger, S., Moser, U., Kleintjes, F.: On-the-fly calibration in computerized adaptive testing. In: Theoretical and Practical Advances in Computerbased Educational Measurement, pp. 307–323 (2019)

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28. Wainer, H., Dorans, N.J., Flaugher, R., Green, B.F., Mislevy, R.J.: Computerized Adaptive Testing: A Primer. Routledge, Abingdon (2000) 29. Wiliam, D.: Formative assessment in mathematics part 3: the learner’s role. Equals Math. Spec. Educ. Needs 6(1), 19–22 (2000) 30. Zieba, A.: The item information function in one and two-parameter logistic models a comparison and use in the analysis of the results of school tests. Didactics Math. 10(14), 87–96 (2013)

Assessment of Digital Skills in the Context of Social Media Xhelal Jashari1(&), Bekim Fetaji2, and Christian Guetl1 1

Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria [email protected], [email protected] 2 Mother Teresa University, Skopje, North Macedonia [email protected]

Abstract. Digital skills are essential in a broad range of today’s life and properly dealing with social media is one important and challenging area. Thus, this research study focuses on investigating and devising a method to assess digital skills in the context of social media applications. The study is executed online via the custom-made CoDiS Survey tool to measure and track social media habits of participants. An online task related to social media usage and an evaluation questionnaire based on digital skills was developed. In this context, the most relevant communication, creation, privacy and security as well as information skills were assessed in this study. To this end, focus target groups – 35 high school and university students performed social media activities including estimating the sentiment of the content provided and finally completed a questionnaire. In assessing the skills, the users performed tasks such as sharing a post with friends, sharing posts with the public, commenting, estimating the sentiment and had the opportunity to check whether the articles are fake or real. The devised measuring instrument has provided with the results of social media proficiency skill levels. The findings emphasize the importance of such skills in order to properly use such platforms for education, classifying information and privacy. The fact that only 57,93% of the respondents were able to adequately fact-check the articles, tells us that we need to further study this matter so we can present potential solutions to the use of social media by students. Keywords: Digital skills
Digital competence Social media skills
Hashtag


Assessment
Social media


1 Introduction In today’s modern society, social media is typically used for social interaction, communication, collaboration, and information sharing with other users on digital platforms using various strategies. It also makes it possible to engage in digital spaces to design, create, and revise online content [2]. Making the most of the numerous opportunities offered by ICTs, while at the same time adapting to an exceptionally digitalized economy requires various kinds of advanced digital skills and competences. The changing ICT scene, including ICTempowered training, digitized correspondence and media instruments, household computerization, work environment, expanded cooperation through online media, and © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 467–479, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_47

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developing information handling capacities – requires a consistent advance of the base abilities [12]. In today’s work and life environment, digital skills are necessary tools for education, professional and leisure purposes. Individuals must be able to learn on how to use these social media skills in communication, learning and sharing information through social media and other digital platforms. According to [4] to make students more employable these digital skills are needed: Social Media, Search Engine Marketing, Analytics, Content Marketing and Email. Social media technologies include public networks like Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, Twitter, and YouTube, in addition to tools such as Disqus and ShareThis and more privately-oriented services like Yammer, Jive, and Interact Intranet. According to Global Digital Overview, in 2021, there are more than 4.6 billion internet users whereby 4.2 billion are active social media users representing 91.3% of the total internet population [1]. The report of the European Commission on ‘ICT for Work: Digital Skills in the Workplace’, states that most jobs require basic digital skills including being able to communicate via email or social media, to create and edit digital documents, and search for information, or protect personal information online [2]. An increasingly higher number of governmental and non-governmental organizations and companies are creating different frameworks that serve to describe, categorize, and enhance digital skills, literacy, and competencies [3]. Considering that communication and collaboration play the key role in professional world, a successful employee should get familiarized with the usage of social media and constantly improve his/her skills. New professions are evolving every day. The most popular and requested occupations among youth nowadays are digital marketing, media arts, communication and digital media, and social media manager. As a contribution for preparing users to the 21st century skills, the focus of the research study is on investigating and devising a method to assess digital skills in the context of social media applications. The following three research questions comprise our main focus in this research (see Table 1). Table 1. Research questions RQ1 RQ2 RQ3

What are the digital skills and competencies required for the usage of social media? How can we measure their proficiency levels on social media competencies? Are users of social media able to differentiate if the contents they are exposed to are real or fake?

The remainder of the paper is as follows: Sect. 2 provides information on the background and related work. Section 3 covers the outcomes from the pre-research study. In Sect. 4, the focus is on the assessment method of Digital Skills and results in the context of Social Media, while Sect. 5 includes the conclusion and future work of the study.

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2 Background and Related Work 2.1

Social Media Literacy

In an article discussing ‘10 key digital skills educators should offer in their portfolio to meet student and industry needs’, social media skills are listed as a top requirement in the industries that have digitized their operations and processes [4]. According to [4] “Social media has permeated the fabric of our society, and become the primary source of communication and information flow between content creators and consumers. Educators who recognize social media’s influence should understand the intricacies of each platform and its potential influence to maximize community engagement in order to provide graduates with valuable and applicable skills.” Nowadays, social media also is considered to be one of the main news sources for different age groups. According to [5] half of U.S. adults (53%) prefer to use social media as their main source of news “often” or “sometimes,” wherein this practice includes a different number of sites or platforms. Based on the survey, among 11 social media platforms used as a regular news source, Facebook is listed at the top, with about a third (36%) of Americans getting news there regularly. YouTube follows up with 23% of U.S. adults regularly getting news there. On the other hand, Twitter corresponds to 15% of U.S. adults as their source of news. The required certain skills to properly handle and deal with social media are communication and collaboration, creation, privacy and security, and information. 2.2

Modeling and Assessment of Digital Skills

There are several methods used for the assessment of the digital skills, where the selfassessment surveys are the most recommended one recently. The ITU and Eurostat (Eurostat) are examples of organizations incorporating self-report surveys as part of their larger data collection process. The total number of specific skills questions is fewer than other methods because the survey covers other topics as well. In the ITU ICT Household Survey Questionnaire, question HH15 raised 9 ICT skills, mainly computer-based skills, covering basic and intermediate skills, and a computer programming question [7]. The rest of the survey covers other problems of access and use of ICT. Eurostat has developed a digital skills indicator based on in DigComp [8]. A person reports if they have performed various activities in the four competency areas: information skills, communication skills, problem-solving skills, and software skills. A person's score is “no ability”, “low”, “basic” or “higher than basic” [9]. The use of the Eurostat digital skills measurement standard has items restricted to European countries. Other evaluations are implemented as independent investigations. Digital Skills to Tangible Outcomes (DiSTO) was originally built and verified in the UK and in the Netherlands [10]. Recently, through association, these surveys have been used as part of specific research projects in Australia, Chile, Brazil, Uruguay, and the United States (London School of Economics and School of Political Science, date unknown). DiSTO uses the Likert scale, which covers mobile and online skills. Another survey developed as part of the research project is the ICT Skills Index (ISI). This online survey using the

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Likert scale asked 4,444 advanced ICT skills in young people aged 16–35 in small island developing States [11]. 2.3

Social Media Competencies

The findings from this section are result of the analysis deriving from the R1, specifically ‘What are the digital skills and competencies required for the usage of social media?’. Conclusions stemming from the analysis are based on a comparison framework for curriculum and competencies conducted by Wedlake, Keyes, and Lothian in 2019 [6] and the number of categories covered in total by these frameworks and curriculums. It can be concluded that the following four categories express the most relevant skills and competencies required to make use of social media technologies adequately: Communication. This category includes exchanging information with other users on digital platforms using various strategies to collaborate, share, and communicate. Creation. The dimension of creation includes engaging in digital spaces to design, create, and revise online content. Privacy and Security. This category comprises of the key functions such as the maintenance of practices to secure digital identity, recognize threats, and understand the broader safety implications of working in a digital environment. Information Skills. The category of information skills includes the required skills to apply, evaluate, and manage information across digital and physical environments. 2.4

Digital Skills Gap Analysis

Understanding the digital skill mismatch is an important step in achieving informed decision-making. Due to technological changes, globalization and global demographic changes, the labor market is undergoing rapid changes. These changes affect all aspects of people’s lives, from education, administration to healthcare, and are particularly relevant because they are related to’s changing national digital skills requirements. According to [13] “individuals can engage in digital activities and adapt rapidly to new and unexpected occupations and skills needs, a stronger emphasis has to be placed in promoting strong levels of foundation skills, digital literacies, higher order thinking competencies as well as social and emotional skills”. Each country will be affected by continuous changes in different ways, but countries seeking to understand future skill needs should understand several key impacting factors and digital skills mismatch in education with those in employment. Although, according to [2] there are many different ways to understand the extent of a country’s digital skill mismatch. The two assessment frameworks that include the assessment of digital skills and literacy are: Northstar Digital Literacy Assessment and International Computer Driver’s License (ICDL). Northstar Digital Literacy Assessment defines what basic skills people need to use the computer and get online, which include three standards Essential Computer Skills, Essential Software Skills and Using

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Technology in Daily Life, where Social Media, Information Literacy are listed as two main competences required [6]. ICDL focuses on rudimentary tasks of using the computer in the workplace. The skills set is quite narrow, comprising of foundational and communication skills, with a number of workplace applications. In the online collaboration module, it sets out concepts and skills relating to the setup and use of online collaborative tools, such as storage, productivity applications, calendars, social media, web meetings, learning environments, and mobile technology [6]. For our research, we recommend a method that includes a survey analysis of skills and tasks assessment. Our survey contribution focuses on devising a method for understanding needed skills, managing skills-set reviews, investigating social media skills by concentrating on key impacting factors, and performing gap analysis by testing competencies. In a research conducted by [14] it was noticed that “Tertiary institution students use the social media for different reasons which include connecting to their friends, for academic purposes, to exchange pictures and videos, for personal information and so on. Some of the social media websites are Face book, YouTube, and Twitter.

3 Results from of the Pre-research Study A pre-research study was conducted through a survey with 50 high school and university students, whereby the survey was used as an instrument to analyze students’ skills in the usage of social media platforms and features as preparation for the final study. Within the survey, students were asked to provide the following information: • The forms of media that students post on social media platforms. (text, image, etc.) • The application of different methods used by students to promote their posts. (hashtags, tags, etc.) • The safety level applied to their social media engagement. (private, public, etc.) The initial findings from the pre-research study survey are listed below: • In terms of the usage frequency of the social media technologies, 2% responded that they use it once a day, followed by 18% using it five times a day, 62% of them using it more than five times a day, and occasionally 18%. • According to the survey results, the most preferred social media platforms are Instagram, Facebook, TikTok, and Twitter. • It was also observed that social media platforms mostly are used to post private activities and follow up of the most preferred personalities and topics. • A very high percentage of participants (74%) responded that they prefer Instagram the most to post their personal activities • Participants also responded that they prefer the most Facebook and Instagram as the platforms to post about their education/professional activities. • Most of the participants responded by saying that while posting they prefer to use mainly text and text combined with photos.

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• To promote their posts participants of the survey, make use mostly of hashtags, followed by tags and Community support. According to Fig. 1, most of the participants with 66% responded that they use text and image combined while posting, followed by 34% that preferred only images, and 14% use mostly video and audio.

Fig. 1. What do you usually use while posting?

Fig. 2. What method do you use the most to promote your posts?

Fig. 3. How do you take care of the Safety of your posts?

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When students were asked how do they promote their posts, 42% of participants preferred hashtags, followed by 34% that preferred tags and 8% Community support (see Fig. 2). In Fig. 3, when considering the privacy and security of their posts, 48% of participants responded by saying that they keep their accounts private, 28% share their posts only with their friends, and 14% prefer to be a little more open and share their posts with the public. Based on the pre-research study survey findings, it has been seen that young people are very active social media users using it often for education, professional and personal purposes. To find out in this context developed skills and gaps, the further focus is on devising a method to assess digital skills in the context of social media applications.

4 Assessment of Digital Skills in the Context of Social Media The purpose of the main research study is to gain insights for designing a method to assess digital skills required to make use of social media technologies. To this end, this study mainly focuses on assessing digital skills in the context of social media. In this first attempt, the focus was on two target groups – high school students and university students - and to measure their proficiency levels on social media competences. This is motivated by the goal to investigate the potential of digital technologies to innovate education practices in tracking, observing, and interacting processes. 4.1

Setting, Instruments and Procedure

The study is executed online via the CoDiS Survey Tool. The tool provides an interactive interface for performing surveys with interactive content. It enables the researcher to create custom tasks that can be later evaluated via standardized survey tools. The information from these evaluations can be analyzed and visually represented within the tool [15]. The participant’s activity is tracked and analyzed in two different aspects of social media, including notification features and assessment of digital skills. Results were used in two research papers with different focus; here we focus on social media competences. The research study is conducted in accordance to the consent of the study participants. This study was designed and organized based on the most relevant skills and competencies required to make use of social media technologies adequately: communication, creation, privacy and security as well as information skills (see Sect. 2.3). Participants were asked to read five different articles (see Table 2) and complete five tasks per each reading (see Table 4). Each participant had to respond with a sentiment to the article, by choosing between three sentiment options (Negative, Neutral, Positive).

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# 1 2 3 4

Article title Friends reunion Instagram for children People live in a 3D-printed house 3 Reasons why you should stop eating peanut butter cups! Us bacon reserves hit 50 year low

5

Fact check Real story Real story Real story Fake news

Source URL http://newsinlevels.com/ http://buzzfeednews.com/ https://www.archdaily.com/ http://100yummy.com/

Fake news

http://usatoday.com/

The survey also assessed three questions on the Likert scale related to information to validate the posting activity and article source (see Table 8). Additionally, as part of the survey, the participants had the opportunity to select options whether the articles are fake or real for five provided articles (see Table 9). In order to measure the proficiency skills levels, we have devised the following instrument provided below in Table 3.

Table 3. Measuring instrument for social media proficiency skills levels Level L1 L2 L3 L4 L5

Skills Fundamental Basic Intermediate Advanced Proficient

Competence Ability to post and share on social media Level 1 skills + communication & creation Level 2 skills + privacy and security Level 3 skills + information skills Level 4 skills + evaluate and data analysis

Cognitive domain Remembering Applying Understanding Evaluating Evaluating and applying

Table 4. Defining the tasks to complete for each article with corresponding skills level # T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

Task Read the article Comment on the article Post on Facebook for the public Post on Facebook for your friends only Share post for friends and analyze feedback with previous public post

Skill level L1 L2 L3 L4 L5

Finally, the participants had to answer three questions regarding the practicality and usage of the tool (see Table 5).

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Study Participants

The target groups of our study were high school and undergraduate students selected randomly by their professors. During the research, 35 students managed to complete the tasks and provide answers to the evaluation survey, where 10 or 28.57% of them were males and 25 or 71.43% females. However, when compared to the level of education, high school students made 14% of participants as opposed to 86% undergraduate students. 4.3

Results and Discussion

In regard to general questions about the usage of the tool the Table 5 shows that 60% of the participants agreed that they would like to use the tool frequently. In addition, 85% of participants agreed that they find it easy to use. Regarding their confidence in using the tool, 72% of participants agreed that they felt confident while using it. These results indicate that there was a positive attitude amongst majority users for the custom-made tool for assessing digital skills in social media technologies.

Table 5. Questions regarding usage of the tool Question I think that I would like to use this feature frequently I thought the feature was easy to use I felt very confident using the feature

Strongly disagree 5.71%

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

11.43%

22.86%

28.57%

Strongly agree 31.43%

0.00%

5.71%

8.57%

34.29%

51.43%

5.71%

5.71%

17.14%

25.71%

45.71%

Task Assignments This section addresses R2 specifically tasks related to get insights on social media activities of target groups as a step for assessing proficiency levels and skills in social media technologies. Results and findings are illustrated in different formats in tables provided below. The results are linked to R2, and it measures the proficiency levels of competencies, privacy and security in regards to social media competencies (see Table 6). Regarding the privacy option for the first article the majority or 71.43% of participants agreed that they would share the post with their friends. On the second article, 57.14% of the participants decided that would share while public. Interesting part was about the third article where the participants agreed do not share it at all, while 14.29% of them preferred to share the fourth article with their friends. In this case, they were five articles, but the fifth one did not received any reaction at all (see Table 4). Among these articles, second, third, and fifth articles were the most popular ones receiving comments from 50% of participants. The first one followed up with 47%, and only 44% of the participants commented on the third article (see Table 6).

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X. Jashari et al. Table 6. Social media user privacy selection and comments on articles

#

Article

Public

Friends

Only me

1 2 3 4

Friends reunion Instagram for children People live in a 3D-printed house 3 reasons why you should stop eating peanut butter cups! US bacon reserves hit 50 year low

14.29% 57.14% 0.00% 0.00%

71.43% 14.29% 0.00% 14.29%

14.29% 0.00% 42.86% 0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

5

User commented (%) 47.06% 50.00% 50.00% 44.12% 50.00%

In Table 7 we have assessed the skills to apply, evaluate and manage information across digital and physical environments through measuring reactions to the requested articles as tasks. Even though 42.86% of participants had a positive immersion on the article, they all unanimously decided that they would not share it with anyone as it can be seen in Table 6. On the other hand, even though participants had a negative impression, 14.29% of them decided that they would share the fourth article with their friends, although the provided article was a fake one. The fifth article did not receive any reaction at all (see Table 7). This data illustrates the type of reactions given by social media users on different materials considering their source of information.

Table 7. Social media user sentiment selection on articles # 1 2 3 4 5

Article Friends reunion Instagram for children People live in a 3D-printed house 3 Reasons why you should stop eating peanut butter cups! Us bacon reserves hit 50 year low

Negative Neutral Positive 42.86% 14.29% 42.86% 28.57% 42.86% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 42.86% 14.29% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%

Information Validity and Posting Activity When the participants were asked to validate the posting activity and source of information, as seen in the Table 8 below, majority or 33.33% of participants ranked information source as very important, the hashtags were considered by 43.33% of participants slightly important, while group or reader validation was considered not important at all by 33.33% of participants. As observed, the popularity of the articles is not an indication of their impact, while the source of information has a key role in this regard. This data shows the impact of information source on the online behavior of social media users, which is totally in sync with the information skills to apply, evaluate, and manage information across digital and physical environments.

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Table 8. Information to validate the posting activity and source

Information source Hashtags Group or reader validation info (e.g. “22 readers validated text”)

Very important 33.33% 10.00% 3.33%

Fairly important 23.33% 16.67% 13.33%

Important 30.00% 16.67% 23.33%

Slightly important 10.00% 43.33% 26.67%

Not at all important 3.33% 13.33% 33.33%

Fact Check Results The findings from R3, specifically ‘Are users of social media able to differentiate if the contents they are exposed to are real or fake?’ are covered and analyzed. Hence, students were asked to check whether the articles are fake or real without rereading them. In the Table 9 below, it is seen that 93.10% of the students responded that the first article is real which is the correct answer according to the source of the article. In the second article, 55.17% of the students agreed that the article is real, which according to the source is a real one. On the other hand, 51.72% of students responded that the article number three is fake, which is not the correct answer. In addition, majority of students answered that article four is real, which in our case is not the right answer. The fifth story also was considered as a real one by 55.17% of the students, where in fact it is a fake one. We can conclude that the skills level of participants is at L3 which belongs to the advanced level but in the cognitive domain evaluation we can conclude that they are not able to completely evaluate information.

Table 9. Fact check results of the articles # 1 2 3 4

Article

Friends reunion Instagram for children People live in a 3D-printed house 3 reasons why you should stop eating peanut butter cups! 5 Us bacon reserves hit 50 year low Average

Fact check Real story Real story Real story Fake news

Fake news 6.90% 44.83% 51.72% 48.28%

Real story 93.10% 55.17% 48.28% 51.72%

Fake news

44.83%

55.17%

Correctness 93.10% 55.17% 48.28% 48.28% 44.83% 57.93%

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5 Conclusion and Future Work Social networking applications have become tools to gain information and build networks and to achieve specific goals. Upgrading strategic digital skills through education are essential because they enable students to understand how to properly use such tools to communicate via digital processes by the use of social networking applications. In this study we raised three questions and the findings are as follows. Regarding the R1, the findings show that the competencies required for the usage and analysis of social media are: Communication, Creation, Privacy and Security, and Information Skills. In relation to R2, the findings show that we can measure their proficiency level on social media competences based on competence skill. The five respective levels we have created to measure their skills and competence present us a with a view of their cognitive domain as presented in Table 3. The findings of R3 show that only 57,93% of the participants are able to properly fact-check the results of the articles. This results in a need to include an option for users to request more references for particular parts and articles before publishing should fulfill proper referencing criteria to viable sources. Taking into account the academic background of respondents, we conclude that the adoption of these skills requires a change in teaching methods and a proactive method should be established by academic institutions. Such an approach would enable a new connection between academic institutions and a new generation of students through the use of social media. We have observed that by applying this proactive method the students will be more engaged in the learning and education process. Social media skills should be included in the curriculum to enhance the advantages and mitigate the drawbacks of social media usage.

References 1. Kemp, S.: Digital 2021: Global Digital Overview (2021). Datareportal.com, published 15 March 2020. https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-global-overview-report 2. European Commission: New report shows digital skills are required in all types of jobs (2017). https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/new-report-shows-digital-skillsare-required-all-types-jobs 3. Jashari, X., Fetaji, B., Nussbaumer, A., Gütl, C.: Assessing digital skills and competencies for different groups and devising a conceptual model to support teaching and training. In: Auer, M.E., May, D. (eds.) REV 2020. AISC, vol. 1231, pp. 982–995. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52575-0_82 4. Digital Marketing Institute: 10 Digital Skills That Can Make Students Instantly Employable (2017). Digital Marketing Institute. https://digitalmarketinginstitute.com/blog/10-digitalskills-that-can-make-students-instantly-employable 5. Shearer, E., Mitchell, A.: News use across social media platforms in 2020 (2021) 6. Wedlake, S., Keyes, D., Lothian, K.: Digital Skill Sets for Diverse Users: A Comparison Framework for Curriculum and Competencies (2019). Available at SSRN 3427252 7. ITU: Manual for Measuring ICT Access and Use by Households and Individuals (2014). https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-d/opb/ind/D-IND-ITCMEAS-2014-PDF-E.pdf

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8. EC: Measuring Digital Skills across the EU: EU wide indicators of Digital Competence (2014). https://ec.europa.eu/digitalagenda/en/news/measuring-digital-skills-across-eu-euwide-indicators-digital-competence 9. Eurostat: Individuals who have basic or above basic overall digital skills by sex (tepsr_sp410) (n.d.-a). https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/en/tepsr_sp410_esmsip2.htm. Accessed 25 May 2021 10. Van Deursen, A.J.A.M., Helsper, E.J., Eynon, R.: Measuring Digital Skills. From Digital Skills to Tangible Outcomes project report (2014). www.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/projects/?id= 112 11. Redeker, D., Sturm, I.: ICT skills in small island developing states: ICT capacity building, economic opportunities and brain drain. ITU Digital Insights, pp. 73–84 (2019) 12. European Commission: ICT for work: Digital skills in the workplace The impact of ICT on job quality: evidence from 12 job profiles Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union (2016). http://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?action=display&doc_id= 16160 13. OECD: Skills for a Digital World 2016 Ministerial Meeting on the Digital Economy. Background Report (2016). https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/skills-for-a-digital-world_5jlwz 83z3wnw.pdf 14. Olutola, A.T., Olatoye, O.O., Olatoye, R.A.: Assessment of social media utilization and study habit of students of tertiary institutions in Katsina state. J. Educ. Pract. 7(3), 178–188 (2016) 15. Jakovljevic, I.: IgorJakovljevic/CoDiS-SurveyTool: Initial release of the CoDiS Survey Tool (v1.0.0). Zenodo (2021). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5345121

Real-Time Summative Assessment - A Case Study of Computer Science Course in Engineering Education for Agronomy Saloua Bensiali(&) Department of Applied Statistics and Computer Science, Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Rabat, Morocco [email protected]

Abstract. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, the academic community around the world finds itself compelled to follow the voice of distance learning. There is a variety of tools that have been used by the teaching staff to monitor distance learning activities. The expected goal of using these solutions is a webbased simulation of face-to-face learning, to ensure knowledge transfer. However, evaluation is an essential step in the learning process for student achievement. A web-based alternative to in-classroom, real-time assessments, is therefore a necessity in the current context. This article is a contribution which adds to the published research in the field of online-assessment related to higher education, in particular for the case of computer literacy for engineering students in agronomy. This is done at the example of a summative assessment carried out in a large enrollment lecture course taught at Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine in Rabat, Morocco. The level taught is the 2nd year of the preparatory cycle. In conclusion the author of this article shows, through a case study approach, how to maintain the integrity of the tertiary education system offered in the current context which is at 100% online. Keywords: Real-time assessment assessment
Google Classroom


Summative assessment
Online

1 Introduction With the emergence of the Internet and its generalization after the 1990s, and as a successor to computer-assisted learning [1, 2], online learning was born in the mid1990s. Knowing that there is not a single definition associated with the term ‘Elearning’ but it takes on different meanings according to the different contexts (Business, Education, training sector, and the military field) [3]. Gikandi et al. state in [4] (p2336) that: ‘While many definitions of E-learning appear in the literature, it can be broadly and sufficiently defined as any learning and/or teaching delivered or conducted through Information Communication Technology (ICT) of any kind, thus encompassing such various digital technologies including CD-ROM, television, interactive multimedia, mobile phones, and the Internet.’

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 480–491, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_48

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In particular, in the context of higher education, research studies in E-learning have focused not only on the aspect of technology but especially on the implementation of constructivist theory in order to propose models, approaches and learning guidelines characterized by a reflective and collaborative aspect where the learner is actively engaged [5]. In this sense, assessment and self-assessment are engines that guide learners in their online learning process, no less than face-to-face [6]. Indeed, online assessment techniques are popular in the literature to highlight formative assessments [4, 7, 8], because it provides learners (also tutors) with the necessary indicators, in order to adjust the rest of the learning/teaching cycle according to the knowledge acquired by the learners. On the other hand, summative evaluation is a real challenge for online evaluation, all the more so in real time, because it is necessary to select the type of questions used to avoid them dealing only with factual evaluation, which caters to superficial learning levels and also beware of academic dishonesty. Undoubtedly, this type of assessment is associated with the scores obtained by learners to measure the overall acquisition of the targeted knowledge and skills. Scores are also associated with the formative assessment but in the summative assessment they are decisive, because they grant or not the completion of the course by the learner vis-à-vis the administration. Due to the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic, from 2020 onwards, at least before the vaccine is generalized, all academic institutions around the world, are forced to adopt E-learning. Then, a web-based alternative to final classroom assessments in real time, is a necessity in the current context. First, because it is a legal obligation. Second, because the scores are required for the orientation of students in their future studies. Therefore, failure to complete these final exams may result in a blank or wasted year. For example, the survey carried out by the High Commission for Planning of Morocco [9] shows that the motivation of learners in higher education has decreased to continue distance learning after the postponement of final examinations. All these facts, confirm the educational role of summative evaluation, and shows that it must be kept at distance. It is true that the present context is a concrete acceleration of the digital transformation in higher education at a world level. This is amply supported by smart mobility increasingly widespread across the globe. However, several challenges must be taken into consideration. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic teachers were encouraged to be more flexible in online teaching and assessment [10]. In particular, to overcome the technical problems, online exams were carried out with great flexibility, namely the long rendering times. However, the use of social networks as means of collaboration between students during the apprenticeship course, risks to foster academic dishonesty during the course of exams, especially when there is flexibility of time. Therefore, the research objective in this article is to show how to make online assessment flexible as well as reliable.

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2 Background Information During the period of the Spring semester for the academic year 2019–2020, we observed a very high success rate in the various modules taught online compared to the Fall semester, of the same year, which was face-to-face. This finding is observed not only at the level of our institution but also in other academic institutions around the world. It is true that this reflects a good indicator of non-dropout of school, but also this is an alarm signal about the reliability of online exams vis-à-vis cheating. This case study tries to lower academic dishonesty in real-time online summative assessment for lectures with high enrollment. To achieve his research objective, the author chose a representative assessment made in online course about Computer Science and Algorithmic as a sample case study. The level taught is the 2nd year of the preparatory cycle in the Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine1 (IAV). The class size is 212, which is made up of one-third of young men and two-thirds of young ladies. Within this one-semester mandatory course, which typically lasts 6 weeks, students learn how to design pseudocode algorithms. In addition, the skills acquired are implemented on a real case study. This one concerns a sales management application for a fruit and vegetable store.

Fig. 1. Overview of formative assessments done in the course of Computer Science and Algorithmic using Google Classroom

The course is divided into two parts. In the first part, students learn the basics of digital encoding, assimilate the fundamental concepts of theoretical computing, and

1

www.iav.ac.ma.

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explore the past and future evolution of computing. The second part relates to learning the basics of algorithms. During this second part, there are generally 3 formative assessments, carried out by requesting one per week, and they concern: two exercises, each one is expected to be delivered in deferred time; and a quiz made during the last week of class, in real time, to also serve as a simulation of the final exam (see Fig. 1 above). Regarding the final consolidation, which is the subject of this article, it concerns all the cognitive notions and skills acquired during distance learning. It is also based as possible on the guidelines offered by A. Kendle and M. Northcote [7] to ensure a balance between qualitative and quantitative types of questions. Students must complete all of these assessments in order to obtain credit for this course. To achieve a simulation goal through the online quiz, the author encouraged learners who were absent to complete the quiz in deferred time. Knowing that the score obtained is not counted for those learners, but at least they will not be surprised on the day of the final exam by any technical problem. Regarding the latter, only one student was unable to complete the quiz for lack of technical competence relating to the use of Google Classroom platform. Then, the tutor calls her by phone to know exactly her problem and during the next online class session, this student shares her screen with the whole class and the teacher guides her technically to take a second quiz without any help in content. Like that a second chance was granted to this student, which would also serve as final exam simulation. Indeed, the online quiz session passed by this student is video recorded to serve later as a reference simulation for the whole class. Thereby, we illustrate a flexibility of learning activities during this course and a continuous support to learners. After having explained all the details relating to the implementation of this case study in terms of learners category, course of the course, its objectives, and various formative evaluation activities associated with it, the next section describes the methodology followed to design and implement the proposed summative assessment, as well as the final data collection concerning the results obtained.

3 The Case Study – Our Approach In order to ensure, in this summative assessment, that all students have accomplished all of the learning goals, the tutor conceived two categories of assessment questions, the first category is related to an objective assessment and the second concerns a knowhow assessment. Indeed, the first one targets to assess cognitive notions related to information processing, the history of computing and the basics of algorithms. The second category targets the skills acquired in order to be able to solve a real problem by implementing an algorithm. To achieve the first assessment type, all of the learning objectives were enumerated per each course part. Then for each objective, five different questions were made according to two questions types, namely multiple-choice questions (MCQ) and short answer questions. Some examples of questions related to the first category are shown in the figures below Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. The second assessment category is made by setting up long open-ended questions. The following figure Fig. 4 shows an example of this category.

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Fig. 2. Objective assessment category: questions example to assess part one of the course

Fig. 3. Objective assessment category: an example assessing part two of the course

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Fig. 4. Know-how assessment category: an example assessing part two of the course

The class is divided into five similarly sized groups, distributed in a random way. The size of each group is shown in the following Table 1. Each group received a different test while respecting the principle of equal opportunities. Indeed, five tests were designed with different contents, but the questions associated with each test are made in such a way that they cover all the learning goals as shown before, with respect to assessment categories mentioned above. Moreover, in each test, the difficulties of the questions vary from easy, medium to difficult, knowing that questions to assess the level of attention of learners during the lecture have been included too. Finally, within the same group, the questions of the same test are distributed in a random order for each learner, even the choices of MCQ are also distributed randomly to each learner. Table 1. Distribution of the whole class into five similarly sized groups to take the summative assessment Groups Number of learners Group 1 42 Group 2 42 Group 3 43 Group 4 42 Group 5 43 Total 212

The rendering time of the examination test for each group is the same. This is estimated according to the difficulty of the questions and so that the learner can finish all the answers with a reduced margin of break. Learners are informed in advance of the start and end time of the test, knowing that all the examination tests are started at the same time. However, at the start and before the launch of the exam, learners are invited to join a virtual class as a video conference. It thus allows learners to follow the tutor’s

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explanation of the exam instructions live. It also allows tutor to save the list of learners present for the test. This videoconference remains active throughout the course of the assessment to allow learner/tutor interaction, if necessary. This real-time interaction is also a way to alleviate the tension and reduce the stress associated with the exam. The examination tests are implemented on Google Classroom, given the tutor’s familiarity with the use of this platform, which includes most of the features envisaged on the teacher side. From the learner side, and in order to familiarize them also with its use, formative assessments have already been carried out via this one, as well as exam simulation sessions recorded in video accessible by students, as mentioned earlier. During the summative assessment, each learner has the right to send only one response. However, during the time of the exam, there were some students who mistakenly submitted the form containing their answers before the end of the rendering time. The tutor has given permission to these students to send a second version of their forms which contains the following answers to the questions that remain unanswered in the first form. Knowing that the two forms are time stamped, then these two answers complement each other to give a single mark to the learner in question. Indeed, in this case, the correction is made first on the basis of the first form, and for the questions that are not answered in this one, they are corrected on the basis of the second form. Exam correction is done automatically for multiple choice questions. As for the short answer or long answer questions, the correction is done manually by the tutor according to a pre-established scale. After finishing the grading of all the examination tests, each learner received the total score assigned to him as well as the score he obtained for each question on his examination test. In addition, each group received the correct answers to the questions associated with its examination test. On the other hand, Google Classroom provides the tutor with preliminary descriptive statistics associated with the scores of each group, as well as the distribution of scores within the same group. The following figure Fig. 5 shows an example of Google Classroom insights.

Fig. 5. Google Classroom insights for group 1 (G1) of final exam

Data relating to the scores, obtained by learners in each group, is exported from Google Classroom. On the one hand, this data is used to calculate the final grade for this course per student, on the other hand, it is analyzed in order to quantitatively describe the distribution of scores. This study is done in order to approve and validate the adopted online summative assessment approach. Therefore, the data is first cleaned.

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First, repetitions caused by sending two responses by the same student are removed. Indeed, each learner associated with two scores is processed by associating it with the sum of the two scores concerned. Then, knowing that the rating scale for each group is different from the other groups, then all the scores obtained are put on the same scale, in this case 20, while rounding each score to a multiple of 0.25. In order to estimate some truthful conclusions from this case study, the last scores adjustments are essential to carry out, as will be given in the following section, an overall analysis on the various results obtained by the whole class after this summative assessment.

4 Result Analysis and Discussion Statistical analysis is done separately on the scores of each group in order to examine the results obtained by group. On the other hand, the scores of all the groups are merged together in order to perform an overall statistical analysis on all the learners and thus decide on the conformity of the proposed approach. The following Table 2 shows the found results. Table 2. Statistical position and dispersion parameters associated with the score series in each group and in the whole class Median Average Min Max Range Standard deviation

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Whole class 10.25 8.75 10.50 10.00 8.25 9.75 10.19 9.05 10.34 10.22 8.67 9.69 4.00 2.50 4.75 4.25 3.75 2.5 16.25 14.25 14.50 16.00 15.50 16.25 12.25 11.75 9.75 11.75 11.75 13.75 2.99 2.90 2.29 2.88 2.56 2.79

Overall and for each group separately, the corresponding median is on the order of magnitude of the arithmetic average. Therefore, the frequency distributions are symmetrical for each group and for the whole class. On the other hand, the dispersion of the scores around the mean is low, given the value of the standard deviation which does not exceed 3 in each series, hence the homogeneity of studied population. The scores of each group are then grouped into eight classes. The following Table 3 shows the frequency distributions associated with each group. These distributions are then represented on the same graph by means of histograms by juxtaposing the frequency distributions observed in the five groups as mentioned in figure Fig. 6.

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Table 3. Grouped frequency distribution of score series in each group of assessment and in all the class Score classes = 17,5

G1 G2 G3 G4 0 0 0 0 1 3 1 1 6 9 2 6 11 12 12 14 12 14 18 10 10 4 10 8 2 0 0 3 0 0 0 0

G5 0 1 14 14 11 2 1 0

Whole class Overall rate 0 0 7 3.3 37 17.5 63 29.7 65 30.7 34 16.0 6 2.8 0 0

Fig. 6. Scores distribution of all groups of summative assessment

Basically, all classes are represented by individuals from each group except for those classes which represent extreme scores. Indeed, concerning the lower end, no learner obtained a score class of less than 2.5 (= 17,5). In addition, the class immediately following in descending order of scores (15–17,5) is represented slightly in three groups and completely absent in two groups, however it is represented by an overall rate of 2.8%.

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On the other hand, the occurrence frequency of all the possible values of the scores obtained by the whole class is represented on the same graph (see Fig. 7) with the probability calculation of each value according to the normal distribution. This graph shows that the frequency distribution seems to fit overall to a normal distribution despite some outliers. Indeed, we differentiate three cases compared to the central value: 1. The frequency of scores which corresponds to the central value: we perceive the presence of a dip of about 60% of difference. 2. The frequencies of scores lower than the central value: on one side, there are troughs, in this case 4 troughs between about 20% to 40% and 6 troughs between about 50% to 60% difference. On the other side, we see the appearance of a significant peak of around 50% more. 3. The frequencies of scores higher than the central value: we identify on one hand, troughs, namely 12 troughs of about 10% to 45% and 5 troughs of about 50% to 80% difference. On the other hand, we see the appearance of two peaks, a peak of almost 25% more and another of almost 200% more.

Probability and frequency of students scores 0.16

12

0.14

10

0.1 0.08

6

0.06

4

Probability

Frequency

0.12 8

0.04 2

0.02

0 2.5 3.25 4 4.75 5.5 6.25 7 7.75 8.5 9.25 10 10.75 11.5 12.25 13 13.75 14.5 15.25 16

0

Scores Number of students

Normal distribuon

Fig. 7. Frequency distribution of all summative assessment scores with calculation of the probability of these scores by the normal distribution

The number of observed troughs is more or less great for scores above the central value. It shows that in general the notation of this approach is quite low compared to normal. The given explanation is confirmed by the peak seen at frequencies below the

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central value. So, this observation reveals a shortcoming of this approach showing that the difficulty level of the assessment is less enjoyable. Or maybe it is due to the fact that the learners are used to the other assessment approach, which provides the same questioning to the whole class with a large rendering time and thus promotes dishonesty. Therefore, there are may be some learners who did not prepare well for the exam. The two scores peaks above the central value show that it is likely due to academic dishonesty. For instance, when calculating the final grade associated with each learner, there are six students in this population who were absent during more than half of the teaching hours. Among them, four learners got scores under the central value, but two learners obtained scores above. Knowing that the course in question is learned for the first time by these learners, this observation possibly testifies to our interpretation about cheating. At the end of this analysis, the graph shows that the peaks are infrequent and that overall, about half of the scores are suitable for the normal distribution and the other half are below normal. All these observations prove that our approach has achieved its goal of reducing the high rate of scores observed in all distance exams, while maintaining an almost normal distribution of scores.

5 Conclusion The case study approach discussed in this paper diversifies the exam questions and minimizes as possible the risk of likely communication between learners during the course of the assessment. This approach achieves all of its objectives, such as lowering the overall level of scores obtained, limiting academic dishonesty and thus making the online summative assessment more reliable while emphasizing the implementation of a pedagogical approach that guarantees flexibility and continuous support of learners. Yet, despite all these efforts, absolute reliability is not guaranteed because there is not a sure way to control the learner during exam time. In this regard, E-proctoring solutions can complete the approach proposed in this article to further increase the level of reliability of online summative assessments. Indeed, the use of online proctoring tools to report suspicious student cheating behavior during exams is highly recommended for online summative assessments [11]. In this case, it is also recommended to minimize difficult level questions in order to balance the scores general distribution so that it will be normal.

References 1. Harel, I.: Children Designers: Interdisciplinary Constructions for Learning and Knowing Mathematics in a Computer-Rich School. Ablex Publishing, Norwood (1991) 2. Papert, S.: The Children’s Machine: Rethinking School in the Age of the Computer. BasicBooks, New York (1993)

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3. Nicholson, P.: A history of e-learning. In: Fernández-Manjón, B., Sánchez-Pérez, J.M., Gómez-Pulido, J.A., Vega-Rodríguez, M.A., Bravo-Rodríguez, J. (eds.) Computers and Education: E-Learning, From Theory to Practice, pp. 1–11. Springer, Dordrecht (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4914-9_1 4. Gikandi, J.W., Morrow, D., Davis, N.E.: Online formative assessment in higher education: a review of the literature. Comput. Educ. 57(4), 2333–2351 (2011) 5. McGorry, S.Y.: Measuring quality in online programs. Internet High. Educ. 6(2), 159–177 (2003) 6. Thorpe, M.: Assessment and “third generation” distance education. Distance Educ. 19(2), 265–286 (1998) 7. Kendle, A., Northcote, M.: The struggle for balance in the use of quantitative and qualitative online assessment tasks. In: Ascilite 2002 (2000) 8. Barbosa, H., Garcia, F.: Importance of online assessment in the e-learning process. In: 2005 6th International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training, pp. F3B/1–F3B/6. IEEE (2005) 9. High Commission for Planning of Morocco: Survey on the impact of the coronavirus on the economic, social and psychological situation of households: Summary note of the main results. HCP, Rabat (2020) 10. Mahmood, S.: Instructional strategies for online teaching in COVID-19 pandemic. Hum. Behav. Emerg. Technol. 3(1), 199–203 (2021) 11. Kharbat, F.F., Abu Daabes, A.S.: E-proctored exams during the COVID-19 pandemic: a close understanding. Educ. Inf. Technol. 26(6), 6589–6605 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10639-021-10458-7

Problem-Based Learning Contribution to Master’s Studies in Logistics and Supply Chain Management Jelizaveta Janno(&)

and Kati Kõrbe Kaare

Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate Street 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia {jelizaveta.janno,kati.korbe}@taltech.ee

Abstract. This paper presents the role and outcomes of the problem-based learning methodology implementation in the Master’s program in Logistics and Supply Chain Management at Tallinn University of Technology, Estonia. The topic of the study was chosen in light of todays higher education being conducted using several different methods. One of the teaching methods that is gaining popularity is problem-based learning. Many master’s programs in logistics and supply chain management have incorporated PBL in their teaching approach. There is lack of relevant and up-to-date substantiated information on how to apply problem-based learning more effectively and specific analysed data of the problem-based learnings role and contribution. The aim of this paper is to provide the missing information. A combined survey for students and lecturers was used as the research strategy. The outputs of problem-based learning, the assessments of students and lecturers and the contribution of problem-based learning were determined. As a result, information is provided for more effective implementation of problem-based learning in the Master’s programs in Logistics and Supply Chain Management and the contribution of problem-based learning to the skills of graduates required in their future positions is evaluated. Keywords: Problem-based learning (PBL)
Logistics and supply chain management
Competencies
Students
Lecturers

1 Introduction The expansion of the concept of learning over time has led to teaching being carried out today through several different passive and active methods. If passive learning methods mean predominantly traditional learning, where learners are provided with information that they later reproduce (Beard and Wilson 2013), active learning actively involve learners in teaching (Mabrouk 2007). The focus of this paper is a method of active learning called problem-based learning (PBL). Similarly to other learning methods, the aim of PBL is to ensure achieving learners’ learning outcomes and the skills, knowledge and personal qualities needed in the future and acquiring attitudes. In PBL, the above happens through problems settlement. PBL is used in the acquisition of higher education in several disciplines. This work focuses on PBL in the context of higher education. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 492–503, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_49

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The use if PBL has currently become a general trend in Estonia, finding application at different levels of education. PBL is used in higher education in the field of logistics in Estonia, including application at Tallinn University of Technology (TalTech) majoring in logistics and supply chain management master’s degree. Different logistics companies face similar challenges in their daily activities and PBL provides the necessary competencies in solving them. The research problem of this paper is relevant to the lack of up-to-date systemised information on how problem-based learning can be applied more effectively in the master’s studies of logistics and supply chain management. The current study aims to provide relevant and up-to-date substantiated information, how to implement PBL in the abovementioned program more efficiently. Concerning the contribution and outputs of PBL, the authors mean significant and crucial issues in the labour market competencies that need to be developed and can be enhanced by applying the method. In terms of estimations, the authors examine the general attitude of students and lecturers towards PBL and its share in the study program. Strengths and weaknesses of the method are analysed based on the answers. Its efficiency and feasibility in the form of distance learning is assessed. By inputs, the authors refer to the nature of the problem tasks and the topics on which they should focus. To achieve the research goal the authors use a combined research strategy. The authors conduct surveys to question students and faculty to explain their quantitative and qualitative necessary information using analytical methods. In addition, the authors analyze the relevant reports and the relevant professional standard in the field and carry out the work due to the research problem-focused discussions with industry representatives. The main part of this research focused on three chapters, which are theoretical approaches, methodology and practical research. In the chapter of the practical research, the authors analyze the collected data and present the obtained results. The authors emphasize here found outcomes in PBL outcomes for students and lecturers’ assessments in this area and inputs to PBL. As a result of this work, the authors present PBL with missing information for more efficient implementation in the Master’s studies of Logistics and Supply Chain Management.

2 Theoretical Overview 2.1

Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is constructivist activity-based learning based on a learning approach, where learning takes place through problems identification and resolution (Rüütmann 2019). The focus of PBL is on the real problem tasks similar to or arising from work situations and the responsibility of the learner for learning (Pilli 2014). Due to its nature, PBL has also been called learner-centred (Barrows 2002) and the results-based learning method. Barrows listed the taxonomy of PBL as: traditional lecture-based cases, case-based lecture, case method, modified case-based, problembased, closed-loop problem based. Compared to traditional learning, where learners are provided with the information they need later reproduced (Beard and Wilson 2013), learning in PBL is fundamentally

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different. Allen et al. (2011) even argue that the transition from traditional learning to PBL requires the shift in the educational paradigm of the educational institution, which is reflected primarily in the parties involved in the learning process changing roles. In addition, PBL is different from traditional learning in a form of study, which primarily means teamwork for problem tasks instead of lectures finding solutions (Pilli 2014). The authors consider it necessary to distinguish PBL from another relatively similar teaching method, which is project-based learning. Although in practice there are differences between these teaching methods boundaries are blurred and are often combined, however, they are different (Rüütmann 2019). Unlike PBL, project training should end with a real product (Rüütmann 2019). Differences have also been discussed by Perrenet et al. (2000), who said that PBL focused more on knowledge acquisition and project learning more on knowledge implementation. Mabrouk (2007) has called project learning part of PBL, arguing that project learning is a practical application of PBL. This study addresses PBL predominantly separately. The central focus of PBL concept is the problem. Jonassen (2000) defines a problem as a deviation between a desired and an actual situation, and according to him, there must be some social, cultural or intellectual value in solving the problem. Jonassen also distinguishes eight problem types: story problems, rule-using problems, decisionmaking problems, troubleshooting problems, strategic performance problems, policy problems, design problems, and dilemmas. 2.2

Implementing Problem-Based Learning

The seven jump model (Camp et al. 2014; Wood 2003) is used to implement PBL (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Seven-step model of PBL Camp et al. (2014), Wood (2003), applied by the authors

In addition to the suitability of the problems used in PBL, the correct application of the method is also important. Regarding the presented model, Alvarstein et al. (2001),

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who focused on logistics education, point out that moving teams back to previous steps and repeating some steps is a normal activity and a normal part of teaching. Teachers can often let students start solving a problem incorrectly, because making mistakes is also a learning experience (Allen et al. 2011). Barrows (1986) developed the taxonomy of PBL teaching methods to facilitate the selection of appropriate methods, and although he did so with a focus on medical education decades ago, it is also relevant in other fields and today. According to Barrows (1986), PBL teaching methods are increasingly divided in the order of their complexity as follows: • Lecture-based case, where students are presented first with a theory and then with a case that demonstrates the relevance of the theory. • A case-based lecture, where students are presented first with a case and then with a theory, whereby getting to know the case allows to select what is important from the theory. • The case method, in which learners are presented with only a case for independent research and analysis, followed by a discussion. • A modified case-based approach, where learners are presented with a partial simulation of the problem for research, guided and guided, but they choose the solution themselves. • A problem-based method, where learners are presented with a full simulation of the problem for research, they are less supervised and the research is free, the aim is to activate existing knowledge and relate it to new ones. • A closed-loop problem-based method, in which learners are presented with an authentic problem that is initially solved. Then there is independent learning, after which we return to the problem to solve it better. It is repeatedly closed. 2.3

Problem-Based Learning in Logistics

Focusing more on PBL in logistics education, it is worth noting that the specialty of logistics is closely related to the field of STEM (Science-Technology-EngineeringMathematics) and Rüütmann (2019) points out that in order to support in-depth understanding, it is worthwhile to apply them in a balanced way to different teaching methods, including PBL. The application of PBL in logistics in particular is discussed, for example, by Grasas and Ramalhinho (2016), who note that logistics education must be approached from both theoretical and practical perspectives, which means that in addition to theory, knowledge must be applied in real-life situations. In order to achieve the latter, they consider it appropriate to use active learning methods, including PBL, as they help to bridge the gap between theory and practice (Grasas and Ramalhinho 2016). The need to include practical problems in logistics education is also emphasized by Miscevic et al. (2018). PBL has been used in a variety of ways in logistics education, has been largely effective, and feedback from participants has been generally positive. For the most part, the authors have concluded from student feedback that satisfaction with PBL in logistics has been high. Based on the positive feedback, Rodrigues Da Silva et al. (2012) point out that PBL can also be successfully applied in engineering courses that are considered to be predominantly conducted using only traditional teaching methods.

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In contrast, for example, Kanet and Stößlein (2008) point out that some dissatisfaction of participants with PBL in logistics was due to the higher time and labor intensity of the method compared to traditional learning. When analyzing the critique of PBL, Tick (2007) found that in order to implement it in logistics, it is necessary to give the parties more time to get used to the method. He also found that the PBL was better received by foreign students, which he said may be due to differences in national education systems.

3 Methogology 3.1

Sample Groups and Data Collection

First, the authors prepared a written questionnaire for students in the Google Forms environment, which was sent to the respondents by e-mail on March 22, 2021. The survey was sent only to students who entered in 2018–2020, who had graduated or are continuing their studies at the time of compiling the work. The authors decided in favor of the survey because he wanted to allow the respondents to participate in the survey at a time and place suitable for them. In order to get a combined view of the PBL aspects, the authors also prepared a written questionnaire for teachers in the Google Forms environment. The survey was sent to the respondents by e-mail on 05.04.2021 and a reminder was sent on 27.04.2021. It was possible to answer the survey until 11.05.2021. In the present study, the total number of students, which amounted to 74 members (N1 = 74), included all students who entered the main specialty of logistics and supply chain management in 2018–2020 and completed their studies or continue their studies during the preparation of the work. Both former and current students were consciously included in the study in order to achieve a diversity of results. A sample of respondents was formed. As the contacts of the members of the population were easily accessible to the authors, the sample formed can be called a convenience sample. However, it is worth noting that the sample consisted of those members of the population who were willing to participate in the survey. Sauga (2017) calls such a sample a spontaneous sample, arguing that the members of such a sample usually have a deeper interest in the topic, which, according to the authors of this work, was also expressed in the answers to the survey. The sample size of the survey respondents was 31 members (n1 = 31), which means a participation of almost 42%. In the survey for teachers, the authors used only open-ended questions, with the exception of the introductory part, which asked respondents to choose the subject to be taught, and the e-mail address at the end, to ensure that respondents could be contacted later to clarify answers. In the case of lecturers, a sample of the population was formed according to the subjects for which the survey was answered. In this case, the sample size was 12 members (n2 = 12), which means 75% participation. Similar to the sample of students, the sample of lecturers can also be called a comfort sample and, according to Sauga (2017), a spontaneous sample.

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Data Analysis

Having collected the necessary data from both students and faculty through surveys, the authors began to analyse the results. The student survey included a number of closed-ended or multiple-choice questions based on the Likert scale. For such questions, the authors used the coding of the answers and analyzed the results quantitatively using Microsoft Excel tools. It is worth noting that the analysis of the results of the questions based on the Likert scale is sometimes a controversial topic, as there are several differences of opinion among the authors regarding the suitability of data analysis methods (Jamieson 2004; Stratton 2018). It is worth noting that although the answer variants have a certain sequence when using the Likert scale; it cannot be assumed that the values between them are equal, which also places certain requirements on data analysis (Jamieson 2004; Göb et al. 2007). Data need to be analyzed in a way that preserves their meaning, which is why several authors consider that it is not appropriate to use an arithmetic mean for the Likert scale (Jamieson 2004; Göb et al. 2007) because it has no substantive value. Suitable methods include, for example, compiling frequency tables (Göb et al. 2007) and finding a way (Stratton 2018). In analyzing the results of closed questions, the authors of this work also proceeds from the above approach. The faculty survey included only open-ended questions, and a number of such questions were also used in the student survey. It is a widely used method that seeks to summarize textual material and interpret its content (Laherand 2010). It focuses on the study of language as a means of communication, which means forming categories of parts of a text with a similar idea, where the ideas can be both clearly stated and only given for understanding (Laherand 2010). In Kalmus et al.’s (2015) approach, qualitative content analysis examines the content and contextual meaning of a text, focusing on the most important circumstances of the text, as a result of which it is possible to obtain a comprehensive overview of it. The authors of the present work used text analysis to interpret the received answers in order to group them on the basis of similarities, if possible, and to draw the corresponding conclusions. As the authors additionally used both quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods, the chosen research strategy can be called a combined research strategy, which according to Hirsijärvi et al. (2007) is also one of the most common strategies. The aim of combining the two approaches was to obtain a combined view of the topic, which meant drawing conclusions from the analysis of the data received from both parties in the learning process.

4 Results Firstly, the authors tried to find out what the outputs of PBL should be in a Master’s degree in Logistics and Supply Chain Management. The assessments given by the respondents are summarized in Table 1.

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Please rate the importance of the following competencies in your work: 1–5 (1 - completely insignificant, 5 - very important)

Professional competencies Supply chain development Management and development of procurement and purchasing processes Management and development of logistics processes Quality management Use of business information systems Financial accounting Sales and demand planning Employee management and supervision Digital competence General competencies Business ethics Legislation Risk analysis and management The environment Foreign language skills Personal characteristics Analytical thinking Focus on results and quality Stress tolerance Empathy Ability to see the whole picture Teamwork skills Persuasion skills Decision making skills Self-assertion skills Perseverance Creativity

Number of respondents

Respondents who gave a rating of “4” or “5” No Total share

Do not know

1

2

3

4

5

2 –

2 5

5 5

4 2

4 7

14 12

18 19

58,1% 61,3%

1

2

2

–

8

18

26

83,9%

1 – – 1 1

5 1 2 4 4

8 2 7 3 –

3 7 8 5 4

9 12 7 6 8

5 9 7 12 14

14 21 14 18 22

45,2% 67,7% 45,2% 58,1% 71,0%

–

–

–

4

9

18

27

87,1%

1 1 2 3 –

– 1 – 2 –

1 2 5 2 –

4 5 4 10 5

5 8 7 4 4

20 14 13 10 22

25 22 20 14 26

80,6% 71,0% 64,5% 45,2% 83,9%

– – – – 1 – 1 – – 1 –

– – – 2 – – 1 – – – 4

1 1 2 5 1 1 1 1 1 – 3

1 4 4 4 2 3 3 3 4 5 6

3 3 5 6 3 2 11 6 7 3 6

26 23 20 14 24 25 14 21 19 22 12

29 26 25 20 27 27 25 27 26 25 18

93,5% 83,9% 80,6% 64,5% 87,1% 87,1% 80,6% 87,1% 83,9% 80,6% 58,1%

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As the outputs were considered to be important competencies in the labor market, students were asked in the survey to assess the relevance of the various competencies listed in the Professional Standard Supply Chain Manager, Level 7 (Kõrgharidusstandard n.d.). In order to find the most important competencies, the authors used the following way, summing up the numbers of respondents who gave a rating of “4” or “5” by competencies and finding their share. According to the authors, competencies rated “4” or “5” by at least 80% of respondents should be considered important. Consequently, digital competencies and the management and development of logistics processes can be considered the most important professional competencies. Among the general competencies, foreign language skills and business ethics stood out. The importance of business ethics is expressed in the fact that “in order to obtain a master’s degree, a student must be able to act in ethically complex situations” (Higher Education Standard Appendix 1. 2019). Almost all of the personality traits were rated relatively highly, which directly indicates their necessity. The OSKA 2017 report (Kaelep and Leemet 2017) also points out that different personal characteristics play an increasingly important role, and the need to develop them in higher education has also been emphasized by Rutiku (2014). Empathy and creativity were rated somewhat lower than personal characteristics, and analytical thinking was rated the highest here. In addition to the assessment of the listed competencies, students were given the opportunity to describe which competencies are important in their work or which have increased in relation to the COVID-19 crisis. The authors compared the competencies indicated by the respondents with those listed in the OSKA 2017 report (Kaelep and Leemet 2017), the OSKA post-COVID report (Rosenblad et al. 2021) and the Professional Standard Supply Chain Manager, level 7 (Kõrgharidusstandard n.d.) and considered overlaps as important competencies, ie those that appeared in the students’ responses as well as in these reports and in the Professional Standard. A summary table of competencies and the most important overlaps are shown below (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Competencies

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The fact that digital competencies and teamwork skills were also evident in addition to the previous assessment confirms that these are relevant competencies. It was found that skills in automation and digitization are important, and it is worth noting that although environmental competencies were relatively low in the previous assessment, they were still important here. Whereas Segalas et al. (2009) have stated that environmental competencies are successfully acquired through active learning methods, including PBL. The effectiveness of PBL was also examined from the perspective of academic staff. In particular, they were asked which competencies PBL develops most in their subject and what new competencies have emerged in the context of the COVID-19 crisis, the development of which could be integrated into their subject. Both new competencies and those that have become more important have been identified here. The competencies indicated by the respondents are grouped by the authors and presented independently of the subjects in Table 2 below. Table 2. Competencies in PBL in the view of lecturers Professional competencies Logistics process management and development (2), supply chain development, sales and demand planning, digitization, quality management, customer service, linking logistics and supply chain management competencies to other areas General competencies Foreign language skills, cultural competence Personal characteristics Teamwork skills (5), systemic thinking (3), whole vision skills (2), independence (2), analytical thinking, entrepreneurship, empathy, analytical skills (including self-analysis), negotiation, argumentation and persuasion skills, conflict resolution skills, self-assertion skills, accountability Competencies disclosed/important in the COVID-19 crisis Professional competencies: Digital competence, digitization General competencies: crisis management, crisis communication, risk analysis and risk management, change management Personal characteristics: Teamwork skills, time management, emotion management, consideration for others and assessing the impact of one’s behavior, ability to react quickly, flexibility (the number of competencies in the teachers’ answers is indicated in brackets)

It turned out that according to the academic staff, as a result of PBL, the most different personality traits develop, from which teamwork skills develop the most. It is worth noting that the same fact has been pointed out by Kjærsdam (2004), Pilli (2014) and Grasas et al. (2016) when considering the effectiveness of the method.

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5 Conclusion The aim of this work was to provide relevant and up-to-date substantiated information on how to apply problem-based learning more effectively in the Master’s degree program in Logistics and Supply Chain Management. Contribution of PBL to skills and competencies needed in professional landscape were analysed. Effective implementation meant that the authors’ approach was taking into account the assessments of the parties in the learning process and the needs of the labor market. In order to achieve this goal, the authors worked through the theoretical approach of the field more broadly about the nature of the teaching method and narrowly focusing on problem-based learning in logistics and supply chain management higher education. Futher activities the authors have planned to carry out in the next practical phase would be developing the PBL teaching process model and piloting it. As a result of the practical research work it was determined that a special focus needs to be applied in developing the outputs of problem-based learning or competencies, ie the nature and topics of suitable problem tasks. In addition, the respective problem tasks should be described and developed in cooperation with companies in the field. As a result of this work, the theoretical approach and the evaluations of students and lecturers of the Master’s degree in Logistics and Supply Chain Management formed a comprehensive view of PBL. Based on the results of the work, the authors make the following proposals to the lecturers of Tallinn University of Technology, majoring in logistics and supply chain management: 1. The students could work through the theoretical approach to the problem before solving the problem, and preferably in a foreign language, in advance, so that there would be more time for discussions in contact learning and for maximizing the potential of PBL as a method. 2. In order to increase the share of PBL in learning, it can be linked to practice, which would mean a wider use of teaching practice, where master’s students would teach undergraduate students to solve problems with PBL, having previously been familiar with PBL’s methodology. This proposal would reduce the time spent by teachers in implementing the PBL and allow the university to exploit the potential of postgraduate students, but it should be explored what students would be interested in doing in this form of internship. 3. It is worthwhile for students to let them choose problems from companies themselves more than before. 4. It is worthwhile for companies to explain more than before the benefits of knowledge transfer from universities to companies in the PBL. 5. PBL could involve more alumni who present real-life problems to students from the companies where they work.

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References Allen, D.E., Donham, R.S., Bernhardt, S.A.: Problem-based learning. New Dir. Teach. Learn. 2011(128), 21–29 (2011). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/tl.465 Alvarstein, V., Karen Johannesen, L.: Problem-based learning approach in teaching lower level logistics and transportation. Int. J. Phys. Distrib. Logist. Manag. 31(7/8), 557–573 (2001). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235305361_Problem-based_learning_approach_in_ teaching_lower_level_logistics_and_transportation Barrows, H.S.: A taxonomy of problem-based learning methods. Med. Educ. 20, 481–486 (1986). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2923.1986.tb01386.x Barrows, H.: Is it truly possible to have such a thing as dPBL? Distance Educ. 23(1), 119–122 (2002). https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01587910220124026 Beard, C., Wilson, J.P.: Experiential Learning: A Handbook for Education, Training and Coaching, 3rd edn. KoganPage, London (2013) Camp, G., Kaar, A., Molen, H., Schmidt, H.: PBL: step by step. A guide for students and tutors. Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam (2014). https://www.eur.nl/sites/ corporate/files/PBL_step_by_step_guide_0.pdf Grasas, A., Ramalhinho, H.: Teaching distribution planning: a problem-based learning approach. Int. J. Logist. Manag. 27(2), 377–394 (2016). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 273770512_Teaching_Distribution_Planning_A_Problem-based_Learning_Approach Göb, R., McCollin, C., Ramalhoto, M.F.: Ordinal methodology in the analysis of likert scales. Qual. Quant. 41(5), 601–626 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-007-9089-z Hirsjärvi, S., Remes, P., Sajavaara, P.: Uuri ja Kirjuta. Medicina, Tallinn (2007) Jamieson, S.: Likert scales: how to (ab)use them. Med. Educ. 38(12), 1217–1218 (2004). https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/8160021_Likert_Scales_How_to_ab_Use_Them Jingyun, L., Ping, L., Yu, G.: Design of practice teaching for logistics engineering course based on CDIO concept. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, vol. 85 (2016). https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Design-of-Practice-Teaching-forLogistics-Course-on-Liu-Li/067c4ff0d78f2cf84fb8d714da3fce28d71b530f Jonassen, D.H.: Toward a design theory of problem solving. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 48(4), 63– 85 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02300500 Kaelep, T., Leemet, A.: Tulevikuvaade tööjõu-ja oskuste vajadusele. Transport, logistika, mootorsõidukite remont ja hooldus. Uuringuaruanne. SA Kutsekoda, tööjõuvajaduse seire-ja prognoosisüsteem OSKA, Tallinn (2017). https://oska.kutsekoda.ee/wp-content/uploads/ 2016/04/TLM_terviktekst.pdf Kalmus, V., Masso, A., Linno, M.: Sotsiaalse analüüsi meetodite ja metodoloogia õpibaas: Kvalitatiivne sisuanalüüs. Tartu Ülikool (2015). http://samm.ut.ee/kvalitatiivne-sisuanalyys Kanet, J.J., Stößlein, M.: Using a supply chain game to effect problem-based learning in an undergraduate operations management program. Decis. Sci. J. Innov. Educ. 6(2), 287–295 (2008). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229690696_Using_a_Supply_Chain_ Game_to_Effect_Problem-Based_Learning_in_an_Undergraduate_Operations_ Management_Program Kjærsdam, F.: Technology transfer in a globalised world: transferring between university and industry through cooperation and education. World Trans. Eng. Technol. Educ. 3(1), 63–66 (2004). http://www.wiete.com.au/journals/WTE&TE/Pages/Vol.3,%20No.1%20(2004)/13_ Kjaersdam34.pdf Kõrgharidusstandard: RT I, 12.07.2019, 17. https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/112072019017 Laherand, M.-L.: Kvalitatiivne uurimisviis. (E-raamat). Tallinn (2010). http://dspace.ut.ee/ handle/10062/68249

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Mabrouk, P.A.: Active Learning: Models from the Analytical Sciences. American Chemical Society, Washington DC (2007) Minin, M., Kriushova, A., Muratova, E.: Assessment of the CDIO syllabus learning outcomes: from theory to practice, pp. 689–694 (2015). https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7318110 Miscevic, G., Hadzic, A.P., Tijan, E.: Applications and software for teaching logistics and logistics management (2018). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326699842_ Applications_and_software_for_teaching_logistics_and_logistics_management Perrenet, J.C., Bouhuijs, P.A.J., Smits, J.G.M.M.: The suitability of problem-based learning for engineering education: theory and practice. Teach. High. Educ. 5(3), 345–358 (2000). https:// www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/713699144?journalCode=cthe20 Pilli, E.: Probleemipõhine õpe kõrgkoolis. Tartu Ülikool. Primus. SA Archimedes (2014). https:// sisu.ut.ee/pbl/avaleht Rodrigues Da Silva, A.N., Kuri, N.P., Casale, A.: PBL and B-learning for civil engineering students in a transportation course. J. Prof. Issues Eng. Educ. Pract. 138(4), 305–313 (2012). https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%29EI.1943-5541.0000115 Rüütmann, T.: Inseneripedagoogika käsiraamat. STEM valdkonna õppeainete mõjus õpetamine ja õppimine. TTÜ kirjastus, Tallinn (2019) Stratton, S.J.: Likert data. Prehosp. Disaster Med. 33(2), 117–118 (2018). https://www. cambridge.org/core/journals/prehospital-and-disaster-medicine/article/likert-data/ C5F8B7F320E3E9E8A98FD4C26CDBB24F Tick, A.: Use of problem-based learning in teaching logistics and international operations. In: 2007 International Symposium on Logistics and Industrial Informatics, pp. 81–85 (2007). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4278963_Use_of_Problem-based_learning_in_ teaching_Logistics_and_International_Operations Wood, D.F.: Abc of learning and teaching in medicine: problem based learning. BMJ: Br. Med. J. 326(7384), 328–330 (2003). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1125189/

Work-in-Progress: Evaluation in Hungarian Education: Evaluation Knowledge and Reflections on Engineering and Technical Teacher Students Ibolya Tomory(&) Óbuda University, Népszínház utca 8., Budapest, Hungary [email protected]

Abstract. Evaluation is a key element of the learning process, beside quantitative evaluation, more formative, developmental evaluation would be needed in education. At the same time, Hungarian education is traditionally numerical, follows a systematic 1–5 evaluation [1]. Ongoing research seeks to answer the question of whether there is a lack of methodological knowledge or a lack of a conceptual basis behind it. The present goal: 1) To review the evaluation knowledge and thinking of the participants in the engineering teacher and technical instructor training, 2) To identify shortcomings and problems. Another goal is to develop and test evaluation development in teacher education. A questionnaire has been used to identify known, less known and used methods. The main question: In terms of what aspects and methods are used for subject assessment. The results so far show that the known and applied methods are highly summative in nature. At the same time, students see the positive effects of developmental evaluation, but they do not know appropriate evaluation procedures and methods. Consequently, current practice needs to be turned towards formative assessment and prepare teacher candidates for more effective assessment work. Keywords: Formative assessment/evaluation


Technical teacher training

1 Introduction 1.1

The Role of Assessment in Learning Effectivenes

Motivation research points to the relationships between assessment and intrinsic motivation in learning outcomes. Education will be constantly motivating in case the teacher provides continuous feedback on student achievement and does so in an appropriate, fair tone [1]. Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, a professor of psychology at the University of Chicago, interviewed ninety-one exceptional personalities and reviewed the elements of their career success. Based on the results, the unfolding and preservation of creativity is linked to continuous and differentiated evaluation. This should be done in several ways: © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 504–511, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_50

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continuous teacher feedback, self-assessment and peer evaluation [2]. According to Csíkszentmihályi, in order to fulfill the motivating function of assessment and to ensure the flow experience in the classroom, frequent feedback on the coordination of student and school goals and the development of skills would be needed. Researching the education of children living in deep poverty, Haberman [3] states that successful educators pay attention to the continuity of assessment and often provide feedback and assessment on students’ efforts. Barbara L. McCombs [4] describes the role of the teacher in the classroom as “Almost everything the teacher does in the classroom has a motivating force - in a positive or negative direction.” In her opinion, the assessment of the situation of successful teachers is also closer to reality and to the students’ own and peer assessment. The author’s own previous research and other research show that the situation assessments and subject evaluations of less successful teachers are often based on serious mistakes, misunderstandings and attribution errors. This results in student insecurity, learning inertia, and/or resistance [5]. “…Learning outcomes are not simply a new pedagogical technique, but a modern way of thinking that focuses on learning and the student as opposed to a teachercentered culture, and in this sense the learning process itself and the competence development achieved by the student are essential” [6]. The key to learning outcomes is therefore the preventive process, called formative assessment. The role of formative assessment has a particularly serious impact on motivation, learning success and self-esteem, and therefore plays a key role in the implementation of learning outcomes as a developmental tool and approach. This requires planning for the achievement of learning outcomes in training and providing an objective assessment during and at the end of the learning process. Evaluation should not be a simple grade, but a meaningful, forward-looking, developmental feedback [7]. Thus, one of the challenges of the changed teacher role is motivation and evaluation. 1.2

Functions and Place of Assessment in the Educational Process

The functions of assessment are multi-layered, covering several elements of education. It informs about the effectiveness and efficiency of education and gives feedback to the student, teacher, parent and school, maintainer. Its known and most frequently mentioned function in education is the qualification and selection function. Undoubtedly, evaluation also has a self-image-forming effect, and its motivating effect is invaluable. As a result, it cannot be just a separate activity at the end of each stage of education. It needs to be included in the planning, in the process, and it also has an impact on the final stage of the process. With these views in mind, more specific goals (see, for example, Bloom’s taxonomy), new types of assessment, functions, and assessment as an integral part of the learning-teaching process have been developed, among others [8]. Scriven defined the process along three types of evaluation: diagnostic, formative, and summative evaluation [9].

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Formative assessment is the totality of all kinds of smaller and larger, varied assessments given during the learning process, while the summative form is the sumclosing assessment, the aim is to classify only the knowledge held by the learner. In the formative phase, correction can still take place in time provided the teacher indicates in a timely and concrete manner that the student knows, what the learner is not doing well, and if he/she becomes aware and encourages, for example, with learning methodology suggestions. Its effectiveness depends on an objective assessment of students’ knowledge and personality, based on authentic and reliable information. Therefore, increasing the proportion of diagnostic and formative assessment would be important to reduce the proportion of summative assessment. The summative form is predominant in Hungarian practice, the diagnostic assessment in actually rarely used, and the practice of formative assessment is overshadowed into the background.

2 Methods, Informants The study is based on the phases of a research started in the spring of 2020 between current and former engineering and technical teacher students of the Óbuda University. The number of responses received so far is 263. There are two main phases: research/data collection and development phase. In Phase 1, a questionnaire survey was launched. The methods known and less known and used by the students were identified, as well as the elements related to thinking and attitudes were collected. Most of the questions are Licert scale, as well as open-ended questions. The analysis is based primarily on the processing of responses but is complemented by additional data collection. In Phase 2, case studies and interviews, as well as observational experiences gained during the teaching of pedagogical subjects, were collected and are carried out primarily through cooperative group work. Related to this are the interviews. However, a small proportion of students from previous years participate in this, but students from last year and the current school year are actively involved. The interviews focused on the questions of the questionnaire, opinions on the forms of evaluation, motivational effects, predictability, and individual and non-individual limitations of implementation. In Phase 3, based on the results and experiences, develop an effective evaluation framework and an evaluation plan with a formative evaluation approach. In Phase 4, to test in the context of teacher training and in the students ‘own work, and then to continue the development in the framework of a workshop. These last two stages will be implemented later after the evaluation of the results of further quantitative and qualitative data collection. The majority of students completing the questionnaire are 66.7% male, which is a common phenomenon in technical careers. The majority of respondents participate in correspondence engineering teacher training (88.9%), the rest in technical vocational teacher correspondence training (11.1%). Their age is variable, with the lowest number among those aged 18–24 (1.6%). The distribution of the other age groups is roughly similar: 28.6% of 25–34 years old, 30.2% of 35–44 years old, 20.6% of 45–54 years old and 19% of 55–64 years old.

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According to the place of residence, about half (52.4%) live in rural cities, 28.6% in small settlements and 19% in the capital, which can be representative by expanding research. The majority (73%) have a basic engineering degree, of which 60.3% have an MSc degree, 34.95% have a BSc degree, and a much smaller proportion of technical trainers have a technical qualification (1.6%) or a high school diploma (3.2%). They work in a high school technical school in 49.2% and in non-education related jobs, in a company in 30.2%. The rest teach in a similar proportion in vocational high schools and vocational or primary schools, and a narrow (6.3%) layer works in higher education, university.

3 Results 3.1

Thinking About Evaluation

The rating function appears in several questions. This includes evaluation as the importance of a task, a ranking of functions. Table 1 summarizes the ranking of the functions and Fig. 1 shows the results. Table 1. Functions of evaluation Order of importance (numbered) The most important evaluation function Information 1st 2nd Motivation 3rd Personality development 4th Selection 5th Sample for self-assessment 6th Certification/classification 7th Didactic task

Based on the answers, the main purpose and function of assessment is partly interpreted by students in the context of traditional assessment procedures. This is how information comes first, giving motivation and personality development a value of 7 on a scale. The self-assessment is ranked 5th and the sample is ranked 5th in the next place when it comes to qualification (certification/classification). This is followed by items of interpretation as a didactic task, which are indicated as important in a smaller percentage, although none are very low. Only three students rate it as an unimportant function and seven students rate it as the least important (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. The most important goal and function of evaluation

In light of this, students seem to be aware, at least in theory, of the importance of assessment and know how much and how important a role it plays in education. However, responses may be influenced by existing student knowledge of assessment, which occurs in more subject content during their studies. They could already hear and learn about the importance of developmental impact, impact on personality, and the importance of the teacher sample. Qualitative observations confirm this assumption. During the analyzes and discussions, the students recalled what they had learned and asked questions and objections. At the same time, it seemed that this was not driven by disagreement, but by interest, the intention to learn something new. They basically agree, but in daily practice, implementation is seen as a difficult and lengthy task. They definitely need more information, further help, ideas, advice, more specific knowledge and suggestions for the practice of evaluation. The other issue concerns the extent to which assessment engages teachers, how often they address related topics. Here, both practical and classic evaluation elements more related to the qualification, such as the worksheet, the closing topic, etc., came to the fore and interactive learning modes. They were ranked well on a scale of 4 and 5 on the scale, indicating the most common occurrence. In the next place, however, the development of collegial cooperation and project evaluation is important in formative assessment, but students also deal with the help of student self-assessment in the light of the answers received. Looking at the five-point scale, to see the frequency of different aspects and topics, similar but closer values. The distribution of opinions indicates that several evaluation aspects are important to respondents in parallel, which they also address (see Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. The frequency of evaluation as a topic of thought and planning

3.2

Knowledge and Application of Evaluation Forms and Methods

By asking about known and used forms and methods of evaluation, we can also get an answer to how much respondents are aware of Scriven’s well-known types and how they interpret lesser-known methods. The three types, the diagnostic, the formative, the summative method are known to most and the frequency of their use is equally characteristic. All three applications were noted by a relatively large number of students in Fig. 3 according to.

Fig. 3. Frequency of use of Scriven evaluation forms

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The summative form is used most often, with 27.40% of respondents up to min, and even more often (41.01%). In the case of the diagnostic form, the frequent (32.78%) and infrequent (33.40%) values were almost the same, and those who never used were slightly fewer (21.63%). Although formative assessment is not unknown to them, but the application is not part of the usual practice. It is never used by 41.80% of students, rarely 26, 50 and decreasingly often (20.50%) and always (11.20%). Examination of the question containing the knowledge and application of the different evaluation methods 22 methods along the answers I know and apply, I know but do not apply, I do not know. These are numerical/measurement, verbal, textual and alternative/unique methods. See Table 2 for examples of specific methods and ratios. Table 2. Knowledge and application of different assessment methods Method Numerical evaluation(grade) Measurement (scoring) Percentage rating Textual written assessment Continuous oral evaluation Individualized questions Transformation Three at the board (cooperative evaluation) Digital portfolio

Knows and applies % 100 87 100 23 74 73 68 4 14

Knows but does not use % 0 13 0 29 21 18 19 0 82

Does not know % 0 0 0 48 5 9 13 96 4

The results show that the application of quantification, classification, summative type methods is the most common: measurement, scoring, percentage measurement and classification with digits. These go hand in hand with oral evaluation. Students justify this on the grounds that they are familiar and easy to use because no special preparation is required. However, the estimate, which also belongs to this group, is indicated as less known and less used. There is a high rate of application of posting, which I believe is due to a misunderstanding. Respondents interpreted this as a task given in the classical way, which is given, for example, as a homework assignment or as a class assignment. Nevertheless, the term here refers to the method used in cooperative small group work. This and some similar methods needed to be clarified during the qualitative research process. Such were the three at the board, an evaluation card, tabloid claims (deceptive), opinion line. The transformation method is known mostly to students teaching STEM subjects, but it is believed that it means doing something like a mathematical operation and not as a creative technique. Qualitative information gathering revealed that textual assessment is considered the most difficult and problematic, and even unnecessary. No one uses it, but they think it’s appropriate to highlight the right part in a pre-made text formula instead. According to

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the students, this is the same as adding a text comment to the grade they have received. It is difficult to accept the view that this is not really a qualitative development evaluation, but as if it were evaluated by a number.

4 Summary, Conclusion Evaluation is a complex pedagogical phenomenon and is only partly a technical issue. The attitude, the teacher’s way of thinking about and supporting the learning process are as crucial, too. As an integral part of learning-teaching, it is a guiding, developing and empowering activity that supports learning motivation and personality development. The role of teacher education and in-service training is to support renewal. Teaching training programs and methods that support the improvement of the assessment skills of technical and technical professionals is absolutely necessary for the results of the future. Based on the results of this research, it is of high importance to renew the educational goals, subject contents and educational practice of the trainings.

References 1. Endréné, R.: Tanári teljesítmény-visszajelzés hatása a tanulók személyiségére. Comenius Oktató és Kiadó Kft., Pécs (2011) 2. Csíkszentmihályi, M.: Flow the classic work on how to achieve happiness. Rider, London (2002) 3. Haberman, M.: Schools as learning communities can star teachers create learning communities? To transform a school into a learning community, a savvy education leader needs to support the very best teachers. Educ. Leadersh. 61(8), 52–56 (2004) 4. McCombs, B.L.: Motivation and lifelong learning. Educ. Psychol. 26(2), 117–127 (1991) 5. Hinchey, P.H.: Getting Teacher Assessment Right: What Policymakers Can Learn from Research. National Education Policy Center, Boulder. http://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/ getting-teacher-assessment-right. Accessed 27 Apr 2021 6. Éva, F.: Tanulási eredmények értékelése a felsőoktatásban. University of Szeged, Szeged (2019) 7. ICF GHK: Evaluation of the Implementation of the European Qualifications Framework Recommendation. Final report. European Union, Brussels (2013) 8. Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D. (ed.): A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman, New York (2001) 9. Allal, L., Lopez, L.M.: Formative Assessment of Learning. University of Geneva, OECD CERI, Geneva (2008)

Work-in-Progress: Multi-stage Students’ Selfcontrol Realization at Minimum Teachers’ Support Vladlen Shapo1(&)

and Valeriy Volovshchykov2

1

Naval Institute, National University “Odessa Maritime Academy”, Odessa 65029, Ukraine [email protected] 2 National Technical University “Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute”, Kharkiv 61000, Ukraine

Abstract. Last 14 months students and teachers faced a necessity to realize students’ self-control at the temporary or permanent absence of help from the teachers’ side at degradation of teaching quality from teachers’ side and decreasing of perception quality from the students’ side in online mode of studying process. Such self-control will help to student to check him/herself independently, will increase the self-evaluation and self-confidence and will improve the quality and depth of knowledge. Students of the different educational institutions study at least one high level programming language, automation of calculations in electronic spreadsheets. Also students of different technical specialties study mathematical application software. Some students also study even more specific software for industry automation development. Therefore it’s proposed to realize the following ways for students’ self-checking at different technical tasks solving.

1. 2. 3. 4.

High level programming language. Electronic spreadsheets. Mathematical application software. Application software for industrial automation systems development.

Obtained results must be compared by student and solutions must be reanalyzed independently at the results mismatch. This self-checking approach is partly realized for students of technical specialties who study academic subjects like “Information technology”, “Computer technology”, “Programming of PLCs”. Exactly the last one requires the corresponding knowledge obtained during another academic subject learning. Proposed approach allows the refreshing of earlier obtained knowledge, the obtaining of new knowledge at new application software studying, to realize self-control at performance of different technical tasks at different subfields of information technologies studying and to increase the self-evaluation and selfconfidence as a result. Keywords: Self-control
Online education
Automation systems and data transfer networks
PLC programming
Maritime branch © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 512–519, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_51

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1 Goal and Ways During last 14 months all participants of educational process (but mostly students and teachers) faced a necessity to organize and to realize students’ self-control at the temporary or permanent absence of help from the teacher’s side. Such self-control will help to student to check him/herself independently and will allow increasing of the selfevaluation and self-confidence. Studying of different aspects of information technologies allows realizing such approach very flexible. Typically all students of most of the universities, colleges, technical schools and other educational institutions study at least one high level programming language and corresponding integrated development environment (like Basic/Visual Basic, Pascal/Delphi, C/C++/C#, Java, Python, etc.), automation of calculations in electronic spreadsheets like Microsoft Excel or Libre Office Calc. Also a lot of students of different technical specialties study more specific software like MathCAD, MatLab, Mathematica, SciLab, Simulink, etc. (mathematical class of application software). Some students also study even more specific software for different branches of industry, transport, etc. Exactly industry is the linchpin of economy in any country. For example, different leading companies have created the integrated development environments (IDE) for PLCs based automation systems and data transfer networks development: PC Worx developed by Phoenix Contact company; CoDeSys developed by 3S-Smart Software Solutions company; Mitsubishi Electric – Alpha, MELSOFT Navigator, GX Works, GX Developer IDEs family; Siemens – SIMATIC STEP 7; Schneider Electric – EcoStruxure IDEs family; OMRON – CX-One Automation Software Suite; Delta Electronics – ISPSoft Programming Software; Yokogawa – Logic Designer; ABB – Automation Builder; Honeywell – ControlEdge Builder and so on. As performed analysis shows, in general all these IDEs comply with the IEC 61131-3 standard and support 5 languages for PLCs programming (LD – Ladder Diagram; FBD – Function Block Diagram; SFC – Sequential Function Chart; ST – Structured Text; IL – Instruction List). Very often the students study mentioned software in different semesters or even in different academic years. That’s why it’s very useful to refresh their knowledge and to cite very popular proverb again: – Repetition is the mother of learning. Therefore it’s proposed to realize the following ways for students’ self-checking: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Any high level programming language (user interface is absolutely arbitrary). Electronic spreadsheets (any version, any developer, any local language). Corresponding mathematical application software (if applicable). Corresponding IDE for industrial automation systems development (if applicable).

For technical specialties the algorithm of self-checking for students who studies or studied academic subject like “Information technology”, “Computer technologies”, “Programming of PLCs” is the following. Main academic subject is “Programming of PLCs”. Exactly it requires the corresponding knowledge obtained during another academic subject learning and the corresponding practical experience. Some mental and organizational aspects of self-control are described in the papers [1–3], but now it’s proposed to add technical point of view.

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2 Approach 2.1

Digital Scheme Development

In any version of electronic spreadsheets it’s necessary to create the corresponding formulas and to build the truth table. Initial mathematical expression is presented on Fig. 1. The formula must not be simplified. Some necessary aspects of working with electronic spreadsheets are described in the book [4].

Fig. 1. Initial mathematical expression for digital schemes development

The following formula (expression) must be typed in the F54 cell and then must be copied to the F55–F61 cells range. ¼ ORðANDðC28; NOTðE28ÞÞ; ANDðNOTðC28Þ; NOTðORðD28; NOTðE28ÞÞÞ; NOTðC28ÞÞ; ANDðNOTðE28Þ; D28ÞÞ

ð1Þ

Obtained truth table is presented on Fig. 2. In localized versions of electronic spreadsheets also possible the using of functions names in the corresponding languages: French, German, Polish, Turkish, etc. (special letters of different national alphabets based on Latin language), Ukrainian (Cyrillic symbols), Arabic, Indian and so on.

Fig. 2. Truth table at formula (1) application

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But sometimes the system messages “FALSE” or “TRUE” may bring some irritation and be not convenient for reading and perception. In localized versions of electronic spreadsheets also possible the displaying of other system messages instead of “FALSE” or “TRUE” in the local languages. That’s why it’s possible to change the formula (1) in the following way (formula (2)). The following formula must be typed in the F28 cell and then must be copied to the F29–F35 cells range. ¼ IFðORðANDðC28; NOTðE28ÞÞ; ANDðNOTðC28Þ; NOTðORðD28; NOTðE28ÞÞÞ; NOTðC28ÞÞ; ANDðNOTðE28Þ; D28ÞÞ ¼ TRUE; 1; 0Þ

ð2Þ

Obtained truth table is presented on Fig. 3. Instead of system messages “FALSE” or “TRUE” logical 1 and logical 0 are used.

Fig. 3. Truth table at formula (2) application.

The same initial mathematical expression (Fig. 1) must be realized in PC Worx IDE using FBD language. Created scheme is shown in working debug mode (Fig. 4). Changing X1, X2, X3 signals values, student must obtain the corresponding truth table and to compare it with the table presented on Fig. 3. If obtained results will match fully, it means that both approaches are realized correctly (but from formal point of view there is the small probability of the same error occurrence). The same initial mathematical expression (Fig. 1) must be realized in PC Worx IDE using LD language. Created scheme is shown in working debug mode (Fig. 5). X4 pseudo signal on Fig. 5 is used only for the convenience of scheme reading. Red color is automatically used for logical “1” demonstration, blue color is automatically used for logical “0” demonstration (Fig. 4, Fig. 5).

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Fig. 4. Function block diagram in PC WORX (digital scheme)

Fig. 5. Ladder block diagram in PC WORX (digital scheme)

2.2

Analogue Scheme Development

In any version of electronic spreadsheets it’s necessary to calculate the corresponding formula (Fig. 6).

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Fig. 6. Initial mathematical expression for analogue scheme development

The same initial mathematical expression (Fig. 6) must be realized in PC Worx IDE using FBD language. Created scheme is shown in working debug mode (Fig. 7). If obtained results will match fully, it means that both approaches are realized correctly (but from formal point of view there is the small probability of the same error occurrence). Also application of the MathCAD mathematical application software is possible (work in progress). Application of Visual Basic IDE is possible as well (work in progress). Both MathCAD and Visual Basic are being studied by 1st year students.

Fig. 7. Function block diagram in PC WORX (analogue scheme)

2.3

Bifurcated Computational Processes Analyzing

The task: it’s necessary to calculate x, y, f values (formulas (3), (4), (5)). Meanwhile a, b, k values must be entered randomly. kþb a  tgb pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi y ¼ a2=3 þ 4k x¼

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi y x þ ln a f ¼ 4  x þ1 y

ð3Þ ð4Þ ð5Þ

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One of the possible algorithms of the task resolving is presented on Fig. 8. It uses OR and AND keywords (functions) specifically to show to students the difference at conditions checking. If the corresponding formula contains 2 or more conditions (formulas (3) and (5) in this example), the solution must be obtained by student using three possible ways described below.

Begin

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cos b = 0 or a-tg b = 0

It's impossible to calculate х!

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х calculation

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a2/3 + 4 k < 0

It's impossible to calculate y!

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y calculation

y output

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x+y< >0 and 4-1/(x+y)< >0 and a>0 and x+ln a>=0

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f output

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Fig. 8. The algorithm scheme of the bifurcated computational process

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1. Only IF functions in electronic spreadsheets (embedded IF). 2. Combination of IF and OR functions. 3. Combination of IF and AND functions. As a result student has to obtain the same values of x, y, f variables three times. If obtained results will match, there are no mistakes in this case. For further self-checking the student may realize the same expressions in Visual Basic, using standard IF-THENELSE-END IF operator with AND/OR keywords (work in progress, the task is partly realized) and in PC WORX IDE using LE (Less or Equal), LT (Less Than), GE (Greater or Equal), GT (Greater Than), EQ (EQual), NE (Not Equal) function blocks in different combinations (work in progress, the task is partly realized). All names of the columns and numbers of the rows in electronic spreadsheets are absolutely arbitrary and depend on the willingness of the formulas developer or end user.

3 Conclusion Proposed approach allows to combine the refreshing of earlier obtained knowledge, the obtaining of new knowledge at new application software studying, to realize selfcontrol at performance of different technical tasks at different subfields of information technology studying and to increase the self-evaluation and self-confidence of the student as a result. In the examples shown above, the bundle consisting of electronic spreadsheets, PC Worx IDE, Visual Basic high level programming language and MathCAD application software is described. Certainly this bunch may be changed (other version of electronic spreadsheets, other high level programming language, mathematic application software, IDE for developing of automation system, etc.). Some its components may be either removed or added or realized step by step in the different semesters or academic years depending on the willingness of a teacher, academic programs and preference of a student.

References 1. Borrego, M., Froyd, J., Hall, S.: Diffusion of engineering education innovations: a survey of awareness and adoption rates in U.S. Engineering Departments. J. Eng. Educ. 99(3), 185–207 (2010) 2. Lord, S., Prince, M., Stefanou, C., Stolk, J., Chen, J.: The effect of different active learning environments on student outcomes related to lifelong learning. Int. J. Eng. Educ. 28(3), 606– 620 (2012) 3. Honken, N., Ralston, P., Tretter, T.: Self-control and academic performance in engineering. Am. J. Eng. Educ. 7(2), 47–57 (2016) 4. Shapo, V.: Electronic Spreadsheets Application for Automation of Calculations. ONMA, Odessa (2015)

New Learning Models and Applications

Outline of Possible Synchronous Solutions and Experiences in Order to Supply Large Groups of Students with Learning Content in Classroom and Mixed Classroom/Distance Scenarios Herwig Rehatschek(&) Executive Department for Teaching with Media, Medical University Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 2, 8036 Graz, Austria [email protected]

Abstract. Universities are regularly confronted with the challenge to increase student numbers in order e.g. to receive more base funding from the state. Depending on the actual amount of students increase, this includes normally a number of tough challenges for the university. One of the most demanding issues occurs, when the amount of students exceeds the maximum capacity of the biggest lecture room, hence making it impossible to easily give frontal lectures anymore. In this case literally two options exist: either the problem is solved organizationally or technically. In this paper, we will point out three technical solutions to solve the problem without the necessity to increase personnel costs, not having to extend existing room capacities or significantly change the curriculum planning. We will point out solutions capable of supporting classroom but also hybrid and pure distance scenarios. We will further outline the requirements on these scenarios, possible use cases, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the scenarios, and share our experiences on the planning and implementation. Keywords: Real world experiences
Lecture streaming
Hybrid teaching Asynchronous and synchronous teaching
Virtual teaching




1 Introduction Universities are regularly confronted with the challenge to increase student numbers in order e.g. to receive more base funding from the state. At our university, this happens approximately every 5 years. Depending on the actual amount of students increase, this includes normally a number of tough challenges for the university. One of the most demanding issues occurs, when the amount of students exceeds the maximum capacity of the biggest lecture room(s), hence making it impossible to easily give classroom lectures anymore. In this case literally two options exist: either the problem is solved organizationally or technically. Organizationally you can divide the students in a number of sub groups, however, this means one and the same lesson has to be given several times to each of the groups resulting in an increase of personnel costs and room © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 523–534, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_52

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resources. Good technical solutions will avoid on the one hand both problems and on the other hand still guarantee a maximum quality of service for the students. In this paper, we will point out three technical solutions to solve the above problem without the necessity to increase personnel costs, to extend existing room capacities or significantly change the curriculum planning. We will point out solutions capable of supporting classroom teaching but also hybrid and pure distance scenarios. With hybrid scenarios we mean lectures where one part of students still resides (voluntarily) in the classroom, the other part is geographically dispersed. We will further outline the requirements on these scenarios, possible use cases, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the scenarios, and share our experiences on the planning and implementation.

2 Model for Virtual Learning Scenarios Recently – especially driven by the Corona pandemic - a great number of different terms was used by the community, including virtual teaching, blended learning, distance learning, eLearning, synchronous and asynchronous teaching and hybrid teaching. In a first step we clearly classified the different scenarios and terminology used and defined a model for virtual teaching scenarios embedded in university teaching in general. The by us elaborated model is depicted in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Model for virtual teaching scenarios

Generally, we distinguish between virtual teaching, hybrid teaching and classroom teaching. Virtual teaching means teacher and students are geographically and/or in time separated. Here we further distinguish between asynchronous virtual teaching (and

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synchronous virtual teaching. Asynchronous virtual teaching means that, neither teachers nor students are at the same place nor in the same time window. Synchronous virtual teaching means that teacher and students are in the same time windows, but geographically dispersed. The asynchronous virtual teaching can be further classified by a supervised and unsupervised mode, meaning that students either study completely on their own or get active support during the study phase. With hybrid teaching we refer to a synchronous teaching mode, where part of the students are in the classroom, and another part resides at different locations. The classical classroom teaching involves all students at the same time at the same location. In this paper we concentrate on virtual synchronous and hybrid scenarios. Concretely we will investigate the following three scenarios, all suitable to support teaching with large groups and flexible to student numbers: 1. Extending local room capacity by offering bidirectional transmission between local lecture rooms (hybrid classroom scenario/synchronous) 2. Provision of lecture streaming with backchannel to the students by expanding an open source lecture recording system (virtual hybrid scenario/synchronous) 3. Bidirectional lecture streaming by integration of an existing video conferencing system into classroom teaching (virtual hybrid scenario/synchronous)

3 Virtual Synchronous and Hybrid Teaching Scenarios for Large Student Groups Each of these scenarios significantly influences teaching practices since not all students remain within one room anymore. This affects mainly but not only the questions students might have and the feedback given by the teacher. For each scenario, we will point out what especially a teacher has to consider when being forced to teach in such a scenario. In this chapter, we give an extensive overview on advantages and disadvantages for each of the scenarios listed in the previous chapter, helping decision makers and teachers at other universities to select the most appropriate implementation for their own universities. Furthermore this input will be a valuable basis in order to develop your own individual best fitting scenarios. Last but not least, we will also outline technical issues having to be considered during planning and implementing such scenarios. How to select appropriate software and what requirements shall be considered. 3.1

Extending Local Room Capacity by Offering Bidirectional Transmission Between Local Lecture Rooms

This scenario is the most obvious, though that’s why many decision takers have it first in their. However, this scenario is also the most problematic one in terms of acceptance by students and teachers and very greedy in terms of room resources needed. Also technically it puts quite high demands on the local infrastructure.

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Characteristics and Technical Implementation Issues This scenario is characterized by using two (or more) classrooms - instead of originally one - which together provide enough capacity to hold the entire large group of students. In one room the teacher resides and holds his lecture as usual. In the other room the lecture is transmitted via video and audio. Ideally the transmission is bidirectional, meaning that students in the other room also have an option to ask questions. Technically this requires at least a camera and an audio equipment (microphone, amplifier, speakers) in the classroom the teacher resides, cable transmission of video and audio to the other room(s), and ab audio backchannel from the room(s) only the students resides back to the room with the teacher. Even though audio equipment is a standard in large lecture rooms, video transmission to other rooms and audio backchannels are not. The later must be also clarified organizationally – hence it must be made clear how students in the other room(s) are expected to interact with the teacher. Shall they just shout in the micro, shall they press a button and the teacher gets a visual sign, shall the use a chat, just to point out different possibilities. In case you want to implement this scenario at your university on a bigger scale, meaning that you want to have a high flexibility in connecting different rooms very fast with video transmission and audio channel, you shall consider to install a matrix based solution as we have installed it at our campus. A matrix – as depicted in Fig. 2 – enables you to configure communication paths amongst different rooms in a very flexible way. The number of matrixes basically needed depends on the number of connections you want to have in parallel and how many rooms you want to interconnect. This solution requires a significant investment of money and needs – if you do not want to invest extra in a proper user interface - technical experts for configuring and changing the paths.

Fig. 2. Connection matrix for video and audio streams at the Medical University of Graz

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Advantages • Students do not need any technical equipment to participate • Teachers can easily handle the technics (in case a proper user interface was programmed or the configuration is already done in advance during planning) Disadvantages • Students in the room without teacher have a significant disadvantage in terms of noise level (usually the presence of the teacher regulates the noise level in the room!) and classroom “feeling” (it is much easier - for both teachers and students in the classroom to raise your hand when you have a question than using fancy technology) • Given this fact someone has to decide which students may stay with the teacher and which do have to reside in the other room? This needs extra organizational efforts. • Students are forced to come to the campus without having any benefit in comparison to a standard video conferencing tool which would allow them to be location independent • More than one room is needed for a single lecture which reduces room resources significantly • Technical equipment is very expensive in comparison to the benefits achieved. Experiences We tried to implement this scenario about 5 years ago at our University, however, it was strongly rejected by students and teachers even before we could practically start it. Main reasons were the clear disadvantage of students not residing in the same room with the teacher and the necessary organizational issue to force them, and the lacking possibility to use the black-/whiteboard. At our new campus we have implemented the matrix solution as given in Fig. 2, however, it is not used for teaching purposes but just for isolated public and internal events such as info events and conferences. We cannot recommend this scenario being implemented permanently for teaching. 3.2

Bidirectional Lecture Streaming by Integration of an Existing Video Conferencing System into Classroom Teaching

This scenario offers a solid hybrid solution in terms of a good student experience and – depending on which video conferencing solution is taken - low investment costs on local infrastructure. Depending on the software chosen it may involve considerable licensing costs. But the solution is much more scalable in terms of remote student numbers then the two classroom scenario. Characteristics and Technical Implementation Issues The bidirectional lecture streaming format is characterized by the usage of a standard video conferencing solution using the presenter PC in the classroom and integration into the existing lecture room audio equipment. Speaking in technical terms a standard

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USB camera on the control monitor of the classroom PC and the possibility to use the classroom micro also on the classroom PC is sufficient. Alternatively, in case there is no classroom PC, a laptop can be connected in combination with a headset. However, this requires usually two microphones, one for the room and one for the video conferencing software, which might be tedious for the teacher. The first step is to select an appropriate video conferencing tool. In our case the best solution was to license the commercial software WebEx [5] from Cisco because this software was already used by many teachers who also work at the university hospital, which is driven by the federal State of Styria, hence they were already familiar with the system. Additionally, we could negotiate a good price. So we licensed this software for all affiliates and students of the University. Other reliable commercial video conferencing software includes Zoom [6], Microsoft Teams [7], Google Workspace [8], GoToMeeting [9], Ring Central Video [10], and U Meeting [11]. Commercial solutions have the clear advantage not having to care about the software maintenance and the streaming and storage infrastructure but involves license costs. In case you want to go for an open source solutions (for example because of data protection issues), the software we know best and is currently used by many universities in Austria is Big Blue Button [12]. There are also other open source solutions such as Jitsi Meet [13], Jami [14], NextCloud Talk [15] and Element [16]. Since Big Blue Button is used by two universities we closely cooperate we know, that you have to invest a significant amount of money in streaming server and storage infrastructure in order to set up a proper environment for these tools. Parameters such as number of parallel users and minimal transmission quality are key parameters for taking a decision. Furthermore you have to consider personnel resources for software maintenance and support. Taking all this into consideration we came to the conclusion, that a commercial product is the cheaper solution. Advantages • Students have the clear advantage of being location independent – they just need an Internet connection. • No expensive local streaming and storage infrastructure nor software maintenance needed (in case you select a commercial solution) • Access for students with acceptable technical equipment possible (smart phone, tablet, laptop) • No expensive local matrix/cable infrastructure needed for interconnection of rooms • Back channel for students is automatically available and integrated (audio, video and chat) • Seamless integration into existing technical classroom audio equipment possible (avoiding e.g. two micros for video conference tool and classroom) Disadvantages • Additional set up expenditures for teachers getting the video conference started and the presentation shared in comparison to a normal classroom lecture

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• Additional organizational expenditures in terms of defining meetings in the video conferencing tool and enrolling students (sending out invitations) • Licensing costs (when a commercial solution is chosen) or local infrastructure and maintenance costs (when an open source solution is chosen to be driven locally) • Only learning content presented by the PC running the video conferencing tool may be shared to the remote students (when teacher writes e.g. on a black board or white board, remote students won’t see it) • Teacher has to be trained on the video conferencing tools and must elaborate emoderation skills such as watching the chat for questions from the remote students (depending on the rules he has defined at the beginning) 3.3

Provision of Lecture Streaming with Backchannel to the Students by Expanding an Open Source Lecture Recording System

This scenario is the most promising in terms of student acceptance (quality of streamed content, ease of use) and flexibility (in terms of location and student numbers). It requires either an already existing lecture recording system or the set up of such a system. A lecture recording system is nowadays anyway standard at many universities, in case at your university such a system is not existing so far – this scenario would be another good reason to install one. If you decide to implement a lecture recording system from the scratch, we strongly recommend that you already include also the streaming feature, since in the meantime it became a standard on many universities and gives you a lot of flexibility for teachers and teaching formats. Characteristics and Technical Implementation Issues Our existing lecture recording system [1], is based on the open source software OpenCast [4] and Epiphan Pearl I recording hardware [17]. It is a highly customized system with a, for our university individually tailored technical workflow [2, 3]. Our lecture recording system is capable of recording two synchronized Full HD streams, the teacher video (including blackboard if required) and the PC output. It features a capture management interface programmed by ourselves utilizing the Epiphan application programming interfaces, a quality assurance oriented manual editing of recordings and the publishing on a video portal and within our learning management system Moodle using the by IMS standardized LTI [18] interface. The system is fixed installed in 5 huge lecture rooms and includes a fixed installed camera filming the presenter and the blackboard/whiteboard and an integration into our touch screen based audio visual control interfaces in the lecture rooms. Teachers can easily start/stop the recording by pressing a view keys on a touch screen. So far our lecture recording system was only able to record lessons, not to stream them in a live setting. Since both, the already existing Epiphan recording hardware and the OpenCast Software also support live streaming, we decided to extend our system by this feature. Hence offering now recording and live stream in parallel, or in case the teacher only wants to use one feature, also only recording or only streaming. This scenario serves perfectly for hybrid settings, where a part of the students remains in the lecture room, the other part will follow the lecture remotely with their digital devices location independently.

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Technically the upgrade from a recording system to a recording and streaming system is quite challenging. We started with this project in March 2021 and are currently in the implementation phase. But we can give you already a good impression how the technical workflow will look like, and which important decisions have to be taken. Based on our experiences from the past with lecture recording and from many talks and experience exchanges with two local universities having already set up lecture streaming we designed a technical workflow indicating the main necessary elements, the data flow and the requirements. This technical workflow is depicted in Fig. 3. The main components for the streaming workflow are the transcoding server, the data delivery server and the video portal. In the diagram you can further find the recording hardware delivering the streams directly from the lecture room and the control interface in the lecture room, which is used by the teachers to activate the recording, the streaming or both. Additionally they will be able to choose whether their live stream is public available or can be only viewed by students and affiliates of our university. The first important component in connection with streaming is the transcoding server. This server is responsible to produce different resolutions in different bitrates (a higher resolution/bitrate refers to a better video quality). The first important requirements and decisions which has to be taken in this connection: in which resolutions and quality do you plan to deliver to the students and from how many rooms in parallel? Different resolutions and qualities are necessary in order to provide students with for their devices optimally fitting quality and bandwidth. The latter is in most cases also a matter of money, since many students have not a flat rate for data but pay on the actually consumed amount. The number of parallel rooms goes hand in hand with the transcoding capabilities of your transcoding server, hence GPU cards can only handle a certain number of streams in parallel.

Fig. 3. Technical workflow and requirements for lecture streaming

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Our decision is to go for 1080p (1920  1080) 3 Mbit/s und 3.5 Mbit/s and 720p (1280  720) 1.8 Mib/s und 2.5 Mib/s, which seems to be future proof and state of the art. It also guarantees that even small text or images such a radiologic or anatomic images can be viewed in a reasonable quality. For the transcoding server it is further very important that all transcoding can be done in real time, otherwise the delay between streaming and live event would become bigger and bigger which is not acceptable. Furthermore it must be decided whether you implement and host the transcoding server on your own or use an existing cloud service. In case you host it on your own you must invest in transcoding hardware, graphic cards respectively, capable of transcoding all the necessary streams in real time. In connection with transcoding also the maximum delay between the live event and the streaming is a key parameter, especially when you offer a back channel e.g. via chat. This is obvious, because in case you have a high delay (let’s say minutes or more) students will ask questions to content which was presented a long time before and maybe confuse the teacher. We defined here a maximum delay of 10 s, which still is acceptable. With our configuration we expect to achieve 2–3 s. As mentioned above, it is also important, that you must define how many rooms you want to serve in parallel, since this directly affects the transcoding hardware. In our case we want to serve 7 rooms. For our specific case we will need for each room 8 streams (2 resolutions * 2 qualities * 2 streams). A reasonable priced graphics card (such as nvidia tesla T4 – approx. 2.500 €) can transcode up to 8 streams in the resolutions and qualities given above. Hence we will need 7 graphic cards to serve 7 rooms in parallel. When you consider a cloud service, we can recommend Amazon AWS media [20], which offers transcoding for reasonable prices. The resolutions cannot be decided in an isolated way, but are strongly interconnected to the second important unit in the technical workflow, the data delivery server. This server is responsible to deliver the streams to all connected users in their required resolution and quality. The key parameter here is available bandwidth, and this goes hand in hand with the offered resolution and quality and the number of parallel users. Hence here you must define on the maximum number of parallel users being capable accessing your streams. Based on this number you can calculate the maximum bandwidth being used. And this can be the basis for your decision whether you have to rent external servers/bandwidth or you can still use the usually cheaper university network infrastructure and bandwidth. In case you have to outsource the data delivery, again Amazon offers a quite reasonable service with its CloudFront [20] service. In case you want to rent a server within Europe, we can recommend Hetzner [21], which offers servers with 10 Gib/s bandwidth for prices as low as approx. 700 €/month. This was also our choice. In our case we calculate for a first phase with maximum 1400 user in parallel, in three years with 2400. For 1400 user in parallel you will need a maximum bandwidth of 9.8 Gbit/s, assuming that all students access with the highest resolution and the highest available bitrate. Speaking of data volume that would be 3.5 Mbit/s max. bitrate, 2 Streams ! 7 Mib/s max. bitrate. With 1400 user: 9.8 Gib/s = 1.2 GiB/s ! 4.3 TiB/h. The third important part in the workflow is the video portal where students can finally access the streaming content. Here we plan to extend our already existing open

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source video portal VITAL [19] by a new tab where you get a list of all rooms presented which are capable of streaming. Furthermore it will be indicated, in which rooms there is currently a live event transmitted and the name of the lecture. Students know from their curriculum in which room their current lessons take place and can start the appropriate stream by selecting the room in the video portal. Advantages • Students have the maximum available video quality and are completely location independent • Can be easily operated by teachers (integrated in audio visual control interface of lecture room) • No additional administration efforts in terms of invitation of students to video conferences or reserving additional rooms • Since only open source software is used no license costs have to be paid • Infrastructure failures can be handled internally (if locally implemented) • This solution can also be used to stream in rooms of the university without having an expensive matrix based solution installed Disadvantages • Back channel has to be implemented separately (The OpenCast server/paella player does not offer back channels) – but this can be compensated by installing a chat service • Continuous costs for transcoding and/or data delivery (when components of the workflow have to be outsourced) Experiences In March 2021 we performed a study of possible solutions and finally the University decided to go for the extension of the existing lecture recording system by a streaming service. What we can already say is, that the key parameters for seizing and designing the main components of the workflow (transcoding and data delivery server) are: maximum parallel users, maximum parallel rooms which stream and the offered resolutions and qualities. This has to be defined first, before you take any technical planning step. The data delivery server is critical in terms of used bandwidth. It is easy to calculate the maximum bandwidth, however, it is nearly impossible to estimate the realistically used bandwidth. From our partner universities we know, that the maximum bandwidth was by far never reached. On the other hand, when you use a cloud service, this becomes expensive as well. First calculations using Amazon CloudFront results in about 150 $/h, on the assumption the maximum number of users access (1400) and all with the highest available quality. We have finally decided to go for an external server provider – Hetzner [21] – which offers us a server (EPYC™ 7502P 32-Core CPU, 128 GB DDR4 ECC RAM, 2 960 GB NVMe SSD) with 10 GiB/s dedicated bandwidth and 20 TB data volume/month for 2.200 €/year. Each TB more is 1 €. This

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will be evaluated in terms of bandwidth and data volume used for one year and then we will decide, whether we will continue to rent the external server or if the local infrastructure of the university is sufficient.

4 Conclusions/Recommendations/Summary All of the described solutions are highly customized and therefore no out-of-the-box installations where you simply can buy an existing product and install it. They all require on the one hand special teacher skills and on the other hand on site technical personnel to plan and implement it. Within the paper we give our experiences in order to make this process as simple as possible and in order to avoid potential mistakes. Hybrid scenarios are the most complicated scenarios in terms of technical set-up and requirements on teaching skills. Even though the students not residing in the local classroom will always have a disadvantage, the goal of the outpointed scenarios was to make their learning experience as good as it would have been when being present in the classroom. None of the three scenarios is simply perfect for all purposes. Based on the requirements we gave teachers and engineers of other universities the chance, to select easily the scenarios being most appropriate for them. The scenario extending local room capacity by offering bidirectional transmission between local lecture rooms suffers from our experience heavily from teacher and student acceptance. We know this from a former project where we encountered heavy resistance from the university teachers. Furthermore, it clearly discriminates the students who have to sit in the room without the teacher and at the university. In case a university wants to introduce this scenario in teaching, we highly recommend to perform a survey amongst the stake holders (teachers and students) before hand. The for us most appropriate scenario is the extension of our already existing open source lecture recording system by means of a streaming feature including a text based backchannel. This is because it does not require quite expensive local cable and matrix infrastructure, it is scalable by means of number of remotely participating students, can be easily streamed to each room of the university if really needed, the software is open source and hence no license fees have to be paid, and it seamlessly integrates with our existing platform. Key parameters for setting up such a streaming scenario are: number of resolutions and bandwidth qualities to be offered for students, the number or parallel rooms to be served, the maximum of parallel students watching the streaming and the maximum delay you will accept between the stream and the live lecture. Important decisions to be taken include whether you set up transcoding and data delivery locally or you will use cloud services or hosting providers.

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References 1. Rehatschek, H.: Experiences from the introduction of an automated lecture recording system. In: Auer, M.E., Tsiatsos, T. (eds.) ICL 2018. AISC, vol. 917, pp. 151–162. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11935-5_15 2. Rehatschek, H.: Design and set-up of an automated lecture recording system in medical education. In: Auer, M.E., Guralnick, D., Simonics, I. (eds.) Teaching and Learning in a Digital World, pp. 15–20. Springer, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-732107_2 3. Smolle, J., Rössler, A., Rehatschek, H., Hye, F., Vogl, S.: Lecture recording, microlearning, video conferences and LT-platform – medical education during COVID-19 crisis at the Medical University of Graz. Open Access Article (CC 4.0 Attribution) within GMS Journal for Medical Education, vol. 38, no. 1 (2021). ISSN 2366-5017. https://www.egms.de/en/ journals/zma/2021-38/zma001407.shtml. Accessed 28 Jan 2021 4. Opencast Matterhorn. Open Source Solution for Automated Video Capture and Distribution at Scale, January 2021. http://www.opencast.org/matterhorn 5. Cisco WebEx. A Comprehensive Cloud Based Video Conferencing Solution, January 2021. https://www.webex.com/ 6. Zoom. Video Webinars, April 2021. https://zoom.us/ 7. Microsoft Teams. Chat Meet and Collaborate at One Place, April 2021. https://www. microsoft.com/de-at/microsoft-teams/group-chat-software 8. Google Workspace. A Comprehensive Collection of Business Tools Including Video Conferencing, April 2021. https://workspace.google.com 9. GoToMeeting. Work from Anywhere, April 2021. https://www.gotomeeting.com 10. Ring Central Video. Connect Meet and Collaborate, April 2021. https://www.ringcentral. com/office/features/video-conference/overview.html 11. U Meeting. Video Conference Tool for Business Communication and Distance Learning, April 2021. https://u.cyberlink.com/products/umeeting 12. Big Blue Button. Open Source Video Conferencing Tool, April 2021. https://bigbluebutton. org 13. Jitsi. Collection of Free IP Call, Video Conferencing and Instant Messaging Tools, April 2021. https://jitsi.org/jitsi-meet/ 14. Jami. A SIP-Compatible Distributed Peer-to-Peer Softphone and SIP-Based Instant Messenger for Linux, Microsoft Windows, OS X, iOS, and Android, April 2021. https:// jami.net/ 15. Nextcloud Talk. Screen Sharing Online Meetings and Web Conferences, April 2021. https:// nextcloud.com/de/talk/ 16. Element. Messenger Service with Video Conferencing, April 2021. https://element.io/ 17. Epiphan. Video Recording Hardware, April 2021. https://www.epiphan.com/ 18. LTI. Learning Tools Interoperability, IMS Standard, April 2021. https://www.imsglobal.org/ activity/learning-tools-interoperability 19. VITAL. VIdeo porTAL of the Medical University of Graz, April 2021. https://vital. medunigraz.at 20. AWS. Elemental Media Life, Broadcast-Grade Live Video Processing Service, April 2021. https://aws.amazon.com/de/medialive/ 21. Hetzner. Professional Web Hosting Provider and Experienced Data Center Operator, April 2021. https://www.hetzner.com/

Augmented Reality in Engineering Education in Austrian Higher Vocational Education from the Students’ Perspective Reinhard Bernsteiner1,4(&), Andreas Probst2, Wolfgang Pachatz3, Christian Ploder4, and Thomas Dilger4 1

3

HTL Jenbach, Schalsertrasse 43, 6200 Jenbach, Austria 2 HTL Wels, Fischergasse 30, 4600 Wels, Austria Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research, 1010 Vienna, Austria 4 Management Center Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria [email protected]

Abstract. Due to rapid changes in industrial production, more and more companies introduce elements of Industry 4.0. Augmented Reality (AR) as an emerging technology is a crucial component in this field. AR can be applied in different areas of the product life cycle and manufacturing processes alike. Consequently, AR-technologies and their industrial application have to be integrated into the curriculum of Higher Vocational Education because graduates are the workforce of tomorrow. In the meantime, AR-technologies have been rolled out in selected departments of Higher Vocational Colleges in Austria. Prior to this rollout, a seminar series for teachers was developed to provide in-depth knowledge and training materials. The central aim of this study is to explore the perception of the students regarding AR-education. Based on hypotheses, a questionnaire was developed to collect empirical data analyzed with statistical methods. Overall, 172 students took part in this survey. The results show that students generally like AR as part of their vocational education. In some aspects, the analysis revealed differences between students from different departments. Students are also interested in writing their diploma thesis in this field. Based on the results, a further investigation of the differences between departments is required. The insights can further be used to adapt and optimize the contents and teaching material for teachers. Keywords: Higher Vocational Education
Augmented Reality
Digital transformation
Engineering education
Digital skills
Empirical survey

1 Introduction Industrial production has been facing significant changes for many years. Several global trends, such as globalization, urbanization, shortening product life cycles, and demographic change, cause these changes [1, 2].

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 535–545, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_53

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The ongoing integration of the global economy is increasing the complexity of value networks, which is further intensified by the required individualization of products and services. Furthermore, current global trends lead to an increase in the number of product variants caused by the demand for personalization. This, in turn, reduces the production volume per variant. Consequently, the development of new approaches in production, both from an organizational and a technical perspective, is required [3, 4]. Augmented Reality (AR) is one of the supporting technologies in the field of Industry 4.0. AR can assist people can be applied in various tasks. Examples are guiding employees to pick parts in a warehouse or support workers in the field with remote experts [5, 6]. A comprehensive review of AR in manufacturing can, for example be found in [7–9]. A well-trained workforce is required to cope with these trends, because “changes in products, services, and business processes to digitally transform an organization (…) will likely require new skills” [10]. This statement is supported by [11], who states that “… successful new business models will only emerge where complex smart products and smart services are combined and orchestrated by well-trained employees, or smart talents.” Against this background, educational institutions on all levels have to update their curricula accordingly. Among other technologies related to Industry 4.0, AR has been introduced in Higher Vocational colleges (HVCs) across Austria on a broad basis. HVCs are organized in departments based on their vocational core topics. In the meantime, AR has been rolled out in some departments. This paper presents the first empirical results of the perception of AR-education. The paper is structured as follows: The related literature is presented in Sect. 2 of this paper, which lays the foundation for the empirical part. This chapter further gives an overview of the related work of this research. Based on this, the problem statement along with the research questions are presented in Sect. 3. Section 4 explains the methodology used and the design of the empirical survey. The results are depicted in Sect. 5. This paper ends with a conclusion, its limitations, and an outlook for further research in Sect. 6.

2 Augmented Reality Within this research, we apply the definition of AR as “a set of human-computer interaction techniques that enriches user’s real-world experience by embedding contextualized information into user’s space in coexistence with real-world objects” [12]. This is how AR allows seeing a natural environment through technology while adding virtual information to it [13]. The Reality-Virtuality (RV) continuum allows to situate AR in a broader context and explain AR and VR differences[14] (Fig. 1). The real world, only consisting of a real object, lies on the left side of the continuum. Juxtaposed to that is the virtual environment, comprising only virtual and simulated objects. The mixed reality (MR) is represented in the middle. AR as part of

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Fig. 1. Reality-virtuality continuum [15]

MR can be found more towards the left side of the continuum. This shows that AR is based on the actual environment but encounters virtual objects or data. Thereby, AR differs from the similarly known term of “Virtual Reality” (VR), which is also referred to as Augmented Virtuality (AV) [15]. VR describes an environment in which the observers involved are fully immersed in a synthetic world. This can mimic an actual or fictitious environment, but it can also exceed the limits of physical reality by ignoring the physical laws of gravity, time, and material properties. On the other hand, a natural environment must clearly be subject to the laws of physics [15]. [16] applied AR for engineering education in order to lift students’ motivation. They point out that learning-by-doing is a vital concept to maximize learning outcomes. For all theoretical courses that do not allow to support learnings physically, VR proves beneficial to students learning experience. To that extend, [17] showed that motivation is improved and students’ performance. This is also underlined by the findings that students’ participation and interaction improve [18]. Additionally, it was shown that these findings are equally valid for graduate and undergraduate students [19]. Despite all reported advantages, [20] find that not being familiar with new teaching methods leads to a lack of interest to explore their application. This is why frameworks on how to apply AR in engineering education are of particular importance. To that extend, [21] established context-aware AR visualizations in engineering education frameworks. Within a different experiment by [21], students are able to see a construction site projected to a wall. While using AR-Books they are able to retrieve further information of desired parts of this construction site. Books with AR-related topics are also valuable in explaining backgrounds for mathematical education as it is required for engineering programs [22]. Thereby, for instance, students can inform themselves on the distinct application possibilities of several equations. [18] reviewed literature from 1997 and 2017. They found that VR applications in engineering education evolved over time from desktop-based VR, immersive VR, 3Dgame-based VR, and Building Information Modelling (BIM)-enabled VR to AR. Future research is suggested to explore the “integration of VR with emerging education paradigms and visualization technologies” [18].

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3 Problem Statement and Research Overview Teaching and learning AR-related topics in Higher Vocational Eduction is relatively new. A seminar series has been created to train teachers to foster their knowledge in AR and provide training materials for their courses. AR-topics are taught in different departments and usually start in the third year. Consequently, it is essential to identify what year suits best for AR-education. Students from different departments might perceive AR-education differently. If this is the case, the contents must be adopted, and the seminar series must be adjusted accordingly. Results should allow drawing conclusions to design and improve the educational setting for students and the seminar series for teachers. The following research question can be derived: What is the perception of AReducation Higher Vocational Colleges from the students’ perspective? To get more detailed insights, differences between students from different a) years and b) departments are further analyzed.

4 Methodology and Design of the Empirical Survey This section describes the methodological approach to collect empirical data, which can be used to answer the research questions. The first part describes the design of the questionnaires for students. Next, the hypotheses to identify potential differences between the perception are formulated. 4.1

Design of the Questionnaire

The central aim of this survey is to identify the perception of AR-education in Higher Vocational Colleges from the students’ point of view. All items had to be rated on a Likert scale from 1 (“I totally agree”) to 5 (“I totally disagree”). Finally, all collected data were analyzed with the statistical software platform SPSS. Table 1 presents questions for students: Table 1. Questions for students Variable Department Year AR_Thesis AR_enjoy AR_interesting AR_important AR_understanding AR_attractive

Question I attend the following department I currently attend the following year I can imagine writing my diploma thesis in the field of AR I enjoy learning AR I am personally interested in AR I think AR will be important in the future I think AR helps understand technical concepts I think AR makes technical education more attractive

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Hypotheses

The following hypotheses are used to answer the second research question, which deals with the perception of AR in different years and departments from a student’s perspective: H1: Students from different years equally enjoy AR H2: Students from different years equally enjoy AR H3: Students from different years equally think AR will be important in the future H4: Students from different years equally think AR helps understand technical topics H5: Students from different years equally think AR makes technical education more attractive H6: Students from different departments equally enjoy AR H7: Students from different departments equally enjoy AR H8: Students from different departments equally think AR will be important in the future H9: Students from different departments equally think AR helps understand technical topics H10: Students from different departments equally think AR makes technical education more attractive 4.3

Selection of the Participants

The target group of the research are students who participated in AR-classes. Thus a systematic sampling approach was used to collect data from the field. Links to the questionnaire was sent out to the teachers attending the seminar series. They were asked to forward the respective questionnaire to their students.

5 Results This section presents the results of the empirical survey. First, a description of the participants is given, followed by the presentation of the insights from this first explorative study from both perspectives. Furthermore, the results from the validation of the hypotheses as a basis to answer the research question are depicted. 5.1

Reliability of the Questionnaire

Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated to assess the internal consistency of the variables of the questionnaire as presented in Table 2. Table 2. Cronbach’s Alpha – questionnaire Cronbach’s Alpha N of items ,889 5

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The results for students with Cronbach’s alpha of ,889 show a satisfying internal consistency. 5.2

Description of the Participants

As already mentioned above, Higher Technical Vocational Colleges take five years, the students’ ages range between 15 and 19 years. The education in the field of AR usually takes place in the last two years. The first steps are made in the third year as well. All in all, 172 students from different departments filled out the questionnaire. The detailed distribution can be found in Table 3. Table 3. Number of students – department by year Year in Higher Total Vocational College 3 4 5 Department Industrial Engineering 3 21 13 37 Informatics 7 0 0 7 Mechanical Engineering 0 58 70 128 Total 10 79 83 172

A vast majority of students come from the department Mechanical Engineering. Two reasons are responsible for this distribution can be indicated. First, Mechanical Engineering has most students in Austria’s Higher Vocational Education, and second, the seminar series started with teachers from this area. 5.3

Results

Table 4 shows the results of the perception of AR-education across years and departments.

Table 4. Means across department and year

AR_enjoy AR_interesting AR_important AR_understanding AR_attractive

Department Industrial Engineering Mean 1.54 1.81 1.59 1.86 1.65

Informatics Mean 1.86 2.29 1.86 1.86 1.57

Mechanical Engineering Mean 2.04 2.33 1.95 2.06 2.09

Year 3

4

5

Mean 1.80 2.10 1.60 1.70 1.60

Mean 1.87 2.12 1.86 2.05 1.96

Mean 1.99 2.33 1.90 2.00 2.04

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It can be said that all means are above 2.5 (1 equals “I totally agree”, 5 equals “I totally disagree”), which generally can be indicates a positive attitude towards AR. To answer part one of the second research question (differences between students across years) the hypotheses H1 to H5 have to be validated. First, the distribution of the data has to be examined to use the correct statistical analysis method. A Shapiro-Wilk test revealed that all items are not normally distributed (p < 0.05). Consequently, a non-parametric test has to be used [25]. Then, based on the given data, a KruskalWallis test has to be applied. Table 5. Kruskal-Wallis Test with grouping variable Year KruskalWallis H df Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. Point Probability

AR_enjoy AR_interesting AR_important AR_understanding AR_attractive ,845 2,273 1,579 ,864 2,193 2 ,656 ,658 ,000

2 ,321 ,326 ,000

2 ,454 ,459 ,000

2 ,649 ,654 ,000

2 ,334 ,340 ,000

As shown in Table 5, there are no significant differences (significance level 0.05) across the different years of the students. It can be said that there is not a year in the educational career which is best for AR-education. Next, the hypotheses H6 to H12 have to be validated to answer part two of research question two (differences between students across departments). Based on the data, a Kruskal-Walis test has to be applied again. The results are presented in Table 6. Table 6. Kruskal-Wallis Test with grouping variable Department KruskalWallis H df Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. Point Probability

AR_enjoy AR_interesting AR_important AR_understanding AR_attractive 7,094 6,344 2,786 ,385 4,995 2 ,029 ,026 ,000

2 ,042 ,041 ,000

2 ,248 ,249 ,000

2 ,825 ,825 ,000

2 ,082 ,079 ,000

The results reveil significant differences for the variables AR_enjoy AR_interesting. A further analysis is required to identify the relevant departments. A pairwise comparison of both variables across departments has to be applied.

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Sample 1–Sample 2

Test statistics −11,205

Std. error 19,094

Std. test statistics −,587

Sig

Adj. Sig.a 1,000

Industrial Engineering ,557 Informatics Insutrial Engineering Mechanical −22,836 8,654 −2,639 ,008 ,025 Engineering Informatics-Mechanical −11,632 17,985 −,647 ,518 1,000 Engineering Each row tests the null hypothesis that the Sample 1 and Sample 2 distributions are the same. Asymptotic significances (2-sided tests) are displayed. The significance level is ,05. a Significance values have been adjusted by the Bonferroni correction for multiple tests.

This analysis (Table 7) reveals a significant difference (0.025 with a significance level of 0.05) for the variable AR_enjoy between the department Industrial Engineering (mean 1.54) and Mechanical Engineering (mean 2.04). Thus, students from the department Industrial Engineering like AR-education more than students from Mechanical Engineering. The same analysis has to be conducted for the variable AR_interesting. Table 8. Pairwise comparisons of AR_interesting across department Sample 1–Sample 2

Test statistics −21,743

Std. error 19,405

Std. test statistics −1,120

Sig

Adj. Sig.a ,788

Industrial Engineering ,263 Informatics Insutrial Engineering Mechanical −22,057 8,803 −2,506 ,012 ,037 Engineering Informatics-Mechanical −,313 18,282 −,017 ,986 1,000 Engineering Each row tests the null hypothesis that the Sample 1 and Sample 2 distributions are the same. Asymptotic significances (2-sided tests) are displayed. The significance level is ,05. a Significance values have been adjusted by the Bonferroni correction for multiple tests.

Again, the analysis (Table 8) shows a significant difference (0.037 with a significance level of 0.05) for the variable AR_interesting between the department Industrial Engineering (mean 1.81) and Mechanical Engineering (mean 2.33). One aspect if students like AR can be if they are interested in writing their diploma thesis in that field. This question is not relevant for students in their final year because they have already done their thesis. 89 students from the third and fourth year of their career took part in the survey (Table 9).

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Table 9. Results of the question “I can imagine writing my diploma thesis in the field of AR” Yes No Maybe Total

Frequency Percent 40 44,9 21 23,6 28 31,5 89 100,0

The results clearly show that 44.9% have the intention, and another 31.5% are thinking about writing their thesis in the field of AR. Only a minority of 23.6% want to go for a different topic. 5.4

Answer to the Research Question

The following research question is the basis for this empirical research: “What is the perception of AR-education Higher Vocational Colleges from the students’ perspective? To get more detailed insights, differences between students from different a) years and b) departments are further analyzed. The results clearly show that students perceive AR as part of their curriculum very positive. This can be derived from the means and standard deviations (see Table of the relevant variables. Furthermore, no statistically significant differences of these variables across years and departments have been detected. It can be concluded that students from all investigated departments and years of their career in HVCs perceive AReducation equally.

6 Conclusions, Limitations, and Recommendations Based on the results, it can be concluded that AR-education arouses the interest of students in this emerging technology. Since AR is an essential element in Industry 4.0 this may help to attract attention and curiosity to this field. Moreover, students receive a profound knowledge, enabling them to start their professional careers quickly and efficiently once they graduate. These efforts contribute to overcoming the lack of a skilled workforce in the near future, which is documented by numerous scientific and practical publications. The chosen quantitative approach was suitable to answer the research question of this survey. Limitations to this research must be taken into consideration when applying its results. First, 172 participants took part in this survey from three departments. Higher Vocational Colleges in Austria offer a wide variety of vocational directions. The distribution of students regarding the department and year of education is rather unbalanced. The results of this study go in line with related scientific literature. Several publications report that AR-education has the potential to improve students’ motivation and curiosity.

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To overcome the limitations, further research is needed. More empirical data have to be collected and analyzed with students from more departments available in Higher Vocational Colleges to get more detailed insights. Taking a closer look at the design of the AR-education in different years of the education might reveal further insights. A year-specific design of the AR-education can be beneficial to improve its effectiveness. A further research stream is to ask teachers about their impressions and perceptions. Teachers are in the classroom every day, and they know how AR-education has to be provided to the students. Based on this, the design of the seminar series has to be adapted accordingly. As already mentioned, AR is one central component of Industry 4.0. In addition, the Internet of Things (IoT), which is closely related to AR, is another building block of Industry 4.0. This combination and integration have the potential to prepare students more broadly for their future careers.

References 1. Obermaier, R. (ed.): Industrie 4.0 als Unternehmerische Gestaltungsaufgabe. Springer, Wiesbaden (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-08165-2 2. Masood, T., Egger, J.: Adopting augmented reality in the age of industrial digitalisation. Comput. Ind. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compind.2019.07.002 3. Büchi, G., Cugno, M., Castagnoli, R.: Smart factory performance and Industry 4.0. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 150, 119790 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119790 4. Osterrieder, P., Budde, L., Friedli, T.: The smart factory as a key construct of industry 4.0: a systematic literature review. Int. J. Product. Econ. 221, 107476 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.ijpe.2019.08.011 5. Agati, S.S., Bauer, R.D., Da Hounsell, M.S., Paterno, A.S.: Augmented reality for manual assembly in Industry 4.0: gathering guidelines. In: 2020 22nd Symposium on Virtual and Augmented Reality (SVR), Porto de Galinhas, Brazil, 07 November 2020 to 10 November 2020, pp. 179–188. IEEE (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/SVR51698.2020.00039 6. Damiani, L., Demartini, M., Guizzi, G., Revetria, R., Tonelli, F.: Augmented and virtual reality applications in industrial systems: a qualitative review towards the industry 4.0 era. IFAC-PapersOnLine 51(11), 624–630 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2018.08.388 7. Egger, J., Masood, T.: Augmented reality in support of intelligent manufacturing – a systematic literature review. Comput. Ind. Eng. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2019. 106195 8. de Pace, F., Manuri, F., Sanna, A., Fornaro, C.: A systematic review of augmented reality interfaces for collaborative industrial robots. Comput. Ind. Eng. (2020). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.cie.2020.106806 9. Rejeb, A., Keogh, J.G., Wamba, S.F., Treiblmaier, H.: The potentials of augmented reality in supply chain management: a state-of-the-art review. Manag. Rev. Quart. 71(4), 819–856 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-020-00201-w 10. Hess, T., Matt, C., Benlian, A., Wiesböck, F.: Options for Formulating a Digital Transformation Strategy (2016) 11. Kagermann, H., et al.: Smart Service Welt: Recommendations for the Strategic Initiative Web-based Services for Businesses. Final Report (2015). https://www.eitdigital.eu/ fileadmin/files/2015/publications/acatech_report_SmartServiceWelt2015_full_en.pdf

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12. Del Fernández Amo, I., Erkoyuncu, J.A., Roy, R., Palmarini, R., Onoufriou, D.: A systematic review of augmented reality content-related techniques for knowledge transfer in maintenance applications. Comput. Ind. 103, 47–71 (2018) 13. Martin-Gutierrez, J.: Editorial: learning strategies in engineering education using virtual and augmented reality technologies. Eurasia J. Math. Sci. T. 13(2), 13058223 (2017) 14. Milgram, P., Takemura, H., Utsumi, A., Kishino, F.: Augmented reality: a class of displays on the reality-virtuality continuum. In: Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering (1994). https://doi.org/10.1117/12.197321 15. Porter, M.E., Heppelmann, J.E.: Why every organization needs an augmented reality strategy. 2017, 00178012 (2017) 16. Kaur, D.P., Mantri, A., Horan, B.: Enhancing student motivation with use of augmented reality for interactive learning in engineering education. Procedia Comput. Sci. 172, 881– 885 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2020.05.127 17. Martín-Gutiérrez, J., Contero, M.: Improving academic performance and motivation in engineering education with augmented reality. In: Stephanidis, C. (ed.) HCI 2011. CCIS, vol. 174, pp. 509–513. Springer, Heidelberg (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-64222095-1_102 18. Wang, P., Peng, W., Wang, J., Chi, H.-L., Wang, X.: A critical review of the use of virtual reality in construction engineering education and training. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health 15(6), 1204 (2018) 19. Sahin, C., et al.: Wireless communications engineering education via augmented reality. In: Proceedings - Frontiers in Education Conference, FIE (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/FIE. 2016.7757366 20. Molina-Carmona, R., Pertegal-Felices, M.L., Jimeno-Morenilla, A., Mora-Mora, H.: Assessing the impact of virtual reality on engineering students’ spatial ability. In: Visvizi, A., Lytras, M.D., Daniela, L. (eds.) The Future of Innovation and Technology in Education. Policies and Practices for Teaching and Learning Excellence. Emerald Studies in Higher Education, Innovation and Technology Series, pp. 171–185. Emerald Publishing Limited, Bingley (2018) 21. Behzadan, A.H., Kamat, V.R.: A framework for utilizing context-aware augmented reality visualization in engineering education. In: International Conference on Construction Application of Virtual Reality (2012) 22. Arulanand, N., Babu, A.R., Rajesh, P.K.: Enriched learning experience using augmented reality framework in engineering education. Procedia Comput. Sci. (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.procs.2020.05.135

Human Factors in Human-Centred Systems On the Influence of Language on the Usability of a Cognitive Aid in Rescue Services Marcel Köhler(&) Faculty of Applied Social Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Dresden (FHD), Dresden, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. In professional fields of work like aviation, chemical industry and nuclear energy as well as in emergency and acute medicine the staff is frequently confronted with time-critical, dynamic and complex situations characterised by uncertainty. Errors in human behaviour (human factors) lead decisively to an increase in the risk potential for those involved, up to and including a failure to cope with the situation. In order to avoid treatment errors and to increase patient safety in emergency and acute medicine, cognitive aids are increasingly being developed, e.g. in the form of checklists, which are intended to contribute as mobile learning applications to the confident management of critical situations. This paper focusses on the linguistic formulation of cognitive aids in Germanspeaking countries in order to simplify the development process and to improve the usability of these tools for staff and managers. In order to achieve this, this study examines whether and which of 3 different linguistically designed prototypical checklists provided are rated by paramedics as particularly suitable for use in regular operation. For this purpose, one checklist each with imperative, infinitive and mixed action instructions is used in the study. The data come from 4 further education course surveys with German-speaking paramedics (n = 62) from the year 2021. The results show a higher usability for one of the prototypical checklists examined in the dimensions of effectiveness and efficiency. Keywords: Human factors


Cognitive aid
Checklist

1 Introduction In professional fields of work where staff is frequently confronted with time-critical, dynamic and complex action situations characterised by uncertainty, the highest demands are made on the knowledge and action competence of the acting persons at all staff and management levels [1]. In these situations, errors in human behaviour (human factors) lead decisively to an increase in the potential danger for those involved, up to and including a failure to cope with the situation [1]. The stress that arises in these situations has a negative effect on attention, human memory and the ability to coordinate teams [20]. This affects modern production structures or engineering work areas as well as structures in the service sector. Analogous to developments in high-risk areas such as aviation, the chemical industry and nuclear energy [18], these findings have © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 546–557, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_54

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also become the focus of research in emergency and acute medicine in recent years. To avoid treatment errors and to increase patient and staff safety in prehospital and inhospital settings, a variety of measures is being taken. In addition to continuous training and the provision of technical equipment, cognitive aid systems are increasingly being developed, e.g. in the form of checklists, which serve as (mobile) learning aids to support memory and decision-making and are thus intended to contribute to the confident management of critical situations [5, 21]. Design criteria have been derived from studies in recent years, which can be referred to in the design of usable digital and analogue cognitive aid systems [5, 6, 11, 20]. Since cognitive aids contain linguistic formulations that are intended to support staff in decision-making in a specific professional context, it is obvious to also identify criteria for the design of linguistic formulation. However, it has been shown that these criteria for emergency and acute medicine in the German-speaking countries are at best vaguely formulated or implicit [1, 6, 12, 20]. This lack can have a limiting effect both on the development of cognitive aids and their technical integration as well as on their use. In addition, the adoption of validated cognitive aids from the emergency and acute medical field of other languages is only possible to a limited extent. The reasons for this lie not only in the variability of national health care structures, but also in the differentiation of individual languages. The aim of this paper is to gain insights into the linguistic formulation of cognitive aids in order to simplify the development process of these tools and to improve their usability for staff and managers. In order to achieve this, the linguistic formulation of checklists for German-speaking staff in the rescue service is examined in the present study, since this target group regularly works with this type of cognitive aids.

2 Human Factors in Emergency and Acute Medical Care 2.1

Treatment Errors in Complex Action Situations and Requirements for Medical Staff

Errors as a component of human action are an immanent part of everyday life and work. Erroneous action can manifest itself in many ways in action processes or results and, under certain circumstances, lead to drastic consequences [1]. An error is constituted by the fact that deviations occur while acting to achieve an existing goal of action, although the necessary knowledge and skills for a correct execution of action are available [1, 20]. The existing literature on human factors in emergency and acute medicine often deals with questions of in-hospital work areas, but central errors in human behaviour in prehospital emergency medicine have not yet been sufficiently taken into account in scientific studies [20]. This applies, for example, to findings on varying framework conditions in emergency situations [16, 20]. ST. PIERRE ET AL. [22], however, give a first exemplary overview of frequent diagnostic and therapeutic errors in prehospital emergency medicine. This clearly shows that the interest in knowledge in publications so far is predominantly directed towards the performance of certain activities at the scene of the emergency, diagnostics and emergency conditions, the transportability of

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patients, medication errors and guideline- or treatment protocol-oriented action in emergency situations [6, 7]. In order to be able to guarantee the medical and nursing care of ill persons as a central task of the actors in emergency and acute medicine, taking human factors into account, concepts for error prevention are being developed in hospitals and in the emergency rescue system. Their use aims to increase patient and personnel safety [3, 20]. In human-centred systems, safety is understood less as a positive target state worth striving for. Rather, following WEICK & SUTTCLIFFE [23], there is a procedural understanding of safety in this field, in which safety is not only assessed because of achieved results, but also based on multifactorially influenced work and management processes [3]. In emergency and acute medicine, this results on the one hand in the realisation that human errors cannot be avoided and are therefore to be expected, and on the other hand in the need to design existing work environments as well as management and work processes in such a way that the overall system of emergency and acute medicine becomes more resistant to human errors [20]. In order to achieve the highest possible level of safety for patients and staff, two main strategies are proposed: 1. Reducing the complexity of the working environment to a minimum by reducing process variability, which is particularly appropriate for routine processes. 2. Increasing the abilities of staff to cope with complexity and uncertainty in fields with unstable safety-relevant framework conditions as well as a lack of planning and standardisation, high intransparency, uncertainty of action, time and decisionmaking pressure with simultaneously demanding activities and unpredictable situation dynamics (i.e. complex action situations) [20]. These two strategies are accompanied by a wide range of requirements at the corporate policy level as well as for management personnel and at the individual level [3]. While at the level of corporate policy the requirements are directed in particular at creating framework conditions to enable security-oriented action in complex situations, employees at management levels are faced with the requirement to organise and design leadership in such a way that an optimal relationship between minimising and coping with uncertainties is created [8]. In this context, safety must be prioritised appropriately over other corporate goals and the degrees of freedom in the actions of employees with regard to safety-relevant issues must be balanced [8]. This complex of requirements includes, among other things, measures to algorithmise work processes, the development and implementation of regulations and standards, as well as personal instructions and agreements based on the situation [8]. Furthermore, the regular implementation of qualification courses and their offer to employees is necessary in order to implement safety-relevant practices in the company, the implementation of which should be continuously reviewed and enforced [3]. At the individual level, the relevant requirements here are directed in particular towards considered and cautious action as well as safety-conscious communication, taking into account technical and situational aspects as well as the requirements of management [3]. In addition, significant requirements at this level extend to acting in groups or teams, which is reflected in particular in group processes such as communication, cooperation and coordination [1]. Since patient care

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in complex situations of emergency and acute medicine is regularly carried out in teams, the high significance of the use of cognitive aids in emergency and acute medicine becomes clear against the background of patient and staff safety as well as error prevention. The linguistic formulations in these aids are intended to support communication in critical situations in order to assist staff in a specific professional context in decision-making as well as in performing specific actions. 2.2

Checklists – One Cognitive Aid in Critical Emergency and Acute Medical Care Situations

The use of checklists has proven itself for many years in emergency and acute medical care [22]. Checklists as a specific type of cognitive aids are used in various forms in the medical context. “Checklist” can be defined as an “[…] organised tool that outlines criteria of consideration for a particular process. It functions as a support resource by delineating and categorizing items as a list - a format that implies conceptualization and recall of information” [10]. ST. PIERRE ET AL. [22], referring to HALES & PROVONOST [9], point out that standardisation leads to the development of systematic lists, on the basis of which the existence or absence of specific situation features is documented and the execution of certain action steps is initiated. Checklists are used both for routine tasks, by supporting action through a detailed list of all successive work/action steps, and in critical situations, where they serve as a structuring aid for problem-solving processes and teamwork [22]. Since in emergencies, due to the situational dynamics and their low plannability, individual action steps can only be prescribed to a limited extent, checklists in this special context function more as heuristic support or as thinking aids and less as lists for monitoring action [22]. Since checklists are limited in their functionality due to the richness of variation in human thought and action and situational characteristics [22], various types of checklists have been developed in recent years to mitigate this effect. A uniform system is not yet available, but according to ST. PIERRE & HOFINGER [22], four basic types of checklists can be differentiated, of which the static parallel checklist is taken into consideration in the present study (Table 1). Even though the use of checklists in emergency and acute medical care can generally be regarded as proven and successful, there are some limitations that should be taken into account when creating and using them. On the one hand, it should be pointed out that the transfer of already developed checklists between different language areas is not possible without further consideration. This is due to the fact that the standardisation of language is hardly possible without taking grammatical and syntactical language differences into account. In addition, the use of checklists can conceivably lead to restrictions in individual professional freedom of decision, the time for using checklists is only known to a limited extent, especially in the case of rapid changes in the situation, and the excessive use of checklists possibly leads the intention of reducing complexity ad absurdum [20].

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Type Static parallel checklists

Static sequential checklists with verification Static sequential checklists with verification and confirmation Dynamic checklists

2.3

Functionality Consist of a series of tasks that are read by a single person and then worked through one after the other (“read-and-do-items”) Consist of a series of tasks that are processed by two people: One person (or software) reads an item from the list and another person completes the task Mostly used by teams. Team members are called by the person reading the list and confirm the completion of their specific task Guide through complex decision-making processes in emergencies using flowcharts and serve as confirmation after task execution

Current State of Research and Research Question

The current literature on human factors in emergency and acute medicine refers to the research situation on human errors that has developed since the 1980s and provides an overview of current findings [22]. The system of relevant sources of human error developed in this context includes organisational and health system-relevant aspects as well as sources of error in individual areas of emergency and acute medical care that can be classified as high-risk areas [22]. In addition to the studies conducted so far, additional investigation requirements have arisen in recent years in critical action situations in prehospital emergency medicine, which require an increasingly high level of attention. In this context, particular attention should be drawn to sources of error in action in the face of increasing confrontation with aggressive and violent clientele and the resulting need to develop appropriate action strategies [2, 14, 19]. It is necessary to pay attention to such behaviour in emergency and acute medical situations, as it endangers the rescue personnel and increases the complexity of the situation, which can result in endangering or even aborting medical care [13, 14]. Against this background, the present study examines the question of whether different linguistic formulations of instructions for action in statically parallel checklists have an influence on the fact that they are assessed by the addressees as usable for their everyday work. With reference to the theoretical considerations of the study, the following hypothesis is formulated to answer this question: 1. There is a written formulation variant for checklists that is assessed as particularly usable for regular use in emergency and acute care.

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3 Study Design, Survey Instruments and Research Methodology 3.1

Approach

The study focuses on the linguistic formulation of memory supporting and decisionmaking aids that are frequently used in rescue services. In the German language, linguistic formulations differ in the infinitive and the imperative. The imperative formulation is regularly used to call on people to take action. However, in acute and emergency medicine there are checklists with both imperative and infinitive formulations of instructions for action. The article examines whether and which of 3 prototypical static parallel checklists for one specific complex situation provided are rated by the participants as particularly suitable for use in regular operation with regard to the linguistic formulations. For this purpose, one checklist each with imperative, infinitive and mixed action instructions is used in the study. Based on central studies on human factors in emergency and acute medicine [1, 17, 20] and current findings on the development of checklists [4, 10, 24], a survey instrument was developed to assess the usability of checklists. In order to be able to derive statements on the usability of the linguistic formulation of the checklists examined, a fully standardised questionnaire with 22 items is used for data collection. The operationalisation basis is formed by 5 dimensions of usability, the so-called 5 E’s according to QUESENBERY [15] (Table 2): Table 2. 5 E’s of usability according to QUESENBERY [15]. Dimension Effective Efficient Engaging Error tolerant Easy to learn

Meaning The completeness and accuracy with which users achieve set goals The rapidity with which users perform tasks The measure by which the product is pleasant or satisfying to use The suitability of the product for preventing the occurrence of errors as well as for error correction The support of a product for an action orientation and application understanding

For the evaluation of usability, a total of 20 items are formed for the 5 dimensions mentioned. The participants have the possibility to choose between the following answer alternatives on a five-point Likert scale: “fully agree”, “rather agree”, “partly agree”, “rather disagree” and “fully disagree”. The individual dimensions were operationalised as follows: 1. The first set of items focuses on the assessment of the effectiveness with which the individual prototypical checklists can be used in everyday professional life. This first part therefore includes items with which the influence of a linguistically different formulation of checklists on effective action in complex situations in emergency and acute medicine can be recorded. The items refer to the feeling of being

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3.

4.

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personally addressed by the instructions for action in the checklist, the perception of important information, the perceived responsibility for the required action as well as the focus on the desired goal of action. The second complex comprises items with which the efficiency of the use of a checklist can be evaluated, taking into account its linguistic formulation. Of interest in this complex of items are the cognitive comprehensibility of the text of the checklist, the focus on certain parts of the text when reading the individual instructions and the possibility of quickly completing the individual steps one after the other. In the third set of items, data on personal satisfaction with the checklist is collect-ed. In addition to the general question of whether checklists are considered helpful in the professional activities of paramedics, this item complex asks for a possible restriction of personal freedom of decision making and for the perceived dependence on action by colleagues due to the linguistic formulation of the checklist. The central component of the fourth set of items is error tolerance. In order to record the influence of linguistic formulation variants of a checklist on this dimension of usability, data on the necessary degree of communication with colleagues, on the clarity and complexity of the formulated checklist as well as on the familiarity with the required actions are recorded with the corresponding items. The final fifth set of items deals with the dimension of the learnability of the cognitive aid. There data is collected on the comprehensibility of the linguistic formulation variables of the checklists and the level of information content of the checklist contents. In addition, the participants are asked to what extent they can easily remember the individual instructions of the checklist.

In addition, participants are asked to indicate their gender, and age in years. The questionnaire is used for data collection in the same form for each of the three individual prototypes. This enables both a checklist-specific and comparative data analysis. 3.2

Sample and Analysis Strategy

The data come from 4 further education course surveys with German-speaking paramedics from the year 2021. The sample size was N = 68.The average utilisation rate of the survey waves is about 91 percent (n = 62). Whether possible different assessments of the usability of the checklists can be traced back to specific linguistic formulations is determined by a dimension-specific analysis of the data. In a first step, the collected data is analysed to characterise the sample using descriptive statistics. Subsequently, the items of the individual dimensions are summarised in 5 scales and with the help of an ANOVA, it is checked whether statistically significant differences in the evaluation of the usability of the examined prototypes can be found.

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4 Results Of the 62 respondents, 45 persons (72.6%) were male and 17 persons (27.4%) were female. The age of the paramedics interviewed ranged from 18 to 62 years. The female respondents, with a mean age of M = 25.47 years (Min = 18, Max = 40), (SD = 7.49) were much younger than the male respondents whose mean age was M = 35.53 years (Min = 19, Max = 62), (SD = 12.22). Table 3 shows the grouped age frequencies of the respondents. Table 3. Grouped age frequencies of the sample. Age (years) 18–30 31–45 46–67 (n = 62) Abs. % Abs. % Abs. % 31 50.0 21 33.9 10 16.1

The reliabilities (Cronbach’s alpha) of the usability scales provide satisfactory to good results (a = .73 to a = .84) with the exception of the “satisfaction” scale (a = .58). These results form a stable basis for further data analysis. Table 4 show the mean values and standard deviations of the individual scales depending on the prototypical checklists examined. Table 4. Scale mean values and standard deviations for the examined linguistic formulation variants of checklists (1 = “fully agree” to 5 = “fully disagree”).

Effectivity Efficiency Satisfaction Error tolerance Learnability

Prototype 1 M SD 1.40 .40 1.78 .39 2.75 .65 2.03 .40 2.12 .68

Prototype 2 M SD 2.34 .88 2.17 .74 2.84 .80 2.11 .62 2.20 .57

Prototype 3 M SD 2.25 .80 2.23 .77 2.79 .72 2.27 .57 2.37 .56

Mean value profiles were derived from the calculated scale mean values in Fig. 1, which illustrate the degree of usability of the three prototypical checklists examined. It becomes clear that the infinitive linguistic formulation variant (prototype 2) and the mixed formulation variant (prototype 3) have a very similar profile. It also becomes clear that prototype 1, formulated in the imperative, stands out positively from the other two prototypes, especially in the usability dimensions “effectiveness” and “efficiency”, but also shows slightly more positive characteristics in the other dimensions compared to the other two prototypes.

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In the following, a one-factor ANOVA was calculated for a more in-depth examination of these data. A significance level p of a < .05 is used for this and all other analyses.

5 4 3 2

Prototyp 1

Prototyp 2

Erlernbarkeit Learnability

Error tolerance Fehlertoleranz

Zufriedenstellung Satisfaction

Effizienz Efficiency

Effectivity Effektivität

1

Prototyp 3

Fig. 1. Mean value profiles of the dimensions of usability according to QUESENBERY (2003) for the examined linguistic formulation variants of checklists, (1 = “fully agree” to 5 = “fully disagree”).

The intergroup comparisons of the ANOVA show statistically significant differences between the prototypes for the dimension “effectiveness” F(2, 183) = 31.91, p < .001 and for the dimension “efficiency” F(2, 183) = 8.42, p < .001 and for the dimension “error tolerance” F(2, 183) = 3.25, p = .041. In contrast, no statistically significant difference was found for the dimensions “satisfaction” F(2, 183) = 0.25, p = .780 and for the dimension “learnability” F(2, 183) = 2.62, p = .075. The results of the Levene test did not show variance homogeneity. The post-hoc test for significance of the mean differences of the individual prototype scales was conducted using the Games-Howell post-hoc test. For the usability dimension “effectiveness”, the test confirmed the significant differences between the checklist or prototype 1 formulated in the imperative and the two other prototypes (p < .001 in each case). There was no significant difference between the checklist 2 formulated in the infinitive and the mixed formulated checklist 3 (p = .828). Also in the dimension “efficiency” the test results show significant differences between prototype 1 and prototype 2 (p = .001) as well as prototype 1 and prototype 3 (p < .001), while no such difference can be found between prototype 2 and prototype 3 (p = .893). For the dimension “error tolerance”, the test results show a significant

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difference between the imperatively formulated prototype 1 and the mixed formulated prototype 3 (p = .019). The other tests did not show any significant differences. This concerns the results for prototype 1 and prototype 2 (p = .633) as well as prototype 2 and prototype 3 (p = .310). No significant differences were found in the other tests. In summary, the results of the ANOVA show a significantly higher effectiveness and efficiency of the checklist formulated in the imperative or prototype 1 compared to the other two prototypes. In addition, the checklist formulated in the imperative is characterised by a significantly higher error tolerance compared to the mixed formulated checklist or prototype 3. These findings support the hypothesis formulated at the beginning, in which it is claimed that there is a written formulation variant for checklists that is particularly suitable for regular use in emergency and acute care.

5 Discussion The present study shows that the linguistic formulation of checklists requires in-depth study and that it is useful for the development process of checklists to develop criteria for the design of the linguistic formulation of this cognitive aid. The empirical findings of the study show a strong focus of the respondents on the action to be performed in an acute and emergency care situation described in the checklist. The results of the study also show a significantly higher assessment of effectiveness and efficiency of the checklist variant formulated in the imperative compared to the other two formulation variants. These results suggest that action in acute and emergency care situations is supported by clear addressing in imperative formulations. There is thus evidence that the use of imperative formulations is preferable in the design of checklists for emergency service personnel. It should be noted that more comprehensive studies on the linguistic design of cognitive aids are still pending. The methodological approach of this study has proven to be largely suitable for dealing with the hypothesis as well as for answering the research question. This refers both to the operationalisation of the construct “usability” and to the quantitative research approach. Based on the results, substantiated statements on the written language design of checklists in emergency and acute care can be derived. One limitation of the study is the lack of randomised questionnaires. This means that the respondents may focus on prototype 1, which could result in bias in the data collected. Furthermore, the simultaneous data collection on three prototypical checklists may lead to concentration fatigue among the respondents, which could also result in a bias in the data. It should be noted that intensive work with various cognitive aids and especially with checklists is a regular part of everyday professional life in emergency and acute medicine. Since a uniform or standardised linguistic formulation does not yet exist in the German-speaking countries, it can be assumed that the variety of formulations had only a minor influence on the response behaviour of the respondents. However, it is recommended that these questions should be investigated in follow-up studies. Since a complete survey was not possible within the framework of the present study, it should also be pointed out that further data analyses will have to be carried out in the future. These were only possible to a limited extent in the present study due to

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the small size of the total sample and the sub-samples. The investigation of larger samples also promotes the robustness of the data in relation to the statistical test procedures used. Further studies on the linguistic design of cognitive aids are of high urgency. This refers specifically to studies on other types of cognitive aids and the linguistic formulation variables they contain. In particular, the linguistic design of cognitive aids for mobile devices and learning applications is currently of high interest. It should be investigated whether the design of these aids finds a similar acceptance in emergency and acute medicine as in engineering and other technically oriented fields. This offers a starting point for improving learning and working processes in emergency and acute medicine, as well as increasing the ability of staff working in this area to act and improving staff and patient safety.

6 Conclusion Based on the results of the present study, it becomes clear that the sensitivity of staff to the benefits and use of cognitive aids should be strengthened at management and staff level in order to optimise professionalisation and interdisciplinary work in critical situations in acute and emergency medicine. For this purpose, different linguistic formulations of checklists can be used for learning processes in education and training in order to develop more usable cognitive aids. This is also conceivable for the use of mobile learning applications. The further development of checklists through the integration of a picture component for the individual instructions, e.g. through pictograms, may offer a starting point for simplifying the presentation of critical action contexts and thus increasing the learnability of checklists and reducing error tolerance. This should be tested in practice and investigated in further studies.

References 1. Badke-Schaub, P., Hofinger, G., Lauche, K.: Human factors. In: Psychologie Sicheren Handelns in Risikobranchen, 2nd edn. Springer, Heidelberg (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-642-19886-1 2. Dressler, J.L.: Gewalt gegen Rettungskräfte. Eine kriminologische Grossstadtanalyse. LIT, Berlin (2017) 3. Dupré, B.: Sicherheit. In: 50 Schlüsselideen Politik, pp. 148–151. Springer, Heidelberg (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-8274-3109-7_38 4. Fletcher, K.A., Bedwell, W.L.: Cognitive aids: design suggestions for the medical field. In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Human Factors and Ergonomics in Health Care, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 148–152 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1177/2327857914031024. Accessed 21 Apr 2021 5. Gaba, D.M.: Perioperative cognitive aids in anesthesia: what, who, how, and why bother? Anesth. Analg. 117(5), 1033–1036 (2013) 6. Goldhaber-Friebert, S.N., Howard, S.K.: Implementing emergency manuals: can cognitive aids help translate best practices for patient care during acute events? Anesth. Analg. 117(5), 1149–1161 (2013)

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7. Gries, A., Zink, W., Bernhard, M., Messelken, M., Schlechtriemen, T.: Realistic assessment of the physican-staffed emergency services in Germany. Anaesthesist 55(10), 1080–1086 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00101-006-1051-2 8. Grote, G.: Führung. In: Badke-Schaub, P., Hofinger, G., Lauche, K. (eds.) Human Factors. Psychologie sicheren Handelns in Risikobranchen, 2nd edn. pp. 189–204. Springer, Heidelberg (2012) 9. Hales, B.M., Pronovost, P.J.: The checklist - a tool for error management and performance improvement. J. Crit. Care 21(3), 231–235 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2006.06. 002 10. Hales, B., Terblanche, M., Fowler, R., Sibbald, W.: Development of medical checklists for improved quality of patient care. Int. J. Qual. Health Care 20(1), 22–30 (2007). https://doi. org/10.1093/intqhc/mzm062 11. Harrison, T.K., Manser, T., Howard, S.K., Gaba, D.M.: Use of cognitive aids in a simulated anesthetic crisis. Anesth. Analg. 103(3), 551–556 (2006) 12. Marshall, S.: The use of cognitive aids during emergencies in anesthesia: a review of the literature. Anesth. Analg. 117(5), 1162–1171 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE. 0b013e31829c397b 13. Oesterreich, K.: Gewalt gegen Einsatzkräfte. Die Grundlagen einer Strukturierten Eigensicherung. W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart (2021) 14. Oesterreich, K., Köhler, M.: Gewalt gegen Rettungskräfte. Verhaltens- und Handlungsstrategien für den Einsatz. In: Hündorf, H.-P., Lipp, R., Lipp, S., Veith, J. (eds.) LPN-San: Lehrbuch für Notfallsanitäter, Betriebssanitäter und Rettungshelfer, 4th edn, pp. 496–500. S +K Verlag, Edewecht (2018) 15. Quesenbery, W.: Dimensions of usability. In: Albers, M.J., Mazur, M.B. (eds.) Content and Complexity, pp. 1–29. Routledge, London (2003) 16. Rall, M.: Simulation in der notärztlichen Weiterbildung: was bringt’s und für wen? Notfall Rettungsmed. 15(3), 198–206 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10049-011-1517-x 17. Rall, M., Gaba, D.M., Howard, S.K., Dieckmann, P.: Human performance and patient safety. In: Miller’s Anesthesia, 8th edn, vol. 1, pp. 106–166. Elsevier Saunders, Amsterdam (2014) 18. Scheiderer, J.: Human Factors im Cockpit: Praxis Sicheren Handelns für Piloten. Springer, Heidelberg (2011) 19. Sefrin, P., Händlmeyer, A., Stadler, T., Kast, W.: Erfahrungen zur Gewalt gegen Rettungskräfte – aus der Sicht des DRK. Der Notarzt. 37(1), S1–S19 (2021). https://doi. org/10.1055/a-1310-6763 20. St. Pierre, M., Hofinger, G.: Human Factors und Patientensicherheit in der Akutmedizin, 3rd edn. Springer, Heidelberg (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45879-2_1 21. St. Pierre, M., Hofinger, G., Buerschaper, C.: Crisis Management in Acute Care Settings. Springer, Heidelberg (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-71062-2 22. St. Pierre, M., Hofinger, G., Buerschaper, C.: Notfallmanagement. Human Factors und Patientensicherheit in der Akutmedizin, 2nd edn. Springer, Heidelberg (2011). https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-642-55420-9 23. Weick, K.E., Suttcliffe, K.M.: Managing the Unexpected. Resilient Performance in an Age of Uncertainty, 2nd edn. Jossey-Bass, New York (2007) 24. Winters, B.D., Gurses, A.P., Lehmann, H., Sexton, J.B., Rampersad, C., Pronovost, P.J.: Clinical review: checklists - translating evidence into practice. Crit. Care 13(6), 210 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1186/cc7792

Re-imagining Blended Learning. An Experience-Led Approach to Accelerate Student Future Skills Development Jamie A. Kelly1(&) and Victor McNair2 1

University College Dublin, SMARTlab, Dublin 4, Ireland [email protected] 2 Digital Schools Awards, Dublin 4, Ireland

Abstract. This paper argues that the changes to education and the workplace, brought about by the use of blended learning and working during the Pandemic, can accelerate the development of students digital skills. Adopting the EU definition of blended learning, the paper shows that a tripartite understanding of blended learning between schools, industry and policymakers is needed to secure sustainability and transferability of digital skills from school to the workplace. The challenges and opportunities of a European digital literacy programme, the Digital Schools Awards, are offered as a way to consolidate the development of digital literacy across Europe so that the experiences of blended learning and teaching during the Pandemic can be harnessed and advanced. To be sustainable, blended learning must appeal to students and their teachers’ pedagogical and curricular needs. The paper, therefore, promotes a continuum approach to blended learning where a range of developmental and progressive strategies are suggested. Then, a rationale for future work and skills is presented that draws on this continuum to support blended learning and working as a lifelong practice. A multistakeholder, peer to peer approach to the future of learning and skills development will, we argue, positively impact the way 21stcentury citizens can educate, learn and work at a cross-cultural, multi-societal and institution level. Keywords: Blended learning continuum
Blended learning 3.0
Covid-19 pandemic digital literacy
Digital Schools Awards
Tripartite approach to learning
Future of Work
Creativity
Critical thinking
Communications
Collaboration
4C’s

1 Introduction This paper explores how blended learning can accelerate student digital skills by developing a multilateral approach that includes strategic, pedagogic and partnershipled aspects to whole-school development. We use the term ‘accelerate’ as a metaphor for increasing the levels of student digital competence in three ways. First, to exploit how the considerable effort expended by teachers and students to find ways to teach and learn remotely during the Pandemic can augment their pedagogical efficacy, particularly as pressure for more flexible learning is already mounting (UN 2020; © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 558–564, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_55

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UNESCO 2020; European Commission 2020). Second, ‘accelerating’ student digital skills implies that there are mechanisms that can make it happen, namely, government policy, local education authority and district support along with a whole-school approach, all of which are increasingly influenced by a changed post-pandemic workplace. Third, by providing a road map for development, education organisations can understand the scope and breadth of blended learning (defined in detail below) to activate strategies to embed, extend, and enhance student experiences. Combining these elements of the metaphor, we argue, is an effective way to ensure that students have the right skills and that they are sustainable, progressive and can prepare them for the requirements of a future-ready lifelong education and learning process as part of the vision of the “Future of Work” (WEF 2020). The Pandemic impacted up to 94% of the world’s student population (United Nations 2020) and forced formal education institutions of all kinds to recalibrate how the relationship between teacher and learner would provide continuity in learning (Barron et al. 2021). The traditional understanding of ‘lesson’ had to be reinvented. Education became distributed in time and space, and teachers had to develop different digital skills to account for hitherto unknown variables such as hardware, connectivity and home physical space. They had to reimagine the nature of their human connections with their learners and develop whole new ways of offering support. However, Lucas et al. (2020) suggest that in the transition, learning did not take advantage of the range of online tools for helping students learn but instead sought to replicate traditional forms of learning in a remote context. Similarly, learners, released from the controlling influence of the classroom, teacher proximity, school culture and corporate identity, faced learning alone, remotely, with few constraints. Without the immediacy of teacher presence and support, they may have struggled to understand their role in this new context. Eivers et al. (2020) found that just over half of pupils taught remotely did not have ‘live’ or real-time teaching, but instead, they were presented with traditional tasks such as completing a worksheet or reading. As a consequence of many of these factors, claim the World Bank, “…the (global) impact (of the pandemic) on the human capital of this generation is likely to be long-lasting…” (World Bank 2020).

2 Opportunities of Post-pandemic Learning and Teaching Although developed in a crisis and under exceptional difficulty, schools have inadvertently created an innovation explosion that could be harnessed to provide better and different learning and teaching scenarios. The new education landscape has forced a rethinking of education policy in many countries. For example, calls for more flexible and resilient education systems include expanding the definition of the right to education to include ‘…connectivity entitlement…’ (UN 2020). There is now an emerging policy agenda for building post-covid flexibility using the newly acquired digital skills that have made online learning and teaching possible (McAleavy and Gorgen 2020). Similarly, UNESCO (2020 p. 16) argue that interest in mobile learning “… has grown exponentially…” and the UK think tank Ed Tech APPG (2020) argue for traditional teaching to be coupled with educational technology to enrich the variety of

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pedagogical approaches. The European Commission (2020 p. 3) has taken a more radical stance to changes to teaching and learning, proposing that post-pandemic education is an opportunity for education systems to explore how ‘traditional’ ways of learning and teaching can be adapted “…from subject-based knowledge transfer to scaffolded competence development…”.

3 The Digital Schools Award: An Example of Blended Learning Blended Learning as an Accelerator With these calls for change in mind, we now offer the Digital Schools Award (DSA) programme as a common approach to an EU-wide ecosystem for accelerating schools’ (primary and secondary) digital strategies through blended learning. To create Europe-wide consistency, the DSA programme, while recognising the complexity of the debate, has adopted the European Commission’s definition of blended learning as “…a hybrid approach that combines learning in school with distance learning, including online learning…”. (EC 2020 p. 4). Although broad and somewhat vague, it recognises the need for physical presence in schools but allows opportunities for new and flexible approaches. Singh and Thurman (2019) also recognise the complexity of the debate and so summarise 46 separate definitions into four common elements of time (the use of synchronous and asynchronous activities); interactivity (teacher-student, student-teacher, whole-class or group activities, student-student interactions all facilitated through a variety of technology tools); physical distance and educational context. The DSA programme has incorporated the strands of these two findings into a progressive and developmental continuum of strategies from which teachers can select appropriate techniques depending on the needs and skills of learners and the context in which they are working. Figure 1 illustrates this continuum. Blended learning 3.0 is defined as learning that is primarily online using digital content and tools that have been designed and developed to enable a range of digitally-rich pedagogical approaches.

Fig. 1. DSA blended learning continuum.

The continuum is also augmented into a whole-school developmental framework. The core is seven key developmental areas (shown in the circle) drawn from the European Digital Action Plan (EU 2021). For participating schools, these are further

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expanded to include statements of best practice, examples of where the statements can be implemented and how schools’ actions will support current government policy agendas. The areas are summarised in Fig. 2 below.

Fig. 2. Digital Schools Awards framework.

The DSA potential for impact lies not only in its conceptual alignment with the EU Digital Education Action Plan 2021–2027 (ibid.), but its close relationship with the SELFIE tool (2021) itself is crucial for the plan. Furthermore, the DSA is also an incentivising tool for schools to embark on developmental trajectories that potentially lead to ‘Award’ status. Central to the DSA programme is a whole-school approach, implied by Castano Munoz et al. (2021) as essential to adding student voice to that of leaders and teachers. Reimers and Schleicher (2021 p. 11) further assert that student’s voice is essential in taking learning forward “… in the design of a new expanded blended ecosystem for learning, and in providing them more agency and autonomy in directing their learning…”. DSA Programme - Impact to Date The adoption illustrates the success of the DSA’s blended learning approach by educators, students and education ministries. Table 1 states the adoption of the DSA programme up to December 2020. The methodology places a premium on peer learning in a blended learning environment. Table 1. Digital Schools Awards Schools adoption of the program. Primary Republic of Ireland Northern Ireland Scotland

Secondary

60%

5%

44%

24%

52%

77%

Total number of students participating in the Digital Literacies online program 944,311

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The DSA programme addresses future development needs by bringing the technology industry, ministries of education and schools together (as a tripartite knowledge transfer mechanism) through practical peer-generated support. This same framework and blended learning continuum are highly transferable to further education and workplace learning environments.

4 Workplace Covid-19 Response to Collaborative Learning Deloitte, a global change management consulting company, created a 360° lifecycle framework (Deloitte 2020) that charts the different change and response phases (in office-based environments) from the initial impact of the Pandemic to the medium and long-term response. The impact was one of moving office workers from face-to-face working (and learning) to a blended working (and learning) environment. As with education institutions, this phenomenon also impacted workers’ and managers’ ability to maintain group, collaborative and peer to peer collaboration and productivity. For this reason, the lens in this paper draws upon the changing nature of work and learning to understand and shape the future of blended learning 3.0 in a more distributed workplace and formal education setting, given that knowledge is bi-directional from the workplace to education and education to workplace settings. The authors of this paper have subsequently developed an Education focused 360° lifecycle framework using the Deloitte approach as a proxy detailed in Fig. 3 to explain what the authors define as each phase in Table 2.

Fig. 3. Authors visualisation of education’s response.

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Table 2. Response phase to learning in schools due to Covid-19 restrictions. Phase 1

Adapt

Phase 2

Adopt

Phase 3

Enable

Phase 4

Enhance

Phase 5

Extend

Education institutions rapid response to switch to online, blended learning mode. No time to assess the impact on pedagogy or learning Adoption of typical “business” conference call type tools such as Zoom and Microsoft Teams to deliver learning and assignments An increased focus moves to new content and format development to keep the students/learners engaged Adaptation/refinement in the blended learning approach for students, teachers, institutions, plus a reflection on pedagogical implications Move to a new/refreshed longer terms overall content and delivery approach and framework

5 Conclusion This paper has argued that despite the challenges faced by schools in providing continuity in learning and teaching during the Covid-19 Pandemic and despite the need to return to face to face based teaching, there is widespread agreement that the flexibility, resilience, mobility and innovation offered by digital technologies has opened the door to change in education. Pedagogies have had to adapt, and while much of that adaptation has been patchy, somewhat reactive and based almost exclusively on the skill and experience of the teacher offering the lessons to accelerate digital skills, the EU calls for societal engagement is now unassailable. “… it is now clear that transformation should include an enhanced dialogue and stronger partnerships between educators, the private sector, researchers, municipalities, and public authorities….” (EU 2021). The DSA programme and the blended learning continuum approach (1.0 to 3.0) offer a highly transferable and educationally proven lens to view how to take a 360° lifecycle approach in Further Education and the workplace in terms of learning. Furthermore, accelerating a multistakeholder peer-to-peer approach to the future of learning and skills development can positively impact the way we all educate, learn, and work at a cultural, societal, and institutional level.

References Barron, M., Cobo, C., Munoz-Najar, A., Sanchez Ciarrusta, I.: The Changing Role of Teachers and Technologies Amidst the COVID 19 Pandemic: Key Findings from a Cross-Country Study. World Bank Blog (2021). https://blogs.worldbank.org/education/changing-roleteachers-and-technologies-amidst-covid-19-pandemic-key-findings-cross. Accessed 21 May 2021 Boston Consulting Group. COVID-19 and the Great Reset: Briefing Note #28, 21 October 2020 (2020). http://rgs.usu.edu/irb/wpcontent/uploads/sites/12/2015/ JRC. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326712929_Within-school_differences_in_the_ views_on_the_use_of_digital_technologies_in_Europe_evidence_from_the_SELFIE_tool. Accessed 25 May 2021 Deloitte. Workforce Strategies Post Covid-19 Report, Deloitte Consulting (2020)

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Ed Tech APPG. All-Party Parliamentary Group for Education Technology: Lessons from Lockdown: What We Learned about Education Technology (2020). https://www.besa.org.uk/ news/edtech-appg-report-published-lessons-from-lockdown/ Eivers, E., Worth, J., Ghosh, A.: Home Learning During Covid-19: Findings From the Understanding Society Longitudinal Study, NFER, Slough (2020) European 44Commission Report. Blended Learning in School Education: Guidelines for the School Academic year 2020/2021, Created by European Commission, Directorate-General Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, Unit B.2: Schools and Multilingualism (2021) European Commission/Futurium. Digital Futures Final Report, A Journey into 2050 Visions and Policy Challenges (2020) European Commission/Horizon. Transitions on the Horizon: Perspectives for the European Union’s Future Research and Innovative Policies. Final Report from Project BOHEMIA. Beyond the Horizon: Foresight in Support of the EU’s Future Research and Innovation Policy. Contract No. PP-03021-2015 (2018) European Union Report. Digital Education Action Plan 2021–2027: Resetting Education and Training for the Digital Age, European Union (2021) https://ec.europa.eu/education/education-in-the-eu/digital-education-action-plan_en. Accessed 27 May 2021 https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2019/08/12/what-is-extended-reality-technology-asimple-explanation-for-anyone/?sh=7afc49d72498. Accessed 27 May 2021 Lucas, M., Nelson, J., Sims, D.: Schools’ Responses to Covid-19: Pupil Engagement in Remote Learning (2020). https://www.nfer.ac.uk/media/4073/schools_responses_to_covid_19_pupil_ engagement_in_remote_learning.pdf. Accessed 21 May 2021 McAleavy, T., Gorgen, K.: What Does the Research Suggest is Best Practice in Pedagogy for Remote Teaching? Education Development Trust, Reading (2020) A Schooling Disrupted, Schooling Rethought: How the Covid-19 Pandemic is Changing Education, OECD (2021). https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/schooling-disruptedschooling-rethought-how-the-covid-19-pandemic-is-changing-education_68b11faf-en. Accessed 27 May 2021 SELFIE. Self-Reflection on Effective Learning by Fostering the use of Innovative Educational Technologies (2021). https://ec.europa.eu/education/schools-go-digital/about-selfie_en. Accessed 25 May 2021 Singh, V., Thurman, A.: How many ways can we define online learning? a systematic literature review of definitions of online learning (1988–2018). Am. J. Distan. Educ. 33(4), 289–306 (2019) The World Bank Report. Urgent, Effective Action Required to Quell the Impact of COVID-19 on Education Worldwide (2021). https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/immersive-story/2021/01/ 22/urgent-effective-action-required-to-quell-the-impact-of-covid-19-on-education-worldwide. Accessed 21 May 2021 UNESCO Report. Education in a Post-COVID World: Nine Ideas for Public Action. International Commission on the Futures of Education. UNESCO, Paris (2020) United Nations Report. Policy Brief: Education during COVID-19and Beyond (2020). https:// www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wpcontent/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_ covid-19_and_education_august_2020.pdf. Accessed 21 May 2021

Development of Computer Skills to Draw in the LibreCad from Virtual Learning Environments Josue Segura(&) Matanzas University, Highway to Varadero km 3, Matanzas, Cuba

Abstract. The theoretical foundations of the III Improvement of Basic Secondary Education in Cuba and the modifications of the Labor Education subject from it, demands to consider the use of computer tools for technical drawing. The specialized scientific literature highlights the need to promote learning from the mastery of computer skills with computer-aided drawing (CAD) applications. A descriptive exploratory study and theoretical systematization of the state of the art related to the subject under study was carried out, which allowed to establish the regularities on the internal structure and functional invariants of the computer skills to draw in LibreCad. The use of the Delphy method was used to obtain the opinions and criteria of 12 experts, who theoretically validated the proposal to use a system of didactic activities located in the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) for the development of the skills under study, and thereby perfecting the proposed result before implementing it in educational practice. The study contributed to an approach to the theoretical-methodological foundations that support the internal structure of the computing skills to draw in the LibreCad tool with its system of functional invariants and proposes the development of the computing skills to draw in LibreCad in the students of the subject Labor Education in Basic Secondary Education in Cuba from the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE), which constitutes an ideal setting for the development of computer skills, making it possible to be a reference in other educational contexts. Keywords: Computer skills


LibreCad
Virtual learning environments

1 Introduction Among the main aspirations of the Basic Secondary school in Cuba is to achieve a graduate with a general, polytechnic and work preparation, which allows him/her to function in his social life [1]. Within the Labor Education subject, the area of Technical Drawing plays a fundamental role since it allows the student the graphic representation of what they will build in the workshop. The main task of technical drawing is to create in students a vision with a spatial image, so that they can face any project in life and give it a solution [2–4]. The Labor Education subject is characterized by being eminently practical and having as a common thread the solution of problems in their different manifestations, the practical, productive and research activities that are carried © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 565–576, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_56

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out must be related to the contents focused in the subject, as well as with the rest of the subjects of the degree, computer tools and audiovisual media. In Cuba, the use of information technologies (IT) has contributed to the development of all spheres of social life in that sense, Basic Secondary Education in general and the Labor Education subject in particular, have not been left out. In this order of ideas, teachers who teach the Labor Education subject are well trained to use IT effectively, in their professional performance, for its use as a mean in the teachinglearning process. In this sense, various authors [5–10], highlight Virtual Learning Environments (VLE) as effective platforms to promote learning and develop skills in different educational spheres. On the other hand, in the methodological guidelines of the Labor Education subject [11], specific suggestions are offered for the didactic treatment of each unit of the program, among other issues, consider the use of computer tools for the drawing, an aspect started in the previous grade, and to which continuity must be given from the activities programmed in the different classes or those aimed at independent activity. For various authors [12–17] it is a necessity to promote drawing from the mastery of skills with its applications in the digital world, where working with assisted drawing applications by computer from now on (CAD), the student is more stimulated in learning, makes more complex drawings using less time, that means, there are simplier solutions to get started in the complex world of CAD, in that sense the LibreCad tool is introduced in Basic Secondary Education in Cuba specifically in the Labor Education subject in eighth grade, which provides the basic tools necessary to start drawing. However, it was found that, during the development of the teaching-learning process of the Labor Education subject, there are not enough out-of-school activities related to the use of computer tools for drawing, little mastery by students at work with computer tools, the potentialities offered by computer media for school work are not taken as an advantage of Virtual Learning Environments, to systematize skills at school. The purposes of this work are to determine the theoretical-methodological foundations that support the computing skills to draw in the LibreCad tool and how, from the Virtual Learning Environments, it contributes to systematizing it in the students of the Labor Education subject in the context of Basic Secondary Education in Cuba, promoting its development, for this, the following research questions were formulated. What are the theoretical-methodological foundations that support the computing skills to draw in the LibreCad tool with its system of functional invariants? How from the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) is it possible to develop computer skills to draw in the LibreCad tool in students of the subject Labor Education in Basic Secondary Education in Cuba?

2 Materials and Methods To make an approximation to the theoretical-methodological foundations that support computing skills to draw in LibreCad, different methods of the theoretical and empirical level were used, in that sense the historical-logical method made suitable major studies of the transformations that occur in the Cuban educational system, particularly in the Basic Secondary from the III educational improvement, elements to

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take into account to determine the computing skills to draw in LibreCad in the Labor Education subject. The analytical-synthetic method allowed decomposing the modular concepts of the skills to analyze their particularities and with these elements it is possible to use as a synthesis of definitions and general characteristics of the computing skills to draw in LibreCad. The program of the eighth grade Labor Education subject was consulted, as well as the methodological guidelines that are offered there, which together with the consultation and theoretical systematization of the state of the art related to the subject under study, allowed to establish the regularities on the internal structure and functional invariants of the computing skills to draw in LibreCad. For the development of the research, a sample was intentionally selected in an experimental center where the III educational improvement carried out in Cuban Education is applied. It is made up of 100% of the teachers.Surveys were conducted with the teachers who teach the subject Labor Education and criteria of the low treatment that give the development of computer skills were obtained, they do not expose to the students the importance and purpose of the computer skills to draw in LbreCad, while they do not know its internal structure, in addition they do not use VLEs during the development of their classes to systematize computer skills with CAD tools, all this can be observed succinctly in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Results of the survey with the teachers who teach the subject Labor Education

The previous results show the need of getting new ways, methods and procedures that contribute to the development of computer skills to draw in LibreCad. Therefore, the author concludes the need to develop a system of didactic activities located in a VLE to overcome this difficulty. The Delphy method was used to obtain the opinions and criteria of 12 experts, allowing a general consensus to be obtained, which made it possible to theoretically validate the proposal to use VLE for the development of the skills under study, and to refine the result before implementing it in practice educational.

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3 Results and Discussions The formation and development of the subject occurs in the activity and the skills constitute one of the ways in which it can interact with reality in the activity, human beings modify nature, living conditions and transform themselves, in order to satisfy needs that are specified in objectives, and are linked to motives that are the object of the activity [18]. The success in the performance of the different activities by the subjects, depend, to a great extent, on the forms of their appropriation in the execution plan, of which the skills are part. Therefore, it is inferred the important role that, in particular, skills play in the conscious and regulated execution of the activity. Among the authors who have defined the term skills, from a psychopedagogical perspective [19–23], these authors, attached to the historical-cultural approach of [23], assume, in one way or another, skills as a system of actions and operations that are developed in an individual, within the framework of the activity, on the basis of acquired knowledge and intellectual skills. It agrees with [20], when they state that functional invariants constitute a theoretical methodological term that allows the study with greater objectivity of the performance of the action, highlighting that its pedagogical implication lies in the fact that it can be mastered as skills, if the systematization of the functional invariants of the execution is achieved. The skills to draw has important functions in the class of Labor Education in Basic Secondary School in Cuba, since with its development students are allowed to represent figures and bodies, as representatives of any concept of matter, to understand their properties [2, 14]. In this sense, in the methodological guidelines of the subject [11], specific suggestions are offered for the didactic treatment of each unit of the program, among which the use of computer tools for drawing, an aspect that began in the degree, stands out above, and to which continuity must be given from the activities programmed in the different classes or in those aimed at independent activity. It is suggested, in order to carry out the practical activities, the use of the computer tool be promoted, as a way to consolidate the knowledge that students have been acquiring from previous degrees. For [12], it is a need to promote drawing, from the mastery of skills in the subject Labor Education with its applications in the digital world, where working with a CAD application, the student is more stimulated in learning, makes drawings more complex using less time. [8], consider learning about CAD can sometimes be a repetitive, drawn out process. Traditional design education in Scotland, in a formal context generally starts in 3rd year of secondary school when students are approximately 14 years old. For the student who is faced with this type of software for the first time, the complexity of professional programs such as AutoCAD usually far exceeds their real needs [24], they report that there are many CAD programs in which students learn one type of CAD, they may develop different skills than students learning some other CAD tool in another context. There are simplier solutions to get started in the complex world of CAD, in that sense LibreCad [25], is a tool that provides the basic tools needed to start drawing, it is a graphic design tool that allows you to create and edit projects of 2D technical drawing, for its successful manipulation, students must possess computer skills. For

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different authors [14, 26, 27], the development of skills is an essential aspect in the teaching-learning process of Computer Science. For [27], it is understood by computer skills: the domain of psychic and motor actions that allow a regulation of the intellectual and physical activity of man in the process of solving problems through the use of computer resources and means. [26], assumes computer skills as the domain of both psychic and motor actions in the use of computer resources and means to solve a problem. In that order of ideas, [14], refers that in the Labor Education subject, whenever possible, attention must be paid to the use of computer tools and resources that facilitate the work of students in the search for data, knowledge, as well as in solving the technical problems they face. [12, 14], state that it is necessary to: explain the form of representation of drawings using computer tools, but first a freehand drawing must be made, then explaining isometric projections using CAD computer tools. In this sense [17], he considers that students cannot escape from 2D drawing, especially when it is a conventional drawing. Therefore, CAD users must understand and be proficient in conventional drawing. Through conventional drawing, you can learn the fundamentals of drawing later, offer some elements of the dimensioning, explaining the commands that should be used for it and an idea of the representation of drawings in orthogonal and isometric projection is given. In order [14], to represent drawings in orthogonal and isometric projection using the LibreCad assistant, taking into account its importance in the representation of articles to be elaborated in the school workshop, it is necessary to observe the model to place it in an ideal position within the system of three plans, of freehand projection and later take it to the computer tool using the commands studied, perform an analysis of the characteristics that typify the front view of the others, identify the front view of the model of objects, geometric figures, or pieces of articles, determine from the front view the other views of the model to bring them to the tool, after their freehand representation, represent the three views of the highest level model in orthogonal projection and represent the isometric projection of the model in the LibreCad wizard. On the other hand, the methodological guidelines offered in the Eighth Grade Labor Education subject [9] consider that the practical activity related to the use of computer tools consists of making drawings of objects, making geometric figures, or pieces of articles of possible elaboration in the school workshop with the help of the software for drawing in isometric projection. Based on the systematization carried out by various authors on the subject under study as well as the program of the subject in the subject Labor Education of eighth grade and the methodological guidelines that are declared, the author defines the computing skills to draw in the LibreCad wizard as, the system of actions and operations that students develop in the draw activity under computer tool assistance to solve the problems they face during the development of their job training, for the achievement of this purpose must achieve the conscious systematization of the functional invariants of the computing skills to draw in the LibreCad wizard. The table of functional invariants proposed by the author is shown in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2. Functional invariants of computer skills drawing in LibreCad

The system of activities that is located in the Virtual Learning Environment (https:// cursad.jovenclub.cu), for the development of computer skills to draw in libreCAD is structured in different stages, namely: Diagnosis of the preconditions for the development of computer skills to draw in the LibreCad, introduction of IT for the preparation of the virtual course “Drawing in LibreCad” and evaluation of the activity systems in the VLE for the development of computer skill to draw in the LibreCad, its structure is shown in the following Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. System of didactic activities in the Virtual Learning Environment (https://cursad. jovenclub.cu)

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All these stages are interrelated and are logically ordered in a systemic way, between the stages, diagnosis of the previous conditions of the course and introduction of IT for the preparation of the course, a subordination relationship is established, in them the necessary conditions for the subsequent development of computer skills to draw in the LibreCad, which occurs during the implementation of the system of activities located in the virtual environment that enable the development of the skills. The evaluation stage makes it possible to assess whether the system of activities located in the Virtual Learning Environment through the “Drawing in LibreCad” course fulfilled the intended objective, allowing to check how the actions of the initial diagnosis stages were executed to create previous conditions, as well as the implementation of the procedures of the system of activities that contribute to the development of the skills under study. Each of the stages is described below. 3.1

Diagnosis of the Preconditions for the Development of Computer Skills to Draw in the LibreCad

The objective of this stage is to diagnose the level of assurance of the conditions that occur prior to the development of the computer skills to draw in the LibreCad, and from this to take the pertinent measures to achieve its development. In this stage, it is diagnosed how teachers introduce the new content, preparing students to carry out a theoretical systematization of the functional invariants of the computer skills to draw in the LibreCad, and in this way integrate the knowledge of technical drawing, during the process of teaching-learning. It is necessary at this stage for teachers to determine and assess the knowledge that students have and what they lack, to develop the computer skills to draw in the LibreCad in correspondence with their motivations and aspirations. To guarantee the necessary conditions in the development of the process, the computer skills to draw in the LibreCad must be taken into account: • The planning of the methodological work based on the objectives set out in the subject, specifically in unit number two “Technical Drawing” and the needs of the students. • The development of didactic activities in the Virtual Learning Environment, to support the appropriation of knowledge and promote the development of computer skills to draw in the LibreCad. • The knowledge of the conditions of the computer laboratories where the classes will be developed, as well as the laboratory practices. On the other hand, the teacher must make a self-evaluation on the domain he has on the following scientific-methodological aspects: • The program of the subject Labor Education. • The didactic treatment for the development of computer skills. • The functional invariants of the computer skills to draw in the LibreCad, its formation and development. Once the preconditions of the course have been diagnosed, it is necessary to introduce IT for the preparation of the Virtual Learning Environment, through the virtual course located in the VLE called “Drawing in the LibreCad” which constitutes

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the support so that Students systematize the necessary actions and operations and develop computer skills to draw in the LibreCad. 3.2

Stage 2. Introduction of IT for the Preparation of the Virtual Course Drawing in the LibreCad in the Virtual Learning Environment

The objective of this stage is to introduce IT as a support for the Labor Education subject, to systematize the knowledge acquired in unit number two “Technical Drawing”, so as to develop the Computer Skills Drawing in LibreCad in students. It is aimed at each student participating in the virtual course, available on the virtual platform https://cursad.jovenclub.cu. In this sense, the virtual course “Drawing in the LibreCad” is introduced as a technological support for the integration of students in a single virtual learning environment (VLE). It is valid to highlight that students use it in laboratory practice and later the class has been taught, which contributes to the expansion of its areas of proximal development in virtuality. In the VLE, the teacher structures the learning situations, in addition, guides, controls and evaluates the development of the teaching-learning process, through the organization of learning activities, for this he relies on the material do consult center available on the platform, which is used by the students during the didactic activities system arranged on the platform and in this way, they develop the computer skills to draw in the LibreCad. Procedures: • Develop the course “Drawing in the LibreCad” in the Virtual Learning Environment https://cursad.jovenclub.cu. • Place the course resources available on the platform, which help to systematize the actions and operations of the drawing activity that facilitate the development of the the computer skills to draw in the LibreCad. • Create forums in the course available on the platform, for the debate of the aspects related to the learning activities, with the aim of acquiring new knowledge through the debate. In this way, knowledge is collectively built from the answers to the questions posed by the students, fostering reflection and criticism based on the problems presented by them, during the execution of the activities in a way that corresponds, with their motivations for the subject. • Create teaching activities and tasks for independent study in the course available on the platform so that the student can perform them and be reviewed and evaluated by the teacher. 3.3

Evaluation

To assess whether the didactic activities system allows the fulfillment of the planned objective, the quality of the actions of the initial diagnosis stages must be checked to create preconditions, as well as the implementation of the activities system procedures arranged in the platform contributes to the development of the computer skills to draw in the LibreCad in eighth grade students in the subject Labor Education in Basic Secondary Education.

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Teacher actions: • Determine the advances in their scientific-methodological preparation for the teaching of the subject relying on a Virtual learning environment. • Evaluate the mastery of the basic precedent knowledge of the students, necessary for the development of the study skills. • Evaluate the progress at each moment of the development of the skills under study. • Evaluate the execution of the actions of the system of functional invariants of the skills in training, in the students during the teaching-learning process of the subject. Student actions: • Evaluate the satisfaction level with the development of the computer skills to draw in the LibreCad. • Self-assess the knowledge acquired. • Evaluate the mastery of their modes of action when carrying out group activities in the VLE. • Evaluate the current state of development of computer skills to draw in the LibreCad. In general terms for the evaluation of the systems of activities arranged in the VLE as a whole, important element to take into account are considered the systemic structure of the stages, the convenience of the specific objectives, the logical and systemic order of the actions and procedures and validity of the actions to achieve the general objective of the didactic activities system that contributes to the development of computer skills to draw in the LibreCad from a Virtual Learning Environment. In order to evaluate the proposal, twelve expert wereby carrying out one through the application of the Delphy Method. For it, they were offered different elements so that they could offer their criteria on the didactic activity systems, namely: 1 It has the structural elements that it should have. 2 There is coherence between its structural elements. 3 There is coherence between the activities that contribute to the development of the skills. 4 The system of activities is adapted to the Technical Drawing unit of the subject. 5 There is clarity in the content of the System of didactic activities, available in the virtual course. 6 There is correspondence between the system of didactic activities and the contents that are taught in the subject Labor education related to technical drawing. 7 It is feasible to propose projects for the development of computer skills to draw in LibreCad from a Virtual Environment Learning. The proposal is circulated among them so that they analyze, evaluate its structure and content according to their criteria, namely C1: Totally valuable; C2: Very valuable; C3: Valuable; C4: Little valuable; C5 Not valuable. Their criteria on these aspects are collected through the survey for such purposes. After two rounds of analysis with the experts, valuable results are obtained that demonstrate its validity, which are shown below (Tables 1 and 2).

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Table 1. Processing table of the expert evaluations about the system of didactic activities in the Virtual Learning Environment (first round) Data processing results Criteria C1 C2 C3 C4 1 7 3 1 1 2 6 4 2 0 3 6 3 2 1 4 6 3 3 0 5 7 3 2 0 6 5 4 3 0 7 7 3 2 0

C5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Table 2. Processing tables of the experts’ evaluations about the system of didactic activities in the Virtual Learning Environment (second round) Data processing results Criteria C1 C2 C3 C4 1 8 3 1 0 2 11 1 0 0 3 11 0 1 0 4 9 2 1 0 5 10 2 0 0 6 9 2 1 0 7 11 1 0 0

C5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

The experts showed seriousness throughout the process, 100% acceptance was obtained. The proposal presented took into account the evaluations made by the experts in the different rounds, facilitating general consensus on the validity of the proposal before implementing it in educational practice.

4 Conclusions The theoretical systematization of the specialized scientific literature, as well as the revision of the normative documents that govern the subject Labor education in the context of Basic Secondary Education in Cuba, allowed to make an approach to the theoretical-methodological foundations that support the computer skills drawing in the LibreCad wizard, determining its internal structure with its system of functional invariants from the historical-cultural approach. In the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) it is possible to develop computer skills to draw in the LibreCad tool in students of the subject Labor Education in Basic Secondary Education in Cuba and constitutes a potential scenario for the development of computer skills, making it possible to be reference in other educational contexts as long as they are adapted to them.

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20. Ginoris, O., Addine, F., Turcaz, J.: Basic material of the general didactics course of the Master in Education of the IPLAC (2006). http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Ivtoi_ AAAAAJ&hl=es. Accessed 21 Mar 2019 21. Leontiev, A.: Activity, Consciousness and Personality. People and Education, La Habana (1981) 22. Talízina, N.: Teaching Psychology. Progress, Moscú (1988) 23. Vygostky, L.: Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge (1987). https://es.scribd.com/doc/139420735//vigotsky-y-el-pensamiento-ylenguaje-pdf. Accessed 23 Feb 2020 24. Metraglia, R., Baronio, G., Villa, V.: Issues in learning engineering graphics fundamentals: shall we blame CAD? Presentado en International Conference on Engineering Design, ICED15, University of Brescia, Italy, July 2015 25. Gracia-Ibáñez, V., Vergara, M.: Applying action research in CAD teaching to improve the learning experience and academic level. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 13(1), 1–13 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-016-0010-5 26. Segura, J.: Development of multimedia modeling skills during the teaching process computer science learning in the young club. Thesis as an option to the scientific degree of Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, University of Matanzas, Matanzas, Cuba (2016) 27. Alea, M.: A methodology to contribute to the development of the kills to solve problems in the discipline Languages and Programming Techniques, in students of the Bachelor of Education career, specialty of Computer Science. Thesis as an option to the scientific degree of Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Pinar del Río (2012)

The New Meaning of Hybrid Learning During the Pandemic Olga Nikolaevna Imas1 , Olga Vladimirovna Yanuschik1,2 I. G. Ustinova1(&) , S. V. Rozhkova1,3 , and Evgeniia Aleksandrovna Beliauskene1

,

1

2

National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Lenin Avenue 30, Tomsk 634050, Russia [email protected] Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics, Lenin Avenue 40, Tomsk 634050, Russia 3 National Research Tomsk State University, Lenin Avenue 36, Tomsk 634050, Russia

Abstract. The pandemic sought the international educational community with a choice: to stop the educational process until “better times” or to find alternative approaches to the educational process. We offer one of the variants of the educational process, which we call the “hybrid form”, putting a new meaning into this concept. We are considering combining on-line students with face-toface students. Of course, the new form found can not do without the support of e-learning. Here we offer a new approach that develops computational skills, supported by STACK simulators. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to discuss a new form of the educational process and a comparative analysis of the rating results of teaching mathematics in the classical approach and using STACK simulators. Keywords: Hybrid learning
Mathematics
Engineering education
STACK question

1 Introduction The topic of developing and improving engineering mathematics education is always relevant, but the pandemic has exposed and highlighted the most pressing issues [1]. Many new approaches and teaching methods have emerged during the period of forced remote work with students. A number of methodological findings are the use of the latest information technology and the adaptation of already known methods to online learning [2, 3]. Some approaches were brand-new. One of them was conceived and implemented at Tomsk Polytechnic University (TPU) and was called “hybrid” learning. The term hybrid learning is widely and firmly embedded in our lexicon. Hybrid learning is described in detail in the works [4–6]. There are several definitions of hybrid learning. One of them was given in [7]. The authors of the book analyzed the existing

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 577–584, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_57

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interpretations of the term and identified the following as starting points for their analysis. Hybrid learning is: • “combining different ways of learning; • combining different methods of learning; • combining face-to-face learning with online learning”. This definition of hybrid learning is still used by many modern scientists. On the other hand, hybrid learning refers to an educational methodology that combines the integration of traditional classroom activities with computer-based learning activities [8]. At our university, hybrid learning is understood to learning that takes place in two formats simultaneously: in the classroom in the traditional way and remotely via video conferencing (VCS). A part of students attend classes in person (these are those who were able to come), and those who are outside the classroom have the opportunity to attend the lesson from anywhere in the world through the ZOOM, BigBlueBotton, Cisco, etc. conference. This format of classes has become very relevant during the pandemic, when the borders are closed and students simply do not have the opportunity to come to continue their studies. Hybrid learning includes both traditional time-proven learning technologies and modern teaching methods. However, it is believed that hybrid learning leads to a significant reduction in the level of knowledge gained [9, 10]. The purpose of our work is to find out how this format of training affects the quality of training.

2 Justification of the Study By the beginning of the school year, due to the pandemic situation, not all students could start studying “face-to-face”. This mainly concerned students from abroad and cities that were quarantined. It should be noted that the peak of the increase in coronavirus cases occurred in the first semester, and full-time students periodically both came into contact with the sick and had to go into self-isolation or they themselves became ill. Thus, from full-time students, they would become students of distance study. In each group, students were divided into two categories: full-time students (students who had the opportunity to attend classes as usual) and distance learning students who were remotely located. In order to provide full-fledged training for all students, both those who could attend classes full-time and those who did not come or were in quarantine, the administration of Tomsk Polytechnic University purchased multimedia equipment. All classrooms were equipped with cameras, microphones and speakers, partially with interactive whiteboards, and lecture halls with high-resolution cameras. The so-called “hybrid learning” was introduced. Thus, in real time, some students were present in the classroom, some were remotely located, but, nevertheless, they were also present in the classroom through multimedia equipment. They saw the whiteboard, listened to the teacher’s explanation, and spoke through the microphone themselves. Lectures were held exclusively in the remote learning mode. Each of the teachers chose an Internet platform, for example, ZOOM, CISCO, etc. was in the audience, read a lecture, and in real time there was a broadcast. At the same time, students could both ask questions and answer questions from the teacher.

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Practical classes were organized more freely. Full-time students were engaged in the classroom. They solved examples under the guidance of a teacher on a blackboard and discussed complex concepts of the topic. Everything that was done in the classroom was broadcast to students who could not come to study at the university. At the same time, full-time students could see their remote classmates on a large plasma panel, as well as everything they wrote in the ZOOM environment. Online students participated in solving problems on an equal basis with full-time students. They wrote down their decisions on an electronic whiteboard. Figure 1 shows the results of the discussion on the topic “complex numbers”. Online students turned on microphones and commented on their answers on an interactive whiteboard on the ZOOM platform. Since any students’ work in the practical class was rewarded with points, the students identified themselves in different colors. The figure shows that 3 students took part in the work at once.

Fig. 1. Graphic support of the response of online students in a practical lesson

Thus, the form of education during the pandemic was as close as possible to the classical form of education for all students. The desire to maintain close communication between students and teachers is also due to the fact that when studying the course “Mathematics”, it is very difficult for a first-year student to master it independently. Therefore, the role of the teacher is a certainly huge. Also, an important factor is the support of fellow students. There are some advantages of this form, such as: • The possibility of students of the distant form of education to actively participate in the educational process. • The possibility of transition of full-time students to distance education (for example, during self-isolation) allowed not to interrupting the learning process. • The opportunity for the teacher not to go on sick leave during the period of selfisolation (asymptomatic COVID-19, contact with sick relatives, etc.). • Maintaining constant communication with students who have been “excommunicated” from the university due to quarantine. However, there are some disadvantages: • Poor Internet connection and outdated equipment for some students did not allow them to perceive the broadcast qualitatively.

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• The difference in time zones did not allow some students to adequately perceive the information. • The possibility of interrupting communication for technical reasons. Full-time students continued to study, while distance learning students stopped studying. • The complexity of monitoring the educational activity of a student of a distant form of education during the lesson. • Students lack of equipment (graphic tablets) for full participation in the lesson. During the height of the pandemic, the rapid transition of the educational process to an online format led to a large overload of teachers, associated not only with the preparation of current educational material for online presentation, but also with the increased volume of checks of electronic reports of students. Therefore, well-designed structured e - courses for discipline support have become especially relevant. It was on e-learning platforms that educational, methodological and organizational information was placed, skills were developed and consolidated, and acquired knowledge and skills were tested. The use of electronic support courses in the study of mathematical disciplines at the university was discussed in detail in the works [11–13]. To implement the task of working out and testing the skills of solving problems, the teachers of mathematics of TPU created a methodological complex “STACK simulator”. This is a task bank of 1 200 STACK-type questions on all topics studied in the first semester. This tool was implemented using the specialized software package The System for Teaching and Assessment Using a Computer Algebra Kernel (STACK), developed as an additional plug-in to the MOODLE educational platform. The STACK plugin was developed by Christopher Sanguine (Loughborough University) in 2005 [14]. In 2013, version 3.0 was integrated as a separate question type in Moodle [15]. STACK is integrated with the Computer algebra system (CAS) “Maxima”, so that students can enter symbolic expressions as answers. At the same time, it is not necessary to ask different variants of correct answers, since the comparison of the entered answer by the student with the correct one is made not by comparing symbols, but by evaluating their mathematical properties using computer algebra “Maxima”. In addition, this type of test questions offers the following features: • • • • •

randomize task parameters; use random parameters in the entire text of the task and in the feedback to it; automate the verification of the answer entered by the student; flexibly evaluate the student’s response with the possibility of partial evaluation; give personalized feedback with an indication of the mistakes made and recommendations for further actions.

From the bank of “STACK simulators”, three educational blocks were formed, placed on the LMS MOODLE platform in the form of tests on the relevant topics: • tasks that duplicate the examples considered in the practical classes; • tasks that were offered as individual homework assignments; • tasks for knowledge control.

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The first set of questions, as a rule, consisted of tasks similar to the tasks considered in the class. They were solved only by distance education students or low-performing students. The second block is a block of individual tasks, was made up of intermediatelevel tasks. The requirements for completing this block applied to all students. The check was carried out in automatic mode. The third set of questions was used in the “deferred review” mode to organize the control of acquired skills and assess the level of knowledge of students. In this case, students do not see the prompts and do not have multiple attempts to answer. The question works in the “skill control” mode. Thus, we can highlight the positive aspects of supporting an alternative block of practical tasks: • organization of practical classes in remote form; • monitoring the participation of each student (including a distance student) in the practical lesson; • implementation of targeted feedback during independent work of students (through feedback on the answer and hints).

3 Comparative Analysis At the beginning of the pandemic, national ministries reacted very differently to the quarantine namely: from the complete termination of the educational process to the complete transfer it to online. However, the pandemic dragged on, and everyone had to adapt the educational process to the new conditions. Obviously, the cardinal decision to “wait out” led exclusively to the loss of the quality of education. Now, after a year of working in a permanent quarantine, we can summarize and conduct a comparative analysis of the results of the first semester of mathematics for engineers. Among the 1st year students, three groups were identified: experimental group 1 (320 people), those who developed practical skills on STACK simulators, control group 2 (820 people), those who worked with traditional methods in a hybrid format, and a group of students who studied either face-to-face only when the epidemiological situation allowed, or only online via e-mail or forum (38 people). Control measurements were carried out by the independent testing center for all university students on uniform tickets under equal conditions: at the beginning of the semester it was the entrance test, in the middle (test 1) it was after studying the modules “Algebra” and “Geometry” and at the end of the semester (test 2) it was after studying the modules “Limits” and “Derivatives”. Table 1 shows the average score (max 10) of correct task completion (xb), sample variance (Db) and sample standard deviation (r).

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1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

5.7 5.9 4.7 4.27 4.16 4.41 2.07 2.04 2.10

6.5 6.4 5.2 3.37 3.07 3.27 1.83 1.75 1.81

5.5 5.7 5.0 4.16 3.73 4.93 2.04 1.93 2.22

As shown in Table 1, the average assessment of the level of knowledge of students studying using STACK simulators does not differ at the level of significance 0.1 from the result of students studying using traditional methods. The sample variance and the sample standard deviation, according to the Fisher criterion, are also equal. We conclude that the development of computational skills through STACK simulators has taken place, and it can be applied on a par with traditional methods. At the same time, teachers have freed themselves from checking home and individual assignments and can focus on finding new methodological solutions. The weakest result was shown by group 3, where initially the students were weaker and the hybrid form was not used. It should be noted that the management of TPU did not restrict teachers in the forms of training courses. A number of teachers chose a completely contactless form of work with students, only through e-mail, social networks or an e-course forum. We found 6 forms of organizing classes: • • • •

Lectures and practical classes in the of videoconferencing capacity (VCC); Lectures in the VCC mode, practical classes in the classroom without VCC; Lectures and practical classes in the classroom without VCC; Self-study of the topic on the suggested sources and communicate with the teacher via e-mail, social networks, etc.; • Lectures in the VCC mode, practical classes in the classroom and in the VCC mode (hybrid); • Lectures and practical classes in the classroom and in the VCC mode (hybrid). After the end of the semester, a survey of students was conducted. The purpose of the survey: to identify which of the forms of organization of classes they prefer. 160 students took part in the survey. It should be noted that almost 30% of respondents were in favor of form number 2 “Lectures in the VCC mode, practical classes in the classroom without VCC”. We were puzzled by a fairly high percentage of votes for form number 4 “Self-study of the topic”. Traditionally, it is considered that the mathematical disciplines in the engineering university are the most difficult for students, especially for self-study. We expected that the most preferred form for students would be hybrid forms, when both full-time students and remote students are present in

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the audience at the same time. At least, for the teachers, this was the most interesting and difficult form of conducting classes, since nothing like this had ever happened before. However, according to the survey, students do not welcome such a form. Perhaps the students in the audience were annoyed that the teacher “communicates” with the camera or speaks to the addressee, who is not there. Perhaps the remote students still did not receive the full attention and understanding that they would have in the classroom. At the same time, when conducting hybrid lectures, remote students complained about various technical shortcomings, such as glare on the blackboard, the microphone in the teacher’s hand, which he uses as a pointer and it is difficult to hear it, etc. When the lecture takes place in the VCC mode without students in the audience, the teacher is completely focused on the students online, using either a graphics tablet, an interactive whiteboard, or a matte board (without glare). In addition, the opportunity to listen to a lecture without getting out of bed is also very attractive to students. This is what makes teachers very uneasy. We can not yet assess how much attention and concentration of the audience remains in remote listening to the lecture, how deeply the understanding of the theoretical aspects of the subject is formed.

4 Conclusion Thus, as a result of the joint efforts of the management of Tomsk Polytechnic University and teachers, a new hybrid teaching system was implemented for full-time students, namely, in classrooms equipped with a camera and microphone, practical and lecture classes were held simultaneously for students sitting in the audience and for students present remotely. This format of the educational process during the pandemic provided: • Conducting training sessions in disciplines that do not require specialized (laboratory) equipment; • For students isolated due to quarantine, illness, or border closures, actively participate in the educational process without interrupting it; • The opportunity for the teacher not to go on sick leave during the period of selfisolation (asymptomatic COVID-19, contact with sick relatives, etc.); • Maintaining constant communication with students who have been “excommunicated” from the university due to quarantine. An important educational component is carried by an electronic course with blocks of educational and methodological and organizational information, with working out and consolidating skills on mathematical simulators, testing the acquired knowledge and skills. The analysis of the rating of the results of mastering the discipline “mathematics” among students using STACK simulators and students from the control group showed that the results of both groups are close and do not differ at the significance level of 0.1. This means that we can delegate a large share of the teacher’s rough work to e-courses, using training simulators with well-built feedback and tasks with random parameters in the conditions.

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In addition, a survey of students about the most convenient form of conducting classes for them showed that students prefer new, non-traditional forms of training, even when studying the traditionally difficult discipline “mathematics” for them.

References 1. Bakker, A., Cai, J., Zenger, L.: Future themes of mathematics education research: an international survey before and during the pandemic. Educ. Stud. Math. 107, 1–24 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-021-10049-w. Accessed 21 Apr 2021 2. Estapa, A., Amador, J.: A qualitative metasynthesis of video-based prompts and noticing in mathematics education. Math. Ed. Res. J. 1–27 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-02100378-7. Accessed 14 Mar 2021 3. Lindsay, E., Evans, T.: The use of lecture capture in university mathematics education: a systematic review of the research literature. Math. Ed. Res. J. 1–21 (2021). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s13394-021-00369-8. Accessed 21 Apr 2021 4. Cerna, M.: Modified recommender system model for the utilized eLearning platform. J. Comput. Educ. 7(1), 105–129 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-019-00133-9 5. Aldon, G., Cusi, A., Schacht, F., Swidan, O.: Teaching mathematics in a context of lockdown: a study focused on teachers’ praxeologies. Educ. Sci. 11, 38 (2021). https://doi. org/10.3390/educsci11020038 6. Ustinova, I., Tomilenko, V., Imas, O., Beliauskene, E., Yanuschik, O.: STACK assessment in mathematics classroom: advantages and disadvantages. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1328, pp. 174–182. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-030-68198-2_15 7. Bonk, C., Graham, C.R., Cross, J., Moore, M.: The handbook of blended learning: global perspectives, local designs. Turk. Online J. Distance Educ.-TOJDE 10(4), 218–221 (2009) 8. Andreeva, N.V., Rozhdestvenskaya, L.V., Yarmakhov, B.B.: Step of the school in blended learning. Moscow (2016) 9. Christensen, C.M., Horn, M.B., Staker, H.: Is K-12 Blended Learning Disruptive? An Introduction to the Theory of Hybrids. Clayton Christensen Institute (2013) 10. Gafurov, I.R., Ibragimov, G.I., Kalimullin, A.M., Alishev, T.B.: Transforming higher education during the pandemic: pain points. High. Educ. Russia 29(10), 101–112 (2020) 11. Fedorov, K.B., Imas, O.N., Sherstneva, A.I., Kriviakov, S.V.: Blended learning and fundamental disciplines. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 545, 142–153 (2017) 12. Beliauskene, E.A., Imas, O.N., Kriviakov, S.V., Tsareva, E.V.: University mathematics for engineers: towards optimum compromise between interactive and traditional approaches. High. Educ. Russia 29(7), 22–31 (2020) 13. Rozhkova, S., Rozhkova, V., Chervach, M.: Introducing smart technologies for teaching and learning of fundamental disciplines. Smart Innov. Syst. Technol. 59, 507–514 (2016) 14. optes: Startseeite. https://www.optes.de. Accessed 9 Jan 2021 15. Daniel, M., Wingerter, B.: STACK – Ein neuer Fragetyp in der Mathematik. Tagungsband zum 2. In: HD-MINT Symposium, Nürnberg, pp. 54–57 (2015)

Modern Trends in Soft Skills Development for «International Transport Policy» Students Tatiana Polyakova(&) and Irina Zueva Moscow Automobile and Road Construction State Technical University, 64, Leningradskiy Pr., 125319 Moscow, Russia

Abstract. The article discusses modern trends in soft skills development for the “International Transport Policy” students with the help of distance learning technologies. Nowadays taking into account changes of the digital world there is a need of education transformation. Soft skills development provides personnel leadership in a digital era. The value of new technologies is that they allow to live and to study better in a quickly moving world, in various directions and disciplines and to understand flows of modern information. Assimilation of knowledge and abilities development act as a result of vigorous independent students’ activity on conflicts solving, improve professional knowledge, skills, abilities and critical thinking. The objective of our research is identification of the conceptual model “soft skills” opportunities in technical students training. Moreover, the demand for these skills in modern labor market is accented. The term “soft skills” is one of the new tracks now. The article includes the contentanalysis of the term «soft skills» providing the integrity of the term perception and its contents, applicability level in communication, and also the ways of soft skills development for “International Transport Policy” students in their foreign language practical training. Keywords: Soft skills


Distance learning technology
Teamwork

1 Introduction All educational systems in the world are currently working to reorganize education in a pandemic period. The new conditions for organizing the distance educational process have faced a number of difficulties and contradictions. The main problems here are the insufficient level of technical support, as well as the lack of a scientific and methodological concept for mass distance education. All these difficulties challenge the education system in a critical situation. The need to renew the concept of providing educational services has repeatedly been raised by scientists and university staff. UNESCO plays an important role in searching the ways to implement the new educational service: “It is recommended to use distance learning programs and open educational applications and platforms that universities and teachers can use to reach learners remotely and limit the disruption of education” [1]. It is obvious that the new training format offers a variety of opportunities and prospects for changing and improving educational systems.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 585–592, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_58

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Moscow Automobile and Road Construction State Technical University (MADI) has successfully realized implementation and technical support of the distance learning process on the basis of the effective Teams Microsoft training platform. Each teacher of our university had the opportunity to organize a real virtual class with broadcast performances and bilateral conversations, file exchange, individual tasks, checking students’ activities and projects. That is why the popular and competitive expert must be the professional possessing the certain well-developed communicative and administrative skills. The value of “the 21st century skills” (“soft skills”) is just that they help to be guided better in quickly changing world, in different new directions, disciplines and technologies and to understand the flows of new information. Having obtained “soft skills”, everyone will be able to be engaged in the self-education and self-development [2]. We need to take into consideration that soft skills are a complex of skills: skills of interpersonal communication, human skills, life skills, social skills, traits of character, social intelligence, emotional intelligence. Soft skills provide effective interaction with the environment, cooperation with others, successful participation in working process, high efficiency and achievement of the reasonable purposes taking into account professional skills [3]. The essence of soft skills is represented by the basic knowledge of the so-called modern technological directions as elements of deep thinking: neurotechnologies and artificial intelligence, systems of the distributed register, quantum technologies, new production technologies, the industrial Internet, robotics and sensory components, wireless communication technologies, virtual and added realities technologies [4]. Further we are going to discuss the main important soft skills that our students have. They are: the ability to work in a team, the ability to motivate and convince people, the problem solving ability and the conflict solving ability, decision making ability, communication skills, leadership skills. The effective communication ability is the basis of the vital and professional success, and also for career making of any expert.

2 Materials and Methods The methods used are determined by the purpose of the research. A great variety of information including books, scientific articles, Internet resources were analyzed and summarized. Our research was focused on the students’ soft skills development in the process of foreign language training (Management, Logistics and Economics Departments of Moscow Automobile and Road Construction State Technical University). It is based on the following scientific-pedagogical methods: the bibliography analyses, content-analyses, professional situation modeling. Many scientists at different times were engaged in the research of the concept “soft skills”. We see that their views were not the same in explaining and giving the main characteristics of this concept. All existing definitions of the concept are partially interconnected and interdependent, and some of them are closely connected with each other. From our point of view, the practice of the complete concept “soft skills” perception and its contents is quite successful and may be defined by means of the content-analysis.

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According to T. A. Yarkova, today “our society needs the creative people overcoming the level of the average opportunities, active and business minded”. Therefore, success in modern society - “is not only what we get at birth, but for ninety percent it is our efforts and hard work” [5]. Without necessary “soft skills” it is usually impossible to achieve real success. D. Goulman writes that efficiency of the person in his professional activity directly depends on the level of his soft skills development which, in his opinion, distinguish “successful experts from unsuccessful, the effective organizations from inefficient” [6]. T.A. Yarkova refers to the leading personal qualities of the 21st century “critical nature of thinking and activity; openness to everything new and the ability to live in new conditions; communicative skills; the ability to find and to use information; the desire and aspiration to constant self-improvement, etc.”. In other words, “soft skills” are the skills of effective communicators. So, N. V. Zhadko considers the soft skills development on the basis of the professional interpersonal relations which include their enterprise and organization, understanding, their corporate interests, their statements and the professional tasks solutions [7]. A. I. Ivonina, O. L. Chulanova suggest that “soft skills” should be considered as “soft competences” which may occur in “professional activity”. These characteristics are very important for employers and when making a competence list for certain employees” [8]. Our research shows that there is no unified concept of the term «soft skills». However, all these definitions are based on a combination of activity and communication approaches as well as personal competencies related to non-professional skills. They can be divided into four groups: basic communication skills (the ability to convince, argue, work in a team, negotiate, the ability to conduct business correspondence, conduct presentations); self-management skills (the ability to manage emotions, know how to behave in stressful situations, be able to plan and target, be able to use your time effectively, control your emotions); intellectual thinking skills (to search and analyze information, to think creatively, logically, to have project skills, to make decisions); foresight management (setting tasks, project management, motivation, control, easy feedback). And all these skills are relevant in the English learning process [9].

3 Results and Discussion This academic year students of the Management, Logistics and Economics Departments of Moscow Automobile and Road Construction State Technical University started classes on the supplementary professional program “International Transport Policy,” carried out together with Moscow State University of International Affairs (MGIMO) and with the support of Russian United Nations Association. This program provides English training course based on “UN Model”. This English course was effectively organized on the basis of the training platform Teams Microsoft because of the pandemic. Students studied with great interest and at the end they participated in a final videoconference.

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In fact, the “United Nations Model” is an international educational program. It is the basis for modeling educational activities in which students learn about diplomacy, international relations and the United Nations. In addition, the “UN Model” is also a scientific diplomatic conference with the elements of a role-play game. Here students are given chance to imitate in English this organization’s activity. They acquire diplomatic, leadership, language, research and negotiation, compromise and cooperation, critical thinking skills. Each participant acts as a personal delegate and represents a specific country, discussing current issues on the UN agenda. During the negotiations, based on the principles of diplomacy, our students are looking for ways to solve the global world problems (pandemic, environmental problems, economic development, disarmament, protection of human rights, etc.) [10]. The history of the “UN Model” is as follows: first in the United States, college students began to model the work of the American Senate. Later they began to model their activities. The oldest “UN Model” appeared in New York at UN headquarters in 1953. Now similar models (mainly “UN Models”) have spread throughout the world: from Great Britain and France to China and Egypt. One of the main models in Europe is the European International “UN Model” in the Hague (TEIMUN). In Russia it is annually held in MGIMO and has about 500 participants from different countries of the world and parts of Russia. This “UN Model” is the popular interactive platform for leading universities in Russia and abroad. The goal of the “UN Model” is to increase the level of a culture and global communication, to develop intercultural values and positive attitude towards different ethnic and confessional groups, to support creative initiatives, to improve communicative skills and negotiation skills. The organization and structure of the “UN Model” includes the following steps: stage 1. Organizational stage (preparations): from March 05 to April 16, 2020; stage 2. Main stage (conference) May 25, 2020; stage 3. Final (discussions): from May 26 to May 30, 2020. The organizational stage consists of informing students; formation of delegations (teams); choosing the country to be represented by the delegation, as well as the choice of the theme and thesis for the future conference. To do this, students have to study the country they are going to represent, examine the subject or issues on the agenda, analyze the work of the United Nations on this subject or issues. The delegation (team) includes 5–6 students elected in the group by voting. A candidate may be any student with current grades at least 70% in English, possessing creative and intellectual characteristics, communicative qualities and skills. The delegation should have the symbols of the state (flag) and a badge with the name of the country and their own names. It is also necessary to have thesis containing: a brief description of the problem, causes, conflict’s parties, analysis of the situation, their own proposals to overcome the critical situation. Each student group may be represented by 2–3 delegations. The main stage (conference) of the “UN Model” is the implementation of information and knowledge obtained by our students during the organizational stage. As soon as the delegates enter the conference room they turn from students to diplomates. Their goal is to discuss the issues on the agenda and to suggest possible solutions that can be supported by other countries. Our students carried out the video conference “Pandemic of Coronavirus: Various Countries and Strategies,” which was the main

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stage of training on the “UN Model”. They represented four countries: China, Great Britain, Italy and the USA and discussed the UN activities in their fight against the pandemic and the measures taken. “UN Model” meetings are held in accordance with the rules of procedure. The teams may express their views, suggest proposals and resolutions, make decisions on agenda. There are two main challenges: express the views of the country you represent and adopt a resolution, to develop a new strategy suitable for all states. This role-play game involves teamwork and statements. As soon as the meetings begin, students may coordinate their positions and actions with the delegates of countries informally. In the “UN Model”, countries with common goals and interests are often grouped together. The purpose of these groups is to facilitate the negotiation process. The negotiation process can be very intensive and completely disappointing, especially in large groups. The main diplomatic work is carried out in informal meetings of various groups reaching consensus and compromises [11]. The final result of this process is the adoption of a resolution or resolutions. The resolution is an important document containing the collaborative will of the forum participants. Work on the resolution includes four stages. First, at the General Debate, all delegates express their position on the issue as a whole, as well as their wishes on the content and structure of the resolution. Then, after informal consultations, the forum considers the submitted draft resolutions and approves one of them as the working draft. Then amendments are added. At the final stage, the amended text of the resolution is once again checked for logic, consistency, compliance with the norms of law and language and approved. This unique pedagogical technology promotes not only students’ creative activity and develops communicative competences but also motivates them to search the necessary information based on their professional knowledge and terminology to obtain the necessary soft skills for their future work. The final stage is the evaluation of the participants’ speeches and their experience. As representatives of a certain country, students must submit a report to their Ministry of Foreign Affairs. They can also put forward their proposals on the measures their country could take to implement the resolutions adopted, as well as discuss how accurately your role-play game reflects the current situation in the world and in the United Nations. It is also necessary to clarify what exactly destroyed the agreement and how these obstacles can be overcome. Finally, students analyze how real delegates to the United Nations have dealt with the same issues through their official documents and resolutions on these issues. To define what soft skills our students need it is necessary to pay attention to their future profession. So, for example, for “International Transport Policy” students the most important skills are the skills of interpersonal communication such as critical thinking, problem solving skills, effective team work skills, communicative skills, conflict solving skills. No doubt that all three stages of the “UN Model” involve the development and training of basic soft skills such as communication, teamwork and presentation, as well as leadership and time-management. As we see during regular teamwork, there is a constant distribution of roles, and strong students inevitably become leaders. In this case, we are talking about the

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development of such a skill as leadership. Leadership implies that the leader brings knowledge and skills. At the same time the followers are not lagging behind. They determine the failure or success of a leader: when a leader motivates followers well enough, he generates his success. But having the same knowledge and skills, the leader is forced to change the algorithm of the behavior depending on the situation [12]. We also noticed that analysis and discussion of team roles is a good method in the development of soft skills. Each student must suit his role well to complete a project. The main goals of the soft skills formation are the development of leadership skills, presentation and communication skills, the ability to analyze different information, see the main issues. Projects should be strategic and informative [13]. One more important skill is time-management. The main goal for the students here is to follow time management techniques. To help the students to manage their own time correctly, it is necessary to set a strict time frame for completing tasks while training. Self-organization is one of the advantages of a good professional. These types of soft skills development require certain English texts, vocabulary and internet resources based on modern data to realize the goals of professional education and personal growth.

4 Conclusion The analysis of the soft skills development for the “International Transport Policy” students with the help of distance learning technologies provides personnel leadership in a digital era. Assimilation of knowledge and abilities development act as a result of vigorous independent students’ activity on conflicts solving. Therefore, there is a creative mastering of professional knowledge, skills, abilities and critical thinking development. The concept of the model “soft skills” is one of the new tracks in technical students training now. The demand for these skills in modern labor market is accented. For “International Transport Policy” students the most important soft skills are such as communication, teamwork and presentation, as well as leadership and timemanagement. In conclusion it can be said that the practice of English language training for “International Transport Policy” students on “UN Model” shows us the following results. Modern analysis of the current pedagogical situation in the pandemic conditions becomes a priority for education. Moreover, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of a particular professional area to provide support to all participants of the training process: students, their parents, teachers and administration at all levels. It is very important to analyze the actions taken and their further use in teaching. International experience and best practices should be taken into account. Due to information technologies, creativity of thinking and full communication interaction of students in difficult conditions of distance learning our English course was successfully carried out for the students of Logistics, Management and Economics Departments [14]. Global economic and social processes such as globalization, international contracts, business contacts, international exchange of experience - all these spheres require good

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specialists with professional English knowledge possessing such soft skills as critical thinking and communication. At the same time the whole educational environment of our university should be aimed at the soft skills development not only concerning the English language. In this case the students will have the desire to gain new experience for self-development, to have perspective goals and plans for the future, to solve international issues successfully. In addition, the main methods of the soft skills development in teaching English for “International Transport Policy” students deserve increased attention: self-training (reading books, articles, blogs); search of feedback (from groupmates); training based on the experience of the others (studying a model of a successful actions); special tasks (background trainings); training through expansion of subject lines on the basis of binary thematic oppositions; development in the process of training. An important point is that except for above-mentioned methods it is possible to name other ways of the soft skills development in foreign language training. This process can be endless and depends on many factors - requirements of Federal State Educational Standards in Russia, requirements of the labor market, interests and creativity of the students and teachers. It is necessary for the technical universities students to develop professional management soft skills and interaction in the highly competitive and hi-tech environment in the conditions of global metatrends: digitalization of all life spheres; automation and robotization; globalization (economic, technological and cultural); demographic changes; formation of network society, the network technologies and decisions based on the blockchain technology; ecology; acceleration, escalating speed of the world changes.

References 1. Conrad, D., Openo, J.: Assessment Strategies for Online Learning: Engagement and Authenticity. Athabasca University Press, Edmonton (2018) 2. Lau, L.K.: Distance Learning Technologies: Issues, Trends and Opportunities. Longwood University, New York (2000) 3. Melsner, N.: Teaching Soft Skills in a Hard World Paperback. Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham (2018) 4. Zueva, I.V.: Intercultural project activity of the students’ - future specialists in organization work with youth. In: Professional Communication: Topical Issues of Linguistics and Technique, vol. 10, pp. 135–139 (2017) 5. Yarkova, T.A., Cherkasova, I.I.: Formation of flexible skills at students in the conditions of implementation of the professional standard of the teacher. Bull. Tyumen State Univ. 4(2), 222–234 (2016) 6. Goulman, D.: Emotional leadership: a management skill people on the basis of emotional intelligence, Alpina Business of Axle boxes (2008) 7. Zhadko, N.V.: “Soft” skill as unit of contents intensive professional and business of training. Sci. Res. Educ. 8, 19–22 (2011) 8. Chulanova, O.L., Ivonina, A.I.: Formation of soft-skills (soft competences): approaches to integration of the Russian and foreign experience, classification, an operationalization. Hum. Resour. Manage. Intellect. Resour. Russia 1(28), 53–58 (2017)

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9. Lippman, L.H., Ryberg, R., Carney, R., Kristin, A.: Workforce connections: key “soft skills” that foster youth workforce success: toward a consensus across fields. Child Trends Publication (2015) 10. Rhoades, G.: Minimizing the chaos through cooperative classroom management. Engl. Teach. Forum 4(51), 28–34 (2013) 11. Kozar, O.: Towards better group work: seeing the difference between cooperation and collaboration. Engl. Teach. Forum 2(48), 16–23 (2010) 12. Green, C.J.: Leadership and soft skills for students: empowered to succeed in high school, college, and beyond paperback. Dog Ear Publishing, LLC (2015) 13. Klaus, P.: Communication breakdown. California Job J. 28, 1–9 (2010) 14. Zvacek, S., Smaldino, S., Simonson, M.: Teaching and Learning at a Distance. Information Age Publishing, Charlotte (2019)

Development of an Open Digital Platform “Digital PsyTech” for Psychological and Pedagogical Support of Participants in the Educational Process Nadezhda I. Almazova1, Anastasiia Tabolina2(&) , Anna V. Rubtsova2, Natalia B. Smolskaia2, Dmitrii V. Tikhonov3, Marina V. Bolsunovskaya4, Tatiana Abashkina5, and Nikolay I. Snegirev6 1

Institute of Humanities, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, Russia 2 Institute of Humanities, Graduate School of Applied Linguistics, Translation and Interpreting, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, Russia 3 Institute of Industrial Management, Economics and Trade, Graduate School of Business and Management, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, Russia [email protected] 4 Laboratory “Industrial Systems for Streaming Data Processing”, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, Russia [email protected] 5 Laboratory of Industrial Systems for Streaming Data Processing of the SPbPU National Technology Initiative Center for Advanced Manufacturing Technologies, St. Petersburg, Russia [email protected] 6 Department of Vocational Guidance and Pre-University Training, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, Russia

Abstract. The article discusses the experience of developing and implementing an open digital platform “Digital PsyTech” for the psychological and pedagogical support of the participants in the educational process on the basis of a multidisciplinary university. Along with the functions of socialization, reproduction and development of corporate culture, great importance is paid to the socio-psychological aspect of the development of the future specialist and the reduction of stress in the teaching and management team. The psychological platform for distance learning and development of participants in the educational process of Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU) is based on the methods of psychological work and combines the experience of world web services, Russian and authors’ developments in the field of distance counseling. The format involves individual and group work, conducting online seminars on the most relevant issues with built-in training modules in the field of psychology of self-knowledge, self-development, self-assistance, organizing

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 593–601, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_59

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Psychological assistance development
University
Students


Distance

1 Context Almazova N. I. notes that the psychological and pedagogical support of the future specialists at the stage of training at the university is one of the ways to develop their readiness for professional activity [3]. Tabolina A.V. writes that the solution of personal psychological problems of students in the process of providing them with counseling and psychotherapeutic assistance significantly contributes to the formation of a number of their professional competencies: value-semantic orientation in the surrounding world, self-development, social interaction, health-saving [1–4]. Bolsunovskaya M. V. notes the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of personality. Together with the technical departments at the Polytechnic University, it is planned to digitize a large array of psychological techniques, create blockchains, develop artificial intelligence, skin-offs, digitalize and customize, and develop hackathons in the field of the remote design. Snegirev N describes the need for the introduction of the distance technologies in the provision of psychological and pedagogical assistance to the participants of the educational space. By 2025, an important component of the personal development of a professional of the future will be the possession of soft skills of “agile skills & knowledge”, which will include the skills of “active listening”, “assessing stakeholder”, “brainstorming”, “building empowered teams” [5]. Tikhonov D. V. notes that an important component of personal development in a changing society is the effectiveness of moral education. Modern trends of the society, in his opinion, are: intellectualization of mass professions, digitalization of information bases and systems, customization of educational products, introduction of game technologies (gamification) as a tool for psychological and pedagogical development [2, 5]. Thus, an open digital platform “Digital PsyTech”, developed on the basis of SPbPU, will act as an innovative product aimed at providing the comprehensive psychological and pedagogical support to the participants in the educational process in the face of great challenges.

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2 Purpose The purpose of the study is to justify and develop an open digital platform “Digital PsyTech” for the psychological and pedagogical support of the participants in the educational process on the basis of a multidisciplinary university. Research objectives: 1. Develop an open digital platform “Digital PsyTech” for the psychological and pedagogical support of participants in the educational process (on the example of a multidisciplinary university). 2. Define the content components of the digital system of psychological and pedagogical support in the era of great challenges. 3. Develop a set of socio-psychological and pedagogical methods for the diagnosis and correction of emotional, behavioral and personal disorders. 4. Develop the digital help, training and development button. 5. Describe the possibilities of the effective use of the distance psychological and pedagogical technologies in a multidisciplinary university, outline the prospects for further work.

3 Approach Development of an open digital platform “Digital PsyTech” for the psychological and pedagogical support of participants in the educational process (on the basis of a multidisciplinary university). The main goal of the platform is to ensure the psychological readiness of the participants in the educational process to effectively interact in the learning process, psychological assistance to people who find themselves in crisis situations, the formation of an active position of graduates in the labor market, psychological support for social and educational initiatives. In its activities, “Digital PsyTech” is guided by the Law of the Russian Federation “On Education”, federal laws, decrees and orders of the President of the Russian Federation, the Regulations on the Service of Practical Psychology in the Education System of the Russian Federation, the Charter and Internal Labor Regulations of the University, orders, orders of the rector, and other local regulations. The main tasks of the “Digital PsyTech” platform are the following: 1. promoting professional and personal development of students; 2. promoting the harmonization of the socio-psychological climate at the university; 3. participating in the development of the system of measures aimed at preventing deviant behavior of students; 4. assisting in improving the level of adaptation of students and graduates to the modern labor market; 5. promoting of the dissemination and implementation of the achievements of psychological science in the educational practice. Content components of the digital system of psychological and pedagogical support in the era of great challenges (Fig. 1.)

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Fig. 1. The main directions of the psychological work based on the digital platform “Digital PsyTech”

1. Information support • Creating a section of “Center for Psychological Support of SPbPU” on the SPbPU website; • Creating a hotline (call center). 2. Organizational and methodological activities • Development and design of psychological programs; • Preparation of methodological materials for complex diagnostics; • Development of individual self-help programs for all participants of the educational process; • Statistical processing of diagnostic data; • Preparation of reports and conclusions; • Conducting psychological examinations; • Preparation of a student’s psychological profile (on request) • Preparation of a psychological portfolio of a specialist (appendix to the graduate’s resume, on request) • Scientific and publishing activities.

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3. Educational activities • Delivering lectures and conducting seminars on the actual psychological request from the university administration, participants of the educational process, parents; • Organizing open meetings with leading speakers (consulting psychologists, diagnosticians, business coaches, coaches, doctors, etc.); • Organizing performances on current topical psychological problems; • Organizing a film lecture hall (discussion of films with psychological problems); • Organizing game events and psychological quests; • Developing a training program (team building, cohesion, communicative competence, conflict mediation, etc.) 4. Diagnostic activities • Organizing testing on the professional orientation of applicants; • Analysis of professional orientation and development of a digital portrait of a graduate; • Conducting monitoring studies of the state of psychological health of students and employees (on request); • Conducting psychological and sociological surveys on current topical issues. 5. Advisory and correctional activities • Conducting individual and group consultations in face-to-face and remote format on a free and contractual basis; • Creating a psychological relaxation room for all participants of the educational space; • Redirection to specialists and specialized doctors (on request). Resources: 1. Management and staff of the center (consultants, diagnosticians, business-coaches); 2. Premises (for individual consultations, group and training work) in accordance with the requirements for the work of psychological centers; 3. Furniture and equipment in accordance with the requirements for the work of psychological centers; 4. Licensed software for conducting psychological diagnostics; 5. Cooperation with the “Center for Career Guidance and Pre-University Training”, “SPbPU Media Center”, the University administration, SPbPU institutes, parents, medical institutions, etc. The Service volunteers are undergraduates, postgraduates and teachers-specialists with psychological counseling training and experience. Consultations can be conducted in pairs with undergraduates or postgraduates of SPbPU who have passed special training. The meeting lasts 50 min. As part of the Service, the client can receive up to 5 psychological consultations.

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In order to early identify the students who need individual psychological, social and pedagogical support, we have selected a multi-level set of diagnostic tools by category [7] (Fig. 2). Level 1 of diagnostics includes Personality, temperament, character 1. 2. 3. 4.

Eysenck Test (Eysenck) Kettell’s multifactorial personality methodology. Form C. Kettell’s multifactorial personality technique (youth version 14 PF) MMPI The emotional sphere of the individual

1. The self-assessment scale of personal anxiety (Spielberger) 2. The Bass-Darkey Questionnaire 3. Test of individual anxiety of a person as an individual, subject of activity and personality 4. Personal anxiety scale

Fig. 2. Multi-level complex of the diagnostic tools according to the “Psy Digital Technologies” (DT) categories

Level 2 of the diagnostics includes: Motivation and will 1. Determining the level of motivation for achieving success (A. Mehrabian) 2. Self-control scale 3. Professional Interests Map

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4. Test-questionnaire of the level of subjective control States of personality 1. 2. 3. 4.

Test of differential self-assessment of functional status Depression scale Questionnaire for assessing acute physical fatigue Diagnosis of the social frustration level Level 3 of diagnostics includes: Interpersonal relationships

1. Methods of diagnostics of students’ socio-psychological adaptation of K. Rogers and R. Diamond 2. The method of Rene Gilles 3. Assessment of ways to respond in a conflict (K. Thomas’ Test) 4. Sociometry Development scales 1. Expert assessment of the development level 2. Intelligence Structure Test 3. Multifactorial development research (The Scale of Development of the Longutide Expert System) The “Digital PsyTech” platform is implemented on the official website of Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU). The entrance to the platform is carried out through a branded button: two hands joined to form a heart - a symbol of open help and support (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. The button of the digital platform for psychological assistance and support for participants in the educational space. The project is implemented on the website of SPbPU.

The psychological platform for distance learning and development of participants in the educational process of SPbPU is based on the methods of psychological work and combines the experience of world web services, Russian and author’s developments in the field of remote counseling. The format involves individual and group work, conducting online seminars on the most relevant issues of concern to the youth audience, with built-in training modules in the field of psychology of self-knowledge, self-development, relationships, communication; organization of online consultations, implementation of educational programs (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. The structure of the tools of the psychological platform for distance learning and development of participants in the educational process of SPbPU Digital PsyTech. Note: Translation of the name of the Digital technologies (DT) blocks from top to bottom (level differentiation technologies, gaming technologies, design technologies, case technology, workshop technology, modular technology)

4 Conclusions The success of this project largely depends on the implementation of the plans laid down in the order on the creation of the Center. During the implementation of the platform, the increase in the need for psychological assistance and counseling on the part of the university employees and teachers was additionally identified, which requires the distribution of additional workload and the creation of conditions for effective, systematic work with this target audience. The issue of stress management, prevention of professional and emotional burnout is relevant. In this regard, there is an increasing need for specialized premises equipped according to the standards of the office, which would increase the efficiency of work and provide access to and the necessary consulting assistance on the basis of SPbPU. In addition, it will allow forming a stable perception of SPbPU as a modern educational institution aimed at the development of socially mature and psychologically adapted young people, which is especially important in the conditions of systemic instability. Through training and counseling, the Center of psychological counseling will also improve the pedagogical skills of the university staff in various aspects of psychological and educational work.

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References 1. Almazova, N., Krylova, E., Rubtsova, A., Odinokaya, M.: Challenges and opportunities for Russian higher education amid covid-19: teachers’ perspective. Educ. Sci. 10(12), 368 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci1012036 2. Almazova, N., Rubtsova, A., Krylova, E., Barinova, D., Eremin, Y., Smolskaia, N.: Blended learning model in the innovative electronic basis of technical engineers training. In: Annals of DAAAM and Proceedings of the International DAAAM Symposium, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 814– 825 (2019). https://doi.org/10.2507/30th.daaam.proceedings.113 3. Olennikova, M.V., Tabolina, A.V.: Psycho-pedagogical support of students project activities in multi-functional production laboratories (Fab lab) on the basis of technical university. In: Auer, M.E., Tsiatsos, T. (eds.) ICL 2018. AISC, vol. 917, pp. 732–740. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11935-5_69 4. Olennikova, M.V., Tabolina, A.V., Posohova, S.T., Khalyapina, L.P.: Professional selfconcept of students future psychologists. In: European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences EpSBS, vol. 73. pp. 926–933 (2019) 5. Rubtsova, A.V., Almazova, N.I., Bylieva, D.S., Krylova, E.A.: Constructive model of multilingual education management in higher school. In: IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 940, no. 1, p. 012132 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757899X/940/1/012132 6. Rubtsova, A., Odinokaya, M., Krylova, E., Smolskaia, N.: Problems of mastering and using digital learning technology in the context of a pandemic. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A., Shipunova, O., Volkova, V. (eds.) PCSF/CSIS -2020. LNNS, vol. 184, pp. 324–337. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65857-1_28 7. https://vk.com/wall48504700_6129

Evaluation of User Experiences in an Immersive Role Play for CrossInstitutional and Cross-National Virtual Collaborative Learning in Hospitality Management Maik Arnold1 , Stefan Jung1, Helge Fischer1(&), Stéphanie Philippe2 , Valerie Radelet2, Pierre-Charles Chevallier3, Andreas Efstathiou4, Nikolaos Boukas4 , and Christakis Sourouklis4 1

4

University of Applied Sciences (FHD), Güntzstraße 1, 01069 Dresden, Germany [email protected] 2 Manzalab, 108 Rue Saint-Honoré, 75001 Paris, France 3 MBA ESG, 35 Avenue Philippe Auguste, 75011 Paris, France European University of Cyprus, Diogenis Street 6, CY 2404 Nicosia, Cyprus

Abstract. Both the European Union and the OECD highlight, amongst others, collaboration, virtual communication and problem-solving, as well as social and digital skills as key competences for the 21st century. As such, the Hotel Academy project aims at the development of a joint curriculum that allows for virtual interdisciplinary, international, and intercultural collaboration and exchange between three European universities in the field of hospitality management. In the implementation of the curriculum, immersive technologies are applied to role plays as the primary didactic method. In this paper, we present research on the piloting of an industry-specific desktop/VR-based role play after a detailed description of the project and the VR learning environment. The evaluation of participants’ user experiences follows a mixed methods approach and helps not only to draw attention to learners’ experiences of presence and immersion, but also to the reflection on the role play design and didactical approach, as well as the teaching and learning environment. Our results imply that students were willing to draw their full attention to the underlying learning task when working in the desktop VR environment. Keywords: Evaluation


User experiences
Virtual collaborative learning

1 Introduction The ability to work in decentralized, location-independent, and international settings, in which collaborative information and communication technology (ICT) is applied, has become an integral part of the professional capability of so-called knowledge workers all over the world. Both the European Union and the OECD highlight collaborative skills, virtual communication, problem-solving competences, and purposeful use of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 602–613, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_60

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network-based online tools, as well as the development of social skills and abilities to create digital content as key competencies for the 21st century [1, 2]. These skills are also essential for the tourism sector. In addition, internationality and cross-cultural competence are fundamental requirements for professionals in this field. Furthermore, in the context of technological change and digital transformation, there is a constant demand for future tourism managers who have acquired fundamental communication and digital literacy skills [3]. Against this backdrop, the Hotel Academy project aims at the development of a joint curriculum that enables virtual interdisciplinary, international, and intercultural collaboration and exchange between three European universities in the field of hospitality management. In the implementation of the curriculum, immersive technologies are applied to role plays as the primary didactic method [4]. Role play, as a learning method, offers to students realistic professional challenges on complex, credible life situations, and is strongly related to empathy skill development. Through role plays students learn to analyze problematic situations and to develop innovative solutions in complex social systems by taking over a range of authentic roles. Starting from there, students acquire strategic competences that strengthens both their professional and personal development [5]. The use of immersive technologies such as virtual reality (VR) in role plays has particular potential for the development of the mentioned 21st-century skills. VR has been defined as a scientific and technical field that uses information technology and behavioral interfaces to simulate, in a virtual world, the behavior of 3D entities, which interact in real time with each other and with one or more users in a pseudo-natural immersive environment via sensor-motoric channels [6]. As such, VR is based on two concepts: immersion and interaction (technological dimension) and contributes to the creation of physical presence, self-presence and social presence or co-presence [7, 8]. By immersing themselves in a virtual world and the associated experience of presence, learners merge with the learning environment, immersive role plays are, therefore, felt to be natural and realistic. In such environments, learners then have the opportunity to change their perspective, to cooperate with one another and to solve authentic problems. In immersive role plays, the potentials of game-based learning and VR learning can be combined, which allows for a study-centered access to education, and which also enables the development of learners’ social and communicative skills. Accordingly, we raise in this paper the following question: What factors influence participants’ user experiences when learning in a virtual collaborative learning environment? After presenting research on the piloting of a VR-based role play, we provide a detailed description of the Hotel Academy project and the VR learning environment. The evaluation of participant’s user experiences follows a mixed methods approach and helps to draw attention not only to learner’s experiences of presence and immersion, but also to the reflection of the role play design and didactical approach, as well as the teaching and learning environment. 1.1

Project Description: Hotel Academy

Hotel Academy is an ERASMUS+ Program, coordinated by Manzalab, France, that aims at conceptualizing, utilizing and applying integrated innovative pedagogical tools

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and practices based on modern technology to the fields of tourism and hospitality, while focusing on the training of students from various European countries. To achieve this, the project initially assessed the pedagogical needs of three separate university’s students (the project participants) across Europe, the MBA ESG, France, the Fachhochschule Dresden - University of Applied Sciences (FHD), Germany, and the European University Cyprus (EUC), Cyprus. After analyzing this audience’s specific requirements and challenges regarding their training and education on tourism and hospitality, especially in the current turbulent environment, the project examined the option to integrate digital immersive interactive tools within each university’s curriculum and educational framework. In this regard, a series of proposed interactive tools have been suggested and utilized, firstly to students individually in each university, and then in a common exercise among the three institutions. Specifically, a PC software application (see next section) that visualizes on a VR platform the reception in a hotel lobby let students perform roles such as hotel managers, receptionists, and/or hotel guests in solving managerial and operational problems based on realistic hospitality scenarios. Moreover, a series of videos, texts and figures, 360° photos and videos were utilized, while serious game elements in either individual or collective mode are also incorporated. Based on these experimentations, students of varying levels and cultural backgrounds discuss and exchange their views regarding best practices and solutions on real-time problems of the hospitality industry, not by passively watching the educator, but by actively participating through various roles and scenarios. Having said this, the project is a valuable exercise regarding the application of innovative technologies on the education and training in traditional industries such as hospitality. Consequently, this project creates a unique opportunity for more efficient higher education and training for tourism and hospitality students and trainees, a necessity which has been especially signified during the COVID-19 crisis period. 1.2

Description of the Technical Tool: Role Play as Desktop/VR

The Hotel Academy TEEMEW application is designed to be played with VR headsets (Oculus Quest 2 devices) to ensure optimal immersion. However, due to COVID-19 sanitary restrictions and the impossibility of meeting physically with students to offer them the experience in VR, we have started the first experimentations in a remote mode, via a modified desktop/VR version. Several iterations have been conducted so far. Additionally, other tools were used such as MS Teams™ (for chat purposes), Kahoot™, and Google Forms™ (for questionnaire purposes). The desktop/VR version requires both users and instructor to install an executable file on a Windows™ operation system. For the instructor, a back office enables him/her to invite the students, plan their position within the amphitheater, upload files to be displayed (pictures, videos, PPT documents), and finally to plan the roles that will be played (max. of eight actors and their roles e.g., hotel staff or guests). Once the application is launched, each student creates his/her avatar and then enters the amphitheater and is placed on a seat. The instructor stands in the center of the

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amphitheater. Students and instructors each have their own individual screen and interface. Instructors can display media on these screens as well as launch role plays scenarios, which take place in a 3D hotel lobby. Actors are teleported to the hotel lobby while the other students remain in the amphitheater as spectators (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Role-play design: actors’ point of view in hotel lobby, and amphitheater.

Before launching, the instructor presents to the students the detailed situation of each scenario to be played and then decides with the group who will play each role (e.g., reception frontline staff, manager, or guests). In the scenarios, actors can speak and hear each other; spectators and instructors can intervene if their microphone is enabled. A good headset is required for optimal audio sound and to avoid echo or Larsen effects. The learning journey in Hotel Academy leads students through three separate learning phases: (1) A preparation phase, in which learners define their roles, not only within an immersive VR scenario but also in spectator mode outside VR. (2) Within the scenario phase, learners participate in a role play as hotel management, hotel staff, or visitors, and test their skills in a variety of challenging situations. (3) In the final feedback and discussion phase, learners discuss and evaluate their learning experiences together in a collaborative, cross-institutional virtual classroom. This three-phase activity is part of two bachelor’s and one master’s degree programs of the participating university partners from Cyprus, Germany and France, since it already delivers complex interactivity that prepares students for further professional qualifications.

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2 Evaluation Design The evaluation design follows a mixed methods approach and triangulates multiple types of data (written and oral) which allows for various procedural and formative evaluation objectives: a comprehensive impression of user experiences as well as the monitoring of the learning process, the exploration of the learning arrangement, and a reflection of the design of the role play itself ([10], p. 537). As evaluation instruments we combined questionnaires and reflective group discussions with learners at each stage of the process spanning from an initiation and instruction phase via the formative evaluation of the intervention itself to post-reflections of learners (see Fig. 2). Moreover, we conducted guided online group discussions in a virtual learning environment (TEEMEW and MS Teams™; [11]). Additionally, the short version of the user experience questionnaire (UEQ-S, German translation) was used for a quick and immediate assessment of the feelings, impressions, and attitudes that arise when experiencing the TEEMEW desktop/VR (see Sect. 3), whose scales (pragmatic and hedonic quality) and various translations have been successfully validated elsewhere (e.g., measured by Cronbach’s Alpha; [13]).

Fig. 2. Evaluation design for piloting of Hotel Academy.

The sample at ESG consists of three students and one lecturer from a postgraduate degree program “Management de l’Hôtellerie (MBA)” and at FHD it consists of four students and one lecturer from the undergraduate degree program “Tourism and Event Management (B.A.).” There are two instructors from FHD. Additionally, in all piloting scenarios, one instructor from Manzalab assisted with the technical administration of the role play scenarios; another person from Manzalab was responsible for the documentation of the evaluation. Piloting and its evaluation at each campus followed similar procedures (see Fig. 2). Two scenarios were selected for the pilots: (1) Following the recommendation on Tripadvisor™, guests would like to book lunch in the hotel restaurant on coming Sunday, as they had been unable to dine the night before because the restaurant was full the whole day. Receptionists receives information that the restaurant is closed on Sunday for maintenance. (2) Guests arrive at the hotel at 20:00 and of the 50 rooms available, including 2 rooms out of order, the net occupancy rate is about 85%. The new receptionist welcomes all guests and asks the manager on duty about pricing conditions. The first stage (t = 0) comprises the initiation of the experimentation through a kick-off meeting with students in a virtual room (MS Teams™). At FHD, students were

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asked before technical instruction to fill in a preliminary questionnaire in order to assess their pre-knowledge and previous experiences in communication trainings of this sort. The second stage (t = 1) included the actual intervention and a formative evaluation approach: After students had played two separate role play scenarios, a reflection process followed. At ESG, students were involved in an open discussion with staff from Manzalab and with their lecturer. At FHD, directly after each scenario students completed the UEQ-S (validated German translation), as the “goal of the UEQ is to catch the immediate impression of a user towards a product. Thus, try to get the answers to the UEQ before you discuss with the participants” [14]. The evaluation procedure was concluded in the third stage (t = 2) with a debriefing discussion with students at ESG and with a guided 60-min group discussion at FHD. The analysis of the students’ user experiences in the questionnaires followed the procedure provided by the most up-to-date version of the Microsoft Excel tool that is available on www.ueq-online.org. The results from the various open and guided group discussions were derived from a systematic application of the steps of qualitative content analysis that included (re-)reading all transcribed data, comparing the data with a view to establishing similarities, differences and contradictions, creating codes using thematic coding and in-vivo-coding, and summarizing headings into main categories until thematic saturation of the data collected was achieved [12].

3 Results of First Tests 3.1

Results of ESG Experimentation

The experimentation with students from ESG was set in two sequences and with a range of role play scenarios on separate dates (March 22nd and May 10th 2021), which involved data collection from TEEMEW beta tests, and from students’ feedback about the technical organization of the role play, as well as its benefits and obstacles during the scenarios. This was complemented by user recommendations (student and instructor) in open discussion rounds after testing each of the scenarios. The following conclusion and recommendation were drawn from the first experimentation at ESG and the Manzalab team: A technical manual should be sent to the students ahead of the scheduled experimentation and a pre-test should be conducted. Headsets should be mandatory in order to avoid echoes, as well as being a fundamental requirement for efficient communication. Participants should also be able to participate in spectator mode during the role play. The role play is technically limited to eight actors/testers for one session, and multiple sessions can be planned. The objective of the second test was to replicate the piloting from March 2021 with the lecturer, two instructors, and three students (same testers as for the previous test). All testers and instructors used TEEMEW Second Version; the downloading was successful and the TEEMEW passage fluid. Two new detailed role plays were offered to students. While the first scenario was short and required a second attempt with more instructions, the second scenario was successful at the first attempt. The following feedback was collected in the open discussions: There is a need to provide the

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“players” with a more detailed presentation of the role play scenarios. Additional features were suggested such as videos in the background of the reception desk area. Conducting the role play in their native language would increase the students’ learning experiences except for the case of joint virtual collaborative meetings with EUC and FHD partners. Furthermore, future piloting should consider evaluating the learning experiences and effects of the role plays on the participants during the intervention itself, and continue to involve them in order to discuss potential improvement. 3.2

Results of FHD Experimentation (First Testing May 2021)

The evaluation of piloting the TEEMEW Second Version at FHD took place on 5th May 2021. The following findings will be presented based on the preliminary questionnaire (t = 0), user experience questionnaire (UEQ-S) after the first (t1 = 1) and second (t2 = 1) scenario, and on an online group discussion. Preliminary Questionnaire on Previous Experiences. Participants were asked to fill out a short MS Form questionnaire before the technical instruction and intervention. The results show that of the eight participants, only one had previous experience with similar communication trainings. The question of whether the respondents make regular or more frequent use of virtual environments (for differing purposes) shows that about 75% do not use it at all and only two respondents (13%) use it on a more frequent basis. So far, no respondent has participated in a virtual or online role play specifically for educational purposes. Six of the respondents (75%) feel prepared for communication in professional contexts, especially in contact with customers or colleagues if conflicts arise, while the rest feel less, rather than more, prepared. The reasons and motives why participants enrolled freely in this piloting course include curiosity and the acquisition of new knowledge for professional reasons. Respondents expected from the TEEMEW role play scenarios to discover new opportunities for interactions, to learn innovative approaches, and to receive new impulses for conflict mediation, but also to have fun. Analysis of the UEQ-S. Respondents were asked to fill in an MS Form with the short version of the UEQ (German translation) immediately after the first (t1 = 1) and second scenarios (t2 = 1). The results are presented in Figs. 3 and 4. The pragmatic quality consists of efficiency (item: efficient), perspicuity (items: easy, clear) and dependability (item: supportive), while the hedonic quality consists of stimulation (items: exciting, interesting) and novelty (items: inventive, leading edge) ([14], p. 3).

Fig. 3. Scales pragmatic quality (blue) and hedonic quality (yellow) for Scenario 1 at t1 = 1.

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Scenario 1. All pragmatic (efficiency, perspicuity, dependability; mean scale value of 1.0) and hedonic (stimulation and novelty; mean scale value of 1.688) qualities of the product were assessed as positive within the range of 0.8 to 1.8, except for the quality “easiness” in the perspicuity scale as being at the “positive” end of a neutral evaluation. This scale measures how easy it is to become familiar with the TEEMEW app. As it was the aim of the first scenario to ensure that participants would learn how to use the application, this result shows that participants need some time to become familiar with it. This also corresponds with the results from the group discussion (see below). As shown, the pragmatic quality scale (goal-oriented aspects) was lower than the hedonic quality scale (non-goal-oriented aspects).

Fig. 4. Scales pragmatic quality (blue) and hedonic quality (yellow) for Scenario 2 at t2 = 1.

Scenario 2. All pragmatic (efficiency, perspicuity, dependability; mean scale value 1.5) and hedonic (stimulation and novelty; mean scale value 1.786) qualities of the product were assessed without any exception as positive within the range of 1.1 to 2.4. Similarly, the pragmatic quality scale (goal-oriented aspects) was lower than the hedonic quality scale (non-goal-oriented aspects). Compared to scenario 1, both scale values and the overall value (from 1.344 to 1.643) were not only higher but the difference between the scale values also decreased from 0.688 to 0.286, which means that after the second scenario, participants assessed the app to be almost equally pragmatic (useful and helpful in achieving their goals) and hedonic (interesting, attractive, and encouraging enough to catch their interest). Group Discussion. The main findings were derived from a systematic application of the thematic qualitative analysis steps of the guided online group discussion with the participants, which include the following main and sub-categories (see Table 1): Presence in the VE. Interaction and bodily presence in VR-based interventions was mediated during the role play through the TEEMEW app which did not allow for body movements but only for audio-visual responses of the players. Users felt that the response time is very quick. Avatars that had been selected before the role play and the surrounding environment during the role play was deemed realistic, so it was easy for all participants to (i) quickly adapt their own actions to the VE. Nevertheless, the way participants perceived their involvement in the VE and opportunities and barriers to actively contribute to the role play were also discussed. The current scenarios were

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evaluated as sufficient; participants felt drawn into each scenario and it allowed for more focused contributions to the actual situation in the simulation: (ii) “I think that the current ‘Immobility’ is sufficient for this kind of game, otherwise the game would go in a different direction.” (Quote). In general, the VE was perceived as suitable; everybody could focus on the hotel lobby, and nobody felt distracted from the surroundings. Table 1. Main and sub-categories in the guided online group discussion. Main categories Presence in the virtual environment (VE)

Reflection on role play design

Reflection on one’s own action and immersion during role play

Reflection on learning and teaching

Sub-categories i. Quick adaptation of one’s own actions to the virtual environment ii. Despite a feeling of immobility, involvement of players is experienced as realistic and focused, no distraction from surroundings iii. Inefficiency to switch on/off control panel iv. Annoying echoes of players with no appropriate headsets v. Suggestions for the synchronous representation of body movements or responses to events in the game vi. Successful interaction highly depended on the behavior, ideas, and creativity of the players themselves vii. More realism at a visual level would increase experiences of immersion viii. Lack of non-verbal communication in the virtual space allows for development of (verbal) communicative and negotiation skills in hotel management ix. Degree of immersive experience depends on preknowledge of and prior experiences with VE x. VE role plays can be more effective than normal inclass teaching xi. Suggestions for development of future scenarios

Reflection on Role Play Design. While the group generally supported the idea that the role play scenario is “a cool concept, very new and nicely developed” and “this was very good training during Corona time” (Quote), they also reflected critically on the role play design: Firstly, icons for the player’s control panel should be better implemented into the screen. It was felt (iii) inefficient to constantly switch on/off the control menu within the app. Secondly, (iv) constant echoes in the headset (because some players did used the built-in mic instead of a headset) were annoying at the beginning of and during the intervention. Participants suggested integrating a push-and-talk function such as that on the Discord™ platform. They also discussed how the (v) synchronously representation of body movements or responses to events in the game would intensify the feeling of immersion, e.g., by giving avatars something to hold, or by further developing the highlight function (overhead) which visualizes who

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is speaking. Additionally, participants suggested the possibility that each character should receive a separate on-screen display, through which a list of tasks and special player instructions (stage directions) could be communicated. Reflections on One’s Own Actions and Immersion During the Role Play. Impressions differed for each scenario. In the first scenario, the majority of participants felt overburdened and they were hesitant at the beginning, compared to the very lively interaction during the second scenario, which only ended when the instructor announced the game’s end. Many participants mentioned that a (vi) successful interaction in the various scenarios highly depended on the behavior, ideas and creativity of the players themselves. For example, in the first scenario, the manager had to constantly focus on the receptionist, but had doubts about when, specifically, to intervene. For the receptionist, it was difficult to anticipate the intervention of the manager in order to mediate in the conflictual interaction with the customers. In the second scenario, a lively discussion developed between the characters, which participants compared with conversations in ‘reality,’ where several people could interact at the same time. The lecturer (who played the manager) noted that the second scenario was diffuse in a way, meaning it was more difficult to keep track of things. He found the role play situation and its concept to be very good, and suggested that, in order to be completely drawn into the play and to merge with one’s own avatar, (vii) more realism at a visual level should be brought into the play in future, e.g., accuracy of avatar’s shape and haircut. Moreover, a real VR scenario (compared to the desktop VR used in our study) would be expected to be more immersive. Participants experienced a (viii) lack of non-verbal communication in the virtual space, e.g., facial expressions and gestures were missing. With facial expressions, various facets could be displayed which would be even more realistic. Additionally, few players found it difficult for to identify who was speaking and that some voices had become quieter during the conversation. Currently, the role play scenarios can be understood solely as verbal interactions. This means that the participants experienced the scenarios as a communication training in the field of tourism and hotel management which involved, to a great extent, the development of verbal communicative and negotiation skills. The discussion also showed that (ix) the degree of immersive experience in the role play also depends on participant’s preknowledge and prior experiences in VE. Reflections on Learning and Teaching. In general, participants mentioned on several occasions that the role play would be useful as an integral part of any tourism and event management courses which (x) can be more effective than normal in-class teaching. Furthermore, participants also discussed and (xi) suggested the development of future scenarios that support, for example, the development of negotiation and mediation skills for tour operators, stationary travel agencies, tourist information, airport ticket counter, conference meetings, strategy development, outdoor activities like city tours and also staff in other industries such as care workers. The TEEMEW app could also be used as a research tool e.g., for market research. Last, but not least, the role play has certain potential to be applied to other contexts such as conflict management, preparation for exams and training for de-escalation strategies.

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4 Discussion and Conclusion The paper addressed the question of what factors influence participants’ user experiences when learning in a virtual collaborative learning environment. Reflective discussion with students about the role-play scenarios especially brought to light the following interim results which will be briefly summarized and discussed. Firstly, the general feedback of the participants has been very positive (in the sense of the UEQ as well as in the discussion). It can be presumed that the main reason for this observation was the participant’s high motivation and curiosity of the tests (see preliminary questionnaire). In fact, all of them saw a lot of potential and positive aspects in the scenarios, which were continuously improved regarding their technical and didactical quality from the first experimentation at ESG to TEEMEW’s second version test at FHD. Secondly, the main “point of criticism” was the lack of mobility of the avatars during the role play. In other words, the movement capacity in terms of a live action game was obviously missed. Nevertheless, the actual purpose of the virtual scenario became clear to everyone during the first test run: As it is the primary goal to promote strategic thinking as well as problem- and conflict-solving skills, each participant’s attention is drawn directly to their rhetoric and communicative skills and capacity for teamwork, while reducing the cognitive load. As has been shown in recent studies, the role of cognitive load as a factor of students’ engagement in desktop-based virtual reality is considered to be a desideratum in literature [15]. Our results imply that students were willing to pay full attention to the underlying learning task when working in the desktop VR environment. This seems to confirm research on the effects of cognitive load on students’ engagement in virtual environments [15]. Thirdly, the basic acoustic configurations of the virtual learning environment were praised and other persons in the role play have been clearly identified as nearby or more distant. A spatial sound image turned out to be the most important feature of the acoustic framework. In this context, high quality headsets are a self-evident necessity. The use of high-quality headsets (over-ear, good microphone) seems increasingly relevant in this context, also in connection with the original technical concept of the Hotel Academy project. However, the current desktop variant is only a transitional solution due to The coronavirus pandemic, which should be replaced by real immersive VR in the future (with Oculus VR headsets, people in the lab, high-quality over-ear headsets). Fourthly, we can also draw a few conclusions for the development of the didactical and pedagogical framework of the role play design. Based on the findings, precise role descriptions and a standard scenario script will help to make comparable the procedure of the role play between the various campuses. It would also be beneficial for participants’ learning experiences, their learning achievements and for transferring the project into a regular curriculum. In addition, it was also suggested that status information (linked to scenario scripts) should be appropriately visualized in a compact and goaloriented form. For each scenario, two to three key facts that describe the basic situation in the scenario could be made visible in the user interface by means of an intuitively designed text or menu area that can be folded out and in. This would enable instructors to strategically influence the role play, e.g., with game events.

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Last, but not least, the transitional solution of the desktop VR version turned out to have additional positive effects which helped to identify and optimize initial didactic and technical problems at an early stage of the project. Future research will need to focus on additional pilots with an updated version of the TEEMEW app which not only allows for the verification of the findings in this study but also helps to expand the VR framework developed in Hotel Academy to international virtual collaboration.

References 1. Carretero, S., Vuorikari, R., Punie, Y.: DigComp 2.1: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens with Eight Proficiency Levels and Examples of Use. Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2017). https://doi.org/10.2760/38842 2. Fadel, C.: 21st century skills: how can you prepare students for the new global economy (2008). https://www.oecd.org/site/educeri21st/40756908.pdf. Accessed 19 Dec 2019 3. Aktas, F., Pitts, K., Richards, J.C., Silova, I.: Institutionalizing global citizenship: a critical analysis of higher education programs and curricula. J. Stud. Int. Educ. 21(1), 65–80 (2017) 4. Fischer, H., Arnold, M. Philippe, S., Dyrna, J., Jung, S.: VR-based learning and teaching. A framework for implementation of virtual reality in formal education. In: 15th International Technology, Education and Development Conference Valencia, Spain, 8–10 March 2021 (2021) 5. Baciu, C.: From role play to gamification as educational methods. In: ERD – Education, Reflection, Development, Fourth Edition, The European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences EpSBS (2016). https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2016.12.5 6. Fuchs, P., Arnaldi, B., Tisseau, J.: Les concepts de base de la réalité virtuelle. Dans Traité de la réalité virtuelle volume 1. Presses de l’Ecole des Mines, Paris (2006) 7. Slater, M.: Place illusion and plausibility can lead to realistic behaviour in immersive virtual environments. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 364(1535), 3549–3557 (2009) 8. Lee, K.M.: Presence, explicated. Commun. Theory 14(1), 27–50 (2004) 9. Biocca, F.: The cyborg’s dilemma: progressive embodiment in virtual environments. J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 3, JCMC324 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101. 1997.tb00070.x 10. Arnold, M., Mayer, T.: Evaluation. In: Straub, J., Weidemann, A., Nothnagel, S. (eds.) Wie lehrt man interkulturelle Kompetenz? [How to Teach Intercultural Competence?], pp. 525– 562. Transcript, Bielefeld (2015) 11. Gokhale, A., Machina, K.: Guided online group discussion enhances student critical thinking skills. Int. J. E-Learn. 17(2), 157–173 (2018) 12. Guest, G., Namey, E., Chen, M.: A simple method to assess and report thematic saturation in qualitative research. PLoS ONE 15(5), e0232076 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.023207 13. Schrepp, M.: User experience questionnaire handbook. All you need to know to apply the UEQ successfully in your project. Version 3 (2017). https://www.schmiedecke.info/HCI/ Aufgaben/UEQ%20Handbook_V3.pdf. Accessed 30 May 2021 14. Schrepp, M., Hinderks, A., Thomaschewski, J.: Design and evaluation of a short version of the User Experience Questionnaire (UEQ-S). IJIMAI 4(6), 103–108 (2017) 15. Vesga, J.B., Xu, X., He, H.: The effects of cognitive load on engagement in a virtual reality learning environment. In: 2021 IEEE Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR), pp. 645– 652 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1109/VR50410.2021.00090

Educational Innovations in Financial Management Degree Programs Petr Osipov

, Elena Girfanova

, and Julia Ziyatdinova(&)

Kazan National Research Technological University, Karl Marx Street 68, 420015 Kazan, Russian Federation

Abstract. In recent years, there has been a growing demand for professional financial managers due to the sustainable development challenges set by the global economy, and sustainability goals of every single industrial enterprise or company. Financial managers are responsible for forecasting and planning the company strategy in interaction with other executives, therefore, it is important to focus on soft skills in curricula of Bachelor’s and Master’s degree programs in Financial Management. The universities, however, often concentrate on jobspecific skills using traditional teaching methods such as lectures and seminars. The paper aims at investigating the benefits and drawbacks of educational innovations in teaching future financial managers. The objectives of the study include analyzing the role of interactive teaching methods in Financial Management curricula, describing and classifying these methods, and identifying soft skills to be developed through these methods. The paper gives recommendations related to introducing changes into the curricula for financial managers at different levels of education, including Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees programs based on the literature review, observation and case study of Financial Management degree programs at one of the universities. These recommendations include re-formulation of learning outcomes and introduction of new study courses into the curricula. The new study courses imply interactive collaborative teaching and learning methods in which students are engaged with the course material through discussions and are experientially involved in the learning process through doing things besides passive listening, thus developing both job-specific and soft skills. Further development of these courses will show their benefits and drawbacks. Keywords: Financial manager
Interactive teaching and learning methods
Soft and job-specific skills
Educational standards
Gamification
Business game

1 Introduction Global trends worldwide lead to new issues in higher education which is becoming globalized with similar quality assurance criteria so as to give equal opportunities for university graduates in different parts of the world. Countries are developing different networking models to follow [1] for integrating the educational systems [2] and various courses to make the university education interdisciplinary [3, 4] and compatible with Industry 4.0 [5]. Engineering education is becoming more oriented on psychological © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 614–621, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_61

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[6], financial and entrepreneurial issues [7] while financial education is focusing on social issues [8]. The current economic context is bringing new challenges to the finance function in the company. The expectations of finance are changing from their back-office role to providing strategic insights to drive business performance of the company as a whole based on deep analytical reporting. Alongside with transformations of the finance function, we are observing changes in the role of financial managers in the company [9]. They have to be more flexible and more efficient in their daily routine, and, at the same time, to make decisions for the sustainable growth of the company through collaborating with other executives. Fellow management and CEOs expect financial managers to communicate financial insights and to show them how to use the company’s financial position and opportunities to its benefit. Therefore, there is a growing need for developing soft skills of financial managers [10]. Generally, university degree programs in Financial Management, however, focus on hard and job-specific skills rather than soft and transferable skills [11]. To overcome this gap between the market and employee expectations and university traditions, we offer educational innovations in training financial managers to enhance their soft skills through interactive collaborative teaching and learning methods [12]. Soft skills cover a broad area of interpersonal skills, communication, critical thinking, time management, teamwork, leadership, etc. [13–15]. They are also called ‘transferable skills’ as they can be ‘transferred’ between different jobs [16]. Communication skills are among the most important ones for financial managers, as they have to communicate their ideas to the top management [17] so as to improve the overall performance of the company. This is especially significant for international companies where financial regulations differ from country to country, so financial managers have to master intercultural and crosscultural communication competencies [18–20]. For developing soft skills, interactive teaching and learning methods show the highest efficiency as they provide student engagement with their instructor and peers thus giving them opportunities to practice skills in real life and intensifying their training [21]. The paper aims at investigating the benefits and drawbacks of educational innovations in teaching future financial managers. The innovations imply introducing interactive collaborative teaching and learning methods into Financial Management degree programs with a focus on soft skills including interpersonal communication, teamwork, time management, and leadership. Thus, the objectives of the study are: 1) to analyze the role of interactive teaching methods in Financial Management curricula; 2) to describe and classify interactive teaching methods to be used in Financial Management degree programs; 3) to identify soft skills necessary for financial managers to be developed through interactive teaching methods.

2 Materials and Methods The authors used problem-oriented research focusing on the labor market demands for financial managers and comparing them to the university practices and learning outcomes in curricula. Traditional teaching and learning methods were compared to interactive [22, 23] and project-based [24–26] learning approaches in Bachelor’s and

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Master’s degree programs using proceedings of recent conferences and publications in research journals. While considering the degree program curricula, the authors identified the courses which can focus on soft skills and interactive methods to be used for these courses. The research is multidisciplinary as it implies the analysis of different courses [27– 31] and their potential in solving the problem of soft skills development in university education. The strategies used in research intend to address distinct learning needs of students. Therefore, the general approach of research is student-centered: the learning outcomes are formulated in accordance with the student needs, and interactive methods give students the feeling of real-life experiences. Thus, a set of the necessary soft skills was formulated. Apart from literature review, the research implied qualitative methods including observation of the university practices, and case study of running degree programs in Financial Management at one of the universities. In the 2020–21 academic year, we included a business game in a Bachelor’s degree curriculum in Financial Management. The business game was a part of the course in Business Analysis of an Organization for senior students. The game was named ‘Analysis in a Company Business Planning’. Before planning the game, the instructors analyzed the performance of several local companies in the market and selected one of them as a prototype. The financial reports and organizational chart of this company together with many other supporting documents were available in the open access online. The general goal of the game was to analyze the business planning approaches of the company and to formulate a new strategy to improve its efficiency. Based on organizational chart of this prototype company, 15 students of the group divided into several teams representing the administrative and financial departments of the company. The students also elected their CEO and CEO Deputy. The professor also had his role in the game being the primary shareholder of the company. During the preparatory stage, the students created job descriptions for every employee and responsibilities of every department with possible amendments to be introduced in the game. Together with the instructor, students developed a calendar planning for a semester period with certain milestones of the retrospective economic analysis of the company activities and a further development of a new business plan for a certain period ahead. The main stage of the game focused on the use and analysis of the open access online resources on the prototype company finances in the previous several years. In accordance with the previously developed and approved calendar planning, the students were fulfilling their job responsibilities which included group discussions and presentations, operational meetings, minute taking, communications between ‘staff’ members, analytical calculations in special software, executive summaries, etc. These events took place during the class meetings, two or three times in a week, and were moderated by the professor. Some events were online including communications between the ‘staff members’ and business correspondence. The job responsibilities implied a lot of independent learning for using software, different formats and rules of writing business letters, memos, contracts, giving oral presentations to the audience, arguing different points of view and arriving at a generally held opinion. The game finalized in a new strategy to improve the efficiency of the prototype company including human resource development, infrastructural changes and a detailed financial

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planning for the next three years. One of the students, the elected CEO of the company, was responsible for presenting the strategy to the professor, the company primary shareholder. The results of the literature review and case study analysis were summarized and used to describe the role of interactive teaching methods in Financial Management curriculum, to classify these methods, and to identify soft skills to be developed through these methods.

3 Results and Discussion Literature review and case study of university practices revealed that interactive teaching methods create the university learning environment which encourages students to be creative and proactive [32]. Moreover, these methods contribute to developing metacognitive skills [8] which help students understand how they can control their learning process for the highest efficiency. Thus, they develop selfawareness skills that become important as they start their careers [33]. Apart from metacognition, interactive methods contribute to stress management techniques [34] that include time-management, relaxation and exercise. Interactive methods help students build social networks that can support them throughout their lifetime and careers. For future financial managers, interactive teaching and learning implies student engagement through professor guided interactions among the peers and other interested parties. Today, financial management careers imply a lot of communications and urgent independent decision making. In comparison with traditional teaching, interactive methods give a broader perspective for self-directed learning so that the students reach their full potential as learners. Improved classroom atmosphere can become more interesting for the students thus motivating them to learn more. Recent publications and academic discussions showed a number of popular interactive methods: student-led discussions, gamification, simulated events, and real-life practices including internships. Student-led, or Harkness discussions aim at encouraging students to engage in a discussion on academic or applied topics independent of the professor. They require students to get engaged in a collaborative discussion being both receptive and respectful of the others’ ideas. Analyzing feedback from the peers, students learn to gain additional insights. Though demonstrating many benefits, student-led discussions can also cause some problems such as uneven level of student engagement, grading difficulties, or uneven communication skills. These problems show up to a lesser degree when groups get smaller, grading criteria are redefined, and active listening is prioritized. Gamification promotes motivation and commitment of students [35]. Gamification encourages the involvement of students by incorporating game design principles [36] thus making the learning activities more interesting [37], and at the same time fostering knowledge retention [38]. For financial managers, business games provide experience of participation in real-life economic situations. Simulation imitates real-world activities in a safe environment. This approach is often used in science or engineering courses [39, 40]. The advantage of simulation in comparison with real world is the chance to reset the scenario and to try alternative strategies. Experiential learning

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encourages critical thinking skills and self-directed learning. In management-related classes, simulations can be used to create realistic environments and do the business planning [41]. Real-life practices usually refer to internships which can serve different purposes for different students. For those, who are choosing their career path, internships build early professional experiences helping discover what exactly they want or don’t want to do. For those, who are clearer about their future career, internships help develop a network of colleagues which can further result in a successful enterprise. For the future financial managers, real-life practices can have a very high impact if properly organized. Based on the above analysis, a number of interactive methods were used in a business game for senior students named ‘Analysis in a Company Business Planning’. Gamification, student-led discussions and simulated events were all included in the game. While mentoring the game, the leading professor observed the development of hard and soft skills through different activities. Group work, round table discussion, and case analysis contributed to soft skills while role-playing, thematic debates and software applications developed hard skills. Simulations and trainings were beneficial for both soft and hard skills. The experiment showed that bringing business reality into class develops leadership, communication, management and decision-making [42] skills. Thus, the experiment proved the ideas given in many research papers supporting the significance of financial managers’ orientation towards developing these soft skills.

4 Conclusions Recent discussions in academic settings and research to practice conferences on the labor market demands for financial managers demonstrated the growing awareness of the public about the university education outcomes [43] and professional communication of graduates in the labor market [44]. To address these challenges, soft skills of financial managers play an important role. The paper gives recommendations related to introducing changes into the curricula for financial managers at different levels of education, including Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees programs based on the literature review, observation and case study of Financial Management degree programs at one of the universities. These recommendations include re-formulation of learning outcomes and introduction of interactive collaborative teaching and learning methods in which students are engaged with the course material through discussions and are experientially involved in the learning process through doing things besides passive listening, thus developing both jobspecific and soft skills. These educational innovations are beneficial in comparison with traditional teaching and learning. Further research into the topic can open new opportunities for improving Financial Management degree programs through developing students’ experience of specific situations and applying their knowledge.

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New Dimensions in Online Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages: Proximity at a Distance Neelakshi Chandrasena Premawardhena(&) Department of Modern Languages, University of Kelaniya, Colombo, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract. This paper discusses new paradigms in foreign language teaching and learning due to Covid-19 pandemic affecting the education system, modes of delivery and assessment, with special reference to teaching German as a Foreign Language at the University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. The previously adopted blended learning approach to language teaching at the university was redesigned overnight to accommodate online teaching. Thus, one academic year was completed entirely through online delivery barring six weeks during which lectures were conducted in hybrid mode. This paper reviews the effects and impact of the change of mode of delivery from the teachers’ and students’ perspective as well as on their language competency, and the sustainability of the new approach to language teaching and learning. Student performance during continuous assessments, in class participation and end of year examinations, student feedback at the end of each session, questionnaire given at the completion of the selected courses and teacher feedback are the tools used for this study. The analysis of data show that online delivery has had a very positive impact on the students’ competencies which were not limited to language skills but also soft skills including IT and presentation skills, adapting to teamwork, student centred learning and online learning environment. Keywords: Online teaching and learning language teaching


Student centred learning
Foreign

1 Introduction The educational institutions in the entire country including schools and universities closed indefinitely in March 2020 owing to the Covid-19 pandemic. The new academic year was due to commence. However, the students could not be summoned to the university premises for face-to-face sessions. Thus, it was required to adapt to this unexpected situation rapidly, both by the academic staff and the students. The Bachelor degree programmes in German, which is the subject of this study, have continued the blended learning approach for over 15 years. Therefore, the staff and the students were familiar with online portals, Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and selfdirected learning. During pre-Covid times 50% of the delivery was onsite and the rest was covered by the work assigned through the online portals. However, the new situation demanded a 100% shift to online delivery, which required relevant skills, new © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 622–633, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_62

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methodology, and accessibility. Thus, the first semester was completed through online delivery with the exception of six weeks during the latter part of the first semester from August to September where the students could attend lectures onsite or online. With the second wave of the pandemic affecting the country in October 2020, the entire second semester of study was completed through online sessions. The end of year written examinations were held onsite for the students of the first year and the final year with separate batches being summoned to the university, while all the continuous assessments were conducted online. The examinations for second and third year students were conducted entirely online. It is noteworthy that prior to 2020 online teaching was not an integral part of teaching of undergraduate programmes at state universities in Sri Lanka with the exception of the Open University of Sri Lanka. Hence, the academic staff and the students were required to adapt to new teaching and learning approach without any prior warning.

2 Purpose This paper reviews the effects and impact of the change of mode of delivery into 100% online from the perspective of foreign language teachers and learners. Further, the effect of online delivery on the students’ language competency and the challenges faced by the academics and students will be analysed. Many studies have been conducted on online delivery commencing from March 2020 owing to Covid-19 where the success and challenges of virtual education have been reviewed. The individual experiences with online delivery vary from one discipline to the other, from one country or region to the other as well as the course or module content [1–8]. Moreover, the cultural impact and learning traditions also play a key role in adapting to new mode of delivery in education [9, 10]. Therefore, it is vital to share the experiences and the lessons learnt with the academic community worldwide to design more effective student centred online teaching and learning strategies. It is also significant to explore whether the online delivery could be sustained even post Covid-19. Numerous studies on Collaborative Learning, Distance Education and E-learning prior to Covid 19 bear ample testimony to the positive aspects of virtual classrooms where the staff and the students had the choice of remote or onsite learning [12–17]. However, in the present context the entire world was given no choice but to go online, be it education or standard office functions in different fields. The focus of this study is the Bachelor of Arts degree programme in German that was conducted and concluded during the last academic year entirely online except for six weeks in the first semester which adapted the hybrid mode. During the brief period where participation either online and onsite was possible for the students, only a few students who preferred face-to-face delivery were present in class and the majority joined online to avoid daily commuting during the pandemic. Previous studies conducted at the University of Kelaniya with blended learning approach [10, 11] paved way for this study as sufficient data to compare the entirely online approach in foreign language teaching and blended learning are available. The shift to 100% online delivery was imperative due to the country going under lockdown from mid-March 2020 resulting in the indefinite closure of all the schools and higher education institutes in the country.

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3 Approach In order to avoid disruption to educational activities and to facilitate online delivery of lectures several mechanisms were introduced with immediate effect at the closure of state universities in Sri Lanka. This included state support as well as the measures taken by individual universities. The University Grants Commission which is the apex body for all state universities in Sri Lanka provided data free access to the Learning Management System (LMS) and online delivery via Zoom web conferencing facility through the Lanka Education and Research Network (LEARN) to all academic and administrative staff and undergraduates. The individual universities further enhanced the features in the LMS to facilitate teaching, learning and assessment at this need of the hour. The ICT Centre of the University of Kelaniya and individual faculties conducted online training sessions for the academic staff and assistance was constantly available through the ICT Centre Help Desk for the students and staff. Albeit the students had previous experience in using the university LMS the Computer Assisted Learning system (CAL) it was being used to the maximum capacity ever since online delivery of lectures was introduced in April 2020. Prior to Covid-19 sessions in teaching German as a Foreign Language were conducted using a blended approach through online portals and interactive face-to-face sessions. Hitherto conducted studies at the University of Kelaniya have discussed the effectiveness of blended approach in foreign language learning [9, 10]. However, the teachers and the students were confronted with a new challenge with the imperative and sudden change of mode of delivery with no time for preparation. The traditional classroom, language centre or lecture hall were no longer accessible. Due to poor internet connections the students were compelled to join the sessions without switching on the cameras. Thus, the teacher-student interaction and student interaction among peers, facial expressions or reactions from students could not be observed. There was also the challenge of designing the sessions to suit the new mode of delivery focusing on student centred learning and attracting their constant attention while joining the sessions remotely. Thus, the teachers strived to create proximity at a distance through the online sessions. 3.1

Redesigning Lessons

The best possible way to create student centred online lessons were attempted and the end of year survey for teachers and students gave some insights into the success and drawbacks. Several novel approaches were tested in order to adapt to the new learning mode. The difference from online portals previously used is that data free access was available along with a newly improved LMS, more time at hand for students to prepare for the lesson and for the lecturers to prepare the lesson material. Authentic texts, audio-visual material along with target questions to which the students should express themselves orally at the commencement of the session were integrated. Student centred lessons were designed while addressing many skills as given in Table 1 from a sample lesson. The tools used were the Learning Management System of the university and Zoom conference tool. Thus, digital literacy of both the teachers and the students was important for successful implementation of the designed lessons.

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Sample Lessons on Self-directed Learning and Independent Research Table 1 depicts a typical lesson designed for synchronous and asynchronous learning. The module on different aspects of colours and their significance in different cultures uploaded on LMS contained three authentic texts, four relevant videos and a set of questions the students had to prepare for prior to the online session. Table 1. Skills and competencies tested Skills

Questions

Critical thinking, logical reasoning Reflection, decision making, critical thinking, emotional reaction, oral & written communication Reflection on different stages in life, logical reasoning, critical thinking Reflection, logical reasoning, critical thinking, appreciation

1. What do colours symbolize? 2. What do colours mean to you personally?

Reflection, logical reasoning, critical thinking, appreciation Reflection, intercultural competence

Intercultural competence, learner autonomy through independent research

3. What is your relationship with colours as an adult today? 4. How did you feel about colours in the past as a child and adolescent? Were the colours important to you back then? 5. Which colours do you choose? E.g.: flowers, clothing, houses 6. Colours have different meanings in different cultures. What do different colours symbolize in Sri Lanka? Explain with examples 7. Search for the meaning of colours in Asian and European countries on the Internet and present the results

(Gunawardena and Premawardhena, 2020 [4])

The English translation of the original questions given in German and the skills addressed are given in Table 1. Each question aims at enhancing one or more competencies of the students. At the commencement of the session, each student was given the opportunity to answer the questions orally, followed by group discussion and feedback on the session. The students were requested to submit the orally presented answers in writing as homework and upload it to the LMS. Thus, listening (through videos), reading (through authentic texts), speaking (through given questions) and writing (as homework) skills as well as cultural competency could be addressed through this module. Nevertheless, not all modules contained reading comprehension. Students were assigned tasks on translation by watching popular songs in first language Sinhala and translating them into German and English. They were also assigned to conduct independent research on assigned topics and present in class as in the session on Christmas traditions. During this session conducted in the second semester Christmas was approaching and students were requested to watch embedded videos and uploaded texts on LMS and prepare individual presentations on different aspects of the festival as Christmas celebrations in Germany are different from Sri Lanka.

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The themes assigned were advent and advent calendar, Christmas cookies and baking, festive meals, decorations, Christmas markets and a comparison between the festivals in Germany and Sri Lanka. These novel approaches to learning were much valued by the students. The facility to share not only their findings but also the images, videos and the PowerPoint presentation through the meeting tool used for the sessions gave them more confidence in conducting oral presentations in German.

4 Methodology The researcher conducted four course units for two batches of BA German Studies Honours Degree students in the 4 year degree programme) and one batch of students from the BA three year degree programme. The learning outcomes of these units mainly focus on oral and written communication skills and analysis and interpretation of non-literary texts, German culture and lifestyle. The weekly sessions lasted 3 h for each batch. The students were asked about their expectations and possible challenges at the commencement of the online lecture series. Further, individual student feedback was obtained orally after each lesson. At the end of each course oral feedback was recorded and an online survey was conducted through Google forms. 36 students from the four year Honours Degree Programme and 95 students from the three year BA programme submitted their responses. However, the data presented in this paper are only limited to the responses of the 36 students in the four year degree programme. Further, the academic staff for German at the university took part in the survey designed for teachers. Apart from 8 lecturers at University of Kelaniya, one lecturer each from two other state universities also contributed their ideas and experience through online survey. In addition, student performance during continuous assessments, in class participation and end of year examinations were also considered for this study. Thus, the study contains both qualitative and quantitative data analysis. While the main focus was on the selected four course units delivered online and the students enrolled for these courses, further discussions with teachers of other foreign languages and different disciplines from University of Kelaniya and from other state universities were also held to obtain their views on online teaching experience. The online questionnaire for students contained three sections: Sect. 1 with six questions on personal details, year of study, gender, age, devices used, prior online learning experience. Section 2 contained 15 questions with responses designed according to Lickert scale. The third section comprised seven open ended questions addressing their overall experience and views on online learning. The questionnaire for teachers was designed in the same format (Table 2).

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Table 2. Section 2 of student survey Component Question

Scale

1.

1. Strongly agree 2. Agree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Disagree 5. Strongly disagree

2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

I enjoyed online learning and do not want to go back to face to face learning I experienced difficulties with time management, focus and selfdiscipline due to lack of direct supervision in class During online classes I became more distracted due to chatting windows, websites and other digital distractions compared to during the traditional classes at the university My online participation in lessons were disrupted due to bad Internet access My online participation in lessons were disrupted due to lack of electronic devices I have my own space to study at home and family members do not interfere in it I have found the transition to online studying easy My computer skills improved due to online learning My confidence in using German improved vastly My personality became stronger and I lost the inhibition to speak out in class The quality of my language classes has improved during the Corona pandemic I find online classes more stressful than on campus classes I feel that online classes offered more opportunities for discussions than face-to-face classes I received more feedback from my lecturers during or following the online lessons than during the pre-Corona times My overall skills in German and cultural knowledge have vastly improved due to the online lessons

The questions in Sect. 2 given above can be divided into following categories: Challenges faced including accessibility issues: Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5, Q12. Facilities and opportunities available: Q6, Q11, Q13, Q14. Skills acquired: Q8, Q9, Q10 (See Fig. 1). Reflection on overall experience gained: Q1, Q7, Q 15 (See Fig. 2). Table 3. Section 3 of the survey for academic staff and students Component Question 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

What were the advantages of online teaching? What were the disadvantages? What would you like to retain with reference to online lessons even after the Corona pandemic? What are the additional skills you acquired during online teaching over one academic year? What did you find different from face-to-face lessons against the online lessons? What did you miss during the online discussions in comparison to face-to-face sessions? Any additional comments on your online teaching experience

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The open-ended questions given in Table 3 aimed at obtaining qualitative data on the overall experience of online teaching and learning.

5 Discussion At the commencement of the online lecture series students as well as the staff were doubtful whether the transition to online delivery will be successful. Thus, the first round of questions during the opening lessons made them all sound sceptical about the sustainability of the new approach. Subsequently the students realised that their language competencies were increasing with each lesson. Thus, the feedback at the end of each lesson was highly positive. The students always appreciated the different methods and topics approached as well as individual attention, oral expression, promotion of self-directed learning and asynchronous learning. The final feedback was done through a Google form which was sent after three months of completing the sessions for the academic year. Hence, both the staff and the students had sufficient time to reflect on the past academic year and the sessions conducted as well as what they gained during this period, which provided an authentic and a more balanced assessment of the new mode of delivery. This survey reflects an overall view of experience gained within the last academic year. 90% of the participating students used both mobile phones and laptops. The mobile phones were mostly used for synchronous learning through class participation and laptop for asynchronous learning. Constant access issues were experienced by 15% while around 60% stated that they experienced occasional disruptions. The majority of the students acknowledged that their language and cultural competencies were enhanced and that they became more confident in using the language. Transition to 100% online mode did not pose difficulties to most of the respondents including the teachers. Although the students complained of concentration issues, boredom, isolation, lack of direct contact with teachers, lack of social interaction and campus life as well as strain on the eyes by focusing on the computer or mobile phone screen for a long duration they all appreciated the opportunity to continue their studies without any disruptions and delays in completing the academic year.

Number of responses

Skills acquired 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Strongly agree

Agree

Neither agree nor disagree

Disagree

Responses to Q8, Q9, Q10 Q8

Q9

Q10

Fig. 1. Skills acquired

Strongly disagree

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Number of responses

Reflexion on overall experience 25 20 15 10 5 0 Strongly agree

Agree

Neither agree nor disagree

Disagree

Strongly disagree

Response to SecƟon 2 - Q1, Q7, Q15 Q1

Q7

Q15

Fig. 2. Reflection on overall experience gained

Figure 1 depicts the response to improved IT skills (Q8), confidence gained through enhanced German language skills (Q9) and personality development by overcoming inhibition to speak out in class (Q10). The majority agree that their skills enhanced during the online sessions. Figure 2 illustrates the reflection of the overall experience gained by the students. While most students prefer to return to face-to-face sessions (Q1) despite finding the transition to online mode to be easy (Q7), the majority acknowledges that their language and cultural competencies enhanced during the online sessions (Q15).

6 Actual Outcomes The new mode of delivery facilitated synchronous and asynchronous learning. The students who could not join online due to issues with accessibility or other hindrances could access the uploaded material including relevant videos, texts and exercises at their convenience. Since there was no restriction of time limit, the lessons could be conducted at own pace and in a more relaxed atmosphere. The times could be adjusted if the teacher had other official commitments. Searching for available lecture halls, language or ICT laboratories was not required any longer. There were no disruptions to lectures due to student strikes, trade union action of staff or numerous public holidays. The sessions continued even during public holidays with the consent of the students. Although the students were somewhat inhibited during the initial online sessions as they were not familiar with the new mode of learning, their feedback emphasised the advantages of relaxed atmosphere and their motivation to actively contribute to the session by voicing their opinion. The traditional authoritative role of the teacher and the teacher-student distance gradually diminished as the weekly online sessions brought all

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participants together to one’s living or study room discarding all barriers of geographical distances. This new “proximity at a distance” was a rewarding experience for both the teacher and the students. Since the participant groups of the Honours degree programme did not exceed 20, every student was given an opportunity to express one’s opinion and answer the questions related to the selected topic for the day. Thus, every student was given individual attention which was not the case in face-to-face sessions due to time constraints. The large groups could use chat and breakout rooms often. There was always room for improvement in oral communication as the speech through computer or mobile audio was clear. Thus, pronunciation errors could be rectified more effectively in comparison to physical presence in a classroom were the students seated at the far end may not be clearly heard if they are soft spoken. All skills of language competency as well as cultural competency could be addressed through synchronous and asynchronous learning. The possibility to share files, evaluated assessments, photos and presentations were a novel experience for the students. The breakout rooms compensated well for the group activities which were otherwise conducted in class. The analysis of the responses to open-ended questions Sect. 3 of the survey show that online delivery has had a very positive impact on the students’ competencies which were not limited to language skills but also soft skills including IT and presentation skills and adapting to teamwork, student centred learning, virtual group work through breakout rooms and online learning environment at large. The majority of the staff and students also highlighted the absence of travel time and restriction of office hours that offered them more time to focus on their teaching and learning. Also, the students had a more positive online learning environment at home in comparison to the life at hostels and their boarding houses where they usually share the accommodation with one or more peers. Thus, the student feedback highlighted their motivation to actively participate in online sessions. There was less commuting involved, giving them more time to devote to studies. One was in his own digital comfort zone with ample flexibility and opportunity to work at one’s own pace without hindrances of student strikes, demonstrations and public holidays. Furthermore, collaboration with overseas partner universities, guest lectures by renowned experts in the field, awareness sessions, contact with native speakers and joint online sessions were conducted during this academic year with immense success. Thus, many online activities could be accommodated and these collaborative activities across borders were never attempted previously. 6.1

Student Performance

The evaluation criteria of the three year degree programme is 70% for written examination at the end of the course and 30% for continuous assessments. The four year Honours Degree Programme in German Studies consist of 50% of marks for the written examination and 50% for continuous assessments. The student performance has steadily increased over the past 15 years due to the exposure gained through online platforms. However, the student performance during this year has showed a remarkable improvement of all students at large, irrespective of the fact that they faced onsite or online examinations. The continuous assessments which used to be of marginal performance and assignments submitted along with presentations held out of necessity

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showed an entirely different quality this academic year. During the survey, the students mentioned that they had more time and access to material while working from home. The home environment was more conducive to learning than the life in shared accommodation at student hostels and boarding houses. In the four course units considered for this study there were no failures and over 75% obtained grades from A− to A+ i.e. marks above 65%. 6.2

Challenges

As drawbacks of the one academic year of online teaching, majority of the students made observations on lack of extra activities, field visits and the absence from university premises. Unreliable internet connection, sudden power failures, lack of devices, lack of social engagement or social interaction, distraction, motivation and concentration problems, increased workload, increased demands on self-organization were the other issues pointed out. However, they all agreed that online learning vastly improved their language and cultural competency, thus emphasising the positive aspects of online teaching and learning. They also appreciated the “virtual bond” with the teacher which brought them emotionally closer to the teacher than during the faceto-face sessions. The teachers mentioned the need for further training in digital teaching, challenges of virtual environment causing virtual isolation, extra effort required in promoting student motivation, lack of direct interaction, extra time and effort required in lesson design, restricted learner activities during the productive phase of a lesson, issues with internet access and constraints in testing and evaluation as the drawbacks.

7 Conclusion and Recommendations This study focused on small groups of students not exceeding 23. However, feedback from the large classes with over 80 students at beginner level was also considered, where the majority reported similar positive experiences which were also shared by the teachers. Thus, it is the approach that is significant and not the number of students to achieve positive results in a virtual language classroom. Further, the online teaching and learning experience created new opportunities for students of German as a Foreign Language. The proximity at a distance brought in new dimensions to teacher-student relationship and the online experience enhanced their creativity as well as innovative skills in addition to the language competencies. Through asynchronous learning students had more exposure to self-directed learning. Hence, it was a novel and rewarding experience for teachers and the students. Albeit face to face teaching was preferred by the majority of the students during the survey they all agreed that online teaching was the best possible solution under the prevailing situation that severely affected onsite lectures. It was also observed that the willingness by the staff and the students to adapt to new mode of delivery, accessibility and motivation are pivotal factors for more effective online teaching. With the positive experience gained during one academic year of online teaching and learning of German it is envisaged to enhance international cooperation and collaborative projects, virtual mobility for staff and students, virtual

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guest lectures, blended learning, synchronous and asynchronous learning and selfdirected learning. In agreement with Grein, it can be concluded that online learning will show an increase globally even after the pandemic due to the increasingly positive experiences with virtual learning. Nevertheless, social interaction cannot be completely substituted through online learning platforms [3]. Thus, a blended approach to language teaching in the future and retaining synchronous and asynchronous learning is recommended.

References 1. Ali, W.: Online and remote learning in higher education institutes: a necessity in light of COVID-19 pandemic. High. Educ. Stud. 10(3), 16–25 (2020). Canadian Center of Science and Education 2. Czerniewicz, L.: What we learnt from “going online” during university shutdowns in South Africa (2020). https://philonedtech.com/what-we-learnt-from-going-online-duringuniversity-shutdowns-in-south-africa/. Accessed 31 May 2021 3. Grein, M.: Sprachunterricht auf einmal digital: Online-Lernen vor, während und nach Corona. Goethe-Institut e. V., Redaktion Magazine (2020) 4. Gunawardena, C. N., Premawardhena, N.C.: Online course design for student centered learning [Invited Presentation for Sri Lankan Universities]. Sponsored by the United StatesSri Lanka Fulbright Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka (2020). https://digitalrepository.unm. edu/ulls_fsp/152/ 5. Misra, F., Mazelfi, I.: Long-distance online learning during pandemic: the role of communication, working in group, and self- directed learning in developing student’s confidence. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Educational Development and Quality Assurance (ICED-QA 2020), Advances in Social Sciences, Education and Humanities Research (2021) 6. Premawardhena, N.C.: Deutschunterricht nach Corona, Plenary speech. In: German Teachers‘ Conference (Deutschlehrertagung) Sri Lanka, 4–6 April 2021 7. Shahzad, S.K., Hussain, J., et al.: Impact of virtual teaching on ESL learners’ attitudes under Covid-19 circumstances at post graduate level in Pakistan. English Lang. Teach. 13(9), 1 (2020). Canadian Center of Science and Education, Toronto 8. Voss, T., Wittwer, J.: Unterricht in Zeiten von Corona: Ein Blick auf die Herausforderungen aus der Sicht von Unterrichts- und Instruktionsforschung. Unterrichtswissenschaft 48(4), 601–627 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42010-020-00088-2 9. Gunawardena, C.N., Frechette, C., Layne, L.: Culturally Inclusive Instructional Design: A Framework and Guide for Building Online Wisdom Communities. Routledge, New York (2019) 10. Premawardhena, N.C.: Promoting learner autonomy and enhancing student performance in foreign language learning through online learning platform. In: Auer, M.E., Hortsch, H., Sethakul, P. (eds.) ICL 2019. AISC, vol. 1135, pp. 631–642. Springer, Cham (2020). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40271-6_62 11. Premawardhena, N.C.: Developing a common learning platform for foreign language teaching. In: Auer, M.E., Guralnick, D., Uhomoibhi, J. (eds.) ICL 2016. AISC, vol. 545, pp. 369–382. Springer, Cham (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50340-0_33 12. Ke, F., Kwak, D.: Constructs of student-centered online learning on learning satisfaction of a diverse online student body: a structural equation modeling approach. J. Educ. Comput. Res. 48(1), 97–122 (2013)

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13. Alexander, S.: E‐learning developments and experiences. Educ. + Training 43(4/5), 240–248 (2001) 14. Anderson, T., Dron, J.: Three generations of distance education pedagogy. Int. Rev. Res. Open Distrib. Learn. 12(3), 80–97 (2011). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v12i3.890 15. Ituma, A.: An evaluation of students ’perceptions and engagement with e-learning components in a campus based university. Act. Learn. High. Educ. 12(1), 57–66 (2011) 16. Kemp, N., Grieve, R.: Face-to-face or face-to-screen? Undergraduates’ opinions and test performance in classroom vs. online learning. Front. Psychol. 5, 1278 (2014) 17. Zhang, W.-Y., Perris, K.: Researching the efficacy of online learning: a collaborative effort amongst scholars in Asian open universities. Open Learn. 19, 247–264 (2004)

Remote Supervision: A Boost for Graduate Students Neelakshi Chandrasena Premawardhena(&) Department of Modern Languages, University of Kelaniya, Colombo, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract. This paper discusses the impact of remote supervision of graduate students during the height of the Covid-19 pandemic that severely affected the entire world from the beginning of 2020, and its sustainability in the future. The study sample comprises students from the two-year Master of Arts in Linguistics programme conducted by the University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. Student feedback through questionnaire, interviews and results obtained by the students for the thesis were the tools used for the analysis of this study. The Masters candidates hail from all parts of the country and the majority is employed. Thus, meeting the supervisor physically has always been a challenge during pre-covid times. Time constraints and travel difficulties could be avoided due to remote supervision. In general, every student had more than 6–10 meeting and discussion sessions via Zoom, whereas not more than 3–4 physical meetings were possible previously. Overall, the student satisfaction and performance improved. Albeit remote supervision was possible even prior to Covid 19 it was seldom practiced until it became imperative to seek solutions through the online mode. It was observed that many of the difficulties faced by the candidates during precovid times could be overcome through remote supervision. Thus, it is envisaged to adopt the same method in future as remote supervision yielded more positive results leading to overall satisfaction of the students. Keywords: Web conferencing


Remote supervision
Graduate studies

1 Introduction The entire world had to redesign life, work practices and educational activities due to the Covid-19 pandemic having a severe impact on day-to-day activities. Sri Lanka went into an island wide curfew in March 2020 with all educational institutions and their activities coming abruptly to a standstill. The undergraduate programmes continued through online delivery using the data free facility provided to all state universities by the University Grants Commission through the Lanka Education and Research Network (LEARN) using the Learning Management Systems of respective universities. Access to ZOOM conference tool via the LEARN network was provided free of charge to all registered undergraduate students and staff of the entire university system, thus enabling the academic activities to continue online without disruption. The graduate students were also confronted with several challenges. Although some programmes were conducted online even prior to Covid-19 times, many courses had to shift to © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 634–644, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_63

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online mode due to the newly imposed restrictions following the pandemic. Many a candidate faced difficulties in data collection for research leading to postgraduate thesis as educational institutions were closed indefinitely. This unexpected occurrence led to students redesigning their research scope and at times even changing the entire thesis topic. The rapid and imperative transition to distance mode of mentoring and supervision brought in many challenges as well as adjustments [1]. The supervisors were required to keep in touch with the students to avoid them feel isolated, abandoned and thus out of focus. As the pandemic set in, the Master of Arts in Linguistics which is the subject of this study, had over 100 students working on their Masters’ thesis which was due to be submitted within a few months. The next batch of students had almost completed the course work of one year’s duration and were planning to face the written examination in May 2020. Thus, the pandemic disrupted well set schedules of the study programmes at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. The aim of this study is to review the role of remote supervision of graduate students and the outcomes of adopting this novel approach.

2 Purpose The worldwide challenges created by the extraordinary situation of a pandemic required immediate solutions. Many studies conducted prior to Covid-19 and during the pandemic highlight the significance and advantages of remote supervision of graduate students [1–5, 8, 10]. The present study focuses on the Master of Arts in Linguistics programme at the University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka and how challenges of research candidates were minimised through remote supervision. The study programme of 60 credits (120 ECTS – European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System) which is of two years’ duration with course work and a research component consists of a written examination for seven different modules at the completion of course work and a thesis written on a relevant topic. The written examination and the thesis are allocated 30 credits each (60 ECTS), thus emphasising the significance of the research component. The minimum word limit is 20,000 words/90 pages and it is required to compile the thesis conforming to the guidelines of the study programme. The Master programmes by course work in Sri Lanka are mostly conducted during the weekends since the majority of the students is employed. When the country went to complete lockdown in March 2020 all postgraduate courses conducted onsite came to an abrupt halt. After some weeks of disruption to face-to-face sessions due to the sudden closure of the universities, the lectures as well as the assessment were conducted online. Hence, the course work was not severely affected. However, the graduate students who had completed their course work and were engaged in research leading to the thesis were confronted with severe hardships in data collection and arranging onsite meetings with the supervisors. The theses were due to be handed over by the end of May 2020. Hence, new mechanisms had to be developed to overcome these challenges. Due to the inability to collect data from schools or universities many students who had selected related topics and commenced their research had to change the focus of the study while some applied for one year extension to submit the thesis. The submission deadline was extended after considering the large number of requests made by the students.

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Immediate action was required to reach the students who were planning to complete their work before the new deadline. Since most of the students were working from home, finding an online solution for supervision of thesis was not a difficult task albeit this mechanism was not adopted extensively prior to Covid 19. Thus, the aim of this study is to find out the effectiveness of remote supervision as a solution to impediments caused due to the pandemic situation resulting in travel restrictions, social distancing as well as the indefinite closure of the universities, and to find out whether this is a sustainable solution for post-Covid 19 era. The study sample comprises students from the two-year Master of Arts in Linguistics programme conducted at the University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, who were due to submit their theses after conducting research on a selected topic, and the subsequent batch who completed their written examinations via online assignments and were due to embark on their research leading to the master thesis.

3 Approach Several recent studies focus on redefining graduate supervision and the outcomes of the imperative transition to distance mode [1–5]. Furthermore, universities worldwide have guidelines for remote supervision which became more useful in the pandemic context [6, 7]. Nevertheless, remote supervision is not a novel approach as seen in the scholarly publications of pre-Covid era that has continued through the years with much success [8, 10]. The usual practice in graduate supervision for the Masters in Linguistics has been for the supervisor to summon all the assigned candidates for a first meeting to discuss the proposed topics and overall guidelines and subsequently meeting them individually in person. The Master candidates hail from all parts of the country and are occupied during the week due to their employment. Thus, meeting the supervisor physically has always been a challenge for the candidates even during pre-covid times. Furthermore, allocating time for each student amidst the assigned lecture schedule has been a challenge for the supervisors specially during the semester. However, issues including time constraints and travel difficulties and the inability to obtain leave from employer during the week to meet the supervisors could be avoided due to the facility for remote supervision. Many academic institutions in Sri Lanka used ZOOM or Microsoft Teams for online delivery. The conference platform that is provided data free by the state universities for staff and undergraduates is ZOOM. Hence, this platform was used for remote supervision of the students who are the sample of this study. Two batches of students comprise the study sample including those who have completed their Masters’ degree by submitting their thesis following remote supervision and the current batch of students who are due to submit during the current academic year. Student feedback at the end of each online discussion session, questionnaire, interviews, results obtained by the students for the thesis at the final examination and interviews with academics who

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used remote supervision were the tools employed in this study. At the time of the country going into lockdown, one face-to-face discussion session and a workshop were already conducted for the first batch. A few students had already completed the literature review, which had to be further discussed and revised. Hence, individual online meetings were arranged with the students to discuss their issues to offer guidance and advise. On average a minimum of eight to ten sessions were conducted per student until the final draft was ready for submission in September 2020. With the second batch of Master students remote supervision commenced from the initial discussion itself which was successfully conducted online. Further individual meetings have been conducted with the students on a regular basis upon submission of draft chapters or if any issues they faced requited a discussion. 3.1

Research Design

The research was designed to obtain quantitative and qualitative data collected from a sample of students of Master of Arts in Linguistics who were assigned to the researcher as their supervisor. The programme is conducted in English and Sinhala medium. Sinhala is the majority language in Sri Lanka and one of the two official languages. English functions as a link language enjoying the status of a second language [11]. All students in this case study are from the English medium programme. Two batches of students comprise the sample including eight students who already submitted the thesis in September 2020 and twenty eight students who are due to submit their thesis during the current academic year. Among those were five students who had deferred the thesis submission by one year. Additionally, views of academics who supervised the candidates of Masters in Linguistics in 2020 and 2021 were also obtained to identify different methods of supervision that were adopted. Individual feedback after online discussion sessions, interviews with supervisors and a survey conducted using Google form were the tools employed in this study. The individual feedback of the students was obtained during the discussions conducted via ZOOM. Views of academics and students on remote mentoring, advantages and challenges of remote supervision were obtained. The online survey consisted of three sections. The first segment contained 6 questions on personal details including gender, age group, occupation, experience in using web conferencing facilities and types of conferencing tools they were familiar with. The second section consisted of 15 questions as seen in Table 1 using Lickert type scale of measurement i.e. 1. Strongly agree, 2. Agree, 3. Neither agree nor disagree, 4. Disagree, 5. Strongly disagree [8]. The third section of the survey consisted of 7 open ended questions as indicated in Table 2 to obtain qualitative data from the students on the experience, benefits, disadvantages, challenges faced and suggestions for improvement. All 36 students had responded to the online survey and expressed their views on the impact of remote supervision.

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Component 1

2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

13

14 15

Question I believe that remote supervision and discussions via ZOOM were more effective in completing my thesis successfully I experienced difficulties with time management, focus and self- discipline due to lack of direct supervision with face-to-face meetings with the supervisor My online participation in discussions with the supervisor were disrupted due to bad Internet access My online participation in discussions with the supervisor were disrupted due to lack of electronic devices I had poor internet connection which disrupted remote supervision and discussion via ZOOM I have found the transition to remote supervision easy I believe that online supervision of my thesis helped me to complete is within the given time frame My confidence in using web conferencing tools improved due to remote supervision of my thesis I did not find remote supervision and discussions via ZOOM different from face-to-face meetings I believe that remote supervision and discussions via ZOOM were more effective than face to face meetings I found online supervision more stressful than on campus meetings with the supervisor I feel that online meetings with the supervisor classes offered more opportunities for discussions than face-toface meetings I received more feedback from my supervisor during or following the online meetings than during the pre-corona times The feedback became more personalized and prompt I believe that remote supervision can be recommended for the future MA candidates too as it is more effective and time saving than arranging personal meetings with the supervisor

Scale 1. Strongly agree 2. Agree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Disagree 5. Strongly disagree

The fifteen questions given in Table 1 measure students’ perceptions and experience in remote supervision related to accessibility issues, time management and selfdirected learning, progress of the research, ICT skills acquired, rapport established with the supervisor. The responses to the questions are illustrated in Fig. 1. Table 2 given below depict the seven open ended questions stated in Sect. 3 of the online survey which provided an opportunity to the respondents to express their views in detail related to their experience in remote supervision. The responses provided data for the quantitative analysis in Sect. 4.3.

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Table 2. Section three of the survey Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Question What were the advantages of remote/online supervision of your MA thesis? What were the disadvantages of remote/online supervision of your MA thesis? What would you like to retain with reference to remote supervision of MA candidates in the future? What did you find different from face-to-face meetings against the online discussions? What did you miss during the online discussions in comparison to face to face sessions? What is your opinion about facing the online viva to defend your thesis? Any additional comments on your remote supervision experience and suggestions for improvement

The open-ended questions focused on reflecting (Q1–5), predicting the future and providing suggestions for improvement (Q 7) in remote supervision.

4 Analysis The data obtained through individual feedback during the online discussions, interviews with academics and the online survey are presented in this section. 4.1

Data Sample

Section one of the online survey focused on the background of the sample. 97.2% of the sample comprised female candidates. All candidates were employed with 83% being in the teaching profession at schools or higher education institutes. Thus, all had experience of work from home using one or more of the following web conferencing tools applications: Zoom. Microsoft Teams, Google Classroom, Google Meet and Adobe Connect When considering the age groups 77.9% belonged to 26–30 year group, 8.3% each to 31–35 years and 41–50 year group and only 5.5% was over 51 years. 20% of the respondents had already completed the Masters’ degree in 2020 having experienced the hybrid mode of supervision. Prior to Covid 19 this group had onsite discussions with the supervisor. Since March 2020 the supervision continued remotely. 4.2

Quantitative Analysis of Student Perceptions

Section 2 of the survey comprised 15 questions of student perceptions on remote supervision as presented in Table 1. The chart below illustrates the responses of the students.

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Number of responses

Student percepƟons on remote supevision 30 20 10 0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12 Q13 Q14 Q15

Response to quesƟons 1-15 in SecƟon 2 Strongly Agree

Agree

Neither agree nor disagree

Disagree

Strongly disagree

Fig. 1. Quantitative analysis of student perceptions on remote supervision

As illustrated in the graph, more than 95% of the respondents believed that remote supervision and online discussions via ZOOM were more effective in completing my thesis successfully. 55.5% stated that they did not experience difficulties with time management, focus and self- discipline due to lack of direct supervision with face-toface meetings with the supervisor 33% opted to be neutral. Over 90% disagreed that online discussions with the supervisor were disrupted due to poor internet access and lack of electronic devices and that their poor internet connection disrupted remote supervision and online discussions via ZOOM. 94% agreed that the transition to online supervision was smooth which can be attributed to prior experience in working with web conferencing tools. Similarly, the majority believed that online supervision helped to complete the thesis within the given time frame and that confidence in using web conferencing tools improved due to remote supervision. Over 90% found remote supervision and discussions via ZOOM to be different from face-to-face meetings and that it was more effective. Consequently, 90% disagreed that online supervision was more stressful than on campus meetings with the supervisor while 97% felt that online meetings with the supervisor offered more opportunities for discussions. The majority agreed that they received more feedback from my supervisor during the online meetings than during the pre-corona times and that the feedback became more personalised and prompt. All participants agreed that remote supervision can be recommended for the future MA candidates as it is more effective and time saving than arranging personal meetings with the supervisor. 4.3

Qualitative Analysis of Student Perceptions

Section 3 of the survey consisted of open-ended questions as stated in Table 2. The respondents had given similar answers and they can be summerised as follows:

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Q1. What were the advantages of remote/online supervision of your MA thesis? The common responses were that it was easy to connect with the supervisor, faster, more flexible, the fact that there was facility to work from the comfort of their homes. The possibility was ideal in the current pandemic situation, more meetings could be arranged than pre-Covid times, the possibility of file sharing and discussing the sections to be revised, time saving, saves long distance travelling, no need to confine meetings to office hours or working days, more time available for discussions were the other responses by the majority of the students. Q2. What were the disadvantages? Very common were issues with the internet connection, unexpected power failure, disturbances from noise outside, no real-life interaction with the supervisor, lack of access to library facilities. Q3. What would you like to retain with reference to remote supervision of MA thesis candidates in the future? Remote supervision with individual online meetings were mentioned as they can be arranged faster, and correspondence through emails was preferred. Q4. What did you find different from face-to-face meetings against the online discussions? Having to depend heavily on internet connection, audio being not clear at times due to connection issues, disturbances from outside, lack of eye contact and physical proximity were the common responses. Q5. What did you miss during the online discussions in comparison to face to face sessions? Many mentioned that they did not find any difference except for lack of physical proximity and eye contact, meeting peers and visiting the university premises. They emphasised that the advantages or remote supervision outweighed the disadvantages. Q6. What is your opinion about facing the online viva voce to defend your thesis? All the respondents believed that the online viva voce is less stressful, gives more confidence to the candidate, there is no stress involved with travelling and that they can concentrate fully on the viva voce. Q7. Any additional comments on your remote supervision experience and suggestions for improvement. The majority of the respondents reported of very positive experience, ability to work according to schedule, flexible time, no travel stress involved. They also recommended to continue with remote supervision and online viva voce examination. As depicted in the responses to open-ended questions it is evident that the students strongly endorse remote supervision to be sustained.

5 Findings The analysis of data available through the questionnaires, interviews with the supervisors and candidates as well as the results obtained by the first batch of students for the thesis bear testimony to the success of remote supervision. Since the mentoring and

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exchange of discourse were conducted remotely there was no pressure on either party – supervisor or the students – to manage meeting times on working days and during office hours as it was the case during pre-Covid 19 times. There was no restriction of time for meetings, no long-distance travelling required for candidates residing far away from the university who sometimes had to travel for over 6 to 8 h for a one-hour meeting with the supervisor. It was observed that many of the difficulties related to travel, time management, obtaining leave from place of work to meet the supervisor that were faced by the candidates during pre-covid times could be overcome through remote supervision. The student responses show a very high satisfaction rate. The only shortcomings they mentioned were the few disruptions to online connectivity at times, lack of opportunity to access the university library for their research and being physically present at the university premises as graduate students. They had more time available to focus on their research while keeping in touch with the supervisor online. In general, every student had 8–10 meeting and discussion sessions via Zoom, whereas not more than 3–4 face-to-face meetings were possible previously. Due to connection issues affecting the audio, the cameras of both parties had to be switched off after the initial exchanges. Thus, eye contact and facial expressions could not be observed. Nevertheless, the relevant files could be shared and meetings could be arranged even late evening or during weekends in a more relaxed environment, providing both parties more opportunity to focus on the progress of the research and address any issues or areas for improvement. The majority of the students was familiar with online platforms as they were used while working from home which was an added advantage for remote supervision. Further, many mobile service providers introduced new user-friendly data packages for ZOOM, Google Meet and Microsoft Teams which made online discussions cost effective for the students. Thus, the student and supervisor satisfaction was high, and the results obtained for the thesis vastly improved in comparison to previous batches of students. The viva voce was held online for the students who submitted the thesis, which made it more convenient for all panelists as well as the candidates who shared their presentations online via ZOOM. The examiners pointed out less revisions on content and formatting since the candidates and the supervisors had more time to devote to focus on the final version of the thesis. Completion rate was high as well in comparison to the previous batches. Albeit these possibilities were present even prior to Covid 19 they were seldom practiced until it became imperative to seek solutions through the online mode. Although some students had difficulty in data collection as school and universities were closed and many changed their research topics, the academics and the students unanimously agreed that the advantages of remote supervision outweigh the disadvantages and shortcomings. Monitoring of student progress was easy as recordings and electronic records were maintained. They were well focused and prepared for the online discussions with any doubts, related questions and documents with notes to be shared. Thus, the students were less anxious and more confident in presenting a good quality thesis than previous candidates due to constant virtual contact with the supervisor. They were also not required to travel half a day and back for one single meeting at the university. Furthermore, plagiarism checks, minute corrections and areas for improvement could be pointed out through file sharing.

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6 Conclusions and Recommendations This paper discussed the impact of remote supervision of graduate students during the height of the Covid-19 pandemic that severely affected the entire world from the beginning of 2020. The possibility of remote supervision existed even prior to Covid 19 even though this was not executed to its full potential. However, due to unexpected turn of events spanning over a long period of time restricting movement of the entire world, many a hitherto unexplored mechanism was adopted in higher education bringing relief to all parties concerned. The mentoring and supervision of graduate students were no longer a burden to academics. The students worked on their research at a relaxed pace with much confidence as the supervisors were accessible online when they were confronted with any issues related to their research. Thus, the rapid transition due to pandemic situation paved way for novel ideas and practices in many areas including teaching and learning. Remote supervision of graduate students provided a solution not only to travel restrictions and social distancing during Covid-19 pandemic, but to several challenges previously faced by the students as well as supervisors including accommodating discussions and meetings during office hours and longdistance travelling required by the candidates. Albeit the sample in this case study is limited to one postgraduate course of study conducted by one university, the results yielded could be the voice of many postgraduate students in other areas of study at universities across the globe. Therefore, it is pivotal to conduct future research on this area not limiting only to the extraordinary situation of a worldwide pandemic. Thus, a sustainable solution has been derived out of necessity and the sustainability of the method needs to be further explored. Hence, it is recommended to integrate remote supervision in the future as this method yielded more positive results and overall satisfaction of the students and the supervisors.

References 1. Rad, F.A., Otaki, F., Baqain, Z., Zary, N., AlHalabi, M.: Rapid transition to distance learning due to COVID-19: perceptions of postgraduate dental learners and instructors. PLoS One 16 (2), e0246584 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246584 2. Nash, C.: Proposed model and approach to graduate mentorship and supervision during COVID-19. Preprints 2021, 2021010631 (2021). https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202101. 0631.v1 3. Misra, F., Mazelfi, I.: Long-distance online learning during pandemic: the role of communication, working in group, and self- directed learning in developing student’s confidence. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Educational Development and Quality Assurance (ICED-QA 2020), Advances in Social Sciences, Education and Humanities Research (2021) 4. Ali, W.: Online and remote learning in higher education institutes: a necessity in light of COVID-19 pandemic. High. Educ. Stud. 10(3) (2020). Canadian Center of Science and Education, Toronto 5. Ghani, F.: Remote teaching and supervision of graduate scholars in the unprecedented and testing times. J. Pak. Dent. Assoc. 29(S), S36–42 (2020)

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6. Monash University. Appendix G: Guidelines for remote supervision. https://www.monash. edu/graduate-research/support-and-resources/handbooks/masters/chapter-twelve/g. Accessed 31 May 2021 7. University of Ottawa. Best practices for remote supervision of graduate students and postdoctoral fellows, https://med.uottawa.ca/graduate-postdoctoral/students-hub/bestpractices-remote-supervision-graduate-students-and-postdoctoral-fellows. Accessed 31 May 2021 8. Nasiri, F., Mafakheri, F.: Postgraduate research supervision at a distance: a review of challenges and strategies. Stud. High. Educ. 40, 1–8 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 03075079.2014.914906 9. Likert, R.: A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Arch. Psychol. 140, 5–55 (1935) 10. Garrison, D.R.: E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Framework for Research and Practice, 2nd edn. Routledge, London (2011). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203838761 11. Chapter IV- Language, Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, http://www.commonlii.org/lk/legis/const/2000/5.html. Accessed 1 June 2021

Interdisciplinary Approach to Teaching Petrochemical Engineers Marina Zhuravleva , Natalia Bashkirtseva , Elvira Valeeva(&) Olga Zinnurova , and Julia Ovchinnikova

,

Kazan National Research Technological University, 68 Karl Marx Street, Kazan 420015, Russian Federation

Abstract. The rapid development of new industrial technologies has created a demand for professional engineers with interdisciplinary skills in engineering, digital manufacturing technologies, management, marketing and communication. The oil and gas industry is the key sector of the Russian economy. Nowadays, its industrial development focuses on technological transformations, international integration, introduction of digital twins, and environmental friendly processes. This complex task requires engineering personnel capable of performing various labor functions from different professional areas. The purpose of the study is to develop educational process and conditions for efficient interdisciplinary training of petrochemical engineers at the technological university. The paper presents the interdisciplinary approach to developing the set of integrated skills for students majoring in Petrochemical Engineering. These skills include the abilities to develop digital projects, to control the reliability of technical objects, to solve economical and management problems, to protect intellectual property, to communicate in English for professional and academic purposes, to work in teams both at Russian and international levels. To develop these skills, the special system for interdisciplinary training of students was organized at Kazan National Research Technological University. This system includes various interdisciplinary programs and courses developed for their implementation in lifelong education system based on the cooperation between the University and secondary schools. Keywords: Engineer
Lifelong education
Engineering skills Interdisciplinary approach
Knowledge-based industries




1 Introduction The global industrial revolution leads to the development of new technologies and upgrading of existing ones. High-tech industries ensure the economic stability of the global economy. Therefore, the development of new breakthrough technologies is a key priority of any country. In Russia, the oil and gas industry is one of the most important economic sectors. Its successful future development depends on technology transformation, international cooperation, introduction of digital twins, and environmental friendliness of industrial processes. Accelerated technological progress creates a demand for engineers with knowledge and skills in the field of engineering research, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 645–652, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_64

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advanced technologies, industrial digitalization, economics, management, and communication technologies. Therefore, to train a new generation of engineers capable of performing labor functions from various professional fields, the development of interdisciplinary approach to engineering education at universities is required. The purpose of the study is to create organizational and pedagogical conditions for an interdisciplinary educational process to train future specialists for the oil and gas industry.

2 Engineering Competences for High-Technology Industries The revolutionary industrial development is associated with the progress of hightechnology industries that focus on the creation of new advanced technologies and materials, improvement and optimization of industrial processes aimed at solving problems of sustainable development. The high technology industries include such engineering fields as radio-electronics, aircraft construction, space exploration, instrumentation, microbiology, informatics, petrochemical and chemical industry, etc. These industries are characterized by: complex structure; diversity of industrial processes and manufactured products; high dynamics of industrial development; high scientific and engineering levels of processes; high quality of final products; unique professional teams consisting of scientists, qualified engineers and technicians [1]. These characteristics have a significant influence on the formation of strategies for industrial development, as well as the organization and management of a life cycle of a company. In the economy of the Russian Federation, the petrochemical complex is a key industry for the Russian budgetary system. In addition, it is the largest customer for other industries. The main task of the global economy is an accelerated transition of modern industry to a more efficient, flexible and sustainable system which is to be ready to face the existing challenges and to solve all problems of the modern society. The prospects of the oil and gas industry aim at developing new technologies and materials; digital transforming and intellectualizing industrial processes and facilities; optimizing the energy infrastructure; reducing the negative impact on the environment and adapting to climate changes [2]. The need to solve the priority tasks of the oil and gas industry complicates the content of engineering activities. Nowadays, engineers are to solve social, economic and environmental problems. They are involved in industrial environment which requires the solution of complex and integrated tasks: • preparation of technological processes (selection of raw materials, effective catalysts, quality assessment taking into account environmental factors); • manufacture of products using new technologies; • control of industrial processes and facilities using digital technologies; • administrative and engineering support (R&D for logistics and personnel management). To solve these tasks, a modern engineer is to demonstrate a much wider range of key competencies, required for performing various functions from several professional

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fields. The increasing complexity of engineering tasks has led to significant changes in engineering education [3]. The analysis of modern trends of the oil and gas industry development allowed us to determine the main engineering competences. It was found that along with the main chemical and technological competencies, there is a need to develop additional professional competencies from other areas of activity, as well as soft skills. They include abilities: to apply digital design technologies; to operate process units taking into account the principles of reliability and safety; to know principles of economics, management and business planning; to protect intellectual property; to use foreign languages for professional communications; to work in a team.

3 Lifelong Learning Approach Lifelong learning approach is used to create special engineering education at Kazan National Research Technological University (KNRTU). KNRTU has developed the educational system based on the close cooperation with secondary schools. This lifelong learning approach allows us to prepare secondary-school students to their future study at the University and choose their future professional development trajectories. Moreover, this approach leads to the improvement of the quality of education which is aimed at developing complex engineering skills. Training of engineers with a growing number of competencies is provided by the creation of the following conditions based on designing elective and pre-university courses and courses for additional professional education; implementing interdisciplinary approach; supporting individual educational trajectories of students. The main conditions and tools of the competence approach were specified according to the requirements of chemical and petrochemical companies for each level of the educational process. At pre-university stage, secondary-school students have the opportunity not only to choose the direction of chemical and engineering training (oil and gas production, petroleum refining, inorganic chemical technology, nanotechnology), but also to define the professional profiles of their future university education (research, design, manufacturing profiles). Depending on their choice, students are involved in research, design and engineering projects [4–7]. For Bachelor's degree students, the competence approach aims at forming and developing interdisciplinary professional competencies. This allows students to work successfully in international companies, perform economic planning functions, and manage professional teams. Master’s degree program are designed to provide students with interdisciplinary courses. The programs aimed at developing the abilities to synthesize new materials with desired properties, make 3D design for process units, create digital twins, protect intellectual property, and provide legal support. The complex of pedagogical conditions creates opportunities for students to form their individual educational trajectories in accordance with their professional purposes. In addition, various minor degree programs are developed for special educational needs of students.

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4 Pre-university Education for Secondary-School Students Pre-university education of secondary-school students plays an important role in the training of future engineers. Russian engineering universities cooperate with secondary schools to provide students with professional guidance counseling. There are different forms of school-university collaboration [8]. This collaboration allows universities to implement professionally-oriented and interdisciplinary approaches to training secondary-school students. The pre-university engineering-oriented education develops initial professional skills of students. KNRTU proposes the professionally-oriented program “I am an Engineer of the Future”. The purpose of the program is to involve secondary-school students in pre-university engineering education. The program is designed for students of 8–11 grades. They have the opportunity to become university students for a day. The program consists of several teaching modules. The interdisciplinary modules contain teaching materials from various branches of chemistry and chemical engineering. The modules include theoretical studies, experimental laboratory works, seminars, meetings with University professors and students. The program develops research, instrumental and analytical competencies, economic and ecological competences, and skills of synthesizing various compounds on pilot installations which simulate the real industrial processes. The program ends with a competition for the best school team and the best student of a day. The teaching modules on Chemistry develop research and experimental competences in the fields of organic and inorganic chemistry. These modules train secondaryschool students to conduct research in applied chemistry in cooperation with Master’s degree students. Secondary-school students take part in developing pharmaceutical products of a new generation. There are different laboratory works which are designed for training secondary-school students to carry out redoxreactions, to use various methods of qualitative analysis, to extract essential oil from orange peels by steam distillation, etc. The teaching modules on modeling of technological processes are designed to develop professional competencies in the field of oil and gas processing, petroleum refining and modeling of technological processes. Secondary-school students take part in experiments focused on the determination of oil composition, its physical and chemical properties. Also, students perform oil treatment and define the fractional composition of oils from various fields. The modules include theoretical classes on petrochemical synthesis and obtaining of petrochemical products. Students model petrochemical processes and facilities using ChemCad and study technological processes through special installations demonstrated real industrial facilities. The teaching module on standardization and quality management develops laboratory skills for assessing the quality of chemical products. The module includes laboratory works focused on the determination of the content of vitamin C in juice and the acidity of milk. Students conduct comparative analyses using technological standards. The teaching modules on nanotechnology develop experimental and instrumental skills in the field of composition of coatings. They include laboratory experiments on the application of powder paints and varnishes with various effects, aerosol paints for

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metal surfaces, instrumental analysis of coating defects using an electron microscope, theoretical and practical exercises on the production of inorganic materials. The multidisciplinary modules of the Program encourage secondary-school students to choose chemical engineering as their future professional field. The interdisciplinary content of the modules of the Program contributes to the development of integrated engineering competencies such as experimental-analytical, experimentalmodeling, analytical-instrumental. In addition, the modules aim at developing soft skills such as the ability to work in a scientific group, to discuss a problem, and to defend one's opinion.

5 Interdisciplinary Programs for Bachelor’s Degree Students The rapid introduction of innovations into the industrial sectors has led to significant changes in economic requirements of Russian companies. The industrial sectors require engineers with integrated economic and technological skills. A process engineer is to analyze the technological units from engineering and economic points of views to solve complex problems of industrial companies. A process engineer is to be ready to produce new types of products, look for and find ways to improve the efficiency of a company, improve product quality, increase labor productivity, develop and implement new energy and resource-saving technologies and facilities. To train a new generation of process engineers, the interdisciplinary program “Innovative Technologies of International Oil and Gas Corporations” has been developed at KNRTU. The program aims at developing integrated engineering, management and foreign language communication skills of Bachelor’s degree students. In addition to the major program, the programs of additional professional education were developed. At KNRTU, Bachelor’s degree students have the opportunity to deepen and expand their professional competencies while mining in Applied Economics. The program lasts three years and includes the following teaching modules: • technologies for managing business processes in oil and gas companies; • development of modern oil and gas business (investments and innovations); • startup technologies for successful operation of a company. The program is designed to train students to calculate various performance indicators, depending on the characteristics of project proposals; to predict the required investment and marketability of products; to apply methods of assessing technical and economic indicators of the effectiveness of the oil and gas companies; to know principles of oil and gas project investment. Taking into account the high level of complexity and danger of the oil and gas industry, students can get an Associate Degree at a Community College. This education allows them to work with hazardous substances and units in petrochemical companies. Moreover, students gain internship experience in real chemical companies during their vocational education. This expands their knowledge of technological processes and future professional duties. In accordance with the profiles of regional oil and gas industries, employers recommend obtaining Associate Degrees in Technological

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Process Operation, Laboratory Analysis, and Document Management. More than 80% of undergraduate students receive these degrees while studying at the University. International integration of the oil and gas industry, joint projects of Russian and foreign corporations on liquefied gas, general operation of oil and gas pipelines, operation of imported technologies require engineers who are able to communicate in English for solving complex professional problems. The interdisciplinary minor degree program “English for Professional Translation in the Field of the Oil and Gas Industry” was developed for Bachelor’s degree students [9]. The program lasts two years and aims at developing professionally-oriented English skills. The program includes such courses as English Speaking Practice; English Grammar and Phonetics; Translation and Interpretation; Business English; Computer Translation; Presentation Skills. In addition, students are trained to pass TOEFL.

6 Interdisciplinary Programs for Master’s Degree Students According to the Russian educational standards Master’s degree programs for petrochemical engineers at KNRTU are divided into design, research and managerial ones. Design programs aim at developing unique design and technological competencies. Master’s degree students are trained to use computer-aided design and 3D modeling for the development of industrial facilities for chemical and petrochemical companies using Hysys/Unisim and AutoCADPlant. For example, the program “Designing Technologies for Integrated Development of Hydrocarbon Feedstock” was developed at KNRTU. Research programs focus on the development of research and experimental competencies required for synthesis of new products. For example, the program “Chemical Technologies for Producing Reagents for Oil Companies and Refineries” was developed for Master’s degree students. Managerial programs are created for training students to manage industrial processes and control the quality of final products. The program “Lifecycle Management of Petrochemical Companies” was developed and implemented at KNRTU [10]. However, the changes in the oil and gas industry require specialists with integrated skills. In addition, graduates often face the problems of employment, resulting from rapid changes in labor market trends. To develop integrated skills of future petrochemical engineers, KNRTU has created and implemented various interdisciplinary programs and courses for Master’s degree students. There are a number of optional courses and Minor degree programs such as Project Management and Information Systems and Technologies. The most important task of an industrial company is the development of management system focusing on the transition to a new industrial level. Effective management system allows a company to solve problems of engineering and technological renovation of process units and facilities, labor productivity, competitiveness of a company, and efficiency of its activities. Management of modern competitive high-tech science-intensive production requires a synergistic synthesis of engineering and managerial competencies [11]. The Project Management Program contributes to the development of managerial and project skills of Master’s degree students. The program includes teaching courses focused on intellectual property management, methods of

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making managerial decisions and effective communication. The program promotes personal and professional development, and provides students with competencies required for professional coaching, systems thinking, presentations and public speaking. The purpose of the Information Systems and Technologies Program was developed to train Master’s degree students to apply information technologies for developing industry digitalization [12]. The program forms a common understanding of the digital technology ecosystem and provides approaches to the digitalization of industrial facilities. The Program contains teaching courses for studying principles of information security and main categories of information security measures, as well as building an information security system. The Program forms skills for effective management of IT projects.

7 Conclusions The high rates of industrial development require the training of engineers capable of performing labor functions from various professional fields. The analysis of the industrial development trends of the oil and gas industry allows us to define the main engineering competencies. It was found that along with the main chemical and engineering competencies, there is a need for the development of additional integrated professional competencies. The implementation of the interdisciplinary approach in the lifelong education system ensures the formation of a set of integrated competencies. The implementation of interdisciplinary programs of pre-university education of secondary-school students increases interest in engineering education. The number of participants in these programs increases by 15–20% annually. The pre-university programs provide 65% of engineering-oriented KNRTU applicants with high scores of the Unified State Exam in Chemistry. A wide range of interdisciplinary educational programs allow students to create their individual educational trajectories. About 80% of secondary-school students are focused on engineering education, 15% of university students receive two major degrees, 68% of university students receive minor and associate degrees, 43% of Master’s students choose programs for studying digital technologies. The interdisciplinary approach is supported by employers. This is confirmed by the demand for KNRTU graduates in the labor market. 95% of graduates are employed according to their majors. Graduates quickly adapt to their professional activities. More than 46% of graduates start their career in industry during the first 2–3 years of work. The development of an interdisciplinary approach stimulates university professors to take part in programs of professional development (60% of professors are trained annually). Thus, the proposed organizational and pedagogical conditions for developing professional competencies required for modern science-intensive industries proved their efficiency for engineering education at KNRTU.

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References 1. Chang, C.C., Hung, S.W., Huang, S.Y.: Evaluating the operational performance of knowledge-based industries: the perspective of intellectual capital. Qual. Quant. 47, 1367– 1383 (2013) 2. Favorskii, O.N., Batenin, V.M., Maslennikov, V.M.: Where to start the implementation of Russia’s energy strategy. Her. Russ. Acad. Sci. 85(1), 1–7 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1134/ S1019331615010086 3. Kondratyev, V.V., Galikhanov, M.F., Osipov, P.N., Shageeva, F.T., Kaybiyaynen, A.A.: Engineering education: transformation for industry 4.0 (Synergy 2019 conference results review). Vysshee Obrazovanie v Rossii 28(12), 105–122 (2019) 4. Bezrukov, A., Sultanova, D.: Application of microfluidic tools for training chemical engineers. In: Auer, M.E., Hortsch, H., Sethakul, P. (eds.) ICL 2019. AISC, vol. 1135, pp. 496–504. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40271-6_49 5. Kraysman, N.V., Shageeva, F.T., Pichugin, A.B.: Modern pedagogical techniques in teaching French to prepare engineering university students for academic mobility. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 107–117. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_11 6. Fakhretdinova, G.N., Osipov, P., Dulalaeva, L.P.: Extracurricular activities as an important tool in developing soft skills. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 480–487. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_47 7. Shageeva, F.T., Suntsova, M.S.: improving skills for teaching at an engineering university. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning, ICL 2018, vol. 1385, pp. 1741–1746 (2018) 8. Zhuravleva, M.V., Bashkirceva, N.: Cluster system of specialist training for petro-chemical industry. J. Chem. Technol. Metall. 50(3), 321–324 (2015) 9. Lefterova, O., Giliazova, D., Valeeva, E., Ziyatdinova, J.: Poster: computer-aided translation course for students majoring in engineering. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 1135, 154–158 (2020) 10. Kazakov, Y.M., Bashkirceva, N., Zhuravleva, M.V., Ezhkova, G.O., Sirotkin, A.S., Ebel, A. O.: Engineering education based on integration with science and industry. Vysshee obrazovanie v Rossii 12, 105–115 (2020) 11. Sultanova, D., Sanger, P.A., Maliashova, A.: Introducing real-world projects into a chemical technology curricula. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1328, pp. 362–370. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68198-2_33 12. Nurgaliev, R.K., Shinkevich, A.I.: Building a business process management model for a «smart» enterprise. J. Phys: Conf. Ser. 1889, 22106 (2021)

Transitioning the Teaching/Learning Process to Online Environment During the COVID-19 Pandemic Paula Miranda1,2

, Silviano Rafael1(&)

, and Júlia Justino1,3

1

Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal, Setúbal School of Technology, Campus do IPS Estefanilha, 2914-508 Setúbal, Portugal {paula.miranda,silviano.rafael}@estsetubal.ips.pt 2 Sustain.RD - Research Center for Engineering and Sustainable Development, Setúbal, Portugal 3 CINEA - Centre for Energy and Environment Research, Setúbal, Portugal

Abstract. The adaptation of both teachers and students to the application of pedagogical techniques in remote teaching/learning platforms of a Portuguese technology and engineering school of a higher education institution, due to the confinement imposed by the safety measures taken against the COVID-19 pandemic, is presented in this paper. The teachers’ behavior and students’ attitude concerning the change to remote teaching and learning methods is analysed. The actions taken, the difficulties experienced by the academic community in the transition from face-to-face to remote education, in particular the changeover of technical-scientific and pedagogical components in the course units, the evaluation of the teaching-learning process and the improvement needs are presented. Considerations on possible solutions and some relevant conclusions are also pointed out, showing that both teachers and students are not ready to switch to new digital means of education. Keywords: Online learning


Pedagogical approach transition

1 Introduction Due to health protection to mitigate the effects of infection by COVID-19, the entire academic community of the Portuguese higher education institutions was confined in mid-March 2020, interrupting face to face activities overnight. At the Portuguese polytechnic Institute of Setúbal (IPS), in particular, a two-week break between classes for teachers and students was imposed to adapt all the teaching-learning activities to a remote format. The eLearning model [1], already partially adopted in an evening course but very little applied in daytime engineering and technology courses, became a reality in the context of pedagogic method. There was a quick response to adapt teaching and learning methods into digital communication technology and virtual environment platforms of classrooms, where part of the training process was established. At the same time, the institution developed several short-term training actions on remote teaching, as well as workshops and lectures, for teachers. However, this institutional effort was not always properly used due to the entailed work overload by teachers in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 653–660, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_65

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preparing and adapting at this stage. The exception was the technological of immediate effect training actions, such as the use of communication and learning platforms. In fact, despite the personal skills of each teacher in this adaptation, there are not many guiding vectors for the best remote learning practices to be implemented in confinement time, being still an exploration and development research field [2].

2 Research Methodology The methodology used in this paper is based on a quantitative and qualitative research approach [3]. In this study, in a non-exhaustive manner, the description and interpretation on how the Setúbal School of Technology of IPS has adapted to remote education is presented, based on two surveys with multiple-choice and open-ended questions, one to a sample of 90 students of technology and engineering courses and another to a sample of 75 teachers concerning 184 course units. The surveys were carried out by the end of term time through an IT platform, collecting both quantitative and qualitative data sequentially or simultaneously depending on the questions and on the information that was intended to be evaluated. All surveys were anonymous in order to protect the student’s and teacher’s identity and privacy, encouraging them to answer with realism and truth. Based on the information from the surveys’ database, some problems associated to the paradigm shift in the teaching-learning process were identified and possible solutions presented.

3 Transforming Face-to-Face into Remote Learning Teachers and students were not prepared to be the main actors of the sudden change from face-to-face into remote learning. The use of communication platforms with video conferencing was a great challenge for the academic community, forcing them to change the teaching method, to reset time management, to produce diverse new didactic resources and to overcome the technical flaws of the Internet, among other issues. The pandemic brought the urgency and the need to experiment appropriate and quality teaching and learning solutions and methods [4]. In this sense, a suitable method fulfils the needs of learners through different approaches depending on the topics and learning objectives to be achieved [5]. 3.1

Teaching Activity

Teachers had to make a fast-track learning about technological means and IT platforms, which was also considered a barrier initially. In fact, the effectiveness of remote learning relies heavily on the level of use of these platforms in the application of the pedagogical approach. The most used platforms were MS-Teams, in 54% of the course units, and Colibri/Zoom, in the remaining 46%.

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Teachers also had to change their planning and to adapt teaching, learning and assessment methods. For many it involved redesigning new didactic resources on the contents to be given and how to present them for both synchronous and asynchronous sessions. This redesign of educational materials is directly related to the pedagogical approach that teachers applied in this context of confinement training process. In the time gap of two weeks before starting the remote teaching activity, called the adaptation phase, an online survey was carried out to the teachers in order to establish the pedagogy they wanted to apply in its course unit. The survey intended to put into consideration the range of possibilities that each teacher could choose in terms of practices and types of synchronous and asynchronous activities and assessment methods. Regarding the responses to the survey, it could be inferred that teachers can be associated in three different groups, according to the fundamental lines of the registered pedagogical adaptation to remote learning. The first group applied the expository method in most of the school time, either through the whiteboard of the IT platform or by sharing a Word, Excel or PowerPoint file containing the intended contents, followed up by an oral explanation. This typical pragmatic attitude towards the existing resources is linked to the teacher-centered approach where a fixed pedagogical mindset toils to remain in the comfort zone, with less ability to be flexible even in the eLearning context. This group represents around 45% of the teachers. The second group of teachers took the opportunity to produce contents in a differentiated format, with greater flexibility and more student-centered, representing around 25% of the teachers. The last group is formed by the remaining 30% of the teachers who, in their academic activities, combined the two methods. Although these three groups followed different pedagogical approaches, they were unanimous stating that the implementation of remote learning was a very demanding and psychologically exhausting challenge due to the working conditions that consumed about 5 times more time than before the pandemic, together with the need to provide extra support to students in their training, including psychological and emotional aspects. The learning objectives of the course units were adapted according to the limitations imposed by remote learning. Regarding the 184 curricular units of this study, the learnings objectives for theoretical, practical and laboratory classes were revised and structured as follows: 35% were established by class, 39% on a weekly basis, 24% by topic and 2% established other forms of distributing the learning objectives. Regarding classes, the lack of video image on the expression of the students’ faces, due to image protection, created a feeling of loneliness in the teachers and of being talking to an audience that had only ears, a quite slow reaction and sometimes absent from the remote equipment (computer or mobile), something that would be minor in face-to-face learning. The overall teachers’ adaptation to remote teaching is portrayed in Fig. 1. Regarding the learning activities in synchronous sessions, 73% were used in solving exercises, 15% in Moodle activities and 12% in various questionnaires. The monitoring of the students’ learning in the synchronous sessions was carried out in a mixed way by raising doubts in 82% of the course units, following exercise resolutions in 64%, following-up the development of a group work in 46% of the course units and only in 1% complementary platforms to support teaching and learning such as Kahoot or Socrative were used.

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Fig. 1. Overall teacher’s adaptation to remote teaching.

The teaching-learning activities continued in asynchronous mode in the Moodle learning platform used in 94% of the course units, complemented by the MS-Teams communication platform in 44% and by other platforms or complementary means such as Colibri/Zoom, Slack, the institutional information system and email in 19%. It should be noted that the remaining 5% of the course units only used the MS-Teams platform and 1% other computing environments. The learning objectives were monitored through diverse continuous assessment activities. More than one form of assessment was applied to students in 93% of the course units. Works were the most given assessment activity to students, practiced in 60% of the course units, followed by summative tests in 48%, reports and training tests in 27%, simulation environments to validate part of the acquired skills in 22% and in 10% of the course units a self-evaluation activity, in addition to other means of assessment aforementioned, was performed. In fact, the use of remote assessment allows for more frequent remote assessment activities [6]. Also, the increase of evaluation moments allowed an improvement in monitoring the learning process by providing information on the students’ academic performance in time for corrections to be made in their training trajectory. The biggest difficulty encountered regarding assessments was how to make them expeditious, efficient and effective without cheating, regardless of the evaluation type given. The main alternative found was to perform oral discussions with camera and microphone connected in cases of doubt. However, this meant more time-consuming evaluation activities for both teachers and students. 3.2

Students Activity

Students were deprived of close contact with teachers. The computer became their working tool for several hours a day during confinement, either to work autonomously, to speak with their peers, to participate in synchronous sessions or to participate in asynchronous sessions. Students also reported that they were not prepared for a full

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eLearning environment and the new academic competencies needed. In this context, 52% of the students stated to have spent on average, between 5 to 9 h a day in front of the computer, 25% up to 4 h, 19% between 10 and 14 h and 4% more than 15 h a day. Autonomy was one of the soft skills that had to be applied regularly in remote learning. About 51% of the students reported having worked individually while 49% worked in groups, sharing knowledge. In this last case, some of the students found it difficult to combine communication techniques and relationships with their peers in order to develop group activities, while others preferred to impose their own working rhythm and maintain independence in their academic activity. From the students’ sample who attended the semester during the pandemic, 36% stated to have attended more than 5 course units, 54% between 3 and 5 and 10% less than 3 course units. In addition, 22% of the students dropped a course unit due to the remote learning changes applied in its functioning, 37% of which indicated that it was due to the teacher's pedagogical attitudes and practices, 34% to the work overload in other course units, 18% to the increase of workload of that course unit and 11% to the lack of technical conditions or incompatibility with their professional activity. Moreover, isolation, low-definition conversations and low-resolution images hindered verbal and non-verbal communication, being factors of disturbance for everyone involved when using communication platforms by video conferencing. The students’ perception concerning the workload, functioning and their study procedure on the course units is summarized in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Students’ perception on the course units.

Indeed, with respect to global workload, 78% of students stated to have increased, for 19% it remained the same and only 3% had the perception that it reduced. It should be noted that the perception of increased work is consistent with the most applied learning activities by teachers. Regarding the general functioning of the course units that students attended in remote learning, 64% of students stated to be more difficult to understand the subjects covered, 17% easier and 19% said nothing. In this context, 41% of the students reported to have worked more individually, while 39% worked more in groups, sharing knowledge, and 20% did not respond.

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Concerning continuous assessment, some students complained about the evaluation methods applied because they felt overloaded, stating that the level of difficulty was often not of their knowledge nor well established, which indicates the lack of pedagogical alignment [7]. Nevertheless, several evaluation methods were used throughout the semester, with 67% of the students preferring short summative tests, 42% project development, 38% academic works, 30% training tests, 16% the standard summative tests and 12% reports. Regarding the overall remote learning experience, 56% of the students pointed it out as a negative impact, harming their academic performance, and 44% considered it positive, contributing to improve their academic performance. However, when returning to face-to-face learning, 56% of the students stated they would like to keep continuous assessment remotely while 44% reported the opposite. Finally, students reported that remote classes are boring, discouraging and difficult to follow. In addition, despite having more time and flexibility in the development of their academic work, due to the time saved on not commuting to school, students found it difficult to manage time effectively because of the many distractions from their workspace sharing with family members. Indeed, students were found to be unprepared for balancing their work, family and social lives with their study lives in a remote learning environment. In short, the learning process cannot reach its full potential until students practice what they learn.

4 Some Considerations on Solutions In terms of training for teachers, whether in workshop, lectures and training actions provided, the most pragmatic and immediately applicable are those that most influence academic life. It would be desirable to build the pedagogical structure for remote learning and to show how the active techniques fit in each case [8]. At first sight, this problem is not solved with trainings actions that only teach techniques, but with training actions that change mentalities. Regarding the remote teaching-learning activities, they should be dynamic concerning the communication with students, interesting by focusing on case studies and interactive to encourage student participation, whether through collaborative working group [9] with or without hierarchy, project-based learning, forums or other techniques that allow open online discussion. This learning environment would also have a social aspect, emphasizing the contact between students in addition to the learning objectives achievement. Another active learning technique that would be more convenient to apply in a remote environment is flipped classroom [10], strengthening communication in synchronous sessions. The most adequate pedagogical methodology would be the student-centered approach, promoting meaningful and strongly group-based learning, perfectly feasible in time of confinement. The preparation of suitable remote didactic resources was a real challenge because they should not only cover contents but also be sufficiently appealing to motivate students [11]. All didactic resources should be available on the learning IT platform (Moodle) with interactivity to ensure a relevant, effective and motivating autonomous learning experience, backed up with training evaluations in order to give feedback to

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the students about the intended course unit competences [12], allowing them to go further in the learning process or, in case the learning objectives have not yet been reached, to point out the study flaws and present them a new study proposal. The traditional evaluation method, mainly by written exam or continuous assessment based on two discrete evaluation moments, is not the best way to verify the competences acquired by students. This issue is difficult to solve in a remote environment due to the wide possibility of cheating. So, it becomes necessary to find evaluation alternatives such as projects, oral tests, discussions or defenses of academic works carried out in synchronous sessions.

5 Conclusions It is clear that higher education institutions need to develop and adopt a set of measures, making use of IT tools that strengthen the resilience of both students and teachers. All these efforts will positively contribute to address future situations similar to the current pandemic. To consider this global pandemic an atypical and temporary situation that will soon be gone and never return, will be a major failure that has already emerged during the new confinement imposed in 2021, where there was the perception of restarting the entire remote education process. Technology contributed to an education of emergency, but computer support issues, the lack of suitable equipment adapted to remote communication, the evolution of teaching platforms in ongoing adaptation, the lack of experience and skills to build interactive pedagogical resources and the resistance to change were factors that contributed to hinder the implementation of the remote learning process. Regarding the technical-scientific and pedagogical components’ transition, it was hard and complex, highlighting the aforementioned vulnerabilities, such as the choice of a suitable pedagogical approach, the preparation of active techniques for remote learning activities and the need to intentionally develop soft skills and to establish effective remote assessments. In this transition process there was a lack of pedagogical training actions centered on the practice of teachers in order to understand the pedagogical guidelines. Teachers who are more insecure on the students’ learning goals achievement have a tendency to overload students with academic work, as seen in the teachers’ survey which reinforces the perception reported by students. Other teachers, without proper preparation and pedagogical support, blame students for the failure rate of their course unit, referring the students’ inability to achieve the learning objectives, which sometimes are not even properly defined. From the students’ point of view, remote classes were boring, not challenging enough for them to share information collaboratively and thus feel motivated and engaged in the learning process. Students who best adapted to remote learning demonstrated to have time management and autonomy skills. The weak students’ participation and following-up during classes, featured by cameras turned off or absent/missing students, was a factor for teachers’ demotivation. Indeed, the apparent students’ remote attendance did not mean that they were actually following what was being taught. On the other hand, the lack of regular feedback on the acquisition of the students’ skills given by the teacher throughout term time, hampers the evolution of the

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students’ knowledge and the application of corrective pedagogical actions, if necessary, to help students achieving the learning goals. Remote assessments were and still are a critical point of remote learning due to the difficulties in the validation procedure and the wide possibility of cheating. Unfortunately, there is still no reliable, economic and secure system in this matter, being an issue that needs further research and development.

References 1. Arkorful, V., Abaidoo, N.: The role of e-learning, the advantages and disadvantages of its adoption in Higher Education. Int. J. Educ. Res. 2(12), 397–410 (2014) 2. Gillet-Swan, J.: The challenges of online learning: supporting and engaging the isolated learner. J. Learn. Des. 10(1), 20–30 (2017) 3. Lakshman, M., Sinha, L., Biswas, M., Charles, M., Arora, N.: Quantitative Vs qualitative research methods. Indian J. Pediatr. 67, 369–377 (2000) 4. Kebritchi, M., Lipschuetz, A., Santiague, L.: Issues and challenges for teaching successful online courses in higher education. J. Educ. Technol. Syst. 46(1), 4–29 (2017) 5. Doucet, A., Netolicky, D., Timmers, K., Tuscano, F.J.: Thinking about pedagogy in an unfolding pandemic (an independent report on approaches to distance learning during COVID-19 school closures). In: Work of Education International and UNESCO (2020) 6. Miranda, P., Isaias, P., Pifano, S.: E-assessment: tools and possibilities for electronic assessment in higher education. In: Edulearn19 Proceedings, pp. 7431–7438 (2019) 7. Justino, J., Rafael, S.: The expansion of pedagogical alignment: a step for the learning success. In: The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational and Social Sciences, vol. 12, pp. 32–36 (2019) 8. Basilaia, G., Kvavadze, D.: Transition to online education in schools during a SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in Georgia. Pedagogical Res. 5(4), 1–9 (2020) 9. Barkley, E., Major, C., Cross, K.: Collaborative Learning Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty, 2nd edn. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco (2014) 10. Justino, J., Rafael, S.: Flipped classroom as a mathematics learning space for part-time students. In: 4th International Conference of the Portuguese Society for Engineering Education (CISPEE 2021). Lisboa (2021). In press 11. Affouneh, S., Salha, S., Khlaif, Z.N.: Designing quality e-learning environments for emergency remote teaching in coronavirus crisis. Interdisc. J. Virtual Learn. Med. Sci. 11(2), 1–3 (2020) 12. Hargreaves, E.: Assessment for learning? Thinking outside the (black) box. Camb. J. Educ. 35(2), 213–224 (2005)

Communicative Competencies Assessment of Teachers at Engineering University Ekaterina Tsareva(&), Roza Bogoudinova, and Elena Yurievna Semushina Kazan National Research Technological University, Kazan, Russia

Abstract. Higher school is one of important resources for the society, region, country sustainability and their social stability; therefore, it is necessary to assess the competencies of all participants in the educational process. The actors directly involved in this process is teaching staff. The goal of this paper is to identify and scientifically substantiate a set of relevant indicators of teachers’ communicative competencies at engineering university in order to achieve high-quality pedagogical practice. Communicative competencies allow teachers both to implement educational process ahead of reality due to independence, freedom in their educational and research activities, and to open interest, motivation of students to study. In the course of the present paper an analytical study of psychological, pedagogical and sociological information were used, as well as survey methods and self-diagnostics. It makes possible to determine indicators for assessing the communicative competencies of teachers, such as mastery of the knowledge transmission technique, the implementation of professional communication methods in the real and information environment, the design of a communication mechanism, proficiency in intercultural, technological, professional, educational communication, and empathy. In the course of the experiment, a survey of students and teachers was carried out to determine the most significant indicators for assessing the teachers’ communicative competencies, as well as their ranking. A discrepancy was revealed within the determining of the significance of some indicators among students of different years and degree programs as well as teaching staff. Self-diagnostics of teachers’ communicative competencies indicators show the need for continuous professional development and reflection. The most sensitive points are indicators related to design of a communication mechanism in the field of neoclassical and classical pedagogy. Keywords: Communicative competencies assessment university
Teachers


Engineering

1 Introduction Communication is the evolution basis of every field of science and it plays a key role in the scientific and educational process. It means not only sharing the results in order to scientists build knowledge, but also formulating questions and hypotheses, substantiating theories and methods, argumentation of relevance and significance, the development of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 661–668, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_66

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knowledge. In fact, scientific discovery and innovative thinking make no sense without the ability to translate meaningfully ideas and master new knowledge. Communication in the educational activities of a teacher plays an important role and consists mainly of fostering the ability to speak the same professional language with students and teach them technologies of information cognition [1]. According to a theory, communication is considered as a way of transmitting information. To carry out communication, several components are required: the addressee (sender), the message, the recipient, the channel (the method of sending the message to the recipient) and the feedback. In keeping this logic, the pedagogical communication looks like bilateral communicative process. It presents: 1) a teacher building own methods of the professional communication chain on the one hand; 2) a student accepting the information and building on its basis his personal technology of cognition on the other hand of process. When teacher’s and student’s technological communication links coincide, it results in understanding of professional communication and effective interaction, leading to the acquisition of skills and abilities, the development of professional qualities and emergence of personal cognition strategy. In other words, a synergistic effect of communication appears based on the interaction of various communication tools. A teacher and a student may realize synergistic effect only under the condition of mutual application communication tools. It contributes to the creation of a new position, opinion, and knowledge of both the teacher and the student [2]. Moreover, the integrated potential of communication is revealed through maintaining a single positioning and mobilizing communication tools. In the process of communication, the teacher needs to acquire such a level of preparation in order to think, talk to students in a contextual language that is understandable and interesting for them [3]. The similar activity takes place from the student, because he also prepares for his communication, for obtaining knowledge, and practices its various technologies. It turns out that in the process of communication, both subjects interact, exchange information and it leads to creating a new level of cognition, where communication acquires a new methodological meaning. The purpose of this article is to reveal and scientifically substantiate a set of relevant indicators of teachers’ communicative competencies at engineering university [4]. Communicative competencies are necessary to achieve high-quality pedagogical practice and allow to implement education ahead of reality through independence, freedom in the educational and research activities of teachers, as well as to form metacognition, develop social communication and students’ lifelong learning skills.

2 Method and Materials In the course of this study an analytical study of psychological, pedagogical and sociological information are used, as well as survey methods and self-diagnostics. It makes possible to determine indicators for assessing the communicative competencies of teachers. In this study 5 main assessing the teachers’ communication competencies indicators at engineering university are distinguished:

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1. Mastery of the technique of knowledge transmitting to students at all levels (the teacher’s ability to apply various techniques or their combination to present information to the audience [5], such as a monologue, dialogue, language, communication style, as well as the organization of relevant activities to determine the students’ cognition strategy). 2. Formation and implementation of professional communication methods in the real and digital environment [6] (social networks, groups, media skills, online platforms, communication with colleagues, the scientific community, self-development, selfdevelopment of teachers, studying the methodology of communication). 3. Empathy with the psychological and emotional sphere of the student and the tolerance to the opinion of students (understanding the student’s mental world, sympathy, empathy [7], that is, psychological manifestations that favor the process of interpersonal communication, make contact for the effective implementation of educational tasks). 4. Design a communication mechanism in the field of neoclassical and classical pedagogy (understanding the contradictions in the modern educational system, identifying the needs and interests of the new generation, showing strategies for lifelong learning and forms of social communication) [8]. 5. Acquisition of intercultural, technological, professional, educational communications [9] (selection, analysis, visualization, systematization of information, methods of its transmitting, assessment of the effectiveness of assimilation with the help of various traditional and innovative pedagogical technologies).

3 Results and Discussion The experiment was carried out at the Kazan National Research Technological University. Responses were gathered from students enrolled in Bachelor, Master programs in the chosen Universities of the Faculty of Plastics and Composites Processing. The respondents were asked to rank indicators for assessing teacher’ communicative competencies and evaluate them by a 5-point framework. In addition, teachers of various departments participated in this experiment; they should make selfdiagnosis using these indicators on a same scale. Responses are from students and teachers as indicated by Figs. 1 and 2. According to the survey, 32% of Bachelors gave the first place to the indicator of empathy of teachers; 27% highlighted the importance of mastery of the transmitting knowledge technique; 16% noted the possession of professional intercultural, technological and educational communications; in the fourth place 13% of bachelors determined the importance of the indicator linking with formation and implementation of methods of professional communication; and the lowest indicator is at 12% designing a communication mechanism in the field of neoclassical and classical pedagogy. The data obtained indicate the paramount importance of psychological comfort among students in the communication process with teachers.

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As for Masters of KNRTU, the ranking of indicators for assessing the communicative competencies of teachers looks somewhat different (Table 1):

Ranking the teachers’ communication competencies indicators assessment at engineering university according to the bachelor's and master's degrees students

Indicators

5. Acquision of intercultural,… 4. Design a communicaon… 3. Empathy with the psychological… 2. Formaon and implementaon of… 1. 1. Mastery of the technique… 0

5

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percentage, % Masters

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Fig. 1. Ranking of the teachers’ communicative competencies indicators assessment according to the bachelor’s and master’s degrees students. Table 1. Ranking indicators for assessing the communicative competencies of higher education teachers by Masters. 1. Formation and implementation of methods of professional communication in the real and digital environment 2. Design a communication mechanism in the field of neoclassical and classical pedagogy 3. Mastery of the technique knowledge transmitting to students at all levels 4. Empathy with the psychological and emotional sphere of the student 5. Acquisition of intercultural, technological, professional, educational communications

35% 20% 18% 14% 13%

Based on the data obtained, it follows that Masters focus on the ways of transmitting information for quick understanding. The teachers’ ability to identify contradictions, reflect, discuss in a wide professional field is also of key importance. This target group gave the minimum value to the possession of educational communications, which is explained by their existing educational experience and maturity in the processing and assimilation of information. The next group of respondents, consisting of teachers, distributed the indicators for assessing their communicative competencies as follows (Fig. 2):

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Ranking of indicators for assessing the communicave competencies of teachers Ind.5

17

Ind. 4

23

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19 0

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Fig. 2. Ranking of indicators for assessing the communicative competencies of teachers

Judging by this figure, it can be stated that teachers quite evenly assess the significance of each indicator; the total values fluctuate in the range of 17–23%. The next stage was the assessment of teachers according to indicators for assessing the communicative competencies of teachers. Consider the results of Bachelor and Master degree students (Fig. 3).

Diagnostics of indicators for assessing the communication competencies of teachers by Bachelors and Masters

3.8

4.2

3.4

3.2 2.7

Indicator 1

Indicator 2

Indicator 3

Indicator 4

Indicator 5

Fig. 3. Diagnostics of indicators for assessing the communication competencies of teachers by Bachelors and Masters.

This figure reveals the maximum value - 4.2 for the indicator associated with the mastery of information presentation techniques, and the minimum value indicator - 2.7 is the empathy and tolerance level, although Bachelors gave it the first place in the list of significant indicators for assessing the communication competencies of teachers.

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The data of the teachers are very interesting from the point of view of self-diagnosis (Fig. 4). The greatest strength of communicative competencies among teachers is the mastery of information presentation techniques, which is confirmed by Bachelors and Masters. If teachers assess their level of empathy at 3.6 of 5, but in the opinion of Bachelors and Masters this indicator is the most sensitive among teachers. The weakest point in communicative competencies - 1.2 was the design of a communication mechanism in the field of neoclassical and classical pedagogy, as for teachers, although from the point of view of Bachelors and Masters, teachers have no problems with identifying contradictions and finding ways to solve them in the education system.

Self-diagnosis of indicators for assessing the communicative competencies of teachers at engineering university 3.8

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1.2 2.5 3.6

Indicator 1

Indicator 2

Indicator 3

Indicator 4

Инд.5

Fig. 4. Self-diagnosis of indicators for assessing the communicative competencies of teachers at engineering university.

4 Conclusion In modern education, the significance of communicative competencies has increased. The main mission of the teacher is focused not only on the transfer of information, but also on the ways of transforming it into knowledge, on familiarizing students with the independent choice of learning strategies throughout their lives [10]. The teacher needs to develop personal skills that will contribute to the development of tolerance. It is about tolerance towards the assessment of students’ judgments, their opinion, even if they are wrong [11]. The teacher should give the opportunity to speak to any student on any issue. The essence of the teacher’s communication is to find a rational grain in each opinion or judgment and direct it to the subsequent development of the technology of cognition. The freedom of knowledge suspects it. In our understanding, communicative competencies act as transuniversal ones, which allow to manage personal knowledge and through them learn to cognize all life, or - to get closer to metacognition [12]. The communicative competencies of a teacher imply the study of the needs and interests of a new generation; this is a condition for the development and renewal of communication. Only in this case the teacher’s communication technologies will

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coincide with the student’s cognition technologies and an educational effect will be obtained [13]. The teacher’s function is to teach to learn throughout life, to teach social communication to achieve mutual understanding and creativity in modern society [14]. The communicative competencies of teachers are now given special attention in the educational process, since it is a means of identifying many cognitive and psychological factors of personality development. Communication can be considered as one of the instruments of stability, peace and sustainable development on a global scale.

References 1. Volkova, E., Semushina, E., Tsareva, E.: Developing cross-cultural communicative competence of university students in the globalized world. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 1328, 405–416 (2021) 2. Polyakova, T.: Teachers’ professional development for international engineering education in English. In: Auer, M.E., Tsiatsos, T. (eds.) The Challenges of the Digital Transformation in Education: Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL2018) - Volume 2, pp. 925–935. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-030-11935-5_88 3. Tsareva, E., Bogoudinova, R., Volkova, E.: Metalinguistic awareness in technical communication. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1328, pp. 232–240. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68198-2_21 4. Fakhretdinova, G.N., Dulalaeva, L.P., Suntsova, M.: Integrating soft skills into English language teaching in engineering education. In: IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference, EDUCON, pp. 1352–1356 (2020) 5. Gazizova, A.I., Siraeva, M.N., Trofimova, G.S.: Formal and non-formal education means of mastering foreign language skills. Soc. Sci. 10(6), 1324–1328 (2015) 6. Tsareva, E., Gulnaz, F., Murtazina, E.: Developing students’ intercultural competence during the professional oriented course in English as a foreign language/IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference. EDUCON 1, 1110–1114 (2020) 7. Reyes-Galindo, L., Duarte, T.R. (eds.): Intercultural Communication and Science and Technology Studies. Springer, Cham (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58365-5 8. Zhu, Q.: Engineering ethics studies in China: dialogue between traditionalism and modernism. Eng. Stud. 2(2), 85–107 (2010) 9. Fakhretdinova, G.N., Osipov, P., Dulalaeva, L.P.: Extracurricular activities as an important tool in developing soft skills. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 480–487. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_47 10. Panteleeva, M., Sanger, P.A., Bezrukov, A.: International approaches to the development of cross-cultural education at high school. In: ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition, Conference Proceedings (2016) 11. Ziyatdinova, J., Bezrukov, A., Osipov, P., Sanger, P.A., Ivanov, V.G.: Going globally as a Russian engineering university. In: ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition, Conference Proceedings, vol. 122. ASEE (2015) 12. Kraysman, N.V., Shageeva, F.T., Pichugin, A.B.: Modern pedagogical techniques in teaching French to prepare engineering university students for academic mobility. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 107–117. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_11

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13. Tokar, V.M., Bogatova, L.M., Barabanova, S.V., Kraysman, N.V.: Poster: development of managerial skills in engineering university students in the context of modern industrial revolutions. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 129–135. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_13 14. Bogatova, L.M.: Synergy of humanitarian disciplines in engineering education. Kazan Pedag. J. 5, 48–52 (2019)

Exploring the Correlations Between the Dimensions of Computational Thinking and Problem-Solving Concepts Through Students’ Perspectives Foteini Papadopoulou1, Charilaos Tsihouridis2(&), and Marianthi Batsila3 1

3

Athens, Greece [email protected] 2 University of Patras, Patras, Greece [email protected] University of Thessaly, Thessaly, Greece [email protected]

Abstract. The present study looks into the correlations between two concepts of high interest in educational research, Computational Thinking and Problem Solving. More specifically, it is examined whether there are correlations among the basic dimensions of Computational Thinking and the corresponding ones of Problem Solving, through evaluation of students’ perspectives. The dimensions which were studied were Algorithmic Thinking, Abstraction, Problem Decomposition, Data, Parallelization and Control Flow. The research was conducted with undergraduate students from the Athens Departments of Pedagogy of the School of Pedagogy and Technological Education (ASPETE) of Greece, whose data were collected through a questionnaire administered to the participants. The questionnaire was administered in a pre-test/post-test form and in the in-between period there was a 10-h intervention, based on Machine Learning. The findings of the data analysis indicate that there is a low to moderately positive correlation between the two dimensions, while in the other dimension a low or very low correlations is observed. Keywords: Computational Thinking


Problem Solving
Correlations

1 Introduction Nowadays people become more and more depended on the technological evolution and the machines that come along with it, since they save money, time and effort in order to complete an action by themselves, like they used to do a few decades ago. From completing an ordinary daily task in our routine and connecting with anyone around the world to operating a patient with remote control and exploring the infinite universe, humanity is so attached to the technology and uses various artifacts and “smart” devices on a daily basis. Someone might ask oneself whether there is a limit that should be set by people, regarding the intrusion of the machines in our lives and which level this artificial intelligence can reach. Having been inspired by the “intelligence” of the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 669–679, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_67

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machines and the way that they function, in order to form the solution of the task/problem that they have been assigned to, scientists and researchers brought up to the surface a very interesting concept: Computational Thinking. Computational Thinking has been characterized as one of the basic skills of the ideal model of the universal citizen of the future, along with the skills of Writing, Reading and Thinking Mathematically. The name of the concept might ring like it is closely interdependent to the strategies of programming the machines, but in fact it is broader than this and can be cultivated through various scientific fields, not only through the technological classes that the students of every educational level have. The concept of Computational Thinking is a relatively new topic in the educational research field, as the scientific community systematically began to be involved in it around 2006, when Wing brought the concept to the fore [1, 2]. However, there is not yet a definition that is commonly accepted by all scientists and various interpretations around this concept can be found while searching in related articles. One of the definitions given by the researcher whose name was linked to the concept - Jeannette Wing - defines Computational Thinking as “the thought processes involved in formulation problems and their solutions so that they can be effectively carried out by an information- processing agent” [3]. There is also a disagreement about the dimensions relating to Computational Thinking. Specifically, there is an agreement on some key points, such as the dimension of algorithmic thinking, which is found in almost all surveys, but scientists seem to disagree with the entire set of dimensions. Defining the exact concept and components of Computational Thinking is not the only disagreement among the scientific community. In the present study, the researchers examined a set of six main dimensions as described in Weese’s research [4]: Algorithmic Thinking, Abstraction, Problem Decomposition, Data, Parallelization and Control Flow. The second concept studied in the present research is Problem Solving, which is also controversial among the scientific community. As a research concept, it appeared prior to the one of Computational Thinking, but it does not have a specific definition either. It is also included in various curricula, as part of the educational goals setting, accompanied by proposals, strategies, didactic scenarios, etc., which will be helpful for their improvement. According to “The PISA 2003 Assessment Framework” [5] Problem Solving is defined as “an individual’s capacity to use cognitive processes to confront and resolve real, cross-disciplinary situations where the solution path is not immediately obvious and where the literacy domains or curricula areas that might be applicable are not within a single domain of mathematics, science or reading”. Following Weese’s research [4], in the present study we keep the set of the six main dimensions (Algorithmic Thinking, Abstraction, Problem Decomposition, Data, Parallelization and Control Flow), and we correlate them with the corresponding ones of the Computational Thinking concept, as described in the following chapters.

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2 Rationale for the Present Study There is a number of issues related to this research field, as according to findings there are differences between Computational Thinking and Problem Solving [1]. Based on the literature, Problem Solving, as a research concept, is predated to Computational Thinking in terms of scientific studies [1]. In some studies [1], Problem Solving is presented as part of Computational Thinking. The reason for this is that the strategies, included in the concept of Problem Solving, largely match the corresponding dimensions found in Computational Thinking [2, 6]. Research discusses a distinction between computational Problem Solving and general Problem Solving, which is considered broader and applied to more subjects [2, 7]. Other studies [1] clearly distinguish one topic from the other, study them separately and even identify different results of the interventions applied to their participants [6, 7, 9, 10]. Based on the aforementioned, the authors of this paper attempted to look into the two concepts in an effort to clarify the link between them - Computational Thinking and Problem Solving – as well as look for possible correlations among the dimensions included in each concept. Apart from the theoretical clarification of whether the two concepts are correlated or not, the present study serves practical purposes, regarding the practices that should be formed in order to promote each concept. To be more specific, one of the greatest goals of educational research, is to improve the strategies and the curricula that are being used and replace them with better ones, which will target the increase of various crucial skills, like Computational Thinking and Problem Solving. So, depending on the grade of the correlations between the concepts, corresponding strategies will be developed, that will promote a holistic education of people who will be the future promoters of the human and technological progress.

3 The Research 3.1

The Purpose of the Research-Research Questions

The present study aims to determine whether the concepts of computational thinking and problem solving are related by applying appropriate machine learning activities and measuring the self-efficacy of students of pedagogical departments, i.e. potential teachers, in terms of their computational thinking and problem solving. Specifically, the basic research questions are as follows: a) Is there a correlation between the concepts “Problem Solving” and “Computational Thinking”? b) Is there a correlation between the dimensions of Problem-Solving Algorithmic Thinking, Abstraction, Problem Decomposition, Data (Collection, Representation and Analysis) and Parallelization with the corresponding dimensions of Computational Thinking?

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The Sample-Ethical Issues

A number of 38 students from the Athens Departments of Pedagogy of the School of Pedagogy and Technological Education (ASPETE) of Greece participated in the research. The selection of the participants was random. None of the students had any particular knowledge of programming through their university courses. Their participation was anonymous as it was implemented with the use of a personal code, which was unknown to the researchers during their evaluation in the pre-testing process. The distribution of the participants was twenty-eight (28) male and ten (10) female people. Their difference in the gender between them is only due to the composition of the groups and the students who agreed to participate in the research. Regarding their age, they are divided into two groups. The first group consists of twenty-two (22) participants, belonging to the age group of 20–21 years and the second group consists of sixteen (16) people whose age is twenty-two (22) years and above. The research focused on future teachers, in other words, students of pedagogical departments, therefore, there is a relatively expected age range. It should be noted that all participants gave their voluntary consent to their participation and were informed analytically and in detail that they could have a copy of the results, upon the end of the data analysis, should they ask for it. All participants were fully and thoroughly informed and explained the purpose of the research and its objectives. As discussed above, and for ethical reasons, it was emphasized that the questionnaires would be anonymous and that no reference would be made to the respondents’ personal data and identity. Finally, all participants were provided with specific explanations, where and when necessary, to avoid any misunderstanding, lack of clarity or ambiguities regarding the questionnaire items. 3.3

Research Tools

The sample of this research consists of undergraduate students of Educational Departments, that is, potential teachers. The research data were collected through a questionnaire administered to the participants [4]. The questionnaire was translated and adapted to Greek for the purposes of the present study according to the back-translation method and it consisted of 23 questions (items). The internal reliability of the questionnaire used was tested with the Cronbach’s Internal Consistency Factor alpha [11]. In the present study the reliability test after the administration of the translated questionnaire was a = 0.891 in the pre-test and a = 0.855 in the post-test. Therefore, deleting any of the questions does not really contribute to the reliability of the tool. The correspondence of the questions of the questionnaire in terms of Computational Thinking, Problem Solving and their dimensions are summarized in the following table (Table 1) below:

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Table 1. Definitions and dimensions of Computational Thinking and Problem Solving Dimensions

Question number

Definitions

“Problem solving is an individual’s capacity to use cognitive processes to confront and resolve real, crossdisciplinary situations where the solution path is not immediately obvious and where the literacy domains or curricular areas that might be applicable, are not within a single domain of mathematics, science or reading.” The PISA 2003 Assessment Framework 10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23 “Computational thinking is the thought processes involved in formulation problems and their solutions so that they can be effectively carried out by an information- processing agent.” Wing, 2011 (cited in Antonio, 2016) 10,11 The ability to create a sequence of steps in order to solve problems, regardless of their difficulty 1,2

Problem Solving (P.S.) 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

Computational Thinking (C.T.)

Algorithmic Thinking (C.T) Algorithmic Thinking (P.S.) Abstraction (C.T) Abstraction (P.S.)

Problem Decomposition (C.T.) Problem Decomposition (P.S.) Data (C.T.) Data (C.T.)

18 3,4

22 5 17 7

Parallelization (C.T) Parallelization (P.S.)

15,16 6

Control Flow (C.T) Control Flow (P.S.)

12,13,14 8,7

The ability to focus selectively only on the necessary information, which is critical in order to reach the desirable target The ability to break a complex problem into smaller subproblems, whose solutions contribute to the solution of the initial problem The ability to collect, represent and analyze the data which are necessary for the final solution of the problem The ability to execute simultaneously various actions while working on the solution of the problem The ability to use an algorithm in a non-linear way

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Research Stages

The intervention lasted eight hours. Two of these hours were assigned to the participants to complete the questionnaire. In particular, one hour was assigned for the prequestionnaire phase (before the intervention) and another hour was used for the filling in of the post questionnaire, upon the end of the intervention. The remaining six hours were divided into two successive three-hourly sessions for the implementation of the actual intervention. The first part included unplugged activities and the second one consisted of computer activities, based on a platform that uses machine learning, named “Machine Learning for Kids”. For the first part some riddles were used in order to intrigue the participants and provoke them into thinking in a more complex way, using strategies from computational thinking and problem solving. For the second part, the participants had to “solve” an everyday problem by creating an application with the help of a machine-learning platform. Analytically 1st phase of intervention (1-h): The participants were explained the purpose of their participation and the procedure to be followed and were asked to complete the evaluation questionnaire used for the purposes of the research (as a pre-test) and with the help of which their preliminary ideas regarding the subject taught were recorded. This was followed by a discussion with the students to further explore their views on the subject. 2nd phase of intervention (3-h): Two unplugged computational thinking activities were implemented, ie activities that were solved without the use of electronic means, but only with the written processing of the activities given in worksheets. At the end of the 2nd phase, an introduction was made to the Scratch programming environment, its basic parts and its operation were explained and the participants experimented in creating short command sequences. 3rd phase of intervention (3-h): The main activity of the intervention was implemented, which was based on the utilization of the Machine Learning for Kids platform in two parts. In the first part, the participants were asked to program simply using Scratch and to realize the difficulties that arise, while in the second part, machine learning activities were implemented by creating a model which, after being fed with appropriate data, is “trained” through the platform. 4th phase of intervention (1-h): Two weeks after the conclusion of the aforementioned teaching, the same learners were asked to complete the same initial questionnaire, so as to detect any permanent change in their ideas regarding the concepts of computational thinking and problem solving and their corresponding dimensions.

4 Results 4.1

Method of Processing the Experimental Data

The variables of the Computational Thinking and Problem Solving (Algorithmic Thinking - Subtractive Thinking - Problem Decomposition - Data/Collection, Representation and Analysis, Parallelism and Flow Control) dimensions are measured with the

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five-point Likert scale (1 = Different, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither agree nor disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = Absolutely agree) which is considered mainly a hierarchical scale (but in many cases as a scale of equal intervals). In this case, the Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient is considered more appropriate for the study of the correlation between the variables (PC dimensions). Also, these scales are usually considered as “interval scales” and can therefore take numerical values [12]. It is also pointed out that two or even three questions were used to measure some variables and for this reason the final value of each variable was considered the average of the questions. Thus, the Pearson r correlation coefficient can be used, which is used when the measurement scale is either proportional or equal to intervals, as is of course the Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient. 4.2

Statistical Analysis-Data Analysis

The focus was on research data after the post-test. Before investigating the correlation between the variables “Problem Solving” and “Computational Thinking” with the calculation of the correlation coefficient, the average and the standard deviation of the two variables are calculated (Table 2) as well as if the correlation of the two variables is linear with the creation of the corresponding Scatter diagram between the two variables (Fig. 1). Table 2. Mean and standard deviation of variables Problem solving and Computational thinking Performance post testing Mean Std. deviation Problem Solving (P.S.) 3,87 0,33 Computational Thinking (C.T.) 3,89 0,48

Fig. 1. Scatter diagram of Problem Solving and Computational Thinking (post-testing)

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From the scatter plot it appears that the correlation of the variables is linear, so we can proceed to the calculation of the Pearson correlation coefficient r. For the purposes of the present study, the level of significance was set at 5%. The research hypotheses are: H0: Null hypothesis: There is no correlation between the two variables. H1: Alternative hypothesis: There is correlation between the two variables. The results are presented below in the Table 3. To study the correlation between the respective dimensions of Computational Thinking and Problem Solving (Algorithmic Thinking - Subtraction Thinking Problem Decomposition - Data/Collection, Representation and Analysis, Parallelization and Flow Control) we will calculate the corresponding correlation. The variables (dimensions) are measured with the five-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly disagree 5 = Strongly agree) which is considered mainly a hierarchical scale, but in many cases they can also be considered “interval scales” and therefore can take numerical values. Thus, the appropriate correlation coefficients are Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient (if the scale is considered hierarchical) and Pearson r correlation coefficient (if the Likert scale is considered interval scales). Table 3. Correlation coefficient of Problem Solving and Computational Thinking (post-testing)

Problem Solving (P.S.)

Problem solving 1

Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Computational Pearson ,441** Thinking (C.T.) correlation Sig. (2-tailed) 0,006 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Computational thinking ,441** 0,006 1

Before proceeding with the calculation of the correlation coefficient with the use of the statistical package, we formulate our research hypotheses: H0: There is no correlation between the dimensions of the Computational Thinking (C.T.) and the corresponding dimensions of the Problem Solving (P.S.). H1: There is a correlation between the dimensions of the Computational Thinking (C.T.) and the corresponding dimensions of the Problem Solving (P.S.) (two-tailed test). Table 4 shows the values of the Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient between all six dimensions of computational thinking and the corresponding Problem Solving after teaching intervention.

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Table 4. Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient for the respective computational thinking and problem-solving dimension pairs Dimensions C.T. Spearman’s

Dimensions P.S.

Correlation coefficient ,413**

Algorithmic Thinking Algorithmic (C.T.) Thinking (P.S.) Abstraction (C.T.) Abstraction (P.S.) 0,183 Problem Problem 0,171 Decomposition (C.T.) Decomposition (P.S.) Data (C.T.) Data (P.S.) ,425** Parallelization (C.T.) Parallelization (P.S.) 0,184 Control Flow (C.T.) Control Flow (P.S.) 0,283 **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Sig. (2-tailed) 0,01 0,271 0,304 0,008 0,27 0,085

Based on the data of the Table 4, the correlations of the dimension of the Algorithmic thinking of the Computational Thinking are of statistical interest as to the corresponding of the Problem Solving (p = 0,010  0.010) as well as the Data/Collection, representation and analysis dimension of the Computational Thinking as to the corresponding of the Problem Solving (p = 0,008 < 0,01). 4.3

Discussion of the Results

All the questionnaire data were analysed with the help of the statistical package of SPSS. The findings, derived from the analysis of the research data, implemented with the SPSS statistical package, revealed that the average performance of the participants, in terms of Problem Solving, after the teaching intervention, is M = 3.87 (SD = .33), while the average for Computational Thinking, after the teaching intervention, is M = 3.89 (SD = .48). The values of the average of the variables are reported on a scale from 1 to 5 and on the one hand we have a similar performance in terms of the two concepts and on the other hand a good level in terms of the concepts of Problem Solving and Computational Thinking after the instructive intervention. Additionally, the results indicated that there is a low to moderately positive correlation between the variables [r(38) = 0.441, p = 0.006] (for levels of statistical significance 0.01). Furthermore, the study of the correlation between the respective dimensions of Computational Thinking (C.T.) and the Problem Solving (P.S.) (Algorithmic ThinkingAbstraction - Problem Decomposition - Data, Parallelization and Control Flow), measured with the five-point Likert scale and based on the calculation of Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient, showed that there is a statistical interest in: a) the correlation dimensions of C.T. Algorithmic thinking in terms of the corresponding P.S. [rho (38) = 0,413, p = 0,010] and b) of the dimension Data/Collection, representation and analysis of C.T. in terms of the corresponding P.S. [rho (38) = 0.425, p = 0.008]. The results present a low to moderately positive correlation between the dimensions (statistically significant at the significance level a = 0.01 (p = 0.01  0.01). Among the other dimensions (Abstraction - Problem Decomposition-Parallelization and Control

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Flow) a low or very low correlations are observed and the result is statistically insignificant (at statistical significance level a = 0.01).

5 Discussion and Conclusions In the present study, research questions were asked regarding the possible correlations identified between the concepts “Problem Solving” and “Computational Thinking”. First, the correlation between the two variables was studied and then, whether there are correlations between their individual dimensions (Algorithmic thinking, Subtraction thinking, Problem Decomposition, Data, Parallelization, Flow control). In the first of the two questions, the findings of the analysis reveal that there is a low to moderately positive correlation between the variables “Problem Solving” and “Computational Thinking”. This result confirms the data presented in the literature review. More specifically, such as in specific papers [9, 10], it is argued that the two concepts are distinct and are studied separately, similarly the low to moderate positive correlation that emerged from the analysis of the present study is an indication of the above. The results of the study of the correlations between the sub-dimensions of Problem Solving and Computational Thinking were relatively expected, after the low correlation of the concepts mentioned above. Specifically, a low correlation of the dimension “Algorithmic thinking” in Problem Solving with the corresponding one in Computational thinking was found, as well as a low correlation of the dimension “Data” in Problem Solving with the corresponding one in Computational thinking. Our findings are partly in line with other findings [4]. In the analysis, Weese [4] identified a low correlation between the “Algorithmic Thinking” dimension in Problem Solving and Computational Thinking, as in the present study. However, the second dimension is differentiated and its results showed that there is a low correlation in the “Flow control” dimension. Regarding the other dimensions of computational thinking and problem solving, a very low correlation was statistically insignificant (p > 0.01). From the above, it can be argued that the concepts of Problem Solving and Computational Thinking are not completely identical in terms of their content and their respective dimensions are not particularly correlated (very low to moderate correlation), which leads us into claiming that the two concepts differ, they are distinct and it is better to study them separately.

References 1. Psycharis, S.: STEAM in education: a literature review on the role of computational thinking, engineering epistemology and computational science. Computational STEAM pedagogy (CSP). Sci. Cult. 4(2), 51–72 (2018) 2. Lockwood, J., Mooney, A.: Computational thinking in education: where does it Fit? A systematic literary review (2017). https://arxiv.org/abs/1703.07659

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3. Antonio, M.S.: Computational thinking beyond STEM: an introduction to “moral machines” and programming decision making in ethics classroom. Paper Presented at the ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, 02-04 November 2016, pp. 37–44 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1145/3012430.3012494 4. Weese, J.L.: Bringing Computational Thinking to K-12 and Higher Education. Kansas State University (2017) 5. Kovács, G., Harangus, K.: Translator trainees’ reading literacy, problem solving, and translation skills a comparative e-study. Acta Univ. Sapient. Philol. 11(3), 141–157 (2020). https://doi.org/10.2478/ausp-2019-0031 6. Salehi, S., Wang, K.D., Toorawa, R., Wieman, C.: Can majoring in computer science improve general problem-solving skills?. In: The 51st ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (SIGCSE 20) (2020). https://doi.org/10.1145/3328778. 3366808 7. Korkmaz, Ö., Bai, X.: Adapting computational thinking scale (CTS) for Chinese high school students and their thinking scale skills level. Participat. Educ. Res. 6(1), 10–26 (2019). https://doi.org/10.17275/per.19.2.6.1 8. Kukul, V., Karataş, S.: Computational thinking self-efficacy scale: development, validity and reliability. Inf. Educ. 18(1), 151–164 (2019). https://doi.org/10.15388/infedu.2019.07 9. Moon, J., Do, J., Lee, D., Choi, G.W.: A conceptual framework for teaching computational thinking in personalized OERs. Smart Learn. Environ. 7(1), 1–19 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 1186/s40561-019-0108-z 10. Wong, G.K., Cheung, H.: Exploring children’s perceptions of developing twenty-first century skills through computational thinking and programming. Interact. Learn. Environ. 28 (4), 438–450 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2018.1534245 11. Howitt, D., Cramer, D.: Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology, 3rd edn. Pearson, Englans (2011) 12. Steiber, S., Krowinski, W.J.: Measuring and Managing Patient Satisfaction, 3rd edn. American Hospital Association, Chicago (1996)

A Proposed Model for the Academia-Industry Collaboration: A Case Study Hiranmoy Samanta(&), Pradip Kumar Talapatra, and Kamal Golui Department of Mechanical Engineering, Gargi Memorial Institute of Technology, Baruipur, Kolkata 700144, India [email protected]

Abstract. The academia-industry interface is very much important, and, despite of the challenges that inevitably and inherently occurs as well as bears the potential for positive synergies to emerge evolve and innovate. In the present competitive market environment, industries and the companies must achieve a high level of performance that’s leading to the optimum error free production of innovative products as well as rewarding customer needs and rapidly responding to the changing market demands. The academia industry collaboration comes into picture when there is a mismatch between the academic lesson and the learned knowledge with the industrial practical based application. The demand the supply of the product that is nothing but the fresh graduates does not meet the preferred value system of the industry standard. The gap in between these two having lots of reason and put a heavy impact in the placement of the fresh graduates. An experiment based theoretical framework has been proposed to find the misunderstanding and the optimized solution to identify collaboration practices with industry and partners from the economic environment in open innovation.

1 Introduction The academia-industry interface is significant, and, notwithstanding challenges that unavoidably happen, bears the potential for incredibly certain collaborations to arise. To stay aware of the current serious climate, organizations need to accomplish an undeniable degree of execution alongside imaginative items addressing client needs and market requests. However, the organizations are deficient with regards to the abilities expected to foster such items. In this way, the most ideal approach to meet these prerequisites is by teaming up with at least two accomplices. There would be advantages of joint effort for every one of the accomplices as decrease of expenses, having a multi-view point approach, ability in a specific field. Accordingly, the cooperation between various colleges and ventures prompts a progression of advantages that well affect business rivalry. It helps in development just as financial development. This paper proposes a concise survey of a plan of action for cooperation among colleges and ventures to underline the manner by which critical outcomes are accomplished. This model proposes an overall system for the making of fruitful cooperation among colleges and businesses and the examination shows that the joint effort of the college and industry fits with the structure for coordinated effort appeared in the model. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 680–690, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_68

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2 Literature Review Awasthy et al. (2020) contemplated different measures tending to a particular Concern, for example, innovation move, protected innovation (IP), and so on The paper presents a degree for a far reaching all encompassing structure For improving the adequacy of coordinated effort considering an exhaustive rundown of variables working in an expansive context inside the cooperation framework. Stahel et al. (2020) have discovered that there are a few drivers for change in scholarly community industry cooperation as bidirectional trade of information, smoothed out contracting and arrangements and trade of tests and innovation. King and Persily (2019) has proposed a novel authoritative model to address the issues brought about by the information held by privately owned businesses, gathered for various purposes due to customer security, proprietary advantages, restrictive substance, and political sensitivities, these datasets are frequently distant to researchers. Zhang et al. (2019) have discovered that I–U–R coalition portfolio variety applies a beneficial outcome on a central company’s advancement execution and an association’s absorptive limit emphatically directs this relationship. Moreover, we battle that with expanding levels of government monetary help, the positive connection between I–U–R collusion portfolio variety and firm advancement execution is fortified. Govind and Küttim (2016) has suggested that U-I IKT can be conceptualized based on two measurements – an action that has particular channels, inspirations, exercises and results, and impacting factors. Peters and Lucietto (2016) found that there have been various types of industry-the scholarly community synergistic endeavours, in particular multi-college/multi-organization joint efforts, Single college cooperation with different organizations, Single college coordinated efforts with singular organizations, Collaborations of individual organizations with numerous colleges. Larisa Ivascu et al. (2015) introduced an assessment model comprises of a philosophy improvement whose measurements and portrayal things were picked dependent on college new job hypothesis. It helped in diagnosing the University-business cooperation supporting the did study. Buckley et al. (2015) portrayed a model to investigate the condition essential for effective information move (KT) from colleges to business and to plan the fundamental difficulties at each phase of the interaction. Ehrismann and Patel (2015) tracked down that understanding and regarding each other’s hierarchical culture and consolidating the scholarly and innovative resources for answer large logical inquiries speeds up and improves the nature of each coordinated effort. Iqbal et al. (2015a, 2015b) contemplated the impact of UIRC on the NIS of Malaysia. With the end goal of framework demonstrating, framework thinking approach is utilized to conceptualize and examine the impact of UIRC on NIS. The aftereffect of this examination shows that imperatives of UIRC in Malaysia contrarily effect on the achievement of NIS. Galib et al. (2015) have been considered and tracked down that the examination done backings that industry commitment is fundamental for improving hierarchical learning capacity and development execution. Huge ramifications for associations exist, as they know about what parts of their activities and conditions will drive significant ability to participate in the organizations work. Albats Ekaterina (2013) has proposed a model for execution of open development into Triple Helix model. This investigation likewise investigates practice of

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opposite directional association - from industry to college. The discoveries of this examination show a need of taking care of the recognized issues in corresponding with execution of open development idea in college industry joint effort. Buckley-Golder et al. (2012) has portrayed a model of the ideal ascribes and results of compelling information move measures, drawing on a wide scope of information areas and operational examination practice. The model is utilized to investigate the conditions essential for fruitful information move (KT) from colleges to business and to plan the fundamental difficulties at each phase of the interaction. Iqbal et al. (2012) represents the key assessment measurements for assessing the college business mechanical linkage. The proposed assessment measurements is proper for practically a wide range of joint efforts, particularly Research coordinated efforts among college and industry. Lacombe et al. (2012) have tracked down that in a supportable organization with crossutilitarian collaborations everyone can profit by the mastery of one another while staying away from duplications and limiting the effect of individual irreconcilable circumstances by the functioning standards. Othman and Omar (2012) clarify factors that decide effective joint efforts and distinguish reasons that will guarantee maintainable coordinated efforts between the two sides. Ramifications of the discoveries will be utilized to target working with more prominent college and industry joint efforts later on. Petruzzelli (2011) explored the impacts applied by three important elements, to be specific mechanical relatedness, earlier cooperation ties, and topographical distance, on college industry joint advancement esteem. The outcomes recommend that accomplices’ mechanical relatedness has a rearranged U-formed relationship with advancement esteem. Likewise, earlier ties and geological distance among colleges and firms are both decidedly identified with the accomplishment of higher inventive results. Abramo et al. (2011) has introduced an econometric model which communicates the college capacity for cooperation with industry as an element of size, area and examination quality. The outcomes shows that exploration nature of colleges has an effect higher than geographic distance on the ability for teaming up with industry. BanalEstanol et al. (2010) contemplated the effect of college industry research joint efforts on scholarly Output, as far as efficiency and course of exploration and announced that Researchers with modern connections distribute more, yet the usefulness is higher for low degrees of industry association. Dooley and Kirk (2007) has examined about speeding up the creation of new information about cell flagging cycles identifying with genuine sicknesses; and quicker exchange of new information into drug advancement cycles of drug organizations. The advancement of key empowering capacities by the college, aligned with schedules for scholarly industry specialist interface, are fundamental components of the cooperating plan.

3 Gap Analysis [Gap Between Industry and Academics] The Indian academic system is based on summary based academic system comprises of knowledge as well as application of the learned subject. But the advanced technologies and the innovations are mostly absent and the system is old enough to cope up with the present competitive market scenario (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. The engineering/technical education system in India [source: Lennart Büth et al./ Procedia Manufacturing 9 (2017) 275–282]

The mismatch of the fresh graduates and the industry demands need a closer look and observation of the problem. The Problems or the Gap Encountered as: 1. Thoroughly deficient in thinking critically and independently [memory based learning] 2. Lack of appreciation for considering alternatives [exam-oriented Syllabus structure] 3. Lack of design capability and/or creativity [poor curriculum which avoids Innovation/patent/research/deep thinking] 4. Vague knowledge of value engineering [Less practical problem rather than more theoretical approach] 5. Lack of appreciation for variation [Job oriented syllabus] 6. Do not know how to utilize time and/or resources properly [Target oriented problem solving] 7. Poor perception of the overall “engineering” process [Unprofessional and nonindustry experienced/poor industrial exposure] 8. Do not have the desire and/or the skills to do their own search or learn on their own [poor self-confidence, saturated with low esteem] 9. Trained to work as individuals. No experience working in teams [Financial condition and the government policies pushing for individual harnessing] 10. Inadequate communication skills [Regional barrier and Socio-economic Background] (Figs. 2 and 3)

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Fig. 2. Triple Helix configuration with negative and positive overlap among the three subsystems [Source: Leydesdorff 2012]

Fig. 3. Adaptation of Triple-Helix to “Quadruple-Helix” [Source: Savitskaya (2009), based on Dezhina and Kisileva (2007)]

In the present paper, various schemes/programmes/organizations of public and private sectors have been presented for enhancing Industry-Academic interactions, such as: a) Funding Agencies (DST, DSIR, CSIR, BIRAC, ICAR, ICMR, DRDO, DIPP, DAE, MeitY, MoEF & CC, ISRO) b) Education Sector (MHRD, UGC, ACTE) c) Financial Institutions (ICICI, Yes Bank, SIDBI, SBI, NABARD, IDBI, Syndicate Bank) d) Industrial Associations (FICCI, CII, NASSCOM, ASSOCHAM, PHDCCI) e) International Agencies (UNIDO-INDIA, IFC-INDIA)

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4 Methodology Theoretical Model: A per the result of the analysis of the research conducted it was prominent and found that for the development of a model framework for effective collaboration between university-industry in open innovation some key points are to be kept in mind. • Existing well framed syllabus structure of the academia in the university that supports an efficient manner of academic credentials and the collaborative study of the respective subject or technology and science or management. • The presence of an effective project management-based examination conduction system and subsequent result analysis with improvement strategies in communication and monitoring system which should be well implemented. • Involvement of young and experienced teachers and researchers as well as industry experts in identifying the characteristics of the academic environment to make the better understanding of the subject. • Developing new partnerships, projects and the innovation supporting existing projects to launch new opportunities. • Organizational culture is an important pillar in the acceptance and workability that academia has toward collaboration with industry. • Dissemination strategy to be strengthened to implement the research and innovation and to use elements of marketing in order to attract new partners. It is tracked down that the undertakings or explores in the colleges are generally centered around making information while the business needs the other point of view of this information to foster client amicable items and administrations. A structure based upon these central issues would give substantial rules that could be applied to future examination projects created in joint effort among the colleges and industry (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Representation of IA [Industry Academics] and collaborative innovation

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Strategic Model: It includes perceiving particular essential headings for compelling facilitated exertion among schools and industry and financial associates to shape the suggestion of the proposed model. The essential reasoning is to move different pieces of data between each other to bring headway and monetary turn of events. Every University and industry have their own plan of culture related to assignments, researches and things. Phenomenal highlight on this culture makes headway, yet making a sensible culture of the insightful world industry prompts better trade and maltreatment of data to energize improvement. This fundamental model involves seven stages: 1. Checking out the odds the association is having in the field. 2. Identification of the necessities of the business. 3. Focusing on the necessities and keeping an eye in the unlikely event that they are met close by looking towards new opportunities for the accessory. 4. The assistants are going to co-set out open entryways by figuring imaginative musings for things and markets. 5. The central justification mechanical assistants would be commercialization of those things. 6. There should be a working commitment of associates in cooperation to accomplish the targets. 7. Identification of the segments that can add to improve the academic local area industry assistants. Proposed Model: The proposed system for the collaboration of the scholastic business depends on the information investigation got by testing and perception. It offers various solid assessment figures fit for surveying the powers of coordinated effort among school and industry. This plan of action incorporates: 1. Evaluating boundaries: cooperation, trade of information, culture, monetary help, correspondence and hindrance. Every boundary comprises of a significant idea to be surveyed to acquire unmistakable benefits and yields because of the work among industry and college. 2. Successful components: related with every boundary type, along these lines sets out for every classification. These variables help to foster a relationship in a relationship-based expansion to win, with the goal that the outcomes are amplified. 3. Property, plant and gear: Results got from collaboration among colleges and industry/modern accomplices. Unmistakable issue is the standard of the mechanical climate, while colleges are made call and pictures. 4. Barriers: There are various obstructions that connect with participation between the two elements in coordination among industry and foundation.

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5 Result and Analysis 5.1

Global Ranking of India in Context of Academia Industry Collaboration

It has been found that Asa third world country India contributed a huge no of Innovation compared top the other countries of the world (Figs. 5, 6, and 7). In Indian context IA collaboration upheld the social responsibility very well by contributing the development of both urban and rural community by means of technology-based solutions under the Centre for Technology Alternatives in rural areas. It has led to the development of various technological advancements especially for rural areas like development of dry sanitation system, incense stick making machine, bore recharge system, water storage system of natural fibres, low cost check dams and herbal oil extraction unit.

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Fig. 5. Global rankings of select Asian countries based on GCI [Source: The Global Competitiveness Report-2016–17]

Fig. 6. Distribution of bio-incubators created by BIRAC [Source: http://www.birac.nic.in/]

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Fig. 7. Number of sponsored and consultancy projects and the revenue generated [Source: IITB Annual Report 2014–15]

6 Conclusion Taking a gander at the current situation of new graduated specialists and the need of the business, Industry-academia community organizations are fundamental for motivating the new versatility labor force. All accomplices are urged to break down the present status of the learning organization and recognize what is strong in association and what isn’t. The two networks should be at the table for the best ways to deal with construct a hearty portability labor force to arise. In future exploration the ramifications of government will be contemplated, on proposed plan of action for open development in the coordinated effort college industry. 1. It has been concluded that the new syllabus system has to be modified 2. The innovation collaboration and the R & D sectors have to be more proactive 3. Skill enhancement programs should more with on hand projects.

References Banal-Estanol, A., Jofre-Bonet, M., Meissner, C.: The Impact of Industry Collaboration on Research: Evidence from Engineering Academics in the UK. Working Paper City University London (2010) Ivascu, L., Cirjaliu, B., Draghici, A.: Business Model for the University-Industry Collaboration in Open Innovation, 3rd Global Conference on Business, Economics, Management and Tourism, 26–28 November 2015, Rome, Italy (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671 (16)30288-X Golder-Buckley, D., Way, D., Glover, M., et al.: Best Practice Strategies for Successful Innovation through University-Business Collaboration, Research Councils UK (2015) Ehrismann, D., Patel, D.D.: University – Industry Collaborations: Models, Drivers and Cultures, Swiss Medical Weekly (2015)

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Iqbal, A.M., Khan, A.S., Senin, A.A.: Reinforcing the national innovation system of Malaysia based on university-industry research collaboration: a system thinking approach. Int. J. Manage. Sci. Bus. Res. 4(1), 6–15 (2015a) Iqbal, A.M., Khan, A.S., Parveen, S., Senin, A.A.: Evaluating national innovation system of malaysia based on university-industry research collaboration: a system thinking approach. Asia Soc. Sci. 11(12) (2015b) Othman, R., Omar, A.F.: University and industry collaboration: towards a successful and sustainable partnership. Proc.-Soc. Behav. Sci. 31, 575–579 (2012) Petruzzelli, A.M.: The impact of technological relatedness, priorities and geographical distance on university-industry collaborations: a joint-patent analysis. Technovation 31(7), 309–319 (2011) Iqbal, A.M., KhaSeni, A.S., Senin, A.A.: Determination of high impact evaluation metrics for evaluating the university-industry technological linkage. IJPSS 2(4) (2012). ISSN:2249-5894 Awasthy, R., Flint, S., Sankarnarayana, R., Jones, R.L.: A framework to improve UniversityIndustry collaboration. J. Ind. Univ. Collab. 2(1), 49–62 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1108/ JIUC-09-2019-0016 Galib, M.A., Munny, K.N., Khudaykulov, A.: Enhancing university–industry collaboration: what are the drivers of academic researchers’ involvement in industry? Int. J. Innov. Econ. Dev. (2015). ISSN 1849-7551 (Online) Govind, M., Küttim, M.: International knowledge transfer from university to industry: a systematic literature reviews. REB 8(2) (2016) Abramo, G., D’Angelo, C.A., Di Costa, F.: University-industry research collaboration: a model to assess university capability. High. Educ. 62(2), 163–181 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10734-010-9372-0 Ekaterina, A.: Open Innovation: University-Industry Collaboration in Russia. Master’s Thesis. Lappeenranta University of Technology. Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management. 142 pages, 30 figures, 19 tables and 6 appendices (2013) Peters, D.L., Lucietto, A.M.: A Survey of Types of Industry-Academia Collaboration. Paper ID #14634 (2016) Buckley-Golder, D., et al.: Best practice strategies for successful innovation through universitybusiness collaboration. National Centre for Universities and Business. Technology Strategy Board (www.innovateuk.org). Research Councils UK (www.rcuk.ac.uk). www.ktponline.org. uk (2012) Dooley, L., Kirk, D.: University-industry collaboration grafting the entrepreneurial paradigm onto academic structures. Eur. J. Innov. Manag. 10(3), 316–332 (2007). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 1460–1060. https://doi.org/10.1108/14601060710776734 King, G., Persily, N.: A new model for industry–academic partnerships (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1017/S1049096519001021 Zhang, S., Yuan, C., Wang, Y.: The impact of industry–university–research alliance portfolio diversity on firm innovation: evidence from Chinese manufacturing firms. Sustainability 11 (8), 2321 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082321 Stahel, R.A., et al.: Current models, challenges and best practices for work conducted between European academic cooperative groups and industry. ESMO Open 5(2), e000628 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1136/esmoopen-2019-000628 Lacombe, D., Burock, S., Meunier, F.: Academia-industry partnerships: are we ready for new models of partnership? The point of view of the EORTC, an academic clinical cancer research organisation. Eur. J. Cancer. 49(1), 1–7 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2012.09.027

Component Organised Learning Method for Digital Supply Chain Hybrid Courses Lea Murumaa1(&) , Eduard Shevtshenko1,2,3 and Tatjana Karaulova2

,

1

TTK UAS, Pärnu mnt 62A, 10135 Tallinn, Estonia TalTech, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia University of Tartu, Ülikooli 18, 50090 Tartu, Estonia 2

3

Abstract. Higher education as the education in whole faced an unprecedented challenge last year. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the educational process had to change rapidly. The need for redesign and renovation was obvious already before the crisis driven by the pandemic started. As all other methods have become more and more personalised, education had to follow. The crisis with the shutdowns caused by the demand to avoid personal contacts ended the traditional teaching way. The educators had to reorganise the educational process to enable teaching and learning without personal contacts like the conventional face-to-face contact learning method has been known for a long time. New learning methods suitable for using Information and Communication Technology’s (ICT) capabilities need an architecture different from those used earlier. All e-environments used earlier were supporting the teaching process and course itself. As the pandemic is predicted to have a continuous impact on all activities, education will only partially return to traditional methods. The education needs to follow the changed way of working and to allow learning and teaching from a distance. The objective of the research is to apply the Component Organised Learning (COL) concept to design courses based on the current requirements of companies. Suggested architecture simplifies the realigning of courses by developing new and reuse of existing COL-s. The authors’ findings confirmed that the certain COL can be reused for different courses design. The suggested COL approach also simplified the remote teaching of the courses internationally and improved the integration between related curriculums. Keywords: Education 4.0 educational innovation cluster organised learning (COL)


Component

1 Introduction 1.1

Education 4.0

Industry 4.0 concept introduces innovative technologies in manufacturing that propose new ways of connectivity and data management (Cloud Technology) and unique environments for knowledge sharing and training (Augmented and Virtual reality) that become embedded in production. The same technologies may play an essential role in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 691–705, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_69

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manufacturing education - Education 4.0. This education system aims to bring a new and experienced workforce up to speed with the innovative proposals of Industry 4.0, creating a sustainable environment that will accelerate its adoption in manufacturing [1]. “The rapid development of information and communication technology drove the revolution of industry 4.0, but the teaching scene has always been unable to keep pace with the times, resulting in the phenomenon of a gap between production and learning” [2]. To accelerate industry training, Higher Educational Institution (HEI) must plan courses and develop new teaching models for the practical implementation of new technologies. Active learning provides learners with more skills to solve 21st-century problems as they participate in the lesson and put the knowledge gained into practice, allowing them to retain information for a much longer time. The major trends of Education 4.0 are shown in Fig. 1; they are: 1. More personalised learning: the individuality of every single student and their own pace of learning. There are various tools available that tweak the whole teaching process as per the individual learner’s needs, time, and rate of information perception. 2. More remote learning opportunities: The Active Blended Learning (ABL) concept is widely used when students can learn beyond classrooms. 3. The plethora of education tools: students can select the tools and techniques for a knowledge acquisition that they want to use. 4. Data at the fingertips helps teachers with statistical data analytics to understand where students stand and guide them appropriately. 5. Easy and accurate assessment: exists both online and offline types of student assessments. 6. Project-based learning: It helps students to acquire organisational, collaborative, and time management skills, which are needed for their future work.

Fig. 1. Trends of Education 4.0 [3]

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The objectives of Education 4.0 are Elimination of the gap between Academics & Industry; Digitalisation of all learning processes; Flexible Learning; Students who are ready for Industry and Entrepreneurship. Teaching factories have arisen to involve practitioners in task-specific industrial problems in groups, familiarise with the technologies, and develop personal skills while also providing a valuable link for the industry with the educational institutes and the available knowledge [4]. The students get to know the industrial practices and experience real industrial cases [5]. The combination of traditional methods and Industry 4.0 technologies will create a result that will be highly interesting and at the same time educating its attendees, aiding their smoothen integration in manufacturing [1]. Learning strategies require students to take an active and interactive role in a training process. Teachers for online courses use different types of applications, such as videos, multimedia applications, etc. These resources applied to education produce a quicker learning process, as well as a motivation for studying. Therefore, universities must use new teaching resources, such as hypertext and interactive multimedia, simulations, animations, sound files, videos, journals, etc. [6, 7]. To prepare students for Education 4.0, institutions need to align industry requirements with education, redesigning the curriculum. “Fundamentally redesign a course for e-learning includes the challenge of covering all study directions. It has to be recognised that no one approach can cover all content on even the narrowest of topics. The challenge is about how to organise it around the key concepts; therefore, during the subject design phase, the lector should focus on key concepts and provide organisational models of the content” [8]. 1.2

Advantages of Online Education

The main advantages of online learning are removing geographical barriers and facilitate continuous and almost unrestricted access to information, knowledge, and education. In addition, Digital materials can be stored and shared among all studying process participation through cloud storage or distribution via a social network, thus enhancing student collaboration, especially in group or project-based learning settings. It should also be taken into account that it reduces the variety of expenses for people moving, buying books, printing study materials, etc. “Teachers can set up general guidelines and deadlines to be followed, the rest of course time management, however, remains the responsibility of students themselves” [9]. Students can choose when to attend a particular study unit and can usually personalise their learning schedule to a large extent. Thus students can combine study with work without compromising on both sides. One of the significant advantages is the possibility to use real cases and document processes that students could not usually observe in real-life settings in real-time from different countries. The advantages of online education from teaching staff are essential; it allows multiple teachers from different countries and profiles to participate, providing further cultural and educational knowledge. This way, students can combine study with work without compromising on both sides [7].

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Online education allows the constant updating of materials through information and communication technologies (ICT). This implementation of information and communication technologies (ICT) in higher education increases individual and institutional competitiveness [10]. During COL elaboration, the teacher/lector must consider how to structure the course to blend face-to-face and online learning [11]. “This phase of the design process involves thoughtfully integrating synchronous face-to-face and asynchronous online learning experiences” [17]. 1.3

Educational Innovation Cluster

“According to Porter, innovation clusters are regional concentrations of interconnected companies, service providers, and associated institutions that enjoy unusual competitive success in a particular field” [12]. An educational cluster can be defined as a flexible network structure that includes groups of connected objects. For example, educational institutions, public and political organisations, scientific schools, universities, research organisations, business structures, etc., united around the core of innovative educational activities to solve particular problems and achieving a specific result (product). An educational cluster (like any other) has in its composition elements, has a particular infrastructure, routes of interaction. The main elements of the educational cluster are organisations as a whole (educational institutions - universities, schools, gymnasiums, colleges, lyceums; business structure) or its parts (structures, divisions), a combination of forms that take part in solving the task. The composition of the participants in the educational cluster (its elements) can change, be supplemented depending on the circumstances [13]. The following types of resources are required to create and operate a cluster: 1. Personnel or labour (qualified teaching staff); 2. Information resources (support for internal and external interaction with information channels; 3. Infrastructure (organisational conditions), development of regulations governing the activities and interaction of all elements within the educational cluster; 4. Material and technical conditions development (the possibility of using the material and technical base) to implement projects [14]. Figure 2 shows the key players of an education innovation cluster and the unique expertise each could bring to the partnership. “In combination with a supportive regulatory and funding context, education innovation clusters have the potential to lead the nation in the creation of new knowledge, tools, and approaches” [15].

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Fig. 2. Education cluster model by [15]

2 Concept Description 2.1

Component Organised Learning (COL) Concept

Component Organised Learning (COL) is based on the key theory of the Education Innovation Cluster (Fig. 3), supplemented by new requirements for learning in the context of rapidly developing information technologies on the one hand, and the difficulties that have arisen in connection with COVID-19 on the other hand. Using the COL approach, students will be able to synthesise their education with the individual skillset they need to advance their careers, making them genuinely unique job candidates.

Fig. 3. COL approach

The well-structured e-environment for studying is the only way to achieve the target. However, building up an engaging e-learning environment is both time and skill-consuming task for educators. Therefore, it is necessary to update educators who

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are using traditional methods to teach advanced digital skills and appropriate knowledge about digital tools. This research aims to introduce the Component Organised Learning concept, which will support effective e-learning. For this purpose, authors consider previous research, companies’ need and students’ feedback. 2.2

COL Concept

The researcher’s motivation is that learning via short courses becomes more popular among students. Higher Educational Institutions (HEI) need to rebuild their curriculums to combine work experiences with short-time classes. The students select materials that precisely correspond to their needs and study online at a suitable time. The authors suggest applying Component Organised Learning (COL) concept to divide the course into small cells, corresponding to the specified learning outcome and duration of the learning task (see Fig. 4). Once the COL is created and connected to related study outcomes, it can be successfully reused in different e-learning courses. The same COL can belong to various classes, which support content flexibility and courses connectivity. At the same time, COL supports the interconnection between different curriculums, which provide a broader view of the value chain essential for students to become better specialists. It also supports the flexibility and optimal use of teaching staff for simultaneous teaching of COL related to different courses and curriculums.

Practice /videos, examples 60 %

Questions 25 % Theory 15 %

COL - Component Organised Learning Fig. 4. Component organised learning concept

E-learning can be a more exhausting task for students than traditional learning. Therefore, the structure must consider the need for breaks between the assignments, their tasks, and the environment’s attractiveness. The use of interactivity tools, selfcontrol tests, and study guides should be applied for whole courses and each separate topic to help the student pass the class with defined outcomes. Also, the quality of study materials and the way of presenting them in the environment is essential.

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Accordingly to student´s feedback, the most suitable duration of one learning task is 45–90 min. Authors recommend spending 15% of the CAL time on theoretical background and knowledge gathering activity, followed by practical actions needed to understand and acquire the knowledge (60%) and to include the questions/consultation part (25%). Application of the ICT’s tools during hybrid and online learning gives more possibilities for communicative learning for teams which members are coming from different geographical locations. Such groups act as simplified models of multicultural environments and value chain processes simulating real-life experiences. 2.3

Component Organised Learning Concept Framework

The current paper is considered a gap between the needs of companies in the region and university education. The universities mainly focus on developing and assessing future engineers’ knowledge competencies, while employers need skills that allow university graduates to solve actual engineering problems immediately upon graduation. The authors have developed the Component Organised Learing Concept Framework to assess the digitalisation skills required by companies (Fig. 5). Authors have collected the answers from the Baltic countries’ logistics, procurement, and manufacturing companies. Fifteen companies in Estonia, twenty from Latvia and thirty from Lithuania were interviewed. The results of the current analysis may be helpful to other regions and sectors also [16].

Fig. 5. The framework for component organised learning methods implementation.

3 Case Study 3.1

Courses Estimation and COL Definition

Authors have applied the COL concept to cover all the skills necessary for supply chain digitalisation management by 15 courses, 5 for Procurement, 5 for manufacturing, and 5 for Logistics (see Table 1) combined into the Digital Supply Chain module.

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L. Murumaa et al. Table 1. Courses developed during the project. Course Number Course Name C1 Purchasing and Procurement Management C2 The organisation of the digital purchase process C3 Introduction to Public Procurement Planning and Procedure C4 Project. Purchasing and procurement organisation C5 Project. Analysis of the procurement process C6 Introduction to Supply Chain digitalisation C7 Intelligent Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 tools C8 Transformative technologies for Manufacturing C9 Digital Twin for Manufacturing Environment C10 Manufacturing Process Management in Supply Chain C11 Logistics 4.0 and Business Process Reengineering C12 ICT in Logistics C13 Transformative technologies for Logistics C14 Digital Twin for Logistics Environment C15 Logistics Process Management in Supply Chain

Companies answered the questions using five possible answers: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Not relevant, Agree and Strongly Agree. The answers were coded using “−2” for Strongly disagree, “−1” for Disagree, “0” for Not relevant, “1” for Agree and “2” for Strongly agree. The relevance of the answers was calculated by aggregating the codes; see the “All fields total” column in Tables 2–5. Procurement, Logistics and Manufacturing companies assessed the Impact of digitisation on organisational performance, see Table 2.

Table 2. Impact of digitisation on organisational performance. Questions related to COLs and courses. Impact of digitisation All Fields total on organisational performance (procurement and supply chains, manufacturing and operations management, and logistics and transport)

COL

Purchase/Procurement Manufacturing Logistics

Artificial Intelligence 5 will be able to support my daily business and

1. AI COl

C2

C10

C11

(continued)

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Table 2. (continued) Impact of digitisation All Fields total on organisational performance (procurement and supply chains, manufacturing and operations management, and logistics and transport) decrease operative activities Artificial Intelligence will take over decision-making processes Big Data can identify variables that can affect performance at no extra cost, guiding manufacturers in identifying the problem Big Data within the organisational environment will be collected, analysed, and processed within the procurement, manufacturing, logistics function Internet-of-Things and Blockchain Technology will support the create full transparency within the supply chain ecosystem Transparency and traceability within the supply chain ecosystem will strengthen buyersupplier relationships and levels of trust The procurement, manufacturing, logistics function will be a strategic interface to support organisational

COL

Purchase/Procurement Manufacturing Logistics

−8

1. AI COL

C2

C7

C12

5

2. BIG DATA COL

C2

C10

C15

6

2. BIG DATA COL

C2

C7

C14

5

3. IOT/Blockchain COL

C2

C10

C11

7

3. IOT/Blockchain COL

C4

C9

C14

6

15. SCOR COL

C1

C9

C14

(continued)

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Impact of digitisation All Fields total on organisational performance (procurement and supply chains, manufacturing and operations management, and logistics and transport) efficiency, effectiveness, and profitability 6 The procurement, manufacturing, logistics function will transform into a strategic and innovative network node and support creating new business models, products, and services People and “face-to8 face” meetings will remain essential to building up trust and relationships

COL

Purchase/Procurement Manufacturing Logistics

9. Innovation COL

C1

C8

C13

10. Communication COL

C4

C10

C11

The authors developed a separate COL for each required competence, digital skill or tool. The authors evaluated the answers and connected the required skills to the study content of appropriate COL-s, and mapped them with study outputs in each course card. Procurement, Logistics and Manufacturing companies assessed the barriers to digitisation on organisational performance, see Table 3. Digital Supply Chain Management module courses are addressed to the digitalisation of procurement, logistics and manufacturing fields. The authors introduce the COLs based concept approach for planned courses design. As the COLs can be a part of different courses, the teaching-learning process organisation will select COLs that correspond to the particular course study outcomes, see Tables 2–5. Introduced modular course design enables students to acquire part of several courses by passing chosen COLs. This solution is the key for effectiveness in education, helping to avoid preparing and conducting several studies with the look-a-like content by several teachers and enhancing the opportunity to combine daily working with knowledge fulfilment and transfer for students. Procurement, Logistics and Manufacturing companies assessed the requirement of technologies to leverage digitisation, see Table 4. Procurement, Logistics and Manufacturing companies assessed the skills required to execute digitisation, see Table 5.

−3

Employees within my organisation have enough resources and capacities for the digital transformation Employees within my organisation have the appropriate capabilities for digital transformation −1

−1

0

0

7

−4

6

2

All Fields total 2

My organisation has a clear digital strategy

Existing infrastructure within my organisation can handle the digital transformation Existing job functions, roles, and descriptions can be transferred to the new role of procurement Leadership management within my organisation supports “creative freedom” for creativity and innovation Suppliers within my organisation are already included in the process of digital transformation The communication structure within my organisation is lean and agile My organisation wants to implement digitisation and has no uncertainties and fears. If profit exists, no fear My organisation has a risk management tool in place concerning the digital transformation

Barriers to digitising organisations and ways to overcome them

9. Innovation COL 11. Digitalisation COL 12. Lean and Agile COL 11. Digitalisation COL 13.Risk Management COL 11. Digitalisation COL 11. Digitalisation COL 4. BPM COL

11. Digitalisation COL 4. BPM COL

COL

C4

C4

C8

C8

C6

C9

C1

C4

C6

C8

C6

C8

C9

C8

Manufacturing

C4

C1

C4

C1

C2

C4

Purchase/Procurement

Table 3. Barriers to digitising organisations and ways to overcome them. Questions relation to COLs and courses.

C13

C13

C11

C14

C11

C13

C11

C13

C14

C13

Logistics

Component Organised Learning Method for Digital Supply Chain Hybrid Courses 701

Cybersecurity requires a cross-functional approach and must be developed and forced by all supply chain stakeholder Predictive analytical tools and algorithms will automate and speed up transactions and processes

Procurement platforms based on “many-to-many” communication will simplify my daily business Mobile applications, cloud solutions, and cloud-based ERP solutions will enable me to work with a full remote access A standard user interface ( for platforms and applications) will enable me to work more efficient and effective Social media platforms will be a helpful tool for internal and external communication and collaboration Innovational tools based on big data and advanced analytics with new technologies will be helpful for my business Crisis management will improve with data analysis. Rephrase to suit smaller companies Radiofrequency identification and smart sensors will increase the transparency and traceability of processes

Required technologies to leverage digitisation

C5

C5 C2

C2

15. SCOR COL

13. Risk Management 5. SMART SENSOR COL 6. Cyber Security COL

3

2

12

9

C4

C7

C2

10. Communication

5

7. Predictive Analytics COL

C9

C2

17. API COL

7

10

C9

C2

8. ERP COL

8

C10

C7

C8

C9

C7

C13

C2

Manufacturing

14. Cloud COL

Purchase/Procurement

All fields Total 7

COL

Table 4. Requirement of technologies to leverage digitisation. Questions relation to COLs and courses

C11

C12

C14

C14

C12

C13

C14

C12

C13

Logistics

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Abilities to use common user interface platforms and applications in executing supply chain operations Abilities to communicate and collaborate by using social media platforms Know-how and skills for the usage of radio frequency identification and smart sensors in tracing of the supply chain processes Know-how and skills needed to protect the data of the supply chain operations Know-how and skills for using predictive analytics tools and algorithms in the automation of supply chain transactions and processes Setting up a data structure and master data management connecting multiple unstructured data points via database or data lake Ability to automate the procurement, manufacturing or logistics business process by using RPA

Know-how and skills of the usage of procurement platforms based on “many-to-many” communication Abilities to use mobile applications, cloud solutions and cloud-based ERP solutions in working with full remote access Required knowledge and skills to execute digitisation

Required knowledge and skills to execute digitisation

7. Predictiv Analytics COL 16. Integration COL 4. BPM COL

5

4

6

7

5. SMART SENSOR COL 6. Cyber Security

16. Integration COL 17. API COL

COL

16. Integration COL 8. ERP COL

COL

11

5

All fields Total 11

9

All fields Total 10

C2

C2

C5

C2

C2

C1

C5

Purchase/Procurement

C5

C2

Purchase/Procurement

C9

C9

C10

C8

C9

C8

C10

Manufacturing

C10

C7

Manufacturing

Table 5. Required knowledge and skills to execute digitalisation of the procurement. Questions relation to COLs and courses

C14

C14

C15

C13

C14

C13

C15

Logistics

C15

C15

Logistics

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Study Outcomes

Based on previous research, there is a significant need for digitalisation in education. Students will practice in the most commonly used applications and acquire ICT skills needed to work as future digitalisation specialists. The development of COLs, reusable within several different courses, enables the students to acquire a part of several courses by choosing one COL. The students can combine studies easily with daily working which means the education can be reachable for a broader range of people. This solution also enhances better time management for students and teaching staff and helps avoid situations where several teachers prepare look-a-like or partially covering content.

4 Conclusions In the current paper, we introduce the integrated approach for the Digital Supply Chain Management module, composed of COLs, fitting into several courses of three curriculums. Training in conditions near real life like using different software solutions, gamification and simulations and enabling students to participate via remote solutions can be one way. Guiding and assessing students’ tasks remotely need to develop, considering the student’s expectations and future employers’ needs. Creating the possibility of acquiring the knowledge by choosing and passing COLs via e-learning gives the student wider choice because the studying does not depend on the student location. The authors have started with redesign the courses taught by them. The feedback collected from participants of the two courses taught at the ending semester was positive. The idea of dividing courses to COLs and using the theory-practice-discussion model introduced in this paper was successfully tested in the frame of the Erasmus + project “Digital skills for future Supply Chain Management 4.0 (DIGSCM 4.0)”. The authors see the concept can be used to develop international collaborative learning and broader cooperation between different HEIs.

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5. Rentzos, L., Doukas, M., Mavrikios, D., Mourtzis, D., Chryssolouris, G.: Integrating manufacturing education with industrial practice using teaching factory paradigm: a construction equipment application. Procedia CiRP 17, 189–194 (2014) 6. Veletsianos, G.: Emerging Technologies in Distance Education. AU Press, Athabasca University, Edmonton (2010) 7. Gallego Sancheza, M.C., Pablos-Herederob, C., Medina-Merodioa, J.A., Robina-Ramírezc, R., Luis Fernandez-Sanz, L.: Reationships among relational coordination dimensions: Impact on the quality of education online with a structural equations model. In: Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier Inc., Amsterdam (2021) 8. Garrison, D.R.: E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Framework for Research and Practice, 2nd edn, eBook (2011). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203838761 9. Zounek, J., Sudicky, V.: Heads in the cloud: pros and cons of online learning. In: International Conference DisCo: New Technologies and Media Literacy Education, Prague (2013) 10. Iris, R., Vikas, A.: E-learning technologies: a key to dynamic capabilities. Comput. Hum. Behav. 27(5), 1868–1874 (2011) 11. Zhang, D., Zhao, J.L., Nunamaker, J.: Can e-learning replace classroom learning? Comput. Sci. 47(5) (2004). https://userpages.umbc.edu/*zhangd/Papers/CACM1.pdf 12. Michael, E.P.: Clusters and the New Economics of Competition (1998). https://hbr.org/1998/ 11/clusters-and-the-new-economics-of-competition 13. Beizerov, V.A.: Cluster approach to the development of educational systems as a way to increase the competitiveness of education in countries and regions. In: UDC332.13: 37: 339.137.2: 332.12 Izvestia of the F. Skorina Gomel State University, vol. 5, no. 92 (2015) 14. Korchagina, E.A.: Social partnership as a mechanism for managing the educational cluster. In: Korchagina, E.A. (ed.) Innovations in Education. 2007. Richard Culatta. From Innovation Clusters to Datapalooza: Accelerating Innovation in Educational Technology (2012). https://er.educause.edu/articles/2012/11/from-innovation-clusters-to-datapaloozaaccelerating-innovation-in-educational-technology 15. Shevtshenko, E., et al.: Dissemination of engineering education at schools and its adjustment to needs of enterprises. In: Proceedings of the 28th DAAAM International Symposium, Vienna, Austria (2017). https://doi.org/10.2507/28th.daaam.proceedings.006 16. Bienhaus, F., Haddud, A.: Procurement 4.0: factors influencing the digitisation of procurement and supply chains. Bus. Process Manag. 24(4), 966–984 (2018) 17. Design in Teaching in Blended Learning Environments.... https://read.aupress.ca/read/ teaching-in-blended-learning-environments/section/13ccd00e-24a6-46c6-b64ea6b2ae195d96

Activity-Based Methods in Training Foreign Students Alla A. Kaybiyaynen1(&) , Svetlana E. Matveeva1, Rozalina V. Shagieva2 , Liudmila Dulalaeva1 , and Tatiana N. Nikitina1 1

2

Kazan National Research Technological University, Kazan, Russian Federation The State University of Management, Moscow, Russian Federation

Abstract. This paper summarizes the experience of training foreign students at the pre-university courses using the technology of the activity-based teaching method as a special didactic system. The object of the study is foreign students entering the engineering majors of the university after graduating from the preuniversity courses. To activate the process of teaching the future studying foreign language, as well as teaching introductory core subjects (for the further studying on bachelor and master degree programs), teachers of the preuniversity courses began to actively use activity-based teaching methods. The essence of activity-based teaching method is that the student becomes a subject of activity and doesn’t receive knowledge from others, but develop it by himself in the process of his own educational and cognitive activity. At the same time, he learns to self-determine, to be involved in learning process, to solve arising difficulties, to make independent discoveries, to analyze and evaluate his activities by himself. The implementation of our project has demonstrated that using of activity-based methods and technologies made it possible to develop a cognitive motivation of foreign students to learn foreign language, including for the future professional communication and further studying on bachelor degree programs. As a research and practical experience have shown, the activity-based method forms and develops the necessary components of students’ personal development and readiness to study on the higher education programs: creativity (creative abilities); critical, divergent and productive thinking; research skills; social intelligence, etc. After graduating the pre-university courses, students show independence in the knowledge development, activity and interest in learning outcomes. Keywords: Technologies of the activity-based teaching method
Didactic system
Training foreign students for university studying
Pre-university courses
Foreign language in professional communication

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 706–716, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_70

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1 Introduction One of the leading trends in higher education worldwide is its internationalization and intensification of student migration processes aimed at studying at the universities of different countries to get education meeting the individual needs and the demands of the modern labor market. The 2020–2021 coronavirus pandemic situation reduced the academic mobility opportunities and proved the necessity of the accelerated transition to digital technology in education, including distance learning, as well as of actively using innovative techniques and perfecting the conventional ones. On the other hand, engineering universities are trying to attract future students to major in engineering areas. For this reason, very topical are the new, informal methods and techniques of developing the youth’s interest in engineering professions [1–3]. Relevance of this study is determined by the above reasons and by the necessity of enhancing the vocational training of international students in the Russian engineering universities. There are significant difficulties and problems in teaching new language and specialized courses to foreign students for their further university studying. Issues are caused by the fact that, basically all students are unprepared for higher education in a non-mother tongue environment. This is why the pre-university training stage is basic, since most students usually have very weak or no command of the university instruction language. Universities established special pre-university courses and departments for teaching foreign language in professional communication, as well as for introducing foreign students to the basic subject areas of the future majors. Core tasks of specialized pre-university departments of universities are as follows: Developing the personality of international students; adapting them to the non-mothertongue-based material, social and cultural environment; ensuring a high-quality training in general sciences and general vocational disciplines; learning Russian as the instruction language; and ensuring intercultural and interethnic interactions [4]. Foreign students have to study in new conditions, in a different country of residence, in an unfamiliar social and linguistic environment. In the process of overcoming these difficulties and problems, the use of special didactic systems, methods and techniques becomes especially relevant. Among the variety of modern didactic methods there is one special pedagogical technology of the activity-based teaching method, which allows to form the subject results of studying on educational programs, and also to develop in young people future university students - the activity abilities and personality traits that ensure their success in the future.

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2 Project Description 2.1

Background and Approach

International students are usually trained for studying at Russian universities, using educational structures established based on the pre-university faculties for foreign citizens, the first of which structures were opened as far back as in late 1950s – early 1960s. Over more than half of a century, teaching international students has become even more significant as the most important aspect of the university international activities. Drastic social and political changes have taken place globally, which reflected on both international student populations and their learning conditions. At the same time, the global goal of teaching students at the pre-university training stage (PTS), which is to prepare them for studying together with the Russian students in Russian as a foreign language at the Russian universities, not only remains relevant, but also continues to develop [5, pp. 292–293]. Pre-university training was performed in universities in accordance with the industry standard titled Requirements for the Content Standards and the Competence Levels of Graduates from the Pre-University Faculties and Departments for Training Foreign Citizens and approved by the Ordinance No. 866 of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, dated May 8, 1997 and defining the necessary industry specificity, terms, contents, and training levels of foreign citizens willing to enter universities of the Russian Federation. Purpose of the PTS is worded as the “student’s ability to continue studying in the Russian language at the universities of the Russian Federation.” This instrument emphasizes that the PTS graduates must master the Russian language to the extent that ensures the possibility to perform their learning in Russian and is necessary for them to communicate in educational, professional, social, and cultural environments. Pre-university departments of universities admit foreign citizens that have completed the full secondary education and obtained a visa permitting them to study in Russia. Russian language is the major subject in the course program. University sets other majors, such as engineering, humanities, medicine, etc. Depending on the major (this logically being engineering at engineering universities), attendees also learn mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology, history, country studies, engineering drawing, etc. Pre-university department should develop in an international student such a communicative competency level that would allow them to successfully continue their studies at the university. This competency includes language, speech, and linguisticcultural competencies.

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Given the goals set for teaching international students at PTS, we also include into the communicative competency the object-speech (or, according to A.I. Surygin’s terminology, general scientific) competency, which we, following A.I. Surygin, understand as the “ability to use basic terms and methods of general sciences in learning and cognitive activities performed in a non-mother tongue” [5, 6, pp. 74, 82]. At the same time, we consider the most important principle of the theory of teaching in a non-mother tongue, namely that of vocational focus, which suggests teaching students in general professional subjects in accordance with the major chosen by the student. 2.2

Goals and Objectives

Our study is aimed at assessing the efficiency of using the activity-based learning method that has already proven its efficiency in general and vocational education, in training international students at the pre-university courses of an engineering university. The object of the study is foreign students entering the engineering majors of the university after graduating from the pre-university courses. During this project implementation, the teachers faced with specific tasks of increasing the readiness of foreign students to study on bachelor engineering educational programs and their easy adaptation to the process of studying at the university. We assumed that activity-based technologies can be successfully used at both the pre-university faculty and in training engineers directly at the relevant departments and faculties of the university. Our experience proves this hypothesis. Core purposes of the project are both preparing pre-university students for studying at the university and forming in them “pre-engineering” competencies and skills, which is of special importance in the context of digitalization and Industry 4.0. Another important objective of the project is popularizing engineering professions in general and developing interest in engineering activities. According to researchers, studies of international engineering students at Russian universities at the preuniversity stage is a professionally oriented process aimed at forming the readiness for learning engineering disciplines at further stages, while this term itself is characterized by variative parameters of the development degree of professional communication in a non-mother tongue, using the linguistic means of natural sciences, and it is considered as an integrative target of learning at the pre-university stage. At the same time, the structure of such “readiness” for learning engineering subjects as a psychological, pedagogical, and social phenomenon is formed through the interrelation among socially adaptive, orientationally linguistic, and professionally material components, the latter ones varying by the duration criterion of pre-university studies [7].

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On the other hand, this instructional method itself can be good for improving the international students’ studies at the pre-university faculty of the university; therefore, our project is also aimed at implementing some activity-based techniques in the teaching and learning process in the university. 2.3

Method Description

The essence of activity-based teaching method is that the student becomes a subject of activity and doesn’t receive knowledge from others, but develop it by himself in the process of his own educational and cognitive activity. At the same time, he learns to self-determine, to be involved in learning process, to solve arising difficulties, to make independent discoveries, to analyze and evaluate his activities by himself. These processes develop the true source of motivation that lies inside the activity subject. The didactic system of the active-based method allows to use techniques that develop the student’s creativity. This is the search of motivation for learning (selfdetermination); performing trial tasks with updating and fixing individual difficulties; identification of specific places and causes of such difficulties; finding the exit from difficulties, implementing a project for getting out from difficulties; consolidating the result with saying it in external speech; independent work with verification by a template; inclusion to the knowledge system and repetition; self-reflection of the learning results. In preceding times, before the application of the activity-based method, foreign students in the pre-university courses had an external motivation for learning. Motivation was mainly associated with an external belief in the necessity of studying, and this message came mainly from the teachers, the dean of the department, the team. Typically, external motivational messages took the form of demands, instructions and coercions. As a result, they often met the inner resistance from the student’s personality. The didactic system of the activity-based method allows full monitoring the learning outcomes using an expert computer program. This helped the teachers to solve a range of contradictions associated with the existing system of assessing the student’s learning. As a research and practical experience have shown, the activity-based method forms and develops the necessary components of students’ personal development and readiness to study on the higher education programs: creativity (creative abilities); critical, divergent and productive thinking; research skills; social intelligence, etc. 2.4

Project Stages

To activate the process of teaching the future studying foreign language, as well as teaching introductory core subjects (for the further studying on bachelor and master degree programs), teachers of the pre-university courses began to actively use activitybased teaching methods.

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Teachers studied the theoretical background and the results of this method application from its authors, colleagues from other colleges and universities, and came to the conclusion about the effectiveness of this technology. During the project implementation we summarized the practical experience of teachers in the implementation of the activity-based method’s didactic system and broadcast it to colleagues at various workshops, in different journals, in a creative laboratory, in an information support base for the educational process of pre-university courses teachers, in the materials of department meetings, methodological seminars, articles and speeches at conferences, publications on the various levels. A project related to the intensive use of activity-based methods and technologies in the learning process was carried out at the pre-university courses during two years from 2019 to 2021. Within the project framework, a working team was established at the faculty, which developed the specific mechanisms of implementing the technique in teaching. The team included management representatives and teacher of the department of Russian as a foreign language. The working team developed the targeted program titled Adaptation of International Students. It was aimed at both forming the material performance in mastering the educational program and developing in the future students at our university the activityfocused abilities and personal qualities that can ensure their success in future. Some specific goals were set in the program: – Informational support for educational process; – Language adaptation of international students; and – Organization of leisure activities. 1. Informational Support for the Project • • • •

Information board informing on holidays in Russia. Designing and editing a campus newspaper. Meetings with the representatives of the Interior informing on migration legislation. Meetings with the representatives of communities discussing the problems of behavior in the country of residence. • Meetings with the student council of common houses to discuss the internal code of conduct in university accommodations. 2. Language Adaptation of International Students • Volunteer decades of learning Russian. • Russia-wide contest among international students Russian Language: Start in Profession. • Contests of essays to a certain topic and poetry competitions.

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3. Leisure Activities 1) Excursion and educational program; 2) Creating conditions for the students to participate in the cultural life of the university: • Conducting the Orientation Day and the International Student Day • Celebrating national holidays, etc. 3 stages were defined to implement the program. Stage I: Analyzing the problems of international students’ adaptation, launching the adaptation mechanisms of the activity-based method, and developing the subprogram titled Promoting the Russian Language and Education in Russian (2019). Stage II: Practical, developing the contents of activities aimed at adapting international students. Stage III: Active use of the technique (2020–2021). Stage IV: Conclusions and problem analysis (2021). At the first stage, we studied the practices of using the activity-based techniques in other educational institutions. Our teachers started using the technique in individual groups or with individual students. At the second stage, experimental groups were established, in which it was reasonable to implement the technique. Curricula and methodical documents were adjusted, and teacher’s resource books were developed. At the third stage, the faculty and the department were intensively involved into implementing the technique. Problems were analyzed and conclusions were drawn at the fourth stage. Due to the complicated situation with arrivals of international students in Russia in 2020, the faculty management decided to transfer over a half of students who had not been able to come to distance learning. Respectively, two groups of students were established, a classroom one, and a distance one (attending via Microsoft Teams). Thoroughly analyzing the facts and data on innovative transformation of languagerelated training of international engineering students and identifying the problem area and the acutest issues allowed us to identify barriers that hamper the comfortable studies of international students. Figures below show the data obtained from polling the students who estimated the disadvantages of the system of higher education.

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We performed our own studies of difficulties experienced by students in their first year at the university (Table 1):

Table 1. Difficulties experienced by international students (in % of all respondents) Difficulties 1. Doing independent work 2. Making notes of authentic sources 3. Inability to write down and listen to the lecture simultaneously 4. Large scope and complicated contents of materials studied 5. New forms of control 6. Organization of leisure time 7. No/lack of contacts to teachers 8. No friendly communications 9. Separation from school friends 10. Living far from home

% 66.4 46.7 30.7 26.3 24.8 18.7 12.4 15.3 12.4 12.4

Table 2 shows the grounds for the difficulties experienced by first-year students in their studies.

Table 2. Grounds for difficulties experienced by international students at university Grounds for difficulties experienced Changed forms and methods of learning and teaching Insufficient knowledge in physics and mathematics to study at a university More complicated and abstract theory in further mathematics Many new terms, theorems, and definitions in all subjects Insufficiently formed skills of independent work Insufficiently formed skills of self-control, assessing, and self-assessment of their learning performance Rapid pace of giving lectures Many assignments in each subject Weak teachers’ control over studying activities Necessity of changing the existing habits Lack of diligence and weak will No interest in studies Overprotection of teachers at school Sharp transition to independent adult life No grounds Not sure

% of respondents 28.69 26.13 4.69 3.56 29.05 22.48 4.03 8.39 16.15 17.98 18.97 19.6 3.89 8.63 1.79 1.08

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Large percentage of the responding teachers think that international students have poorly developed cognitive operations, such as analysis and synthesis (38.23%), classification (40.71%), systematization and generalization (45.18%), abstraction (37.99%), and concretization (18.71%). Many foreigners cannot plan their learning activities. Only 35.16% of them could do that at school; and just 28.13% of them continue planning their studies at the university. At the same time, most respondents (57.13%) think that planning their independent learning activities contributes to their academic progress. All the above controversies can be solved using a well-established interaction between pre-university training and the university. This must result in implementing the following functions that prepare an international student for their studies in advance: 1) Learning and cognitive activities, i.e., mastering university-specific forms and methods of learning; deeper studying the profession-related subjects chosen, etc.; 2) Self-education, i.e., reading vocation-related literature and investigating relevant matters at workshops, conferences, and research activities; 3) Intellectual activities, i.e., mastering the skills related to analyzing, identifying the essentials, generalizing, and systematizing data when preparing reports, etc.; and 4) Self-assessment and developing industry-specific skills by selecting materials to be studied, finding the ways of mastering them, assessing the proficiency, etc.

3 Interim Outcomes and Project Implementation Effects The use of activity-based methods and technologies made it possible to develop a cognitive motivation of foreign students to learn foreign language, including for the future professional communication and further studying on bachelor degree programs. Comparison of the experience in implementing training programs for foreign students using the technology of the activity-based teaching method in 2019 and 2020 showed positive dynamics. Foreign students after graduation from these programs showed good results upon admission to university, which was revealed during their questionnaire on 12 criteria. The data of a full monitoring of foreign students learning outcomes in pre-university courses indicated that the continuity between educational programs in the system “pre-university courses – bachelor degree programs – master degree programs” at the educational, methodological, content and technological levels was provided. This ensured a high stable quality of foreign students’ academic performance and an increasing in the level of their activity abilities.

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4 Conclusions The implementation of the project showed that the use of activity-based technologies in teaching foreign students at pre-university courses significantly increases the level of their readiness to studying on higher education programs in engineering universities. Analysis and objective assessment of the psychological readiness of first-year undergraduate students demonstrated a high level of foreign students’ adaptation to the main engineering education programs. We have found the students’ inner motivation, involvement and significant interest to the learning process. After graduating the preuniversity courses, students show independence in the knowledge development, activity and interest in learning outcomes. During the project implementation, activitybased methods have become one of the main parts of the teachers work in preuniversity courses.

References 1. Kaybiyaynen, A.A., Matveeva, S.E., Pavlova, I.V.: WorldSkills competition as an efficient engineer training technology. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 727–733. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_71 2. Kadeeva, Z., Kaybiyaynen, A.A., Lisina, O., Turner, E.: Engineering slam as a project of popularizing sciences and engineering competencies. In: Auer, M.E., Hortsch, H., Sethakul, P. (eds.) ICL 2019. AISC, vol. 1134, pp. 240–245. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-030-40274-7_24 3. Kaybiyaynen, A.A., Nasonkin, V.V., Bondarenko, D.V., Nazarov, A.V., Tkach, G.F.: Networking between engineering university and enterprises in future students training. In: Auer, M.E., Tsiatsos, T. (eds.) ICL 2018. AISC, vol. 916, pp. 503–513. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11932-4_48 4. Kalashnikova, S.B.: Intensifying pre-university training of international students based on the personality-focused approach to teaching. Thesis in support of candidature for pedagogical degree, 211 p. (2004) 5. Kutuzova, G.I.: Problems of preparing foreign students in the Russian language classes for studying in Russian Universities. Sci. J. Herzen Univ. 5(12), 5–12 (2005) 6. Surygin, A.I.: Instruction Aspect of Teaching International Students (Basics of the Theory of Teaching Students in a Non-Mother Tongue), St. Petersburg, p. 67 (2000) 7. Kurysheva, L.O.: Developing the readiness for studying at Russian universities in international students majoring in engineering. Thesis in support of candidature for pedagogical degree, Kaliningrad, 127 p. (2004)

Using Digital Technologies to Implement Advanced Professional Education Programs Svetlana V. Barabanova(&) , Mansur Galikhanov , Alla A. Kaybiyaynen , and Darya-Anna A. Kaybiyaynen Kazan National Research Technological University, Kazan, Russian Federation [email protected]

Abstract. Advanced professional education is an integral part of the lifelong education system and training “throughout life”. Authors analyze the experience of the Kazan National Research Technological University in the implementation of continuing education programs, taking into account the exceptional circumstances of the year 2020. Although in recent years technical universities have gained extensive experience in the implementation of educational programs using information and communication technologies and e-learning, the lockdown and distance learning have brought many innovations in educational activities. These processes also touched upon advanced professional education, advanced training of engineers, as well as the development of competence and competencies of the engineering universities teachers themselves. The preliminary analysis shows that training with the predominant use of digital technologies has many advantages for students of the continuing education system, provides them with the new opportunities to update their professional knowledge and acquire new professional skills in the most accessible form, using new digital formats and digital educational resources. It is obvious that the activities of educational organizations aimed to development of digital competencies of teachers in 2020 brought measurable results on the basis of the previously created foundation for distance learning. Keywords: Advanced professional education
Continuing education
Professional development
Distance learning
Digital educational resources

1 Context What are the trends in education today according to experts? Let’s refer to the opinion of Vasily Tretyakov, Advisor to the CEO of the “University 2035” (this educational organization is responsible for the implementation of the federal project “Human Resources for the Digital Economy” and in the format of digital educational certificates for citizens in Russia): «The demand for specialists with a unique combination of competencies is rising. Wide-scale uniqueness is required: the rate of change in human activity requires a high reaction rate in determining the path of human development. The demand for the rapid acquisition of skills for income-generating activities through educational platforms is growing, and satisfaction with modern education based on standards and responsibility for the implementation, not for the result, is decreasing. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 717–727, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_71

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Responsibility for development is transferred to the person himself and not to the educational organization. A market for investments in human development is forming, where the object of investment is a person and their development pathway, which combines different formats and educational programs. In these conditions, additional vocational education assume special importance as an integral part of the system of lifelong education and training “throughout life”». The programs of professional development - advanced training and professional retraining - are especially relevant for engineers - those specialists who are responsible for technical progress and sustainable development of society as a whole. The 2020 situation with the coronavirus pandemic demonstrated the real significance and relevance of education digitalization, including advanced education. It was the pandemic that once again made it possible to realize that at all levels of education workers and teachers who have adaptability, readiness for change and quick perception of new things, teachable, stress-resistant, able to use modern educational technologies and participate in the implementation of basic and additional programs of any level are especially valuable. It seems that the system of advanced professional education has become a special example of the success of digitalization and turned out to be the bestprepared for the challenges of time. The purpose of this research is to study and analyze the experience of implementing programs of advanced professional education in a digital format, considering the 2020 situation, which led to new requirements for the system. Although in recent years technical universities have gained huge experience in the implementation of educational programs using information and communication and distance technologies and elearning, the lockdown and distance learning have brought many innovations in the educational process. These processes have also related to advanced professional education, advanced training of engineers, as well as the development of the competence and competencies of the engineering universities teachers themselves. The last academic year 2020/2021 with remote and blended learning forced us to significantly speed up and intensify these processes. The main task of our research is to analyze the current situation, faced issues and the advantages of using new learning formats with the implementation of distance learning technologies, digital and virtual learning, as well as forming recommendations for the further development of new educational technologies, primarily in additional vocational education. Similar topics quickly became the subject of discussions at various conferences, which materials we also used in our research [1–6]. But first of all, we would like to note the elements of mysticism that appeared at the ICL 2019 conference in Bangkok (Thailand) “The Impact of the 4th Industrial Revolution on Engineering Education”: most of the reports were devoted to the possibilities and prospects of digital education. And no one could have imagined that after six months, not only 30% of the study and working time, but 100%, we will depend on distance educational technologies, on the digital format of communication and information and communication competence. In this article, the authors would like to focus on the programs content, and on the fundamental features of the training development in 2020, and in general on that positive experience, which, of course, should be used for the further successful

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development of the advanced professional education system and Russian educational organizations. It seems that we have already irretrievably passed into a new educational reality, where learning is impossible without the use of distance learning technologies and e-learning. Speaking at the plenary session of the international network conference on engineering education “Synergy-2019”, President of the IGIP International Monitoring Committee, Professor of Tallinn University of Technology Tiia Rüütmann emphasized that “today the teacher must choose methods and techniques that correspond to the new generation of students who are online 24 h a day. They need time both for active learning and for reflection, however, along with problematic and active learning, traditional learning is also necessary in the training of engineers”. Based on the achievements of engineering pedagogy, Estonian professor advises the teacher to use four basic learning theories: behavior science (practical training), cognitive science (broadcasting the most important knowledge), social constructivism (soft competencies), humanism (responsibility, self-motivation, time management, etc.) [4, 106]. N.B. Synergy is a network scientific and practical conference having been held in Russia for the last five years and organized and supported by international societies for engineering education, leading engineering universities, and representatives of the largest Russian and international companies.

2 Approach In recent years, almost all universities around the world have created an informationeducational environment and the environment operated with varying degrees of efficiency and technical equipment. However, the situation of the last year, the pandemic and the lockdown imposed on all countries have sharply accelerated the processes of education informatization and literally forced universities to completely reorganize themselves in a short time in a “digital way” and to master new technologies and methods of presenting educational content. All of this also required a restructuring of the educational process management system under the new conditions. Teachers and trainees had to reorganize themselves too. These processes were very clearly manifested in the implementation of advanced professional educational programs, in particular, in the professional development of engineers and technical specialists. It is known that advanced education is financed either by the person concerned, a specialist, an employing company, or the state. However, the development of the digital format for such programs is usually not included in its cost. B Russia, the existing or newly developed professional education programs, including the APE ones, are digitalized without being paid additionally. Both the customer and the employer of the teacher suggest that the contractor shall be personally responsible for using any educational techniques or technology, as well as for the compliance of the latter ones with the times or with the customer’s requirements. Currently, many universities are providing more or less inducement teaching staff to create electronic content for online learning or for the students’ individual work; however, in general, this pedagogical activity is not accounted as the teacher’s academic load. Moreover, it has become a sad routine in many universities to suspend or even dismiss those who have not mastered

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new technologies to the required extent and have not fit into the new reality. In this context, the system of advanced education becomes more successful and flexible, including in terms of searching for targeted funding sources for its development. The experience of interaction of a number of Russian companies with the leading universities of the country becomes a happy exception to the rule. Responsible attitude of employers - Gazprom, Rosneft, Lukoil, Rosatom and other important for the Russian educational system companies and various manifestations of university activities and their full or partial funding allow Russian universities to be in the trend, to initiate teachers to move in line with global trends. Such activities include transferring educational programs to digital resources; holding Russian and international conferences, including networking; opportunities to participate in foreign conferences to communicate and learn from colleagues; internships at the subsidiaries of sponsoring companies; professional and public accreditation, etc. Thanks to the gradual transfer of a number of advanced educational programs to the distance format, the teachers involved in these processes and in the implementation of the programs were more ready for the new format of life in 2020. At the same time, it turned out that remote learning became an important factor in increasing the level of professional competence and qualification of, first of all, teaching staff, without whom neither training nor advanced education of specialists can be carried out. The development of information and communication technologies implies active introduction of distance learning technologies at all levels. One of the most important features of the modern educational process is the expansion of the information and educational environment, which is currently being actively used by educational organizations. To date, distance learning, teachers and professors of colleges and universities in particular, one of the most promising areas of improving the professional skills of specialists in the education system. Trends in informatization and modernization of education allow distance technology to give the learning process a more flexible, convenient, practice-oriented form. The introduction of distance learning technologies in the practice of education helps improve the professional competence of teachers and the formation of teaching staff, coherent with the current socio-cultural situation and social order in the education system [7–11, 15]. Among other things, the use of distance forms entails a reduction in the cost of teacher training. The topic of distance learning is also relevant because the fruits of social progress, so far concentrated in the technological sphere, are now concentrated in the sphere of information. At present we can safely state that human society simultaneously exists in two realities, and one of them is virtual. To keep up with the learners, teachers of any profile should be able to actively use distance technologies. It is no secret that professional knowledge gets outdated rather quickly, so it is necessary to update it regularly. Distance learning makes it possible to create systems of mass continuous self-study, universal exchange of information regardless of space and time zones. Such system can most adequately and flexibly respond to the needs of society and specific consumers, to ensure the realization of the natural rights of the individual to education. Teachers using online forms of professional development will be encouraged to continuously improve themselves, which is especially important given the long-standing tendency to use outdated lecture notes.

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However, we should also note a number of problems that hamper the introduction of distance learning into the professional development system for teachers [12, 13]: • distance learning is characterized by the use of a set of specific methods, means and forms of learning. First of all, these are information and communication technologies. Consequently, the main condition for the use of distance learning in the professional development system is the teaching staff’s mastery of computer skills, the ability to use modern software and perform updated research, active use of information technologies in education; • the use of distance learning in the system of professional development of pedagogical staff has its own specifics, since the trainees are the people who carry out pedagogical activities. Thus, training should be focused not only on improving their professional competence in the field of DOT, but also on forming the readiness and ability to use this form of learning in their pedagogical activity; • when organizing professional development for teachers in a distance mode, it is important to consider the subject area and the specifics of the educational discipline. At the same time, the practice of implementing an advanced professional program for schoolteachers with the universal title “Transformation of the educational environment in the conditions of digital reality” has shown that this topic is equally attractive to teachers of general and supplementary education of various profiles computer science, geography, music, technology, and also interested in other categories of education system employees. In 2019 and 2020 in Russia, the state within the national projects “Demography”, “Education” and the federal project “New opportunities for everyone” financed universities that were winners of competitions and showed the most effective programs of advanced education. The goal of the project was to create conditions for citizens to continuously update their professional knowledge and acquire new professional skills, and to increase the accessibility and variability of training programs by creating an integrative platform of continuing education. In doing so, universities have become true centers of lifelong learning, ensuring that working citizens update their professional knowledge and acquire new professional skills, including in the digital economy and through digital technologies. The implementation of these projects is designed to: accelerate the technological development of the state; increase the number of organizations engaged in technological innovation; ensure the rapid introduction of digital technologies in the economy and social sphere; create a highly productive sector in the basic sectors of the economy; remove organizational and psychological barriers to the everyday use of information technology, both in professional activities and in private life, in the interaction between citizen and state. One of the leading technological universities in Russia, Kazan National Research Technological Universities which became the base of the study, for 6 years has developed and offered more than 80 programs of advanced professional education for employees of industrial enterprises and teachers of universities involved in the implementation of advanced professional programs. Each program is fully equipped with digital educational resources, including video recordings of lectures; assessment funds for current monitoring and final certification of students in digital format. It is this

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groundwork, formed on the basis of a successful model of public-private partnership [13], that allowed the educational organization to respond promptly to the challenges of the emergency of 2020.

3 Actual or Anticipated Outcomes The implementation of state projects of continuous education of citizens and specialists in the University of Technology from 2019 to 2021 allowed to create conditions for further development of the system of advanced education. A set of “full cycle” programs in several directions (profiles) of engineering education was introduced. The use of digital technologies and e-learning made it possible for working citizens to update their professional knowledge and acquire new professional skills. The coverage of citizens with continuing education on the basis of the university was expanded: only in 2020 more than 6000 people from different regions of the country were covered by advanced professional educational programs on the basis of the university. The structure and content of advanced professional programs were modified, including to meet the requirements of a specific customer. A comparison of the experience in the implementation of similar programs in 2016–2021 demonstrates a positive trend and shows the following results: – expansion of the geography of trainees of advanced professional programs, as the distance mode allows learning and participating in the program from anywhere in the country and the world; – increase in the total number of trainees from different regions; – involvement of a greater number of qualified university professors who conduct training without leaving the university; – the possibility of greater involvement of practitioners, who also have the option of not having to leave their workplace, in the implementation of the programs. At the same time, there are a variety of new options for mastering the professional development program: • • • •

in-person training is preceded by a distance learning part; the distance learning part completes the training; face-to-face instruction runs in parallel with the distance learning part; distance learning format of the program.

The modular nature of the programs allowed thematically structured teaching material, including the formation of groups of competencies corresponding to various professional and pedagogical functions of students, their basic education. Mastering of each module of the program ended with interim assessment of the obtained knowledge, and the final certification of the program participants in different forms (round tables, tests, etc.) for the totality of all modules. The practice of internships also became possible in the online format. With distance learning technology being introduced, a new algorithm has been developed in terms of teacher’s activities. Many things needed to be changed in educational and training technology. This algorithm includes the following stages:

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1. Preparatory work: • A teacher or manager shall develop a scheduled plan (roadmap) for activities to be performed for each group or program; • Developing theoretical materials, completely texting it and partly recording it as videos; recording illustrative materials, selecting presentations and references, etc.; • Developing theory-related assignments for a distance learning platform, such as MOODLE, Microsoft Teams, etc., and uploading a demo solution; and • Scheduling the dates of reporting on the assignments and report formats. 2. Lectures are given on a schedule and divided into two parts. First part is within one of the platforms, MOODLE or YouTube, i.e., teacher provides the audience with theoretical material and recommendations for studying sources and performing assignments. Second part is performed in ZOOM where the teacher sees their audience in person. They ask questions regarding the first part of the lecture, those regarding how to perform the assignments, and those related to organizational issues. 3. By the dates scheduled in the roadmap, the teacher shall have received the attendees’ answers, assessed test results, and sent their comments and grades. The audience accumulates their questions to ask them at the second part of the next ZOOM lecture. This is how the scheduled work continues. According to our estimates, the loads on teachers and attendees increased by approximately 1.5 times. Thus, digital alter egos of teachers and students are created in educational activities, and digital footprints become mandatory elements of educational environment. By digital footprints left by the participants of educational process, we can restore completely its content, duration, and results. Teacher’s role changes drastically: They are not mentors anymore that translate knowledge. They become an intellectual tutor in the activities shared with the audience in the educational information system. Tomorrow’s digital pedagogy will rely on the new technology that has already come into our life, such as adaptive learning, artificial intelligence, and augmented reality.

4 Overlook The problem field of inter university scientific conferences on digitalization of engineering education which are held in 2021 in Russia and other countries allows us to highlight common to the educational systems of different countries topical issues of the new model of education in the digital reality. Their generalization by the participants of the International Conference on Digitalization of Engineering Education at the M.T. Kalashnikov Izhevsk State Technical Education Center seems to be successful. M.T. Kalashnikov on April 20, 2021: • networking of universities through online education services; • the use and development of platforms for digital education;

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• the peculiarities of the international interaction of the participants in the educational process; • peculiarities of creating digital content for technical universities; • Introduction of project activities in the educational process; • Employers and universities: digital interaction; • Digital technologies and motivation tools for modern students; – digitalization of inclusive education; – students’ opinions on digital education. Above we have given the opinion of teachers and trainees of the system of advanced professional education on the advantages and disadvantages of digitalization of educational activities. For comparison, we give the opinion of participants from the higher education system: – teachers working remotely is a strong competitive advantage (attracting not only those who are available in a given city, the emotional comfort of the teacher, teacher productivity, no need for special auditoriums for webinars and lectures, etc.); – applicants from around the world, motivated students; – new opportunities for joint networking programs with strong partners without moving faculties and students. It is easier to do now because of the increased use of online forms of interaction and the growing awareness of the need for such collaboration. Hence, a different quality of learning without the cost of logistics, the formation of narrow learning profiles through the exchange of interested students; – digital simulators. When an error costs nothing, explosions at an enterprise and man-made disasters are only virtual (although there was another opinion: until the iron falls on the leg, the student will not understand anything). As a consequence, reducing the cost of skills training, reducing equipment failure, simulation of situations impossible in reality, saving time when working in real conditions, analysis of student behavior (“digital footprints”), knowledge control in the background, the involvement of equipment manufacturers or employers in the educational process. Referring to the opinion of individual student groups, we can acknowledge such pros as lack of time costs for travel, as a consequence, more free time, the ability to connect with the learning process, being anywhere, a quiet environment for learning (safety and even isolation), cost savings, increased self-control, the flexibility of personal schedule and the ability to plan the training mode, its mobility. It is noted that it has become easier to contact faculty. Some students noted a calmer environment at the exam in self-isolation mode, a convenient online lecture format where it can be viewed again later, the constant availability of an electronic educational resource, and a more interesting interactive form of presenting educational information. Among the disadvantages prevails: the lack of live communication, fatigue from sitting at the monitors, decreased vision, increased amount of independent work, often the inability to conduct practical classes or ask additional questions, the lack of a

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unified educational platform within the university (disconnected and multiple network resources used to post tasks and communications), instability of individual resources (this applies in particular to the popular ZOOM platform, which most often used for free, with the termination of the session every 45 min, and the quality of Wi-Fi), also low literacy of teachers in computer and information and communication technologies has been noted.

5 Conclusions Digitalization is becoming an integral part of the development of all spheres of society, including the education system. The essence of digital transformation is to effectively and flexibly apply the latest technologies for the transition to a personalized and resultoriented educational process. Experts highlight the rapid growth of the online segment of educational services in the sphere of advanced education, noting the particular demand for digitalization of programs focused on professional development or retraining. It was the distance learning technologies that allowed a prompt response to the situation in the world in 2020 and significantly expanded the opportunities for the implementation of advanced professional education programs for engineering and technical specialists, representing companies from all over the country and the world. The preliminary analysis shows that training with the predominant use of digital technologies has many advantages for the trainees of the continuing education system, it provides them with opportunities to update their professional knowledge and acquire new professional skills in the most accessible form, using new digital formats and digital educational resources. It is obvious that the activities of educational organizations aimed at the formation of digital competencies of teachers in 2020 have brought tangible results on the basis of the previously established foundation for distance learning. However, a systematic examination of the quality of online courses is also necessary. It should be considered that the digital transformation includes not only the modernization and re-equipment of equipment, but also the resetting of professional skills of employees and teachers, as the process of creating digital educational resources requires competencies that will create a quality and competitive educational product. As a result of the study, the authors further concluded that the efficiency of resource management in terms of the development of a professional, engineer, specialist can be achieved by a combination of the following factors: 1) creation of educational resources (digital content) available to an unlimited number of learners; 2) transfer of management functions of the learning process to the level of the person himself; the results of human development are reflected in digital data, the so-called “digital trail” of learning is formed (the fact of learning, data on the learning process, the content of artifacts, indicators of involvement, etc., fixing the facts of achievement of learning results, recommendations for development and further activities).

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Hybridization processes, i.e., combining the traditional knowledge conveyance format with the elements of online learning, did not start today. The current pandemic has just accelerated these processes on a grandiose scale, and they cannot be stopped anymore. Online courses, video lectures, and teaching in electronic environments are practically mandatory elements of the educational process. It is not unlikely that the vast majority of universities will start the upcoming academic year in the hybrid mode. The cause is not just a new coronavirus outbreak: Managers and educators have realized that online learning can, on the one hand, enhance the efficiency of individual elements of educational processes and, on the other hand, reduce the training costs, including transportation expenses, provided that its technical fit-out will be funded properly and the issues related to entering the digital society will be solved. Conscious position of a person in relation to their development (readiness to take responsibility for their development and skills of its management, evaluation of the real result of the learning process) will ensure the effectiveness of their professional activity. The future lies in the creation of taxonomies to describe human activities and digital profiles of human development.

References 1. Kondratyev, V.V., Galikhanov, M.F., Osipov, P.N., Shageeva, F.T., Kaybiyaynen, A.A.: Engineering education: transformations for industry 4.0 (conference review). High. Educ. Russia (12), 105–122 (2019) 2. Barabanova, S.V., Kaybiyaynen, A.A., Kraysman, N.V.: Digitalization of education in the global context. High. Educ. Russia 28(1), 94–103 (2019) 3. Ivanov, V., Barabanova, S., Galikhanov, M., Kaybiyaynen, A.A., Suntsova, M.: International network conference: new technologies of interaction for the development of engineering education. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 916, 472–482 (2020) 4. Galikhanov, M.F., Barabanova, S.V., Kaibiyainen, A.A.: Core trends in engineering education: five years of the “Synergy” international conference. High. Educ. Russia 30(1), 101–114 (2021) 5. Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.): Educating Engineers for Future Industrial Revolutions. ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1328. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03068198-2 6. Auer, M.E., Hortsch, H., Sethakul, P. (eds.): The Impact of the 4th Industrial Revolution on Engineering Education. Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL 2019) – Volumes 1, 2. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-030-40271-6 7. Morsi, W., Medhat, H.: Online vs. Face-to-face Collaborative Learning: Perceptions of Students and Instructors of Technical Writing for Engineer, Vienna, Austria (2021) 8. Saba, F.: A systems approach to the future of distance education. Contin. High. Educ. Rev. 76, 30–37 (2012) 9. Moore, M., Kearsley, G.: Distance education: a systems view of online learning, 361 p. Wadsworth, Belmont (2012) 10. Olkhovaya, T.A., Poyarkova, E.V.: New practices of engineering education in conditions of distance learning. High. Educ. Russia 29(8–9), 142–154 (2020)

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11. Adăscăliței, A.A., Zein El-Din, A.S.E.D., Arădoaei, S.T., Temneanu, M.C., Istrate, M.D.: The blended teaching and learning methods and the implementation of online laboratories in electrical and computer engineering education programs. In: The Challenges of the Digital Transformation in Education Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL2018) - Volume 1. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 916, p. 136 (2019) 12. Galikhanov, M.F., Kondratyev, V.V., Elizarov, D.V., Miftakhutdinova, L.T.: The system of advanced professional education of the university as a platform for implementation of the Federal project «New opportunities for everyone». High. Educ. Russia 12(29), 119–133 (2020) 13. Khatsrinova, O., Veronika, B., Barabanova, S.V., Shagieva, R.V., Khatsrinova, J.: Teacher Readiness for Distance Learning. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, Conference Paper, vol. 1329, pp. 453–469 (2021) 14. Galikhanov, M.F., Barabanova, S.V., Elizarov, D.V., Suntsova, M.S.: Public-private partnership within the context of digital transformation: increasingly larger role of educational institutions. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 339–349. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_34 15. Jesionkowska, J.: Designing online environment for collaborative learning in a scientific community of practice. In: Auer, M.E., Tsiatsos, T. (eds.) ICL 2018. AISC, vol. 916, pp. 176–185. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11932-4_18

Engaging Students with Gamified Learning Apps: The Role of Teacher Intervention Sherine Akkara1, Shalini Vohra2, Sasi Sekhar Mallampalli2, Mallikarjuna Sastry Mallampalli1(&), and PSVSD Nagendrarao Gokarakonda3 1

2

Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai, India [email protected] University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, Dehradun, India [email protected] 3 BVC Institute of Technology and Science, Amalapuram, Andhra Pradesh, India

Abstract. Engaging the secondary level students during the pandemic with productive tasks like learning language through interactive gamified mobile learning apps like Lingua At-tack and Quiz Your English for language acquisition poses certain challenges to teachers. Though the apps have inherent gamified learning features, they still required active intervention of teachers for the effective use of the apps by students. The paper discusses the issues and challenges faced by the teachers in making the students using the apps. The study adopted a mixed-method approach and collected data generated from the Learning Management System (LMS) of the app and the survey questionnaire and semi-structured interviews with the students (n = 44). The number of video lessons completed, the number of hours spent on the platform, and the points gained. The challenges faced by the teachers and the initiatives taken by them and the best practices introduced during three months were documented. The results have indicated that except for a few self-motivated students, the remaining students required teacher’s intervention to sustain the motivation levels and improve their performance. Creating competitive spirit among the participants, and additional challenges, providing platforms for sharing the participants’ experiences and individual feedback showed significant improvement in the engagement levels of the students. The results have implications for the teachers and practitioners in using mobile apps for informal learning outside the classroom. Keywords: Mobile gamified learning
Learner motivation in gamified learning
Enhancing student engagement
Teaching best practices

1 Introduction Engaging students with language learning activities outside the classroom has been challenging for teachers at the secondary level. It became more challenging during the pandemic as the educational institutions across the country, i.e., India, have been closed for more than twelve months. Assigning engaging language learning tasks has thrown a © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 728–734, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_72

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big challenge for the English language teachers in many parts of the country with the absence of robust infrastructure for effective online learning. Teachers had to make use of certain mobile applications for engaging the students with language learning activities. It demands lots of creativity and additional work on the part of the teachers to design engaging learning activities. The search for engaging, immersive and gamified language learning resulted in finding a few mobile applications like Quiz Your English (QYE) and Lingua Attack (LA). Though the applications are meant for self-learning, many students required teacher support for better engagement and learning from the gamified learning mobile applications. Engaging the secondary level students with language learning activities through interactive gamified mobile learning apps like LA and QYE for language acquisition poses certain challenges to teachers. Though the mobile applications have been developed with inbuilt gaming features, they still required active intervention of teachers. Involving the students in the gamified learning posed new challenges to teachers to explore different ways and means to engage the students actively with the language learning activities. The paper discusses the issues and challenges experienced by teachers and presents the best practices in engaging students with gamified learning mobile applications. The present study aimed at finding solutions for the following research questions. The research questions taken up for the study are: 1) Are the gamified learning apps (Quiz Your English and Lingua Attack) able to engage learners with their inherent gamified learning features? 2) Do the gamified learning apps need teacher intervention in engaging the students?

2 Review of Literature Games as potential resources for language acquisition has been a much-discussed topic in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and Foreign Language Learning since the 1980s, as evidenced in the publications of eminent researchers (Hubbard 1991; Meskill 1990; Phillips 1987). Interacting with digital media and games has become acceptable as an informal language‐mediated activity for millions of players around the world (Chik 2014). Implementing a language learning program, whether it is a part of an academic program or informal language learning activity, requires careful planning for active engagement of students. The full potential of digital games as learning resources can be realized with proper planning for implementation. From the review of research, it is evident that games played an important role in promoting curiosity and offering challenges and learning complex rules and usage of language with little effort with the support of the context they provided (Baltra 1990). According to Prensky (2001), the digital natives of the present-day learn better through games, experiential learning and discovery learning. It is noted that players play games in order to have fun but not necessarily to learn anything. This is a vital principle of gaming that should be given top priority while designing gamified learning applications (Arnseth 2006).

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In addition, the player’s disposition towards the game plays a major role in the successful engagement of the players (Hubbard 1991). If only they see it as a game, they will be more engaged in using the application, and the game retains its ability to engage the learners. Gaming design and language teaching methods have several fundamental principles like goal orientation, interaction, contextual use of language, and feedback (Skyes and Reinhardt 2012). In recent times, a growing number of educational institutions are experimenting with game integration via mobile apps for teaching and learning (Zichermann and Cunningham 2011; Kranz et al. 2013; Khaddage and Knezek 2011; Khaddage and Knezek 2012; Lattemann and Khaddage 2013). Furthermore, there has been increased attention around gamification as a method or a tool for providing interactive and exciting content to learners. The two mobile applications selected for the study, namely, Quiz Your English and Lingua Attack, were developed keeping the principles of gamified learning.

3 Method of Study The study adopted both qualitative and quantitative methods and collected data generated from the Learning Management System (LMS) of the app and the survey questionnaire and semi-structured interviews with the students (n = 44) and teachers (n = 5) who looked after the entire programme. The data was collected on the number of video lessons completed, the number of hours spent on the platform, and the points gained. The challenges faced by the teachers in motivating students and the initiatives taken, and the best practices introduced by teachers to improve the engagement levels of the participants during the course of 3 months were documented. 3.1

Method

The participants were secondary level students from two different schools located in Chennai and Dehradun. They were randomly divided into experimental and control groups with 22 participants each. All the 44 participants underwent online training for two hours in getting familiar with using both LA and QYE mobile applications. The experimental group students received teacher invention, and the control group participants were left to use the two apps independently. In each group, eleven students used QYE and the other eleven used LA for the study. The study was conducted for three months, and the interaction between the teachers and the participants was totally online through WhatsApp, email and telephone. 3.2

Mobile Apps Used for the Study

Quiz Your English is a popular mobile application developed by Cambridge University Examinations. QYE is a fun way to practise, enhance, and test one’s English by competing against learners from all around the world. The app covers a broad range of topics and grammar and provides numerous quizzes for building vital language skills like reading, grammar and vocabulary. The app also offers quizzes for learners of

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different levels from A2 to C1 Common European Frame of Reference (CEFR) levels. Further, the in-app purchases unlock new content for players, helping them reach the next level in their English language journey. QYE is one of the most engaging ways to build one’s English language skills while playing with fellow learners randomly selected worldwide. On the other hand, Lingua Attack (LA) also offers a fun learning language with a special focus on enhancing listening skills, vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. It has four main learning components like Video boosters, Photo Vocab, Skill boosters and Starter Labs. Each video booster is accompanied with several interactive learning tasks in the gamified learning model. The video boosters are created keeping different levels of language learners from A2 to C1 CEFR levels. Both the mobile applications aim at engaging learners with fun and gamified learning features. Moreover, the quizzes on Quiz Your English and the Video boosters, photo vocabs, skills boosters and starter labs are based on CEFR levels. The participants have a choice to choose their level and play the games of their choice. 3.3

Procedure

Both the groups were asked to use the mobile learning apps for a period of three months requiring each participant to spend at least one hour per day on the app they chose to use. The participants from the experimental group received inputs from teachers at regular intervals in the form of feedback on their performance. When some participants were found passive, teachers interacted with them either on WhatsApp or telephone and sought to understand their problems and motivated them to perform. In order to motivate the participants, teachers also created competitive spirit like announcing prizes and posting the top performers of the week in their respective WhatsApp groups to improve their engagement levels. On the other hand, the participants in the control group were asked to spend one hour per day on the app they chose, and they were left to play on their own as the gaming apps have inherent elements to motivate and engage the participants.

4 Results The study aimed to find whether the gamified learning mobile applications for language learning can engage the students with their inbuilt gaming features or whether it was essential for teacher intervention to motivate the students for better engagement levels. It is evident from the results as shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 that the participants who received teachers’ intervention showed greater engagement levels in the case of both the applications. Interaction with the participants from the experimental group at regular intervals had a positive impact in improving the engagement levels of the students. It was observed that the participants from the experimental group which received teacher intervention showed greater engagement levels than their counterparts in the control group. The details of the average number of games played on QYE and videos watched on LA were shown in Table 1.

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Fig. 1. Engagement of participants on Quiz Your English Table 1. Student engagement with QYE and LA of both the groups Participant Student

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Total Mean Variance Standard deviation

Control group (n = 11) Lingua Attack Videos watched 25 11 17 27 39 42 33 22 16 24 31 287 26.09 84.26 9.17

Control group (n = 11) Quiz Your English Games played 1233 1782 2632 1044 3842 2753 1134 1982 809 2032 1067 20310 1846.36 789979.5 888.81

Experimental group (n = 11) Lingua Attack Videos watched 45 43 51 67 36 48 52 39 44 53 48 526 47.82 62.33 7.89

Experimental group (n = 11) Quiz Your English Games played 2654 3252 6656 7542 1823 2236 4537 3743 5446 3441 2879 44209 4019 3075712 1753.77

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It is evident from Table 1 that among the users of Quiz Your English application, the participants from the experimental group showed greater engagement levels than the participants in the control group. Similarly, among the users of the Lingua Attack application, the participants from the experimental group showed greater engagement levels than the participants in the control group.

Fig. 2. Engagement of participants with Lingua Attack

Teachers followed several strategies like announcing the top performers every week on WhatsApp groups and encouraging the slow learners by making calls to them at regular intervals. From this particular case study with the two popular fun learning apps (Quiz your English and Lingua Attack), it is evident that the students who lacked selfmotivation needed extra support from teachers to engage themselves actively with the gamified learning apps. It also showed that teacher intervention positively impacted learner motivation while engaging the students with gamified learning apps in informal learning contexts. The results have indicated that except for a few self-motivated students, the remaining students required teacher’s intervention to sustain the motivation levels while using the gamified learning mobile apps. Creating additional challenges, platforms for sharing the participants’ experiences, and providing individual feedback showed significant improvement in the engagement and performance levels of the students.

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5 Conclusion Self-learning and gamified learning platforms will produce optimum results if they are implemented with regular monitoring of the participants by the teachers. The study revealed that teacher intervention positively impacted learner motivation while engaging the students with gamified learning apps in informal learning contexts. Though many learning apps with gamified learning features claim success, it is only the self-motivated learners who get the maximum benefit out of these mobile applications. When it comes to students who lacked self-motivation and a passion for learning, teachers need to actively support learners in informal learning outside the classroom.

References Hubbard, P.: Evaluating computer games for language learning. Simul. Gaming 22(2), 220–223 (1991) Meskill, C.: Where in the world of english is Carmen Sandiego? Simul. Gaming 21(4), 457–460 (1990) Phillips, M.: Potential paradigms and possible problems for CALL. System 15, 275–287 (1987) Chik, A.: Digital gaming and language learning: autonomy and community. Lang. Learn. Technol. 18(2), 85–100 (2014) Baltra, A.: Language learning through computer adventure games. Simul. Gaming 21(4), 445– 452 (1990) Prensky, M.: Digital Game-Based Learning. Paragon House, St. Paul (2001) Arnseth, H.C.: Learning to play or playing to learn: a critical account of the models of communication informing educational research on computer gameplay. Game Stud. 6(1), 1– 11 (2006) Skyes, J.M., Reinhardt, J.: Language at Play: Digital Games in Second and Foreign Language Teaching and Learning. Pearson, New York (2012) Zichermann, G., Cunningham, C.: Gamification by Design. O’Reilly Media, Sebatsapol (2011) Kranz, M., Murmann, L., Michahelles, F.: Research in the large: challenges for large-scale mobile application research- a case study about NFC adoption using gamification via an app store. Int. J. Mob. Hum. Comput. Interact. (IJMHCI) 5(1), 45–61 (2013) Khaddage, F., Knezek, G.: Device independent mobile applications for teaching and learning: challenges, barriers and limitations. In: Proceedings of Global Learn Asia Pacific 2011, AACE, Global Conference on Learning Technology, Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education, AACE, Melbourne Australia, March–April 2011, pp. 1–7 (2011) Khaddage, F., Knezek, G.: Convert your thinking! Creativity and imagination using mobile applications. In Dowling, S., Gunn, C., Raven, J., Gitsaki, C. (eds.) Proceedings of the eLearning in Action 2012 Conference, HCT, Abu Dhabi, UAE, pp. 1–11 (2012)

Social Media in Education: A Case Study Regarding Higher Education Students’ Viewpoints Georgios Lampropoulos1,2 , Pekka Makkonen3(&) and Kerstin Siakas1,4 1

,

Department of Information and Electronic Engineering, International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, Greece [email protected], [email protected] 2 School of Humanities, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece 3 Operations Management, Centria University, Kokkola, Finland [email protected] 4 Department of Production – Industrial Management, University of Vaasa, Vaasa, Finland

Abstract. The digital prevalence on everyday life caused by the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has drastically impacted the whole world. The educational domain was no exception and has been affected by this rapid shift to online and virtual learning environments. Social media are widely used as a means to share ideas and opinions, acquire knowledge, get informed about news, communicate and collaborate. Moreover, social media are in line with several learning theories. Therefore, their integration in educational settings has the potential to yield several benefits. The aim of the study is to examine this digital shift by analyzing and comprehending higher education students’ experiences and viewpoints regarding the use of social media in education. In total 130 students participated in this study. Based on the results, the majority of students viewed the integration of social media in education positively and regarded it as a means that promotes and enhances communication, group work, collaboration as well as knowledge and ideas sharing with both fellow students and educators. Moreover, students considered social media to be an invaluable teaching tool that when used in a student-centered manner can increase their productivity, engagement, motivation and academic performance as well as improve the teaching and learning process. Finally, social media was assessed as essential for today’s life and as a promising tool that will be more widely used in educational settings in the near future. Keywords: Social media
Education
Technology enhanced learning
Social networking services
Educational technology
Online learning

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 735–745, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_73

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1 Introduction The abrupt outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has had a significant impact on the whole world. With schools and universities having been suspended in 189 counties by April 2020 and the need for rapidly switching the educational process from traditional face-to-face to online learning, the educational sector was one of the most affected sectors [6]. During this period, social media and e-learning services have greatly assisted in fulfilling this transition and enhancing the learning experience. Our earlier studies [10] highlighted the significant role that the digital native students play in this digital shift and shaping the virtual learning environments. Consequently, it is essential to explore students’ perspectives and opinions. In this view, this study aims at examining this digital shift by analyzing and comprehending higher education students’ experiences and viewpoints regarding the use of social media in education. In Sects. 2 and 3, the background of this study which includes social media use in education and related work is described respectively. Furthermore, the research, the methodology followed and the analysis of the results are presented in Sect. 4. Finally, in Sect. 5 the main outcomes and conclusions of this study are discussed and directions for future research are given.

2 Social Media in Education Social media is rapidly changing the landscape of collaboration and is developing into the most important bottom-up interaction and multi-way communication tool among individuals for discussion, knowledge sharing, comments and ratings, content and information creation and exchange [13]. Moreover, as it enables users to publicly share their ideas, viewpoints, experiences and knowledge, social media has turn into a tool through which people communicate, discuss, interact and evolve in personal, professional and educational communities and environments [13]. Its emergence has impacted significantly the way students learn and teachers teach. Social media can be regarded as a network that represents the relationships among people [5]. Many studies regarding the use of social media in education suggest that the widespread of social media applications as an addition to formal educational settings offers new opportunities for innovating and modernizing educational institutions and for preparing learners for the 21st century [16]. A primary reason for adopting social media in the classroom is that it is affordable at low or no cost at all, readily available and easy to use. Students today, the so-called “digital natives” born after 1980, are the first generation that has grown up with and actively use social media in their free time. Moreover, their network effects are important in educational and pedagogical settings. If the social and cultural identity of digital natives is constructed through this media, then it is important that teachers carefully leverage the possibilities of these technologies for collaborative knowledge building in parallel with the benefits of traditional classroom instruction. The pedagogical potentials of using social media in education and learning have been investigated by various scholars [4, 7, 8, 14, 17, 18]. They emphasized the potential of the technology to support collaborative knowledge

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construction, to access specialized just-in-time information, to contribute to the hybridization of expertise, to relational development and peer/alumni support especially in times of transition, academic help-seeking, to social and civic benefits and to blur the boundaries among learning, social and leisure spaces, which can also pose challenges to learning [8, 14]. It must be stated that when using social media in education and learning, a skilled moderator for effective learning to occur during the collaborative knowledge creation process is needed [12].

3 Related Work Churcher et al. [3] considered that collaborative social media requires re-thinking of the theoretical framework through which we engage student in communities of practice. By presenting two case studies, a Facebook Community of Practice (CoP) and a wikibased exam platform, they proposed rethinking of Vygotsky’s [19] conceptualization of social constructivism within learning communities. Vygotsky considered that knowledge is constructed through dialogue and interaction with others and language is used as a tool to construct meaning [19]. Learning is an internal mechanism within the individual (intra-psychologically). However, learning may occur through collaboration at an individual level. Knowledge is co-created in the environment. The benefit of using social media is that it enables students to connect, create and spend time in virtual communities [11, 20]. Student worries regarding using social media in education and learning mostly concerned the evaluation process, as they were less certain of how to navigate a successful grade in producing work in an evaluated social media environment. Similarly, the teachers felt uncertainty in terms of instructing students and providing clear and reassuring guidelines for online activities. It was found that the more specific the instructions were, the more productive and richer the students’ responses were. Facebook instruction and assignments were found to be most helpful when a specific task or question was posed. Halverson [8] discussed the dilemma of privacy in using social media in formal education and propose private spaces, such as Facebook groups, to overcome eventual concerns of teachers and learners. In order to successfully introduce social media into formal education, its use must be tied to achievement of learning goals. The use of profile building, photo sharing and private messaging may be difficult to link to learning goals, but building on features, such as customizing profiles to see who has expertise in what, may bring additional advantages to learning. Learners have the control of their virtual identity and the way they display themselves. Manca and Ranieri [14] carried out a critical overview of current studies focusing on the use of Facebook as a technology-enhanced learning environment, with the aim of exploring the extent to which its pedagogical potential is actually put into practice. The authors conducted a comprehensive literature search that identified 23 relevant articles that were subsequently analyzed according to a simplified list of guidelines. Despite its continuing popularity as the social network site par excellence, the educational value of Facebook has not been fully determined and results of the mainstream educational paradigms are contradictory, with some scholars emphasizing its pedagogical affordances and others cautioning against its use for educational purposes. The

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results show that pedagogical affordances of Facebook have only been partially implemented and that there are still many obstacles such as implicit institutional teacher and student pedagogies, and cultural issues that may prevent a full adoption of Facebook as a learning environment. Yeo [21] examined the use of social media and the social networking applications for learning and pedagogical purposes by carrying out a study which involved qualitative informal interviews with tertiary students and lecturers in Singapore. The results indicated that students preferred using YouTube videos and Facebook to make friends, to network with friends and to be able to learn at their own pace and place. They liked to learn informally beyond the boundaries of the textbook and the classroom. However, the problems leveraging for learning included the distractions that would “take away the learning time” from the myriad of games and the various social stimuli available on YouTube and Facebook. The data also revealed that both students and lecturers were positive about using Facebook as a “social” platform to build good relationships with one another even outside the school environment. Nonetheless, both strongly insisted on the necessity of face-to-face lessons for communication and for facilitation of academic and formal learning. Hence, they proposed a blended approach of using traditional teaching and learning methods in combination with social media. Greenhow and Askari [7] examined how social network sites are perceived and used by teachers and learners in publicly supported school grades prior to college. They particularly investigated impacts of social networks on pedagogy and on students’ learning. Their findings revealed that due to the rapid pace of socio-technical advancements in general, in contrast to the slow pace of technology adoption and change in schools, the practices of learners and teachers with social network sites take mostly place as an additional practice in their leisure time. They also observed that teachers and learners who were active social network site users in their personal lives were among the strongest supporters of using social media in education and reported plans to use it in future teaching practices. However, the workload of teachers and the structured and standardized curriculum were found to be inhibitors to social media adoption Furthermore, infrastructure limitations, such as learners and teachers lacking computers or internet access at home, were impediments to the use of social media in education and learning. All in all, learners believed in the potential of using social network sites as support for learning, their actual academic help-seeking, collaborative learning, and other self-directed educational activities outside school environment. Finally, due to the popularity of social media among people and its potentials in education and learning, they postulate that teacher education initiatives should include opportunities to critically evaluate recent research literature on pedagogy trends regarding social media use in education and conditions for potentially beneficial or harmful social media integration. Krutka et al. [9] carried out a survey including the reflections and class activities from education courses involving 71 students of three universities to better understand the successes and shortcomings when using Twitter. They found that social media successes in educational settings included positive effects on relationships (75% of the students), benefits of academic affordances of social media (72% believed that the use of social media contributed to understanding course content), increased participation and communication (47% stated that communication with their classmates was what

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they most enjoyed about using social media), and intriguing visions for future social media use for professional and personal uses. As the main advantage of using social media in education and learning, 23% of the students mentioned the ease of using social media and 17% the ability to respond quickly. 15% of the students appreciated that social media expanded temporal and spatial bounds enabling them thus to communicate with others in ways that might not have otherwise been possible. Shortcomings included defects in course organization and facilitation and mismatches between expectations or preferred uses of instructors and students. Chawinga [1] investigated how social media facilitates teaching and learning by incorporating Twitter and blogs into two undergraduate courses offered in a public university in Malawi. Data was collected by i) analyzing blog and Twitter posts by students and in addition, ii) by carrying out a survey which involved 64 students and aimed at finding out their perception towards the use of blogs and Twitter in a classroom environment. The results showed that if appropriately deployed, Twitter and blogs are catalysts for a learner-centered approach because it was emerged that students widely shared and discussed course material, posted their course reflections.

4 Our Study The study was carried out in the pre-covid period and involved higher education students from the Department of Information and Electronic Engineering of International Hellenic University in Greece. Particularly, 130 students participated (female: 17 (13.1%), male: 113 (86.9%), mean age: 18.31) in a paper-based questionnaire regarding their viewpoints about the use of social media in education. The distribution of the students’ age is displayed in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Respondents’ age distribution.

It is worth noting that, 114 (87.7%) students have been using social media for more than five (5) years and 16 (12.3%) of them for about three (3) years. Additionally, the majority of students spent more than an hour (49.9%) or even more than three hours (34.6%) on social media daily (Fig. 2-see next page).

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Fig. 2. Average time spent by students on social media daily.

When asked about which social media they used, the majority of students answered that they use YouTube (130), Facebook (126) and Instagram (112) while Flicker, LinkedIn and Tumblr were not used as frequently. Figure 3 displays the distribution of the students’ responses. The most popular social media platforms for educational purposes as it can also be seen in Fig. 4 (see next page) were YouTube (95 – 73.1%), Google + (20 – 15.4%), Facebook (7 – 5.4%).

Fig. 3. Students’ social media use

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Fig. 4. Mostly used social media for educational purposes by students.

From the students, 53 (40.8%) stated that they use social media strictly for personal purposes, 2 (1.5%) of them for educational purposes while 75 (57.7%) of them declared that they use social media equally for both purposes. In addition, 94 (72.3%) students use their mobile devices to access their social media accounts, 28 (21.5%) use their desktop while only 8 (6.2%) use their laptops. When asked about their preferred classroom organization, 88 (67.7%) students selected traditional, face-to-face learning, 8 (6.2%) distance learning while 34 (26.2%) had no preference. Finally, the majority of the students stated that they used social media for educational purposes frequently (44.6%, Fig. 5) and often used it as a means to communicate with their fellow students (54.6%, Fig. 6-see next page).

Fig. 5. Frequency of social media use for educational purposes.

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Fig. 6. Frequency of communication with fellow students using social media.

The students were also asked about the implementation and the effect of social media in education. Their responses are depicted in Fig. 7 and in Table 1 (see next page).

Fig. 7. Students’ viewpoints regarding the use of social media in education.

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Table 1. How the use of social media in education is viewed by students (scale 0–3). Do you believe …

Mean Std. Dev.

… that the usage of social media can benefit your academic performance by any means? … that social media can improve communication among students? … that social media can improve collaboration among students? … that social media can increase knowledge sharing among students? … that students will be using social media for educational purposes more often in the near future? … social media can be used as a means to improve learning in education? … social media as a good way for teachers to communicate with students? … social media as a good way for students to communicate with teachers? … social media (e.g. podcasts, wikis, blogs etc.) to be invaluable teaching tools? … social media (e.g. Facebook, LinkedIn etc.) to be invaluable for communicating with both educators and fellow students? … that social media provide a useful platform for academic group work? … that using social media in order to communicate with lectures/professors for academic purposes has a positive impact on your studies?

2.02 2.22 2.18 2.25 2.04

.641 .547 .628 .614 .820

2.04 1.96 1.95 1.92 1.83

.687 .811 .819 .803 .759

2.15 1.97

.676 .670

Fig. 8. Social media necessity in today’s life according to students.

Based on their responses, the majority of students viewed the introduction and application of social media in education positively. Particularly, students regarded social media as a means that promotes and enhances group work, communication, collaboration as well as work and knowledge sharing with both fellow students and educators. In addition, they described social media as invaluable teaching tool that can improve learning and teaching activities and increase students’ engagement, motivation, productivity and academic performance. Finally, they consider social media as essential for today’s life (Fig. 8-see next page) and believe that social media will be more widely used in educational settings in the near future.

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5 Conclusion Utilizing social media within educational settings is becoming more and more popular. This study examined the viewpoints of higher education students regarding the integration of social media into education. Based on the results, it can be concluded that students considered social media as an invaluable educational tool that can assist learning and teaching activities when implemented in a student-centered manner. Additionally, they regarded social media as means that can enhance knowledge sharing, communication and collaboration as well as their academic performance, motivation and engagement. Moreover, it can also be inferred that firstly, students considered video-stream services significant for learning and secondly, they favored social media services and Google tools which can lead to the conclusion that students think highly of tools that promote and increase knowledge acquisition, information sharing and communication. Taking into consideration the learning paradigm perspective, the above results and conclusions can be viewed as fruitful. Particularly, utilizing video-streaming services and content can enhance the constructivist theory which consists of cognitive and social constructivism [2] and is based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development [15]. Furthermore, social media can also support social constructivist learning [19] because within this context, students can act and behave in multiple ways and learn both collaboratively and individually at their own pace while communicating and interacting with others. This type of learning requires cultural and social contexts. Social media and other virtual learning environments that boost communication and sharing can foster the creation of such learning environments. Given that the students involved came from the same country and were familiar with using digital technologies can be regarded as limitation factors to this study. Consequently, future work will focus on carrying out cross-cultural studies in order to compare and comprehend the viewpoints of students from different ethnicity, countries and backgrounds.

References 1. Chawinga, W.D.: Taking social media to a university classroom: teaching and learning using Twitter and blogs. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 14(1), 1–19 (2016). https://doi.org/10. 1186/s41239-017-0041-6 2. Confrey, J.: How compatible are radical constructivism, sociocultural approaches and social constructivism? In: Steffe, L., Gale, J. (eds.) Constructivism in Education, pp. 185–225. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey (1995) 3. Churcher, K.M.A., Downsb, E., Tewksburya, D.: “Friending” vygotsky: a social constructivist pedagogy of knowledge building through classroom social media use. J. Eff. Teach. 14 (1), 33–50 (2014) 4. Dede, C.: A seismic shift in epistemology. EDUCAUSE Rev. 43, 80–81 (2008) 5. Devi, K.S., Gouthami, E., Vijaya Lakshmi, B.V.: Role of social media in teaching-learning process. J. Emerg. Technol. Innov. Res. 6(1), 96–103 (2019)

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6. Ewing, L.-A., Vu, H.Q.: Navigating ‘home schooling’ during COVID-19: Australian public response on Twitter. Media Int. Aust. 178, 1–10 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1329878X20956409 7. Greenhow, C., Askari, E.: Learning and teaching with social network sites: a decade of research in K-12 related education. Educ. Inf. Technol. 22(2), 623–645 (2015). https://doi. org/10.1007/s10639-015-9446-9 8. Halverson, E.R.: Do social networking technologies have a place in formal learning environments? On Horiz. 19(1), 62–67 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1108/10748121111107717 9. Krutka, D.G., Nowell, S., Whitlock, A.M.M.: Towards a social media pedagogy: successes and shortcomings in educative uses of twitter with teacher candidates. J. Technol. Teach. Educ. 25(2), 215–240 (2017) 10. Lampropoulos, G., Siakas, K., Makkonen, P., Siakas, E.: A 10-year longitudinal study of social media use in education. Int. J. Technol. Educ. (IJTE) 4(3), 373–398 (2021). https:// doi.org/10.46328/ijte.123 11. Lave, J., Wenger, E.: Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1991). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511815355 12. Lazonder, A.W., Wilhelm, P., Ootes, S.A.W.: Using sentence openers to foster student interaction in computer-mediated learning environments. Comput. Educ. 41, 291–308 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1315(03)00050-2 13. Makkonen, P., Lampropoulos, G., Siakas, K.: Three quality attributes-availability, performance and security-of social media services used in higher education: a crosscultural analysis with IS/ICT students. In: E-Learn: World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education, pp. 520–527. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE) (2019) 14. Manca, S., Ranieri, M.: Is it a tool suitable for learning? A critical review of the literature on Facebook as a technology-enhanced learning environment. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 29(6), 487–504 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12007 15. Piaget, J.: The Development of Thought: Equilibration of Cognitive Structures. Viking, New York (1977) 16. Redecker, C., Ala-Mutka, K., Punie, Y.: Learning 2.0 - the impact of social media on learning in Europe. Policy Brief, Report number: JRC56958Affiliation: European Commission (2010). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.29790.05446 17. Siemens, G., Weller, M.: Higher education and the promises and perils of social network. Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento (RUSC) 8(1), 164–170 (2011) 18. Siemens, G.: Connectivism: a learning theory for the digital age. Int. J. Instr. Technol. Distance Learn. 2(10), 3–10 (2005) 19. Vygotsky, L.S.: Mind in Society. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1978) 20. Wenger, E., White, N., Smith, J.: Digital Habitats: Stewarding Technology for Communities. CP Square Press (2009) 21. Yeo, M.M.L.: Social media and social networking applications for teaching and learning. Eur. J. Sci. Math. Educ. 2(1), 53–62 (2014). https://doi.org/10.30935/scimath/9400

Work-in-Progress: Piloting Smart Blockchain Badges for Lifelong Learning Alexander Mikroyannidis(&) Knowledge Media Institute, The Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK [email protected]

Abstract. This paper presents work-in-progress regarding the definition and deployment of a pilot case study, which aims at supporting lifelong learning through the use of Blockchain technology. This pilot case study uses Blockchain technology in order to provide lifelong learners with transparent and immutable educational accreditation in the form of Smart Blockchain Badges. Additionally, within this pilot case study lifelong learners are provided with personalised recommendations that help them reach their personal and professional learning goals. This paper presents the latest findings from piloting Smart Blockchain Badges with stakeholders from the education community in the context of this pilot case study. Keywords: Lifelong learning
Blockchain
Decentralisation Blockchain Badge
Personalised recommendation


Smart

1 Introduction The first Blockchain was conceived by Nakamoto [1] as the basis for Bitcoin, the most well-known Blockchain-based cryptocurrency. A Blockchain is a publicly shared immutable ledger, which uses crypto-currency techniques to minimise any security risk. Blockchain technology can act as a provenance protocol for sharing data across disparate semi-trusting organisations, without the need for any central control. The value of Blockchain technology at documenting, verifying, and sharing data across diverse stakeholders can be a particularly valuable asset in today’s fast-pacing economy, which is largely driven by continuous learning and credentialing. The emergence of Blockchain technology promises to revolutionise not only the financial world, but also education and lifelong learning in various ways. Blockchain technology offers a decentralised peer-to-peer infrastructure, where privacy, secure archiving, consensual ownership, transparency, accountability, identity management and trust are built-in, both at the software and infrastructure levels. This technology offers opportunities to thoroughly rethink how lifelong learners find educational content and tutoring services online, how they register and pay for them, as well as how they get accredited for what they have learned and how this accreditation affects their career trajectory. Blockchain technology has the potential to decentralise and transform education, which is still largely centralised and controlled by educational institutions. This poses © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 746–753, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_74

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significant difficulties in recognising lifelong learning achievements in informal and non-formal types of education. As a result, a lifelong learner’s transition from formal to informal education and vice versa can be hindered, as the achievements acquired in one type of education are not easily transferable to another [2–5]. This indicates the need for a decentralised model across all types of education, offering learners with a framework for fully controlling how they are learning, how they acquire qualifications and how they share their qualifications and other learning data with third parties, such as educational institutions or employers [6]. This paper investigates how Blockchain technology can be used for offering support to lifelong learners throughout their learning journey and their career trajectory. In particular, the remainder of this paper is organised as follows. First, we introduce the pilot case study for supporting lifelong learning, which is conducted in the context of the QualiChain project. We then proceed to discuss the results obtained so far from deploying this pilot case study within the education community. Finally, we conclude this paper and outline the next steps of this work.

2 The QualiChain Pilot Case Study The QualiChain1 research and innovation project targets the creation, piloting and evaluation of a decentralised platform for storing, sharing and verifying education and employment qualifications. QualiChain focuses on the assessment of the potential of Blockchain technology, algorithmic techniques and computational intelligence for disrupting the domain of public education, as well as its interfaces with private education, the labour market, public sector administrative procedures and the wider socioeconomic developments [7, 8]. As shown in Fig. 1, QualiChain is targeting four key areas for exploring the impact of decentralisation in: (i) lifelong learning; (ii) smart curriculum design; (iii) staffing the public sector; (iv) providing HR consultancy and competency management services. Within QualiChain, we are conducting a pilot case study in order to facilitate the learning journeys and career trajectories of lifelong learners. In the context of this pilot case study, we are investigating how the use of the Blockchain-based QualiChain platform can support lifelong learners in navigating their learning journey and in advancing their career. In particular, the objectives of this pilot case study are the following: • Awarding lifelong learners with transparent and immutable educational accreditation. • Offering lifelong learners personalised recommendations based on their learning achievements. • Supporting lifelong learners in reaching their personal and professional learning goals.

1

https://qualichain-project.eu.

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Fig. 1. The key areas targeted by the QualiChain project.

According to the use case of the lifelong learning pilot case study, lifelong learners have their personal ePortfolios within the QualiChain platform. Lifelong learners are awarded Smart Badges by educational institutions, upon reaching certain milestones in their studies, e.g., completing part of a course or an entire course. Smart Badges are stored on the Blockchain, thus ensuring the validity of the awarded accreditation and eliminating the risk of fabricated qualifications. Smart Badges include data about the key skills that learners have acquired upon obtaining these badges. As learners continue to earn Smart Badges, they start receiving personalised recommendations about the latest job offers that match their skills. They also receive recommendations on what to study next, based on the skills they need for the job market. These recommendations assist lifelong learners in taking decisions about their personal and professional progression. This use case is illustrated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. The use case of the lifelong learning pilot case study.

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3 Deployment of Pilot Case Study The deployment of this pilot case study involves the engagement of stakeholders, i.e., researchers, lecturers, technologists and professionals from the education sector, in order to collect their feedback and requirements. We have previously collected requirements for this pilot case study via a series of consultation workshops, the outcomes of which have been reported in [9]. More recently, we have conducted a series of pilot workshops, which have served a two-fold purpose: • Dissemination of the QualiChain approach and platform. • Collection of preliminary evaluation data via logs, questionnaires, and feedback from discussions with participants. This series of pilot workshops has taken place in the context of the following international conferences in the fields of open education and educational technology: • The 9th eSTEeM Annual Conference, April 2020.2 • The 23rd International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL2020), September 2020.3 • The Open Education Global 2020 conference, November 2020.4 During these workshops, participants were first introduced to the QualiChain project and the lifelong learning pilot case study. They were then asked to perform certain tasks on an early prototype of the QualiChain platform, by accessing the platform’s web-based interface on their devices. The various functionalities offered by this prototype platform are reported in [10]. In particular, the following sequence of tasks were performed by the participants of the workshops on the QualiChain platform: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Register an account on the platform. Receive a Smart Badge. View and download their Smart Badge. Verify their Smart Badge.

At the end of each workshop, participants were asked to respond to a short questionnaire, in order to collect evaluation data about the QualiChain platform and the overall QualiChain approach. It should be noted that the early prototype of the QualiChain platform used in these workshops offered mainly the functionalities of issuing and verifying Smart Badges. It was, therefore, not possible to collect evaluation data about job and course recommendations. The pilot workshop series had an average of 20 participants per workshop. A total of 26 participants responded to the questionnaire (response rate approx. 43.33%). The majority of respondents to the questionnaire had a very good research and teaching background in education and/or educational technology. As shown in Fig. 3, approximately half of the respondents had no prior knowledge of Blockchain technology and 2 3 4

https://bit.ly/3oKO8TG. http://icl-conference.org/icl2020/. https://conference.oeglobal.org/2020/.

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had not used any other badges or badge platforms. The majority of respondents were able to view, download and verify the Smart Badges awarded to them, as shown in Fig. 4. Additionally, the majority of respondents rated their overall experience with the prototype QualiChain platform as either good, very good or excellent, as shown in Fig. 5. The feedback collected via the dedicated questionnaire and via discussions with participants during the workshops has been generally positive towards the objectives and the use case of the lifelong learning pilot case study, as well as towards the decentralisation approach of the QualiChain project. Indicatively, some comments received by participants were the following: “I like the concept of formalizing and verifying badges.” “Very useful but I am wondering how sustainable it is - i.e., how portable across the different providers or in relationship to the SOLID project.” “It is interesting, but the purpose needed to be made clearer - what is the USP of this system over other badge systems.” “This could be the future of higher education.”

Fig. 3. Prior knowledge of respondents in Blockchain technology and experience with badges/badge platforms.

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Fig. 4. Percentages of respondents successful in viewing, downloading and verifying their Smart Badges.

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Fig. 5. Ratings of user experience with the prototype QualiChain platform.

The participants of the pilot workshop series did not face significant difficulties in using the QualiChain platform, even though this was in an early prototypical state. As indicated by the questionnaire responses, the majority of participants were able to access and verify the Smart Badges awarded to them. Some suggestions for improving Smart Badges and the QualiChain platform were about badge recipients being able to personalise their Smart Badges. Participants were also interested in receiving personalised recommendations about suitable courses and job positions, a feature not available at the time of piloting the platform within these workshops. As mentioned before, the purpose of this series of pilot workshops has been to disseminate the QualiChain project and collect preliminary evaluation data. Although preliminary, the collected evaluation data will help further drive the development of the QualiChain platform, by understanding and prioritising the functionalities needed by stakeholders.

4 Conclusions and Next Steps This paper has presented a work-in-progress pilot case study for supporting lifelong learning via Smart Blockchain Badges and personalised recommendations. We are using Blockchain technology for providing lifelong learners with transparent and immutable educational accreditation. We also employ personalised recommendations for helping lifelong learners reach their personal and professional learning goals. This pilot case study is conducted within the wider QualiChain initiative for decentralising education and employment qualifications using Blockchain technologies. The initial deployment of this pilot case study has received positive feedback from stakeholders, as well as an insight into their views towards Blockchain technology and decentralisation. The next steps of this work will be focused on further engaging stakeholders to collect their feedback via dedicated pilot workshops, as well as via other opportunities and online channels, such as open online courses and webinars. As the QualiChain platform is further developed and enriched with additional functionalities for supporting

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lifelong learning, it is important that we continue liaising with the communities of stakeholders, in order to better understand and address their needs. Acknowledgement. This work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 822404 (QualiChain).

References 1. Nakamoto, S.: Bitcoin: a peer-to-peer electronic cash system (2008) 2. Harris, J., Wihak, C.: To what extent do discipline, knowledge domain and curriculum affect the feasibility of the Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) in higher education? Int. J. Lifelong Educ. 36, 1–17 (2017) 3. Lundvall, B.-Å., Rasmussen, P.: Challenges for adult skill formation in the globalising learning economy–a European perspective. Int. J. Lifelong Educ. 35, 448–464 (2016) 4. Mayombe, C.: An assessment of non-formal education and training centres’ linkages with role-players for adult employment in South Africa. Int. J. Lifelong Educ. 36, 339–358 (2017) 5. Müller, R., Remdisch, S., Köhler, K., Marr, L., Repo, S., Yndigegn, C.: Easing access for lifelong learners: a comparison of European models for university lifelong learning. Int. J. Lifelong Educ. 34, 530–550 (2015) 6. Mikroyannidis, A., Third, A., Domingue, J., Bachler, M., Quick, K.: Blockchain applications in lifelong learning and the role of the semantic blockchain. In: Sharma, R. C., Yildirim, H., Kurubacak, G. (eds.) Blockchain Technology Applications in Education, pp. 16–41. IGI Global (2020) 7. Kontzinos, C., Kokkinakos, P., Kapsalis, P., Markaki, O., Karakolis, V., Psarras, J.: Exploring blockchain, semantics and decision support to optimise qualification certification, recruitment and competency management: an assessment of challenges, current practices and opportunities. Int. J. Adv. Intell. Syst. 13, 192–203 (2020) 8. Kontzinos, C., Kokkinakos, P., Kapsalis, P., Markaki, O., Karakolis, V., Psarras, J.: Leveraging blockchain, analytics and decision support to facilitate qualifications’ verification, recruitment and competency management: the QualiChain project and initial results. Int. J. Adv. Intell. Syst. 13, 177–191 (2020) 9. Mikroyannidis, A., Third, A., Domingue, J.: A case study on the decentralisation of lifelong learning using blockchain technology. J. Interact. Media Educ. (JIME) 1, 1–10 (2020) 10. Mikroyannidis, A., Third, A., Chowdhury, N., Bachler, M., Domingue, J.: Supporting lifelong learning with smart blockchain badges. Int. J. Adv. Intell. Syst. 13, 163–176 (2020)

Intelligent Systems in Translation to Assist in Engineers’ Training Egor Petrov1, Jamila Mustafina1(&), Ahmed Aljaaf2, Askar Khayrullin1, and Magizov Rustem1 1

2

Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia [email protected] Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK

Abstract. The creation of machine translation technologies is currently an objective reality. Information technologies that already exist today that can be used to optimize translation are quite diverse. At this stage of computer-assisted translation (CAT) development, the issues of integrating artificial intelligence and translation activities (digital translation) and the use of neural machine translation (NMT) are relevant. Both technologies are quite effective, although they do not rule out the existence of certain difficulties in their use. So, for example, for a neural network, the difficulties are the translation of rare words, phraseological units, etc. Machine translation is a topic in which modern neural network algorithms have indeed achieved impressive successes. Thanks to advances in text generation, in the construction of vector representations of sentences that consider shades of meaning, as well as the use of the attention mechanism, modern machine translation tools often produce results that are almost indistinguishable from human ones. This paper describes the experiment carried out by the author to confirm the conclusions obtained from the results of his research. Keywords: CAT translation
AI


NMT
SmartCAT
Trados software
DéjàVu
Machine

1 Introduction In the early 80s of the last century, Makoto Naga, the head of the Japanese national machine translation program, developed a new concept of Example-based translation [1]. The idea behind this concept was to understand that in the field of scientific communication languages are characterized by the monotony of syntactic constructions and a significantly terminological lexical composition. When vocabulary and terminology are changing, the constructions remain unchanged. This suggests that provided a sufficient array of translated units has been accumulated, there is a possibility that a certain amount of information from the following texts has already been manually translated. In order to train the system, it is necessary to collect a database of source texts and their translations, and then upload it into a computer with sufficient resources for processing. Subsequently, when translating new texts from this database, you can selectively extract text fragments similar to new ones, which can be sequentially used © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 754–765, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_75

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to generate a translation. In the last 20–30 years, this approach to performing CAT has developed on the basis of this very concept. Currently, the technology has taken a logical step forward and proposed further development of this concept - in the form of a translation memory tool. The abbreviation CAT is used to denote translation by computer tools. The use of this type of technology greatly simplifies the work, as it allows you to place all translation tools in one cloud platform, where it is much more convenient to organize the entire workflow. These solutions represent a whole range of technologies and tools for translating documents, localizing software, maintaining terminological glossaries, checking translation quality, creating and distributing translation projects. With their help, the tasks of performing high-quality translation within the shortest production cycle are solved. The use of these solutions is also advisable in teamwork when it is necessary to ensure consistent translation within one project. All results are automatically saved in a single database accessible to all participants in the translation process. The most modern solutions are usually based on 3 main technologies: Translation Memory (TM); Terminology Management; Project Management, Translation Management System (TMS). The Translation Memory database is a linguistic database in which translations are stored within a defined structure as they are created by the translator user. The usual composition of the TM base is the source segments and their equivalent target segments (as a rule, the offer is taken as a segment). When processing new text received for translation, the system compares each of its sentences with those saved in the database and extracts the corresponding matches. As a result, there is no need to translate the same sentence many times - on the contrary, if necessary, you can reuse previously translated text fragments. Thus, the widespread use of CAT platforms has led to the following consequences in the professional activity of translators: – reorientation of translation activities from individual projects to remote work in collective projects as part of multicultural professional groups; – shifting the emphasis in the translator’s speech-thinking activity from searching for an equivalent in the target language to selecting and evaluating ready-made versions, to editing the entire translated text; – the demand for a top-down cognitive strategy for processing language material, combined with close attention to details to ensure the integrity of the text in the target language. Obviously, the development of information and communication technologies suitable for translation, freeing translators from the rough work, makes it possible to use time and cognitive resources to solve more important and complex problems associated with ensuring successful intercultural communication through written texts. Below we have laid out three main CAT platformsю.

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2 Trados Software One of the pioneers and market leaders of TM programs is SDL Trados, which offers the Trados Translation Solution - the CAT tools. It comes in corporate (Team Edition) and single-user (Freelance Edition) versions. The MultiTerm module is used to maintain a multilingual database of terms and automatically, upon installation, embeds its toolkit into the toolbar and the Word menu. The WinAlign module allows replenishing the drive’s database in a semi-automatic mode by analyzing parallel texts in two languages. SDLTrados has three main components. First, it is the working environment, i.e. the translator does not open the document in Microsoft Word, Excel or other word processing software, he opens the file in a special software shell, which, perhaps, does not have much of what Microsoft Office has, but contains various functions that are useful in implementation translation. Secondly, SDLTrados contains two types of databases. The first database is a “translation memory” that can remember everything that a translator translates in the course of his work. Another database is term memory or MultiTerm. In this database, the translator can enter individual terms and their meaning, some explanations and pictures. Initially, SDL Trados is empty, that is, there are no dictionaries in it. If an order comes from a company, then it has a certain well-established terminology and there are typical materials that can be repeated, sometimes over several years, or undergo any changes. For a translator, a customer is a set of characteristic phrases and special terms that are, perhaps, accepted only in this small segment of the market. This is one of the main reasons why a translator buys and uses special TM-programs that allow him, firstly, to quickly remember, even in the smallest details, the specifics of his client, and secondly, to maintain the uniformity of terminology throughout the text. After launching SDL Trados, we get to the start page, in the centre there are four options: Open Document, New Project and Open Package, Open Server Project. When you click on Open Document, a window appears containing the file to be translated. After that, the required languages are selected: source and target, and one or more existing databases are added. The file is opened to start working. The program automatically analyzes the texts, breaking them into segments, delimited by default are tab stops, paragraph markers and some punctuation marks. Segments that have no counterparts in the database can either be included there, provided with a translation, or placed in a dictionary of terms. After the segmentation of the text, the CAT offers the user fragments for building the translation block by block. Another advantage is that the original text and the translation text are located side by side, have the same format and size. After the user has translated a segment of the text, it can be immediately entered into the TM. In addition, it is possible to make changes to this translation already in the memory itself. In some cases, the program can produce a translation of similar, but not identical, text segments. It depends on the minimum match that the translator himself sets before starting work. If the match is set to 100%, then SDLTrados will automatically translate only those segments that repeat exactly in the translation memory. In this case, the user

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does not need to check the correctness, he can be sure that the translation is correct. In most cases, translators set a minimum match of sixty per cent, then in the process of translation, the material found has a tag of “partial” or “incomplete” matches (fuzzy matches). And in the case of a high degree of similarity, only part of the sentence or one word remains to be translated. Another advantage of using CAT systems is the final counting of the work done. After the completion of the work, the program provides a final report, from which the start and end dates of work on the translation are also visible. After analyzing the feedback of many translators about their own attitude towards SDL Trados, the following advantages of the program were highlighted: Software advantages: – the ability to take into account synonyms and alternative translations of one segment of the text; – powerful search engines. Linguistic advantages: – – – – – – – –

terminology in several languages; support for European, Eastern European, Eastern and Arabic languages; search in any direction; terminology variation; flexible structure of the terminological base; descriptive information in the form of free text, abbreviations; illustrations; fuzzy search.

Technological advantages: – the ability to exit from local users to companies with a geographically distributed structure; – connecting all users to a central termbase; – automatic term recognition; – quick substitution of terms in translation; – replenishment or editing of the termbase; – access to the termbase using the Internet. Weak points: – many translators who have previously dealt with other CAT tools note rather difficult management, the inability to start translation without prior preparation; – relatively high price for the full version of the program; – complex interface; – relevance of terminology; – the difficulty of sharing via email; – editing rights for each user. So, each program has its pros and cons, in this case, despite the large number of positive points, the negative opinion about the SDL Trados program is formed only on

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the basis of the difficulty in use. However, we can say that, according to experts, SDL Trados has become a benchmark in the field of software for technical translation in a short time and is an indispensable assistant for large orders.

3 SmartCAT The functionality of the SmartCAT platform is based on dividing the source text into separate segments, most often limited to one sentence or less. The segmented text of the source file is displayed in the left working area, for convenience presented in tabular form. The task of the translator is to manually enter the translated text of the segment into the corresponding field in the right working area or select one of the translations proposed by the system, made on the basis of a neural network or translation memory. At the same time, the translator manually marks the resulting translation using special characters of the SmartCAT system - the so-called “tags”. The platform interface has similar features to other programs we have reviewed - the central part is designed for direct work with segmented text, where the translator can manipulate the text. Above the segments is a navigation bar that allows you to format text, navigate between segments, perform complex contextual text searches, and track translation progress. The lower part of the interface is reserved for communication with other specialists working on this text - a function that is necessary when performing teamwork on a translation. The right side of the interface is dedicated to interacting with the project’s CAT tools - it contains the translation options proposed by the neural network, as well as options from the translation memory, for which the percentage of compliance with the given text is indicated. Possible translation options for a segment are stored until the end of the project, which is facilitated by the translation editing function available at any stage of the work. However, only the segments confirmed by the user are included in the translation database itself (which, however, does not prevent them from being edited even after confirmation. The platform has its own error search and elimination system. If an error is critical for the translation, the system warns the user about it and does not allow the translation to be completed until the error is eliminated. Editing of the finished translation text can be done after the translation is completed - the system converts the file into an easy-to-edit format (.doc). You can upload several versions of the finished file - the original document, the translated document, and the bilingual document presented as bilingual text segmented. SmartCAT advantages: – free use of the system, if we are not talking about a private cloud or installation on a local server. In addition, additional services are paid: some options for machine translation and text recognition; – thanks to the cloudiness, the use is independent of the operating system used by the translator. Neither memoQ, TradosStudio, nor Wordfast - the giants of the localization world - have versions for Linux and MacOS (Wordfast has WordfastAnywhere, which is also a cloud-based system competing with SmartCAT).

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Technically, it is even possible to use it on a smartphone or tablet (its OS is also not important - it can be either iOS or Android). However, this will not be very convenient due to the small screen size; SmartCAT is a full-featured CAT tool, comparable in capabilities to popular CAT PC software; an unlimited number of translators and editors can work on a project; possibility to perform translations provided in TradosStudio packages without having TradosStudio, and without buying this program itself; convenient project management is implemented in the system. The manager sees which translator is at what stage. Operational issues are discussed in the chat directly in the system. Payments to translators are calculated automatically; Smartcat is integrated with Protemos translation project accounting system. Management is extremely simple: if you have created a project in Protemos, then the corresponding project in Smartcat is created with one click of a button; import and export of translation memory is possible. This function is important for those who would like to use their own work. Some customers ask to send a translation memory along with the translation; managers can quickly find a translator even for rare language pairs. In addition, the project managers are less overloaded: they do not have to deal with calculating payments; a wide and growing list of supported languages. the system has round-the-clock professional technical support, many users positively assess the quality of this service.

SmartCAT disadvantages: – “cloudiness” of the system is both positive and negative feature. Security/insecurity of cloud systems (any) is due to the specifics of the technology; – the downside of functionality is the complication of the interface. To use all the system’s functions as efficiently as possible, you need to read the instructions in detail; – there is no possibility to open several files at once to use the function of automatic translation distribution when there are many repeating segments in different files; – there is no possibility to display the text of tags and spaces; – bulk replacements are not implemented. If there are many files in the project, and in all of them it is necessary to replace one word with another (for example, replace “Bluetooth” with “USB” everywhere), you will not be able to do this with one replacement - you will have to open each file one by one and perform the replacement inside it; – replace operations lack support for regular expressions (RegEx); – operations with several segments at once are not implemented. For example, you cannot immediately copy the original text into the translation in 10 segments or confirm 10 segments at once.

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4 DéjàVu DéjàVu (www.atril.com) is a multifunctional program with exceptionally long service life. Déjà-Vu has useful functions and several unique characteristics. One is AutoFit, a function known as shallow memory. It selects units and segments of information from different sources and puts together a completely satisfactory translation from them. Other advantages include, for example, the “Lexicon” function. This is a hidden function with which the program generates a list of frequently used words and phrases in the text and helps you compile a glossary of frequently used terms. The combination of functions “Lexicon” - “AutoFit” distinguishes Déjà-Vu from a number of similar ones. A specialized interface is designed specifically for translators, not writers, and those who are used to working with word processors will lack many features. Nevertheless, after a long time of working with this service, we can come to the conclusion that the interface offers so many resources that Word is missing. DejaVu allows you to select language pairs in translation projects from an extensive list of world languages; there is a built-in spell checker for a dozen European languages. DejaVu also includes the TermWatch module, which provides access to the terminology dictionary from the environment of applications working with foreign language texts. The program is supplied with a convenient reference book. All DejaVu modules use a common OLE server (Object Linking and Embedding), on its basis you can develop applications containing API calls (Application Programming Interface). Since DV is not limited to the Word interface, it supports various file types without issue. There are no additional modules, transmitters, additional built-in resources, additional devices in it: only transparent filters. While you use the same interface and commands, the DV-3 can handle more than 20 file types, including those pre-converted to Trados format. Thus, CAT tools differ in their variety, each of which has its advantages and disadvantages. But there is the question whether it is possible to accurately assess the efficiency of such software in terms of translator’s productivity and the economic benefit that follows such potential increased productivity [2–6]. To answer this question, we developed and conducted an experiment that allowed us to study the possibility of quantitative or qualitative assessment of the effect of using CAT tools considering practical economic activity. It was decided to choose one of the Russian organizations as the base site—Closed Joint Stock Company of Employees “Publicly Owned Enterprise Naberezhnochelny Cardboard and Paper Mill named after Sergei Pavlovich Titov” (hereafter Cardboard and Paper Mill). Our choice is justified by the unique type of production system being implemented by the organization, as well as its active policy in the field of modernization and innovative technologies in production and production management. This policy stipulates multiple contacts with foreign suppliers of innovative production equipment and new technologies, which implies the active participation of the translator at all stages of such activities. For our experiment, this means the possibility of obtaining a sufficient amount of material to collect statistical data.

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The implementation of SmartCAT software in the process of personal professional translation activities was officially approved by the internal Act of the organization RP No. 792 dated February 5, 2018. We observed the results of its application between January 9, 2019, and April 6, 2020. It should be noted that Cardboard and Paper Mill, as well as the researcher conducting the experiment, do not have any economic relations with Smartcat Platform Inc. SmartCAT is freeware, shareware [7]. For the interests of this work, we are comparing the results of a test with our experiment.

5 The Stages of the Experiment The described experiment was carried out between January 9, 2019, and July 5, 2019. It can be conventionally divided into two phases: – material accumulation. – the analysis of the accumulated material. We are describing them in more detail below. Material accumulation. Between January 9, 2019, and July 2019 (about 7 months) we were accumulating the translation material based on the SmartCat software. It means the translator carries out translation solely via SmartCat. All translated material, as well as statistical data (such as the number of characters, punctuation marks, numbers, etc.), was stored by the cloud system of the CAT. Thus, no additional action was required on the part of the researcher. The analysis of the accumulated material. Upon completion of the collection of translation material, between July 1 and July 5, 2019, we studied the quantitative results collected using the built-in SmartCattracking Utility metrics and data. The results, as well as the challenges and limitations we encountered during their evaluation, we have presented in the corresponding paragraph below.

6 Materials and Methods The accumulation of the necessary textual material was provided and conditioned due to the policy of innovative activities related to the continuous modernization of the equipment, Cardboard and Paper Mill has multiple business contacts and ongoing projects with foreign machine builders, which guarantees a sufficient volume of text translations required to collect the most reliable analytical information. As we indicated earlier, the material was collected by the researcher performing translation in the SmartCat as part of the daily professional activity at the specified enterprise. This material was stored and processed in the same software, which made it easy to access the metric and other data on translated texts. It was decided to evaluate the effectiveness comparing the results obtained with the standards and norms prescribed in the normative document “Rules for translation and other types of linguistic services” PR 50.1.027–2014 of the Federal Agency for

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Technical Regulation and Metrology [8]. Below we list the indicators that we have taken as a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of automated translation tools in our experiment: – standard translation page - a translation page is understood as one conventional page of text with 1,800 (one thousand eight hundred) printed marks, including spaces between words and punctuation marks when translated from European or into European languages [8]. – physical page - page of text or graphic document format A4 according to GOST 2.301-68 [8]. The introduction of this term is justified by the fact that some documents cannot be assessed in terms of the number of characters (for example, graphic), however, it cannot be a reason for excluding them from the assessment, especially since there are corresponding regulatory documents for such an assessment. – the volume of the text being translated in writing, which is considered optimal for execution without loss of quality in one full eight-hour working day and accounts for 8–10 standard translation pages per working day when translated from (into) European languages [8]. These regulations provided us with a reliable basis to quantify the effectiveness of the CAT tools, that we are describing further. As for the qualitative assessment of such work, we were also guided by the principles of this official regulatory document, paragraph 9 “Assessment of the quality of written translation” (7). For the convenience of our experiment, we reduced these requirements to a single one - the quality was considered acceptable provided that there were no critical remarks from the final recipient of the translation - a representative of one/any of the structures of the Cardboard and Paper Mill, on the basis of which this experiment was conducted. All work on translation within the framework of this experiment was performed in the language pair English - Russian (in both directions). We chose Google Neural Machine Translation as an API (Application Programming Interface) in the SmartCAT environment - it was used for preliminary machine translation and processing of downloaded documentation. The translation was carried out by the author and researcher personally within the standard working schedule mentioned above (8 h a day, 5 days a week). Based on the calculations of a dedicated online calendar for counting working days, the material accumulation phase we described above covered 116 working days or approximately 928 working hours. The data we obtained and the results that follow from them are laid out below.

7 Results During the first phase of this experiment, the researcher was translating 15 different “projects” (so-called the directories created by the translator in the SmartCat system, for convenience we adopted the terminology of the system). The work on the projects was carried out inconsistently, that is, translation activities could be carried out

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simultaneously on several projects. For the entire period, 436 documents were translated, heterogeneous in terms of the volume of the text contained. The total volume of translated texts amounted to 2.402.623 characters (with numbers and spaces), which is 1.334 translation pages. In addition to this volume, the translation of files that do not allow us to accurately determine the number of source characters (files in excel format) was also performed, in the amount of 29 graphic pages. In total, we received 1.363 pages of texts translated in the English language pair—Russian in both directions. As mentioned above, the active phase of the experiment lasted 116 working days. We assumed for this experiment that, based on the normative documentation described by us in the paragraph on materials and methods, an increase in the translator’s productivity, expressed in the number of translated text pages/working day, should be taken as a positive effect, in the absence of critical comments about the quality of translated texts by the recipients - employees of the enterprise on the basis of which we conducted the experiment (Cardbord and Paper Mill). Thus, an average of translated pages/working day exceeding the agreed 8–10 pages was considered to be a positive effect. On the contrary, a value lower than the specified one is considered to be a non-effective or negative. Based on the statistical data that we indicated above, and which were recieved thanks to the built-in statistics collection system of the SmartCAT, as well as using simple mathematical formulas, we obtained the following results: Total amount of text translated (in pages) Duration of the active phase of the experiment

¼ 1.363 116

¼ 11,75

On the example of simple calculations, we see that within a relatively small period of time, the use of CAT in practice has a positive impact (from 20 up to 40%) on the efficiency and performance of the translator. Nevertheless, despite the confirmation of the positive effect, we would like to pay special attention to the discussion of the results obtained, in particular, the limitations and other factors affecting the general objectivity of quantification of the effectiveness of the use of the CAT tools.

8 Discussion Based on the results of this experiment, we observed a moderate increase in translator productivity, which is encouraging and suggesting that the use of CAT systems, based on neural networks, translation memory and machine learning, really optimizes and speeds up the translator’s activities. The obtained results correlate with the conclusions that we have come to in the course of our research. Thus, the cumulative facts allow us to state that similar CAT systems are promising in the development of translation, both in the practical and theoretical ways. We also want to lay out the results of a short five-day test we ran prior to initializing this experiment. According to its results, within five days (5 working days, 8 h each), the researcher managed to translate 135 pages of text, that is, about 27 pages per day, that surpasses the normative indicators and even the results obtained in the course of the experiment.

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Despite the positive results achieved, we see some limitations and challenges that are applicable both to this experiment in particular and to the problem of the development of modern translation tools in general: 1. Despite the digitalization of the text translation process, in which artificial intelligence, software or other digital solutions (or their combination) can play an important role today, the translation process is still highly dependent on the individual level of the translator’s competence. It is likely that in the future, as technology and artificial intelligence are developing, this influence will be levelled. Currently, this fact does not allow us fully and accurately to quantify the effect of the use of such software solutions. 2. One of the key features of translation activities is that the translation process can be carried out in two fundamentally different forms, written and oral. This means that in real circumstances it is extremely difficult to quantify the effectiveness of the application of the described software solutions since in practice the translator almost never deals with 100% of the working time. The multiple difference that we observed when comparing the results of short and longer tests can be explained by the fact that in five days the translator had fewer reasons to “be distracted” from performing written translations (for example, interpreting). In this context, we see the results obtained by us in the course of the experiment more realistic and reflect the real picture. 3. One of the main limitations of the described experiment is that a particular case is considered in practical terms. For a more reliable assessment, in our opinion, a more extensive experiment based on isolated groups of translators may be required, but this, in turn, is associated with a number of problems that are also reflected in our work, namely: – due to the lack of criteria for identifying the “effectiveness” of the translator performing the translation, we assume that at the moment it is potentially difficult or impossible to determine the criteria for the selection and exclusion of translators for such an experiment. Incorrect selection of performers can negatively affect the performance of the work performed and distort the received data; – even if there are evaluation criteria, as we indicated above in our work, when working together in the “translator-machine” system, the translator’s competencies are not limited to purely translation abilities - understanding the processes and patterns driving the “machine”, the ability to work with it is required. In our opinion, in order to achieve such combined competencies, a fundamentally new interdisciplinary approach to the training of translation personnel is required from the point of view of a deeper introduction of digital technologies into traditional translation activities, which at the moment is not an objective reality in the training of translators. As a result, given all of the above, we can argue that using an automated translation system such as SmartCat does optimize and speed up the implementation process translation, as evidenced by the results obtained from the described experiment. Nevertheless, there are a number of systemic limitations that prevent us from confidently speaking about the reliability of quantifying such an impact.

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9 Conclusion Based on its results, we came to the following conclusions: – firstly, we have proved in practice that the use of the CAT system (SmartCAT) really has a positive impact on the efficiency of written translations; – secondly, we have identified a number of systemic limitations that do not allow us to calculate the quantitative effect of using such a system in practice, described them and explained their nature. Thus, both the results obtained and the discovered limitations confirm the conclusions that we have come to in the course of our research - in particular, regarding the prospects for the development of such technologies in the future, the development of new “combined” competencies among translators and the promotion of the widespread use of such technologies on a wider scale.

References 1. Gudkov, D.B.: Theory and practice of intercultural communication. Moscow, 178 p (2003). (Гyдкoв Д. Б. Teopия и пpaктикa мeжкyльтypнoй кoммyникaции. // M. Л. Гyдкoв. – M.: ИTДГК «Гнoзиc», 2003. - 178 c.) 2. Terekhova, E.V.: Moder tendencies in the CAT, Scientific Bulletin of Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering: Modern linguistic and methodology research, vol. 5, pp. 146–152 (2006). (Tepexoвa E. B. Coвpeмeнныe тeндeнции paзвития aвтoмaтизиpoвaннoгo пepeвoдa // Hayчный вecтник Bopoнeжcкoгo гocyдapcтвeннoгo apxитeктypнo-cтpoитeльнoгo yнивepcитeтa. Cepия: Coвpeмeнныeлингвиcтичecкиe и мeтoдикo-дидaктичecкиeиccлeдoвaния, 2006, № 5, C. 146–152.) 3. Alimov, V.V.: Translation Theory, textbook for translators, 2nd edn, Moscow, 240 p (2015). (Aлимoв B. B. Teopия пepeвoдa: пocoбиe для лингвиcтoв пepeвoдчикoв: Учeбнoe пocoбиe. Изд.2-e. - M.: ЛEHAД, 2015. - 240 c.) 4. Ivanov, N.V.: Interpretation antinomies: Introductionto Analysis, Language as a systemic reality in socio-cultural and communicative dimensions, Moscow, International relationships, pp. 110–135 (2014). (Ивaнoв H. B. Aнтинoмии интepпpeтaции: нaчaлa aнaлизa // Язык кaк cиcтeмнaя peaльнocть в coциoкyльтypнoм и кoммyникaтивнoм измepeнияx M.: Изд. дoм «Meждyнapoдныe oтнoшeния». 2014. C. 110–135) 5. Gerasimov, A.S.: Trados 2011 Experience. T-Service, Sant-Petersburg (2013). http://www. tra-service.ru/trados/practice/4 (Гepacимoв, A. C. Oпыт иcпoльзoвaния Trados 2011 / A. C. Гepacимoв. //T-Cepвиc, Caнкт-Пeтepбypг 2013 [Элeктpoнный pecypc]. Peжим дocтyпa: http://www.tra-service.ru/trados/practice/4) 6. Weaver, W.: Science and Complexity. http://people.physics.anu.edu.au/*tas110/Teaching/ Lectures/L1/Material/WEAWER1947.pdf 7. SmartCAT. Cloud environment for translation automation. https://ru.smartcat.ai/ (SmartCAT Oблaчнaя cpeдa для aвтoмaтизaции пepeвoдoв. [Элeктpoнный pecypc]. Peжим дocтyпa: https://ru.smartcat.ai/) 8. PR 50.1.027–2014. Rules for translation and other types of linguistic services of the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology, Moscow, 14 p (2014). (ПP 50.1.027–2014. Пpaвилaoкaзaния пepeвoдчecкиx и ocoбыx видoв лингвиcтичecкиx ycлyг. M., 2014. 14 c. (Фeдepaльнoe aгeнтcтвoпo тexничecкoмy peгyлиpoвaнию и мeтpoлoгии)

Building Students’ Transferable Skills Through Classroom Activities and Assessments Jianhua Yang(&)

and Mir Seyedebrahimi

Warwick Manufacturing Group, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK {jianhua.yang,mir.seyedebrahimi}@warwick.ac.uk

Abstract. In engineering-related subjects, students sometimes pay more attention to subject knowledge than transferable skills, which often results in gaps where university graduates equipped with subject knowledge do not possess skills required by their employers. The recent introduction of degree apprenticeships in the UK calls for business involvements and provides standards where skill requirements are specified alongside knowledge and behavior requirements. In this paper, we report the practice at the Warwick Manufacturing Group, the University of Warwick, of how the skill requirements of the Digital and Technology Solutions degree were mapped to different modules and taught through different classroom activities and assessments. We discuss our approach, students’ responses, challenges faced, our resolutions, as well as some pedagogical considerations. Keywords: Transferable skills
Degree apprenticeship
Digital and technology solutions
Classroom activities and assessments

1 Introduction In engineering-related subjects, it is not uncommon that a graduate with a good understanding of knowledge fails to perform fundamental tasks. For example, a student with a good grade in software engineering principles may fail to write a piece of working code. This lack of skills has drawn attention in higher education [1], which has resulted in a number of pedagogical innovations and techniques being proposed. For example, [2] investigated the use of groupwork to develop transferable personal skills using self-assessment and peer-assessment at the Hong Kong University. Through questionnaire evaluation, they found that students did find groupwork an enjoyable learning experience. [3] compared different approaches for teaching transferable skills to a group of chemical engineering undergraduates and found that the embedded and bolt-on approaches were as effective as the integrated approach typically used in teaching transferable skills. In most countries, primary and secondary education have a national curriculum to follow in which some transferrable skill requirements are normally defined. Due to the size and complexity, defining transferable skill requirements in HE is not usually feasible. However, the situation has improved with the recent introduction of the Degree Apprenticeship (DA), which is a special kind of degree being offered in the UK © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 766–774, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_76

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[4]. The students studying under the DA, called apprentices, have the hybrid roles of being company employees and university students at the same time. The Institute for Apprenticeships and Technical Education (IATE) defines a set of standards including transferable skills for different DAs, for which all HE providers who offer that specific DA must follow. Compared to traditional approaches where the same course may be offered by different HE institutions with similar knowledge coverage but little consideration on transferable skills, the standards defined by the IATE is a huge advancement [5] in that it combines what the HE can offer traditionally with what the employer requires, and puts an emphasis on the transferable skills. Among the many DAs being offered at the Warwick Manufacturing Group (WMG), the University of Warwick, the Digital and Technology Solutions (DTS) Degree follows the IATE standard which was co-created by companies such as the BBC, IBM, and J. P. Morgan [6]. The DTS degree at the WMG offers several different options, known as ‘streams’, as defined in the standard such as the Software Engineering Specialist and the Network Engineering Specialist, which are taught through modules such as programming and networking. In this paper, we will present how the IATE transferable skills requirements were mapped to the DTS module learning outcomes, how we built the skills through classroom engagement activities, and how the skills were being assessed in the module assessments.

2 Curriculum Design and Delivery The DTS standard defined by the IATE [6] specifies a number of knowledge/ skills/behavior requirements. However, it should be noted that quite often no clear distinction can be drawn between the different knowledge/skills/behavior requirements for a specific career specialism. For example, some DTS requirements for the Software Engineering specialism can be seen in Fig. 1. In this case, test-driven development can refer to either the principles such as the V-model [7] or the skills such as using a specific software test suite. Furthermore, the fulfillment of the requirements of one specific skill will be the result of masteries gained in various areas of the apprenticeship process. Hence, a DA program such as DTS acts as a whole for achieving the teaching and learning objectives even for mastering the subskills. In the current context, the following discussions are limited to transferable skills only. Some modules delivered to year 1 and 2 DTS apprentices include ‘Smart Solutions Development-I (Programming)’, ‘Smart Solutions Development-II (Databases)’, ‘Network Protocols & Infrastructure’, and ‘Internet of Things’. These modules form the foundation for the apprentices who opt for the Software Engineering Specialist and the Network Engineering Specialist options in their later years of study. However, the challenges faced by the team was that even though pedagogically there exist methods that are known to be effective in delivering specific subjects, e.g. live coding for programming [8] or the conventional approaches to teach computer networks, what works for teaching specific transferable skills remains unknown. In addition, skills teaching has to be combined with normally a fair amount of knowledge delivery, which makes it a lot more challenging than those ice-breaking-type of exercises.

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Skills Programming IDEs

Coding styles

Language syntax

Refactoring & debugging Problem idenficaon Algorithm design

Version control

Test-driven development

Report wring Requirement engineering Lab tasks & feedbacks

Soware development lifecycle

Pair programming Knowledge

Operang systems

Project proposal

Architectural design

Behaviour

Project presentaon

Fig. 1. Knowledge, skills, and behavior requirements of the DTS degree.

The teaching of the transferable skills in the above-mentioned DTS modules had gone through the design and delivery phases. The whole process was implemented in the following 4 steps, as seen in Fig. 2: • Requirements: As the 1st step, skills requirements relevant to the above-mentioned modules were identified. No all skills defined in the IATE are equally applicable in all modules. As such, special attention was paid to those skills where few modules can be linked. This was because the aim was to develop students in the full spectrum rather than particular ones. • Implementation: Those skills mapped to relevant modules in the previous step were taught and delivered through various activities. These included both in-class and off-class, group-based and individual. Which approach was used was dependent on both the skills themselves and the subjects being taught. • Evaluation: Traditional formative and summative assessments were used to assess students’ level of transferable skills, including in-class quizzes, peer feedbacks, written reports, etc. Feedbacks to the assessments were given to the students mostly in the written format. Some one-to-one sessions were also made available. • Analysis: At the end of the modules, questionnaires were given to students to collect anonymous feedbacks both positive and negative. These completed the loop and will be considered for the next round of iteration.

Requirements

Implementation

Evaluation

Analysis

Fig. 2. Overall steps for skills identification and delivery in the DTS course.

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Through the process illustrated in Fig. 2, some specific skills defined by the IATE standard were mapped to DTS modules, as seen in Table 1. Using the presentation skills as an example, the full detailed requirements in the IATE standard reads “develop and deliver management level presentations which resonate with senior stakeholders, both business and technical” and “professionally present digital and technology solution specialism plans and solutions in a well-structured business report” [6]. In short, the student will need to have skills such that they can present professionally at a higher level. To facilitate this skill requirement, sessions were designed in the Smart Solutions Development-II (Databases) module where students were required to do research online and prepare and present back to the whole class on the topic of big data. Students were then commented by the module tutor on the format, pace, and style of the presentation, as well as discussing with peer students. Relating to the skill-building exercises was the assessment in which they had to structure and format their project reports properly. Another example skill in Table 1 is design and deployment. The detailed requirement in IATE is to “design and develop technology roadmaps, implementation strategies and transformation plans focused on digital technologies to achieve improved productivity, functionality and end user experience in an area of technology specialism” [6]. In DTS, this was boiled down to high-level and low-level design and development in the context of network architecture establishment. The element of the assignment associated with the skill was the design of a coursework project.

Table 1. The DTS transferable skills requirements defined by the IATE standard are mapped to the teaching plan and taught through classroom activities. Skill requirements Presentation Design and deployment Problemsolving

Delivery approaches

Assessment

Areas of iImpact

Team presentation using Google Slides High and low-level design and development Analysis of complex situations

Report structure and format Project design

Big data

Daily challenge

Proactiveness and future focus Negotiation

Industrial & collaborative use cases

Project reflection

Peer education

Management

Operation management

Leadership

Self-organizing teams

Compare and discuss alternative technologies Project cost and ethic analysis Peer assessments

Network architecture establishment Customer requirements, Security issues Digital transformation Styles of programming Risk and cost effectiveness Coding challenges

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3 Results and Discussions 3.1

The Outline of the Examined Approach

Given the overall steps and roadmap outlined in Fig. 2 for skill identification and planning of modules in DTS, we examined the approach in detail as depicted in Fig. 3. Taken approach can be described as follows. It involves four steps which begins with the initial information about each module and concludes with the analysis useful for future redesign: Source of the Requirements. The starting point of module design is the clarification of the specifications and requirements. These include defining the challenges which are aimed to be addressed as well as the available resources, the cohort of the audiences and the environmental parameters (including the teaching times/spaces, etc.). Alongside the apprenticeship program standards, the previous experiences of similar modules in the full-time program (predecessors were mainly in the School of Engineering) and the wider global challenges for teaching topics related to digital technologies are all taken into account.

Fig. 3. The implementation process details for transferable skills teaching in the DTS degree.

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Implementation Process. Teaching in higher education is a multidimensional task and its related design is also expected to reflect the diversity of the aspects which matter in this process. The foremost aspect which needs to be justified is the teaching mode. The taken approach in this module must reflect the available human/space/time resources and be justified based on the pedagogical principles. Furthermore, the format of the teaching materials and the way they will be accessible for students given the block teaching style commonly used in DA programs (e.g., online, face-to-face, and specifically during the required redesign for COVID interruption). In addition, assessments and feedback are also considered. Evaluation Process. There are multiple stakeholders involved in this process and their perceptions, expectations and also their level of satisfaction must be assessed and considered for further improvement of the process. The majority of these parameters have been extracted and analyzed based on the criteria set by our discipline group, the higher-level quality benchmarks defined by the Department’s quality committee, and various surveys conducted previously to have the opinion of the target cohort. Feed Forward Analysis. All of the above steps have been conducted to design a plan which represents the best combination of the available resources and the learning objectives for DTS modules. All efforts have been made to have a proper record of the learned lessons and few important considerations which have been summarized to be used as a guideline for further improvement of the design and implementation of other modules. 3.2

Student Responses

The various approaches employed in Table 2 followed the general theory of gamification [9] – “they think they are playing we know they are learning”. During module delivery, students showed a good level of interest and engagement regarding skill development. At the end of modules, students were invited to fill questionnaires anonymously to comment on the module and provide some feedback. An example of the questionnaire response and students’ comments can be seen in Fig. 4. It is evident that even though there was no explicit mentioning of transferable skills development, the feedback is very positive. However, as it is true in most HE institutions, the questions were generic and oriented towards knowledge rather than transferable skills. 3.3

Challenges and Resolutions

The most challenging task in teaching transferable skills was to combine the skills teaching with specific subject knowledge delivery. On the one hand, some of the skills such as presentation and problem-solving seem to be very generic. On the other hand, the subject knowledge is often very demanding in terms of time and exercises needed to fully understand. As a consequence, students tend to pay more attention to the subject knowledge and ignore the necessity to continuously develop their skills. Another challenge faced was to convince some students of the long-term benefit of skill development. As mentioned earlier, the apprentices are full-time employees of the company. As they are still in an early stage of their career, some transferable skills such

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as management and leadership do not have an immediate use case, hence do not invoke many interests naturally.

80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Disagree agree Agree nor disagree Module content was delivered in an engaging way?

“…the assignments encourage a lot of focus, which has allowed me to continue to learn and understand the programming methods covered in class…”

The assignments encouraged me to learn and support was helpful? (a)

(b)

Fig. 4. Some student feedback to the Smart Solutions Development-I (Programming) module that finished in May 2021. (a) Feedback percentage to 2 of the survey questions. (b) a student commented on the assignment.

Towards resolving these challenges, the assessments played an important role in the way that the assessments were designed such that both subject knowledge and transferable skills can be assessed. For example, in the module Smart Solutions Development-II (Databases) the students were required to write a report on the design and implementation of a database system. For this particular assignment, report writing was an important part of the marking rubric (Fig. 5). By assessing transferable skills in the module, the loop through skill mapping and delivery was completed, and students were stimulated to perform well. Hence the assessments served both as the benchmarking criteria and the reinforcement method as a short-term solution to the abovementioned challenges. In the longer term, however, to increase the awareness of the importance of transferable skills and draw a consensus among the students, it will require a joint effort with all parties being involved i.e., the university, the students, and their employers.

Fig. 5. Part of an assessment rubric used for assessing report writing skills.

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773

Pedagogical Considerations

In a work-based teaching and learning approach, learners are required to utilize the resources available to them in their workplace and to create the learning practice. This is alongside the resources provided by the academic partner and the students’ prior experiences and knowledge. This approach is quite different from the typical/conventional approach in higher education, where students usually go through an already existing practice with the possibility of manipulating the tool and/or the content [10]. More importantly, in work-based learning, the pedagogical approach taken in one area of the apprenticeship degree can be designed transferable across various sectors/areas. For example, practice-based assessment is reported to be an underpin success for other areas such as the mentoring practice [11]. In our classroom activities and assessment approach, the transferable skills were delivered using a combination of different pedagogical approaches. Table 2 depicts few examples of the taken approaches corresponding to the required skills by the apprenticeship standard. Practices related to problem-solving skills are developed based on real-world workplace situations and use cases. This will create a level of dependency on the students’ acquired experience from their workplace. This is a selective approach for teaching not only reliant on the internal capabilities of the learners [12] but also employs certain aspects of the learners’ behavior in a controlled situation, hence a constructivism approach [13]. For a different area of learning such as the students’ ability to apply configuration and setting in a given system (i.e., learning the existing protocols and rules), a different pedagogical approach appeared to be more effective. Students had access to a vast number of problems to be solved as a part of their in-class activities, consolidation quizzes, and post-session tasks. Answers and instructions were provided. This led to an instructive and mastery-based approach for this area of teaching and learning. It is not a new finding that mastery can be a very effective approach [14] and it is accurate even for group activities the way implemented in our apprenticeship practices.

Table 2. A comparison of different approaches used for building different types of skills. Required skill Problemsolving

Configuration and setup

Pedagogical consideration Constructivism/connectivism

Teaching approach Development practices based on raw scenarios and use case situations

Instructive/mastery learning

A vast number of problems to be solved, answers provided

Remarks Connectivism may have a level of dependency on the experience gained through the apprentice’s workplace Mastery can be more adaptable for apprenticeship practices and group activities

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4 Conclusions In this paper, we present our practice of teaching transferable skills in the DTS degree at the WMG, University of Warwick. We employed an approach that consists of four different steps: skill mapping/identification, skill teaching, evaluation, and finally reflection and analysis. From students’ feedback especially the anonymous end-ofmodule questionnaires, we found that students enjoyed our approach and made progress in terms of developing their skills. There were a few challenges, however, mainly due to the difficulty of combining the teaching of generic skills with specific subject knowledge. We resolved the challenge by using clearly defined assessments. The pedagogical considerations of our approach also provide some sound theoretical foundations for our teaching practice.

References 1. Assiter, A.: Transferable Skills in Higher Education. Routledge (2017) 2. Humphreys, P., Lo, V., Chan, F., Duggan, G.: Developing transferable groupwork skills for engineering students. Int. J. Eng. Educ. 17, 59–66 (2001) 3. Chadha, D., Nicholls, G.: Teaching transferable skills to undergraduate engineering students: recognising the value of embedded and bolt-on approaches. Int. J. Eng. Educ. 22, 116 (2006) 4. Bishop, D., Hordern, J.: Degree Apprenticeships: Higher Technical or Technical Higher (Education)? Bath. GBR: Bath Spa University, Institute for Education (2017) 5. Tesfai, L.: Creating Pathways to College Degrees Through Apprenticeships. Education Policy, New America (2019) 6. Institute for Apprenticeships: Apprenticeship standard: Digital & Technology Solutions Specialist Integrated Degree (2017) 7. Mathur, S., Malik, S.: Advancements in the V-Model. Int. J. Comput. Appl. 1, 29–34 (2010) 8. Rubin, M.J.: The effectiveness of live-coding to teach introductory programming. In: Proceeding of the 44th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, pp. 651–656 (2013) 9. Marczewski, A.: Gamification: A Simple Introduction. Andrzej Marczewski (2013) 10. Ellis, R., Skehan, P., Li, S., Shintani, N., Lambert, C.: Task-Based Language Teaching: Theory and Practice. Cambridge University Press (2019) 11. Lillis, F., Bravenboer, D.W.: The best practice in work-integrated pedagogy for degree apprenticeships in a post-viral future. High. Educ. Skills Work Based Learn. 10(5), 727–739 (2020) 12. Wilson, B., Cole, P.: A review of cognitive teaching models. Educ. Tech. Res. Dev. 39, 47– 64 (1991) 13. Weegar, M.A., Pacis, D.: A Comparison of two theories of learning-behaviorism and constructivism as applied to face-to-face and online learning. In: Proceedings e-leader Conference, Manila (2012) 14. Bloom, B.S.: Learning for Mastery. Instruction and Curriculum. Regional Education Laboratory for the Carolinas and Virginia, Topical Papers and Reprints, Number 1. Evaluation comment, vol. 1, no. 2 (1968)

Laboratory Didactics 5.0 Rediscovering Reality Gudrun Kammasch1(&), Hans-Georg Bruchmüller2, and Silke Frye3 1

Berliner Hochschule für Technik, BHT, Berlin, Germany [email protected] 2 Technische Hochschule Ulm, Ulm, Germany [email protected] 3 Technische Universität Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. Not least because of the experience with online studies gathered during the pandemic and the accompanying significant reduction in real-life laboratory education and training, it is necessary to carefully explore the formidable didactic potential of practical education in the laboratory. After considering the rationale for laboratory didactics put forward by Albert Haug, this paper goes on to examine the latest research in various branches of the humanities which emphasizes the importance for the learning process of real-life experience in the context of social interaction, in the form of “cooperative thinking”. The authors also consider the appropriate use of “cross reality” in the laboratory and draw attention to the importance of carefully planning the microstructure of practical work in the laboratory to provide the best possible support for the learning process and to make it as effective as possible. Keywords: Experience-based learning lab


Cooperative thinking
Cross-reality

1 Origin of Laboratory Didactics and It’s Rationale “Even though the laboratory is indisputably one of the main pillars of engineering education, scant attention has hitherto been paid to the didactic aspects thereof and there is very little literature on the subject. Hence it is fitting to undertake, in this book, the first attempt (as far as the author is aware) to present a more or less full account of laboratory didactics.” These lines were written by Haug (1980) in the preface to his publication “Labordidaktik in der Ingenieurausbildung” (Laboratory didactics in engineering education). He is regarded as the founder of laboratory didactics, drawing much deserved attention to the laboratory as a key space for learning during training and studies in natural sciences and engineering, not only in his work for the International Society for Engineering Education, IGIP, but also in numerous lectures and further training courses as well as in his own teaching and research. Haug’s theoretically demanding lectures are unforgettable and, with his warm-heartedness and love of humanity, he was always able to capture the attention of his students and colleagues © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 775–786, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_77

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and inspire them. His personality and his fundamental work on the theory and practice of laboratory didactics have shaped an entire generation of technology teachers. From an early stage, Albert Haug emphasized the effects of the extensive changes to our world brought about by technology. Technology is the basis of culture and an indispensable part of it, yet “in technology, all products and results are not only models but also our everyday reality; correcting them can be difficult, even very difficult, and takes a long time - if it can be done at all it. For this reason, it is safe to say that engineers bear a considerably greater, and direct, responsibility than scientists and researchers” (Haug 2007). Taking Albert Haug’s work as a starting point, the authors of this paper go on to consider further research and developments, not only in the fundamentals of the theory and practice of laboratory didactics but also in technology and put forward their observations and conclusions for discussion.

2 Fundamentals The Laboratory as a Teaching and Learning Space. Teaching in the various fields of technology, the numerous engineering disciplines and the applied sciences is demanding and highly challenging. Its aim is to introduce students to the properties and behaviour of matter, the laws governing technical processes and the mathematics permeating the various disciplines and to teach them how to apply this knowledge and produce creative innovations. Therefore, academic teaching first requires a careful analysis of the relevant field or discipline. The founder of the Dresden School of Engineering Education, Carl Hans Lohmann, wrote in 1953 that the “methodology of technological, engineering and scientific disciplines and the methods by which the associated subjects are taught determine how the individual disciplines and subject-specific didactics are linked” [Kersten]. It is this link which forms the basis for developing teaching/learning objectives and establishing what subject-matter is to be covered in university curricula and in individual modules and courses. With regard to actual classroom teaching, Melezinek (1986) describes four other “pedagogical variables”: The method of teaching/learning, the use of media and the psycho- and socio-structure of the students – not to forget the interaction with the university teacher. Albert Haug introduced “operationalized teaching objectives” into engineering education, which is typically based on experience and applying knowledge in practice. These objectives describe not only what students know on a cognitive level after the learning process but also what they are able to do, in other words, how they behave. Haug derived this close link between knowledge and skills from the history of education – Comenius, Kerschensteiner, Spranger etc. – and was also inspired to a certain extent by behaviourist theories (F. Mager). Today’s “4ING” skills concept (Kammasch 2014) seems to coincide to a great extent with Haug’s view. As a logical consequence, Albert Haug directed his attention to the laboratory, the heart of engineering education. With its close link between knowledge and direct

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experience of reality, the interaction between understanding and developing, collaboration and communication – conveyed by facial expressions, gestures, speech and writing – the laboratory has incredible didactic potential. This is supported by recent research, in particular in the humanities. Experiencing Reality. Transforming knowledge of the properties of matter into creative, responsible actions requires a comprehensive and accessible implicit awareness, or “tacit knowing” (Polanyi). How can the development of “tacit knowing” be influenced in a positive manner and which factors and conditions are effective? What role does a student’s psychological and social make-up play in his or her interaction with the teacher and how is this interaction influenced by the teacher’s personality? First-hand experience of factual connections is a first step. However, it is not only our five senses, but also our emotions that open up within us a deeper perception which is linked with thinking. In the first encyclopaedia, compiled by Diderot and d’Alembert at the end of the 18th century, Louis de Jaucourt explained: “Sensibility… gives its owner a kind of insight into everything that is righteous and pervades matter to a greater depth than reason is able to.” (de Jaucourt 2013). The “Uniquely Human Cognition and Sociality”. Does de Jaucourt’s “sensibility” anticipate what Tomasello (2019) presented as the summa scientia of his research around 250 years later? In experimental research conducted over a period of more than 20 years in collaboration with his research group, a new “theory of the ontogeny” of homo sapiens was developed at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. In “Becoming Human”, Michael Tomasello presents a “A Neo-Vygotskian Theory”. His central argument is that there is a “uniquely human cognition and sociality” which is founded on the human capacity for “shared intentionality”. What is meant is people’s ability to concentrate on common objectives as a basis for cooperation und cognition (cooperative thinking). In the triadic interaction “person-personreal world”, reality is experienced collectively. What is “Neo-Vygotskian” about the theory derived by Tomasello? Lev Vygotskij, who is more widely known in English-speaking countries than in German-speaking ones, is regarded as the founder of the “cultural-historical school”. In “Thinking and Speech”, his principal work, Vygotskij sets out the reasons for the importance of language for human thought. Tomasello’s research goes further. As a result, he describes a fundamental process that brings people who exchange thoughts and ideas together in a “shared intentionality”. While this is also expressed in language, language in human dialogue can be understood as more than just a “common set of computational/combinatorial mechanisms” and “a representational medium for ‘core knowledge of the world’”: “But, as I have argued previously, the invocation of language as simply a medium of representation and computation is not sufficient to explain uniquely human cognition and sociality. Without a deeper analysis of human linguistic competence grounded in more basic abilities such as joint attention, the embedding of perspectives, and social self-monitoring – that is, basic processes of shared intentionality – it is impossible to explain the many and various ways that humans use language to communicate. And critically, these deeper processes of shared intentionality – and not linguistic representation and computation – are what is required for explaining the many and various

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other forms of uniquely human cognition and sociality, from children’s emerging senses of fairness and obligation to their cooperative thinking with peers.” (Tomasello 2019, 299–300). Could what we describe as intuition also be founded on “deeper processes of shared intentionality” and could this be a reference to Kurt Gödel’s incompleteness theorems? In this connection, Julian Nida-Rümelin and Nathalie Weidenfeld cite Alan Turing who conceded that Gödel’s theorems had demonstrated beyond doubt that it is impossible to develop a system of formal logic that renders intuition unnecessary (Nida-Rümelin and Weidenfeld 2018). If we transpose the result of Tomasello’s research to the laboratory as a teaching and learning space, this means that deeper learning occurs in the form of “cooperative thinking” when students work together, in direct dialogue – in the triadic, fact-based dialogue between teachers and students – and in experiencing the real world with all senses (Hoefele 2017). Its elements are careful instruction, collaboration and exchanging thoughts and ideas on what is happening by means of facial expressions, gestures and language (both spoken and written). Suddendorf (2019) takes up Tomasello’s arguments, declaring that the following is specifically human, in contrast to closely related primates: “There are two characteristics that only exist in homo sapiens: thinking up complex scenarios and exchanging thoughts with other members of the same species.” Thanks to our boundless imagination, we are capable of envisioning and acting out numerous situations and future scenarios on an inner mental stage and, thanks to our desire to exchange thoughts and ideas with others, of mentally shaping such ideas collectively. According to Suddendorf, it is these abilities that led to the development of culture, civilization and technology, with science being “the disciplined application of our collective intelligence”. He concludes that our ability to look into the future also means that we are faced with moral decisions and points out how we are called upon to exercise care when dealing with our planet Earth (cf. Tomasello 2016). What Does Evidence-Based Research into Teaching and Learning tell us? As a condition for the ability to exercise responsibility, Schneider and Stern (2010) argue that “… cognitive research shows that well-structured knowledge underlies more complex competences including conceptual understanding, efficient skills, and adaptive expertise. Learners lacking such knowledge are unable to take advantage of the multitude of social, ecological, technological, cultural, economical, medical, and political resources that surround them”. With their extensive evidence-based research into teaching and learning, Schneider and Preckel (2017) complement the research conducted by Tomasello or Suddendorf. All of the metaanalyses of various factors contributing to students’ academic performance that had previously been published in specialist literature were collated. The subsequent analysis considered the 38 most relevant metaanalyses with data from a total of 3,330 individual studies and for almost two million students in various countries and at various types of university. The analysis of all of the data using 105 variables relating to students’ academic performance reveals the following:

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• Learning strategies are of utmost important for students during their studies (irrespective of their individual circumstances). • Among the different approaches to teaching, social interaction has the highest frequency of high positive effect sizes – such as readiness to help others, teachers taking an interest in their students, open-ended questions, encouraging discussion, working in small groups. • By contrast, the correlation between the use of digital learning technology and performance is relatively weak and has not changed over the past few years and decades in spite of technical progress. Franzis Preckel argues that “social Interaction is particularly effective because it requires students to actively engage with each other and their teachers and explicitly verbalize knowledge, as well as perspective-taking and comparing arguments”. The following arguments put forward by Schneider and Preckel may be applied effectively to laboratory didactics in particular: “The combination of teacher-centred and student-centred instructional elements is more effective than either form of instruction alone” and “to be effective, teachers need to pay attention to the microstructure of their courses.” As regards the effectiveness of learning technologies, the question arises as to how the results of this meta-meta-study and evidence-based research into teaching and learning in general can be applied in the quest to supplement and expand the didactic potential of the laboratory in a meaningful way. Examples of this are given in Chapter 5 (Terkowsky et al. 2020).

3 Excursus: The Experiment An Example Illustrates the Didactic Potential of the Laboratory as a Teaching and Learning Space. The subject of “torque” is discussed in a physics lecture for first-year students. To demonstrate the concept, students are asked whether it is possible to stop the axis of a motor by hand when it rotates with the torque of 1 Nm, the axis in question having a diameter of 10 mm. The following questions are explored: How can one know the quality and quantity of a force of 1 N? The weight force of a bar of chocolate (100 g) is 1 N, (0.1 kg
9.81 m/s2  1 N). How does this produce a torque of 1 Nm? A bar of chocolate is attached to a 1 m long rod (lever) which is in turn fastened vertically to the axis to enable it to turn. The set-up can be seen in the diagram. Again, the students are asked whether it is possible to stop the axis turning.

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The students can only guess. They do not know how much the axis turns in their hand or how hard they have to grip it in order to make it stop or even whether it is possible to do so at all. Most of the time, the lecture ends there. The learning process remains open. Students are left with “half-knowledge”. Even students in higher semesters who are able to explain the structure may still be unable to answer the question. This is the Highlight of the “Integrated Laboratory” Lecture: The first step is to establish the quality and quantity of the two basic quantities, 1 N and 1 m. To start with, it is important for two students sitting next to each other in the lecture hall to form a team. A very important element of the learning process during experiments is for students to talk about what they have just experienced and to formulate expectations with regard to the open question. Students are given several dummies in the shape of a bar of chocolate but with different weights and asked which of the labelled bars weighs 100 g. The 100 g dummy is generally found, with an accuracy of 10–20% depending on the hand position. The next step is for students to hold hands while standing at a distance of one meter apart. The subsequent measurement also generally has an accuracy of around 10%. This shows that it is not possible to establish either 100 g or 1 m accurately. These experiences then have to be mentally linked in such a way that they result in a torque of 1 Nm. Students are then asked once again whether they think it would be possible to stop the axis turning. Each team has to arrive at a decision based on the experience of perceiving the two basic variables. Typically, about 75% conclude that it is not possible to stop the axis. Discussing the expected result provides significant support for the learning process and motivates students very strongly to finally be allowed to do the experiment. Performing the Experiment: The individual components of the experimental set-up are handed out. Each team is given a bar of chocolate to share and eat at the end of the experiment, regardless of the result. The axis features a device into which the 1 m long rod is inserted. To balance the weight, a rod of the same length must be inserted on the opposite side. This allows the axis, with its diameter of 10 mm, to rest in the open hand without turning. The bar of chocolate is then attached to the far end of a rod, i.e. at a distance of 1 m, with a strip of adhesive tape and everyone is allowed to try to stop the axis rotating. Only with an extremely firm grip on the axis is it possible to stop the rotation for a few seconds. A few succeed. Many participants try again and again. Repetition also helps students to memorize what they have perceived. In this way, an “invariant representation” of the torque of 1 Nm is created in the cortex (Hawkins 2004). From a neurological point of view, a significant contribution to the retention of information is also made when expectations are compared with results. As soon as a result differs from students’ expectations or is

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better than expected, dopamine (success hormone) is released, strengthening the new neuronal connection (Spitzer 2004). In any laboratory experiment, it must therefore first be ensured that students formulate an expectation for the result before the experiment is carried out. It should subsequently be ensured that more such “eureka” experiences occur in the “laboratory integrated into the lecture”. The motivation to be allowed to experiment creatively is great. For example, a balance can be developed from this arrangement. The time required for this experiment is less than 30 min and the cost is less than 5€ per experiment. Many students and seminar participants never forget this experiment. They experience the quality of a torque and feel how it is practically impossible to stop an axis with a diameter of 10 mm and a torque of 1 Nm. The laboratory integrated into the lecture (IL) thus provides a good foundation for setting up and performing simple, advanced Level I laboratory experiments in the learning-teaching laboratory on the basis of experiencing basic quantities. In the higher semesters, laboratory experiments become more demanding in line with the increased level of knowledge, such as in the project laboratory (Level II), and ultimately lead to independent scientific work (Level III) (Bruchmüller and Haug 2001).

4 Laboratory Didactics What Conclusions can be Drawn from the Foregoing Chapters? The example presented above by Hans-Georg Bruchmüller clearly demonstrates how experiencing reality directly – with all one’s senses – is of supreme importance for the learning process. Conducting the experiment together with others reinforces the experience in “deeper processes of shared intentionality”. For Tomasello, it is this ability which forms the foundation of the “uniquely human cognition and sociality”. The processes that occur when students learn to understand observed phenomena and attempt to devise solutions to problems is what Suddendorf describes as envisaging scenarios, including future ones, on an inner mental stage. As humans, we also have the desire to exchange thoughts and ideas with others and share this mental stage with them. As mentioned above, cognitive science tells us that “well-structured knowledge underlies more complex competences including conceptual understanding, efficient skills, and adaptive expertise”. Furthermore, empirical studies show that social interaction has the highest frequency of high positive effect sizes – these include readiness

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to help others, teachers taking an interest in their students, open-ended questions, encouraging discussion, working in small groups. This is reinforced by the combination of teacher-centred and student-centred instructional elements. Finally, given that Schneider and Preckel argue that “teachers need to pay attention to the microstructure of their courses”, the following recommendations for the didactic design of laboratory sessions in university courses can be made: • Experiments need to be conducted by the students themselves, as practical work, and not (only) as demonstrations by teachers. • Tasks (tests, experiments) should be performed jointly, with the active participation of all members of the relevant peer group. • Alternating teacher-centred and student-centred instructional elements should be included in teaching plans, • as well as sufficient time for learning through dialogue. A Didactic Model: Heterogeneous Groups and Team-Teaching. On the basis of the heterogeneous background of today’s students, working groups can be composed in such a way as to encourage integration and can be mixed, for example according to the following criteria: Different school backgrounds/previous practical training or direct entry to university/male and female students/different cultural backgrounds. This also enables students to gather valuable intercultural experience which is important in their subsequent careers. The combination of teacher-centred and student-centred instructional elements can be achieved with elements of guidance by tutors and peer-learning. For example, group members can take turns to be in charge of practical tasks – after being instructed briefly on how to do so by the teacher beforehand. Team-teaching lays the foundations of cooperation and is a wonderful example of extensive dialogue-based teaching and learning – with both colloquial and technical language skills being practised in a reallife situation. This didactic model has a doubly integrative effect: Students with very different biographies cooperate – and the intensive learning of the subject-matter is embedded in a process that permits the development of a wide range of personal skills (Stallmann 2006). Classic Aspects of Laboratory Didactics. The call for teachers “to pay attention to the microstructure of their courses” opens up a variety of other areas in the context of the laboratory as a teaching and learning space: Technical language and scientific writing skills are developed and reinforced through dialogue (instruction, group work) and writing (instructions for performing experiments, laboratory journals, reports, presentations). When working in the laboratory, teachers apply insights from the psychology of learning and neurodidactics (usually without realizing it). Deep memory structures are formed when students explain points to each other, take responsibility for an experiment or perform practical work and there is continuous development of “intelligent knowledge/conceptual

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knowledge”. As Kim (Kim 2021) said: “What are the cognitive principles that improve training, teaching and learning? Learning begins with effortful and focused attention.” (Cf. Mörth et al. 2021). Experience of ethical aspects is gathered when original data are carefully entered in laboratory journals or logbooks. There is an obligation to be honest - amending entries being the first step towards falsifying data. Training in health and safety aspects and in how to dispose of expendable materials correctly creates an awareness of others and of the environment and includes aspects of sustainable behaviour. Integrating the Laboratory into the Curriculum. Integrating laboratory work into university courses requires complex technical and didactic aspects to be considered. From “integrated laboratory sessions” accompanying specific lectures, which mainly serve to develop systematic knowledge structures, through laboratory work focusing on developing methodological aspects, possibly including open-ended processes in miniprojects, to increasingly independent work with instruction/guidance (including in projects), the aim is to teach students to be independent and to assume responsibility while also taking ethical aspects into account – (cf. Bruchmüller and Haug 2001; Kammasch 2017). An excellent example are the projects for first-year students initiated and organized by Manfred Hampe at TU Darmstadt (Darmstadt Technical University), with “interdisciplinary networking” involving the participation of each discipline at the university. Hampe is committed to teaching students to become independent, in accordance with Humboldt’s ideal of ‘Selbstthätigkeit’ (the ability to act independently) (DirschWeigand and Hampe 2018).

5 Digital Transformation – Cross Reality Laboratories Just as increasing digitization permeates all professional profiles, the engineering profession and engineering practice, it also affects the laboratory as the ‘heart’ of engineering education. That this results in special challenges, not only from a technical but also from a didactic and methodological point of view, is also underlined by the low effectiveness of digital learning technologies as seen in evidence-based teaching and learning research and described above. ‘The digital issue’ does not stand alone and is not an end in itself but opens up new possibilities for the design of competenceoriented and contemporary higher education. While learning in the laboratory (as a physical place) has usually been tightly constrained and formally structured in terms of location and time, digital laboratory scenarios and elements in so-called ‘Cross Reality Laboratories’ can foster flexibility and self-organization (e.g. Franuszkiewicz et al. 2019) and, if necessary, also enable more efficient use of limited laboratory resources. Cross Reality Laboratories are teaching and learning spaces with a variety of digital components. According to May (2020), these include with an increasing degree of digitization: • Mobile Laboratories – real, physically existing laboratory resources that are mobile and can be used at any location in connection with a mobile device, for example

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• Augmented Reality Laboratories – real, physically existing laboratory resources that are enhanced with virtual content and visualization while an experiment is being performed • Remote Laboratories – real, physically existing laboratory resources that can be controlled remotely via the internet when performing an experiment • Virtual Laboratories – fully digital simulations of laboratory resources, experiments, processes and experimental results If experiencing reality ‘with all senses’ is shown to be a key element of learning in the laboratory, it is obvious that digital laboratories are of course limited in this aspect and cannot address all senses. The ways of interacting – both between the persons involved and between persons and technology – are also partially or even completely digitally transformed in digital laboratories. So what does this mean? Does it mean that digital laboratories are only ‘makeshift or substitute constructs’? That is certainly not the case. This is because it must first be considered which learning objectives are addressed in the respective types of laboratory. If it is ‘touching’, ‘smelling’ and ‘feeling’ the laboratory equipment and the experiment, then Virtual Laboratories or Remote Laboratories are certainly not helpful. But if it is ‘seeing’ results and effects, digitally supported visualizations, e.g. in Augmented Reality Laboratories or in Virtual Laboratories, offer a significant additional value. Especially during the current pandemic, many students and teachers are experiencing on a very practical level what digital learning technologies and Cross Reality Laboratories can achieve and make possible. Yet in this process it becomes immediately clear to all participants that digitization and virtualization result in different requirements for the didactic and methodological design of learning in the laboratory. For example, while direct interpersonal communication is a natural part of collaboration in the real, physical laboratory, it must be explicitly considered and planned in digital settings. However, social interaction and exchanging ideas are also possible in web conferences, for example, and although “cooperative thinking” requires the laboratory to initiate communication, but not necessarily as a physical place for communication. The COVID 19 pandemic and the resulting online semesters have shown that digitization is also a part of (higher education) reality and that both teachers and learners are challenged to discover and shape it appropriately. Beyond the current situation of what is often termed ‘emergency remote teaching’, Cross Reality Laboratories are in no way intended to replace the traditional ‘hands-on’ laboratories, but instead to extend and complement them. This mix makes it possible to combine the benefits of ‘all realities’ and also to promote cross-disciplinary basic digital skills, which are mentioned, for example, in the “Future Skills Framework” (Kirchherr et al. 2018) as essential key competencies for professional life and social participation in these times of digitization. In addition to digital learning, interaction and collaboration, the key competencies, include the responsible use of data on the Internet (digital literacy) or digital ethics. In the Future Skills Framework, they are supplemented by traditional, non-digital competencies such as problem-solving skills, creativity, selfinitiative, adaptability and perseverance, which are personal competencies that have always been addressed in the context of teaching and learning in the laboratory.

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Thus the laboratory, in all its diverse concepts and ‘realities’, remains forwardlooking even in times of digitization and remains a fundamental component – or the ‘heart’ – of engineering education.

References Bruchmüller, H.-G., Haug, A.: Labordidaktik für Hochschulen. Eine Einführung zum Praxisorientierten Projekt-Labor. Schriftenreihe report Band 40, (ed.) Lenkungsausschuss der Studienkommission für Hochschuldidaktik an den Fachhochschulen Baden-Württembergs. Leuchtturm-Verlag, Alsbach/Bergstraße (2001) Dirsch-Weigand, A., Hampe, M.: Interdisziplinäre Studienprojekte gestalten. Aus der Praxis für die Praxis. wbv Media, Bielefeld (2018) Franuszkiewicz, J., Frye, S., Terkowsky, C., Heix, S.: Flexibles und selbstorganisiertes Ler-nen im Labor – Remote-Labore in der Hochschullehre. Zeitschrift für Hochschulentwicklung 14 (3), 273–285 (2019) Haug, A.: Labordidaktik in der Ingenieurausbildung. VDE-Verlag, Berlin (1980) Haug, A.: Vorwort zum Ingenieurpädagogischen Curriculum II der IGIP. Unveröffent-lichtes Arbeitspapier (2007) Hawkins, J.: On Intelligence. How a New Understanding of the Brain Will Lead to the Creation of Truly Intelligent Machines. Times Books (2004) Hoefele, J.: Digitalisierung in der Lehre. Die multimodale «Triadische Beziehung» als humanspezifische Form des Lehrens und Lernens. In: Kammasch, G., Petzold, J. (eds.) Referate der 12. Ingenieurpädagogischen Regionaltagung 2017. Erschienen 2018, pp. 59–70. IPW, Berlin (2017) de Jaucourt, L.: Empfindsamkeit – sensibilité. In: Selg, A., Wieland, R. (eds.) Didérots Enzyklopädie (dt. Teilübersetzung der Encyclopédie von 1751–1772), p. 129. Die andere Bibliothek, Berlin (2013) Kammasch, G.: Kompetenzen in der Ingenieurbildung. Die Neue Hochschule 2014 (5), 158–161 (2014) Kammasch, G.: Das Laboratorium in der Kulturgeschichte. In: Kammasch, G., Petzold, J. (eds.) Referate der 12. Ingenieurpädagogischen Regionaltagung 2017. Erschienen 2018, pp. 99– 106. IPW, Berlin (2017) Kersten, S.: Ingenieurpädagogik an der TU Dresden als Beispiel hochschuldidaktischer Entwicklungen in Ostdeutschland (in progress) Kim, J.A.: Motivating durable learning through instructional design. International Keynote held at 49. Annual Conference of the German Association for Educational Devel-opment (dghd). die hochschullehre, Jahrgang 7/2021. pp. 25–37 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3278/HSL2104W. http://wbv.de/die-hochschullehre Kirchherr, J., Klier, J., Lehmann-Brauns, C., Winde, M.: Future Skills - Welche Kompetenzen in Deutschland fehlen. Stifterverband für die Deutsche Wirtschaft e.V., Essen (2018) May, D.: Cross reality spaces in engineering education – online laboratories for support-ing international student collaboration in merging realities. Int. J. Online Biomed. Eng. 16(03), 4 (2020) Melezinek, A.: Ingenieurpädagogik. Praxis der Vermittlung technischen Wissens, 2nd edn. Springer, Wien New York (1986) Mörth, M., Paridon, H., Sonntag, U.: Kognitionswissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse und ihre Folgerungen für evidenzbasierte Hochschullehre. die hochschullehre – Jahrgang 7(5), 38–48 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3278/HSL2105W

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Nida-Rümelin, J., Weidenfeld, N.: Digitaler Humanismus. Eine Ethik für das Zeitalter der Künstlichen Intelligenz. p. 111, p. 213 footnote 39. Piper, München (2018) Schneider, M., Preckel, F.: Variables associated with achievement in higher education: a systematic review of meta-analyses. Psychol. Bull. 143, 565–600 (2017). https://doi.org/10. 1037/bul0000098 Schneider, M., Stern, E.: The cognitive perspective on learning: ten cornerstone findings. In: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. In: OECD (ed.) The Nature of Learning: Using Research to Inspire Practice, pp. 69–90. OECD, Paris (2010) Spitzer, M.: Nervensachen, p. 101. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart (2004) Stallmann, M.: Bericht zur Evaluation des Lehrveranstaltungsangebots im Rahmen des Gender/Innovationsprojektes an der TFH Berlin (2006, unpublished) Suddendorf, Th.: Kognition. Schlaue Köpfe. Spektrum der Wissenschaft 2019(1), 20–25 (2019) Terkowsky, C., May, D., Frye, S., Haertel, T., et al. (eds.): Labore in der Hochschullehre. Didaktik, Digitalisierung, Organisation. wbv, Bielefeld (2020) Tomasello, M.: Becoming Human. A Theory of Ontogeny, pp. 299–300. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (2019) Tomasello, M.: A Natural History of Human Morality. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (2016) Vygotskij, L.S.: Denken und Sprechen. Psychologische Untersuchungen. In: Lompscher, J., Rückriem, G. (eds.) Beltz, Weinheim und Basel (2002). This edition is a new German translation of the Russian original. It is based on intensive research by the editors using authentic original documents

Professional Self-identification of Student’s Majoring in Engineering Ramilya Farakshina1, Liliya Slavina1, Jamila Mustafina1(&), Nailya Nurutdinova1, Askar Khayrullin1, Ahmed Al-Jaaf2, and Mohammed Alloghani3 1

2

Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia [email protected] Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK 3 Artificial Intelligence Office, Dubai, UAE

Abstract. The concept of consciousness, as a scientific problem, has been the object of many scientists’ research. Basically, humanities scientists dealt with this problem. Due to the fact that consciousness is an intangible phenomenon, it is quite difficult to study it without applying the inter- or transdisciplinary approach including data from History, Social sciences, Psychology and other cognitive studies. It is hard to imagine the modern research of the consciousness, without the use of technology. The paper studies the socio-psycholinguistic aspects of self-identification of students majoring in Engineering. The authors identify the special features of the perception of the engineering profession throughout the time, focusing on the contemporary peculiarities of the matter. Keywords: Consciousness


Psycholinguistics
Engineer
Stereotypes

1 Introduction Consciousness is one of the most important issues in philosophy. In a general sense, the concept of consciousness means «subjective reality associated with the work of the brain and its products: ideas, emotions, thoughts, prejudices, scientific, as well as nonscientific knowledge» [1]. In certain sources, consciousness is understood as an attribute property of any substance. In other sources, consciousness is explored as an immaculate entity that depends on the universal intelligence. J. Locke is at the origin of the study of consciousness. Also, according to the French scientists of the XVIII century the individual has a soul at birth, and consciousness is formed under the influence of social conditions. Issues of the definition of the nature, functions, and structure of consciousness are divided into two categories: in the XX century, one group of scientists implied the illusory nature of consciousness, and the second compared this fact with language, behavioral reactions, and actions that occur in the human nervous system, rejecting the specifics and the special structure and essence of consciousness. Table 1 below shows the main approaches to consciousness. The parameters of consciousness can be considered as the presence of different types of thinking, as well as experiences. In the first case a person and an animal are opposed, in the second one – a person and a PC. In psychology, «a human is thought of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 787–796, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_78

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as something between an animal and a computer: he is related to animals by experience and to computers by thinking» [2]. Table 1. Approaches to consciousness № 1

Type Evolutionary

2

Materialistic

3 4 5 6

Cognitive Informational and procedural Sociological Ecological

7

Semiotic

Description Consideration of consciousness from the perspective of the development of living matter Considers consciousness not as independent matter, but as a product of matter, so it can be studied within the framework of physics and other natural sciences Recognizes consciousness as synonymous with thinking Emerging as a special quality of matter, consciousness develops in culture and society, turning into a self-developing system Consciousness is a socio-historical fact The connection between human being and the biological world is clear, but it is realized only when it enters the human’s sphere itself, and is also included in the public consciousness and is covered by culture A relatively new direction that deals with the symbolic means of consciousness

E. V. Kosilova gives quite strong arguments to the postulate that the correlation of consciousness to thinking and experience is considered incorrect, due to the fact that consciousness is possible without thinking, as well as without experiences. Neither thinking, nor experiencing, nor both of them exhaust consciousness in any way, despite the fact that they accompany its most states [3]. Human consciousness interacts closely with language. The first type of humans’ communication is through language and speech, but the second type of communication is consciousness. Consciousness reflects reality, and language focuses on the most basic features in this reflection. It is also important to emphasize that consciousness is also represented in other sign systems, in «various artificial and symbolic languages (musical, mathematical, Esperanto, cybernetic, dance, colors, gestures, etc.)» [1].

2 Psycholinguistic Interpretation of Language Consciousness In modern linguistics, the word combination «language consciousness» is common, and is also considered to be a single whole, despite the fact that language and consciousness are considered to be concepts of different fields: language – linguistics, consciousness – psychology. The use of the term «language consciousness» shows the relationship between language and consciousness, which has been discussed for quite a long time. The study of language consciousness is not a simple procedure. This is a consequence of the fact that consciousness itself is considered to be the highest configuration

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of the nervous system display, which is associated with the multi-complex mechanisms of the cognitive functions of the individual. The formation and development of consciousness takes place only in the language environment. For this reason, language is necessary for the existence of consciousness. Psycholinguistics is a field that consists of two sciences – psychology and linguistics. In this direction, the nature and functioning of language and speech are investigated. Psychology and linguistics have common characteristics. In psychology, there is a section that studies language and speech. Linguistics is the science that deals with language and speech. As it turned out, the two sciences study similar areas. One of the main tasks of psychology is the study of speech ability: the relationship of language and speech with perception, motor skills, thinking, feelings; the development of language and speech in ontogenesis, as well as phylogeny [4]. From that perspective, there is a single criterion that distinguishes psycholinguistic studies—the use of positions, information, approaches and psychology and linguistics in order to form knowledge about the nature of speech and language. Thanks to N. Chomsky, a new stage of psycholinguistics has emerged, which is characterized by the appeal to transformational or generative grammar. Chomsky in his work formulated a concept in which the understanding of the native language is a system of rules called the grammar of the language [5]. The structure of the grammar is described by the rules of changes. Information is realized by the individual in the process of speech. Later, the linguistic model was integrated into the list of capabilities of the nervous system and was applied in experimental studies. The hypothesis was the following: an individual creating his own speech uses the concept of transformational grammatical rules, this can be discovered experimentally [6]. A large number of studies were carried out on the basis of this hypothesis: time was recorded, and test subjects translated active affirmative sentences into passive, negative and interrogative sentences; they studied how the subjects memorized sentences of different transformational complexity; the process of comparing illustrations and sentences describing them were investigated [7].

3 The Stereotype as a Social Phenomenon Today, we all live in a society of stereotypes. Stereotypes often determine moral norms, form different types of concepts. They determine our behavior, our judgment, and our approach to the world around us. Thanks to the stereotypes formed in our minds, we know how to behave in any situation. However, the stereotypes our judgments are based on can be both genuine and erroneous. The choice of specialty is based on the formation of stereotypes of thinking – a number of familiar truths and methods that form the knowledge base. There is a sufficient number of good employees in their own professional activities who are unable to overcome the established stereotypes and refute everything that does not meet their vision. The destruction of stereotypes in the head of a person is a very painful procedure and entails resistance, as well as irritability. Non-accepting the new is

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conditioned by the subconscious instinct of self-preservation, which seeks to protect us from the possible shocks associated with the destruction of established stereotypes [8]. Stereotypes are considered to be very significant quality of the human psyche in generalizing. A person would not be able to navigate the flow of information in a short time if he did not have the ability to summarize, simplify, and schematize the reality around him. This feature guarantees the ability of the human brain to form general concepts about phenomena and facts formed on the basis of previous human knowledge, and in addition, new information that comes to it [8]. Stereotypes only reveal the essence of an event or phenomenon that is understandable to all or a large number of people. The presence of stereotypes in our everyday life is twofold. On the one hand, stereotypes greatly simplify life, but on the other hand, they reduce our ability to find out something that goes beyond the usual concepts or contradicts them. Cognitive definitions of words appear on the basis of stereotypes that create linguistic and cultural view of the world of objects and phenomena. The essence of cognitive definitions are typical properties of objects that we consider familiar and representative. While lexical definitions are based on objective, verifiable properties, cognitive definitions are based on inaccurate subjective generalizations. These generalizations apply only to typical, ordinary objects or phenomena, and not to everything that a single denomination can make up. This approach to vocabulary is used for normal everyday communication, for literary texts, advertising and folklore texts; various clichés and phraseologies are based on it. Popular etymology and socalled folk psychology attest to cognitive definitions. The stereotype defined by cognitive linguistics is a schematic one-sided «picture in the human mind». With the help of stereotypes, we classify, i.e. group, sort things or phenomena based on some common feature. We categorize and sort to navigate the world. Stereotype-based categorization is different from the Aristotelian concept. Our personal experience, on the one hand, and the historical experience of our entire nation, on the other, are crucial for this. Although different aspects of the «stereotype» are emphasized in different sciences, their essence is the same. This is due to established norms and accepted properties of objects/phenomena/activities/events. This is not the original meaning of the word, but a metaphorical one. A significant part of the stereotypes are those of specialty, race, gender, age, and nationality. Often, people contacting with each other have stereotypes of appearance, for example, an evil person has pursed lips, and bespectacled man is smart. The pattern of the appearance stereotype functioning on an unconscious level is the stereotype «beautiful means good» [8]. This implies that outwardly beautiful people are attributed positive qualities, and less beautiful have negative traits and shortcomings. This stereotype exists in some children at the age of four. With the help of stereotypes, it is very easy to dispose of a person’s consciousness, since the stereotype is directly related to people’s lives. Many experts point to the relationship between stereotypes and the influence of the media. Institutes of general and vocational education meet the main objectives of professional development. Also, they can be the completion of general education, professional self-determination in the course of professional training, the achievement of

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significant productivity in adapting to professional activities, professional selfrealization and mastery [1]. Thus, the professional stereotypes of a person is the concentration of the entire skill of solving relevant issues at the previously passed stages of psychological development. In general, the process of forming professional self-determination in human beings begins with the achievement of a person of the age, when he begins to form the initial ideological guidelines, approximately from 5–7 years. An initial understanding of the future work begins to form. Then a fundamental self-determination is made about the future – a person makes a choice between a law-abiding life and a criminal one, chooses to work for money or for himself. No wonder they say, «Find a favorite activity, and then you will not work a day». It means, a person needs to find an occupation or hobby that will generate income, and the work will not felt like it. In some cases, the professional stereotype is part of a broader gender-role stereotype [1]. This can be seen when the conversation is about male and female professions. Both women and men are assigned certain templates that sort of determine which professions they can choose. We often can meet people, and especially men, who say: «Either a woman or a programmer», «If a woman is a driver, it is not a woman». In our opinion, if a male speaks like that, then he thinks very «narrowly». Such conclusions show the existing system of views that should be changed. Of course, there are professional areas where women work harder than men, and similarly, some activities are less suitable for men than for women. But in practice, there are many exceptions. Stereotypes that are associated with a person’s work activity are attributed to professional ones. The most widely used among them are shown in Table 2. Thus, we see that professional stereotypes are important in our lives. Choosing a profession is one of the most important decisions in life.

4 Formation of the Stereotypical Concept of «engineer»: A Historical Perspective 4.1

Engineer in the Russian Empire

With the advent of Peter I, the development of engineering in Russia began. It was the Peter the Great era when Russian engineers began to get acquainted with the outstanding inventions of Western scientists. Our engineers initially copied the developments of Western scientists, but then began to improve the inventions. At the same time, engineering schools were being built in the Russian Empire. Founded in 1701 by Peter I, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, which trained military engineers for the army and navy, was the first engineering and technical educational institution in Russia that began to provide systematic education. The school was closed in 1752, but there were successors in the field of engineering: the Nikolaev Engineering School, then the Nikolaev Engineering Academy, the Military Engineering and Technical University (METU) [9]. Earlier in the Russian army, engineers were called «rozmysly». In the old days in Russia «rozmysly» were builders of cities, fortifications, casters of cannons and bells [10].

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№ 1

Profession Programmers

2

Accountants

3 4 5 6 7

Politician Businessmen Militaries Sellers Lawyers

8

Artists and poets Writers

9

Statement Puny nerds, always with glasses and crooked teeth, every programmer is simply obliged to be well versed not only in mathematics, but also in computer repair Very principled and serious people who can add and multiply threedigit numbers in their minds Corrupt Dishonest tradesmen Tall Surely extra sociable extrovert Meticulous nerds who read and follow absolutely all the rules, even the technical instructions for household appliances Non-binding and untidy sloppies They like to smoke a pipe and talk about high matters

The very word «rozmysl» characterizes the qualities possessed by engineers in Russia. «Rozmysl» had to plan the task from all sides, relying not only on his own experience, but also on all the experience accumulated by his predecessors, on his mind, ingenuity, even on a dream, on a fantasy.

Fig. 1. The model of an engineer in the Russian Empire1

Based on the work of Ponomarev D. P. «The history of engineering in Russia [11], the model of the engineer in the Russian Empire is developed (Fig. 1), which reflects its own characteristics.

1

The model is described on the basis of the work of Ponomarev D. P. “The history of engineering in Russia”.

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Engineer in the Soviet and post-Soviet Period

In Russia in the 1900s, there were no varieties of engineer, but there was one engineer who thought out and calculated the design himself from beginning to end. He hired a few smart, competent, construction-related guys to help him with his work, and called these guys draftsmen. In reality, they were universal assistants; they themselves were well versed in the designs and solved many pressing tasks. The Soviet specialist was the opposite of the old «specialist». If earlier the uniform showed the cast of «specialists» and students, then the Soviet specialist had to look like a worker: in a work uniform, with a hat and boots. He was not supposed to be a theorist poring over books, but a man solving problems on the spot. After the revolution, good engineers disappeared, and the country began to look for new ones, and many different people came to the engineering industry, recognized as fit only on the basis that they were literate, efficient. Many were forced into prison, citing party discipline. All these people, taking their places at the drawing boards, had no idea what to do [12]. After that, the workers began to sort out among themselves who knows what. The authorities distributed the places so that a person who knows a lot was doing something that no one else in this organization could do. Tasks were easier for those who knew less, and so on to the most illiterate, who drew frames on paper and sharpened pencils. After that, there was a hierarchy of engineering positions with their own responsibilities for each of them. At the end of the Stalin era, this hierarchy was as follows: draftsman-techniciansenior technician – engineer – senior engineer-group leader – Chief designer – department head. Later, the work resulted in a disparity between the numerous semi-literate draughtsmen at the bottom and the single qualified specialists at the top. Draftsmen ignored their engineering duties, and limited themselves to simply redrawing other people’s sketches. And the specialists, on the contrary, were so busy with decisionmaking, management and responsibility that they were often exhausted [8]. The engineering profession was low-paid in Soviet times. In addition, the engineers were deprived of benefits and the opportunity to travel outside the territory of the Soviet Union, as they worked with secret documents. But if an engineer could build a career for himself, then the attitude towards him was completely different. To a greater extent, engineers were popularly considered to be «nerds» and «losers». A model of an engineer in Soviet times was developed (Fig. 2) based on the work of Ilyin V.V., Emelyanov A.V. «Soviet Engineers» [13]. It reflects the features of the content of engineering work. 4.3

The Modern Model of an Engineer

The growth of production in modern society is impossible without scientific and technological progress (STP). The engineer is a key figure of the STP. An engineer is the person who brings scientific knowledge to the production force. 2

The model is described on the basis of the work of Ilyin V. V., Emelyanov A.V. “Soviet engineers”.

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Fig. 2. Engineer in the Soviet and post-Soviet period2

The increasing role of engineering work in social development in modern Russia has come into conflict with the decline in its social prestige, the efficiency reducing, and the lack of a comprehensive system for training new-generation engineering personnel. The survey results of managers of industrial enterprises in 39 regions of Russia showed that the problem of qualified personnel is most expressed. More than half of managers say that finding engineers is either difficult (40%) or almost impossible (28%) [14]. The existing problems in the field of engineering training deserve special attention of economic science and should be considered as a special, relatively independent group of problems. Basing on the article «The model of the modern engineer» by B. D. Babayev and I. B. Bondyrev, a model of the modern engineer is developed (Fig. 3). The model reflects the features of the essence and socio-economic content of engineering work.

Fig. 3. The model of a modern engineer3 3

The model is described on the basis of the work of B. D. Babaev, I. B. Bondyrev “The model of a modern engineer”.

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Apart from the fundamental foundations the role of basic theoretical engineering disciplines is also sharply increasing in the process of the training of a new generation of engineers. Only on the basis of fundamental and basic engineering courses one can build a full-fledged engineer training. Young engineers are presented as modern managers who are characterized by the ability to perceive, understand, accept and use different points of view, different from their own or even opposite to them (antinomianism), as well as the ability to make correct and successful engineering and management decisions with a lack of information (expressiveness). The image of an engineer is associated with adaptability, mobility and innovation. Adaptability is the ability of an engineer to quickly adapt to changing production and working conditions, new situations and requirements. We mean the ability to improve one’s professional and personal qualities, to coordinate personal position with production tasks, to quickly adjust psychologically when moving to another division of the organization or to solve fundamentally new tasks. Mobility refers to the ability of an engineer to change his work functions in form, content, and place of application based on conscious choice and conditions for its implementation. The change of labor can be carried out in time and in space, as well as in time and in space at the same time. Innovation is the ability to be creative, to learn, to achieve more new goals. The ability to go beyond the boundaries of the familiar, proven, traditional. For an engineer, this is expressed through creativity (in work and household activities), in creating something new in their profession, even on a small scale (a new method, technique, etc.). Higher school helps a person meet the modern requirements of STP by organizing production practices, internships, as well as through the active involvement of students in the innovative activities of the university. Also, the engineer must know computer programs, for example: AutoCAD, Compass-3D, etc. When studying for a technical specialty, students should pay attention to learning a foreign language. A young specialist who has joined the work team an engineer should be able to engage in a dialogue with the administration on legal issues, which means a certain level of legal training. The considered qualities define and characterize the modern engineer.

5 Conclusion Stereotypes are attributes that are considered to be characteristic of social groups or people belonging to them. They are an important element for the study of intergroup relations and assessments. Through the content of the stereotypes, one can learn what types of behaviors or results are expected from interacting with a group. In particular, the most relevant content of stereotypes is the one that informs about the competence and warmth of the group (or its members). Competence represents the characteristics associated with the effectiveness of a social object to achieve his/her goals (e.g., intelligent, creative, efficient, and intelligent), while warmth refers to the favorability of those goals (e.g., good-natured, trustworthy, tolerant, friendly, and sincere).

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Engineering activity involves 3 types of activity: natural science, technical and social. From a historical perspective, the concept of the «engineer» has changed to one degree or another. But the main subject-practical nature of engineering activity, due to the implementation of a specific product within its framework, and the socialsatisfaction of certain requests of society on the basis of this remains unchanged: «Rosmysl – improvement of inventions – problem solving – innovative – problematic vision of the world». As for the personal qualities and the degree of success and prestige of the «engineer», there is a change in the understanding by the society that previously this image was associated with readiness to solve technical problems, but now a new concept is being formulated – readiness to solve «socio-engineering» problems. The stereotype of an engineer in the Soviet and post-Soviet period was determined more by cognitive characteristics: intelligence, the ability to learn. In the post-Soviet period, the idea of an «engineer» as having cognitive abilities that were not supported by financial success had a negative connotation – «loser», «nerd». A modern engineer in the view of society – possesses cognitive abilities, is motivated to succeed and with personal qualities such as responsibility; self-confidence; adequate selfesteem; independence; sociability. Acknowledgments. The reported study was funded by RFBR, project number 19-013-00679.

References 1. Andreichenko, G.V., Grachev, V.D.: Philosophy. Stavropol: SSU Publishing House (2001). http://averyanova-ekaterina.narod.ru/andreichenko-gracheva-filosofiia.html 2. Kazachenko, O.V.: Studying the problem of consciousness in the paradigm of sciences: psychology, philosophy and linguistics (2015) 3. Kosilova, E.V.: The study of consciousness in psychology. In: Philosophy of Consciousness: Classics and Modernity: the 2nd Gryaznov Reading, pp. 324–330. Savin, Moscow (2007) 4. Robinson, P.: Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition, pp. 3– 8. Routledge (2008) 5. Chomsky, N.: Syntactic structures (1957) 6. Erikson, E.H.: Identity, psychosocial. In: International Encyclopedia of the Social Scinces, p. 7. The Macmillan Company & The Free Press, New York (1968) 7. Slobin, D.: Green J. Psycholinguistics, 336 p. Progress, Moscow (1976) 8. Stereotypes and their significance in professional activity. https://www.stud24.ru/ psychology/stereotipy-i-ih-znachenie-v/261082-774958-page1.html 9. http://xn———flclaefgadgbl2ccdgivqface04a.xn– 10. Engineer – does that sound proud? http://www.mitrey.ru/professiya-inzhener 11. Ponomarev, D.P.: History of engineering in Russia editing and proofreading – V. E. Zelensky (2014) 12. https://mylektsii.ru/2-119457.html 13. Ilyin, V.V., Emelyanov, A.V.: Soviet engineers. In: The Life of Remarkable People. Molodaya Gvardiya Publishing House (1985) 14. Guryanchik, V.N.: Analysis of regional business attractiveness. In: Belova, E.E. (ed.) Regional Aspects of Entrepreneurship: Past and Present: Proceedings of the 6th Interregional Scientific and Practical Conference. Yaroslavl, 16 April 2014. «Chancellor» Publishing House, Yaroslavl (2014)

Digitalization of Engineering Education in Training for Industry 4.0 Irina Makarova(&) , Jamila Mustafina , Polina Buyvol Eduard Mukhametdinov , and Vadim Mavrin

,

Kazan Federal University, Syuyumbike Prosp., 10a, 423812 Naberezhnye Chelny, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. The modern development of the world economy in the direction of Industry 4.0, taking place against the background of natural resources depletion, requires the search for new engineering solutions. The accelerating rates of technological progress lead, on the one hand, to the need for a transition to the digital economy, and on the other hand, make it possible to implement such a transition. This is a challenge to the engineering education system, which should prepare engineers “for the future” with new digital competencies. The article outlines the directions of digital development of the engineering education system, the problems with which one has to face. An example of learning engineers for the automotive industry is given, taking into account the business requirements for the competence of engineers. It is shown that such a solution will give a good result for both business and students, guaranteeing their relevance in the labor market. Keywords: Digital competencies


Engineering education
Industry 4.0

1 Introduction The modern economy development with digitalization and the transition to Industry 4.0 (IR 4.0), is taking place against the backdrop of markets globalization. Technological breakthroughs and intellectualization of all activity spheres, a change in the employment model, which, according to analysts’ forecasts, will lead to a rethinking of the attitude to work in general and to the work process in particular, open up wide opportunities for cooperation - at individuals and company levels. The emergence of global companies has changed the requirements for employees: one of the important components is the ability to communicate. Human capital, its creativity and ability to innovate, will be the driving force for companies to thrive in the new epoch. Now, it is important to develop abilities not only for communication in the broadest sense of the word, but also for various types of professional communication, including the study of world achievements in the field of engineering and technology, expertise of research, exchange of experience. The leadership of global companies allocating the tasks by forming a personality and training a specialist with a high professionalism level, whose ready to solve problems during bilingual communication. This requires a change in the technology of training a specialist that is competitive in global markets. All this leads to © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 797–809, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_79

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an increase in the requirements for the competence of engineers and the system of engineering education as a whole. In this regard, engineering education has a twofold goal. On the one hand, it is necessary to train personnel for the digital economy that will meet the needs of digital business in all activity spheres, especially in the high-tech industry. On the other hand, it is necessary to digitize the education system itself, including new learning technologies, as well as new content of educational content. Despite the progress in the engineering education system, which is provided by new technologies and e-learning systems, a decrease in motivation for mastering digital technologies is characteristic of both students and university teachers, since it requires significant efforts. The main study goal is to identify the requirements for a modern engineer and a business vision, what qualities a competitive engineer should have in a digital society, as well as the steps that the educational system should take to meet the requirements of business to the graduate of university. To this end, the second chapter summarizes the experience of researchers on the interaction between business and education, the transition to digital education. The third chapter summarizes our experience in solving such problems as part of training personnel for a global automobile construction company. It is shown that the changes should contribute to the creation of a systemic strategy aimed at increasing the sustainability of the engineering education system, the possibility of its continuous improvement and development. Particular attention should be paid to changing the paradigm of the educational process organization, which should combine not only the use of modern methods and teaching aids, but also an orientation towards the needs of real production and business to educate the student’s ability to self-study and quickly adapt to production conditions.

2 Background: Trends in Digitalization of Engineering Education 2.1

Industry 4.0: Qualification Requirements and Peculiarities of Engineers Learning

Given the fact that IR 4.0 has led to a paradigm shift and changes in production processes, a sustainable educational system is needed to training personnel with the necessary competencies. The authors [1] approached the problem solution of personnel training from the three alternative is point of view (intelligence - knowledge of production equipment, interaction - cooperation between people and production equipment, and interface - organization of communication between people and production equipment) as a reflection of intellectual production. The methods used are similar to artificial intelligence, and since different companies and industries may have unique characteristics, this approach helps to increase the flexibility and accessibility of education. The IR 4.0 concept is associated with the introduction of new digital technologies to increase the competitiveness of an industrial enterprise or the industry in which it is being implemented [2, 3]. Technologies for preventive maintenance and failure diagnostics [4, 5] will improve the equipment reliability through the use of digital twin technologies, cloud services and big data processing. The need for industry digitalization requires the education system to introduce the technology fundamentals in the

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training process of future electrical engineers, the effectiveness of which is based on interdisciplinary competencies and new digital technologies [6]. Digitalization and the transition to IR 4.0 forces educational systems to adapt, because the students must be informed with process models [7], simulations [8] and programming. The work [9] proposes the concept of a pedagogical process simulator that integrates gamification and process models as teaching tools. This, according to the authors, will help prepare students to actively participate in the transition to a more sustainable and digital reality what will become the driving force behind IR 4.0. However, this evolution must be accompanied by teacher training in both new teaching methods and new application fields. As article [10] indicated, in parallel with the automation and digitalization of processes, safety issues are also changing: equipment with electronic systems, monitoring and control systems, data encryption systems and software systems. Therefore, these issues need to be taught in the training of the next engineers’ generation. Technical knowledge and “digital literacy” are conceptually necessary for the development of employees. In the context of IR 4.0, an important prerequisite for innovation, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is the integration of interdisciplinary competencies. The article [11] explores whether research institutes in Germany to help SMEs develop digital products, as issue by network interacting between research and industry in Germany remains unresolved. The article [12] describes the impact of the online education environment on the development of students’ digital competencies, which allows maximum use of the teacher’s knowledge, skills and experience and encourages students to continuous selfdevelopment. One of the tasks in IR 4.0 is to evaluate multiple scenarios, and the use of a digital twin (DT) has proven its value in modeling and creating virtual environments. Paper [13] shows how DT has been used to teach industrial concepts such as the automation pyramid, programming of logical controllers and industrial data’s communication over networks, along with the concepts that make up DT such as digital master, digital shadow and system dynamics modeling. 2.2

Interaction Between Universities and Business

The focus of paper [3] is sharing the experience of teaching a new advanced bachelor’s degree course in electrical system operation at an accredited university in North America. According to the authors, capitalizing on digitalization requires a workforce that is difficult to find in the current Indian talent market. The future generation of skilled talent must continue to be creative, new thinking, and cognitively active. Employability is provided by soft skills such as comprehension and interpersonal relationships, as well as technical skills. Safety training resources remain inadequate for China’s burgeoning chemical industry. To reduce risk factors, article [14] provides a diversified model of talent learning with a progressive bilingual teaching method, complemented by a variety of methods such as MOOC learning, computer simulation, fact-based teaching, and CDIO learning. The fivefold assessment method consists of elements such as theory, practice, teamwork, innovation, and discipline. Such training requires a higher teacher’ qualification. As the authors [15] point out, despite the fact that mechanical engineers

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traditionally enjoy a high reputation, and the number of students entering the university to study mechanical engineering is growing, interest in this profession is declining. To increase the interest of high school students, the authors created an application based on game engineering education, to teach an understanding of the integrity and interdisciplinarity of mechanical engineering and its benefits in a sustainable digital world. The application will be constantly improved with new educational content and new stations. Article [16] describes the impact of the implementation of Moodle in the laboratory of computer-aided design in the curriculum. As digitalization of higher education gains momentum across the EU, the efficiency and quality of knowledge transfer by making 100% e-learning, a learning tool is also questionable. Further development will be a combination of partially interactive and topics, that presented in classrooms, that is, a hybrid approach. Study [17] provides a report on engineering teachers’ approaches to teaching and learning on Internet in four different qualitative ways: A) units for accumulation of knowledge, B) learning in isolation, C) path to learning, and D) the possibility of changing teaching and learning activities. Future work will need to consider the implications of this research in order to provide teaching and learning of the same (or better) quality online as compared to classroom teaching. The current level of development of information technology and economy digitalization indicates the need to improve the system of interaction between universities and enterprises that are potential graduates’ employers. The authors [18] proposed the information module “University plus employer”, which interacts with students, graduates and employers, the effectiveness of which is confirmed by an increase in the integral quality indicator more than four times. The article [19] shows that the dialectical and technological contradictions of engineering activity adduct to an ethical dilemma of engineering work: when creating something new, social, moral and environmental problems, as a rule, arise. The authors propose to use the “triangle of sustainability” - a model of social transformational effects (for the variables “social”, “economic” and “environmental”) and their interdependence. Digitalization does not solve the fundamental problem: achieving social and ecological balance. But it is precisely engineering students who must be able to formulate unbiased alternatives as elements of discourse. The study [20] provides policymakers with a concrete way to implement a digital skills training model for an under-represented population with the support of the public sector. Digital skills are needed for any person, and human resources are needed to find a wider range of undeveloped talents. Partnerships with large IT companies or SMEs are essential to help students find work after graduation. Equally important is effective collaboration with academic institutions and civil society in outreach and planning. Since the gap between the knowledge transfer and the industry demands is decreasing the student employment rate, article [21] analyzes the reasons for this situation using the example of research in Indian universities. The result shows that academic sciences play an important role in any technical institution. Ways to improve the quality of technical education are proposed, for example, digitalization of the teaching and learning process.

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Digitalization of Education: Changing Educational Technologies and Teaching Methods

Article [22] is devoted to the development of digital education in the world under the influence of socio-economic threats on a global scale, special demographic and social conditions. The role of digital technologies is substantiated, the main trends and prospects for their development are highlighted; shows the opportunities and key problems, as well as critically vulnerable links in the digital transformation of education. To ensure lifelong and universal education, each country (group of countries) needs to deploy a national (cluster) e-learning platform and provide free access to it for all students. The research emphasis of the article is made on the urgent problem of education digitalization [23]. Although the education digitalization is uneven in different countries, the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated it by approving the distance learning system, while simultaneously revealing a number of problems: insufficient technology, lack of appropriate software, unprofessional teaching staff, unwillingness of students to study online. The article highlights the main obstacles to advancing the digitalization of the Russian educational environment into a “new reality”. Although, according to the authors [24], online learning, e-learning, e-learning tools and digital assessments are not innovations in the full sense of the word, the COVID-19 pandemic has expanded the use of these technologies in mid-2020. In the future, it is necessary to examine the current use of online exams in disciplines, institutions and countries in order to understand the successes and shortcomings. The education digitalization in connection with the Covid-19 pandemic has indicated, in the authors [25] opinion, both new problems and new opportunities. To encourage students to study the Unified Modeling Language (UML) on their own, assignments were proposed and discussed at web meetings. At the same time, students noted the usefulness of a web meeting with a discussion of typical mistakes to prepare for the exam. The article [26] purpose is to share the experience of adapting in COVID-19 pandemic to distance learning on biochemical engineering course during, part of the biotechnology program at the University of Francisco de Vitoria (Madrid, Spain). Students noted a generally positive perception of the learning experience, as crosscutting competencies were achieved, which are often difficult to teach and evaluate even in face-to-face lessons. Applied specialties were recognized as the most affected by the transition to distance learning during COVID-19 due to the focus on the development of practical skills, close connection with the infrastructure of the educational organization and the weak coverage of the curriculum with available digital solutions. In article [27], authors note that although universities have found more or less successful ways to complete the academic year, these methods cannot provide a full-fledged training for students of applied specialties. The article [28] goal is to consider the impact of digital educational technologies on learning from the university teacher’s point of view. Of particular interest is the problem of the distribution of personal and work time. Article [29] presents a distributed architecture for managing the identity of university students and faculty, considering aspects of user privacy and safety, for online learning with Moodle educational platform, and access to the university’s Wi-Fi network at the Technical University Giorgi Asaki (Iasi, Romania).

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AR/VR and Remote Labs in Engineering Education

Teaching labs are an essential component of engineering education, allowing students to engage in experiential learning [8, 30], so alternative learning paths can be realistic by adapting engineering curricula to the post-COVID-19 world. The review [31] aims to identify evidence-based approaches to transforming practical laboratories into virtual or remote ones. For example, the integration of various technologies, such as IoT sensors and AR/VR capabilities, can help revitalize traditional classrooms, enhance the student experience, and allow educators to contemplate new experiments and how to conduct them. Combining AR/VR environments and simulation in engineering education, is challenging and requires experience in multiple areas. Article [32] show that during Covid-19, a study was con-ducted to teach chemical engineering liquid soap synthesis process concepts using AR/VR and traditional engineering simulators. The digital tool and custom application developed by the authors are freely available. The digitalization of modern engineering education largely depends on the development of virtual and remote laboratories. Study [33] presents the design and development of an engine for virtual electrical equipment (EVEEE). The main actors are the “Equipment Developer”, “Teacher” and “Student”, therefore different requirements are imposed on their skills and knowledge. In addition, the EVEEE environment enables students to experiment safely without the risk of electric shock or damage to equipment. Article [34] examines one of the IR 4.0 technologies - AR and its application in education for electrical disciplines, which requires the creation of a large amount of educational content. The simulation adequacy is limited only by the computing power and the correct reproduction of the simulated device. The proposed educational application with AR allows you to create an interactive educational environment and increase the student’s interest in the process of mastering the selected topic. In the digitalization era, the question of the effective use of digital content is becoming more and more relevant [35]. To increase the efficiency of the implementation of VR and AR technologies, it is necessary to increase the level of information literacy.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1

Engineers’ Learning System for the Automotive Industry

The automotive industry, as a high-tech industry, needs highly skilled engineers who can generate and implement innovative ideas. These are the problems of efficiency and environmental friendliness of vehicles, the creation of an energy efficient and intelligent transport, reduction of the negative impact on the environment at all stages of the vehicle life cycle. In addition, the engineer must be able to create intelligent transport systems, digital vehicle’s models, virtual models of its production, as well as digital twins of service systems. For more than 10 years we have been interacting with a fullcycle global automotive company in training engineers for all stages of the vehicle’s life cycle, as well as with others companies engaged in logistics, service, management and transport safety [36]. That company has not only an R&D center, but also a logistics center, as well as a branded service system, including in a number of countries, We took into account that from the point of view of education digitalization, two

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main directions appear definable: instrumental and technological, associated with the use of new opportunities of digital and information technologies to improve the education system’s efficiency [37, 38]; and substantive, associated with the formation of a new content of the educational process itself. Taking into account the business demands, the first stage was devoted to streamlining the goals and the means of achieving them. We have systematized the tasks that engineers will have to solve at their workplaces. To identify the most significant competencies of graduates for successful work and career growth, a survey of specialists from partner companies was conducted. The survey results were processed and grouped into the appropriate categories (see Fig. 1). After processing the questionnaires, were discussed the requirements for engineers with the HR department and heads of other departments. The specificity is that the main emphasis is placed on information, environmental, communication components, and business satisfaction with the quality of graduates is a criterion for the quality of education. Now one of the main requirements of almost all enterprises for a young specialist is competence in the field of digital and intelligent technologies [39]. The formation of digital literacy is provided by a set of disciplines, educational situations and practices that simulate real professional tasks, for the solution of which software tools are used related to the specifics of the industry and a specific workplace. In addition, the curriculum includes special courses that shape eco-thinking, allowing you to develop energy-efficient products, apply resource-saving technologies, create a safe working environment, assess the risks and environmental consequences of certain managerial decisions in the production, vehicles operation and service (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1. Results of the survey among partner companies’ engineers

Modules that form key competencies in the field of foreign communication, after consent with the business, were included in the integrated curriculum on the principle of gradual skills expansion and the tasks range to be solved: a review of scientific & technical research in English, participation in international conferences and competitions. The learning provides the use of interactive learning courses and virtual training modules [40]. To harmonize professional and educational standards, we have identified general learning courses for all engineers (the first, general technical part), as well as

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learning courses that are unique for each workplace (the second, special professional part). Then, matrices of key competencies were developed that correspond to the industry professional standards. Learning courses for engineers for different companies and types of professional activities were included in the curricula, which ensured orientation towards a specific type of professional activity. The specificity of the personnel learning system lies in the fact that students are gradually “integrated” into the professional environment: in the initial courses they undergo practical learning at the enterprise, and then combine their labor activity in the engineer’s positions with the educational process. At the same time, they get access to information resources and software of the enterprise and corporate university. So, the study of the first block disciplines is carried out at the university, and the second block - at the enterprise (at the basic departments). This makes it possible to resolve the issue of “separation” of management functions in two learning management system (LMS) [41]. In the second stage of system creating, we developed educational content and chose effective methods for implementing the educational process. At the third stage, the effectiveness of the proposed system was tested. For this, experimental students’ groups, that learned in this system were formed. At the same time, the main emphasis was on digitalization and the use of the computer in different contexts (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Engineer competencies required during vehicle life cycle stages

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Fig. 3. Training courses for different educational programs

For example, with students majoring in “vehicle design” (automotive and engine), the emphasis was on the design of intelligent automotive systems. These students studied 3D modeling, engineering analysis and simulation modeling using Siemens PLM software packages. Students majoring in automotive electronic systems were trained an emphasis on engineering analysis and functional circuits construction using the Siemens NX, e-Series software package. As for the engineering students intending to work in the technology centers of the automotive industry, they studied the Siemens PLM programs: Plant Simulation and Tecnomatix (with Jack and Human Performance modules), which are used by manufacturers to improve workflows on virtual dummies and for solving ergonomic tasks. Students, majoring in logistics and road transport operation, studied the theory of vehicle and traffic flow management and optimization, telematic systems and GIS using the MiniTab software, PTV Vision (VISSIM, VISUM), ArcGIS and MapInfo. The students’ progress level of enrolled in the experimental program is usually higher than in regular groups [42]. Such a system allows enterprises to obtain competent specialists involved in the production process at the learning stage, as well as improve the content of curricula in accordance with the emergence of engineering innovations. 3.2

New Opportunities for Digital Learning

Smart learning is based on smart devices and technologies that create an effective digital learning environment. Essentially, e-learning is a set of intelligent tools for support learning and stimulate learners to develop thinking and problem solving. The use of online technologies fosters collaboration and encourages teamwork: in online discussion groups in a multi-threaded format asynchronously or synchronously via chats. The advent of Web 2.0 applications has changed the way people communicate and access knowledge (web-logs, blogs and wikis). Microblogging services (e.g., Twitter) are also used for near-synchronous discussion, resource sharing, and the development of personalized personal learning networks. Mobile technology and wearable smart devices expand learning experiences virtually anywhere. Technologies

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VR/AR, 3D-printing and chatbots help improve the educational process quality. By applying 3D prototyping technologies as well as 3D printing to better models’ visualization and print small details or modified samples for testing, educators can stimulate the interest of automotive students. In addition, while working on 3D- printing projects, students develop creativity, problem-solving skills, and critical thinking. VR can create extreme environments and scenarios, allowing students to test systems and learn without any negative consequences. This not only reduces risk, liability and cost, but also allows users to practice solving real-world problems. AR allows to overlay graphics on real objects, facilitating visualization and immersion in the subject. AR headsets make learning interactive, ensuring a safe learning environment and the ability to recreate many real-life situations, motivating students to learn difficult topics. In manufacturing and logistics, AR gives step-by-step instructions to workers. To increase the level of students’ professional mastery and digital competencies at the Naberezhnye Chelny Institute of Kazan Federal University, now a virtual reality laboratory is being developed. It will help students to study the work of stands used in vehicle repair: tire fitting, balancing, collapse convergence. Using language learning platforms, it is possible to participate in a semiconversational environment in an instant messaging format using a chat-bot, that can also send reminders, provide feedback, track student progress, complement learning, encourage them to apply their knowledge and skills to real situations. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown the need to improve LMS. It can be used to create digital classrooms, connect teachers with students. Now, many firms are starting to use LMS.

4 Conclusion In the era of transition to a digital society, the engineering education system needs to create conditions for training an engineer “for the future”: socially responsible, with creative thinking, and eco-consciousness. In our opinion, the development of highquality educational content and training to work in the digital environment that will subsequently be used in the workplace will improve the quality of engineers learning and educational process management. The system we offer will provide advantages over traditional methods: (1) For student: increasing motivation by solving real production problems; increasing competitiveness in the labor market; (2) For teacher: the opportunity to study new technologies relevant to business and their application in teaching students; (3) For educational system: improving the education quality through the implementation of learning programs demanded by business; increasing the prestige of engineering education; (4) For business - reducing graduate’s adaptation time at the enterprise by including him in the work process during his studies, increasing the graduate competence level through obtaining the competencies necessary for business.

References 1. Jwo, J.-S., Lin, C.-S., Lee, C.-H.: Smart technology–driven aspects for human-in-the-loop smart manufacturing. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 114, 1741–1752 (2021)

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2. Galkin, A., et al.: Interaction of logistics 4.0 and consumer oriented marketing using ICT. In: Proceedings of the 33rd International Business Information Management Association Conference, pp. 6751–6760 (2019) 3. Rassudov, L., et al.: Engineering education and cloud-based digital twins for electric power drive system diagnostics. In: 28th International Workshop on Electric Drives: Improving Reliability of Electric Drives (IWED), pp. 1–3 (2021) 4. Gritsenko, A., Shepelev, V., Zadorozhnaya, E., Shubenkova, K.: Test diagnostics of engine systems in passenger cars. FME Trans. 48(1), 46–52 (2020) 5. Gritsenko, A., et al.: The advancement of the methods of vibro-acoustic control of the ICE gas distribution mechanism. FME Trans. 48(1), 127–136 (2020) 6. Zagirnyak, M., Mamchur, D., Gladyr, A.: Digital competences enhancement for electromechanics specialists: dComFra approach. In: IEEE Problems of Automated Electrodrive. Theory and Practice (PAEP), pp. 1–4 (2020) 7. Galkin, A., et al.: Last-mile delivery for consumer driven logistics. Transp. Res. Procedia 39, 74–83 (2019) 8. Grayevskiy, I., et al.: CDF simulation-based research of influence of mechanical defects in nozzles on environmental parameters of automotive diesel engines. Transp. Res. Procedia 50, 182–191 (2020) 9. Heras, S.C., et al.: A framework for the development of Pedagogical Process Simulators (P2Si) using explanatory models and gamification. Comput. Chem. Eng. 151, 107350 (2021) 10. Khan, F., Amyotte, P., Adedigba, S.: Process safety concerns in process system digitalization. Educ. Chem. Eng. 34, 33–46 (2021) 11. Waltersmann, L., et al.: Aligning academic knowledge and industrial needs to enable efficient research transfer in the context of digitization. In: IEEE 11th International Conference on Engineering Education (ICEED), pp. 164–169 (2019) 12. Kotlyarova, I.O., et al.: Development of digital competence of technical specialists in the electronic information and education environment. International Conference “Quality Management, Transport and Information Security, Information Technologies”, pp. 617– 621 (2019) 13. Cortés, D., et al.: Digital pyramid: an approach to relate industrial automation and digital twin concepts. IEEE International Conference on Engineering, Technology and Innovation, pp. 1–7 (2020) 14. Chen, G., et al.: Developing a talent training model related to chemical process safety based on interdisciplinary education in China. Educ. Chem. Eng. 34, 115–126 (2021) 15. Bulut, S., et al.: Development of a gamified educational framework to teach mechanical engineering to High School Students. In: IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference, pp. 1217–1224 (2020) 16. Tomšič, P., et al.: Using Moodle e-learning platform in mechanical engineering lectures. In: 43rd International Convention on Information Communication and Electronic Technology, pp. 1585–1590 (2020) 17. Naimi-Akbar, I., Barman, L., Weurlander, M.: Engineering teachers’ approaches to teaching and learning online. In: IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), pp. 1–5 (2020) 18. Pecherskaya, E.A., et al.: Improving the effectiveness of the information module for the interaction between universities and employers. In: V International Conference on Information Technologies in Engineering Education (Inforino), pp. 1–5 (2020) 19. Dreher, R., Kondratyev, V.V., Kuznetsova, M.N.: Social-ecologic oriented curricula in engineering education: “Leonardo’s Oath” as an answer to janus-headedness in engineering work. High. Educ. Russia 30(1), 115–124 (2021)

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20. Kwon, C., et al.: Research on digital skills training model for the underrepresented population in high-tech industry. International Conference on Big Data and Informatization Education, pp. 229–234 (2020) 21. Shinde, I.D.D., Prasad, R.: Digital transformation in technical education. In: 22nd International Symposium on Wireless Personal Multimedia Communications, pp. 1–4 (2019) 22. Ivanova, A.O., et al.: IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 666, 032033 (2021) 23. Nesterchuk, O.A., et al.: J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1691, 012068 (2020) 24. Borisov, E., et al.: Organization of taking exams of university students in online format: problems and opportunities. E3S Web Conf. 217, 08005 (2020) 25. Vogel-Heuser, B., et al.: Challenges for students of mechanical engineering using UML typical questions and faults. In: 6th IEEE Congress on Information Science and Technology, pp. 261–266 (2020) 26. Ripoll, V., et al.: Teaching chemical engineering to biotechnology students in the time of COVID-19: assessment of the adaptation to digitalization. Educ. Chem. Eng. 34, 21–32 (2021) 27. Zakharova, U.S., et al.: It can’t be taught online: applied sciences students during the pandemic. Educ. Stud. Moscow 1, 115–137 (2021) 28. Toktamysov, S., Berestova, A., Israfilov, N., Truntsevsky, Y., Korzhuev, А: Empowerment or limitation of the teachers’ rights and abilities in the prevailing digital environment. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. 16(02), 205 (2021) 29. Alexandrescu, A., Butnaru, G.: An architecture of identity management and third-party integration for online teaching in a university. In: 24th International Conference on System Theory, Control and Computing (ICSTCC), pp. 850–855 (2020) 30. Vakulenko, K., et al.: Designing optimal public bus route networks in a suburban area. Transp. Res. Procedia 39, 554–564 (2019) 31. Bhute, V.J., et al.: Transforming traditional teaching laboratories for effective remote delivery—a review. Educ. Chem. Eng. 35, 96–104 (2021) 32. Solmaz, S., et al.: A practical development of engineering simulation-assisted educational AR environments. Educ. Chem. Eng. 35, 81–93 (2021) 33. Evstatiev, B., et al.: Web-based environment for virtual laboratories in the field of electrical engineering. In: 16th Conference on Electrical Machines, Drives and Power System, pp. 1–4 (2019) 34. Pogodaev, A., et al.: The use of augmented reality technologies in electrical engineering. In: 2nd International Conference on Control Systems, Mathematical Modeling, Automation and Energy Efficiency (SUMMA), pp. 646–650 (2020) 35. Sirazhiden, D.: VR and AR technologies in the modern cultural space and their role in environmental education. E3S Web Conf. 217, 08002 (2020) 36. Makarova, I., et al.: Interaction between education and business in digital era. IEEE Industrial Cyber-Physical Systems (ICPS), pp. 503–508 (2018) 37. Makarova, I., et al.: An integrated platform for blended learning in engineering education. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Computer Supported Education vol. 2, pp. 171–176 (2017) 38. Makarova, I., et al.: Blended learning technologies in the automotive industry specialists’ training. In: 32nd International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications Workshops, pp. 319–324 (2018) 39. Makarova, I., Shubenkova, K., Antov, D., Pashkevich, A.: Digitalization of engineering education: from e-learning to smart education. In: Auer, M.E., Langmann, R. (eds.) REV 2018. LNNS, vol. 47, pp. 32–41. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31995678-7_4

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Games in Engineering Education

Analysis of Possibilities of Using Game Statistics of the Cloud Quest in Assessment of Personality Inna Yudina1(&) , Pavel Kozlovskii1 , Natalia Pavlikova2 Ksenia Kochkina1 , and Pavel Sataev1 1

,

Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU), St. Petersburg, Russian Federation [email protected] 2 Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation

Abstract. The paper describes current trend of “Gamification” and its application in the context of a personality-centered approach to the educational process at the Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU). SPbPU has been conducting a welcome quest for first-year students, developing and improving its substantive-technological concept for five years. The current version of the quest works to achieve several goals, such as helping first-year students in the process of adapting to the university, collecting data to develop the concept of building individual educational trajectories, developing the unique social student association “Institute of Adapters”. There are few key elements of the quest: stations, quiz and Instagram contest. Quiz and stations allow to collect data on correctness of answers, on the time of entering answer and on choices made. The player’s individual choice, the result of actions on the offline game station, as well as the speed/time of completing the task are recorded in software. The received data from the stations are compared, analyzed and ranked in the general and individual rating of the players during the game. The conclusions are accumulated, allowing to make an assumption about the orientation and the usual way of interaction of the player’s consciousness with the surrounding reality, about his behavior. The approach to the development of multi-station stations is based on the concept of psychological types proposed by C. Jung. Keywords: Gamification
Personality psychology
Digital technology Quest
Individual trajectory
Innovative education




1 Introduction The paper explores the Cloud Quest project for a first-year students in the context of studying player profiles. Recommendations on teamwork (primarily team roles) and educational trajectories (due to hypotheses regarding types of perception) can be obtained from these studies. The discovery and disclosure of human abilities is associated with significant difficulties [1]. At the same time, the educational process, which allows students to © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 813–822, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_80

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follow their abilities, dreams and interests, opens the opportunity to achieve real success in the new world [2]. The Cloud Quest project can simplify the formalization and determination of personal talents and abilities of participants, after all talents and abilities are obviously important competitive advantages. This is especially important in the digital age, introducing new demands on employees. Today the challenge posed by technological progress to humanity is a professional realization in the face of serious competition with innovations and computer technologies [3]. In addition, it should be noted that the assessment of abilities simplifies the work on improving them. Peter Drucker notes that a successful HR specialist looks primarily at the strengths of the employee, and not at the overall performance [4]. The hypotheses presented in the article are based on the methodology of C. Jung in the field of psychological types of perception and judging. And also they are based on basic concepts in the field of team building, for example, Belbin’s concepts. Venger L.A., developing the ideas of Zaporozhets A.V., came to the conclusion that the psychological mechanism of human abilities allows us to put an equal sign between abilities and orienting actions [5]. Actions are divided into orienting ones and executive ones. Orienting actions are an assessment of the task, and executive actions are the execution process itself (in which knowledge, skills and abilities are involved). Venger L.A. also suggested that “special forms of orienting actions are behind the cases of outstanding development of certain abilities” [6]. The importance of evaluation of orienting actions is as follows: in a constant situation of new cognitive activity, the speed and quality of mastering the material is largely determined by the nature of the orienting actions that a person uses, and the quality of which, in particular, is determined by their unique combination in a particular subject [5, 6]. Currently, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator system of psychological testing is widely used in vocational guidance counseling aimed at studying personal characteristics and preferences of a person. The system is based on the theory of psychological types by Carl Gustav Jung, which Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine Briggs significantly developed by describing 16 personality types, with differences in the perception of information and decision-making [7]. David West Keirsey, developing the ideas of Myers and Briggs, identifies only four groups of subtypes, defining individual preferences of a person, career orientation, and others [8]. This approach is constantly evolving. Murthy Elizabeth uses personality types developed by Carl Jung to facilitate understanding of the natural differences in children, as well as to help adults working with children. Elizabeth Murphy uses personality types to better understand whether a child uses natural strength or is outside her natural comfort zone [9]. James Graham Johnston, in his work “Jung’s Indispensable Compass: Navigating the Dynamics of Psychological Types”, returns to the basic model of eight psychological types, characterizing the initial model as dynamic, and the late development of 16 personality types “Myers-Briggs Type Indicator” as incorrect interpretation of the base model [10]. Douglass J. Wilde, author of “Teamology: The Construction and Organization of Effective Teams”, describes the seventeen-year experience of successfully building project teams at Stanford University, relying on the theory of “Psychological types” C.G. Jung and the psychological testing system “Myers-Briggs Type Indicator” [11, 12].

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2 Hypothesis We can formulate the hypothesis, combining the theory of psychological types C.G. Jung with the concept of abilities as orienting actions of Zaporozhets-Venger. The hypothesis is as follows: orienting actions have a structure and can be divided into sensory, evaluative, mental and intuitive. The study of the structure of orienting actions, in their combination and individual expression in a particular person, will allow to build or adjust an individual educational route in accordance with its unique individual abilities. In a team game, organized by the type of quest with individual input of answers, we can identify markers that indicate a particular team role. In addition, in this game we can include a way to determine preferences in the orienting actions for each participant.

3 Relevance The relevance of the study is determined by the need for professional realization of a person in the conditions of serious competition with innovations and computer technologies, which is impossible without reliance on creative potential, based on a person’s unique individual abilities. Any method that allows to get closer to understanding individual characteristics and that force to reflect on the topic of personal characteristics, helps to activate the adaptive potential of the person to new conditions and challenges of the time.

4 Purpose The purpose of the work is to present the concept of a game solution with the capabilities for analysis and interpretation of game data – the concept of the Cloud Quest. In addition, it is necessary to submit hypotheses on the interpretation of game data. The work will present a new tool to study the structure and severity of the student’s orientational actions, a tool included in the project Cloud Quest – “multi-station”. The data obtained from multi-stations can later be compared with the data of control tests, surveys obtained during the process of continuous student learning at the university, can be compared with data on academic performance. The analysis will allow making an assumption about the truth or falsity of the main hypothesis that underlies the study. The work will consider: – the variant of the Cloud Quest project on the Day of Knowledge for first-year students; – the basic methodology for interpreting the results; – the “multistation”, from the point of view of a tool for studying the characteristics of the student’s orientational actions.

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5 Method Cloud Quest is the general name of the concept of the event, which combines online and offline formats and which is conducted in the quest format. The work will consider the Cloud Quest project, which can be held at universities. At the moment, it is being implemented on an initiative basis at the Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University. The main quest can be considered a quest for first-year students on the Day of Knowledge, in which 4000–6000 people participate annually. It has been held for four years. The project received key improvement in 2019, it was then that it received its more explicit multi-purpose purpose. We outline the objectives of the quest project for the Knowledge Day: Introducing students to each other, within their study groups. A study group is one team during an event. Acquaintance of a large number of first-year students with the university: with its capabilities; divisions; campus. The possibility to conduct an initial assessment of first-year students in the framework of the game format. In order to subsequently be one of the elements in drawing up the individual educational trajectory of the student, as well as in the recommendations issued during the formation of project teams. This work is dedicated to this goal. Cloud Quest can be considered as the gamification of the processes of acquaintance and data collection (gamification is “the use of game elements for solving non-game tasks” [13, 14]. But it’s more correct to define it as a game with the associated capabilities for collecting and interpreting data. The game is “voluntary” behavior or activity that occurs within certain established boundaries of place and time according to voluntarily taken, but, of course, mandatory rules, with a goal consisting in itself; accompanied by feelings of tension and joy, as well as a sensation of otherness in comparison with everyday life” [15]. Cloud quest is fully consistent with this term. The purpose of the quest is to score the maximum number of points, completing tasks at the stations, answering quiz questions and participating in the Instagram contest. Cloud Quest lasts 1.5–3 h. The game takes place on the campus of the university. Participants use a specially designed web interface in which they can select tasks, answer questions, watch ratings, etc. Tasks cover a lot of areas of knowledge: history, modern development, famous people, technical discoveries, physics, chemistry, industry, etc. Through the game, participants will learn about the modern development of the university, the opportunities associated with the departments of the university. In addition, the quest offers participants to solve logical problems, scientific and technical puzzles, creative tasks, etc. [16]. Briefly analyze the main activities of the event that bring points: – Stations are campus locations for students to complete assignments. They may be attended by station personnel – most often these are university students [17]. – Normal station. – Multi station. The station, inside which there are 4 tasks in accordance with the typology of C. Jung regarding the psychological types of perception and

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judging. Each player in the team chooses one of them for himself and goes through it. – The quiz is a list of questions available to teams throughout the game in the web interface. Points are awarded for correct answers. – Instagram contest is a task on laying out thematic photos with given hashtags. Subsequently, they are evaluated by the jury or by the players themselves. 5.1

Research Process

Event analytics can be divided into three blocks: – analysis of game data (team building); analysis of specially prepared questions regarding the roles that are set in the web interface during the event. – analysis of player choices (psychological types of perception and judging); – post-event feedback analysis; carrying out additional specialized tests without a game context. 5.2

Game Data in Team Building

This section includes the interpretation of game data to determine team roles. The response input mechanism is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.

team captain selects a station; players see the task and answer options; players solve the task and each of them enters an answer on his device; the captain waits for all the players and finishes work at the station, transition to the first item. The interpretation of the data in this mechanism is as follows:

1. Differentiation of responses. This acts as markers for understanding the relationships that have developed within the team. a. The whole team gives the same answer. This may indicate a good leader, team cohesion or the absence of the role of “oppositionist” in the team. b. Sometimes there are answers that are different from most. It is necessary to pay attention to the players who gave answers different from most of the team. This means that the player defended his position, made a decision himself, or this means that the player took the role of the opposition. c. There is no uniformity in team responses. The situation is the opposite of the first. d. What is the answer given by the players after entering the first answer. If the answers are different, then the leadership marker loses weight and vice versa. 2. Time and order of input response. a. Who gave the first answer. This is a potential marker of leadership position, it is necessary to consider this indicator throughout the game. b. The order in which the player responds. Development of the previous paragraph “differentiation of responses”.

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c. Differentiation of response input time. Teamwork indicator. Ideally, the team solves the problem and enters the answer at one point in time. Otherwise, for example, there is a situation where the team is divided into groups and the answer is entered in parts at different points in time. 3. Accounting for the activity of participants. When a player answers the quiz questions while passing the station, this can also be a marker of either the player’s attitude or team strategy. So, for example, participation in a quiz while a team solves a task may indicate that the player is not participating in the discussion, being distracted by other activities. 4. Feedback collection. This paragraph involves checking all the previous parts. This is necessary because the preceding paragraphs are initial hypotheses that may be incorrect due to the team’s developed strategy. This feedback may contain the following questions: a. team strategy description; b. clarification of the role of a particular player; c. definition of leaders and other roles; d. hypothesis testing – it is necessary to confirm whether the situation described in the question has occurred in the game itself. Feedback should be collected both during the game, mainly using questions on checking the roles of participants, and after - in the form of checking the hypotheses made. 5.3

Multi-station and Analysis of Psychological Types of Perception and Judging

The multi-station operation algorithm is as follows: 1. The captain and players choose a station, which turns out to be a multi-station. 2. Each player has a choice of one of four tasks in the game interface. The essence of the tasks is displayed in the title. 3. The player selects a task. 4. Upon arrival at the station, the players of one team are divided into groups according to the number of selected tasks (maximum 4) and solve the task. Multi-stations are of the following types: 1. Thinking type - makes decisions based on logic, analysis, and structuring of information. 2. Feeling type - makes decisions based on generally accepted moral and ethical standards. 3. Sensation type - focuses on the actual experience of interaction with the surrounding reality. 4. Intuitive type - focuses on information obtained without relying on the thought process. As an example, consider an example of two multi-stations in the Cloud Quest for first-year students in 2019.

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1. Thinking type a. “The Thinker Guy Julius”. The name of the task alludes to a task related to logic. The contents of the task - the team receives the encrypted text and the key to the cipher. The answer is deciphering the key elements. b. “Decryption of the scheme”. The content of the task is to study the dance pattern. 2. Feeling type a. “Rate the poster.” Contents of the assignment - the team is shown a poster that needs to be assessed in the form of epithets. b. “Dance styles.” The content of the assignment is the choice of dances of one style from the proposed options and their comparison with video materials. 3. Sensation type a. “Super Vision.” The name alludes to one of the senses. The contents of the task the team is shown a picture filled with symbols, they need to find two numbers highlighted in a different color. b. “Sounds of the world.” The content of the task is to find the sound of a violin on audio recordings. 4. Intuitive type a. “Turn on your intuition.” The content of the task - the team needs to find something in common between the date in a character format and the definition of Big Data. b. “Non-obviousness.” The content of the task is to select music for the video clip. The player’s key choice is to select a task on a multi-station. The hypothesis is that one can determine the propensity for a particular type of thinking (type of perception) from these choices. For example, when the majority of a player’s choices are intuitive multi-stations, this may indicate an intuitive psychological type of perception. In addition, the Cloud Quest also allows to make an assessment-comparison of the player’s performance at a particular multi-station, thereby creating an additional marker of belonging to one or another psychological type of perception and judging. 5.4

Game Data in the Field of Psychological Types of Perception and Judging

1. Player’s direct selections at multi-stations. Upon completion of the event, we get the percentage distribution of player selections. The greatest result may be the first marker of psychological type of perception and judging. If there are several, then we can talk about the mixed preference of the player. For example, with the following distribution: Thinking - 10% Feeling - 10% Sensation - 40% Intuitive - 40% We can talk about a tendency to sensation and intuitive psychological type of perception.

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2. Correct answers on multi-stations. This indicator is intended to test the preference from point 1. But this point also needs preliminary testing through generally accepted methods. The correctness of the game stations is a subjective parameter, because 100% correctness can be unattainable due to factors that the event organizers cannot influence. Therefore, it is necessary to compare the correctness of passing the task on multistations with average accuracy. For example, a player with a tendency to an intuitive psychological type of perception (60%) has passed stations of the selected type by 80%. And the average correctness of passing these tasks for all players is 50%. Then we can talk about subjecting the hypothesis put forward in paragraph 1. The preliminary hypothesis is that players with a clear preference in favor of a certain psychological type of perception and judging will cope with a task of the same type more successfully than players who “accidentally” choose this task. 5.5

Work After the Event

Firstly, this block implies polls immediately after the game with verification of the hypotheses put forward (“Game data in team building”). Secondly, it is testing through well-known techniques for checking correlations with game data. The main checks should include: – Myers-Briggs Questionnaire (MBTI); – study of the reasons for the outflow or transfer of students to other faculties and/or universities; – assessment of satisfaction with the chosen profession.

6 Discussion The educational process aimed at forming a highly qualified specialist who successfully copes with professional responsibilities assigned to him, satisfying the idea of individualizing persons, in our opinion, cannot be separated from the possibility of realizing unique individual abilities in the chosen activity. Otherwise, the university issues a graduate dissatisfied with his choice, who continues to search for opportunities related to the realization of his explicit or hidden abilities. We describe our assumptions and the game method, hoping to develop a discussion. “If we are not satisfied with the present moment that we are experiencing, then what needs to be done in the near and distant future to change this present? What specific practices do we offer?” [18]. We propose not to abandon new research methods, data accumulation, their gradual analysis and comparison with data obtained by other quantitative and qualitative methods. According to Venger, “the cases of the outstanding development of certain abilities are special forms of orienting actions that have a different structure” [6]. A look at the

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indicative actions in the proposed four-part structure allows us not to lose sight of the indicative actions of an intuitive nature, which are often not paid attention to in the work [19]. In addition, the direction of teamwork opens up the prospect of team formation, relying on team roles according to Belbin and taking into account the combination of individual characteristics of the orienting actions of team members. This has some similarities with the “teamology” developed by colleagues from Stanford University [11] and, in general, supports our assumptions that studies of psychological types and abilities, as orienting actions, have not exhausted their potential.

7 Conclusion In the work, the Cloud Quest project on the Day of Knowledge for first-year students was investigated from the point of view of analysis of game data and the possibilities of their use in the work of an educational institution. Hypotheses are presented in the field of team building and working with psychological types of perception and judging due to multi-stations. The basic methodology of data interpretation allows us to make an assumption about the structure of the orientational actions of the game participants. The key ideas of the directions for using the Multi-station of the quest are presented: 1. determination of the type of orientational actions of first-year students, an assumption of their structure; 2. the possibility of applying the obtained data to adjust the individual educational trajectory in accordance with the unique structure of indicative actions; 3. the formation of project teams by determining the role positions of participants and their unique features. The points of data collection in the quest are analyzed, which will form the directions listed above: individual input of answers, multi-stations with various tasks to clarify the features of the orientational actions of the participant of different directions. At the moment, the work has been carried out in the theoretical field, since hypothesis testing has not been possible due to the epidemiological situation and the impossibility of holding a large-scale event. Hypotheses are planned for testing in the next event of the type “Cloud Quest” for first-year students, when the situation with coronavirus will provide such an opportunity.

References 1. Shadrikov, V.: Questions of the psychological theory of abilities. Psychology. J. High. School Econ. 7(3), 41–56 (2010) 2. Robinson, K.: School of the Future. How to Raise A Talented Child. In: Robinson, K., Aronika, L. (eds.), p. 37. Mann, Ivanov and Ferber, Moscow (2016) 3. Seidl da Fonseca, R.: The future of employment: evaluating the impact of STI foresight exercises. Foresight STI Gov. 11(4), 9–22 (2017)

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4. Drucker, P.: The Effective Executive. Mann, Ivanov and Ferber, Moscow (2021) 5. Zaporozhets, A., Venger L., Zinchenko V.: Perception and action. In: Zaporozhets, A. (ed.) Enlightenment (1967) 6. Wenger, L.: Genesis of sensory abilities. Pedagogy (1976) 7. Myers, P.B., Myers, C.D.: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Personal Impact Report (2014) 8. Keirsey, D.: Please Understand Me - II. Temperament. Character. Intelligence. Publishing House “Black Squirrel” (2011) 9. Murphy, E.: The developing child: using Jungian type to understand children. Center for Applications of Psychological Type, Inc., Gainesville, FL (2013) 10. Johnston, J.G.: Jung’s Indispensable Compass. https://www.giftscompass.com/jungsindipensable-compass-book/. Accessed 04 Jan 2022 11. Wilde, D.J.: Teamology: The Construction and Organization of Effective Teams. https://link. springer.com/content/pdf/bfm%3A978-1-84800-387-3%2F1.pdf. Accessed 10 May 2020 12. MBTI®. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® Personal Impact Report. https://eu.themyersbriggs. com/en/tools/MBTI/*/media/Files/PDFs/Reports-in-English/MBTI/MBTI_Personal_Impact_ Report_Verification_English.pdf. Accessed 04 Jan 2022 13. Yevplova, E.: Gamification as a Means of Increasing Motivation to Learn. Odintsovo Readings, Moscow (2013) 14. Zuckerman, G.: Gamification in Business: How to Break Through the Noise and Capture the Attention of Employees and Customers. Mann, Ivanov and Ferber (2014). Zickerman, F., Linder, J., Aiziatulova, I.; translated from English 15. Huising, J.: Homo Ludens. In the Shadow of Tomorrow (1992). Trans. from the Netherlands; general, ed. and afterword by G. M. Tavrizyan, Moscow 16. Kozlovskii, P., Tabolina, A., Kunina, O., Fokina, V., Yudina, I., Sataev, P.: Polytech WebQuest as an organization form of students project activities. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1328, pp. 431–438. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-030-68198-2_40 17. Tabolina, A., Kozlovskii, P., Popov, D., Yudina, I., Snegirev, N., Tretyakov, D.: Sociopsychological program for the selection of students in the Adapters Public Institute. In: Anikina, Z. (ed.) IEEHGIP 2020. LNNS, vol. 131, pp. 812–819. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47415-7_87 18. Smirnov, S.A.: New identities of man: analysis and forecast of anthropological trendsanthropological foresight. Vestn. NSUEM 1, 216–241 (2013). Novosibirsk State University of Economics and Management 19. Tabolina, A.V., Gulk, E.B.: Gaming technologies as a mean of development of motivation of students. In: Chernyavskaya, V., Kuße, H. (eds.) Proceedings of the 18th International Conference PCSF 2018. EpSBS, vol. 51, pp. 1191–1199. Future Academy, London (2018)

Improving Soft Skills and Motivation with Gamification in Engineering Education Judit Módné Takács , Monika Pogátsnik(&) and Tamás Kersánszki

,

Óbuda University, Bécsi út 96/B, Budapest 1034, Hungary {modne.t.judit,pogatsnik.monika}@amk.uni-obuda.hu, [email protected]

Abstract. Examining preferred actions within gamification can bring us closer to incorporating games that meet student needs into lectures, strengthening students’ motivation and more active acquisition of knowledge. Engineering training needs to be renewed due to the changing industrial needs of the 21st century, as the proportion and importance of tasks requiring non-cognitive skills has increased significantly. We designed pilot courses with the goal of developing skills that strengthen students’ intrinsic motivation that seemed lost in online education during the pandemic. Our hypothesis was that this new type of course using gamification methods will be more successful in developing soft skills and better motivate students in the online learning period. Exploring and developing individual skills helps to turn new information provided by the curriculum into usable knowledge. Our goal was to develop the individual personality in many ways, to get to know and work with individuals of different character, in addition to individual differentiation. Keywords: Gamification Online education


Motivation
Soft skills
Engineering education


1 Introduction Engineering education needs change and renewal for various reasons. In the first instance, due to the changing industrial demands of the 21st century, as the proportion and importance of tasks requiring non-cognitive skills have increased significantly [1]. Tasks that require social skills and successful collaboration with others are constantly increasing. On the other hand, the change is essential, because of the new needs, shortcomings, strengths, and weaknesses of the young people of the Z generation, as well as the children of the Alpha generation. Furthermore, because of the pandemic, online education changed conditions, where the usages of new and motivating methods are crucial. In education, developing soft skills and arousing motivation has become much more important than ever. An essential element of the changed learning habits during the COVID19 epidemic was the transformation of frontal education caused by the new situation with the transition to online education, where the maintenance of motivation and collaboration © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 823–834, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_81

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of higher education students in the acquisition of lesson materials appeared more strongly. Gamification should be seen here as an efficiency-enhancing tool that is mainly evolving from digital technology instead of frontal education. Generation Z members use online applications and social media at a skill level so that gamification platforms can be a valuable complement to the positive reinforcement of knowledge transfer and personalization for them [2]. In everyday practice, frontal education is still the most prevalent in Hungarian education, with the educator playing a dominant role. It guides the students’ work step by step, in contrast to individual or group tasks, which place more emphasis on students’ independent work, creativity and development. In addition to activating the students, group work also provides an opportunity to develop the skills to cooperate and the ability to communicate. Teamwork has a positive effect on cognitive abilities and creates an anxiety-free, stress-free environment. Developing teamwork and communication skills among engineering students is an area that needs to be strongly developed. We designed a pilot course with the aim of developing skills that were neglected in traditional education and to arouse intrinsic motivation in the students that seemed lost in the online education during the pandemic. Our hypothesis was that this new type of course using gamification methods will be more successful in developing soft skills and will motivate the students more during the online learning period. In our research, we look for answers about the skills that traditional and gamified education develops. How much better can you motivate students in classroom performance, in deepening their knowledge. How much the personality types of the students influence motivation and the development of expected skills in this pilot gamification course compared to a traditional course.

2 Literature Review The Covid19 period reaffirmed Lee and Hammer’s ten-year-old finding that one of the biggest challenges for schools is to capture and motivate students’ attention [3]. From 2011, a new methodological approach has spread where game elements are incorporated into training materials, which quickly spread through the business sector and in management areas through loyalty programs. A significant part of the literature regarding gamification is about the effective integration into different levels of education to motivate learners and increase their performance and commitment [4, 5]. The use of gamification as a game design element in a non-game context has gone beyond entertainment and has emerged in various areas of education such as regular education, higher education, and corporate training. Rapid and efficient transfer of knowledge has become an increasingly common method at different levels of education and incorporate training strategy. By adding game elements, gamification changes old, well-established methods and impacts the participants’ educational process, using entertainment to stimulate productivity excellent example of this is rewarding with badges, which is an effective motivating force for students to activate them to complete a task [6, 7].

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While in education, playful thinking and game mechanisms provide an alternative to classical methods in learning and incorporating curriculum in the corporate environment, a kind of service development process that focuses on game experiences and supports employee overall value creation and their involvement in the company’s strategic and planning processes [8]. Looking at the different assessment and re-ward methods, we can observe that performance-based rewards act as more effective integration mechanisms that increase motivation and commitment in education [9]. Studies have been conducted in the field of online games player style, motivation relationship with other players, psychological profile and in the field of game type preference [10–12]. The assessment of actions within gamification used in courses at universities can bring us closer to incorporating student-tailored games into lectures, thereby strengthening motivation and more active knowledge acquisition [13]. Incorporating gamification into an interactive learning environment helps maintain motivation to set goals, support teamwork, and develop live communication [14]. Over the past decade, non-lexical knowledge and competencies that enhance student collaboration, communication, and problem-solving effectiveness have become increasingly valuable [15]. These soft skills were often not developed using traditional teaching methods. Those with these skills can more easily enter the labor market.

3 Participants, Methods, and Instruments We design pilot courses using the gamification methods, which covered several different subjects and several different age groups during the second semester in the 2020– 2021 academic year. Our study examines 76 students, the age group between 19– 23 years old. The different pilot courses were as follows: • Full-time Computer Science Engineering (BSc), first year undergraduate course: 54 students. • Part-time Electrical Engineering students (BSc), second year undergraduate course: 12 students. • Specialized postgraduate training for Industrial Robotics Engineering students: 10 students. The course curricula aim to acquire different programming languages with different previous programming skills. Also, the aim is to develop the soft skills expected today and to achieve higher motivation to complete the subject, in the field of classroom activity in online education with the help of gamification. When planning gamification, it is crucial to know who is approaching the game and how. One of the easiest ways to survey this is the Richard Bartel test used in the corporate and educational worlds, which categorizes people's ways of playing [16]. Assessing this can help the instructor compile gamification, thereby increasing its effectiveness and applicability in the courses. We used this test to categorize our students’ approach to games.

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It is also important to know what learning motivation the participants have in general. To assess this, we used a test measuring learning motivation, which distinguishes 6 categories and ranks learning motivation accordingly. Applying these tests can help the instructor compile the gamification, increasing its effectiveness and applicability in the courses. The third part of our quantitative research is a survey to measure the participants opinion on the pilot courses. Participants should evaluate the progress they have experienced during the course using gamification methods compared to a traditional course during the semester in the following areas: motivation, communication skills, teamwork, presentation skills, logical thinking, creativity, problem solving, understanding and in general mastering the curriculum.

4 Results 4.1

Examination of Learning Motivation

In the first phase of the research, we examined the motivational factors necessary for development and an appropriate pattern of learning behavior. Study participants completed a learning motivation questionnaire which consists of 30 questions. We also shared the results of this with students to make them aware of their own learning motivation, thereby supporting their own learning process. The questionnaire distinguishes 6 factors, which are the following [17]: • Continuing education, which motivates to get better opportunities and an ideal job. • Interest as an internal motivating factor appears as a natural curiosity. • Perseverance which also means a hard-working, persistent personality, thus becoming a motivating factor. • Result: higher, better scores become important. • Social position: the individual's place in the group, position, recognition, and praise of others is the motivator. • Reward can be a motivational tool when someone is rewarded for good, expected performance. Based on the evaluation of the questionnaire, we can state that in many cases individuals have several different motivational factors. Due to the non-differentiable values, 3 main groups were formed. Overall, the main motivating factors for students are continuing education, interest, and social position. The main role in motivating to learn are the aspects which help the students to get the desired job later. They will be motivated to learn if it matches their interests. Nor can their learning motivation be influenced by the formation of their social relationships. If we highlight the cases where is no difference between the degree of motivating factors of the students, continuing education and interest appear in equal proportions (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. Aggregate result of motivational factors (N = 62)

4.2

Bartle’s - Player Type Test

The classification of individuals into player types was inspired by the work of Richard Bartle since 1978, where he was involved in the creation of multiplayer online games. Bartle has created a 30-question test that classifies players into 4 categories. Based on his observations, he distinguished 4 things that people enjoyed during the games [18]. • Achiever: They are happy by the achievements in the game. Players focus and make great efforts to achieve the goals they set. Their motivation is mainly to rank on the leaderboards, collect points and rewards, and complete the levels as soon as possible. For them, action is paramount. • Explorer: They are driven by exploring, mapping, understanding the game. Their motivation is mainly to solve secrets, solve puzzles and tasks, discover the unknown. For them, getting to know each other is paramount. • Socializer: They are interested in social relationships. They are mainly motivated by communication and acquaintance within games. It is not the game that matters, but the players. For them, relationships are the most important. • Killer: Impact on others is important for them. During the game, they like to defeat others, destroy them, cause stress (rarely help), or rule over others. Their motivation is to show off power, provoke, annoy. Interpersonal struggles are preferred. For them, defeating others is paramount. Based on the overall result, it can be said that within the primary and secondary types, explorers and socializers are prominent in the first place in our sample. These students are motivated by getting to know each other, discovering new things, and playing a role in a team (Fig. 2).

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Explorer

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Socializer

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Fig. 2. Aggregate result of Bartle Test (N = 71)

We specifically examined students whose primary and secondary player types could not be clearly differentiated, their percentage score difference was less than 10%. One third of the respondents fall into this category. The result shows no difference in type dominance even in a non-differentiated case. In the same way, explorers and socializers are in the first place. 4.3

Supporting the Development of Soft Skills Through a Variety of Teaching Methods

In the third part of the survey, we asked students to identify the degree of development within the highlighted soft skills. We examined the skills, which are among the expected and in many cases desired skills of the labor market. These are: information processing, knowledge acquisition, and learning skills that are essential in addition to the extensive use of current information communication tools. Thinking, logical and problem-solving skills, which are the basic conditions for independent, successful work. The importance of communication and presentation skills, as well as cooperation and conflict management skills, their importance is outstanding due to the changed work style, teamwork, and project work (Fig. 3).

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None of the teaching methods, 4%

Tradional / frontal teaching method, 25%

Innovave / gamified teaching method, 71%

Fig. 3. Supporting the development of soft skills through different methods (N = 56)

Two-thirds of respondents feel that the innovative teaching method supports the development of the skills studied in a greater extent, while a quarter feel that their training is ensured with the traditional method as well. The number of students who think that neither method provides support is insignificant (Table 1). Table 1. The aggregated evaluation of the student feedback on the level of skills development support by method (N = 56) Innovave / gamified teaching method Presentaon skills Cooperaon skills Problem solving skills Thinking skills Logical skills Conflict management skills Communicaon skills Informaon processing skills Knowledge acquision skills Learning skills

96%

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86%

71%

73%

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80%

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Tradional / frontal teaching method

None of the teaching methods 5%

4% 4%

88%

20% 20%

2% 2%

82%

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4% 4%

89%

30% 30%

0% 0%

86%

38% 38%

4% 4%

71%

23% 23%

20% 20%

73%

30% 30%

5% 5%

79%

38% 38%

4% 4%

80%

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0% 0%

71%

41% 41%

7% 7%

5%

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Twice as many students think that the development of learning support skills (information processing skills, Knowledge acquisition skills, learning skills) is assured by the gamified teaching method (64%). This is less than in case of the other skills, but the difference is still significant. This result is also important because both methods are suitable and well-used to develop the skills listed here, but based on student feedback, the gamified teaching method is preferred. At the beginning of the survey, we expected the opposite result for these skills. The reason for the unexpected result is probably the greater support for the development of other skills with this method. The next skill group is focused on developing thinking, logic, and problem-solving skills. Even with these skills, the gamified teaching method appears with outstanding results in student feedback as the preferred method. 73% of the students valued gamification to support their development. The types of tasks and curriculum used during the gamification can be better adapted to the development of these skills and to the needs of students with different competencies. Cooperation and conflict management skills can really be developed effectively during teamwork. 71% of the students valued gamification to support their development. Most respondents preferred gamified education, despite the frontal education method where little or no opportunity is to work with their teammates together. A relatively higher value (10%) was obtained from the view that neither method develops these skills. The reason for this is the responds of strongly introverted type of students who felt uncomfortable during teamwork what was experienced during the course. Developing their skills will require special attention later. The most significant difference was observed in the study of the communication and presentation skills group. Nearly 80% of students clearly felt support in developing these skills when applying the gamification method. The reasons for this were, on the one hand, frequent teamwork and, on the other hand, targeted tasks - presentation exercises. In frontal education, these types of tasks appear in a very small extent in relation to the individual during the school year. 4.4

The Gamification Method and the Frontal Teaching Method Comparison, Based on Student Assessment

We measured the students’ rating of the different teaching methods based on active classroom participation, lesson preparation time, and classroom motivation. Overall, traditional education is rated average (average score: 2, 9 on a 5-point scale), and gamified education is rated as good (average score: 3, 7 on a 5-point scale). Based on the average score, there is not an outstanding difference in the examination of the two methods as in the examination of the effect on the development of skills. The following diagram shows the extent of active participation in the class based on a 5-point Likert scale (5-best to 1-worst), evaluated by the participating students. Frontal education has a mode of 2, while gamified education has a mode of 4. This difference yielded the expected result of comparing the two methods. While the active participant in frontal education is the instructor, the active participant in gamified education is the student (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. Evaluation of the degree of active participation in the class (N = 56)

Preparation for lessons does not differ from the student’s perspective when examining the two teaching methods, as each method processes the same amount of curriculum. Respectively, each method expects the same amount of practice assignments from students. Although the difference may not depend on quantity, but on quality and manner. There is a lot more teamwork in gamified education, so the student does not have to deal with the tasks alone, the classmates help them. Working in a group can be more time consuming at first, but only until the group coordinates its work properly (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5. Evaluation of the degree of for lessons (N = 56)

Several things can be deduced from the assessment of the degree of motivation in class. On the one hand, gamified education received a higher rating. On the other hand, the motivation of traditional education divided the group, as students who had difficulty

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working in a group, being in front of others, or continuous activity, frontal work provides them with a calmer, more motivating atmosphere (Fig. 6).

21 17 15

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Fig. 6. Evaluation of the degree of for lessons (N = 56)

4.5

Differences by Player Type

Each player type can be motivated by different factors in the groups of different player types studied. In the case of the Socializer and Explorer types, Interest and Continuing education appeared the most dominant, in the case of the Killer type the most different motivating factors appeared, and in the case of Achiever, the Social position was the strongest motivating force. Other motivating elements such as reward and perseverance were not mentioned primarily in none of the player types groups (Fig. 7).

Socialiser Killer Explorer Achiever 0% Interest

20% Results

40% Social posion

60%

80%

100%

Connuing educaon

Fig. 7. What motivates each player type?

We asked the students what they thought about the soft skill development impact of gamification. The Achievers considered the gamification the most useful in improving

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presentation skills (100%) and knowledge acquisition skills (83%). The Explorers and the Killers considered the gamification the most useful in improving presentation skills (87%, 100%), problem solving and creative skills (77%, 88%), and cooperation skills (77%, 88%). Socializers also found the presentation skills (100%), problem solving and creative skills (100%) the most improved skill by gamification, but they also categorized thinking skills (86%) as better improved in this type of education. According to the majority of Achievers, logical skills are developed by both the traditional and gamification teaching methods. Opinions are divided among the Killer player types about the learning skill development effect. 38% of them believe that the gamification method is more advantageous, while some think that both, and even the traditional teaching method, are more suitable for developing this skill. All player types found the gamified course more activating. The Explorers and Killers perceived the most significant difference between traditional and gamified courses. Socializers prepared less for the gamified course, the other player types prepared more for the gamified course, but not significantly. All player types found the gamified course more motivating, than the traditional courses. Socializers and Achievers have rated slightly higher its motivational effect than the others.

5 Discussion and Conclusion The potential inherent in gamification, such as the use of situation-dependent incentive variants, aroused students’ interest. The motivating tasks raised interesting, real problems, created a competitive situation, and provided a relaxed atmosphere. Accurate knowledge of the goals to be achieved and continuous feedback on the results also had an incentive effect on student performance. Positive reinforcement helped strengthen knowledge, and success increased students’ self-confidence and commitment to learning. There were a lot of previous experiences which seemed to support our hypothesis. It was a spectacular fact that there was less absence from the courses than usual, the points system was monitored continuously by the students, many of them are motivated by the rewards and they monitor each other’s results. It was spectacular within this semester how much the students’ communication, teamwork and presentation skills developed. They sought information and processed it with more confidence. They were also well prepared together with the homework, some teams put surprisingly much effort in the tasks, and they pulled up the lagging students. The atmosphere was cheerful during the lessons and there was a possibility of continuous feedback to check the practice of smaller parts to repeat almost unnoticed. Students did not solve tasks mechanically, but thought, creativity, problem-solving ability, and logical thinking were needed. Exploring and developing individual abilities helped the process of turning new information provided by the curriculum into usable knowledge. Abilities alone do not work without motivation. Our goal was to develop the individual personality in many ways, to get to know and work together with individuals with different characters, in addition to individual differentiation. We have focused on strengthening the competencies expected in the 21st century and their real integration into curricula using gamified elements, which can support these aspirations excellently.

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References 1. Khine, M.S., Areepattamannil, S.: Non-cognitive Skills and Factors in Educational Attainment. Sense Publishers, Rotterdam (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6300-591-3 2. Seemiller, C., Grace, M.: Generation Z: Educating and Engaging the Next Generation of Students. About Campus 22(3), 21–26 (2017) 3. Lee, J., Hammer, J.: Gamification in education: what, how, why bother? Acad. Exch. Q. 15(2), 146 (2011) 4. Koivisto, J., Hamari, J.: The rise of motivational information systems: a review of gamification research. Int. J. Inf. Manage. 45, 191–210 (2019) 5. Majuri, J., Koivisto, J., Hamari, J.: Gamification of education and learning: a review of empirical literature, In: Koivisto, J., Hamari, J. (eds.) Proceedings of the 2nd International GamiFIN Conference, vol. 2186, pp. 11–19 (2018) 6. Chou, Y.-K.: Actionable Gamification: Beyond Points, Badges, and Leaderboards. Octalysis Media, California (2015) 7. Landers, R.N., Auer, E.M., Collmus, A.B., Armstrong, M.B.: Gamification science, its history and future: definitions and a research agenda. Simul. Gaming 49(3), 315–337 (2018) 8. Zichermann, G., Cunningham, C.: Gamification by Design: Implementing Game Mechanics in Web and Mobile Apps. O’Reilly Media Inc., Sebastopol (2011) 9. Park, J., Kim, S., Kim, A., Yi, M.Y.: Learning to be better at the game: performance vs. completion contingent reward for game-based learning. Comput. Educ. 139, 1–15 (2019) 10. Bontchev, B., Vassileva, D., Aleksieva-Petrova, A., Petrov, M.: Playing styles based on experiential learning theory. Comput. Hum. Behav. 85, 319–328 (2018) 11. Bartel, A., Hagel, G.: Gamifying the learning of design patterns in software engineering education. In: 2016 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), Abu Dhabi, pp. 74–79 (2016) 12. Nacke, L.E., Bateman, C., Mandryk, R.L.: BrainHex: a neurobiological gamer typology survey. Entertain. Comput. 5(1), 55–62 (2013) 13. Kapp, K.M.: The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: Game-Based Methods and Strategies for Training and Education, p. 132. Wiley, Hoboken (2012) 14. Subhash, S., Cudney, E.: Gamified learning in higher education: a systematic review of the literature. Comput. Hum. Behav. 87, 192–206 (2018) 15. Khine, M.S., Areepattamannil, S.: Non-cognitive Skills and Factors in Educational Attainment, 443 p. Sense Publishers, Rotterdam (2016) 16. Bartle, R.: MMOs from the Inside Out: The History, Design, Fun, and Art of Massively multiplayer Online Role-playing Games, p. 478. Apress, New York (2015) 17. Borbély, A., Botos, R., Turcsik. K.: Tanulásmódszertan (Learning methodology) (2011). https://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tamop412b2/2013-0002_tanulasmodszertan/ tananyag/MELLEKLET/1_3_teszt1_tanulasi_motivacio_kerdoiv.pdf. Accessed 23 Mar 2021 18. Bartle, R.: Hearts, Clubs, Diamonds, Spades: Players Who Suit MUDs (1996). https://mud. co.uk/richard/hcds.htm. Accessed 28 Mar 2021

The Model of Digital Lifelong Education System in the Era of Grand Challenges: The Case of Multidisciplinary University Anna V. Rubtsova1, Tabolina V. Anastasiia1(&) , Dmitrii V. Tikhonov2, Nikolay I. Snegirev3, Marina V. Bolsunovskaya4, Nadezhda I. Almazova5, Veronika Rakova6, Natalia B. Smolskaia1, and Nora G. Kats1 1

Institute of Humanities, Graduate School of Applied Linguistics, Translation and Interpreting, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia 2 Institute of Industrial Management, Economics and Trade, Graduate School of Business and Management, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected] 3 Department of Vocational Guidance and Pre-University Training, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia 4 Laboratory “Industrial Systems for Streaming Data Processing”, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected] 5 Institute of Humanities, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia 6 Research Laboratory “Systems of Data Streaming Processing”, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. Lifelong learning plays a significant role in the new model of Russian education in 2021. It is also defined as a key component of modern educational systems. By 2025 agile skills and knowledge, comprising active listening skills, brainstorming skills as well as the skills involved in assessing stakeholders and building empowered teams will become a valuable asset to the expertise of each professional. By 2030 the system of higher education will undergo an advanced transformation. It will result in launching digital twins that will allow optimizing the effectiveness of learning and establishing research divisions with a wide range of opportunities. Given that, developing a model of digital lifelong education system in times of grand challenges comes to the forefront of educational agenda. Keywords: Transformation
Edtech
On-line education
Education of the future
Lifelong learning
Personalized learning
Digital competences

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 835–843, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_82

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1 Context The modern university is becoming a complex, open, self-sustaining system that encourages educators and learners to take an active role in managing the learning process and developing personal learning paths. Tabolina A.V. states that the development of psychological and pedagogical counseling system that addresses the issue of students’ professional self-determination should meet the challenges of the day and has to be designed and implemented on the basis of scientific and practical approaches. In this regard, an approach is defined as a specific point of view, an idea, or a perspective that underlies the research and theoretical underpinning [1–4]. The multi-pronged development of the higher education system at a technical university is directed towards gamification, intellectualization of mass professions, digitalization of information databases and systems, customization of educational products, implementation of game-based learning methods and strategies for job simulations, delivery of cultural and educational events, scientific work at FabLAb, personal development of young scientists at “Factories of the Future”, integration of activities based on dialogic teaching and learning.

2 Purpose The aim of this study is to introduce the model of lifelong education system that is being implemented at multidisciplinary university in times of global challenge.

3 Approach The system of lifelong education is an active process of acquiring knowledge, skills and competencies throughout the lifetime on a regular basis. The system of lifelong education requires education agents to develop an innovative approach to education. Nowadays the demand for the system of lifelong education is increasing. The interest to this type of education is determined by the development of science and practice, technological progress, by the importance of self-development and retraining, the emergence of new occupations, changing requirements to professional education and to sets of soft, hard and digital skills. The Covid-19 crisis has challenged the system of higher education. As a result, universities had to optimize the instructional and learning practices and provide students with a high-quality remote support. The levels of lifelong education system at a multidisciplinary university (Fig. 1): 1. Governmental level: it refers to the state and relationships with partner countries; 2 Legislative level: it ensures information and legal security for the system of higher education;

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3. Administrative level: it provides for the quality of professional education at a particular university and for the competitiveness of graduates in labor market; 4. Personal level: it comprises personal responsibility of education agents for the quality of education; 5. Psychological level: it deals with inner motives and personal needs of education agents.

Fig. 1. Levels of lifelong education system at multidisciplinary university.

The outer levels (1–3) are governed by the system of relationships between the state- educational institute- associates (administration board and faculty). The inner levels (4–5) require personal responsibility of students and staff members as well as competent support from university psychological centers. The center for psychological support and counseling «Digital Psy Tech» has been opened at Polytechnic university. The center for psychological counseling is operating remotely, providing regular support as well as monitoring arising psychological issues. The core development directions of lifelong education system at a multidisciplinary university are presented below (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Core development directions of lifelong education system at multidisciplinary university.

I Private Sphere An individual is the “core” of the lifelong education model. Being the agent of development and cognition, an individual is developing throughout the lifetime. Modern universities aim at producing employable graduates, who can ensure sustainable development of the state in internal and external labor markets. However, the knowledge, obtained at universities, is not enough to become a competitive specialist. A specialist of the future is an individual who possesses a broad set of competencies, enabling this person to promptly adjust to the changing conditions of life. The reorientation to the new profile of future specialists poses an acute challenge of creating a system for psychological counseling and personal development. Tabolina notes that the development of psychologically healthy individuals in educational institutions becomes an important task of the present. The level of education is increasing along with the requirements to all education agents. We conducted a research on psychological risks of modern higher education that decrease the efficiency of lifelong learning. In total 436 people were surveyed, namely 247 students and 79 faculty members of SPBPU. The group of students included 137 undergraduate students (17 people were 1st year students, 24 people were 2nd year students, 45 people were 3rd year students, 51 people were 4th year students) and 110 students, earning a master’s degree (54 people of 1st year and 56 students of 2nd year) (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Quantitative ratio of respondents: “Core psychological risks in the system of higher education, reducing the efficiency of lifelong learning” (n = 436).

The participants were asked to enlist the main psychological risks in the system of higher education that could reduce the efficiency of lifelong learning. The obtained data were processed statistically and further grouped in blocks. The results are shown below in Table 1. Table 1. Core psychological risks in the system of higher education, reducing the efficiency of lifelong learning. Comparative analysis. Main psychological risks

High cognitive load Digital overload (prevalence of distance learning modes) Emotional overwhelm Decline of academic motivation Problems in relationships with education agents Uncertainty about future career path Poor use of coping strategies necessary for dealing with stress Problems of adjustment to changing labor conditions in the context of modernization, globalization, digitalization Psychological burnout Personal crises Family crises

Bachelor degree (number of people) 117 217

Master degree (number of people) 23 104

Faculty members (number of people) 36 65

186 73 54 65 126

43 101 53 41 43

56 61 28 13 54

204

95

62

114 201 165

76 61 47

57 72 64

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The table demonstrates that the predominant psychological risks, reducing the efficiency of lifelong learning, are as follows: – High cognitive load: 117 undergraduate students reported that they had problems with learning new material. It might be caused by: lectures overload, difficulties with professional language, difficulties with learning new things, great amount of homework, irregular schedule of tasks completion during a day/week/month. – Digital overload (prevalence of distance learning modes): 217 undergraduate students, 104 students earning master’s degree and 65 faculty members mentioned that they had difficulties related to distance learning. This risk might be considered as a situational risk and attributed to the intensity of distance learning, namely, a great flow of audio-visual information, less time spent outdoor during the Covid-19 lockdown, the absence of alternative modes of education except for a distance one. However, the adjustment to system “Human being – technology” is a trend in modern science and practice regardless Covid-19 pandemic. It demands considerable psychological efforts from each education agent, resulting in a well-developed support system aimed at reducing such risks and improving the strategies needed for adjustment to changing labor conditions. – Emotional overwhelm: a number of undergraduate students reported that they felt emotionally overwhelmed. The participants understand emotional load as a broad set of neurotic factors (difficulty with adequate expression of emotions, inability to replenish emotional energy because of a tight training schedule, etc.) – Decline of academic motivation: 101 students, earning a master’s degree, mentioned this risk as the one interfering with effective learning. The participants identified several factors causing the decline of academic motivation: the lack of interest in disciplines, ineffective communication with professors, information overload, complexity and diversity of tasks, difficulties with work and study balance, difficulties arising in mastering new profession within a two-year period. – Difficulties with interpersonal relationships among education agents manifest themselves in adjustment to innovative instructional strategies such as discussions, game-based methods, project work. It might be hard for students to express themselves in a creative learning space. In this regard, an educator’s priority is to find an approach to such students. – Uncertainty about future career path: this risk is attributed to occupational changes, increase in new jobs in labor market, rapid change of in-demand professions. A modern graduate has to demonstrate well-developed soft, digital and hard skills, which is a strong stress factor, both in the learning and employment processes. – Poor use of coping strategies necessary for dealing with stress: the strategies for coping with stress manifest themselves in the inability to distribute the workload, which strengthens procrastination and results in accumulation of multiple tasks. The postponement of necessary tasks becomes a stress causing factor. In this regard, it is important to deliver psychological classes, using, for instance, case study method that introduces participants to varied coping strategies, enables them to solve diverse problems and increases labor productivity in special training groups (Tgroups).

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– Problems of adjustment to changing labor conditions: 204 undergraduate students, 95 students earning a master’s degree and 62 staff members identified this group of risks as being predominant. The group comprises several risks attributed to diverse factors, for instance: a rich labor market of vacancies causes difficulties with professional self-determination; competition in education leads to neuroses among students with labile nervous system; programs focused on the development of creative leaders might contribute to the decrease of team spirit among students. These tendencies in education lead to individualization and interfere with the team building activities. It means that team work as well as incorporation of scientific schools become an important issue in the system of lifelong education. – Psychological burnout: this risk is widely spread in higher education. The burnout most often manifests itself in personal detachment, emotional and physical exhaustion, and dissatisfaction with the work performed. This issue requires close attention of psychological counseling services. – Personal crises: this risk is attributed to the transitional stages of growth and personal development, changing self-concept and attitudes towards education. Learning objectives correspond to the age groups. This fact should be addressed while developing curricula, instructional strategies and ways of material presentation. Instructional approaches for teaching adults differ from the ones for teaching adolescent students. – Family crises: these risks are related to the specifics of family relationships. Problems with communication with parents, children or a spouse might significantly affect the academic motivation and quality of performance. Thus, having studied the core psychological risks that influence on the efficiency of education at a multidisciplinary university, we assumed that the development of psychological counseling system, available for all education agents, had to become one of the educational priorities. The system of higher education has to be focused on multifaceted personal development with respect to individual abilities of each student and their personal paths of development. In SPBPU the Center for psychological support and counseling” in collaboration with the Center for career guidance and pre-university training are planning to carry out a voluntary diagnostic assessment of personal and professional traits among students and faculty members (upon request) as well as to conduct a research on students’ and faculty members’ (upon request) psychological health. It will help students to identify the zones of proximal and actual development, outline education paths, explore the areas of professional knowledge, receive recommendations for the development of professional qualities and competencies, learn about their professional psychological profile which might be further used as an attachment to a resume. II Public Sphere. This is the space of interpersonal relationships. Based on the research results, Tabolina confirms the findings of social psychologists and concludes that effective communication between the agents significantly increases the quality of education, namely, the higher the level of satisfaction with relationships is, the higher academic motivation becomes. For instance, 47% of students enrolled in master’s degree programs in SPBPU in 2020 reported that their choice to continue their studies was governed by effective communication with university administration and faculty

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members, established earlier; 16% of students made their choice of master programs in SPBPU based on recommendations of senior students enrolled in similar programs in SPBPU; 4% of students decided to enroll in master’s degree programs to follow a family scientific tradition. Thus, the social factor of the model of lifelong education system is quite important for further education. The more effective the interpersonal communication is, the more probable students choose to continue their education. In order to solve this problem, it is necessary to develop a program aimed at supporting team spirit and team work. This program might comprise team building activities, training sessions designed to develop creative skills, the launch of stress relief and relaxation room in the Center for psychological support and counseling in SPBPU. III Professional Sphere The interest in lifelong learning lies in professional fulfillment. The third level of the model of lifelong education system at a multidisciplinary university aims at establishing professional communities, scientific centers, innovative resource centers. In this regard, the continuity of scientific knowledge, incorporation of scientific schools and centers guided by leading scholars are gaining much importance along with the issues related to the adjustment of young scientists to professional communities. SPBPU has launched the project “Council of young scientists” that allows young scientists to get support from colleagues-innovators. IV Sphere of Professional Practice The practice significantly impacts on students’ professional development and personal growth. The participation in production teams allows students to evaluate the work from the inside. Moreover, the practice contributes to the development of reliable partnerships. SPBPU offers exchange programs that enable students to do an internship in partner universities. A diversity of professional tasks is rather important for the professional development of students. Every year SPBPU increases the number of companies where students might apply their knowledge to practice. Moreover, the Center for youth project activities has been opened in SPBU, which consists of the following departments [1]: “FabLab – Polytech” – a center for scientific and creative practices. Students and scholars implement practical cases of different levels of complexity. For instance, the research group launched the production of personal protective equipment for medical professionals, fighting against Covid-19. “Boiling point -Polytech” – a comfortable space for teamwork, where each person can organize or participate in educational or business events based on Leader-ID service free of charge; teach and learn in professional communities, gather a team to launch a project, find experts or investors countrywide [1]. “Power Machines – Polytech” – the scientists of this department are involved in the implementation of innovative projects in the technical field. V Sphere of Science and Innovation. It constitutes the top level of the model of lifelong education system. Innovative projects and unique designs are developed and implemented at this level. The Center of competencies NTI SPBPU is the embodiment of innovations. The Center of competencies NTI SPBPU – is the leading competency

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center with a great project consortium in “New production technologies” (digital design and modelling, digital twins, new materials, additive technologies), created on the basis of innovations eco-system of Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University. This center provides educational and scientific institutions as well as production companies with the infrastructure for interaction, ensuring the global competitiveness of domestic leading companies in the NTI markets and in high-tech industries [1].

4 Conclusions The system of education, which is governed by the continuity principle, is the production system for extensive educational services that meets the educational, cognitive, cultural needs of learners and creates the conditions for their development throughout their life. SPbPU delivers a flexible, multi-level system of continuous education, that is able to respond to challenges of society and global education, to meet the learning needs of citizens and effectively resolve socioeconomic, political, educational issues to the benefit of an individual, the country and society.

References 1. Information from the site (https://www.spbstu.ru) 2. Khalyapina, L.P., Almazova, N.I., Andreeva, S.S.: Integration of online and offline education in the system of students’ preparation for global academic mobility. In: Alexandrov, D.A., Boukhanovsky, A.V., Chugunov, A.V., Kabanov, Y., Koltsova, O. (eds.) Digital Transformation and Global Society (DTGS 2018 Third International Conference, DTGS 2018, St. Petersburg, Russia, May 30–June 2, 2018 Revised Selected Papers, Part II, pp. 162–174. Springer, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02846-6_13 3. Kruglikov, V.N., Kasyanik, P.M.: The role of active learning in the concept of global engineering education. Sci. Tech. Statements St. Petersburg State Polytechnic Univ. Humanities Soc. Sci. 3(227), 159–168 (2015) 4. Olennikova, M.V., Tabolina, A.V.: Psycho-pedagogical support of students project activities in multi-functional production laboratories (Fab Lab) on the basis of Technical University. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 917, 732–740 (2019) 5. Olennikova, M.V., Tabolina, A.V., Tihonov, D.V.: Psychological assistance to university graduates at the stage of employment. In: Rudskoy, A.I., Okrepilov, V.V. (eds.) Forum Proceedings. The St. Petersburg International Economic Forum. Section at Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University. Use of New Developments of UNESCO Chairs for Strategic Planning and Sustainable Development of the Metropolis, p. 104. SPb: PolytechPress (2019) 6. Posokhova, S.T., Olennikova, M.V., Tabolina, A.V., Khalyapina, L.P.: Professional selfconcept of students future psychologists. In: The European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences EpSBS 19th PCSF Professional – Culture of the Specialist of the Future 28–29 November 2019, pp. 926–933 (2019) 7. Snegirev, N.I., Tikhonov, D.V.: Modern tools for vocational guidance of school children Proceedings of the scientific-practical conference “Professional self-determination, professional development of youth - an important condition for the economic development of the state”; St. Petersburg, April 25, 2018/Center for Employment and Vocational Guidance of Youth “VEKTOR”. SPb: Science-intensive technologies, p. 138 (2018)

Vector Model of the Youth Professional SelfDetermination in the Context of Multidisciplinary University Tabolina V. Anastasiia1(&) , Dmitrii V. Tikhonov2, Anna V. Rubtsova1, Nikolay I. Snegirev3, Marina V. Bolsunovskaya4, Nadezhda I. Almazova5, Yudina Inna6, Natalia B. Smolskaia1, and Nora G. Kats1 1

Institute of Humanities, Graduate School of Applied Linguistics, Translation and Interpreting, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia 2 Institute of Industrial Management, Economics and Trade, Graduate School of Business and Management, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected] 3 Department of Vocational Guidance and Pre-University Training, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia 4 Laboratory “Industrial Systems for Streaming Data Processing”, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected] 5 Institute of Humanities, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia 6 Research Laboratory “Systems of Data Streaming Processing”, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. Today’s education is struggling to respond to the challenges of a changing world. The skills and knowledge, traditionally taught at educational institutions, rapidly become obsolete. This raises a question about organizing career guidance work, as a system of professional, psychological and educational guidance of a person on the path towards self-determination. Universities should be involved not only in providing the learners with high quality educational services, but also in developing a flexible and innovative model that could impact on professional self-determination at all levels of university education, from the emergence of interest in profession to additional professional training. Given that, the development of multidimensional vector model of the youth professional self- determination in the context of multidisciplinary university is gaining increasing importance. Keywords: Network communication
Digital skills passport Digital skills
Personal learning paths


Agile skills


© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 844–851, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_83

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1 Context Tabolina A.V. states that the development of psychological and pedagogical counseling system that addresses the issue of students’ professional self-determination should meet the challenges of the day and has to be designed and implemented on the basis of scientific and practical approaches. In this regard, an approach is defined as a specific point of view, an idea, or a perspective that underlies the research and theoretical underpinnings [1–4]. Snegirev I. notes that the main weakness of current research works is the failure to conduct an integrative, multidimensional and systematic analysis of the questions concerning professional self-determination of youth. Meanwhile, the importance and urgent need for such an analysis has been highlighted in a number of studies [5–7]. At present, «great attention is paid to the quality and growth of the country’s human capital in the development of the Russian society. It is assigned a decisive role in the modernization of the social and economic situation in the country. In connection with the country’s transition to a digital economy, the tasks of searching for a new approach to the system of occupational self-determination, training, retraining, and social adaptation of young people in the labor market arise. Modern trends in the society are intellectualization of mass professions, digitalization of information bases and systems, customization of educational products, introduction of game technologies (gamification) as a tool of professional tests, as well as commercialization of professions. According to this trend, the plan for further research includes the task of developing a multidimensional vector model of occupational self-determination support» [2, 5, 7]. The multidimensional vector model of occupational self-determination includes several clusters: development of individual trajectories in the digital educational environment of the university, support of the process of occupational selfdetermination aimed at the formation of a professional position at different stages of university education, expansion of soft-skills, hard-skills, digital-skills in new promising directions, systematic continuous and phased support of students during the whole process of education taking into consideration the career vectors [6–11]. Thus, we assume that the development of vector model of the youth professional self-determination with the respect to the needs of a multidisciplinary university is an important research question.

2 Purpose The aim of this study is to develop the components of vector model of the youth professional self-determination. The research problem is derived from the necessity to develop a new approach to defining the stages of professional self-determination of the youth in the context of regional education system. Moreover, there is a need to design a system of indicators to monitor the process of professional self-determination at its different stages. The solution for a given problem embodies both theoretical and practical significance, as it lays the theoretical foundations for vocational guidance and counselling.

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3 Approach At the initial stage of the empirical research, we brainstormed the working definition of the notion “professional self-determination”. It was defined as set of procedures aimed at integrating a person into social, educational and professional contexts of future specialization. After that we conducted a survey among participants. The survey was based on Kon’s methodological tool, namely “Where do I see myself in 5 years? (for school students) and “Where do I see myself in 10 years? (for university students). The participants constituted two groups: 1) the students of 9th-11th grades from several St. Petersburg schools; 2) the students from Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, who are studying for a Bachelor’s degree at different departments. The obtained results allowed us to evaluate the extent to which the professional selfdetermination had been evolved. Besides that, it enabled to define the core tendencies attributed to the development of professional self-determination. We have defined six stages in the process of professional self-determination (Fig. 1). 1. Pre-school stage. Every child under the age of seven possesses an incipient preconcept of professional choice. Thus, 17% of respondents confirmed that they first started thinking about their vocation being in a kindergarten. Their primal interest was conditioned by: Inner circle and meaningful connections (their parents’ professions, educators’ opinions); Initial psychological evaluation and diagnostic assessment conducted by child psychologists, e.g. the analysis of drawings and craft activity products; Cartoons and books. In this regard, imagination plays a significant role while fantasizing about future professions, which are often unrealistic, yet metaphorically and meaningfully involve a child (for instance, to become a Batman, Fairy and etc.) The preschool stage of professional self-determination significantly contributes to the evolvement of children’s interests in the world exploration, knowledge gain and skills acquisition, giving rise to the development of pre-professional skills and competencies. In role-plays and instructional games children learn the basics of handling objects and communicating with peers and adults. In most cases, children change their early choice of career path (only 1.4% of students made their irrevocable decisions regarding their vocation at preschool age). 2. The initial (pre-professional) stage. The initial vocational orientation corresponds to the age of students at primary school (7–10 years old). At this stage, the child’s inner world begins its intensive development, children immerse themselves in the IThou (I- you) relationships, and they often envisage being involved in a particular profession. At this stage, 21,3% of respondents start to think about their vocational choice for the first time, however, only 4, 3% do not change it afterwards. 3. Spontaneous (early adolescence) stage. The spontaneous stage corresponds to teenage years (11–14). At this stage, 37% of respondents – the students of 7th, 9th, 11th grades- report they have thought about their future profession and 41% of respondents report to be determined about their vocational choice.

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1. Pre-school

2. Initial (pre-professional)

3. Spontaneous (early adolescence)

4. Pre-university (preliminary choice)

5.

Professional training (specialization)

6. Professionalization

(in-house adaptation)

Fig. 1. Core stages of professional self-determination

As a rule, a career interest, at this stage, is driven by the nascent sense of maturity, intrinsic motivation to be significant, desire to be involved in the monetary relations. A lot of teenagers strive to gain financial and emotional independence from adults. At the stage of trial choice, the interest in a particular profession is often tied up with the interest in a specific subject and is reinforced by extra-curriculum classes and selective reading. If at previous stages children report that they just “like” the profession, then at this stage, school students distinguish the emotional aspects of the profession.

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4. Pre-university (preliminary choice) stage (15–17). The survey results show that before finishing school only 17% of ninth graders and 31% of eleventh graders have chosen a desired career. The majority of school graduates make their vocational choice after taking the Unified State Exam. After they have received the total score, school graduates choose the professions (major) they could apply for. Quite often school graduates do not feel satisfied. In case of low scores prospective students do not choose prestigious universities and professions, instead, they tend to opt for low-ranked universities with low passing grades or for the professions that are not in demand. As a result, such students do not graduate from colleges or universities as they lack motivation and interest in profession they have had to choose. It negatively affects the professional self-image of an individual. Only 18% of students re-enroll at other colleges or universities after dismissal. 5. Professional training (specialization) stage. The professional training stage plays a significant role in professional self-determination as, namely, at this stage young adults acquire specific knowledge, skills and professional competencies that contribute to the development of professional identity. In the context of vocational training it is possible to define two sub-stages in the process of professional selfdetermination: a) introduction to the profession, the evolvement of interest in future profession, adjustment to student life (1st and 2nd year of studies); b) specialization: first real professional experience gained during an internship, acquisition of professional skills, knowledge and competencies. The professional training stage does not necessarily end up the process of professional self-determination. In the era of technological advancements, new professions constantly appear, changing the labor market, labor content and sets of professional duties and functions. As a result, individuals are required to be professionally mobile and demonstrate abilities to retrain, upgrade their skills or even to change a profession. Therefore, some graduates might continue undergoing the process of professional self- determination even when they are applying for a job. 6. Professionalization stage. During this stage, a young specialist adapts to the working environment. At this stage, varied acute problems, grounded on the mismatch between personality traits and some aspects of the job might become a frequent occurrence. Job dissatisfaction, difficulties in professional, socio- psychological and psychophysiological adaptation might result in professional disidentification. The process of professional self-determination does not end in this case, but becomes cyclic and the situation of vocational choice occurs again. The Vector model of professional self-determination of the youth comprises five blocks (Fig. 2). Occupational information refers to the process of developing specific concepts among young adults about future occupation, conditions and types of vocational training, occupational requirements. This block is guided by psychologists, employers, specialists of centers for career counseling and orientation.

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Vocational education refers to informing school students about varied professions and their role in national economy as well as labor market needs, working conditions, psychophysiological criteria of occupations, employment options, remuneration polices. Generally, it aims at introducing school students to varied professions and modern employment trends. Occupational selection is the probabilistic assessment procedure, aiming at evaluating and assessing occupational suitability of people, their abilities to master a specific profession as well as achieve the required skill level and effectively perform their professional duties. It stipulates the conduct of professional multipurpose psychological diagnostic assessment.

Occupational information

Professional adaptation

Professional training

Vocational education

Occupational Selection

Fig. 2. Vector model of the youth professional self-determination

Professional training is the process and result of professional growth and development. It is the process during which a person acquires specific knowledge, skills and competencies required for a specific occupational area and profession. It is supposed to organize study tours to companies in order to allow students the chance to get acquainted with the distinctive features of work.

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Professional adaptation is the process during which a person enters into a profession and harmonizes all interactions with a professional work environment. It stipulates the post-graduation guidance of students and assistance in designing their graduate portfolios. The present model stipulates the design of recommendation module that aims at assisting in professional self-determination by developing varied offers with due regard to individual characteristics of a person and prospective needs in economy and industrial sector. These recommendations facilitate the decision-making process in the context of vocational orientation. Thus, the model which is being developed will allow both to meet the labor market needs, the needs of economy and industrial sector at governmental and institutional levels, and to encourage professional self-actualization at a personal level. The empirical research aims at gathering representative data sets per different stages of professional self-determination to contribute to further approbation of theoretical models. In terms of software development, it is planned to digitalize the tools for portraying the specialist of the future. We also intend to create a software product that could allow monitoring the development of a person, his or her personal traits, in multidimensional space of a multidisciplinary university.

4 Conclusions The fundamental studies, carried out in terms of this project, significantly advance the theory, whilst, the results of experiments, presented in the form of software models, make a major practical contribution. The theoretical research stipulates the development of multidimensional vector model that comprises diagnostic, psychological and pedagogical components. The empirical research aims at gathering representative data sets per different levels of professional self-determination to contribute to further approbation of theoretical models.

References 1. Almazova, N., Eremin, Y., Kats, N., Rubtsova, A.: Integrative multifunctional model of bilingual teacher education. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 940(1), 012134 (2020). https:// doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/940/1/012134 2. Almazova, N., Rubtsova, A., Krylova, E., Eremin, Y., Smolskaia, N.: Blended learning model in the innovative electronic basis of technical engineers training. In: Annals of DAAAM and Proceedings of the International DAAAM Symposium, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 814–825 (2019). https://doi.org/10.2507/30th.daaam.proceedings.113 3. Khalyapina, L.P., Almazova, N.I., Andreeva, S.S.: Integration of Online and Offline Education in the System of Students’ Preparation for Global Academic Mobility. In: Digital Transformation and Global Society DTGS 2018. Third International Conference, DTGS 2018 St. Petersburg, Russia, 30 May–2 June 2018 Revised Selected Papers, Part II, pp. 162– 174 (2018)

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4. Kruglikov, V.N., Kasyanik, P.M.: The role of active learning in the concept of global engineering education. Scientific and Technical Statements of the St. Petersburg State Polytechnic University. Humanities and Social Sciences, no. 3(227), pp. 159–168 (2015) 5. Olennikova, M.V., Tabolina, A.V.: Psycho-pedagogical support of students project activities in multi-functional production laboratories (fab lab) on the basis of technical university. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 917, 732–740 (2019) 6. Olennikova, M.V., Tabolina, A.V., Tihonov, D.V.: Psychological assistance to university graduates at the stage of employment. In: Rudskoy, A.I., Okrepilov, V.V. (eds.) Forum Proceedings. The St. Petersburg International Economic Forum. Section at Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University. Use of New Developments of UNESCO Chairs for Strategic Planning and Sustainable Development of the Metropolis. POLYTECH-PRESS, SPb (2019). 104 p. 7. Posokhova, S.T., Olennikova, M.V., Tabolina, A.V., Khalyapina, L.P.: Professional selfconcept of students future psychologists. In: The European Proceedings of Social & Behavioural Sciences EpSBS 19th PCSF Professional – Culture of the Specialist of the Future, 28–29 November 2019, pp. 926–933 (2019) 8. Rubtsova, A.V., Almazova, N.I.: Productive model of foreign languageslearning: realities and prospects. In: International Conference Communicative Strategies of Information Society (CSIS 2018). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, vol. 289, pp. 319–324 (2018). https://doi.org/10.2991/csis-18.2019.65 9. Rubtsova, A.V., Almazova, N.I., Bylieva, D.S., Krylova, E.A.: Constructive model of multilingual education management in higher school. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 940 (1), 012132 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/940/1/012132 10. Rubtsova, A., Odinokaya, M., Krylova, E., Smolskaia, N.: Problems of mastering and using digital learning technology in the context of a pandemic. In: Bylieva, D., Nordmann, A., Shipunova, O., Volkova, V. (eds.) PCSF/CSIS 2020. LNNS, vol. 184, pp. 324–337. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65857-1_28 11. Snegirev, N.I., Tikhonov, D.V.: Modern tools for vocational guidance of school children. In: Proceedings of the Scientific-Practical Conference “Professional Self-Determination, Professional Development of Youth - An Important Condition for the Economic Development of the State”, St. Petersburg, 25 April 2018. Center for Employment and Vocational Guidance of Youth “VEKTOR”. Science-Intensive Technologies, SPb (2018). 138 p.

An Evaluation of Serious Games for Engineering Education Susann Zeiner-Fink(&) , Annika Feldhoff and Angelika C. Bullinger

,

Chair for Ergonomics and Innovation, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09125 Chemnitz, Germany {susann.zeiner-fink,annika.feldhoff, angelika.bullinger-hoffmann}@mb.tu-chemnitz.de

Abstract. Serious games are typically used in higher education for economical, production-oriented, or human resource-related qualifications. They are useful tools for analyzing business-related communication, processes and correlations by reducing complicated, real company problems into substantial parts. The innovative nature of serious games refers to their field of application in education and training in combination with new learning locations or media. While the advantages of serious games are well known and acknowledged by the scientific community, there are very few methods of making game results measurable. In addition, there are only a few findings about general conditions required to support learning and high-quality results of serious games. Thus, the paper provides a survey to evaluate a self-developed serious game in engineering education. Based on the analyses of questionnaires (N = 230) and half-standard observations (N = 68), the learning effects and game experiences of participants were measured. The paper presents results of the analysis of the collected data, which show insights of game-based learning and factors influencing game flow and atmosphere. One of most important results of the analysis is that the learning of the participants and the game atmosphere is significantly connected with gender and professional background of the participants. Additionally, circumstances and design elements that support learning outcome, participant perception and success of the simulation game have been identified. Keywords: Evaluation of serious games elements of games
Adult education


Game-based learning
Design

1 Introduction Although the benefits of serious games are acknowledged and widely spread in science, they are still used very restrainedly in companies and further education [4, 7]. One reason for this could be the complex and time-consuming design of most serious games which are appropriate and suit the requirements of companies well. Additionally, learning effects, game experience or behavioral changes of the participants in the game are difficult to measure and there are only few studies examining the topic of learning by games or influencing factors which support learning [12, 14, 19]. Nevertheless, the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 852–864, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_84

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expansion and development of innovative simulation game-oriented methods that are specifically created for critical situations and challenges in companies seems to be indispensable considering the wide range of capabilities and the effectiveness of serious games [7, 21, 24]. Hence, after a short overview about game-based learning and the design of learning games for business education, this paper will introduce a self-developed business game and using this example shows how learning in serious games could be evaluated, which design elements support game-based learning and review some methods of measurement. Afterwards first results of the evaluation of the business game are introduced. Finally, starting points for further research in this field will be explored.

2 Theoretical Background of Learning in Serious Games Examining the relevant literature, different theoretical approaches, mostly based on a constructivistic understanding of learning, are used to describe and explain the learning processes in serious games [1, 13, 19]. Two approaches that are particularly common as explanations of learning in serious games should be introduced briefly to explain the understanding of learning that forms the basis of the development and evaluation of the business game presented: The Experimental Learning Theory and the Action-oriented Learning Approach. The Experimental Learning Theory by Kolb (1984) is a popular approach to explain learning in serious games, especially in the Anglo-American language area [13, 19]. Regarding the work of Lewin, Dewey and Piaget, Kolb develops an experimental learning cycle to explain the process of experiential learning where knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experiences. Initial point of the learning process is a concrete experience that results from the actions and decisions of the learner. In a second step, the learner collects data on the experience and reflects observations to understand the impact of his actions. In the third stage the learner abstracts and conceptualizes, i.e. generalizes, draws conclusions, and builds hypotheses. These hypotheses and knowledge concepts are tested in a fourth and final stage of active experimentation in new circumstances. Afterwards the cycle begins anew, but now on an advanced level of knowledge and understanding [9]. In case of serious games, the four-stage cycle described is processed several times due to the different game periods. The gamers discuss, reflect and conceptualize their previous gaming actions and experiences and adopt the knowledge gained as the game progresses [1]. The Action-oriented Learning Approach is especially widespread in the German research landscape, where serious games are understood as action-oriented learning methods [23], which enable the learner to acquire action competence through action [19]. Action in this context is perceived as a purposeful, intentional and reflected behaviour that is related to the examination with a specific situation [22]. According to this, action-oriented learning methods are characterised by their close to practice task and problem orientation. The learner has to take part actively (cognitively and physically) and gets involved mentally as well as emotionally and learns results from every action, whereby it has to be differentiated between incidental and intentional learning [23]. That means for the incidental learning that the learning happens without the

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intention to learn. The learning happens “along the way” while the focus is on the action of problem solving. Intentional Learning means that the ambition or aim to learn something is the trigger and focus of the action. Such learning-actions mostly aim on the acquisition of knowledge or competence that is important to manage a special situation [19]. 2.1

Serious Games

Serious games exactly facilitate this close to reality learning environment as they simulate dynamic and complex systems and close to practice problems. The participants are confronted with a specific task or problem in an artificial environment and get the possibility to give different actions a trial. Thereby they acquire knowledge and skills that enable them to act in future real-life situations [23]. Furthermore, serious games are characterized by creativity, flexibility, uncertainty and openness and give participants enough space and scope to act [7]. In contrast to real problems, wrong decisions in the simulation have no serious effects. Thus, errors provide useful guidance for learning from mistakes by experiencing almost real consequences [7, 17]. Participants get the opportunity to take part in the game actively and directly by taking over different roles and have an impact on the simulation results. Serious games deal with specialized and factual communication and interaction decisions, which are predetermined and regulated by the events as well as the goals of the game in combination with the pre-defined rules and game environments [7]. However, a competent implementation and coordination of the interests of all participants is required, due to the high complexity of the business game method [24]. Summarized the business game-method supports the ability to reflect and to give feedback as well as the knowledge acquisition, the understanding of structures and connections in businesses. The method increases the motivation to learn and trains the willingness to compromise. Visual, tactile, auditory and senses which are based on feelings are addressed, whereby long-term professional learning and memorizing can be stimulated [7]. The more sensory channels are addressed, the better the information can be absorbed. The link between motor and visual processes creates a connection to reality, which allows a more efficient way of learning. An additional benefit is the integration of emotional aspects and a mostly positive experience of the game situation [17]. Thus, serious games consist of three dimensions which should be considered by development and design: the simulation and resources, game and rules as well as roles and actors. This means for the designing process that a simulation is always related to real systems, elements and their interactions and resources. The content of the game mirrors the part of the reality chosen in reduced complexity. The rules and the actors of the game determine the kind of limits and degree of freedom during the interaction. Hence, the whole process of serious games needs five phases. As mentioned above, a part of reality is chosen for the simulation. In the design process a special business game is developed where a simulation model is used. A conscious reduction is used to avoid overwhelming or mental overload [11]. By using the effects of objective thinking tangible elements can be implemented in the game and support participants to become more familiar with the gaming process. According to the findings of Kristiansen,

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Hansen and Nielsen 2009 the interaction between the neurons in the brain and the hands stimulate the learning process as well (see Fig. 1). Thus, serious games have a deep practical and highly visual impact and create a way of sustainable learning [2, 10].

Fig. 1. Business game process according to Kriz (2011)

By performing, a game reality is constructed which involves all players, facilitators, interactions, decisions and interpretations. Through the debriefing phase the business game is reflected and consequences for real situations can be derived. Therefore, a special didactic model is needed. The last phase is the evaluation of the business game which consists of an evaluation model and analyses the quality standards of the business game. With the help of the evaluation a transfer of the effects and usage of the business game is suggested [11]. 2.2

Design of the Business Game

The business game has been developed within five years at Technische Universität Chemnitz University of Technology and is available in English, Czech and German. Initial point for the development of the game was to design a game which implements the Web 2.0 application microblogging. The main task was to design an understandable experimental environment which turns a relatively new computer-based technology in to a tangible experience. For this purpose, the business game method was chosen and a part of a vehicle production illustrates the embedded environment of the game setting. The main objectives of the game are the production of two different LEGO® vehicles and the fulfilment of customer wishes. The assembly line is kept simple to attain a quick familiarity with the game process: It consists of three different production departments as well as a management department to control the orders and to survey the upcoming events during the game.

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The obvious learning objectives of the game are introduced at the beginning of the game like get to know how to clarify organizational and production typical challenges, to emphasize the importance of communication and interaction within the organization, to work with new computer technologies and to set a transfer of knowledge about serious games by playing and learning. The simulation displays three business years during which various common business problems may occur. Therefore, along the gaming process different techniques of solving problems and optimization approaches can be tested playfully. Additionally, obstacles like pressure of time or missing parts may occur and complicate the achievement of targets. The resulting and intended learning objectives which are not obvious are characterized by realizing and communicating problems and processes, dealing with breaking routines, role acceptance, common thinking of departments and responsibility of one’s own tasks, practicing of administrative techniques, training social competences like reacting on stress or communicating with the management or workers of other departments and learning from mistakes in a safe environment. The game operates with a minimum of nine participants and duration of approximately four hours [15].

3 Evaluation of the Business Game To ensure the necessary acceptance and support of the implementation of an evaluation, it requires suitable methods which should involve all participants of the survey [20]. The focus of the evaluation in the business game is laid on the exploration of the framework conditions, aspects of sustainability, relationships and cause-effect relationships. In addition, the assessment of effects and opportunities of sustainability in the simulation game were observed. Significance of the test results can be increased through a combination of classical and additional qualitative or quantitative methods [15]. Thus, the evaluation of the business game is based on a methodological triangulation as the findings of standardized questionnaires and half-standardized observations were compared. 3.1

Evaluation Design

The evaluation of the business game is based on the logical evaluation model of Kriz (2011) which includes the whole process of the game: input, action and short- and long-term output. The items of the progressed evaluation which addresses the evaluation model of Kriz are highlighted with letters in brackets (see Table 1):

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Table 1. Evaluation model of the business game (according to Kriz 2011).

The following questions should be answered by the evaluation: (1) Do the game concept and process, the chosen system environment (vehicle production) and the material used qualify the game for usage in business context? (2) How do the participants assess the business game concerning motivation, satisfaction, learning, game design and success of the game? (3) Do previous knowledge and experience, age and gender influence the learning effects of the game? The subjective perceptions of all players were collected by using a quantitative survey in written form. Due to that there exists no evaluated survey material for business game, the questionnaires used base on questionnaires of Trautwein (2011). The items of the questionnaire were adapted and enriched by questions referring to the requirements of the game. To get a correlation of the opinion of the participants, they got numbers to keep track of the development during the game process. The first part of the survey contained a questionnaire which was handed out after each round of the game (a). With the help of a 6-point Likert scale the ranges of the categories game design and motivation were measured from “1 = strongly agree” to “6 = strongly disagree”. To avoid a middle trend and to evaluate the game experience, a five-rating scale was not selected [21]. The items in the category game design questioned the game process, the material provided and the concept of the game. For instance, they explored whether the

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available information was sufficient, the participants understood the rules of the game or coped well with the provided material, whether the participants were able to perform the given tasks during the business game well or if they felt stressed out. The category of motivation evaluated the atmosphere during the game, whether the players had fun and how they treated each other [2]. The second questionnaire was handed out directly after the game (b). This questionnaire was structured similarly to the first survey. It consisted of 64 semi-structured and structured questions. Besides game design and motivation, this questionnaire includes the additional categories satisfaction, learning and success of the business game and experience of the participants [18, 19, 21]. At the end of this general survey the participants were asked about demographic details. After a period of six months the participants were interviewed (N = 60) or were given a questionnaire (d) which was related to the questionnaire which had been handed out directly after the game. The results of the interviews are prepared for further research. Additionally, to the survey, each department of the production process was observed by minimum one and maximum two observers who did not participate in the game. Based on an observation sheet, a hybrid of semi-standardized and standardized observation took place. Hence, the game situation and the behavior of the participants in each game round were proceeded by a non-participatory open observation. The observation sheet (c) was content-related to the survey and covered the same categories and scales of the questionnaire. In addition, the questions were supplemented by free text fields for further comments. In total 69 observers participated in the research study. 3.2

Procedure of the Experiments

The game has been played in 30 test runs with several participants from different universities (e.g. Tampere University of Technology, Konkuk University or University of West Bohemia), companies (e.g. Audi AG, chemmedia AG) and business schools (e.g. Westsächsische Hochschule Zwickau, BSZ Leipzig). A total of 230 participants (51.44% female and 48.56% male) from employees (27.03%) to pupils (11.35%) and students (54.59%) at an age of 17 to 60 years (M = 24.76) and different educational attainments attended the game. 38.81% of the participants had an economical, 23.88% an engineering and 32.84% a social and medical health background. In summary of the 30 test runs a high response rate (91.7%) of questionnaires after the game (N = 211) and of the observation sheets (N = 69) was reached. Possible reasons might be that the participants were addressed personally regarding the survey and the high involvement of the participants during the evaluation. 29 participants of the game answered the questionnaire after six months. On the one hand this is due to the long distance after the game. On the other hand, 60 of the participants were interviewed (response rate of 42.18%) instead of the questionnaires, which is not focused in this paper.

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4 Results For the evaluation of the questionnaires and to answer the research questions, the programme STATA 14.1 was used. The implemented variables build sum scores based on at least three variables. Each sum score was tested of reliability by Cronbach’s Alpha. None of the variables showed a normal distribution. Therefore, a rank correlation by Spearman was used. The results show effects and no causalities due to the cross section of the survey [16]. The data which are significant at 95% or higher are labeled with an asterisk*. The probability that the results were found by chance is 5%. Afterwards the recent findings of the evaluation are introduced. 4.1

Results During and Directly After the Game

Referring to the in-game-questionnaire (a), which was handed out after each round and according to the 6-point Likert scale with the ranges of the categories from “1 = strongly agree” to “6 = strongly disagree” the mean value of the category game process decreased from M = 2.39 to M = 2.24 (see Table 2). Table 2. Selected categories during and after the game.

This could be an indication that the participants understood the tasks better, that they were more concentrated, the group processes got more stable and the atmosphere during the game improved. For the category game material, the data showed that the players coped better with the material provided during the game process: Up from the first (M = 2.45) to the last round (M = 2.01) they had less problems with the game requirements and got more familiar with the game. The third category explored the concept of the game, whether the participants understood the processes, if they could manage the tasks and how much they got involved in the game. The findings indicated (M = 2.7 to M = 2.55) that the players handled the implemented tasks and processes well and the time seems to have passed by different from normal. Additionally, the items of the category motivation showed that the participants enjoyed working in their group (irrespective of their assembly line) and had a lot of fun during the game (M = 2.12 to M = 2.16). The participants took the

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opportunity of the questionnaire to share their opinion considering their own assembly line and their gaming experience. According to the data of the survey after the game (b), the mean values of the game process (M = 2.34) and of the game material (M = 2.49) showed nearly the same labels as the mean values of the first questionnaires during the game rounds. Nevertheless, the average values of the concept of the game (M = 2.42) and the motivation (M = 2.04) decreased slightly. This could lead to the conclusion that the participants were satisfied with the design of the business game in general and were highly motivated through the whole game. Except the category of learning (M = 2.73), the additional categories of satisfaction (M = 1.8) and success of the business game (M = 2.38) provided high values, too. The comparison of the mean values of the questionnaires (b) and the observationsurvey (c) showed, that they correspond in the categories of learning (Mb = 2.73 and Mc = 2.74) and game process (Mb = 2.34 and Mc = 2.35). Conversely, the values of game material (Mb = 2.49) and game concept (Mb = 2.42) were assessed less positively by the participants than the observers mentioned (Mc = 2.12 and Mc = 2.21). Moreover, the observers assessed the satisfaction (Mc = 2.46), the motivation (Mc = 2.43) and the success of the business game (Mc = 2.59) slightly worse than the participants. According to the correlation analysis the data showed, that the game material, the conception of the game and the game process influenced the satisfaction, the motivation, the learning and the success of the game significantly (see Table 3). Table 3. Impact of game design to satisfaction, motivation, learning and success of the game.

Annotation. * p < 0.05

Regarding the design of the game more closely, the data implied that the implementation of tangible elements, for example the LEGO®-bricks (r = .3295) or the event cards (r = .2377), correlated with the learning. Besides, the learning was influenced by the items regarding the concept of the game such as time dimension (r = .4159), structure of the game (r = .5098), the practice-oriented setting of the game (r = .4894) or the close relation of the game to reality (r = .5692), too. Furthermore, the items of the game process such as strengthened social competencies (r = .5670), setting high involvement (r = .4189), implementing decisions (r = .3666) or problem solving (r = .4424) correlated significantly to learning, equally.

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Results After Six Months

Regarding the data of the survey after six months (d), the mean value of the game process (M2 = 2.40) was labelled similar to the mean value of the first questionnaire (M1 = 2.34) directly after the game (b). Despite this, the mean values of game conception (M1 = 2.42, M2 = 2.21), material (M1 = 2.49, M2 = 2.35), motivation (M1 = 2.04, M2 = 1.80), (M1 = 1.8, M2 = 1.64) and success of the business game (M1 = 2.38, M2 = 2.27) were assessed more positively. This could lead to the conclusion that the participants remembered the game well and kept it in good memories. Only the category of learning (M1 = 2.73, M2 = 2.90) was rated less positively after six months. The correlation analyses showed a significant correlation between game material, conception, game process and learning (rm = .831, rc = .797, rp = .499), motivation (rm = .443, rc = .557, rp = .596), satisfaction (rm = .705, rc = .649, rp = .668) and the success of the game (rm = .512., rc = .459, rp = .226). Corresponding to the data, there appears to be a significant correlation between learning and success of the game (r1 = .8061, r2 = .646) as well as between satisfaction (r1 = .5965, r2 = .649) and motivation (r1 = .5726, r1 = .472) of the participants directly after game (a, b) and even after six months (d). That means if the participants indicated that they could improve their skills during the business game, they rated the game success more positively. Moreover, the evaluation showed that if the participants were highly motivated and satisfied with the game, the learning increased. Surprisingly, none of the socio-demographic variables was significantly correlated with the general learning in the game. Despite this, the data showed that a specialized learning (which was questioned as gaining experiences of communication in companies, production processes or organizations) declined by a higher age and educational attainment in respect of the higher experience of the participants.

5 Conclusion The results of the questionnaires implemented directly after the game (a, b), the observation of the business game and the questionnaires after six months (d) were quite congruent. The high accordance of the items regarding game design indicates that the game met the expectations of the participants. According to the high similarity of the mean values of learning and game process of both research methods used, it could be assumed that the research design is suitable for these categories. Nevertheless, the findings of the game material and concept were assessed more positively by the observers. One reason could be that the observers understood the structure of the game, too, and observed that the participants were able to cope well with the material provided. This leads to positive ratings in the observation, but the evaluation by the players was easier for them because they have been dealing with these categories during the whole game. However, the observers rated the satisfaction and motivation less positively than the participants. These two categories are intrinsic values, which are difficult to observe. To explore this in more detail, further evaluation with qualitative methods is needed.

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According to the theoretical findings the results indicated that the developed business game suits the requirements of business game in general which answers the research question number one. Furthermore, it could be assumed that tangible elements, a clear game process and a defined concept of serious games have an impact on learning effects. The data showed that learning was not obviously taken into account. The high game involvement which was directly connected with the game elements put the participants in the position of a game setting where they did not realize that learning took place by playing. Only when the participants and observers were asked directly about the learning objectives, they admitted that they gained new knowledge (research question two). With reference to the participants’ pre-experiences and their learning effects, the data imply that the learning increased when participants already gained a lot of experiences. It could be stated that in case of participants having few experiences they had denied that they could improve their learning (research question three). It has to be noted that the learning was measured only by self-evaluation, so the findings of learning naturally correlated with success in the game, satisfaction and motivation. In summary, the results suggest that the evaluation of game experience is not as simple as expected. The used evaluation model and research design provided first insights, which elements of a business game design are useful for creating learning effects and gave a first impression which elements have an impact on game-based learning. Regarding the sample size, the results are supposed to be generalizable and provide some evidence about evaluating game design and game-based learning. But referring to the methods used, which are mainly quantitatively oriented, a qualitative research needs to be added. Additionally, the findings only show effects and no causalities of the categories evaluated. Therefore, an extended research considering more data of the long-term study which embedded the design and the learning effects of serious games is needed and aspired, but could not be included in this paper. Acknowledgements. This research was partially supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (project IMPRESS - FKZ 02L17B077). The sponsor had no role in the study design, the collection, analysis and interpretation of data, the writing of the report, or the submission of the paper for publication. We are very grateful to Eric Faß and Sabrina Hörenberg for their assistance with data analysis and thank the reviewers for their constructive comments.

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Using a Math Card Game in Several Ways for Teaching the Concept of Limit Szilvia Szil´ agyi and Attila K¨ orei(B) University of Miskolc, Miskolc, Hungary {matszisz,matka}@uni-miskolc.hu

Abstract. Many students have difficulties with understanding the fundamental concept of real sequence limit. Game-based learning can offer effective tools even for university students to help in learning calculus concepts. Even though they grew up playing digital games, the students of today are also keen on playing traditional ones. Taking advantage of this, we have developed a card game that can be played in many ways according to the needs of the students and with the help of which the calculation of limits can be practised. In this article, we report on the applicability of the game in the online education and present some versions of the original game which can be used as tools of differentiated teaching. Keywords: Game-based learning Small-group education

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· Card games · Limit of a sequence ·

Introduction

Nowadays, teachers at all levels of education must have been confronted with the fact that there is a need for different communication and different teaching methods than before. Methods that used to work for the previous generation fail to do so now. Generation Alpha children appeared in elementary schools and Generation Z students take up the vast majority in higher education. Teachers still want to motivate the students and wish to keep their attention and interest in the long term, but the traditional ways of teaching do not meet the students’ needs and requirements anymore, they are bored and struggle from it. Game-based learning, as an interactive pedagogy method could provide a lot of powerful tools for making the lessons more exciting and entertaining. Using game-based learning tools increases student motivation and higher levels of engagement can be obtained [1]. The idea of using games for educational purposes is not a new concept in pedagogy [2]. Many well-known and popular games can be integrated into different segments of education mainly for pupils in elementary and secondary grammar school [3]. Unfortunately, mathematics teachers in higher education rarely use games to make their lectures more colourful due to lack of time or because they believe their science to be too serious to teach it by incorporating games. Still, there are some examples of teaching certain parts of maths courses c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 865–877, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_85

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in a playful way. In [4] three different approaches (a Jeopardy-like game, a Bingolike game and a puzzle of a statistical strategy) were introduced and studied in an introductory statistics course. In [5] the authors presented a card game which is designed to help students acquiring and reinforcing basic concepts of cryptography. In the field of Calculus, that is of the most interest to us, we have also found some interesting examples of the use of game-based learning. In [6] the authors developed a board game for teaching the analysis of functions for graph sketching. The reference [7] is about a digital game-based learning experience, the authors developed a role play game to teach calculus and tested a prototype with a group of users. The authors of [8] came up with a computer game for solving optimization problems and compared the effects of this digital game to a traditional method of teaching university-level calculus. In [9] another software application is presented, the authors introduce their interactive derivative game that can help students to improve their skills in differentiation. The high-end video game called “Variant: Limits” developed by graduate and undergraduate students at the Texas A&M College of Architecture is worth mentioning here as well. This game proves that maths can be a fun and exciting activity, and also provides a deeper understanding of fundamental concepts like limits and continuity. Even a list this short shows that the toolbar of game-based learning ranges from the simplest card games to the most professional educational software. When deciding the form of our educational game, we took several aspects into account. We wanted to design a game that is simple but not boring, has easy-tolearn rules, could be easily made available and is inexpensive to produce. Considering that we would not be able to compete with the quality of today’s video games, we decided to make a traditional game. A well-designed old-fashioned game can also be fun for students, not to mention the common experiences it can provide. Playing cards is a social activity, during games students have to interact with other people, teach and learn from one another. Luck also plays a role in card games, so math-anxious students also have a chance to win. Losing a game does not have serious consequences in a safe classroom environment but rather encourages students to practice even more and develop better strategies to win. In [10] the authors present some principles to support teachers to choose or design specific, educationally-rich games. According to their list, mathematical games should be engaging and enjoyable and balance skill and luck. The game play and game strategy must focus on exploring and practising mathematical concepts and skills. A well-designed game is flexible, offers differentiation and could be modified to be optimally challenging for students. Mathematical games should provide an opportunity for strengthening home-school relationships by allowing students to continue playing at home with their parents or friends. Although article [10] is addressed primarily to elementary school teachers, the principles are universal and worth considering for students in higher education as well. We hope that the card game we present will meet the requirements listed and could be an effective learning support tool for university students.

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Teaching the Concept of Limit in University Courses

All bachelor programs in engineering and informatics at universities include a course in Mathematical Analysis or Calculus. Students enrolled in the first year of technical or IT education often have serious difficulties with understanding the basic concepts of topics like convergence and sequence limit. These notions play a fundamental role in the further chapters of Calculus. Understanding the limit of a sequence is essential to interpret the continuity of a function, to define the derivative or to determine the sum of an infinite series. Many researchers have investigated the students’ images, conceptions and misconceptions about the limit of a sequence and made suggestions to improve the efficiency of teaching and learning the formal definition of this abstract notion [11–15]. After understanding the concept of the limit the next step is to practice how to compute it in case of different sequences of real numbers. To solve these type of problems we usually apply the limit laws and the known limits of frequently occurring sequences instead of using the formal definition. For example, one can easily calculate the limit of a fraction of two polynomials applying the limit rules for basic operations and using the limit lim n1 = 0. With some practice, sufficient routines can be n→∞ obtained to determine the limit of a given sequence by performing the necessary calculations in mind. To gain this skill one has to solve a lot of problems from exercise books or can choose online tests to improve and check her/his knowledge.

Fig. 1. The base cards of the LimStorm deck

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In order to make this process more entertaining, we have developed a card game called LimStorm for practising the determination of sequence limits. The rules of the game are similar to those of the popular card game Solo and it is suitable to learn and practice the concept of limit in a playful way. The cards of the game are presented in Fig. 1. The concept, the rules and the structure of LimStorm game was introduced in [16]. Since then, we were only be able to use the game in a limited form as it had to be adapted to the requirements of online education. Our experience related to this is reported in the next section. In addition, the article presents examples of other applications of the LimStorm deck that support the differentiated teaching and learning.

3

Using LimStorm in Online Education

The LimStorm game was developed specifically for small-group learning educational environment. We definitely wanted to try the game in its physical form in a real classroom environment, therefore we created a JAVA application that allows us to produce our special cards in a ready to print form. The LimStorm deck contains two main types of cards. On the base cards different sequences are displayed the limits of which should be calculated by the players. The action cards make the game exciting by providing an advantage or a setback, depending on the luck of the players. The settings of the card designer application can be changed flexibly, so it is possible to rewrite the limits on the base cards or to create new types of action cards. After the first prototype of the deck was printed, the testing phase began, not involving the students yet. For a smoother game play, we have changed some base cards, invented a new action card, and refined the rules slightly. By the spring of 2020, the game was completed and we were ready to introduce it to the students. Unfortunately, because of the COVID-19 situation, education has moved into the online space, and there was no opportunity to try the game in-person with the students. Since the pandemic persisted even in the fall, we tried to find a solution to integrate the game into the online education in some way. Finally, we decided to present the game to the students in an online workshop. LimStorm is designed for small group learning, so the number of participants was maximized to 20. In the online environment, this number seemed manageable to follow the progress of all participants, to answer the questions that arise and to solve the problems immediately. The administrative tasks of the workshop were arranged through the Google Classroom. We have uploaded all the necessary documents, such as a short description of the LimStorm game as well as the planned program of the workshop, in advance. To establish two-way verbal communication, we used Zoom, scheduling three meetings in a row. During the first meeting, we presented the base and action cards of the deck through the camera and summarized the rules of the LimStorm game despite the fact that it was not possible to play a specific party this time. Instead, we focused on the practice of calculating limits for sequences printed on base cards. To make this work easier for students, first we have revived the most important concepts related to sequences and limits. Students then had to

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solve a multiple-choice test with 9 questions with the aim of pre-assessing their knowledge. The solutions had to be uploaded to the Classroom, so we were able to evaluate the results after the workshop. At the beginning of the second meeting, we discussed the test answers, which was followed by the learning phase. We prepared a power point presentation, in which each of the 30 slides included questions about the limits on the LimStorm deck cards. In general there were three base cards on each slide, and we read a question about them, so the students received a visual and auditory stimulus at the same time. We were expecting answers by mental calculation to simple questions like – – – –

Which Which Which Which

of of of of

the the the the

limits limits limits limits

does equal 0? is finite? does equal a prime number? is not rational?

For the sake of variety, we have also formulated more complex questions that required some extra operations to answer, such as – How much is the sum/product of the limits? – Do these limits form an increasing/decreasing sequence? – What is the common in these sequences? Due to the small number of people, we left the microphones on so that anyone was free to answer the questions. An informal conversation soon developed, just as in a classroom. The students were active, boldly improving and complementing each other’s answers. Our role was limited to provide a more thorough justification for the correctness or incorrectness of the answers, or to decide in controversial situations. After completing the learning phase the students wrote a second test, which consisted of 14 questions, and they also had to upload the solutions to the Classroom. Then, during the third Zoom meeting, we discussed the answers of the second test and the students completed the workshop evaluation questionnaire. After finishing the online consultation, we evaluated the responses to the questionnaire and the results of the tests. 20 students participated in the workshop, 15 of them evaluated the program (completion of the questionnaire was optional). Each of the 15 assessments submitted states that students require alternative learning opportunities, welcome to try new techniques and are partners in integrating didactic games into the teaching-learning process. Students also had to evaluate the level of difficulty of the tests, both of which were considered easy to solve. This assessment was also confirmed by the results of the tests, as each student scored at least 60% on both tests. The effectiveness of the practical phase between the two tests is reflected in the fact that the results improved slightly, even though the second test contained a higher number and more complex questions but the same amount of time was available for completion.

4

Card Game Variations with the LimStorm Deck

Our experience in the online educational environment has encouraged us to make the LimStorm deck suitable for a single player game so that students can

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practice alone at home. We also recognized the need to develop alternatives to the original rules of the game. The level of knowledge of the students strongly influences successful game play, therefore the feasibility of differentiation must be kept in mind. In order to bring the students’ level of knowledge closer together, we developed different game variations using the same deck. The original LimStorm deck consists of 110 cards. 80 coloured base cards contain limits of real number sequences that come together with 30 action cards. All base cards are made in duplicate, so we have 40 different sequences on the cards. In each colour, there is a sequence with limit plus or minus infinity, ±e (e is the Euler’s number), ±2, ±1 and there are two sequences with limit 0. In the original deck we had cards with the limit 1e . We replaced these with new cards designed with value −e in order to make the distribution of the limits symmetric. With this modification the deck became more suitable for playing simple card games. The main ideas of these games were borrowed from [17] and [18]. These works are collections of mathematical card games for practising basic maths skills with the usage of one or two decks of French-suited playing cards or special number card decks. The games are addressed mainly for elementary school students and help in practising operations with numbers, using the card values as numbers. Each base card of the LimStorm deck presents a value (a real number or infinity) after computing the limit of the sequence displayed on the card. The following games are based on the recognition, comparison, manipulation of these limits and the operations between them. Some of the games require the whole deck while others can be played with a single deck, where the duplicated cards are removed. In some games the addition of the card values is the main task, in this case we suggest removing the cards with infinite limits to avoid operations with plus or minus infinity. There are games better to be played with cards with unique limits, in which case one of the cards with zero limit should be removed from the single deck. 4.1

Memory

Players: One or more. Materials: Single deck of LimStorm. Preparations: Shuffle the deck and turn all the cards face-down in a grid pattern, for example in a 5 × 8 array, or spread them randomly. Goal: Collect the highest number of pairs. How to Play: Players take turns to turn over 2 cards at a time. If the player has a match - two cards with the same limit, the player keeps the pair of cards and has another turn. If a match is not made the cards are turned over again and remain in place. When all cards have been matched the player with the most cards wins.

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871

Pyramid - a Solitaire Game

Players: One or more. Materials: Single deck of LimStorm, the infinite limits removed. Preparations: Shuffle the cards and place 21 of them face up in a six-row pyramid as follows. Start with a row of 1 card, follow by a row of 2 cards, and so on, down to a row of 6 cards, as Fig. 2(a) shows. Each row should overlap the previous one. The remaining 11 cards are set on the table face down to form the draw pile. Goal: Remove as many cards as possible from the pyramid.

(a) Starting the game

(b) After four pairs are removed

Fig. 2. Stages of the pyramid game

How to Play: You can remove pairs where the sum or the product of the limits on the cards equals zero. For instance, you can remove two cards with limits 2 and −2, or 0 and e. We have 8 null sequences in the starting deck, so we have the chance to apply the zero-product rule. It is very important that only fully exposed cards can be played at any time. That means, to start, only the bottom 6 cards can be considered until you start removing bottom cards. If there are no more open cards to get the sum or product of zero, you need to pick a card from the draw pile. If it is possible, you form a match with an open card, otherwise you have to put it in the discard pile and you can draw a new card. You win the game when all cards have been removed from the pyramid or when you reach the end of the draw pile, whichever happens first. Your score is the number of cards remaining in the pyramid. Of course, the smaller the score the better.

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Card Spiral

Players: Groups of two or more. Materials: Double or single deck of LimStorm, dice, pieces. Preparations: Lay cards out randomly in a spiral shape, making the game board. Set a piece representing each player on the starting card of the spiral. Goal: Go through the spiral track and reach the finish line first (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Playing card spiral with the LimStorm deck

How to Play: Players take turns to roll the dice and move that number of spaces on the game board. Then they must compute the limit shown by the card they stand on. If the answer is correct, they stay where they are. If not, they return to their original card. The game continues until one player reaches the centre of the spiral. 4.4

Indian Poker

Players: Groups of two or more (three is optimal). Materials: Single deck of LimStorm leaving only one zero limit in each colour. Goal: Guess the position of a card. How to Play: The dealer gives each player one card face down. Without looking at the card, each player holds it against their forehead so that only the other

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players can see the limit on the card. Each player has to guess whether their own card value is higher or lower than that/those of the other players, giving an estimation of the rank of the card in the increasing order of card values. For example, seeing only higher limits held by the other players someone might think that his limit is the lowest, and he says: ‘Mine is the first’. The situation is easier if there are three players: they decide whether their own card is ‘higher’, ‘lower’ or ‘in the middle’ of the other players’ cards. Players then look at their own cards and the one who guessed his/her card’s status correctly receives one point. Then the dealer gives new cards to the players and the next round is coming. The winner is the player collecting the highest number of scores after ten rounds. 4.5

War

Players: Groups of two or more. Materials: Double deck of LimStorm. Goal: Collect as many cards as possible. How to Play: Divide the cards evenly between the players who keep their cards in a single pile, face-down. Each player picks a card off the top of his pile and places it face-up in the middle of the playing area. The player with the card of the highest value takes all the cards played and places them at the bottom of his pile. If two or more cards played have the same greatest value, a battle decides who takes the cards: each player places two cards face-down in the playing area, followed by a third card face-up. The player who’s new face-up card has the highest value collects all the cards in the playing area, placing them at the bottom of his pile. The play can continue until one player holds all the cards, or the game can be played for a certain time after which the player with the most cards is declared the winner. 4.6

Card Bingo

Players: Groups of two or more. Materials: Double deck of LimStorm. Preparations: Each player gets 16 cards which must be arranged facing up in a 4 × 4 array. The rest of the cards are placed face-down in the middle. Goal: Turn over 4 cards first in a row, column or diagonal. How to Play: One of the players, the caller, picks a card from the pile in the middle and calls out the limit of the card aloud. If the card value called out matches one or more in the player’s array, that player turns those cards over, so they are facing down. The first player to turn 4 cards over in a row, either horizontally, vertically or diagonally, is the winner.

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Builder Paradise

Players: Groups of two or more. Materials: Double or single deck of LimStorm, depending on the number of the players. Preparations: Lay out 4 cards of different colour side by side, each of them having zero limit. Goal: Get rid of all your cards first. How to Play: Shuffle the deck and deal all the remaining cards among the players. To begin, players take turns putting down one or more cards above or below a zero limit card, in sequence, according to their suit. Be careful, because there are two cards with zero limit in each suit, and four in case of the double deck. If you play with the double deck, take into consideration that each card is duplicated, so you can only place your 2 limit after both 1 limits are already on the table. If a player cannot play anything, the turn must be passed. The player who runs out of all her/his cards first wins. 4.8

Three Is the Winner

Players: Groups of two or more. Materials: Double or single deck of LimStorm, the infinite limits removed from the deck. Preparations: Deal 2 cards to each player. The players hold their cards facedown. Goal: Reach a total of 3 or -3 by adding the limits. How to Play: Player one plays a card, states its value and immediately picks up another, because all players must hold 2 cards at all times. The next player places one of his cards, add the limits of the played cards and picks up a new card. The turn continues until a positive or a negative 3 is made. The player who makes plus or minus 3 wins the cards. The game continues until all cards are played. The player with the most cards wins. 4.9

Zero Sum Game

Players: Groups of two or more. Materials: Double or single deck of LimStorm, the infinite limits removed from the deck. Preparations: For each player, turn one card face-down and one card face-up. Goal: Get as close to zero as possible by adding the limits.

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How to Play: Each player may ask for up to 3 extra cards (hits). When everyone is done asking for hits, all cards are turned face up and the players sum their limits. Whose sum is the closest to zero wins all the cards. In case of a tie (there are more players with the same closest sum) the players win only their own cards, the other cards remain in game for the next round. When all the cards have been used the player with the most cards wins. 4.10

Elevator

Players: Groups of two or more. Materials: Single deck of LimStorm leaving only one zero limit of each colour. Preparations: Each player is dealt four cards face-up. The remaining cards are placed in a deck in the centre of the table. Goal: Arrange the cards in either ascending or descending order according to the limits. How to Play: Players take turns exchanging one of their cards for one from the top of the deck. Cards cannot be rearranged - only exchanged. The card which is exchanged is placed at the bottom of the deck in the centre. The first player to arrange his/her cards in order is the winner of that round. In addition to the above mentioned ones, other game variations can be also created. We tried to present as diverse ideas as possible, so that the teacher had the opportunity to choose the game that is best suited the knowledge and needs of the target group.

5

Conclusion

The essence of the Dienes concept, which is well known and widely used in practice, is that the same concept and subject content must be approached in several ways in order to have the students comprehend and use the concept correctly, and to apply it confidently in different environments [19]. In other words, in this process the theoretical knowledge becomes usable knowledge. Didactic games provide an opportunity for students to learn the abstract concepts of mathematical analysis in the form of game-based education. Limit is one of the most important concepts in analysis, a basic notion in introductory maths courses. It is very important that we formulate it accurately and take the time for students to understand the concept. We have been teaching mathematical analysis for almost 20 years and the experience of recent years shows that students are no longer satisfied with the application of traditional teaching and learning techniques. Didactic games are great complements to small group education based on cooperative work, which is why we have developed the LimStorm deck that offers an alternative to practising concepts and theoretical results related to the limit value calculation of real number sequences. After the implementation of

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the basic concept, the first live testing of the game took place online. Because of this, we could not use the deck as intended, so we had to come up with new ideas. The positive reception as well as the evaluation of the students inspired us to look for more game ideas for the existing deck. In our article, we present the variants that not only support a small group learning form, but are also suitable for individual play, as well as offer a solution for the practical implementation of differentiation. We hope to be able to use LimStorm and its versions in a real classroom environment once the pandemic situation is over.

References 1. Kapp, K.: The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: Game-Based Methods and Strategies for Training and Education. Pfeiffer, San Francisco (2012) 2. Plass, J., Homer, B., Kinzer, C.: Foundations of game-based learning. Educ. Psychol. 50(4), 258–283 (2015) 3. Vank´ us, P.: Didactic Games in Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics. Comenius University Bratislava (2013). https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1. 3138.9120 4. Andersson, C., Kroiisandt, G.: Using playful learning in a large classroom introductory statistics course. In: Sorto, M.A., White, A., Guyot, L. (eds.) Looking Back, Looking Forward. Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Teaching Statistics (ICOTS10), Kyoto, Japan, July 2018 ´ 5. Gonz´ alez-Tablas, A.I., Gonz´ alez Vasco, M.I., Cascos, I., Palomino, A.P.: Shuffle, cut, and learn: crypto go, a card game for teaching cryptography. Mathematics 8(11), 1993 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/math8111993 6. Bakri, S.R.A., Liew, C.Y., Chen, C.K., Tuh, M.H., Ling, S.C.: Graph Puzzle (GP). Intellectual Property Corporation of Malaysia: LY2019006002. 24 September 2019 7. Cezar, V., Garcia, P., Botelho, V., Miletto, E.: Towards an RPG game to teach calculus. In: 2019 IEEE 19th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), Macei´ o, Brazil, pp. 116–118, July 2019. https://doi.org/ 10.1109/ICALT.2019.00037 8. Lee, Y.-H., et al.: Digital game based learning for undergraduate calculus education: immersion, calculation, and conceptual understanding. Int. J. Gaming Comput.-Mediat. Simul. 8(1), 13–27 (2016) 9. Hamid, A.S., Saari, I.S., Razak, S.A., Omar, A.: A proposed conceptual derivative technique by using interactive application games. Malays. J. Ind. Technol. 3(1), 59–62 (2019) 10. Russo, J., Russo, T., Bragg, L.A.: Five principles of educationally rich mathematical games. Aust. Prim. Math. Classroom 23(3), 30–34 (2018) 11. Roh, K.H.: How to help students conceptualize the rigorous definition of the limit of a sequence. PRIMUS 20(6), 473–487 (2010) 12. Tall, D., Vinner, S.: Concept image and concept definition in mathematics with particular reference to limits and continuity. Educ. Stud. Math. 12, 151–169 (1981) 13. Kidron, I., Zehavi, N.: The role of animation in teaching the limit concept. Int. J. Comput. Algebra Math. Educ. 9, 205–227 (2002) 14. Scheiner, T., Pinto, M.M.F.: Emerging perspectives in mathematical cognition: contextualizing, complementizing, and complexifying. Educ. Stud. Math. 101(3), 1–16 (2019)

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15. Liang, S.: Teaching the concept of limit by using conceptual conflict strategy and Desmos graphing calculator. Int. J. Res. Educ. Sci. (IJRES) 2(1), 35–48 (2016) 16. Szil´ agyi, S., K¨ orei, A.: “LimStorm” - A didactic card game for collaborative math learning for Gen Z students. In: Auer, M.E., R¨ uu ¨tmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1328, pp. 452–463. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03068198-2 42 17. Acing Math: A Collection of Math Games, The Positive Engagement Project. www.pepnonprofit.org/uploads/2/7/7/2/2772238/acing math.pdf 18. Cotter, J.A.: Math Card Games, 5th edn. Activities for Learning Inc. (2010) 19. Dienes, Z.P.: A Concrete Approach to the Architecture of Mathematics. University of Auckland (2009)

Understanding Student Motivation to Engage in the Contents Under Pressure Digital Game Jeffrey Stransky1, Landon Bassett2, Cheryl A. Bodnar1(&) , Daniel Anastasio3, Daniel Burkey2, and Matthew Cooper4 1

3

Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA [email protected] 2 University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology, Terre Haute, IN 47803, USA 4 North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA

Abstract. Game-based learning is an effective tool for motivating engineering students to engage with difficult and often complex topics. Although some research has been conducted on how games elicit motivation, additional studies have been suggested. The proposed work leverages Keller’s ARCS-V theory to investigate how desire for a specific outcome within the process safety digital game Contents Under Pressure affects students’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their experience. It was observed that students play the game with a desire either to improve themselves for internal satisfaction or to reach a set external objective in terms of academic or career performance. Many students also played the game with the goal to achieve key outcomes as it relates to gamebased metrics. Students expressed a mixture of satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the outcome obtained. Those who were satisfied were most often exhibiting behaviors of paragaming or were experiencing immersion in the game, whereas those students that showed dissatisfaction often blamed the game while expressing difficulties with achieving a positive outcome. Keywords: Game-based learning


Process safety
Motivation

1 Background Since the early 2000s, game-based approaches have increased in popularity within engineering education. Most implementations in engineering have involved the use of digital games, as indicated by nearly a 3:1 margin over all other types of game implementations [1]. Literature reviews of game-based learning practices have highlighted the educational benefits of games, including increased motivation to engage with course material, although the need for further structured studies was identified [1, 2]. To leverage the benefits of game-based instructional approaches, a virtual environment that allows students to make process safety decisions called Contents Under Pressure (CUP) was developed. In this work, we examine how the desire to achieve a specific outcome in CUP motivates students to engage with the game. In a recent review on games and motivation, Grund [3] determined that there were 28 different motivational theories used to describe motivation and game play. We discuss three of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 878–889, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_86

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the most-cited theories to provide necessary background for motivation studies that have been completed in game-based settings to frame our study. The most frequently cited motivational theory as applied to games is Flow Theory [4], in which the participant experiences a state of absorption and engrossment in an activity that leads to intense engagement, immersion, and, in many cases, increased performance. However, the flow state can be challenging to establish, as it requires a careful balance between challenge and boredom. Flow Theory has been cited in numerous studies of motivation and digital games [5, 6]. The second most cited motivational theory was Self Determination Theory (SDT), as formulated by Ryan and Deci [7]. SDT is defined by three main components: autonomy, relatedness, and competence. Participants feel motivated when these three needs are met and feel discouraged when one or more are absent. Autonomy is chiefly concerned with the participant being able to exercise control over the situation. Relatedness deals with participants’ connections to others, often a key component of multiplayer games. Lastly, competence deals with feelings of mastery afforded when performing tasks and achieving the goals in the activity. SDT has been discussed in the context of games and digital learning by numerous researchers in the literature [8, 9]. Another motivational theory is MVP Theory by Keller [10], which seeks to integrate motivation theory with other related constructs, such as volition and performance. This theory has important applications to game play, as volition incorporates the ideas of both desiring to act and the actual performance of an act through application of effort. The performance aspect incorporates the concept of feedback and aligning the participant’s skill with the activity’s objective. A positive or negative alignment generates different reinforcements and consequences, which contribute to the overall feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. By incorporating volition and performance, MVP theory addresses two critical aspects of game-based activities beyond motivation alone: expending effort to convert thought into action, and providing feedback to the participant, which can influence continued motivation. Interestingly, Woo [11] notes that MVP Theory lacks significant investigation with respect to digital game-based learning. Contents Under Pressure (CUP) is a digital game developed by the authors as a way for users to more realistically engage with the complexities present in process safety decision making. Process safety education is required in chemical engineering (ChE) curricula by the United States accrediting body ABET [12], in part due to continued chemical process safety incidents. Teaching process safety is challenging in that it is limited to a classroom environment because the risk of dangerous industrial situations prevents hands-on interaction and learning. In addition, many ChE programs teach process safety design skills, but often do not address decision-making aspects common with process safety incidents. A key advantage of using a digital game such as CUP for virtual process safety training is the game’s ability to provide a realistic, immersive environment for process safety decision making training with low risk to the user and bystanders making use of a strategy known as preauthentication [13]. With its ability to provide competing goals, CUP has the ability to enable users to apply judgements that are more authentic and encourage them to make more realistic decisions [14, 15].

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Even with the advantages of using digital games for process safety decisionmaking, there are few instances of digital games being used for this purpose. Often case studies such as videos offered by the U.S Chemical Safety Board (CSB) [16] or the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) [17] are required viewing in ChE curricula. While these videos and cases explain the real-life scenarios, they unfortunately either lack or limit interactivity. A key contrast between CUP and these other methods is that CUP’s preauthentication strategy forces the user to make decisions about topics as varied as whether to allow a worker the day off during a critical period or whether to join their team for a morale-boosting lunch; the case studies focus only on critical safety decisions, which can introduce hindsight bias.

2 Theoretical Framework After considering the elements of Flow Theory, SDT, and MVP Theory, ARCS-V theory was selected [18]. ARCS-V has as its core the ARCS motivational model [19]. Blending of ARCS and MVP was discussed with respect to digital game-based learning by Huang et al. [20], in which they describe this hybrid approach to better capture the feedback mechanism when participants learn from processing the outcome of the game. Keller’s ARCS-V model has been used by other researchers to construct engaging and motivational content for digital courses and educational games [21, 22]. An adaptation of the ARCS-V model is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. ARCS-V model [23] adapted from Keller.

ARCS consists of four categories related to motivation: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. Attention is similar to the interest/boredom/engagement concept discussed in Flow Theory, while relevance shares similarities with aspects of relatedness as discussed in SDT. Confidence is connected to expectations of success, which connects to a participant’s own skills versus chance and reflects the competence aspect from SDT. Satisfaction relates to feedback, positive or negative consequences of

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actions, recognition, and fairness [23]. ARCS has at its root expectancy-value theory [24], which posits that people will be motivated by activities that have a high perceived value and a reasonable expectation of achievability. The ARCS-V model is a feedback loop that starts in the Goals and Desires box, where Attention, Relevance, and Confidence (ARC) represent students’ baseline motivation. Effort direction focuses on whether students’ motivation is in a positive or negative direction. Effort initiation represents how intensely or quickly the outcome is pursued, while effort persistence represents the energy put into overcoming obstacles. The combination of these stages of effort lead to outcomes (consequences) which must be processed. Throughout gameplay, short-term outcomes are evaluated to determine if they provide satisfaction (S). Upon completion of this assessment, the evaluation of satisfaction is used to reevaluate the goals and desires. Satisfaction also impacts volition (V), which is how participants continue to put in effort amidst difficulties [23]. This study examines how the desire for a specific outcome in CUP influences an individual’s motivation to participate in the game. Two research questions developed for this study are (1) “What range of outcomes do senior chemical engineering students desire to achieve in CUP?” and (2) “For students who found the final game outcome relevant, how did their outcome processing lead to satisfaction or dissatisfaction?”

3 Methods 3.1

Study Design

This study was conducted at four different universities within the United States. All participating students were in their final year of their chemical engineering program and were either enrolled in a senior design or process safety course. Students completed written reflections both before and after participation in CUP. CUP was an out-of-class assignment where students would earn credit for game completion, not based on their performance. Human subjects’ approval was obtained for the study. 3.2

Contents Under Pressure

In CUP, students are presented with a series of relevant chemical process safety decisions and scenarios. Participants are placed in the role of a senior plant engineer that oversees three plant operators. They receive check-ins from their plant manager and safety inspector. Throughout the game, participants are required to make decisions that require balancing key metrics including safety, personal reputation, and plant productivity. If any of the key metrics fall to zero throughout the game, it results in a recorded player failure and the metric is reset for continued gameplay. The resulting values of all metrics and the recorded number of failures are used in the determination of the overall outcome presented to participants at the end of the game. Prior publications detailing the effectiveness of CUP have been published [25, 26].

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Data Collection and Analysis

Predetermined questions acted as reflection prompts promoting students to share in writing their perception of the overall game outcome and the relative importance of that outcome to their gameplay approach. Additionally, the reflection prompts asked whether students were hoping to obtain a specific outcome (pre-game) and whether they obtained the outcome they desired (post-game). The analysis only included students who completed both the pre- and post-reflections (n = 225). Data collection and analysis was guided using the Walther et al. [27] research quality framework, which ensured that the results would be representative and transferable to other contexts. A thematic analysis approach was used to address Research Question 1 [28]. Two researchers compiled all pre-reflections on potential game outcomes desired by students into a list. The researchers discussed this list identifying the underlying themes of desired outcomes and created a codebook describing the characteristics of major themes for the pre-reflection data set. The finalized codebook (refer to Appendix 1) was applied to a random sample of 25 pre-reflections to ensure mutual understanding of the codes. Level of agreement was determined through inter-rater reliability calculations, with discrepancies discussed prior to continuing coding to assure consistency. Once all responses were coded, the final inter-rater reliability obtained using Cohen’s Kappa was 0.60 (moderate agreement) [29]. To address Research Question 2, pre-reflections were first provisionally coded to determine whether students expected the outcome to be relevant, irrelevant, or if they were indifferent [28]. Upon completion of this coding, 153 student reflections indicated the outcome would be relevant. Using this cohort, two researchers read their postreflection responses to determine whether student opinion was expressed as satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their outcome. Satisfaction was determined based on decisive statements or by students’ obtainment of their desired outcome following the ARCS-V model [18, 23]. Students who did not specifically express either of these two opinions were removed, leaving 129 student responses to be thematically analyzed similarly to Research Question 1. Following this refinement process, the remaining responses were read by two researchers to identify themes that may have led to students’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the final game outcome. This analysis produced a second codebook (refer to Appendix 2) that was used for thematic analysis of this subset of responses. Final inter-rater reliability for the thematic analysis was 0.53 (moderate agreement) [29].

4 Results and Discussion 4.1

Research Question 1

The first research question is what range of outcomes do senior chemical engineering students expect to achieve in Contents Under Pressure (CUP)? Through qualitative analysis, we identified six thematic codes: internal self-efficacy and improvement (15%), external self-efficacy and improvement (15%), metric preference (16%), metric balance (25%), desired or avoided an outcome (19%), and neutral or skeptical towards outcome (9%). Descriptions and examples of each are in Appendix 1.

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The gameplay objective of CUP was to maintain the plant metrics throughout the narrative. The two codes related to this objective were metric balance, where two or more metrics were targeted to be balanced by the player, and metric preference, where a single metric was prioritized over the others. Metric balance was the most frequently observed code, and was best captured by Participant 25’s reflection, “The final outcome is important to me…I do hope that I can strike the right balance between the (…) main areas…” Conversely, the preference of a single metric was best expressed by Participant 37, “I definitely want to maximize the safety aspect, as this is very important to me. Obviously I would also like to have high scores on the other aspects as well, but I do realize that they might come at a cost to having a safe workplace.” There is value in practitioners knowing how to balance tradeoffs between professional criteria such as leadership, safety, time, and work-life balance [30–32]. For chemical process engineers specifically, incidents may occur from an imbalance of criteria, such as management [33], finances [34], or production quotas [35]. Another key finding related to desired outcomes focused upon Internal and External Improvement and Self-Efficacy. Responses that were related to the students’ personal improvement, satisfaction, or betterment were coded as Internal Improvement, while responses that were related to improvement for the sake of career or academic performance were coded as External Improvement. Participant 14 provides an example of an internal improvement response, “The final outcome will provide insight into my decision-making process and patterns. …I really just want to understand how I make decisions and what I can do to improve my choices in the future.” Participant 73 expresses external improvement with their response, “It is important that I do well to be sure I am making responsible decisions towards safety that could be applied in the real world during my career.” Also, Participant 191 reflects, “I hope to receive a near perfect performance score for 2 reasons. Firstly, it is part of my grade and I want my GPA to remain as high as it possibly can. Anything but an A in this class lowers my GPA and so it is essential that I do well in every aspect of this and all of my classes…” These codes align with intrinsic and extrinsic motivations of Self-Determination Theory [7]. Since this study was of students in various courses at several colleges, students were awarded with participation grades if they completed the simulation and submitted a final score as proof of completion. Some students sought a good outcome for that specific reason. This difference in approach highlights two ways the students could have viewed the game. The Internal response students may have looked at the game with the hope it could facilitate self-improvement, and the game’s many choices granted them autonomy not seen in previous assignments. The External response students may have viewed the game as just another assignment. The balance between Internal and External responses might suggest that CUP’s design struck a balance between perceived autonomy and evaluation, common drivers of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation [7]. 4.2

Research Question 2

As applied to CUP, Keller’s model suggests that players will process the consequences and rewards of their efforts to determine if they were satisfied with their experience. The second research question asks, for those students who found the final game

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outcome relevant, how did their outcome processing lead to satisfaction or dissatisfaction? Thematic coding of post-reflection responses identified six codes: concern for the game (through either Paragaming or Immersed Gaming) acknowledging difficulty (Difficulty), shifting blame or responsibility (Blame), responding emotionally (Emotions), and learning or changing from the game (Learning). Descriptions and examples of these codes are in Appendix 2. The distribution of code frequencies (Fig. 2) first suggests Paragaming and Immersed Gaming were dominated by satisfied reflections, while Difficulty and Blame were dominated by dissatisfied reflections. Satisfied players may be more focused on the gaming experience, and dissatisfied players may be more focused on game traits, which prevented them from obtaining their desired outcome.

Fig. 2. Frequency of thematic codes on player satisfaction or dissatisfaction in CUP outcome.

Overall, the most frequent code was Paragaming, which describes a form of metagaming where the player may break character to pursue challenges and possible rewards as driven by their personal desires and motivations [36]. Also called “achievement hunting” [36], this approach can detract from a game’s narrative. In the context of CUP, this code describes breaking from immersion to make decisions that are motivated to by game metrics, final score, or academic GPA. Participant 186 expressed dissatisfaction with the gameplay, “I obtained my desired outcome but I was not satisfied with the process. Since I try to balance the 3 metrics, I made some decisions that I wouldn’t make in real life. Therefore, I went against my will to avoid possible failure in any of the metrics.” This reflection embodies paragaming, showing a strategy outside of their character in an attempt to obtain an achievement. The opposite response was seen with the reflection of Participant 74 who expressed satisfaction in their outcome while applying paragaming, “I wanted a passing score and that’s what I achieved! As long as I didn’t fail the simulation, I would call that success…I think that

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an 80% is very satisfactory.” Keller’s model acknowledges that strategies are considered while processing an outcome [23]. It is possible some players found dissatisfaction specifically from processing their strategy. While paragaming can generate satisfaction, a participant’s processing of their strategy does not guarantee satisfaction. The Immersed Gaming code was developed to consider student responses that discussed the game through a more personal lens. Participant 14 expresses immersion in their reflection, “My only desired outcome was not to get fired (or not have someone seriously injured or killed under my supervision). In this sense, I did obtain that outcome, but not with great success (workers still got injured)…” In immersed responses, students do not explicitly refer to the game as a game; references to meters, inputs, graphics, or other words commonly associated with the game are minimal. Participant 14 shared that they do not want to get fired or injure employees - concerns that are possible if a player is immersed in the game. A number of responses reveal this level of immersion, with more students reporting that they were satisfied over dissatisfied in their immersed gameplay experience. Bormann and Greitemeyer found that ingame storytelling increased immersion and that players who were immersed were perceived to have made more meaningful choices and relationships [37]. Immersed participants in our study may have shared this experience, leading them to satisfaction overall. Participant 38 stated, “I liked the aspect of failure, where then your team would step in and pull you back from the brink; it brought a more uplifting feeling to the game.” Here, immersion resulted in a more positive experience despite failures. To explain the phenomenon of participants deriving satisfaction through immersion, we recall Csikszentmihalyi’s Flow Theory. While the framework was not applied directly in this study, Flow Theory suggests that players may become immersed when actively engaged and intrinsically motivated by a task [4]. The game may have allowed students to enter the flow of the narrative and helped them realize that their actions played a significant part in the game. They found satisfaction because, through immersion, the experience of the game was more motivating than the outcome. Many student responses mentioned that the game was harder than they initially expected. These were coded as Difficulty. Participant 95 expressed this code well while acknowledging its impact on their performance, “No, I wish I could have done better playing the game. At first I tried to just focus on safety and it caused my reputation and especially productivity to lag for the entire game until the end.” The feedback loop in Keller’s ARCS-V model takes into account Learning and Performance [24]. Within the context of CUP, the students who found the game to be difficult may have begun to underperform due to perceived difficulty. As such, this underperformance may have played into their satisfaction feedback loop described in Keller’s model. 4.3

Study Limitations

These data were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic, possibly impacting how students interacted with CUP and influencing the results. Thus, replications of this work may find different results. The data were collected from only four US institutions, so these findings’ transferability may be limited. It should be noted that a standardized script was not used to introduce CUP in each classroom, so variations in description may have created some variation in students’ desired game outcomes.

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5 Conclusion This study sought to understand students’ outcome processing through application of the ARCS-V framework. Game outcomes desired by students included selfimprovement, both internal and external, and balancing the game’s metrics. Overall, students expressed similar levels of satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the game outcome. Paragaming was prevalent in students that expressed both satisfaction and dissatisfaction with outcomes. Dissatisfied students would often blame game elements or game difficulty for their outcome. Satisfied students would invest in the narrative, allowing them to become more immersed within the game. Overall, the study provided a more nuanced understanding of factors that may influence students’ motivation to engage with a process safety game and identified areas in need of further study. Acknowledgements. The work was supported by NSF Improving Undergraduate STEM Education [IUSE DUE#1711376, 1711644, 1711672, and, 1711866] for which the authors are very grateful. The authors would also like to thank Filament Games for their development of Contents Under Pressure.

Appendices Appendix 1. Thematic code book used on pre-reflections to answer research question 1. Code

Sub-code

Improvement & Efficacy

“The final outcome will provide insight into my decision-making process and patterns. … and what I can do to improve my choices in the future.” External Improving for the sake of going into “…if I want to pursue a career in industry and obtaining a career or chemical engineering, I want to be properly equipped with the knowledge for obtaining a good of chemical process safety…. I hope to grade/improving GPA obtain a perfect performance throughout the game to ensure this education and confidence.” Preference Prioritizing or preferring one game “I hope to have a good center focus on related criterion over one or more safety over all else…” other criteria Balance Attempting to balance or uphold “I do hope that I can strike the right balance between the three main two or more game related criteria areas….” equally Desire / Pursuing a positive or avoiding a “I would want to minimize negative Avoidance negative outcome of the game impact to all parties involved, with chief concern for employee safety.” Neutral / Indifferent to potential outcomes or “I’m not sure if the outcome will affect Skeptical being skeptical about game’s my approach.” effectiveness

Criteria

Outcome

Internal

Description Improving self for the sake of internal satisfaction, affirmation, or confidence in decision making

Example

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Appendix 2. Thematic code book used on post-reflections to answer research question 2. Code

Sub-code Description

Acknowledgement of Complexity

Reflections recognize the difficulty students had with the decisions in the game

Emotional responses Reflections exhibit some form of emotional response in their reflection with regard to their performance: positive, negative, or neutral

Learning or changing Reflections exhibit a change in in game perspective of process safety management from gained experience and learning Score Paragame Reflections exhibit a concern with their concern performance and course grade which is manifested in concern for game score or number of failures

In-game

Shifting blame and responsibility

Example “I was happy with my outcome on safety, but with personal reputation and productivity I was not pleased. Again, I found it difficult to balance these three so that all three are either neutral or positive…. I was conflicted at times when balancing between personal reputation and productivity because it felt like I had to choose one or the other.” …I wasn’t sure how I was going to be measured but looking back on the grade I got, I’m happy with all of my choices for the most part and probably wouldn’t change much doing it again.” “I would have like to have done better but I think the real take away was that you can’t manage it all perfectly.”

“Yes. I finished with a small number of failures and scored a 98/100. However, I obtained the scores I wanted by rigging the system in my favor, not by actually experiencing playing the game, which tells me the system is not optimally designed.” “No, I was expecting to do better. But Reflections discuss balancing the ingame criteria as a responsibility of their between the three sections I did about how I though I would relative to each management position, in addition to other.” discussing whether or not they were fired at the end of the game “…I realized quickly that doing this Reflections contain a denial of responsibility concerning their outcomes flawlessly was nigh impossible…this by passing responsibility to either game plant is very inefficient in the sense narrative or unrealistic attributes of the where if I’m not getting the task done I have a very limited group of people game who can do it.”

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Design and Development of a Collaborative Serious Game to Promote Professional Knowledge Acquisition of Prospective Teachers Charlotte Knorr(&)

and Bernd Zinn

University of Stuttgart, Azenbergstr. 12, 70174 Stuttgart, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. To train prospective teachers in preparation for future challenges considering inclusion and heterogeneity in a practical school context, the prototype for a collaborative serious game has been designed and developed. This paper describes some of the research demands and concepts behind game-based learning with multiplayer online games existing in academic education. It further outlines the research design approach, core game design elements, and the technical implementation of the prototype. Notably, the emphasis on non-linear narrative in combination with the role-playing aspect of the game is elaborated in a pronounced quest structure. The quest content is influenced by the fourdimensional framework model for inclusion competence embedded in simplistic game mechanics and audiovisual design. This approach leaves room for informal, explorative, and intrinsically motivated learning. The design and development are set into the context of educational design research and upcoming research initiatives aiming at gaining a deeper understanding of effects on knowledge acquisition and attitudes in the field of inclusion and heterogeneity. Keywords: Educational role-playing games education


Game-based learning
Teacher

1 Context The international state of the research leaves no doubt about the significance of lecturers’ profession-related competencies in the development of their students. Established models regarding professional occupational competencies usually account for four aspects of competence: vocational knowledge, beliefs, motivational orientations, and self-regulatory capabilities [1, 2]. At the same time, in the reference field of teacher training, teachers are often of the opinion that training measures do not have any positive effects on teaching. A perceived effectiveness and transfer problem is often noted [3], and teacher training students complain about insufficient practical relevance in their studies. Teacher training is generally perceived as positive if it is primarily linked to lesson-related events and school contexts [4, 5]. An appropriate theory-practice relationship in teacher training is of particular importance. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 890–901, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_87

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Within higher education, the imposed requirements on students and university lecturers regarding subject-specific and interdisciplinary competencies show an upward tendency in terms of scope and complexity [6, 7]. However, the development of efficient hybrid models of in-person and remote teaching, which activate learners sufficiently [8], as well as synchronous and asynchronous learning [9], has yet to be accomplished within the digital learning ecosystems of most universities [7]. Along with aspirations for a living “participatory (learning) culture” [6, 10], informal learning cultures and processes gain more importance and therefore need to be reconciled with the formal learning processes already established [9]. In particular, the private domain’s digital learning culture evolved into a notable pillar in the self-paced learning of digital natives [6]. Together with the increasing degree of heterogeneity among students [9], these factors contribute to the rapid and steady change of learning needs and expectations toward tailored, innovative, motivating, and collaborative learning experiences in the course of academic teaching and learning [6]. With the dynamic development of information and communication technology, various formats have emerged in teacher training to support flexible, needs-based, and lesson-related professionalization. Digital games have found their way into the digital learning culture three decades ago and have contributed to it ever since. Not only entertainment games are enjoying a historical peak in popularity and acceptance amongst all age groups. Serious games promise to combine learning and gaming effectively. Indeed, exploratory studies on serious games point towards positive professionalization effects [11, 12]. Addressing the need for motivating, meaningful, interactive, and collaborative learning experiences providing subject-specific and interdisciplinary competency acquisition, story-driven, collaborative serious games could serve as effective interventions that stand out from conventional teaching and learning. Against this background, the article deals with designing and developing a collaborative serious game to promote professional knowledge acquisition of prospective teachers in vocational education. The prototype of the collaborative multiplayer online game “InCoLearn” has been designed and developed to offer university students in educational fields of study and aspiring teachers an engaging learning environment. In this environment, they can experience different situations in a fictional day at a vocational school focusing on but not limited to inclusion and heterogeneity through distinct teacher and student roles. The first part of the chosen name is an abbreviation for “Inclusion Competence” or “Interactive Collaborative” to open up the frame for other application contexts. In the following section, the purpose of this development project and the research objectives are stated. Secondly, a subset of related work is described. This background will form the base for the fourth section describing the game design approach and the technical implementation with insight into the development process. Lastly, the solution is concluded and put into the context of future research.

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2 Purpose The purpose of this development project is to offer prospective teachers an engaging learning environment that facilitates explorative and collaborative learning in the domain of professional knowledge to complement their academic education. Moreover, it aims to provide a safe space to train and reflect on different teaching methods and explore the needs of potential students through role-play and the change of perspective. Apart from predetermined learning processes designed for the game, the role-playing aspect of the multiplayer online game is employed to foster intrinsic motivation, informal learning, and implicit knowledge acquisition. The project is guided by the central research question: Which game design elements of role-playing games can be used to embed professional knowledge of inclusion and heterogeneity in a collaborative multiplayer online game for prospective teachers?

3 Related Work Tracing the various definitions of serious games that evolved since Abt’s first mention of the term “serious games” in 1970 [13], these definitions primarily differ in one central aspect: purpose [14, 15]. In early attempts of defining serious games, there has been a strong tendency towards the learning purpose that distinguished serious games from other forms of digital games [16]. However, recent definitions still give credit to learning and teaching as the dominant and most important application area of serious games while broadening the research field to purposes other than entertainment [14]. The term “game-based learning” is often mentioned alongside serious games and describes games as applications, artifacts, or environments for learning, engaging players on affective, behavioral, cognitive, and sociocultural levels [17]. Learning games can also assume analog forms, like board or card games [18]. In contrast, their digital forms are interchangeably used with the term “serious games” [19] or at least closely tied to it [18]. They are also often described as a subcategory of serious games [14]. A framework of game design elements and theoretical foundations [20] supports the four dimensions of engagement in game-based learning, forming the Integrated Design Framework for Playful Learning [21]. The following game design elements have been identified as relevant for playful and game-based learning: Knowledge/skills, incentive system, learning mechanics, assessment mechanics, musical score, game mechanics, aesthetic design, and narrative [21]. These game design elements will be affected by design decisions based on the following theoretical foundations [20]: The affective foundations that describe theories on emotional design or attitude can alter players’ emotional states. The increased interest in games as catalysts for motivation is reflected in numerous theories of the motivational foundations. The cognitive foundations describe theories, e.g., Mayer’s [22] cognitive theory of game-based learning, supporting the cognitive aspects of game-based learning, focusing on knowledge or learning outcomes, including instruction, learning, and assessment [22]. The sociocultural foundations describe theories, e. g. social agency or observational learning, that associate learning games with social ecosystems that impact learning [20].

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Numerous studies on the cognitive effects of serious games for learning have been conducted [23] in media comparison research [20]. Although much evidence about positive effects has been collected in several studies, some studies still show that serious games do not affect learning outcomes. Few studies even relate serious games to a negative impact on learning [24]. The results differ substantially when different aspects are examined, including application contexts, subject matters, and game design elements [23, 25]. Some positive effects related to knowledge acquisition are reported in the areas of learning performance, knowledge transfer, meaningful [25] and improved learning outcomes [24], and conceptual knowledge [24, 25]. Whereas negative effects or implications have been identified considering cognitive load [24] and learning effectiveness [24, 25]. As the prototype of InCoLearn focuses on knowledge acquisition via experiencing a fictional story with other players, its design as a story-based serious game is supported by applying game design elements from the genre of role-playing games and their online variants. This game type usually progresses by offering experience points through activities like completing quests [14]. Quests are “missions” [14] consisting of smaller tasks or aggregated quest lines forming the cornerstones of gameplay and narrative in role-playing games. They describe causality on a semantic level, putting the events, actions, and reasons into context, and on a structural level, manifesting the cause-effect correlations of actions or interactions with objects and their consequences [14]. Online role-playing games enable student teachers to interactively test and reflect on their communicative skills in realistic simulations of typical action scenarios and protected environments [26]. Studies on the effects of role-playing games have revealed that these can foster learning effectiveness, retention and performance, increased subject knowledge, and social construction of knowledge [27], to name some of the positive effects on cognition. As this research project aims at the creation of an innovative serious game, the evaluation of its effects on knowledge acquisition, and deduction of theoretical understanding in terms of value-added for learners, the “educational design research” approach by McKenney and Reeves [28] is taken into account while proceeding in this project. Although educational design research is closely related to “design-based research” [28], it emphasizes theorizing and aims for theory and solution development based on empirical research. It describes an iterative four-phase process to achieve these goals [28]: Firstly, analysis and exploration is defined as the phase in which a thorough understanding of the underlying problem is gained via context-based information collection and professional exchange with practitioners and researchers. Then follows the design and construction phase, including ideation, requirements definition, specification, and development and revision of prototypes. Next, the evaluation and reflection phase mainly focuses on empirical testing and reassessing research and development results to gain insight into theoretical and practical implications for the developed intervention. Lastly, the implementation and spread phase provides solution integration into the target context and other appropriate contexts and solution maintenance. Regarding the training content of the solution, we assume the four-dimensional framework model for inclusion competence by Döbler and Zinn [29], including the following dimensions: general knowledge about inclusion and heterogeneity, knowledge about (support) diagnostics, knowledge for advice, and knowledge for promotion.

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Furthermore, against the background that multi-professional cooperation plays a central role in the school context, collaborative scenarios, in particular, are supported in the game.

4 Approach Different research design concepts, game design principles, and software development practices shape the practical approach for this research project. Educational design research encourages the interplay of those practices with empirical research and is integrated with different research approaches in the future development of the serious game. 4.1

Research Design

The research design is adapted from the progression of research initiatives proposed by Plass et al. [20], which states usability research, design-based research, and valueadded research as the first three consecutive steps in the overall research process for game-based learning. The research design for this collaborative serious game is illustrated in Fig. 1. It places usability research and value-added research as successive steps in the evaluation phase of the overarching iterative four-phase process of educational design research.

Design: Exploraon

Evaluaon

Analysis Design: Mapping

Exploraon Construcon

•Prototype •Alpha •Beta

•Usability Study •Value-Added Study

Reflecon

Implementaon & Spread

Fig. 1. Educational design research process with added software versions and studies planned for future development of InCoLearn. Educational design research process and representation adapted from McKenney & Reeves [28] and Huang et al. [30].

Following the prototype developed during the first iteration of the second phase design and construction - there are at least two subsequent versions to be created. The next version, the alpha, will be developed after the prototype has been evaluated in a usability study. The results are transformed into a requirements catalog for software

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development as an outcome of this third phase. Accordingly, the design and construction of the beta version follow the evaluation of and reflection on the value-added research results. As educational design research is not a linear process [28], three iterations of the two phases, design and construction, and evaluation and reflection, are stated in this research design. The core game design elements of the InCoLearn prototype are narrative, learning mechanics, and game mechanics. In the second iteration cycle of the second and third phases of the educational design research process, the alpha version is developed and evaluated. In this scope, the other game design elements of the Integrated Design Framework for Playful Learning [21] will be implemented and assessed employing value-added research. Therefore, the following game design concept mainly features those game design elements and adds a short section on the audiovisual design of the serious game. 4.2

Game Design Concept

InCoLearn is a collaborative online multiplayer game for six players connected via voice chat. Together, the six players experience a lifelike day in a virtual vocational school. Each player takes the role of one of six different characters with distinct character traits, backgrounds, dimensions of heterogeneity, and attitudes. The character pool contains one student teacher, one teacher, one social worker, and three students. The students, in particular, have individual prerequisites and qualities. As these are acted out in spontaneous actions and dialogs or actions instructed by quests, they are revealed to other players complicating and enriching the group experience. As the prototype for the serious role-play game InCoLearn has a strong focus on learning through meaningful narrative and quest design, the following two sections on mechanics and narrative overlap regarding quests. Furthermore, a short explanation of audiovisual design decisions gives insight into the look and feel, immersive and semiotic qualities of sound effects. 4.2.1 Core Game and Learning Mechanics The overall structure of the game prototype shown in Fig. 2 intends a briefing phase, an introduction scenario, a break scenario, and a class scenario. While waiting for other players to join, players can familiarize themselves with their character profiles in the games’ lobby. During the first introduction scenario, the instructions communicated in the quest descriptions and tasks are clearly defined, and the game offers visual indications of interactable objects via outlines. Gameplay limitations become looser throughout the break and class scenarios as side quests, options for deviations, and decisive quest tasks and dialog options appear and elevate in frequency. Besides that, support is gradually withdrawn as players are offered fewer visual indications, welldefined instructions, and larger quest scopes.

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Break Scenario

Class Scenario Briefing

Introducon Scenario

Fig. 2. The sequence of game segments and scenarios of the prototype with in-game examples.

The core game loop in Fig. 3 contains three main steps: quest retrieval from quest giver, task fulfillment, and quest submission. During quest retrieval, the quest description offers the narrative background and reasons for the quest and allows adding the quest to the active ones in the quest log. Task fulfillment is the most complex step. It usually includes several single-action or multi-action tasks that can assume the form of object interaction tasks, single-step or multi-step dialogs, location entries, or external event tasks.

Quest Retrieval

Core Game Loop Quest Submission

Task Fulfillment

Fig. 3. Core game loop and task fulfillment sub-loop with in-game examples.

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4.2.2 Non-linear Storytelling The red thread running through the prototypes’ storyline is the fictional school day and the arrival of a new student teacher in class. Nevertheless, each player contributes to the plot by sharing individual information bound to specific characters or character groups provided by personal profiles, quest descriptions, and tasks. The story of InCoLearn is solely told through quests. The macroscopic quest structure of InCoLearn, depicted in the quest activity diagram of the prototype in Fig. 4, and the microscopic quest task structure, resemble a “directed network” [14, 31].

Fig. 4. Quest activity diagram of the InCoLearn prototype with three swimlanes grouping available quests into specific scenarios.

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This type of narrative structure allows a certain degree of player agency in maintaining coherence to form a unique narrative experience [14] and targets agency, immersion, and exploration. In InCoLearn, quests from the quest pool are offered to players if specific conditions from the game system, e.g., role or time constraints, are met, or events related to player decisions occur during the fulfillment of other quests. Furthermore, the strong interconnection of quests continues on the microscopic structure of quest tasks. These are created through a more delicate net of decisions in dialogs, object interactions, preconditions, and consequences for tasks of other quests. 4.2.3 Audiovisual Design As audiovisual design can significantly influence playing and learning, e.g., player experience, acceptance, and different dimensions of engagement, it holds a key role in game design and the overall quality perception of a game. The InCoLearn prototype pursues to find a balance between development effort and benefit for learners. Therefore, low-poly 3D models with high-quality textures are integrated through reused, retextured, remodeled, and freshly created models. In addition, for more realistic reflections, reflection probes are used for metallic shaders. InCoLearn has three separate sound areas, the classroom, the hallway, and the schoolyard, for two reasons. Firstly, conversations via voice chat cannot be heard in the other areas due to separate voice channels. Secondly, atmospheric tracks belong to specific soundscapes resembling unseen sceneries. For example, the hallway track is a mixture of people whispering and walking in the hallway during class and the dull sound of teaching and talking in adjacent classrooms. In contrast, InCoLearn currently has no musical score. A prominent score might be considered for future versions for the title screen and the game lobby but should remain below the perception threshold during gameplay scenarios with conversations. Sound effects for walking on different grounds, object interactions, and gameplay-related events, like task fulfillment, quest offering, etc., aim to enhance immersion and guide players through auditive signs and feedback. 4.3

Technical Implementation

The InCoLearn prototype is developed with the Unity game engine in version 2020.2.0f1 and its Universal Render Pipeline. This pipeline aims toward a better performance than the built-in pipeline and a wide range of target platforms [32]. The networking solution runs via the cloud-based Photon Engine used in the Photon Unity Networking 2 plugin. For voice communication, the additional Photon Voice component is used. Currently, the prototype only runs on 32-bit and 64-bit Windows machines. A mixed lighting approach with baked lights for static and light probes for moving objects is realized due to better performance on mid-range computers and increased development efficiency with reduced baking times.

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5 Conclusion and Future Work During the design and construction phase of the game prototype, the game design elements of narrative, game mechanics, learning mechanics targeting professional knowledge, and aesthetic design have been chosen to integrate the professional knowledge content of inclusion and heterogeneity and encourage role-play. The narrative structure of InCoLearn, the directed network, aims at implicit, explorative, and informal qualities of learning, allowing players to co-design the experience themselves and construct knowledge together. With a strong focus on quests, quest tasks, progression, and communication, the game mechanics follow those aspects of role-playing games identified as relevant and potentially engaging in a collaborative setting. Beyond that, the design decisions made for game and learning mechanics, and thus the “procedural rhetoric,” [33] respect the ethical aspects of presenting characters of various ethnic backgrounds and cognitive preconditions. For example, character statistics are intentionally left out to prevent encoding cognitive impairments or improvements throughout the game via metric scales. Furthermore, the learning mechanics are integrated with narrative and professional knowledge. The quest descriptions and objects offer background information on concepts and phenomena from the framework model for inclusion competence while informing players about the narrative context. The decision opportunities presented in tasks always aim at learning outcomes from experienced short- or long-term consequences. The research on learning outcomes and the further development of InCoLearn follows the adapted process of educational design research depicted in 4.1. An upcoming usability study with prospective teachers and students of technical and vocational education can identify areas of potential improvement. A mixed-methods approach including a documented play session, a group discussion, and a survey on usability can reveal new research fields, software requirements, and design specifications for the alpha version of InCoLearn. A second value-added study aims at identifying the effects of design elements, especially learning mechanics, on learning outcomes. The evaluation will include a pretest-posttest design and in-game metrics analyzing the impact of design elements on professional knowledge and attitudes toward inclusion and heterogeneity. The requirements and design specifications for the beta version of InCoLearn will be derived from the study results. This second study also aims at identifying potentials for the implementation in technical and vocational education. Consequently, the modular and customizable solution can be spread into further educational contexts and extended to other subject areas.

References 1. Shulman, L.S.: Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harv. Educ. Rev. 57, 1–21 (1987) 2. Baumert, J., Kunter, M.: Das Kompetenzmodell von COACTIV. In: Neubrand, M. (ed.) Professionelle Kompetenz von Lehrkräften: Ergebnisse des Forschungsprogramms COACTIV, pp. 29–54. Waxmann, Münster (2011)

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3. Fischer, S.: Zur Nachhaltigkeit von Lehrerweiterbildung in der Schweiz: Eine explorative Studie aus der Perspektive von Lehrkräften. Zeitschrift für Weiterbildung 40, 241–259 (2017) 4. Rothland, M.: Theorie-Praxis-Verhältnis in der Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung. In: Cramer, C., König, J., Rothland, M., Blömeke, S. (eds.) Handbuch Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung, pp. 133–651. Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn (2020) 5. Rzejak, D., Lipowsky, F.: Fort- und Weiterbildung im Beruf. In: Cramer, C., König, J., Rothland, M., Blömeke, S. (eds.) Handbuch Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung, pp. 644–651. Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn (2020) 6. Wimmer, J.: Potentiale digitaler Bildungsmedien: Ein Überblick über Forschung. Lernformen und Trends. Televizion 30(1), 7–15 (2017) 7. Seufert, S., Guggemos, J., Moser, L.: Digitale Transformation in Hochschulen: auf dem Weg zu offenen Ökosystemen. Zeitschrift für Hochschulentwicklung 14(2), 85–107 (2019) 8. Borsch, F.: Kooperatives Lernen: Theorie - Anwendung - Wirksamkeit, 2nd edn. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart (2015) 9. Wannemacher, K., Jungermann, I., Scholz, J., Tercanli, H., von Villiez, A.: Digitale Lernszenarien im Hochschulbereich, Arbeitspapier Nr. 15. Stifterverband, Essen (2016) 10. Jenkins, H., Purushotma, R., Weigel, M., Clinton, K., Robison, A.J.: Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. MIT Press, Cambridge (2009) 11. Hummel, H., Geerts, W., Slootmaker, A., Kuipers, D., Westera, W.: Collaboration scripts for mastership skills: online game about classroom dilemmas in teacher education. Interact. Learn. Environ. 23(6), 670–682 (2015) 12. Meletiou-Mavrotheris, M., Prodromou, T.: Pre-service teacher training on game-enhanced mathematics teaching and learning. Technol. Knowl. Learn. 21(3), 379–399 (2016). https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10758-016-9275-y 13. Abt, C.C.: Serious Games. University Press of America, Lanham (1987) 14. Egenfeldt-Nielsen, S., Smith, J.H., Tosca, S.P.: Understanding Video Games, 3rd edn. Routledge, Abingdon, New York (2016) 15. Gros, B.: Game dimensions and pedagogical dimension in serious games. In: Zheng, R., Gardner, M.K. (eds.) Handbook of Research on Serious Games for Educational Applications, pp. 402–416. IGI Global, Hershey (2017) 16. Prada, R.: The importance of socio-emotional agency in applied games for social learning. In: Vaz de Carvalho, C., Escudeiro, P., Coelho, A. (eds.) SGAMES 2016. LNICSSITE, vol. 176, pp. 31–35. Springer, Cham (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51055-2_5 17. Schwartz, R.N., Plass, J.L.: Types of engagement in learning with games. In: Plass, J.L., Mayer, R.E., Homer, B.D. (eds.) Handbook of Game-Based Learning, pp. 53–80. MIT Press, Cambridge, London (2020) 18. Belova, N., Zowada, C.: Innovating higher education via game-based learning on misconceptions. Educ. Sci. 10(9) (2020). Article 221 19. Hacker, D.J.: The role of metacognition in learning via serious games. In: Zheng, R., Gardner, M.K. (eds.) Handbook of Research on Serious Games for Educational Applications, pp. 19–40. IGI Global, Hershey (2017) 20. Plass, J.L., Homer, B.D., Mayer, R.E., Kinzer, C.K.: Theoretical foundations of game-based and playful learning. In: Plass, J.L., Mayer, R.E., Homer, B.D. (eds.) Handbook of GameBased Learning, pp. 3–24. MIT Press, Cambridge, London (2020) 21. Plass, J.L., Homer, B.D., Kinzer, C.K.: Foundations of game-based learning. Educ. Psychol. 50(4), 258–283 (2015)

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22. Mayer, R.E.: Cognitive foundations of game-based learning. In: Plass, J.L., Mayer, R.E., Homer, B.D. (eds.) Handbook of Game-Based Learning, pp. 83–110. MIT Press, Cambridge, London (2020) 23. Taub, M., Azevedo, R., Bradbury, A.E., Mudrick, N.V.: Self-regulation and reflection during game-based learning. In: Plass, J.L., Mayer, R.E., Homer, B.D. (eds.) Handbook of Game-Based Learning, pp. 239–262. MIT Press, Cambridge, London (2020) 24. Zhonggen, Y.: A meta-analysis of use of serious games in education over a decade. Int. J. Comput. Games Technol. (2019). Article 4797032 25. Vlachopoulos, D., Makri, A.: The effect of games and simulations on higher education: a systematic literature review. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 14(1), 1–33 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0062-1 26. Kunze, J., Mohr, S., Ittel, A.: Online-Rollenspiele in der Lehrkräfteausbildung. Beiträge zur Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung 34(2), 188–195 (2016) 27. Wang, Y.-H.: Exploring the effects of designing a role-playing game with single and peer mode for campus learning. Educ. Tech. Res. Dev. 68(3), 1275–1299 (2019). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11423-019-09726-8 28. McKenney, S., Reeves, T.C.: Conducting Educational Design Research. Routledge, Abingdon, New York (2012) 29. Döbler, C., Zinn, B.: Konzeption eines theoretischen Modells zu Kompetenzen im Bereich Inklusion und Umgang mit Heterogenität von angehenden Lehrkräften in der beruflichen Bildung. In: Zinn, B. (ed.) Inklusion und Umgang mit Heterogenität in der berufs- und wirtschaftspädagogischen Forschung, pp. 143–161. Steiner, Stuttgart (2018) 30. Huang, R., Spector, J.M., Yang, J.: Educational Technology: A Primer for the 21st Century. Springer Nature Singapore, Singapore (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6643-7 31. Ryan, M.L.: Narrative as Virtual Reality: Immersion and Interactivity in Literature and Electronic Media. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore (2001) 32. Unity Technologies Website: Universal Render Pipeline. https://unity.com/de/srp/universalrender-pipeline. Accessed 27 May 2021 33. Bogost, I.: Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of Videogames. MIT Press, Cambridge (2007)

Assessing and Enhancing Student On-Line Engagement

Gender Differences of Egyptian Undergraduate Students’ Achievements in Online Collaborative Learning Wesam Khairy Morsi1,2(&)

and Hala Medhat Assem1,2

1

Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, The British University in Egypt, El Sherouk City, Suez Desert Road, P.O. Box 43, Cairo 11837, Egypt {Wesam.Morsi,Hala.Medhat}@bue.edu.eg 2 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, The British University in Egypt, El Sherouk City, Suez Desert Road, P.O. Box 43, Cairo 11837, Egypt

Abstract. This paper investigates the effect of gender on 141 Egyptian undergraduate students’ achievements in online collaborative learning (OCL). It is Part two of a study that examined students’ perceptions of online learning vs. Face to Face (FTF) learning. 66 students represent the FTF CL control group: (16 females (24.2%) & 50 males (75.8%), and 75 represent the OCL experimental group: (35 females (46.7%) & 40 males (53.3%). Results of independent t-test showed that females outperformed males because they are usually selfdirected and have better communication skills and online presence. A comparison of students’ group scores in the OCL assignment based on percentages showed that sole-female groups scored the highest average percentage, followed by mixed groups whose scores were significantly high compared to the least percentage obtained by the sole-male groups. Findings suggest that genderdiverse balanced groups have the best opportunity to produce quality group work assignments and benefit from the complementary traits of both genders. Keywords: Gender


Online learning
Collaborative learning

1 Introduction With the rise of educational digitalized technology, online learning (OL) has witnessed great development in the way it is conducted across many universities. Its main purpose is to support traditional instruction and to provide more flexible, easily accessible and cost-effective quality learning [1]. Recent research has been interested in examining OL not only with regards to students’ academic performance compared to traditional instruction, but also with regards to gender-related differences. It is argued that learning abilities, culture, and ethnicity can influence students’ acceptance of OL since when information is exclusively received online, ‘a more personalized and adaptive system interaction’ is needed [2]. Thus, gender is a keystone to highlight inequalities and identity differences in how students perceive and perform in online learning [3]. In fact, models that discuss behavioral intention of using technologies to explain individuals’ type of participation, perception of the ease or usefulness of educational technology are © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 905–916, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_88

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gender-related [4]. In 2006, three aspects were found in which men and women differ in their use and acceptance of digital technology: “levels of trust, risk inversion and information processing” [4, 5]. Research conducted in the 21st century clarified young women showed more satisfaction and academic success with OL and had more social presence than men [6–11]; thus, this mode of learning was more “conducive to a high level of success for women”. More research has been targeted to examine CL and gender differences in patterns of participation in computer-mediated communication (CMC) and learning outcomes of collaborative tasks [7, 12]. Students discuss and cooperate to enhance their understanding of the subject matter and find solutions to problems. However, gender traits and students’ background can play a significant role in how effective students’ participate and collaborate to fulfill their assigned tasks online [13, 14]. Accordingly, there has been a growing interest in research about investigating undergraduate students’ readiness for online learning [15]. 1.1

Significance of the Study

In 2019, the outbreak of coronavirus has suddenly altered the way students are educated around the globe [16]. Learning online has become a must for all students. In higher education, studying male and female students’ performance in online collaborative tasks has become of great importance not only in countries with developed digital infrastructure, but also in developing countries that attempt to go through revolutionary digital transformation in all activities [17, 18]. Research investigating gender differences in online learning environments has been inconclusive, and studies that look at males’ and females’ perception of distance learning or academic success of online learning outcomes are very few, especially in the Middle East; a fact that makes further research in these areas a real necessity in the Arab world [17–22]. The present paper aims at examining gender-related differences of how Egyptian students achieve in OCL, and the relationship between gender characteristics and students’ learning outcomes of their tasks, represented in their final course grades. It is Part Two of a study that compared students’ performance and perceptions of two learning environments -FTF and OCL upon working in groups to complete a formal report writing assignment. Results of the present paper will reflect on results of Part One, “Online Vs. Face to Face Collaborative Learning: Perceptions of Students and Instructors of Technical Writing for Engineers” [17]. 1.2

Theoretical Background

The behavioural intension of adopting technologies in different activities have been studied against the theoretical backgrounds of various models. However, the most commonly used models to study how males and females adopt technologies through their behaviors: the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Unified Theory of Adoption and Use of Technology (UTAUT) [23]. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) 1st modified version [25], which is used in this study, is an “information systems theory that models how users come to accept and use a technology”. According to TAM, “behavioural intention” is the motive behind using this technology, and it is affected by the users’ attitudes. Several factors influence individuals’

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impression about a new technology: 1. Perceived usefulness 2. Perceived ease of use [23, 24]. In order to analyze gender differences in achievement of online collaborative tasks among groups of different gender, the TAM model is used to highlight the rationale of any differences that are found in male and female students’ scores while using online platforms to finish their assignments. 1.3

Precedent Studies

In the area of group collaborative learning, there is relatively few studies that examined the effects of gender on learners’ performance. One of the studies, that analyzed ‘self and peer evaluations’ of college students who were split into 192 groups, found that gender balanced or mixed groups showed effective collaboration in their work and less social loafing behavior; complaints about equitable contributions were rare. Underperformance and reduced cooperative behaviours were found in sole male groups [26]. Similarly, in [27], “gender-diverse groups” were more likely to obtain more citations from their peers in the field of ecological sciences; this suggests that publications authored by such groups are perceived to be of higher quality because they have thinkers of different collective abilities who are able to solve any scientific puzzle. In the field of OCL, there is inconclusive research investigating gender-related differences. A number of studies that have examined gender differences and their consequences by looking at how males and females perceive technology in mobile, TV or chat services using the internet, relate their attitude toward using computers and their perception of self-efficacy concerning their fulfilment of the required job. In 2005, researchers investigated 684 mobile chats in Norway, using the (UTAUT); men were found to perceive mobile chat services stronger than women [28]. The TAM was used in 2000 among 342 employees, and it was found that women prefer technologies that require less effort; women had lower perception of using technology easily because they had higher levels of computer anxiety [29]. As for gender perceptions of technology, [30] studied the behavior of 278 teenager-learners toward computers [31]. Results showed that male learners significantly liked using computers and gained better experience of using them. Younger learners of both genders, however, did not differ in their perceptions of them; yet, older females reported fewer positive attitudes toward them [30, 31]. Recent research reported mixed findings with regards to perceptions of OL. In 2006, [32] investigated acceptance of online learning among employees from Taiwan. Over-all, male employees felt comfortable using computers. They had positive behavioral intention of using e-learning compared to females. In contrast, with younger learners, [33] research findings found that secondary students of both genders showed no signif-icant differences in their learning outcomes. In other studies, female students scored higher in OL courses than male students. It was inferred that it was because of women’s tendency to engage and care for others, this is confirmed in studies [34] and [35]. Nevertheless, in results of reference [35], females were “more communicationoriented In-ternet users”, seeking interaction with others, while males were “more exploration ori-ented in their use”, so females seemed to have richer and invaluable online learning experience than their males’ counterparts because of being more interactive and more connected with others [36]. Dominant social presence, more

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satisfaction and better achievement of females in OL were also found in [6]. These findings confirmed reference [20]. To conclude, there is inconclusive evidence about the influence of gender as an independent variable on acceptance of information technology [1, 7, 21, 38] and [39]. Conflicting results have been revealed in past and recent research with regards to users’ behavior and performance in digital environments, suggesting that gender differences in accepting and using a computer system are likely to disappear among younger generations [19, 33]. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate potential gender differences among Egyptian female and male undergraduate students in their academic achievement of a group work collaborative writing task that requires them to work FTF or using specific online platforms (Google Suite or Quip). The research questions are the following: 1. Does the learning method affect students’ scores in FTF or OL while working collaboratively to complete a writing task? 2. What is the effect of gender (male and female) on students’ scores in a FTF collaborative task Vs. an Online collaborative task? 3. What is the effect of different gender on students’ scores in the classification of the sole male, sole female and mixed groups in an online collaborative assignment?

2 Research Methodology 2.1

Sample of Population

The sample of population was Year1 students in a private Egyptian university. The total number of students is 141: 66 represented the FTF CL control group: (16 females (24.2%) & 50 males (75.8%), and 75 represented the OCL experimental group: (35 females (46.7%) & 40 males (53.3%). These could not be controlled as the distribution of students among classes was conducted by the university administration. Their age ranged from 19–21. Participants were chosen via convenient sampling procedures [23]. 2.2

Data Collection Methods and Data Analysis

The study adopted a quasi-experimental research design. The achievement of students was compared within FTF vs. OCL contexts using formal report writing. In the Technical Writing course, students write two technical writing research reports: a FTF IMRD report (pretest) taken by all students, and a Formal report (posttest) which is taken by 2 classes FTF and by 2 others Online, both assignments are similar in nature. Data was collected based on students’ scores in both assignments [17]. In part two, presented in this paper, data were collected from scores of the formal report (posttest), including scores of the FTF group in which no online tools were used, and scores of the online group; then, individual scores of males and females were analysed. Scores were quantitatively analyzed using the paired and independent T-Tests in both reports, whereas students’ acceptance and perceived usefulness of OL are qualitatively analyzed [29]. The scores were further classified into a different classification based on the “group scores” of sole-male, sole-female, and mixed-gender groups to find out the

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effect of sole-gender/mixed groups on group achievement in OCL using percentages. A peer evaluation rubric was used by students to assess their peers’ effective contribution and cooperation.

3 Results This section presents the research findings; it reflects on results of Part One of the study and displays the results of the present paper in detail. 3.1

Reflection on Study Part ONE: Gender Differences in Pretest/Posttest Scores Within the Online Group

This section examines students’ achievement in FTF Collaborative Writing vs OCL based on scores of different genders. It relates to the study [17] which examined students’ perception of FTF vs OCL. Paired Samples T-test was performed using scores of a pretest (FTF-IMRD Report) assignment and a posttest (Online-Formal Report) assignment. In Table 1, highly significant differences were found between males’ scores in the FTF pretest and the Online posttest: (t (40) = 3.952, p = 0.01) at a level less than (0.01), for the benefit of the Online posttest (FTF M = 28.26 and Online M = 31.60). Similarly, highly significant differences were found between females’ scores in the FTF pretest and the Online posttest: (t (35) = 6.102, p = 0.01) at a level less than (0.01), for the benefit of the Online posttest (FTF M = 29.41 and Online M = 33.52). This showed that students’ grades were higher in the Online test for both genders. Table 1. Pretest & posttest scores of males & females in FT vs OCL, paired T-tests. Group

Male n = 40 Female n = 35

3.2

Pretest IMRD REPORT (FTF) Mean ± (Std.) 28.26 ± 3.70

Formal REPORT (Online) Mean ± (Std.) 31.60 ± 4.22

T-test

P-value

Result

3.952

0.01*

H.Sig.

29.41 ± 3.33

33.52 ± 3.34

6.102

0.01*

H.Sig.

Part Two: Comparing Students’ Scores in FTF vs Online Assessments

With regards to this study, in the formal report (post-test), two classes of students wrote the assignment FTF and two wrote it online. Concerning research question 2, results revealed that the independent T-test showed significant differences between the FTF and Online groups (t (141) = 2.127, p = 0.04), for the benefit of the Online group at pvalue less than (0.05), (see Table 2).

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W. K. Morsi and H. M. Assem Table 2. FTF vs. OCL based on students’ scores, independent t-test. Variable Sample N Mean Std. T-test P-value Result Formal REPORT Face to face 66 31.28 2.62 2.127 0.04* Sig. Online 75 32.50 3.93

Independent samples T-tests were used to compare scores of FTF vs Online assessments. There were no significant differences in the scores of male students between the FTF vs. Online groups since the p-value = 0.50 (>0.05). In the same line, there were no significant differences in the scores of female students between the FTF vs. Online groups since the p-value = 0.08 (>0.05). In comparing between the scores of females vs. males who took the traditional FTF assessment, independent samples T-test showed no significant differences between males’ and females’ scores in the FTF CL test (t (66) = 0.868, p = 0.38, < 0.05). This means that gender did not influence the performance in FTF collaborative writing. However, investigating the effect of gender differences on scores of males and females who took the online assessment, Independent T-test showed highly significant differences (t (75) = 2,170, p = 0.03) for the benefit of the female sample with mean (M = 33.52) and mean for males (M = 31.60) at p-value less than (0.05) see Table 3. Table 3. Males’ vs females’ scores in OCL, independent T-test. Variable Sample N Mean Std. T-test P-value Result Online-Formal REPORT Male 40 31.60 4.22 2.170 0.03* Sig. Female 35 33.52 3.340

3.3

Part Two: Gender Differences of Students’ Scores Based on Sole Male, Sole Female and Mixed Groups in OCL

This section presents a comparison of the students’ scores in the OCL assignment based on the classification of: sole-female, sole-male, and mixed groups. The 75 participants’ distribution among groups is displayed in Table 4 and the scores displayed are an average score of the group grades given to the corresponding group type. Examining the effect of different genders on the performance by looking at their scores, Table 4 showed that sole-female groups scored highest average percentage, followed by the mixed groups who also performed highly and the least percentage was for the sole male groups.

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Table 4. Avg. scores for each of the gender groups in the online assignment. Variable

Samples

No. of groups

Formal REPORT online groups

Sole male

6(17 students, 58.7%) 5(14 students 18.7%) 10(44 students, 22.7%)

Sole female Mixed groups

Avg.% scores for all groups 56

Letter grades C

70.2

A−

68.25

B+

4 Discussion 4.1

Reflection on Part One of the Study

Results of the present study showed that both female and male performance in the Online posttest were higher than their performance in the FTF pretest. This is confirmed in students’ responses in part one of the study in which they explained that using the online tools made them more focused on their tasks [17]. It further elaborates results of part one in which students’ perceptions of OCL after using online tools were highly significant than those who used the FTF method in the pretest while working on collaborative writing tasks, and infers possible correlations between students’ achievement and perception of using online tools. Online tools facilitated and improved the quality of the final report writing and frequency of interaction among students and their instructors which affected their final results positively. It can also be suggested that students became less intimated to ask questions. 4.2

Discussion of Present Study

Achievement in FTF vs Online Groups: when the performance of the FTF group was compared to the Online group in the formal report (posttest), results showed students who worked online achieved higher scores than those who worked FTF. As observed by [22]. OCL for a “Research Methods” course was less menacing for students and provided improved quality and higher communication level between students and tutors in spite of its challenges. It was also found that it probably increased the span of students’ memory of knowledge and maximized learning outcomes [13]. This may clarify part one of the study in which perceptions of OL were significantly higher than of FTF learning. Further correlation may confirm this. Achievement of Different Genders in FTF vs OL: with respect to gender differences, findings displayed no significant differences, for both males and females, between scores of males in the FTF CL vs online CL groups as well as the females’ scores in FTF vs online groups. These interesting findings open an eye to the fact that both genders showed no significant changes in each individual’s performance when completing their assignment FTF vs Online. This could be attributed to their common

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attitudes towards learning in general, the support they received from their instructors and the consistent academic performance level for each individual. [14] affirmed gender had no significant impact on students’ comprehension of “electromagnetic induction” and related concepts when adopting a “collaborative teaching approach” for school students. Gender Differences in OL: comparing gender differences in OL, it was revealed that females performed better than males in the online assignment. This is confirmed in previous research [26, 39]. Significant differences in scores may relate to the preference of each gender for certain subjects, which is usually linked to their traits. Gender Differences in Digital Competence: rationale for such results may have stemmed from gender differences in digital competence and attitude. First, in contrast to old studies in which males were superior and more comfortable in using computers, females showed more social presence online and high digital competence in using these online platforms. A logical reason for this is that today’s young generation are digital natives regardless of their gender [7]. Second, females’ academic outperformance using digital technology has been associated with their motivation and communicationoriented skills which are invigorated by online platforms. Gender Differences in Attitude: similar researches have related gender differences in academic success to their attitudes and characteristics of gender identity. Results of this study are consistent with the results of [40] [7] who explained that females usually achieve higher than males in school assessments since they are more self-directed, committed, self-dedicated towards education and are good, patient readers. Females, in addition, accept encouragement from their peers to work hard since they tend to be naturally more organized and show respectable and cooperative behavior with others. On the other hand, males display a “cool” attitude towards meeting work deadlines because of peer pressure. They tend to be ill-prepared and display less competitive and less-attentive attitude [41]. Previous research also discovered that females have better communication skills and their participation in online discussions is significantly more than their male counterparts; that was why they received better grades. [41] explained that most probably communication motivated females to work better. In the present study, it was noticed that female students posted more comments and questions to their peers and instructors on the online platforms. This is confirmed by [30]. Reference [10] explained that in the mathematics course males were task oriented and did not post much on the blog, while females posted many comments to ask questions. This shows women’s preference to cooperative online learning environments. Thus, discussion of this study suggests that gender differences are considered a predictor to academic success in educational technology, and this argument is supported by [22]. In a more detailed study, [42] observed that the numbers of each gender in a group may affect their individual grades. When groups included less than 20% females, females’ work was usually marked less than males; however, when females comprised more than 50% of the group, they achieved higher scores than males. Groups comprising of less than 20% males did not show the same pattern. This, accordingly, illustrates why in the present study, females achieved higher scores in sole females or mixed groups with a balanced number of females (two or more).

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Achievement in Sole Gender Groups vs Mixed Groups: comparing students’ groupscores for those working online as sole male, sole female and mixed groups, findings of the study have revealed the following: first, average group score of sole male groups were much lower than scores of the sole female and mixed groups. These results could be clarified by results of the previous section in which females outperformed males in OCL and are supported by findings of reference [26] who suggests that students’ gender-balanced groups usually encourage enhanced collaborative work, sharing equal distributions of work and cooperating better with less social loafing while working. Gender-balanced collaboration, hence, promoted higher progress than that of groups who comprise of sole males. Second, results also proposed higher average score for sole-female scores than of mixed groups, suggesting a probable advancement of sole female groups in OCL that is linked to their outperformance over males in individual scores. A research by [7] and [39] also expressed females’ inclination towards satisfaction within OL environment than males. This may have originated from females’ inherent positive traits of taking the initiative to create group union and connections needed for outstanding achievement through their selflessness, understanding, will to aid and exert effort, pleasant companionship and interest in human interactions. On the opposite, males are more oriented towards control, dominance, determination and forcefulness. Consequently, male-only groups are considered the least achievers’ environment as it usually combines the tough attitudes of male students mentioned above. Study [26] supported this. Nevertheless, the difference between the average group score of mixed groups and sole-female groups was not significant. An inference that can be drawn from this is when both genders grouped together, their traits were complementary to each other; so, they also managed to achieve high scores close to those of sole female groups and may be with a different work manner. These findings confirm [13] which proposed that mixed groups outperformed the other sole gender groups in their study, and elucidated that female groups worked collaboratively and scored higher, while males interacted less with one another but worked systematically. These conclusions supported the idea of mixed groups, suggesting they include the advantages of enhanced collaboration, concentration at work and general quality of the work outcome which represents presenting efficient synergies of the traits of both genders required in a CL environment. However, [26] illustrated that more females were burdened than male students and reported problems when working collaboratively in mixed groups because there were few females to communicate and share ideas with. Analysing the peer assessment used with students from a gender perspective, it was observed that female students were more comfortable working with female peers than males in mixed groups based on scores; [6] also agreed with this; in the present study, most of the members in the groups gave each other the same grades except for few groups in which female students were keen to give their peers accurate and realistic grades. This implies that females were more dedicated and could accurately evaluate their peers because they were aware of their actual contribution to the group project. Thus, it is preferable to consider having gender balanced groups or mixed groups with females exceeding the number of males. Finally, this paper concluded that gender had no significant impact on students’ scores when studying FTF or online although overall students’ scores in OCL were higher than those who worked FTF. Not only did females’ scores outperform males’ scores in OCL, but sole female groups also

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outperformed mixed and sole male groups, respectively, which clearly signifies that today’s young males and females are digital natives. Therefore, it is suggested that instructors should encourage their students to work collaboratively in gender-diversebalanced groups which maximize the benefits of different gender’s traits, scientific thinking abilities, and communication skills in achieving higher quality group work.

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17. Morsi, W., Medhat, H.: Online vs. face-to-face collaborative learning: perceptions of students and instructors of technical writing for engineers. Austria, Vienna (2021) 18. Morsi, W.K.: Work in progress: the effectiveness of using blended learning on developing Egyptian EFL learners’ language skills. In: Visions and Concepts Education 4.0, Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative and Blended Learning (ICBL2020), Auer, Michael E., Centea, Dan (eds.) Canada, Springer, 2021, pp. 456–465 (2021) 19. Kupczynski, L., Brown, M., Holland, G., Uriegas, B.: The relationship between gender and academic success online. J. Educ. Online 11(1), n1 (2014) 20. Rovai, A., Baker, J.: Gender differences in online learning: sensecommunity, perceived learning, and interpersonal interactions. Q. Revi. Dist. Educ. 6(1), 31 (2005) 21. Yoo, S.J., Huang, W.D.: Engaging online adult learners in higher education: Motivational factors impacted by gender, age, and prior experiences. J. Continuing High. Educ. 61(3), 151–164 (2013) 22. Adedapo, A.: Gender and entry background differences in postgraduate distance learners’ achievement in the field of educational technology. Int. J. Educ. Literacy Stud. 8(3), 98–104 (2020) 23. Gianina, L.: The emeregence and development of the technology acceptance model (TAM). Market. Inf. Decis. 7, 149–160 (2014) 24. Venkatesh, V., et al.: User acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view. MIS Q., 425–478 (2003) 25. Davis, F., Bagozzi, R., Warshaw, P.: User acceptance of computer technology: a comparison of two theoretical models. Manage. Sci. 35(8), 982–1003 (1989) 26. Takeda, S., Homberg, F.: The effects of gender on group work process and achievement: an analysis through self- and peer assessment. Br. Edu. Res. J. 40(2), 373–396 (2014) 27. Campbell, L., Mehtani, S., Dozier, M., Rinehart, J.: Gender-heterogeneous working groups produce higher quality science, vol. 8, no. 10, p. e79147 (2013) 28. Ström, R., Vendel, M., Bredican, J.: Mobile marketing: a literature review on its value for consumers and retailers. J. Retail. Consum. Serv. 21(6), 1001–1012 (2014) 29. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M.: Why don't men ever stop for direction? Gender, social Influence and their role in technology acceptnace and behaviour usage. MIS Q., 115–139 (2000) 30. Kay, R.H.: Understanding gender differences in computer attitudes, aptitude and use: an invitation to build theory. J. Res. Comput. Educ. 25(2), 159–171 (1992) 31. Comber, C., et al.: The effects of age, gender and computer experiece upon computer attitudes. Educ. Res. 39(2), 123–133 (1997) 32. Ong, C.S., Lai, J.Y.: Gender differences among dominants of e-learning acceptance. Comput. Hum. Behave. 22(5), 816–829 (2006) 33. Kay, R., Knaak, L.: Investigating the use of learning objects for secondary school mathematics. Interdiscipl. Learn. Objects. 4(1), 269–289 (2008) 34. Robin., K.: Examining gender differences in attitudes toward interactive classroom communications systems (ICCS). Comput. Educ. 52(4) 730–740 (2009) 35. Tsai, M.J., Tsai, C.C.: Junior high school students’ internt usage and self efficacy. Comput. Educ. 54(4), 1182–1192 (2010) 36. Johnson, G.M.: Internet activites and development predictors: gender differences among digital natives. J. Interact. Online Learn. 10(2) (2011) 37. Adedapo, A.: Gender and entry background differences in postgraduate distance learners’ achievement in the field of educational technology 38. Ramírez-Correa1, P.E., et al.: Gender and acceptance of e-learning: a multi-group analysis based on a structural equation model among college students in Chile and Spain (2015)

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Towards the Development of a Mobile Healthcare App for Diagnosis of RNA Diseases Hosam F. El-Sofany1 and Samir Abou El-Seoud2(&) 1

Cairo Higher Institute for Engineering, Computer Science and Management, Cairo, Egypt [email protected] 2 Faculty of Informatics and Computer Science, The British University in Egypt - BUE, Cairo, Egypt [email protected]

Abstract. RNA virus’s diseases such as COVID-19, SARS, Influenza, and others have recently spread and caused terror to all people around the world due to the death of a large number of people after infection with these dangerous viruses. These viruses are still vague to many people because there is no specific solution to this issue, as they do not know its true symptoms, how to prevent it, or dealing with a patient with these infections. Because of unawareness about this epidemic, many people, once their temperature rises, diagnose themselves that they are infected with one of these dangerous viruses, and this is a big mistake. This paper aims to develop a Health Care application for diagnosis RNA viruses diseases, to solve this problem. The proposed app provides the main awareness information about RNA diseases and prevention. The app can diagnose the disease depending on the symptoms provided by the user. Moreover, it provides the user with the percentage of his infection of a specified disease, and the information of the nearest location of a clinic, hospital, or pharmacy. Keywords: Cloud computing
IoT diagnostic tool
Healthcare services Service


e-Health systems
RNA
Medical
Diseases diagnostic
Heathcare-as-a-

1 Introduction Some Countries such as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are facing health care challenges during the development and improvement of the health sector as well as during the National and digital transformation to achieve the 2030 vision. Health care represents one of the most attractive apps for cloud computing and IoT [1]. The IoT has the potential to improve many medical apps such as remote health monitoring, medical diagnosis, chronic diseases, fitness programs, and elderly care [2]. IoT-based healthcare services are expected to reduce costs, increase the quality of life, and enrich the user's

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 917–927, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_89

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experience [3]. The main services models for cloud computing include software, platform, and infrastructure (as a service), to satisfy the needs of different kinds of organizations. By using cloud computing concepts, we will open some important area that is likely to have positive implications for cloud-based health care applications. From a cloud computing point of view, we introduce the app as HeathCare-as-aService (HC-AAS) model, while from IoT point of view, we introduce the app as a digital transformation system for improvement of the health care sector. In this research study, we introduce a fuzzy model that will be used for developing a cloud-based healthcare app for medical diagnosis. [4–7] The identification of system inputs, outputs, and rules are controlled by fuzzy logic operations. In addition to maintaining and monitoring the health record of patients, the app will also use to diagnose the diseases based on a big data warehouse that use to store almost all diseases and their symptoms. Our main goal is to introduce a novel approach to develop a medical diagnostic model that can help to improve the quality of the healthcare sector in KSA [8]. The world is currently witnessing a strike and increasing anxiety due to the RNA virus’s diseases in terms of its development and rapid spread. Because of this rapid and dangerous spread of these viruses, it was necessary to raise awareness and alert about the dangers of these diseases and methods of infection and prevention. Digital methods of spreading awareness and fighting the infection for these viruses are among the most successful and fastest possible methods, due to the rapid spread of digital information through social media and websites in addition to mobile applications [9–12]. Our project offers this mobile application system targeting health care to diagnose the correct RNA virus disease if it is COVID-19, SARS, or Influenza disease. This application will contain a helpful database that collects all types of RNA virus diseases with their symptoms and the prevention ways in addition to the modern techniques for discovering the disease. The user will provide the application with complete data in addition to the symptoms that the patient experiences, then the application will provide him with the correct diagnosis of the disease, and provides him with medical and advice in emergency cases [10–19].

2 Problem Statement The problem of our research is considered in the lack of information about the true symptoms of the RNA virus diseases that we cannot know the correct disease depending on our symptoms, in addition to misbehavior when suspected of infection with the virus and the failure to take regular measures to prevent this virus properly. Most of people say if our temperature raised then we are infected with COVID-19, which is wrong, that maybe it is SARS or Influenza for example. Therefore, we need an

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application to inform the users about the correct RNA virus disease depending on inputting the symptoms by the user to the application. The proposal study answers the following questions: • Can the user use this system at any time and any place? • Can the user add his symptoms online to the system? • Can the system supply the user with the percentage of the infected with the disease depending on the entered symptoms? • Can the system supply the user with the closest locations of clinics, hospitals and pharmacy to his location? • Can the system supply the user with useful information about the entered symptoms? • Can the system accept new RNA diseases entered by the users? • Can the system provide the user with a search tool about the RNA diseases and their symptoms? • Can the system provide a searching facility for modern techniques to discover RNA diseases? • Can the system provide a searching facility for the modern techniques for treatment the RNA diseases? • Can the system provide the user with the best foods and fitness exercises to develop the body immunity?

3 Materials and Methods The researchers have used data from many sources including the Ministry of Health, and WHO's databases. The questionnaire collects important information about the problem being studied, and leads to getting accurate data. This method of collecting information relies on a recording by listening to scientific discussions in conferences and public discussion places. The questionnaire include the answer of following questions:

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Agree 1.

Do you suffer from lack of information about the RNA diseases, and their symptoms?

2.

Do you like to have an application supporting you with all information about RNA diseases?

3.

Do you like the application available at any time and any place?

4.

Do you like to be active and connection with the database of the application through adding some symptoms online related to a specified disease?

5.

Do you prefer the application supplies you with the percentage of the infected with the disease depending on the entered symptoms?

6.

Do you prefer the application supplies you with the closest locations of clinics, hospitals and pharmacy to his location?

7.

Do you like the application supplies you with useful information about the entered symptoms by the user?

8.

Do you want the application accepts new RNA diseases entered by you?

9.

Do you prefer the application provides you with a search tool about the RNA diseases and their symptoms?

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

10. Do want the application provides a searching facility for modern techniques to discover RNA diseases? 11. Do you want the application provides a searching facility for the modern techniques for treatment the RNA diseases? 12. Do you agree to select the symptoms than enter them manually? 13. Do you agree to get the diagnosis automatic directly? 14. Are you agree to offer patient support service to ask a doctor medical question? 15. Do you agree to add awareness system for upgrading the body immunity? 16. Do you agree to offer the suitable nutrition and fitness exercises to support the body?

4 The Proposed Application The main service of this application is to diagnose the RNA disease depending on the symptoms entered by the user. The application provides the user with the exact RNA diseases. On other hand, the app has two services, it determines the closest address of a

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clinic or specialized hospital to the user location, and determines the percentage of infection in RNA disease. In addition, this application offers a search engine for the prevention infection ways and awareness information about developing the body immunity through the suitable food and fitness exercises. The interconnection between the actors of this application and the system include: Admin actor: this user can manage (add/update/delete/display) doctors, patients, and the locations of a Health center. Admin entity has many attributes include (adminid, admin-name). Doctor entity has attributes such as (doctor-id, name, specialization). Patient entity has attributes such as (patient-id, email, password, gender, age, phone). Location entity has attributes such as (healthcenter-id, healthcenter-name, healthcenterlatitude, healthcenter-longitude, specialization). Doctor actor: this user maintains RNA disease, symptoms, answering the users queries, provide how to prevent infection, and provide medical advices. Disease entity has the attributes (disease-id, disease-name, description, dangrouse-degree). Symptom entity has the attributes (symptom-id, symptom-name, dangrouse-degree). Treatment entity has the attributes (treatment-way-id, way_name, way-description). Infectionprevention entity has the attributes (infection-prevention-id, prevention-name, waydescription). Medicine entity has the attributes (medicine-id, medicine-name, usageway). Medical-advice entity has the attributes (advice-id, advice-title, advice-text). Patient actor: this user can register and enter his/her symptoms via a set of given symptoms provided by the system. Then the system will provide the patient with his present status in case of infection, also the system provides the patient with percent of this disease. In addition to, the system inform the patient about the closest clinic location. 4.1

System Architecture

Figure 1, present the context diagram of the proposed applicarion that represents the highest level in a system data flow diagram. It is a tool popular among systems analysts who use it to understand the details and boundaries of the system to be designed in this project. Figure 2, shows the application architecture that consists of many layers such as user interface, system provider, logic layer, and data store layer.

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Fig. 1. Context diagram

Fig. 2. System architecture

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System Design and Implementation

Figure 3, present the use cases diagram of the proposed app. The use cases show how each actor interact with the system.

Fig. 3. Use case diagram.

Figure 4, shows the class diagram of the proposed app, this diagram displays the related classes of the system and also represent the relationships converted from the EERD diagram. Figure 5, represents some screens of the system interface include, the Home page, RNA information interface, Admin page home interface, and Doctor home page interface.

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Fig. 4. Class diagram

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RNA Information Interface

Home Interface

Doctor Home Page Interface

Admin Page Home Interface Fig. 5. App interface

5 Conclusion The main objective of this research study is to introduce a Health Care application for diagnosis RNA viruses diseases. The proposed app provides the main awareness information about RNA diseases and prevention. The app diagnoses the disease depending on the symptoms provided by the user. Moreover, it provides the user with

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the percentage of his infection of a specified disease, and the information of the nearest location of a clinic, hospital, or pharmacy. Acknowledgment. The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University for funding this work through research groups program under grant number (R.G.P.1-185/41).

References 1. Islam, S.R., Kwak, D., Kabir, M.H., Hossain, M., Kwak, K.S.: The Internet of Things for health care: a comprehensive survey. IEEE Access 3, 678–708 (2015). Digital Object Identifier 2. Milovanovic, D.A., Bojkovic, Z.S.: Cloud-based IoT healthcare applications: requirements and recommendations. Int. J. Internet Things Web Serv. 2, 60–65 (2017) 3. Diallo, O., Rodrigues, J.J., Sene, M., Niu, J.: Real-time query processing optimization for cloud-based wireless body area networks. Inf. Sci. 284, 84–94 (2013). www.elsevier.com 4. Nabar, S., Walling, J., Poovendran, R.: Minimizing energy consumption in body sensor networks via convex optimization. In: BSN 2010: Proceedings of the2010 International Conference on Body Sensor Networks, IEEE Computer Society, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 62–67 (2010) 5. Verulkar, S.M., Limkar, M.: Real time health monitoring using GPRS technology. Int. J. Comput. Sci. Netw. (IJCSN) 1(3), (2012). www.ijcsn.org. ISSN 2277-5420 6. Kaur, P., Khurmi, D.S.S., Josan, D.G.S.: Fuzzy based analysis of proposed model for physical health standard based on association rule mining techniques. Int. J. Comput. Sci. Commun. Eng. 1 (2012) 7. Pandey, S., Voorsluys, W., Niu, S., Khandoker, A., Buyya, R.: An autonomic cloud environment for hosting ECG data analysis services. Future Generat. Comput. Syst. 28,147– 154 (2012) 8. Sundharakumar, K.B., Dhivya, S., Mohanavalli, S., Chander, R.V.: Cloud bassed fuzzy healthcare system. Proc. Comput. Sci. 50,143–148 (2015). ScienceDirect. 2nd International Symposium on Big Data and Cloud Computing (ISBCC 2015) 9. Ghit, B., DickEpema, A.: STORM - a simulation tool for real-time multiprocessor scheduling evaluation. 978-1-42446850–8/10/©2010 IEEE 10. Otal, B., Alonso Zárate, L.G., Verikoukis, C.: Novel QoS scheduling and energy-saving MAC protocol for body sensor networks optimization. In: BodyNets 2008 Proceedings of the ICST 3rd International Conference on Body Area Networks, March 2008. Article 27 11. Kaur, R., Kaur, A.: Hypertension diagnosis using fuzzy expert system. Int. J. Eng. Res. Appl. (IJERA) (2014). National Conference on Advances in Engineering and Technology (AET). ISSN: 2248-9622 12. El-Sofany, H., Al Tayeb, A., Alghatani, K., El-Seoud, S.: The impact of cloud computing technologies in E-learning. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. iJET 8(1), 37–43 (2013). https:// doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v8iS1.2344.ICL2012 13. Final version of NIST cloud computing definition published. http://www.nist.gov/itl/csd/ cloud-102511.cfm. Accessed 14 Dec 2017 14. Jain, P., Rane, D., Patidar, S.: A survey and analysis of cloud model-based security for computing secure cloud bursting and aggregation in renal environment. In: Proceedings of the 2011 World Congress on Information and Communication Technologies (WICT), Mumbai, India, 11–14 December 2011, pp. 456–461 (2011)

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15. Gowrigolla, B., Sivaji, S., Masillamani, M.R.: Design and auditing of cloud computing security. In: Proceedings of the 2010 5th International Conference on Information and Automation for Sustainability (ICIAFs), Colombo, Sri Lanka, 17–19 December 2010, pp. 292–297 (2010) 16. McKendrick, J.: Loud divide: senior executives want cloud, security and IT managers are nervous (2011). http://www.zdnet.com/blog/serviceoriented/cloud-divide-senior-executiveswant-cloud-security-and-it-managers-are-nervous/6484. Accessed 15 Dec 2017 17. El-Sofany, H.F.: Proposed a novel mechanism to detect and prevent XML and HTTP-based denial-of-service attacks for cloud computing. In: The 2018 International Conference on Network Technology (ICNT 2018) and 7th International Conference on Software and Information Engineering (ICSIE 2018). Cairo, Egypt, 4–6 May 2018 18. Zadeh, L.A.: Fuzzy sets. Inf. Control 8, 338–353 (1965) 19. Gürsel, G.: Healthcare, uncertainty, and fuzzy logic. Digital Med. 2(3), 101 (2016). http:// www.digitmedicine.com

A Haptic Handwriting Device in MOALEM Platform for Arabic Vocabulary Learning Somaya Al-Maadeed1, Batoul Khalifa1, Moutaz Saleh1, Samir Abou El-Seoud2(&), and Jihad AlJa’am1 1

Qatar University, 2713 Doha, Qatar {s_alali,batoul,moutaz.saleh,jaam}@qu.edu.qa 2 The British University in Egypt (BUE), Cairo, Egypt [email protected]

Abstract. Several research works have demonstrated the high importance of handwriting in a language acquisition. Learners prefer to use the traditional method of writing with a pen and pencil to strengthen the understanding of the language vocabularies. Research has shown that an assistive haptic device can greatly benefit handwriting skills development and language learning. In this paper, we propose a haptic device with a pen and control algorithms that can improve the acquisition of Arabic letters and facilitate the mastering of the language. We tested the device with none-native Arabic speakers over several sessions with full and partial guidance methods. Experiments showed that both methods helped the learners to improve their skills of writing. The proposed haptic device is part of the MOALEM platform to teach the Arabic language for children and forging learners. MOALEM incorporates components for text understanding, text-image pairing, and a talking face for vocabulary proper pronunciation. Keywords: Haptics


Handwriting
Arabic vocabulary
Learning

1 Introduction Many school children have learning difficulty to read, write and pronounce vocabulary correctly [1, 3]. They suffer a lot from holding properly a pen and write simple letters and form vocabularies. Furthermore, there are insufficient resources and time for instructors to allocate to children effective needs especially during COVID-19 pandemic [5, 12]. In fact, the instructors have limited time to allocate for the preparation of adequate tutorials and deliver to children in classroom or online. They cannot follow up every child progress separately and ass her/his progress. In addition, assistive technologies are very expensive that renders them unreachable for most families. They cannot afford the heavy cost of these devices and their children cannot learn independently at home. Helping these children to catch up with their peers is a serious, rising problem that needs immediate intervention from the research community and professionals to provide effective and low-cost technological solutions.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 928–938, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_90

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Most educational centers and schools have limited resources and logistic supports. In fact, they are not adequately staffed and equipped with resources to help children with learning difficulties and special needs. In addition, effective educational institutions must consider different kind of disability (i.e., mild, moderate, severe) and provide specialized classes accordingly. In most cases, these classes have limited capacity and unable to accommodate for an ever-increasing number of children that are in special needs for education. Hiring private specialized teachers to help these children recap adds an economic burden on their families where many of them cannot afford it. Therefore, hundreds of children are kept in waiting lists to join the specialized schools. Consequently, an efficient with low-cost technological solution should be implemented and proposed to educational centers, schools, and families. It should be easy to use and offer a complementary education for children with difficulties. Learners of a foreign language need also to write by hand to understand the proper meaning of a language vocabulary [7, 10]. A recent experimental study with 19 Norwegian students of English showed that they all prefer to use the classical handwriting approach in mastering the language rather than using the computer keyboard and software [2]. Another study compared two groups of students who used the pen and paper approach (group A) with another group who used the laptop and keyboard approach (group B) to take notes in a University setting. The results showed that group A performed much better in learning new concepts in laboratory and classrooms [1]. Therefore, using a pen in writing is extremely important for vocabulary acquisition. The MOALEM platform is proposed to develop and evaluate theoretical foundations and practical methods for combining haptic, audio, and visual media to create a multimodal solution to help children with learning difficulties improve their learning outcomes [3, 13, 14]. Software algorithms are developed to automatically mine text, extract keywords and concepts (i.e., objects, events, and characters), and dynamically generate multimedia contents (i.e., pairing text with images and scenes generation) that can visualize these concepts in simplified manners. Children can then experience these multimodal, personalized contents to improve their learning abilities and strengthen their understanding of vocabulary. Morphological analysis and ontology techniques are deployed as tools to enable dynamic composition of multimodal tutorials and interactivities [1]. The ontology is used to group all concepts of a domain of discourse in a semantical manner (e.g., WorldNet). Furthermore, MOALEM exploits a haptic-based device to improve children handwriting skills by physically guiding their hand along a desired trajectory showed on a tablet (or in a virtual space) and on a computer screen to complete a handwriting task. We made the process of writing relatively slow so that the learners can concentrate more on the writing process, use their memory, and connect their senses. Finally, a virtual talking face called ‘Badr’, is developed for oral training and communication. Learners can listen to and watch Badr speaking in order to learn correct pronunciation of vocabulary and improve social/emotional interpersonal communication skills. Badr is enhanced with synchronization algorithms for natural pronunciation. It acts as a tutor to interact with the learners and answer their questions. The following Fig. 1 shows the architecture of the talking face Badr.

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Fig. 1. The talking Face Badr.

In this paper, we evaluate ALKAHTIB component of MOALEM platform with none-Arabic speakers and assess their abilities of writing simple Arabic letters. Initially, we planned to evaluate the haptic device with children of different challenges. We set a complete schedule with different schools in Doha, Qatar and made all arrangements to start on April 3, 2021. However, the government sets new strict measures on the presence of children in schools’ premises and opted for distance education until the end of the academic year. Therefore, we decided to test the haptic device with adults’ learners. We have also tested the device with the children of the research team participating in this project. The results will be discussed in a future paper. The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the related work in hapticbased guidance. Section 3 presents an overview of the MOALEM learning platform. In Sect. 4, the haptic guidance study is presented, including the experimental setup, procedure, results, and discussions. Finally, Sect. 5 concludes the paper and presents perspectives for future work.

2 Related Works Haptic devices can help children with writing difficulty to improve their writing skills and their learning of vocabularies [12]. They can use these customizable devices enhanced with intelligent control algorithms, a pen, and sensors to guide them in their writing trajectories of letters and words. The technological solution should be affordable and efficient so families of these children can acquire it [12]. Different categories of learners can use the haptic device to improve their learnings, like for instance learners with disability after a stroke, learner of a foreign language i.e., Arabic [3], Chinese [15], Japanese [11], and Persian [6]. Eventhough software have been developed to learn writing, however, they reply mainly on the computer keyboard or a free pen without any motor skill guidance. Therefore, the writing approach with a pen-like based device and guidance is highly important for different categories of learners [1]. The device showed to be able to rectify the hand of the learners whenever needed. It helps them improve their focus and use different senses and movement in the learning process. In addition, once they practice the writing of letters, they will be engraved in their memory and may last for a long time especially when doing several errors and get rectified accordingly. In this paper, we propose a haptic device enhanced with a pen-like element to teach learners the Arabic vocabulary. The device is controlled automatically through learning algorithms. Two haptic guidance methods are used: (1) a full guidance method to assist

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the letter in every step and (2) a partial guidance method to give some hints during the writing process [12]. Both methods have proven their effectiveness in writing Arabic letters. The learners can see the character to write on a computer screen along with their formation during the writing process. We can display images of objects with names starting with that letter or including it. The learner can engage their eyes, memory, and motor skills.

3 MOALEM Platform A detailed description of the MOAELM platform can be found in our previous work [1]. The architecture for MOALEM platform is shown in Fig. 2 below.

Fig. 2. MOALEM platform general architecture.

MOALEM is a novel platform to improve the learning of the Arabic language, both for typical children as well as for children with learning difficulties and none-Arabic speaking people. MOALEM addresses all aspects related to learning a language, from reading and comprehension to listening and writing. The platform is meant to be an additional yet effective resource that can assist learners, rather than replacing teachers. Particularly, it helps instructors create personalized contents that match individual learner’s needs and skills. Functionally, there are three main components for MOALEM platform: (1) dynamic multimedia composition, (2) haptic-based handwriting component, and (3) speech synthesis component. In addition, a new learning app is added recently to the platform for remote access [2]. It allows children to take a snapshot of an object, recognise it, and label it with 5 different Arabic names along with their definitions and proper pronunciation.

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Dynamic Multimedia Composition

This component mines Arabic text in order to dynamically and automatically generate multimedia-based tutorials. The instructor can change the content of the tutorial at any time during the learning sessions. A core multi-domain ontology exploiting state-ofthe-art natural language processing technologies such as morphological concerning their assistance performance in handwriting learning. The current implementation of this component is focused on the Arabic language. An educational ontological model that classifies the terms, their synonyms and representing multimedia elements, thus forming a multimodal Arabic corpus, is developed [4]. The concepts of the ontology are conceptually linked. This provides teachers with the ability to query the ontology with semantic questions and return multimedia-based responses (i.e., images and scenes). Additional multimedia contents are retrieved based on common search engines (i.e., Google or Yahoo) to provide alternative media to explain the text. As the results of these search engines are always incorrect or not related to the instructors’ queries, we have developed a parallel corpus that groups keywords with different representative images so that the instructor can search for learning materials within this corpus [4]. The current study presents a psychophysical experiment to evaluate two haptic guidance methods for improving learning outcomes. 3.2

ALKATIB: The Haptic Handwriting Component

ALKHATIB component in MOALEM platform consists of a haptic device with control algorithms and pen to improve the handwriting skills of learners. In addition, sensors are added to measure the force of the writer on the pen. Several versions of ALKHATIB have been developed and improved incrementally based on the learners’ feedback. The initial version consists of several sub-components including a parallel corpus grouping vocabularies and images; a haptic device with a pen-like to imitate the natural writing; a talking face Badr that pronounce properly the Arabic vocabularies; a visual window to display images with the associated letters. Snapshots of the ALKATIB settings are shown in Fig. 3 below.

Fig. 3. The haptic device ALKATIB set up with the learners.

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The learners can select the letter or a complete vocabulary to learn how to write it. They can also display the corresponding images incrementally with names starting with that letter or simply containing it. For instance, if the learner would like to write the letter “‫( ”ﻝ‬laam in Arabic) the system can display the images of a citron (laymoon ‫ ﻟﻴﻤﻮﻥ‬- ‫)ﻝ‬, and the other images having this letter in their names like the word mountain (Jabal ‫ ﻝ‬- ‫)ﺟﺒﻞ‬ and the word teacher (MOALEM ‫ )ﻣﻌﻠﻢ‬with their representative images as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. The letter laam with representative images containing it (citron, mountain, teacher).

In fact, mastering handwriting requires using different modalities concurrently including visualization, hearing, memorization and writing experience. We built a parallel corpus that contains thousands of words with their representative images as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. MOALEM parallel corpus architecture.

The corpus has been constructed by several algorithms to match keywords and concepts extracted from Arabic text with best representative images retrieved from search engines (i.e., Google). All the contents have been validated by the instructors to be used in education. The system displays the letters in different dotted shapes as shown in Fig. 6.

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Fig. 6. Arabic words with their initial letters (‫ﻋﻘﺮﺏ‬،‫ﺩﻭﺩﺓ‬،‫ﺃﺳﺪ‬،‫ﻧﺤﻠﺔ‬،‫)ﺑﻄﺔ‬.

The learner starts her/his writing, and the system records it. All the attempts are stored in a database so that we can review them one by one for evaluation and scoring.

4 Guidance and Evaluation The objective of this study is to validate the effectiveness of partial and full haptic guidance methods to be adopted by MOALEM platform to learn Arabic vocabulary. 4.1

Haptic Guidance Methods

Haptic guidance involves providing learners with a special device to improve his/her skills through active movement. Two methods of haptic guidance are considered: full guidance FG, and partial guidance PG. The FG is whenever the haptic device is performing the complete writing process and the learner passively follows the dotted trajectory of letters and words. She/he must hold the device attached pen, relax her/his hand, and let the pen perform the writing. The learner can see the construction of the letter (or word) directly on the computer screen. She/he can repeat the process several times. The PG allows the learner to perform the writing task with some assistance. It adjusts her/his hand whenever there is a deviation from the reference letter trajectory. The deviation can be moderate or significant. An intelligent algorithm is developed to trigger a corrective action so that the device rectifies the position of the pen and put it on the right track of the reference letter trajectory. The learner can move from one method to another on her own and select the most suitable method to learn. 4.2

Experimental Protocol and Setup

The experimental setup consists of a customizable Novint Falcon haptic device [8] with a pen-like component, a guidance algorithm, and a visual screen to display the letter, and images as shown in Fig. 7.

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Fig. 7. The different version of the Novint Falcon haptic device.

We selected 22 persons, male and female of 18–45 years old with no prior knowledge in writing Arabic letters. The participants are western people living in UAE and working there. We explained to them, the objective of this study to enhance the writing of Arabic letter and the whole setup. We trained them for 30 min on the usage of the haptic device with the pen and asked them to write anything they like in their own language (e.g., English) or draw any shape they desire. We gave them a sheet of paper containing the three letters Jiim (‫)ﺝ‬, Kaaf (‫)ﻙ‬, and Tah (‫ )ﻁ‬as shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. The Arabic letter: Jiim (left), Kaaf (middle), Tah (right).

We then trained them on using the haptic device pen on the same letter. Every participant was given the device for few minutes to manipulate it. We split them into two groups (A and B) of equal sizes. Group A uses the full guidance method while group B uses the partial guidance method. We conducted the experiments over two consecutive days. All the participants are asked to write the three letters for 9 times, and we recorded their writing. We displayed also the following images shown in Fig. 9. A light music was playing in the background. The learner can click on the animation button, and new images will replace the current ones fetched from our parallel corpus.

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Fig. 9. The three Arabic letters with images names starting with them.

Every participant completing the experiment with the haptic device pen, was given a sheet of paper with the three letters to write them by a pencil. We collected the whole results and evaluated them using a Likert scale form [0..10]. A score of 0 is assigned whenever the written letter does not match with the reference letter; while a score of 10 is given whenever there is a full concordance with the reference letter. A team of three Arabic speaking researchers participated in the evaluation process. 4.3

Results and Discussions

All the participants got an average score below five initially and this average was improved in the second days sessions. Most of the participants were able to write the letters with a quality included between 50% to 60%. Therefore, the proposed device shows clearly that an incremental improvement can be obtained over additional training sessions. The two methods FG and PG acted similarly on the participants. No significant improvement of one group to another. May be this is due to the short period of the training period and the writing of only single letters rather than writing complete words. The participants expressed their high interest to use the haptic device in writing. They found the experience very promising in improving their writing of Arabic letters. More testing experiences should then be conducted and for a longer period.

5 Conclusion We have proposed a haptic device to be used for writing Arabic letter with two guidance methods, as part of a language learning platform MOALEM. Results demonstrated that the two methods are highly effective to learn how to write Arabic letters. The participants gave very good feedback on their experience with the proposed device. More testing experiences should then be conducted and for a longer period. We need to ask the learner to write letters separately and form words with these letters by displaying the images of objects, their names, and their letters. The learner should perform more learning sessions at home. Our future work consists of evaluating the device with children in elementary schools and special needs centers. In fact, most of

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children with learning difficulties do not have special device to use to facilitate their writing style. In addition, the proposed device is of low-cost and can be purchased my schools and families to assist these children. Acknowledgement. This work was made possible by NPRP grant #10–0205-170346 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the authors.

References 1. Alja’am, J.M., Saleh, M., Massaro, D., Eid, M.: MOALEM: an assistive platform for children with difficulties in reading and writing Arabic. In: Alja’am, J.M., El Saddik, A., Sadka, A.H. (eds.) Recent Trends in Computer Applications, pp. 251–266. Springer, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89914-5_15 2. Ali, Z., Saleh, M., Massaro, D., Al-Maadeed, S., Alja’am. J.M.: Understand my world: an interactive app for children learning Arabic vocabulary. In: IEEE EDUCON 2021, Austria, Vienna, 20–23 April 2021 3. Al-Maadeed, S., Khalifa, B.M.S., Saleh, M., Zakraoui, J., Alja’am, J.M., Abou El-Seoud, M. S.: A Concept Extraction System with Rich Multimedia Learning Resources for Children. In: Auer, M.E., Centea, D. (eds.) ICBL 2020. AISC, vol. 1314, pp. 503–511. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67209-6_54 4. Al-Maadeed, S., Khalifa, B., Alja’am, J.M., Abou Elsaoud, S.: MoalemCorpus: A largescale Arabic multimedia corpus for children education. In: IEEE EDUCON 2021, Austria, Vienna, 20–23 April 2021, pp. 1–6 (2021) 5. Bayart, B., Pocheville, A., Kheddar, A.: An Adaptive haptic guidance software module for itouch: example through a handwriting teaching simulation and a 3D maze, In: IEEE International Workshop on Haptic Audio-Visual Environments and their Applications, p. 6 (2005) 6. Boroujeni, M.M., Meghdari, A.: Haptic device application in Persian calligraphy. In: IEEE International Conference on Computer and Automation Engineering, pp. 160–164 (2009) 7. Lund, R.E.: Handwriting as a tool for learning in ELT. ELT J. 70(1), 48–56 (2016). https:// doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccv048 8. Martin, S., Hillier, N.: Characterisation of the Novint falcon haptic device for application as a robot manipulator. In: Australasian Conference on Robotics and Automation (ACRA). Citeseer, pp. 291–292 (2009) 9. McArthur, G., Castles, A.: Helping children with reading difficulties: some things we have learned so far. NPJ Sci. Learn 2, 7 (2017) 10. Mueller, P., Oppenheimer, D.M.: The pen is mightier than the keyboard: advantages of longhand over laptop note taking. In: Psychological Science 25/6, pp. 1159–68 (2014) 11. Nishino, H., Murayama, K., Kagawa, T., Utsumiya, K.: A Japanese calligraphy trainer based on skill acquisition through haptization, In: 24th IEEE Int. Conf. on Advanced Information Networking and Applications, pp. 1225–1232 (2010) 12. Teranishi, A., Mulumba, T., Karafotias, G., Alja’am, J.M., Eid, M.: Effects of full/partial haptic guidance on handwriting skills development. In: IEEE World Haptics 2017, Munich, Germany (2017)

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13. Saleh, M., Alja’am, J.M.: Designing an educational multimedia system for supporting learning difficulties in Arabic. In: Arai, K., Bhatia, R., Kapoor, S. (eds.) CompCom 2019. AISC, vol. 998, pp. 1117–1128. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03022868-2_74 14. Saleh, M., Aljaam, J.: Towards adaptive multimedia system for assisting children with Arabic learning difficulties. In: The 2019 IEEE Jordan International Joint Conference on Electrical Engineering and Information Technology (JEEIT), pp. 678–683 (2019) 15. Xiong, M., Milleville-Pennel, I., Dumas, C., Palluel-Germain, R.: Comparing haptic and visual training method of learning Chinese handwriting with a haptic guidance. J. Comput. 8, 1815–1820 (2013)

Examining Accesses to Educational Resources in a Blended Learning Flipped Classroom Controls Course in 2020 Ana M. B. Pavani(&) Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 22451-900, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. The Controls and Servomechanisms course is mandatory for students in two Enginering curricula - Control & Automation and Electrical. In 2020, it was supposed to be offered in the Blended Learning (b-learning) and flipped classroom mode as it had been in the past. Many courses in the two curricula use this mode. Due to the pandemic, the university switched to totally remote activities and, for this reason, the synchronous sessions had to be held using a videotelephony solution. This meant that online courseware became more important and its usage was an indicator of the participation of students. The same happened with discussion forums since instructors and students had to use them to communicate in off class hours. This work addresses the use of both courseware and discussion forums in 2020, and relates this use to the grades of students. All data are collected from the platform used to support the course. Data are presented as percentages, averages and histograms. Keywords: Accesses to Educational Resources classroom


Blended Learning
Flipped

1 Introduction This work presents results of the use of Blended Learning (b-learning) [1] associated Flipped Classrom in an undergraduate Controls and Servomechanisms course in 2020. The course had special characteristics because it had already been taught in this mode for four semesters before going back to the traditional face-to-face mode. After seven semesters in the traditional mode, it was scheduled to return to b-learning with flipped classroom in 2020. This yielded a comfortable situation when the University decided to go completely remote in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The number of synchronous activities was already reduced, courseware in digital formats (online and offline) was abundant and the infrastructure to host both was ready. This work has two objectives. The first one is to address tha usage of the different types of Educational Resources (ER) by the students in the classes that were taught in the first and second semesters of 2020; this means during the pandemic. The types of ERs are: texts, videos, interactive objects (hypermedia, simulators, online exercises), © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 939–950, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_91

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software and discussion forums. Forums were included as resources because they yield a space where problems can be discussed and results can be posted and made available to all students. In this analysis, the preferences – digital instances of conventional learning resources (texts and videos) as compared to online interactive materials – are identified. The second objective is to examine accesses to contents (in numbers), participation in the discussion forums and grades at the end of the term. All data are statistical – percentages, averages and histograms. B-learning is used following the definition given in Table 1. Table 1. Prototypical course classifications – page 5 of Allen and Seaman [1]. Proportion of Content Delivered Online 0% 1–29% 30–79% 80+%

Type of Course Typical Description Traditional Web facilitated Blended/Hybrid Online

(1) (2) (3) (4)

(1) Course with no online technology used – content is delivered in writing or orally. (2) Course that uses web-based technology to facilitate what is essentially a face-toface course. May use a course management system (CMS) or web pages to post the syllabus and assignments. (3) Course that blends online and face-to-face delivery. Substantial proportion of the content is delivered online, typically uses online discussions, and typically has a reduced number of face-to-face meetings. (4) A course where most or all of the content is delivered online. Typically has no face-to-face meetings Flipped classroom is defined at The Univeristy of Texas at Austin Faculty Innovation Center (https://facultyinnovate.utexas.edu/instructional-strategies/flipped-classroom) as: “A flipped class is one that inverts the typical cycle of content acquisition and application so that: • Students gain necessary knowledge before class, and • Instructors guide students to actively and interactively clarify and apply that knowledge during class.” In this work, b-learning and flipped classroom mode will be referred as b-learning implying flipped classroom is used too. The time frame of the analysis is 2020.1 and 2020.2, respectively, the first and the second semesters of the school year 2020. This work has 3 sections besides this Introduction. Section 2 presents the context at the University. Section 3 addresses accesses to Educational Resources (ER), participation in discussion forums and grades. Section 4 comments on the results.

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2 The Context 2.1

The University and ICT Enhanced Learning in Engineering

Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio) is a small confessional university located in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It offers undergraduate, graduate and extension courses, and is very active in research. Beginning in August 1995, faculty in Electrical Engineering started using ICT – Information and Communicaion Technology tools to enhance learning and teaching. The platform to support it, Sistema Maxwell (https://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br), was created then. It is important to remember that 26 years ago IT was a lot more limited and the speed of the Internet much lower. This was no doubt a limitation but at the same time if offered a huge space for growth and enhancement. As time went by, the evolution showed good results. Some to be mentioned are: (1) the number of instructors grew, though not at the rate that was desired – there still is a lot of resistance, a topic to be adressed later on; (2) IT tools changed at an astonishing rate; (3) the speed of the Internet kept in pace with IT tools; and (4) the international scenario changed a lot and could be used as a showcase to bring faculty to the group. The main results of the actions taken by the group can be summarized in: (1) development of courseware both in Open Access and restricted; (2) evolution of Sistema Maxwell to become a completely integrated platform [2, 3] hosting an IR – Institutional Repository [4], an LMS – Learning Management System [5] and Remote Labs [6]; (3) adoption of Remote Labs – Visir [7] in 2016 and a cargo elevator in 2021; (4) deployment of the aggregator Open Educational Resources @PUC-Rio (https:// www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/projetosEspeciais/OER/index.php) to offer OER – Open Educational Resources created at the University; (5) adoption of b-learning and flipped classroom in some core courses of the curricula of Control & Automation and Electrical Engineering in the first semester of 2014 [8, 9] – when faculty change, the learning/teaching mode may be discontinued since there is not an institutional policy, this is a topic to be addressed later on too; and (6) easy migration from the b-learning with synchronous sessions in brick and mortar classrooms to b-learning in which the synchronous sessions are held via Zoom (https://zoom.us). 2.2

The Controls and Servomechanisms Course

The Controls and Servomechanisms course is mandatory in two Engineering Curricula: Control & Automation and Electrical. It is a 6 credit course that is simultaneously taken along a 2 credit Traditional Lab course. The prerequisites to both are Linear Algebra II and Signals & Systems. The syllabus contains topics in both Classic and Modern Control, and Continuous Time as well as Discrete Time Systems. The course is offered every term and the average number of students is between 20 and 30. It started being taught in the b-learning mode in the second semester of 2014. This mode was maintained during four semesters with two diferent instructors. In the second semester of 2016, a new instructor was admitted and returned to the traditional [7] mode. When this instructor left the university, the course returned to b-learning. It was

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March 2020, when the University switched to remote learning/teaching due to the pandemic. Since the return to b-learning had been decided in 2019, it was planned to develop new online courseware to be added to the existing materials. In order to help students map the topics of the syllabus they have already accessed materials (and the ones lacking), a Knowledge Map (K-Map) [10] of the syllabus and supporting materials was implemented on the platform. K-Maps are extensions of Concept Maps (C-Maps) [11] and were used to allow materials to be added to Concepts. For students to be able to track their progress on topics and materials, a program was developed on the platform to allow students to check among the materials in each topic the ones already acessed. Figure 1 shows the map of test student “alunomaxwell” as of March 27, 2020. A link to Cmap Tools (cmap.ihmc.us/) was indicated so that students could draw their own maps; accesses to the link were tracked.

Fig. 1. A segment of the C-Map/K-Map of test student “alunomaxwell” shown along with Atividades (Activities) and Planejamento (Course Schedule) as of March 27, 2020.

Since 2020.1 the course has been taught in the b-learning mode. 2.3

The Courseware to Support the Controls and Servomechanisms Course

The development of courseware began in August 1995. Due to technological limitations, courseware was very simple – html files with images and short animations. The speed of the Internet was low so video was not used. As time went by, the evolution of ICT allowed the enhacement of the materials. A second important factor was the international context that was under constant evolution. One example is MERLOT – Multimedia Resources for Learning and Online Teaching (https://www.merlot.org) that started in 1997 and currently offers over 94K materials. Another example is the introduction of MOOC – Massive Open Online Courseware in 2007, as presented by Prof. S.L. Mora of Universidad de Alicante in the vídeo Breve (Muy Breve) Historia de los MOOCs (http://desarrolloweb.dlsi.ua.es/moocs/brief-history-moocs).

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Since 1995, courseware has been developed at PUC-Rio. Faculty involved in the activity are from Control & Automation and Eletrical Engineering, for this reason most courseware addresses topics in these areas. Materials used in the Controls and Servomechanisms course are divided in the following groups: • Hypermedia Resources and Software: • Course Guide – a large hypermedia file that outlines the topics of the syllabus presenting definitions, suggesting activities, linking to online courseware both on the Maxwell Platform and on other sites (when in Open Access) and containing 23 vídeos. It is divided in sections that address all the topics of the syllabus. The Course Guide is restricted. It is currently in version 3. • Online Learning Objects (LOs) – courseware that must be used online and that can be hypermedia interactive objects or simulators. In both cases, each object offers a theoretical presentation of the topic and animations, videos, quizzes, etc. The simulators have the same theoretical characteristics but run code developed using Scilab (https://www.scilab.org/) which was integrated to the Maxwell Platform in 2015. All LOs are in Open Access. The number of LOs increases each term because the team keeps developing them. An important fact about the LOs is that most of them have students (undergraduate or graduate) as authors or coauthors. • Software – the software is Cmap Tools whose link was made available and accesses to it were counted. • Texts – class notes and suggested problems (for individual study and for discussion and solution in the synchronous sessions). PDF files of the MS Power Point presentations used for the synchronous sessions are included. Texts are restricted. • Videos of the synchronous sessions and a video on Cmaps – the videos of the symchronous sessions (of the term) were made available as references. A video about Cmaps and how to use them was created for the course. Videos are restricted. The numbers of materials available in each term are shown in Table 2. Table 2. Numbers of materials by group in each term. Term Group Number 2020.1 Course guide 1 Texts 29 Learning objects and software 60 Videos 16 2020.2 Course guide 1 Texts 53 Learning objects and software 85 Videos 14

Besides courseware, the course uses discussion forums for students and faculty to communicate. The discussion forums are divided in topics according to the activities along the term.

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The numbers in Table 2 increased from the first term to the second due to two situations. The first was the development of more materials and the second was the identification of additional materials (already on the platform) that could enhance the course.

3 Accesses to Courseware, Participation in the Discussion Forums and Grades This section has three objetives. The first is to address the usage of learning materials by the students in each class. The second is to examine the participation in the discussion forums. The third is to relate both to the grades. Two dimensions of accesses were considered for the non forum resources: (1) the numbers different ERs accessed in each group; and (2) the numbers of accesses to each accessed ER. The platform offers logs for each student. Each was independently examined to count accesses and later on to relate to the forums and grades. The platform also offers reports of participation in the discussion forums. Results are presented as statistical data as already mentioned. The semesters under consideration are not typical since the ERs included the videos of the classes on the Zoom platform which had not happened to any of the b-learning offerings before the pandemic. The numbers of students were 19 (2020.1) and 21 (2020.2). 3.1

Accesses to Courseware

In order to generate data, a spreadsheet was created for each classs. Students were listed and results from the platform logs were written. Data on accesses to courseware, discussion forums and remote experiments are available to all instructors (for their classes) as functions of the system. In each spreadsheet there were two sets of columns: (1) accesses to different ERs in each group; and (2) numbers of accesses to the accessed ERs. In the first set data were computed as percentages and in the second as averages. Each set of columns contained columns for each group of ERs. In the second set of columns, average accesses to the Course Guide were computed separately since it was expected that students would access it at least once a week; this did not happen though. Figure 2 and 3 show the percentages of accessed resources in each of the three groups in the two semesters under consideration. In both, it is clear that texts had more accesses than the other two and that interactive coursware (LOs) were the least accessed. What would a possible interpretation be? Two aspects can be considered and they are not mutually exclusive: (1) texts are similar to the usual references students have used for many years; and (2) texts contain assignements, exercises, etc. If the students’ main goal is to pass the course, texts seem to be the default option. At the same time, videos are similar to traditional classes, specially the ones that are recordings of the synchronous sessions. In the b-learning flipped classroom mode, synchonous sessions are devoted to discussions and problem solving, so watching the video of a session does not “hit the target”, it does not allow participation and interaction.

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4

Texts Videos LOs

3 2 1 0

Fig. 2. Numbers of students per percentage of accessed resources in each of the three groups of ERs in 2020.1. There were 19 students in the class.

16 14 12 10 8 6

Texts Videos LOs

4 2 0

Fig. 3. Numbers of students per percentage of accessed resources in each of the three groups of ERs in 2020.2. There were 21 students in the class.

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When raw data are examined, interesting numbers are obtained: (1) the averages of the percentages of accesses considering all students and all resources were 24.85% in the first semester and 22.56% in the second; (2) the averages of percentages of accesses considering all students and only texts were 49.55% and 36.31%; and (3) the averages of percentages of accesses considering all students and only videos were 20.35% and 29.67%. When numbers for texts and videos are added, the results respectively are 69.90% and 65.98%. Figure 4 and 5 show the average numbers of accesses to accessed resources in each of the three groups and the Course Guide in the two semesters under consideration. The two computations aimed at examining how “wide” were the students interests, Fig. 2 and 3, and also how “deep” they were, Fig. 4 and 5. The Course Guide was implemented to suggest the order of topics to study, which materials support different topics and, most important, activities to perform in order to make sure concepts were understood and methods learned. The Course Schedules in all semesters assign topics of the Course Guide for each and every week. For these reasons, the author expected that accesses to the Course Guide should happen at least once a week. Considering that the length of the school semester is 15–16 weeks, this was the minimum number expected for the average accesses. This is not what happened. Figure 4 and 5 show that this number is not spread among all students. Some had higher numbers of accesses and the averages were 16.44 (one student never accessed and was disconsidered) and 8.68 (two students never accessed and were disconsidered); numbers are for 2020.1 and 2020.2, respectively. Besides the Course Guide low numbers of accesses, average accesses were low. When texts are considered this can be explained by the fact that students can download the texts to study offline. On the other hand, online interactive LOs must be used online and the numbers are quite low too. 25

20 Texts 15

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5

0 0 - 4.99 5 - 9.99

10 14.99

15 19.99

20 24.99

25 29.99

30 34.99

35 39.99

40 44.99

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Fig. 4. Numbers of students per average numbers of accesses to accessed resources in each of the three groups of ERs and Course Guide in 2020.1. There were 19 students in the class.

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Fig. 5. Numbers of students per average numbers of accesses to accessed resources in each of the three groups of ERs and Course Guide in 2020.2. There were 21 students in the class.

3.2

Participation in the Discussion Forums

Discussion forums are important components of the b-learning mode. They became more important when all activities were remote due to the pandemic. In the first semester, three discussion forums were used and in the second the number was four. This happened due to the need to split discussions/doubts on the assignemnts from discussions/doubts during classes. In order to be able to compare the two classes, all forums in each term were treated as one; all participations of each student were added. Figure 6 and 7 show the numbers of students by the numbers of participation in the forums.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 to 5

6 to 10

11 to 15

16 to 20

21 to 25

> 25

Fig. 6. Numbers of students by numbers of participations in the discussion forums in 2020.1. There were 19 students in the class.

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9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 to 5

6 to 10

11 to 15

16 to 20

21 to 25

> 25

Fig. 7. Numbers of students by numbers of participations in the discussion forums in 2020.2. There were 21 students in the class but one did not participate in the forums.

The histograms of Fig. 6 and 7 are quite different. Analysis of the raw data yielded interesting numbers: (1) the average numbers of participations were 22.74 in 2020.1 and 16.65 in 2020.2; and (2) all students in the first semester class participated while one in the second did not – this student was discarded when the average was computed. 3.3

Grades and Their Relations to Accesses to Educational Resources and Participation in Discussion Forums

The last step in data examination relates the final grades students had in the course to their accesses to ERs and their participation in the discussion forums. Since all data are presented in percentages, averages or histograms, this sections relates grades to accesses to ERs and to participation in the discussion forums the same way. Tables 3 and 4 show grade intervals, numbers of students in each one, averages of accesses and of participations in the forums by the students in each grade interval. PUC-Rio uses a grading system from 0.0 to 10.0 and the passing grade is 5.0.

Table 3. Grades, accesses to ERs and participation in the discussion forums in 2020.1. Grades 9.0–10.0 8.0–9.0 Fail

# of Students Average Accesses ERs Average Participation in Forums 9 213.44 31.44 7 154.00 15.57 3 112.67 13.33

It is curious that in 2020.1 16 out of 19 students (84.21%) got final grades between 8.0 and 10.0. This did not happen in 2020.2, as shown in Table 4.

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Table 4. Grades, accesses to ERs and participation in the discussion forums in 2020.2. Grades 9.0–10.0 8.0–9.0 7.0–8.0 6.0–7.0 5.0–6.0 Fail

# of Students Average accesses ERs Average participation in forums 2 103.50 07.50 7 113.86 24.57 5 104.60 15.40 5 90.40 10.40 1 33.00 06.00 1 23.00 11.00

Numbers in both tables seem to indicate that higher grades are associated to more participation – the exception is the first row of Table 4. More participation being associated to better results is not a surprise.

4 Final Comments The compilation of data and their crossreferencing (accesses to ERs, participation in discussion forums and grades) was somehow revealing of the profile of students participation using materials and interacting with peers and/or the instructor. A disappointing result of the compiled data is the low usage of the interactive online ERs. Since current students are very motivated to use software and websites in their everyday activities, it was an expectation that the numbers would be higher. Since the course had been taught in the traditional mode for seven semesters before 2020.1, there were not uptodate data to compare. In 2021.1, the course is being taught in the b-learning mode. New ERs have been added to the collection and to the list o recommended materials. When school is over in about a month, data will be compiled again to compare to the results shown in this work. The accesses to ERs have been computed in terms of percentages of the offered materials, so higher numbers do not change the analysis. A final comment relates to the resistance some faculty show in changing the learning/teaching mode and adding more interaction and participation by the students. This leads to the situation that new learning/teaching modes are discontinued when instructors change due to the fact that there is not an official recommendation on this matter. Since the pandemic forced deep changes, it is expected that some of them will permanentely be incorporated to the institutional culture.

References 1. Allen, I.E., Seaman, J.: Class differences: online education in the United States, 2010, The 8th Annual Report on the State of Online Learning in U.S. Higher Education, 2010, Babson Survey Research Group, March 2019. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED529952.pdf 2. Beltran Pavani, A.M., de Souza Barbosa, W., Calliari, F., de C Pereira, D.B., Palomo Lima, V.A., Pestana Cardoso, G.: Integration of an LMS, an IR and a Remote Lab. In: Auer, M.E., Zutin, D.G. (eds.) Online Engineering & Internet of Things. LNNS, vol. 22, pp. 957–972. Springer, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64352-6_90

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3. Temporão, G.P., Pavani, A.M.B.: The integration of NA institutional repository and a learning management system: a case Study. In: Chova, L.G, Martínez, A.L., Torres, I.C (eds.) Proceedings of International Technology, Education and Development Conference (IATED2019), Spain, pp. 3314–3320, IATED Academy, Spain (2019) 4. Lynch, C.: Institutional Repositories: an essential infrastructure for scholarship in the digital age. ARL Bimonthly Report, no. 226, USA, ARL (2003) 5. Wright, C.R., Lopes, V., Montgomery, T.C., Reju, S.A., Schmoller, S.: Selecting a Learning management system: advice from an academic perspective, EDUCAUSEReview, USA (2014). https://er.educause.edu/articles/2014/4/selecting-a-learning-management-system-advicefrom- an-academic-perspective 6. Heradio, R., Torre, L., Galan, D., Cabrerizo, F.J., Herrera-Viedma, E., Dormido, S.: Virtual and remote labs in education: a bibliometric analysis. Comput. Educ. 98, 14–38 (2016) 7. May, D., Reeves, B., Trudgen, M., Alweshah, A.: The remote laboratory VISIR – Introducing online laboratory equipment in Electrical Engineering classes. In: Proceedings of Frontiers in Education (FIE2020), Sweden, pp. 1–9. IEEE, USA (2020) 8. Pavani, A.M.B., Temporão, G.P.: From traditional to blended learning: a signal and systems course – first results. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning 2014 (ICL2014), UAE, pp. 1003–1011. IEEE, USA (2014) 9. Pavani, A.M.B., Barbosa, W.S.: In: Huba, M, Rossiter, A. (eds.) Proceedings of the 11th IFAC Symposium on Advances in Control Education 2016 (ACE2016), Slovakia, pp. 192– 202, Elsevier, Netherlands (2016) 10. Castles, R., Lohani, V.K., Kachroo, P.: Knowledge maps and their application to student and faculty assessment. In: Proceedings of the 38th ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE2008), United States, pp. S4A-9-S4A14. (2008) 11. Novak, J.D., Cañas, J.: The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them, Technical Report IHMC Cmap Tools 2006–1 Rev 01–2008, Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, United States, October 2019 (2008). cmap.ihmc. us/Publications/researchpapers/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf in

Designing Mobile App “Digital Professional Navigation” (DPN) for Self-determination of Schoolchildren and University Students on the Basis of a Multidisciplinary University Dmitrii V. Tikhonov1, Nikolay I. Snegirev2, Anna V. Rubtsova3, Tabolina V. Anastasiia3(&) , Natalia B. Smolskaia3, Nadezhda I. Almazova4, Marina V. Bolsunovskaya5, Cherkas Alina6, and Svetlana E. Chesnokova1 1

Institute of Industrial Management, Economics and Trade, Graduate School of Business and Management, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected] 2 Department of Vocational Guidance and Pre-University Training, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia 3 Institute of Humanities, Graduate School of Applied Linguistics, Translation and Interpreting, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia 4 Institute of Humanities, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia 5 Laboratory “Industrial Systems for Streaming Data Processing”, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected] 6 Research Laboratory “Systems of Data Streaming Processing”, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Saint Petersburg, Russia [email protected]

Abstract. The article dwells upon the experience of developing and implementing software tools for professional navigation and self-determination of schoolchildren and university students. There is an annual growing interest in various types of services, which allows expanding, systematizing and choosing the most relevant professions of the future, evaluating yourself in terms of both professional and soft skills. The effectiveness of the development of digital services and digital tutors in vocational guidance of young people is noted. The article substantiates the relevance of using mobile apps at the stage of the professional choice both at undergraduate and post-graduate levels. The article presents the designing model of the authors’ mobile app for vocational guidance “Digital professional navigation” (DPN) on the basis of a multidisciplinary university. The requirements for the functionality and structure of the mobile app used for the professional navigation of schoolchildren and university students are defined. A detailed description of the main structural blocks of the app is presented, which allow testing, evaluating, and choosing the trajectory of the professional self- determination.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2021, LNNS 389, pp. 951–959, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_92

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D. V. Tikhonov et al. Keywords: Self-determination
Vocational guidance apps
Schoolchildren
University students


Educational mobile

1 Context Vocational guidance is an urgent task for people of different ages (high school students, university students, young professionals), as well as various stakeholders (educational institutions, state and public organizations, business). At the same time, in recent years, the demand for vocational guidance has been growing due to the increasing flow of information, the emergence of new requirements for professions, the economic assessment of retraining of specialists, and other factors. Hence, there is a large number of services, methods, and tools aimed at solving problems in this area, including taking into account and using modern trends and technologies: gamification, individual educational trajectories, augmented reality, etc. It can also be noted that not only professional, but also soft skills are now being tested [2–5]. Tikhonov D. V. notes that about 3,000 people a year pass the vocational guidance test of Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University; it is aimed exclusively at schoolchildren and allows choosing future areas of study at the university and connect them with the professions of the future. At the same time, with passive promotion, only about 10 people a day pass the test, and with active promotion at the event the conversion rate is 25–30% of the number of participants [7]. If you look at the web analytics data, it becomes obvious that just a web service in the form of a test no longer satisfies this target audience: almost 60% of the traffic comes from mobile devices, and modern usability standards require not only the adaptation of the site to different devices, but also the development of a special mobile application [1]. Snegirev N. I. notes that the modern world is dominated by the environment of mobile applications (the number of mobile phone users is more than 120 million, the average time on the Internet via a smartphone is 3 h and 20 min a day). It is natural that in the segment of young people, the use of smartphones for solving various tasks (in school and in life) is even higher [6, 7]. Thus, designing mobile app “Digital Professional Navigation” (DPN) for selfdetermination of schoolchildren and university students on the basis of a multidisciplinary university becomes an urgent task of our research.

2 Purpose The purpose of the study is to determine the requirements for the functionality and structure of a mobile app used for the professional navigation of schoolchildren and university students. The research approach involves 2 main stages. At the first stage, modern research in the field of theoretical approaches and methods of the vocational guidance should be analyzed, including the description of the stages, tests used, as well as technologies and other solutions. The review of publications on the topic of mobile apps in the sphere of

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education in general and the professional self-determination in particular was carried out to identify the factors of applications comparison, the principles of their construction and the main requirements. The second stage involves conducting the experiment that includes: searching for existing applications; testing and classifying them; summarizing the results according to the selected parameters (interface and usability, ratings and reviews, functionality, monetization, etc.); drawing conclusions about gaps in applications. On the basis of two stages, the application requirements in the form of the description of its structure, functionality, and solutions should be developed.

3 Approach 3.1

Planning and Conducting the Research

To conduct the research, we searched the Internet resources, as well as Google Play and the AppStore. More than 20 applications were analyzed, and we excluded applications that did not meet the research objectives, namely: children’s games, beta versions, applications created for specific events, etc. The main sample included 8 applications: “Ticket to the future”, “SkillCity”, “Proftest”, “My Choice”, “Testometrika – the best tests”, “Dream Job. Personality test”, “Labor Summer”, “Rua. My profession”. We ranked the apps according to the following indicators: rating from the App Store and Google Play; number of downloads; place in the app rating; reusability; user engagement; expert evaluation of the functionality. In order to determine the number of downloads and the place in the app rating, the Sensor Tower and APPlyzer services were used. The main data are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Application characteristics Application name Ticket to the future SkillCity

Rating from Number of downloads (based Place in the application the App store on data for April 2021) rating (as of May 1, 2021) 4,2 (5 ratings)