Towards a Hybrid, Flexible and Socially Engaged Higher Education: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative ... (Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 900) 303152666X, 9783031526664

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Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 900

Michael E. Auer Uriel R. Cukierman Eduardo Vendrell Vidal Edmundo Tovar Caro   Editors

Towards a Hybrid, Flexible and Socially Engaged Higher Education Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL2023), Volume 2

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems

900

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk , Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of Campinas— UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Türkiye Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNNS. Volumes published in LNNS embrace all aspects and subfields of, as well as new challenges in, Networks and Systems. The series contains proceedings and edited volumes in systems and networks, spanning the areas of Cyber-Physical Systems, Autonomous Systems, Sensor Networks, Control Systems, Energy Systems, Automotive Systems, Biological Systems, Vehicular Networking and Connected Vehicles, Aerospace Systems, Automation, Manufacturing, Smart Grids, Nonlinear Systems, Power Systems, Robotics, Social Systems, Economic Systems and other. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the worldwide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid dissemination of research output. The series covers the theory, applications, and perspectives on the state of the art and future developments relevant to systems and networks, decision making, control, complex processes and related areas, as embedded in the fields of interdisciplinary and applied sciences, engineering, computer science, physics, economics, social, and life sciences, as well as the paradigms and methodologies behind them. Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, SCImago. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science. For proposals from Asia please contact Aninda Bose ([email protected]).

Michael E. Auer · Uriel R. Cukierman · Eduardo Vendrell Vidal · Edmundo Tovar Caro Editors

Towards a Hybrid, Flexible and Socially Engaged Higher Education Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL2023), Volume 2

Editors Michael E. Auer CTI Global Frankfurt, Germany Eduardo Vendrell Vidal DISA Technical University of Valencia Valencia, Spain

Uriel R. Cukierman UTN – FRBA Mozart, Argentina Edmundo Tovar Caro UPM, ETSII Madrid, Spain

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems ISBN 978-3-031-52666-4 ISBN 978-3-031-52667-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

ICL2023 was the 26th edition of the International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning and the 52nd edition of the IGIP International Conference on Engineering Pedagogy. This interdisciplinary conference aims to focus on the exchange of relevant trends and research results as well as the presentation of practical experiences in Interactive Collaborative Learning and Engineering Pedagogy. ICL2023 took place in Madrid, Spain, from 26 to 29 September 2023 and was supported by the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, InnovaHiEd Academy, the Spanish Conference of Directors and Deans of Informatics Engineering and the Universidad Tecnológica Nacional from Argentina. This year’s theme of the conference was “Towards a Hybrid, Flexible and Socially Engaged Higher Education”. Again, outstanding scientists from around the world accepted the invitation: Special Invited Guests • Jenna Carpenter, President American Society of Engineering Education - ASEE • David Guralnick, President International E-Learning Association - IELA Keynotes Xavier Fouger Senior Director, Global Academia Programs, Dassault Systèmes Khairiyah Mohd-Yusof Full professor in the School of Engineering Education, Purdue University, USA Carlos Delgado Kloos Rector’s Delegate on Digital Microcredentials, UC3M, Spain Antonio Recio Sanroman Head of Global Learning & Growth Partners, Siemens Miriam Reiner Director of the VR/AR and Neurocognition Lab at the Technion Institute, Israel The following very interesting workshops have been held: Workshop/Roundtable on accreditation Chair: Eduardo Vendrell Vidal, Universitat Politècnica de València Increasing User Engagement in Software Applications for Commercial or Research Purposes. Mohammad Hajarian and Paloma Diaz, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain

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Supporting Open Educational Resources Creation, Personalization, Implementation, and Sharing through the Graasp.org Learning Experience Platform and its Associated Open Digital Library Denis Gillet, EPFL, Switzerland and Michele Notari, University of Teacher Education, Bern, Switzerland and University of Hong Kong Addressing the Engineering Skills Gap: How can industry and educators work together to integrate emerging technologies into student and professional education? Chair: Kirsten Williamson, Petrus How to Create Virtual Machine-Templates in a Public and in a Private Cloud Environment Michael Dietz, Technische Hochschule Nürnberg, Germany The Engineering Classroom: Promoting and Illustrating New Types of Learning and Effective Use of Practical, Evidence-Based Strategies to Support Student Motivation and Academic Success. Genny Villa, Université de Montréal, Canada and Natalia Rosa Rodriguez Carinthia University of Applied Sciences (Austria) Low-Cost/High-Impact: Success Skills Students Will Actually Use Peter J. Shull, Penn State University, United States of America From Teaching in the Industrial Age to Teaching in the Digital and AI Age Chairs: Carlos Delgado Kloos and Carlos Alario, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid Hands-on workshop on developing complex problem-solving skills using ProblemBased Learning Prof. Dr. Syed Ahmad Helmi Syed Hassan and Dr. Khairiyah Mohd Yusof Open Badges and Micro-credentials: Recognizing Learnings in More Flexible Ways. Uriel Ruben Cukierman and Juan Maria Palmieri, UTN, Argentine Republic and Eric Rousselle, Open Badge Factory, Finland BreakThrough Communication: Interactive Experiential Learning in a Hybrid World Susan R. Glaser and Peter A. Glaser, Glaser & Associates, United States of America Teach Quantum Computing! Chairs: Jose Christen and Maninder Kaur, QURECA We would like to thank the organizers of the following Special Sessions: • Entrepreneurship in Engineering Education 2023 (EiEE’23) Chairs Jürgen Jantschgi, Higher College for Engineering Wolfsberg, Austria • AI in learning – a double face Janus (AiL’23) Chair Elena Bendíková, Faculty of Education CU, Ružomberok, Slovakia

Preface

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• Digital Education Strategy and Engineering Pedagogy (DESEP) Chair Roman Hrmo, DTI University Since its beginning, this conference has been devoted to new approaches in learning with a focus to collaborative learning and engineering education. We are currently witnessing a significant transformation in the development of education. There are at least three essential and challenging elements of this transformation process that have to be tackled in education: • the impact of globalization and digitalization on all areas of human life, and • the exponential acceleration of the developments in technology as well as of the global markets and the necessity of flexibility and agility in education • the new generation of students, who are always online and don’t know to live without Internet • the increasing interdependence between the different sectors of education (secondary and post-secondary education, vocational education) Therefore, the following main themes have been discussed in detail: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Collaborative Learning Mobility and Smart Cities New Learning Models and Applications Project-Based Learning Game-Based Education Educational Virtual Environments Computer-Aided Language Learning (CALL) Teaching Best Practices Engineering Pedagogy Education Public-Private Partnership and Entrepreneurship Education Research in Engineering Pedagogy Evaluation and Outcomes Assessment Internet of Things & Online Laboratories IT & Knowledge Management in Education Approaches of Online Teaching Virtual and Augmented Learning Mobile Learning Applications Connection between Universities and the Labour Market Further Education for Engineering Educators Educational Virtual Environments As submission types have been accepted:

• • • •

Full Paper, Short Paper Work in Progress Special Sessions Workshops, Tutorials

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Preface

All contributions were subject to a two-step double-blind review. The review process was very competitive. We had to review more than 500 submissions. A team of about 260 reviewers did this terrific job. Our special thanks goes to all of them. Due to the time and conference schedule restrictions, we could finally accept only the best 219 submissions for presentation. The conference had more than 279 registered participants from 55 countries. We thank Sebastian Schreiter for the technical editing of this proceedings. ICL2024 will be held in Tallinn, Estonia. Michael E. Auer ICL General Chair Edmundo Tovar Uriel Cukierman ICL2023 Co-chairs

Committees

General Chair Michael E. Auer

CTI, Frankfurt/Main, Germany

ICL2023 Conference Chairs Tiia Rüütmann Uriel Cukierman Edmundo Tovar

IGIP President, Tallinn Technical University, Estonia UTN Buenos Aires, Argentina Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), Spain

Honorary Advisors Guillermo Cisneros Pérez Stephanie Farell Xavier Fougier Hanno Hortsch Hans J. Hoyer Manuel Castro Javier Soriano

Rector, UPM, Spain IFEES President, USA Dassault Systèmes, France TU Dresden, Germany IFEES/GEDC General Secretary UNED, Spain President of the Spanish Council of Deans of Informatics Engineering - CODDI, Dean ETS de Ingenieros Informáticos, UPM

International Chairs Samir El-Seoud Xiao-Guang Yue Alexander Kist Alaa Ashmawy David Guralnick Guillermo Oliveto

The British University in Egypt (Africa) Wuhan, China (Asia) University of Southern Queensland (Australia/Oceania) American University Dubai (Middle East) Kaleidoscope Learning New York, USA (North America) Universidad Tecnologica Nacional Argentina (Latin America)

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Committees

Technical Program Chairs Eduardo Vendrell Sebastian Schreiter

Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV), Spain IAOE France

Workshop and Tutorial Chair Valerie Varney

University of Applied Sciences Cologne, Germany

Special Sessions Chair Alexander Kist

University of Southern Queensland, Australia

Publication Chair Sebastian Schreiter

IAOE France

Award Chair Eduardo Vendrell

Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV), Spain

Senior Program Committee Members Eleonore Lickl Andreas Pester Wolfgang Pachatz Tatiana Polyakova Herwig Rehatschek Cornel Samoila Thrasyvoulos Tsiatsos Doru Ursutiu Axel Zafoschnig

IGIP Vienna, Austria The British University in Egypt Ministry of Education Austria Moscow State Technical University, Russia Medical University Graz, Austria Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania Aristotle University Thessaloniki, Greece University of Brasov, Romania IGIP, Austria

Committees

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Program Committee Members Abdallah Al-Zoubi, Jordan Santi Caballé, Spain Alberto Cardoso, Portugal Dan Centea, Canada Ralph Dreher, Germany Martin Ebner, Austria Christian Guetl, Austria Hants Kipper, Estonia Oleksandr Kupriyanov, Ukraine Despo Ktoridou, Cyprus Jorge Membrillo-Hernández, Mexico Jürgen Mottok, Germany Stavros Nikou, UK Stamatios Papadakis, Greece Rauno Pirinen, Finland Neelakshi Chandrasena Premawardhena, Sri Lanka Teresa Restivo, Portugal Istvan Simonics, Hungary Ivana Simonova, Czech Republic Alexander Soloviev, Russia Matthias Utesch, Germany James Wolfer, USA

Local Organizing Committee Alejandro Leo Ramirez Antonio Molina Marco Xavier Molero Prieto Bernardo Tabuenca Archilla Manuel Uche Soria

Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, UPM Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV), Spain Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV), Spain Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, UPM Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, UPM

Contents

Educational Virtual Environments Introducing Augmented Reality at Secondary Colleges – A Student’s View . . . . Lisa Maresch, Jakob Kindl, Markus Exler, and Andreas Probst

3

A Use Cases Driven Design of a Virtual Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Herwig Rehatschek, Niels Hammer, and Tanja Schrangl

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Peculiarities of ADDIE Implementation When Teaching Engineering Students Professional Foreign Language Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roza Baltabaevna Mambetova and Elena Yurievna Semushina

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Gamification Influences on Students’ Motivation in the EFL Classroom . . . . . . . Ruth Infante-Paredes, Carlos Mayorga-Gaona, Cesar-A. Guerrero-Velástegui, and Daniel Morocho-Lara

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Gamification as an Essential Factor for Developing Management Skills . . . . . . . Cesar-A. Guerrero-Velástegui, Pamela Silva-Arcos, Ruth Infante-Paredes, and Leonardo Ballesteros-López

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The Formation of a Virtual Educational Environment as an Element in the System of Improving the Digital Competences of Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . Halyna Sazhko, Olesia Nechuiviter, Anastasiia Kovalchuk, and Lina Fatieieva Approaches to Foreign Language Teaching of Future Engineer-Teachers in the Context of Digitalization and Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sergii Trokhymchuk, Olena Bryntseva, and Maryna Pasichnyk

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Controlling Active Learning Through the Enhanced Learning Dyad . . . . . . . . . . . Amalia-Hajnal Isoc, Teodora Surubaru, and Dorin Isoc

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Applying UX Methodologies for Improving Moodle Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uriel Cukierman and Jessica Cukierman

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Bloom’s Taxonomy and Online Learning: The COVID-19 Scenario in Indian Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rita Karmakar and Sukanta Kumar Naskar

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Contents

IoT Cybersecurity Virtual Laboratory Based on MQTT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Santiago R. Urbano, Gabriel Diaz, and Sergio Martín

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A Holistic View of Using Real and Virtual Models in Teaching Astronomy Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Charilaos Tsihouridis, Nikolaos Mitrakas, Marianthi Batsila, and Dennis Vavougios A Study of Virtual Reality Applied to Welder Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Manuel Couto, Marcelo R. Petry, and Manuel F. Silva Usability Verification of Virtual-Reality Simulators for Maritime Education and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Baiheng Wu, Arnfinn Oksavik, Romeo Bosneagu, Ottar Osen, Houxiang Zhang, and Guoyuan Li A Study on Enhancing Education Quality in E-Learning: Examining the Triad of Students, Educators, and the E-Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Kaoutar Boumalek, Ali El mezouary, and Brahim Hmedna Work in Progress: Expanding Learning Opportunities in STEM Courses: The Potential of Haptic VR Laboratories for Students with and Without Visual Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Nils Kaufhold and Jan Steinert Future of Education Using Telepresence Robots for ICT Consultancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Janika Leoste, Jaanus Pöial, Martin Rebane, Kristel Marmor, and Kalle Tammemäe Competence-Oriented Qualification in Digital Community Management . . . . . . . 169 Anna Leichsenring and Alexander Clauss COACH_ING Educational Model: Train to Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Viviana Callea, Apollonia Matrisciano, Mihai Ursache, Roberta Tempone, and Isabella Chiarotto Peace Engineering Minor: Actionable Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Ramiro Jordan, Eric Hamke, Mohammad Yousuf, and Donna Koechner A Digital Twin of a Remote Real-Time Accessible Labs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Ibrahim Badawy, A. M. Bassiuny, Rania Darwish, and A. S. Tolba

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Are ChatGPT-Like Applications Harmful for the Learning Process? . . . . . . . . . . 213 Romeo Marin Marian, Teodora Surubaru, and Dorin Isoc A Long-Term Impact on Attitudes Towards Science After Five Years of a STEM Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Elena Elliniadou and Chryssa Sofianopoulou Future Skills in Software Engineering and Health Care – Similar but Different . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Yvonne Sedelmaier and Dieter Landes Challenges of Technical Training and Technical Teacher Training in Africa . . . . 250 Ibolya Tomory The Implications of Artificial Intelligence in Online Education: A Critical Examination in the Context of Philosophy and Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Johanna Marietjie Nel The Scarcity and Competence Gaps of Teaching Logistics in Top European Business Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Tarvo Niine, Merle Küttim, Rasmus Nuus, and Tarmo Tuisk Future of Education on Pre-university Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Rita Bezerra, Beatriz Lacerda, Dalila Durães, and Paulo Novais Project Based Learning Unit Operations Engineering Design: Extraction and Distillation Columns . . . . . 293 Karen Silva Vargas, Marc Lavarde, Mohamed Fadhel Ben Aissa, Sandra Kirollos, and Rabah Azouani The Point for the Practice – Criteria Based Competence Measurement Method Comet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Ralph Dreher and Gesine Haseloff Teaching Electricity Topics with Project-Based Learning and Physical Computing to Enhance Primary School Students in Science Education. An Educational Experiment with BBC Micro:bit Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Stamatios Papadakis, Effransia Tzagkaraki, and Michail Kalogiannakis Evolution of Technical Projects with Social Commitment in Degrees of Industrial Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Alpha Pernia-Espinoza, Andres Sanz-Garcia, F. Javier Martinez-de-Pison-Ascacibar, Fermin Navaridas-Nalda, and Julio Blanco-Fernandez

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Applying a Level Assessment System in Group Project-Based Learning for Teachers of Engineering Disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Svetlana Karstina Preparing Master’s Degree Students for Doctoral Studies - A Lecturer’s Perspective: Results of a Case Study of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) . . . . . . . 355 Nele Nutt, Katrin Karu, and Jane Raamets Rethinking Research Methodology in DL Computational Design and Digital Fabrication: A Case Study of the Challenges and Opportunities of Project-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 T. L. Sophocleous and M. Georgiou Bring Your Own Device - Enabling Student-Centric Learning in Engineering Education by Incorporating Smartphone-Based Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Julia Maria Engelbrecht, Albrecht Michler, Paul Schwarzbach, and Oliver Michler Digital Education Strategy and Engineering Pedagogy Elimination of Pain by Enhancing Body Posture in Schoolgirls During Physical and Sports Education Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Elena Bendíková, Laurentiu-Gabriel Talaghir, and Cristian Mihail Rus Priority Strategic Areas for Further Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 István Sz˝oköl, Beáta Dobay, and Elena Bendíková Student Academic Cheating at Technical University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 Dana Dobrovská and David Vanˇecˇ ek Applying STEM Strategies in the Context of Primary Education in Slovakia . . . 421 Peter Breˇcka and Valentová Monika Possibilities of the Use of Artificial Intelligence and 3D Technologies in Automotive Repairmen Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 Alena Hašková, Dominik Zatkalík, and Martin Zatkalík Recommendation System for Personalized Contextual Pedagogical Resources Based on Learning Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Khalid Benabbes, Khalid Housni, Ahmed Zellou, Brahim Hmedna, and Ali El Mezouary

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“Hybrid Work Provides the Best of both Worlds” Software Engineering Students’ Perception of Group Work in Different Work Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Sofia Ouhbi and Nuno Pombo Material Didactic Resources in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 István Sz˝oköl, Daniel Kuˇcerka, and Lucia Krištofiaková Identifying the Learning Needs of Class Teachers in Primary and Secondary Schools in the Slovak Republic: Results of a Pilot Research . . . . 479 Ján Záhorec, Adriana Poliaková, and Vladimíra Zemanˇcíková Adults’ Readiness to Embrace 4th Industrial Revolution Emerging Technologies in the South African Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Ntima Mabanza Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

Educational Virtual Environments

Introducing Augmented Reality at Secondary Colleges – A Student’s View Lisa Maresch, Jakob Kindl, Markus Exler, and Andreas Probst(B) Department of Mechatronics, HTL Linz - Linzer Technikum, Paul-Hahn-Str.4, 4020 Linz, Austria [email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of this research study is to assess the possibilities of augmented reality (AR) technologies at secondary technical colleges. The main focus is the evaluation of students thoughts and willingness to implement AR into their education process. Evaluation was done with a pre- and post-activity survey. In between those surveys, the students were given a short introduction about AR and afterwards explored AR by themselves by creating an experience, which included creating and publishing an AR project. The seven assumptions made were all supported by the survey results. The survey was conducted and analyzed by students. Keywords: Augmented Reality · Mixed Reality · Engineering Education · Student Survey

1 Education of HTL in Austria In Austria there is a unique curriculum of technical education which is taught at Federal Secondary Colleges of Engineering (HTL). Students from 9th to 13th grade aged 14 to 19 years are educated in technical areas such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, computer science, mechatronics and many more. In addition to the “Matura” (A Level Examination), they have to submit a diploma thesis at the end of their graduation year. We, ourselves are one female and two male students, aged 18 years, attending the HTL LiTec, located in Linz, Upper Austria, in the specialization area Mechatronics in our 4th year in a total of five years. Due to our interest in AR we took the opportunity to do a survey and write this paper.

2 Introduction to Augmented Reality Augmented reality (AR) means layering real world information with digital data. Operating an AR-tool, the user still perceives the real world, but virtual objects or contextual information are digitally superimposed or visually integrated into their view. In their article [1], R. Silva, J. C. Oliveira et al. give an overview on augmented reality, how it works and describe fields of current and future application, such as entertainment, education, medicine, engineering and manufacturing. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 3–10, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_1

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Due to the close connection between HTLs and the industrial sector, engineering education is directly linked to constantly changing technical developments. Considering this, the implementation of AR technologies would be an appropriate addition to the engineering education curriculum for the needs of today. Up to now, AR is not implemented in most subjects, only some teachers have shown it to students. In their article [2] Hsin-Yi Chang et al. state that by using AR in the classroom, interactive classrooms can be created that enhance student engagement and improve the learning process. Currently, AR is not used in Secondary Colleges of Engineering, but students use it unconsciously in their free time. Areas such as gaming or social media where “face filters” are used, utilize AR. This shows that the students are familiar with this tool without even knowing. Therefore, the integration of AR tools in the classroom will not be new to them.

3 Expectations of Using AR – Technologies at HTLs AR-technologies could be used in a variety of lessons within technical colleges. After talking to students and teachers three lessons which would benefit from implementing AR were found. None of them currently leverages the potential of AR tools. • Mechanical design and development Mechanical design and development classes involve the process of mechanical design and mechanical calculations. This includes verification of loads and strength of parts, creation of 3D models and assemblies and generation of manufacturing drawings. AR could offer students a tool to look at parts and assemblies in their proper environment and in real size through overlaying the 3D design into their camera feed. • Industrial automation Students are learning the fundamentals of industrial automation through practical examples. Letting students explore automation plants via AR technology will increase the understanding of interconnected processes and their dependencies. • Manufacturing planning and workshop Manufacturing planning lessons prepare students for choosing the correct production methods for parts. To do so, part shape and features must be considered. This is done best by looking at parts in 3D or manufacturing drawings. With a centralized AR server every student could benefit from seeing their processes, like standing in front of the machines. Additionally, those AR visualizations could be used for showing how parts should be manufactured before doing so in workshop lessons.

Introducing Augmented Reality at Secondary Colleges – A Student’s View

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4 AR Software The creation of an AR project requires students to work with AR software. Therefore, different AR software providers were considered, including Unity, Apple ARKit and Vuforia. Some of those available are platform dependent or require a longer training period. Due to the broad availability on all platforms (web based) and no need for extensive background knowledge, our software of choice is Vuforia Studio by PTC. 4.1 Working with Vuforia The process of taking the survey includes the creation of an AR project within Vuforia Studio and thereafter publishing it, so that it can be viewed with Vuforia View on mobile devices. The following list outlines the six steps students took whilst performing the third part of this study. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Creation of an AR Experience project in Vuforia Studio Environment setup within the project Import of 3D models Connecting with the Experience Server Publishing the project Viewing the experience with Vuforia View

5 Survey About Augmented Reality Two surveys were conducted to evaluate the current knowledge and familiarity of students with AR. In contrast to other papers, students were also asked on their view of implementing AR in future classes and business and how they think that AR is going to change the way education currently works. Two classes with 83 students from 11th and 12th grade were tested, including 10 female students. The survey was designed to include 4 steps: • • • •

In the first step, students are given a pre - activity survey. In the second step, students are introduced AR and how to create an experience. In the third step, students created an AR experience on their own. (Sect. 4.1) In the fourth and last step, the students completed a post - activity survey.

5.1 Survey Process In order to easily replicate this survey on other educational institutions, the process is simplified and standardized as far as possible. The now described process is the result of continuous improvement whilst taking the survey in multiple classes.

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Fig. 1. AR Student Survey Process

The pre- and post-activity survey are both done via “Google Forms”. This reduces the effort for preparation and evaluation of the survey. It furthermore enables the surveyors to see submitted data in real time. Access to those pre- and post-activity surveys were given to participants via QR-codes. Before taking the survey, all equipment and used resources must be prepared. This includes: • • • • • • •

Charging all laptops Verifying that Vuforia is running on all devices Checking network access Verifying the experience server connection Making sure all used resources are available (3D Models) Preparing the “Introduction to AR” presentation Collating the pre- and post-activity survey data

Survey Methodology Findings While taking the survey a multitude of things have to be looked after. Moving to the next step within the survey process should only be done when all participants are at an equal level. The experience creation process demands the most attention from both the surveyors as well as the participants. Therefore, all explanations should be done slowly and precise. Due to the reduction of needed resources (laptops with Vuforia Studio installed) small groups of maximum four participants were formed. The experience creation should be done as a follow along style workshop. If certain groups need assistance, a second surveyor should help. Those surveyors must be familiar with both the software and experience creation process. If non resolvable errors occur, the laptop should be switched out with a backup device. Backup devices are always held on the same step the participants currently take. After the experience creation, the post-activity survey is held. Here it is most important to check that the count of pre- and post-activity survey participants match up. Below is a brief checklist on what is most important during the survey. • • • • •

Be at least two surveyors Verify that all devices are operational before the survey start Use groups of maximum four participants during experience creation Always have backup computers available Ensure participants install “Vuforia View”

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• Only advance to the next step when all participants are at equal level • Verify that pre- and post-activity survey responses match in count 5.2 Pre/Post Test Method The pre - and post - activity assessment was conducted via Google Forms to offer students a very convenient way of participation and also increase their willingness to participate. The aim of the first survey was to evaluate the current knowledge of students about AR and usage in education and business. The second one was aimed at getting to know how their approach to the topic changed after the familiarization and creation of an AR experience. In order to quantify the test results more easily, a 5 point Likert - Scale [3] was used: 1 - Strongly disagree, 2 - Disagree, 3 - neither agree or disagree, 4 agree and 5 - strongly agree. 5.3 Introduction of AR to Students Between pre - and post - activity assessment the students were given a short presentation on what augmented reality is and how it is already implemented in their daily life. They were shown applied examples such as “IKEA Place”, “mister spex” and “Snapchat”, which are used on a daily basis, though mostly not being recognized. Subsequently they were given a step by step guide on how to create such a project, followed with the order to do so, as mentioned above. 5.4 Survey Questions and Assumptions The survey was aimed at gaining knowledge whether students are familiar with Augmented Reality, where and how they use it and if they think that AR can be implemented more in business and science. Furthermore, we tried to figure out if there are differences between female and male students and if students face problems in creating an AR experience. Most of the questions were used in both surveys, but some were only used in one of them. The questions used in both surveys are: • • • • •

Gender I am interested in learning new things about AR. I suppose that AR is useful in education. I would be interested in using AR in school. Using AR is fun. Questions only used in the pre - test are:

• I am familiar with AR. • I used AR before.

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• I believe that AR could be useful in industry. • Generating an AR experience is difficult. • I would like to learn how to generate an AR. Questions only used in the post - test are: • • • • • • •

I liked working with AR. Using AR makes it easier for me to understand machines and technical processes. State areas where AR could be useful. State subjects where AR could be useful. I could imagine to make a complete diploma thesis using AR or at least utilize it. Creating an AR experience is easy. An AR experience is easy to use. Assumption

• • • • • • •

Assumption 1: Students do not have much experience in working with AR. Assumption 2: Students are interested in learning new things about AR. Assumption 3: Students would like to use AR for their education process. Assumption 4: Students realize the advantages of AR in the industrial sector. Assumption 5: Students did like working with AR. Assumption 6: Students do think that using AR is complicated. Assumption 7: Students are willing to increment AR in their diploma thesis.

5.5 Survey Results Due to some different questions in the pre - and post - activity assessment, some questions are not compared in the figure displayed below. Questions used in both surveys are shown together. Survey Question SQ1 asked students if they are interested in learning new things about AR. There was only a small increase in interest, with 26% of the students strongly agreeing in the pre - activity assessment and 30% of the students agreeing in the post - activity assessment. Survey Question SQ2 asked students if they suppose that AR is useful in education. It can be observed that in both assessments, a vast majority of students strongly agree/agree with that statement. Therefore, both SQ1 and SQ2 seem to support assumption A2. Survey Question SQ3 asked if students would be interested in using AR in their own lessons. In both assessments, students agreed but there was a notable rise in the post activity assessment. Looking at both results, assumption A3 seems to be supported. Survey Question SQ4 asked students if using AR is fun. Only 33% strongly agreed/agreed in the pre - activity assessment. In the post - activity assessment, more than 50% of students strongly agreed/agreed. Looking at the post - activity assessment, assumption A5 seems to be supported. Both Survey Questions SQ5 and SQ6 heavily support assumption A1.

Introducing Augmented Reality at Secondary Colleges – A Student’s View

Fig. 2. Comparison between pre- and post - activity assessment

Fig. 3. Pre - activity assessment

Fig. 4. Post - activity assessment

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In regard to the differences between the female and male students there was not a significant difference. Due to the low number of female respondents no statement can be made.

6 Conclusion and Outlook Augmented reality is going to have a positive impact on education processes at HTL, but students still only have little knowledge about the various applications which AR offers. Especially for engineering and design classes, AR seems to be a good opportunity for giving better understandings of complex shapes and processes. In addition, students seem to be enjoying working with AR, which is going to increase their willingness to learn new things. A survey after a time period of 2–4 years after implementing AR in education would give a good representation of how these methods have changed students work.

References 1. Silva, R., Oliveira, J.C., Giraldi, G.A.: Introduction to augmented reality. Nat. Lab. Sci. Comput. 11, 1–11 (2003) 2. Chang, H.Y., et al.: Ten years of augmented reality in education: a meta-analysis of (quasi-) experi-mental studies to investigate the impact. Comput. Educ. 191, 104641 (2022) 3. Likert, R.: A technique for the measurement of attitudes. In: Archives of Psychology, pp. 1–55 (1932) 4. Probst, A., Ebner, M.: Introducing augmented reality at secondary colleges of engineering. In: International Conference on Engineering and Product Design Education, EPDE2018/1125 (2018)

A Use Cases Driven Design of a Virtual Anatomy Herwig Rehatschek1(B) , Niels Hammer2 , and Tanja Schrangl2 1 Executive Department for Teaching With Media, Medical University Graz, Neue

Stiftingtalstraße 6, 8010 Graz, Austria [email protected] 2 Macroscopic and Clinical Anatomy, Medical University Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstraße 6, 8010 Graz, Austria {Niels.Hammer,Tanja.Schrangl}@medunigraz.at

Abstract. Anatomy teaching forms a fundamental part in undergraduate medical and dental education. Gross anatomy teaching using post-mortem bodies at the same time causes extensive high infrastructural and personnel resources. Dissection rooms and related mortuary facilities are expensive to operate, hence technical capacities are limited by the logistics involved for providing the basis of highquality teaching. Virtual tools offer a realistic and immersive learning experience, thereby supporting to better prepare students for their hands-on teaching experience, and hence allowing to enhance the dissection course in an effective way. Furthermore, students can translate their knowledge to other fields in medicine such as radiology or surgery. Even though virtual tools cannot replace hands-onteaching, it was hypothesized that as a result of using virtual tools accompanying teaching, student learning experience and knowledge gain will be enhanced, thus providing a more effective approach towards teaching delivery. The starting point for the here given project was to evaluate emerging virtual technology with the potential to be deployed in anatomy teaching. We assessed three technical scenarios driven by suitable use cases for individual teaching processes, which will aim to enrich the classical way of anatomy teaching approach by taking advantage of virtual tools. Two scenarios are hybrid, one scenario is virtual asynchronous (but can also be used in a classroom lesson). All three scenarios can also be applied to other fields of science teaching, e.g. engineering teaching by simply replacing the content. In this paper we describe the seven-dimensional use case definition, the technical design of the scenarios and first pilot trials. Keywords: 3D objects · 3D anatomy visualization · Cinematic Rendering · virtual anatomy · dissection course

1 Introduction Anatomy teaching forms a fundamental part in undergraduate medical education. Gross anatomy teaching is commonly conducted based on human corpses, and causes both high infrastructural and personnel resources. Dissection rooms and related mortuary facilities are expensive to operate by expert staff, as a result, room capacities for students © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 11–22, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_2

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are limited by the logistics and technical equipment involved for providing the basis of high-quality teaching. In order to use these facilities in a most efficient manner, virtual tools providing a realistic and immersive learning experience may help support and better prepare students for their dissection lessons. It will also help to translate their knowledge to other fields in medicine including radiology or surgery. On the other side, hands-on teaching on human corpses cannot be replaced by virtual tools. Spatial, haptic and procedural steps involved cannot easily be replaced by virtual technology. However, a virtual 3D representation derived from computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) enables anatomy teaching based on data from living humans. Virtual approaches are especially relevant for those medical universities which do not own a full-scale anatomy infrastructure for monetary, technical or other reasons. As a consequence, the time students can spend in the dissection room of partnering anatomy departments is often limited and associated to the cost and time of traveling. It was hypothesized that as a result of using virtual tools accompanying teaching, student learning experience and learning gain will be enhanced, thus providing a more effective approach towards teaching delivery. The starting point for the here given project was to evaluate emerging virtual technology with the potential to be deployed in anatomy teaching. We assessed three technical scenarios driven by suitable use cases for individual teaching processes, which will enhance the classical way of teaching anatomy by taking advantage of virtual tools.

2 Definition of Technical Scenarios for the Virtual Anatomy Based on the related work found and following a consensus process with the partnering Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria with whom this project will be jointly realized, three suitable scenarios were identified. Two scenarios are hybrid, i.e., students and instructors reside simultaneously within the teaching setting, but without necessarily being located physically at the same location. One scenario is virtual asynchronous (but can also be used in a classroom lesson), i.e., students and instructors reside at different time points and / or different locations 1, 2. Within the two hybrid scenarios we differentiate between scenario#1 - a lecturer driven 3D live visualization of (living) human bodies (interior) based on CT and MRI scans and scenario#2 - a 3D live video transmission from the dissection rooms of our university to the big lecture room and to our partner university. The virtual asynchronous scenario #3 visualizes 3D scans of anatomical specimens or objects with annotations in 2D in a standard web browser. These items consisted of 3D-scanned models of anatomy dissections, wax models, human bones, and plastinates, which will be annotated by lecturers and made available to students by a learning management system. As a first step we performed a focused market analysis in close connection to the three technical scenarios we want to implement.

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3 Related Work Following the completion of a market research on virtual technology, typical scenarios connected to virtual anatomy were identified a number of items which are related to virtual anatomy: 3D interactive models, augmented reality simulations, virtual dissections, anatomy quizzes and games and video lessons on anatomy topics. In the following chapter we give a brief overview on products and research we found related to our project. In connection to scenario #1 the young Austrian startup company Augmentomy [3] offers an augmented reality (AR) solution for teaching anatomy. Originally targeted for medical doctors the technology developing focus turned to medical education due to strict and difficult to implement restrictions in medical software and hardware. The startup company began in 2023 with the development of augmented reality software for Qualcomm AR glasses. A first prototype of the software was demonstrated to us in March 2023. Users wearing Qualcomm AR glasses were presented a virtual skeleton with options to visualize muscles, vessels, bones and organs. A typical use case for this application was a small-scale classroom setting offering interactive collaboration. For the scenario required with 480 students, this software cannot be used in an efficient way due to the need of expensive AR glasses. The research project nARvibrain [4] of the university of applied sciences FH Joanneum in Austria aims to merge structural and functional neurological imaging data. The project develops assistance systems for diagnosis and treatment of brain tumors by usage of AR technology. Again, the use case is very different from our requirements, by putting the focus on assistance of medical doctors rather than on undergraduate education. Also, the hardware required would be not affordable for 480 students in parallel. Furthermore, a number of medical simulation programs exist including HoloScenarios. This simulation was developed by the well-known simulation company GigXR [5] in collaboration with the Cambridge University hospitals. The software provides a realistic simulation of the entire patient care journey, from assessment and diagnosis to appropriate intervention and escalation of care, but there is no direct connection to anatomy and anatomy in education. Hence this software is more suitable in a later stage of the medical education, where students are already in their clinical years. For scenario #3 a number of web based platforms were assessed capable of distributing 3D objects, including Online 3D viewer [6], 3D Vault [7], CG Trader [8], Visibly Body [9] and Sketchfab [15]. The only platform meeting our requirements was Sketchfab. It offers an easy to use annotation interface for lecturers, an upload for new objects, an embedded code which allows seamless integration in our learning management system Moodle, privacy settings and offers reasonable pricing for academic institutions. Other solutions presented were too costly, failed offering the addition of own objects and/or annotation of them, or failed providing a protected access link to the objects.

4 Definition of Seven-Dimensional Use Cases In parallel to the three technical scenarios which were given in Sect. 2 we defined nine use cases, integrating these scenarios within teaching anatomy. This was a mission critical step in this project, because it guarantees the involvement of the actual users of the

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system, the teachers, right from the beginning. This was considered as very important, since involving lecturers already at an early stage grants a user oriented and user-friendly design of the technical infrastructure. Therefore, use cases were defined in seven dimensions, in order to cover all issues involved with the use case and also to directly connect it to the technical realization. The seven dimensions include a description of the use case, its priority, logistic approach and time consumption, frequency of application in teaching, technical pre-requisites and requirements, necessary personnel resources and costs. 4.1 Seven Dimensions All use cases we defined were based on a well-structured template and consisted of the following seven dimensions: 1. Short description: Briefly outlines the use case and the learning goals. 2. Priority: here the values high, medium and low can be applied. In general, all use cases should be implemented throughout the project, however, if it comes to a shortage on resources, prioritization would be needed. 3. Time line and time resources (connected to 2): in this section the storyboard of the use case was described in detail. This is done in relation to the time given. So, for e.g., a typical 45-min lecture an exact time plan has to be stated. 4. Frequency of use: here the lecturer indicates how often the use case will be used during his lessons, e.g., in 10% of all lectures within a specific semester. 5. Technical prerequisites and requirements: which technology will be needed in order to implement this use case in practical teaching? Is there any other material needed in order to realize this use case such as dissections, wax models, bones, or plastinates? 6. Personnel resources required: Which lecturer at the institute will concretely be responsible for this use case and its implementation? Which personnel is needed next to the lecturer in order to implement this use case? E.g., technical support, preparation of dissections 7. Costs of the use case: here all costs in connection with the implementation of the use case have to be stated. Costs are divided in one-time investments (e.g., hardware costs for 3D visualization) and continuously appearing costs such as technical support personnel, maintenance costs etc. 4.2 Main Use Cases Due to the page limitation we cannot describe all nine use cases in very detail in this paper. Only the technically most challenging use cases will be outlined. The planned technical implementations of the use cases will be given in Sect. 5. Use case (UC) #1 “networked learning between the Medical University of Graz and Johannes Kepler University Linz”: in this use case, first, a 3D live video streamed from the dissection rooms of Medical University of Graz presented by a lecturer demonstrating regional anatomy on a human prosection will be transmitted. In the second part a 3D visualization of the same dissection will be transmitted from a lecturer of Johannes Kepler University, but this time based on a CT/MRI scan mostly from individuals living at the time of the imaging. In between, students will have the chance to interact with the

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lecturers on both locations by using a voting software. This use case uses the technical scenarios #1 and #2 and is the most challenging use case in technical terms. It combines a live 3D video transmission over the internet with a live cinematic rendering transmission and visualization at two geographically dispersed locations. Due to these high technical requirements this use case also has high demands on involved personnel (2 lecturers plus technical support staff at two locations) and on hardware and software licensing costs. UC#2 “local virtual anatomy” and #3 “operative access on musculoskeletal system” are technically sub use cases from UC#1. UC#2 uses the technical scenario #1 in order to only locally visualize 3D representations based on CT/MRI scans instead of a synchronized display in two remote locations. UC#3 uses the technical scenario #2 in order to transmit a 3D live video from the dissection rooms at Medical University of Graz to the Johannes Kepler University in Linz, however, without combining with scenario #1. Technically speaking, both use cases use a part of the technology needed to implement UC#1 and have therefore lower requirements in terms of personnel and technical resources. UC#4 “frontal lectures within anatomy modules” and UC#5 “correlation of head/neck regions based on 3D videos with 3D live rendering” both combine the technical scenarios #1 and #2, but again only locally at one university. As a special addon, the technical requirement exists to replay before recorded specifically selected 3D videos from dissections. This technology requires 3D recording infrastructure. Throughout the project the feasibility of this use case will be investigated, since it requires extensive storage space and a special software. UC#6 + #7 “Annotation of 3D objects in biomechanics and osteology in hybrid / virtual asynchronous teaching”, UC#8 “3D scans of dissections in human medicine for self study” and UC#9 “3D scans of fragile huge preparations for self study” are all related to the technical scenario #3. These use cases aim to give all students access on the huge collection of preparations, wax models, bones and plastinates by using standard web browsers and visualization of 3D objects. This involves a 3D scan of the objects, a proper annotation by the lecturers and a proper platform for distribution. This will be described in more detail in Sect. 5.4.

5 Technical Implementation In this chapter we describe the results of the technical feasibility study on the three technical scenarios and the first implementations. Starting from the technical workflow we then describe each technical scenario in more detail. 5.1 Technical Workflow Within Fig. 1 we depicted the technical workflow for all three scenarios of our planned virtual anatomy environment. In the graphic you can see the main technical components and the main communication / data paths.

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Fig. 1. Technical workflow for the three technical scenarios of the virtual anatomy

5.2 Scenario #1 - A Lecturer Driven 3D Live Visualization of (Living) Human Tissues Based on CT and MRI Scans Scenario #1 will be based on cinematic rendering, a novel and emerging technology for the post-processing of medical imaging data [11] with a commercial rendering software [13] and a 3D projection technology installed in a huge lecture room. Didactically, the scenario is designed for the teaching of a large student cohort, offered the content in a classroom setting in 3D via special passive or active shutter glasses. The visualized 3D content will be presented by the lecturer with a x-box controller based on live renderings from CT and MRI models of humans. This enables case-based teaching, e.g., by visualizing a vertebral fracture of a person fallen from a horse, its actual effects on the person and the proper therapy. Additionally, a 2D version will be streamed so students may follow the lesson from home, which classifies this scenario as hybrid. Based on a technical criteria list we did a market analysis on possible 3D visualization technologies suitable for a huge lecture room with 480 students. There are two principal technologies, each of them with two variants: • 3D Projector with active or passive shutter glasses • LED wall with active or passive shutter glasses • Native 4k 3D projectors were less costly than a LED wall, and offer a well-established, durable technology with numerous applications world-wide. However, 3D projectors also suffer from drawbacks, including: they produce quite a lot of noise and heat, they are very heavy – hence a ceiling mount may not always be possible, and they cannot offer the same contrast / brightness level as LED walls do. There is a significant difference in brightness loss when using passive instead of active shutter glasses. According to the underlying investigations the brightness loss is up to 70% when using passive shutter glasses.

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Native 4k 3D projectors were less costly than a LED wall, and offer a wellestablished, durable technology with numerous applications world-wide. However, 3D projectors also suffer from drawbacks, including: they produce quite a lot of noise and heat, they are very heavy – hence a ceiling mount may not always be possible, and they cannot offer the same contrast / brightness level as LED walls do. There is a significant difference in brightness loss when using passive instead of active shutter glasses. According to the underlying investigations the brightness loss is up to 70% when using passive shutter glasses. LED walls, an example can be seen in Fig. 2, are not a new technology, however, the usage of a 4k 3D visualization in combination with LED walls is currently cutting-edge technology and not many vendors on the market do exist who can provide the necessary technology. The decisive technical element here is the proper controller, which can drive all the single displays in parallel and this with a resolution of 4k, and with 120 Hz (60 Hz for each channel – left eye, right eye). However, all our technology research released, that LED walls are the future for visualization in lecture rooms. In smaller lecture rooms LED panels are already state of the art technology right now. For our specific installation the LED wall offers a number of advantages: since we cannot completely darken the huge lecture room, contrast and brightness are an important issue, and no projector can cope with the brightness and contrast offered by a LED wall. LED installations are not as complicated as projector installations, which might even take seats in the lecture room when it has to be mounted on the ground. Furthermore, the lifetime of the LED wall is expected to be much longer than of a projector, which loses brightness faster over a period of usage time than LED walls. This is due to the fact that a set of spare panels should be bought together from the same production batch to have exactly the same panel characteristics in the likely case that some of the panels fails its operation. LED walls are meant to be used with active shutter glasses. But there exists a possibility to use them with passive shutter glasses as well which involves a special foil to be attached on the panels. This technology, however, is not well established so far, we could find only one vendor worldwide, and one application for a live concert. All in all, the advantages for LED walls better meet our specific requirements. It was therefore decided to proceed with this technology in combination with active shutter glasses.

Fig. 2. LED wall example installation in a lecture room

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Additionally, to the 3D visualization within the big lecture room we will transmit a 2D live stream via our open source based lecture recording and streaming system [5]. Technically this will be realized by just submitting one channel (e.g. only the left eye). The live stream extends the hybrid teaching provided of our university for the students in order to give them a maximum of flexibility. Students may watch the lessons also from home or any other place with an Internet connection. Live streams will be provided in 2D, technically only one channel (left eye) will be streamed. Actually, active shutter glasses were not our preferred solution due to the fact, that they are more expensive than passive shutter glasses and they require a battery which must be regularly loaded. Since we have 480 students and glasses, this is an enormous technical but also logistical expense. For the loading process we decided to buy inductive loading cabinets which offer space for simultaneously loading up to 192 glasses. Since a cable connection is not necessary, the manual efforts for the loading process are significantly reduced. With regards to software we will use a commercial rendering software from Siemens [13], which will be installed on a standard high-end server with a state-of-the-art graphic card (Quadro RTX A6000) in order to render the two images (left and right eye) in real time in 4k and with a 60 Hz frame rate. The control of the software – hence the main user interface for the lecturer - is performed via a standard x-box controller. The lecturer can use the sticks of the x-box controller to navigate through the model and may choose which layers (e.g. muscles, bones, veins) to be displayed. According to the movements of the lecturer the software generates in real time the 3D images which will be sent to the LED wall controller and furthermore displayed. Students will see the 3D effect by using active shutter glasses. In the following some examples are shown how it may look like – the images are from Ars Electronica Center in Linz, where such a system is already installed for many years and recently it was also used for teaching anatomy by our partner university (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Cinematic rendering – virtual anatomy. Photo by Ars Electronica / Robert Bauernhansl, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/legalcode)

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5.3 Scenario #2 - 3D Live Video Transmission from the Dissection Rooms The didactical background of this scenario is to give the students of our partner university, which has no dissection room space, the opportunity to see a prosection on a human corpse as realistic as possible. This complements the anatomy education of the students of our partner university who have in this stage of their study only virtual anatomy lectures. It also presents steps of preparation and follow up before and after attending the dissection rooms for student hands-on experience. Scenario #2 will be based on a 3D camera mounted on a crane and placed on a cart, see Fig. 4 for the current 2D solution. The goal is to conduct a live transmission of a dissection commented by a lecturer to the lecture room and to our partner university. 3D visualization in the lecture room again will be achieved by special passive or active shutter glasses. Technically this scenario has two challenges: one is the selection of a proper 3D camera, the second one is the long-distance transmission over the Internet.

Fig. 4. Crane mounted camera for filming in the dissection rooms

For the 3D camera, two technical solutions exist: mirror rig technology or side by side rig, see also Fig. 5. Mirror rig technology offers the advantage to film in the macro range, hence for small objects in a very high level of detail. This technology is often used in medical applications, e.g., in neurosurgery where the doctor must have a 3D view of very small parts in the human brain during the surgery procedure. This technology is expensive, cameras are in the price range of 50ke or higher owing the fact that the mirror rigs are individually manufactured. The side-by-side rig technology consists of two standard cameras mounted on a rack. Due to usage of standard components, this technology is much cheaper. However, it has the disadvantage of not being able to film in the macro range. For monetary reasons, the side-by-side technology was the chosen option, assuming that it would be sufficient for the given purposes. To ensure this, a test installation will be fostered during the bidding process. The second technical challenge in this scenario is the real-time and fully synchronous long-distance transmission of the two 4k streams in 60 Hz of the 3D camera (left and right eye) over the Internet to our partner university. The main issues here are the delay which must be in the range of 300 ms (otherwise bidirectional communication is very difficult) and the synchronicity of the two streams left and right eye, otherwise the 3D effect will be lost (left eye would see different content than right eye). For minimizing the delay specific hardware encoder exist. With regards of the delay a first rough calculation is 160 ms (encoder) and 4 times the round-trip time of 6–8 ms, which will result in ~200 ms

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Fig. 5. 3D camera technologies mirror rig and side by side

which is an acceptable range. For the synchronous transmission over the Internet there exist two technologies. • Stereo amorph transmission: the images of both channels will be encoded in a single frame, which guarantees a 100% synchronous transmission but enables only half resolution (4k → 2k) • Frame sequential transmission: left and right channel will be encoded in sequential frames, which again guarantees 100% synchronous transmission but in this case the frequency will be halved from 60 Hz to 30 Hz. It was decided to use the frame sequential technology so to achieve the maximum possible resolution for our display. A 30 Hz frame rate should still be sufficient for the human eye and hence an acceptable quality loss. 5.4 Scenario #3 – Visualization of 3D Scans of Anatomy Objects Within a Standard Web Browser The main didactical purpose of this scenario was to offer undergraduate medical students an interactive 2D access on 3D-scanned anatomy objects within a standard web browser. For this purpose, a number of wax or cast models, bones, prosections or plastinates have been selected and 3D scanned by means of a 3D software [14]. The models were then processed with this special 3D software, generating a final 3D object file. This 3D object file is uploaded into a web-based software platform [15]. This allows on the one hand annotations by lecturers to be made, and on the other hand an embedding of the objects into the learning management software Moodle. Students can access and interact with these objects by usage of a standard web browser from any place with an Internet connection. In technical terms, this scenario is comprised of a 3D scanner, 3D processing software, storage and a 3D objects distribution platform. For 3D scanning currently a handheld Artec Space Spider [16] is used, see Fig. 6. Additionally, we will use a Scan 3D box, see again Fig. 6, which was built by an Austrian research and development center in the field of medical technology [12], specifically to meet the needs of neuro surgeons, hence can scan only objects with the size of approximately a head. However, this scanner is much more precise and faster, and is intended to be used for smaller objects. The requirements for storage we have calculated are about 5 TB. All in all, 100 objects shall be scanned with an average file size of 500 MB. The storage is attached to a backup system in order to avoid loss of data.

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Fig. 6. Scan 3D box and the Artec Space Spider 3D hand scanner

Fig. 7. Examples of 3D scans of anatomy objects (liver, heart, middle ear)

For the distribution platform we selected Sketchfab [15] for the reasons given in Sect. 3. It offers an easy to use 2D interface for students in any standard web browser and can be easily integrated into our learning management system Moodle. Hence the objects can be used for virtual asynchronous teaching (self study), synchronous, hybrid and classroom teaching (lecturers show the objects during the lesson and explain them). Some examples of objects scanned so far are given in Fig. 7.

6 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations The here presented approach of defining use cases in seven dimensions, covering thoroughly technical issues, personal resources and costs involves users of the system right from the start. This approach helps prevent unfavorable expensive scenarios not being used by lecturers. For scenario #1 and #2, currently, the project is in the phase of a technical feasibility analysis. Acceptance criteria for the scenarios were first defined. Now possible technology for 3D presentation and recording is systematically investigated, and advantages and disadvantages listed and how they correlate with the acceptance criteria. Cost follow up is further considered, including license fees, hardware replacement, etc. and of course calculate the full costs for implementation in relation to the financial resources we have been provided. Based on these structured results, the decision will be made on which technology will be used. The start of implementation is expected in spring 2024.

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With regards to scenario #3, a first prototype has readily been set up with the application of the full workflow from scanning, annotating and presentation to the students. A software platform has been installed for annotation, and currently the time resources to be invested by lecturers for annotation are estimated. The first pilot trial of scenario #3 is expected to be run by winter semester 2023/24.

References 1. Fallmann, I., et al.: Quantifizierung von virtueller Lehre an österreichischen Hochschulen, Whitepaper CC BY, Forum neue Medien Austria. https://www.fnma.at/medien/fnma-pub likationen (Jun. 2021). sowie auch im Ergebnis der Arbeitsgruppe der Österreichischen Hochschulkonferenz Empfehlungen der Hochschulkonferenz – Digitales Lehren, Lernen und Prüfen am Hochschulen (2021) 2. Rehatschek, H.: Outline of possible synchronous solutions and experiences in order to supply large groups of students with learning content in classroom and mixed class-room/distance scenarios. In: Auer, M.E., Hortsch, H., Michler, O., Köhler, T. (eds.) Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL2021), vol. 1, LNNS 389, TU and HTW Dresden, ISBN 978-3-030-93904-5, Dresden, Germany, 22–24 September 2021, pp. 523–534, Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93904-5_52 3. Augmentomy, application of augmented reality in medical education (2023). https://www. augmentomy.tech/ 4. nARvibrain, merging or neuro-imaging data (2023). https://www.fh-joanneum.at/projekt/nar vibrain/ 5. Rehatschek, H.: Experiences and challenges of building up an open source based livestreaming system with back channel to implement a hybrid classroom scenario, In: Auer, M.E., Pachatz, W., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning, Learning in the Age of Digital and Green Transition. ICL 2022. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol. 634. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03126190-9_75. Print ISBN978-3-031-26189-3, Online ISBN978-3-031-26190-9, published on 23 February 2023, pp. 717–728, 27–30 September 2022, Hilton Park Vienna, Austria 6. Online 3D viewer, website which can open several 3D file formats and visualize them in a browser (2023). https://3dviewer.net/ 7. 3D Vault, platform for uploading and sharing 3D objects (2023). https://www.augment.com/ blocks/3d-vault/ 8. CG Trader, inventory for 3D objects and 3D objects exchange (2023). https://www.cgtrader. com 9. Visibly Body, interactive A&P and biology products for the web and mobile devices (2023). https://www.visiblebody.com 10. GigXR, holographic healthcare training (2023). https://www.gigxr.com/ 11. Fellner, F.A.: A novel technique for post-processing medical imaging data. In: Journal Biomedical Science and Engineering, ISSN Print: 1937-6871, ISSN Online: 1937–688X, vol. 9, no. 3, pp.170–175 (2016). https://doi.org/10.4236/jbise.2016.93013 12. ACMIT, Austrian center for medical innovation and technology (2023). https://acmit.at/ 13. Syngo.via, cinematic rendering software (2023). https://www.siemens-healthineers.com/at/ medical-imaging-it/syngo-carbon-products/cinematic-rendering 14. Artec 3D Studio, software for professional 3D scanning and data processing (2023). https:// www.artec3d.com 15. Sketchfab, a platform for distributing3D and AR models (2023). https://sketchfab.com/ 16. Artec Space Spider, professional industrial 3D scanner (2023). https://www.artec3d.com/de/ portable-3d-scanners/artec-spider

Peculiarities of ADDIE Implementation When Teaching Engineering Students Professional Foreign Language Online Roza Baltabaevna Mambetova1 and Elena Yurievna Semushina2(B) 1 Karakalpak State University, Nukus, Republic of Uzbekistan 2 Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Republic of Tatarstan, Russian Federation

[email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of the article is to present the use of instructional design ADDIE on the basis of the course “Professional foreign language” (English) worked out for the program “Translator in the sphere of professional communication” (Chemical engineers) which is operated online at technological university. The necessity of proper organization of work makes it important to use the instructional design, which must be flexible as it can be necessary to change it quickly depending on the demands of the engineering industry and the interests of the graduates. The model of instructional design ADDIE is considered appropriate. The main peculiarity of it here is that the second stage “Design” is combined with the system of backward design, because the program has two forms of assessment: the final project and the standard exam. The final project is an example of interdisciplinary approach and can be strongly recommended as a part of ultimate assessment for advanced students who are selected and trained with the help of differentiated approach. Three learning paths (advanced, intermediate, basic) give the opportunity for students to demonstrate their skills and knowledge to potential employers from international companies when presenting the final project. Such methods of investigation are used: observation, analysis of previous experience and creative activity of the students, comparison of two forms of education, methods of data collection and accumulation, methods of control and measurement, and methods of implementing research results in pedagogical practice. Keywords: Instructional design · ADDIE · online study · professional language · English

1 Introduction Educational system today has the following characteristics: • Training of soft skills is important. • Assessment should be as objective as possible that means testing system is widely used. • Online educational environment is widespread, as international technologies develop quickly and the process of globalization can’t be stopped. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 23–30, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_3

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• Educational programs are becoming flexible, taking into account the individual characteristics of the students, such as the initial level of knowledge, the speed of learning, the possibility to attend lessons, motivation, interests, goals, and results [1]. When online education was introduced, it became obvious that it is not enough to display the information online for the students to study it. Accurate organization of work, effective presentation of the material (taking into account individual characteristics of the student), and careful supervision of student’s work are important, in particular, when the learning process is operated online. Only if the system of managing educational process is built successfully, the competences of the students can be developed in the necessary way. In other words, online study can be effective, productive and useful if the study and material are organized according to an accurate design, which is termed by contemporary scientists as “Instructional design” [2]. Instructional design is a logical system of organizing learning process which includes the content of the course, the methods and tools, a logical way of displaying the material. In other words, it is a system of tools and methods of delivering educational products to form necessary competences [3]. Contemporary scientists claim the following main aims of instructional design of the courses operated online: • Figuring out the most effective ways and methods to improve the quality of learning process. • Working out open e-resources that are qualitative, cheap for students and easy to work out. • Expansion of possibilities for study of different kinds of students, in other words, individualization of the learning process [4]. There is a great number of theories of instructional design that have certain common features, such as: direction of the instructional design; identification of teaching methods and cases; identification of tools, practices and techniques [5]. Categories of instructional design are the following: educational environment (informational environment that form and develop a personality in social system), educational resources (different sources of educational information), and educational material (information to study that is systematized and logically organized) [6].

2 Purpose The purpose of the article is to present the use of instructional design ADDIE in the framework of the course “Professional foreign language” worked out for the program “Translator in the sphere of professional communication” which is operated online at technological university. The differentiated approach was introduced into the learning process 5 year ago. The program gained popularity when it became necessary for engineers to present their works abroad and publish their papers in international journals as international cooperation in engineering major has been flourishing. The COVID epidemy also contributed to the success of the program when students had to move to online study.

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Such methods of investigation are used: observation, analysis of previous experience and creative activity of the students, comparison of two forms of education, methods of data collection and accumulation, methods of control and measurement, methods of data processing, and methods of implementing research results in pedagogical practice.

3 Approach Analyzing the ways the online educational programs are designed, two main approaches (models) are traditionally defined: • The Result Model (xMOOC). It is usually based on the backward design model and is suitable for exact sciences. • The Process Model (cMOOC). This program is flexible and suitable for Humanities. The program “Translator in the sphere of professional communication” is operated online and consists of 1500 h (444 h for “Professional foreign language”). Webinars and consultations take 20% of the study that proves effective. The program has a number of compulsory subjects and the optional ones, which are chosen not only according to the interests of students but taking into account the result they want to achieve. Peculiarities of the program are the following: • a student can choose two spheres of professional communication and study them simultaneously. • a student can choose a way of final assessment depending on his knowledge of the major and level on English: to pass a traditional exam and to present a final project (their scientific research in English) [7]. So, taking into account the necessity to change the learning path of the student according to the chosen type of final assessment, the Process Model of designing the program is more suitable in our course. When the program started, only students with advanced level of English were allowed to study, but then it turned out that the number of students is limited and a lot of motivated future engineers are excluded, a system of differentiated study was introduced. The main principles of the differentiated approach in the limits of the program are the following: a student studies at an individual pace and can move from one path to another [7]. There are several models of instructional design which describe the process of designing the learning process, such as ADDIE, SAM, 4C/ ID, etc. All of them have the following characteristics: definition and analysis of the aims of the learning process, planning and projecting the ways to achieve the aims, implementation of planned actions, evaluation and revision of goals and strategies. The model of instructional design that can be flexible is ADDIE that is why it was chosen when the course was worked out. Traditionally, ADDIE, as a model of instructional design has the following steps (stages): • • • • •

Analysis of educational environment, aims and potential students. Design of the course, in other words, the plan of the work. Development – detailed content of the course, exercised and tasks, control. Implementation. Evaluation (this stage makes it possible to improve the course).

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4 Outcomes The online course “Professional foreign language” that is worked out according to ADDIE principle is characterized by the following characteristics: training of all four aspects of the language (Listening, Reading, Writing Speaking); developing soft skills; levelling the knowledge of the students; interdisciplinary approach (the main themes of the course must correspond with the topics of the major); the interface should be simple and have the similar structure no matter what level is studied; visibility (the materials must activate all senses of a person, for example, in each module audio and visual learning material is presented); sequence (elements of content should be interconnected, have gradual complexity and be logically bound); and availability. So, using ADDIE in the framework of the online course “Professional foreign language” for future engineers has the following peculiarities: 1. Analysis The course is aimed at good knowledge of professional language. The target group consists of students and graduates of technological institutions, working engineers as well. The initial level of English can be advanced, upper intermediate or intermediate. Potential results are the following: a graduate can translate papers, texts in the limits of their major, can use a foreign language (English) when writing academic papers and speaking about the topics of professional interest. In the framework of the program two types of final assessment take place: the final project and the traditional exam. The final project has an interdisciplinary character. It is organized within the competence approach and is aimed at demonstrating the ability to implement professional tasks with the help of a foreign language. When presenting their scientific work in a foreign language, a student should not only be well versed in their professional activities, but also be able to talk with examiners, build a logical text, and arrange a presentation in a proper way. Here soft skills are as important as the knowledge of the major. Figure 1 shows how the learning process is planned in the framework of the course. 2. Design As we have different levels of English of the students in the same group, the choice of model of instructional design depends not only on individual characteristics of a person and the results (special and soft skill such as communicative skills, presenting skills, cognitive, problem-solving skill) but the ability to change the model depending on the form of assessment. The learning paths should be different but flexible for students to jump from one learning path to another. Pedagogical strategies depend on which learning path the students are going to choose (three paths are offered), depending on the knowledge of the students, their motivation and the final aim. That is the reason why on this stage the elements of backward design are introduced in ADDIE design. The model of backward design, which “goes from the aim to the content”, has 3 stages: • the definition of the results which should be achieved; • the definition of the assessment that should check how the results were achieved;

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Diagnosc stage

Advanced level

Modules 1-6 for advanced level + 2 addional modules

Final project

Upperintermediate level

Modules 1-6 for upper-intermediate level

Intermediate level

Modules 1-6 for intermediate level

Final exam

Fig. 1. The learning process of the course “Professional foreign language” organized with the help of ADDIE design and differentiated approach

• working out the content of the course that will correspond to the results and the form of assessment [8]. So, keeping the other phases of ADDIE intact, the Design phase would include the elements of the backward design model. This can be done by deciding on the objectives of the course and the assessment, which is summative and includes real-world problems. The final project, as a form of assessment, is a type of problem-solving task as it presents scientific research of the student which corresponds to the demands of the economics [9]. Within each module, three types of tasks for all levels are presented. The advanced block has additional tasks to train soft skills and productive skills. Besides, advanced level has an additional block which includes information about writing research papers, the assessment procedure here is to write a paper about your research which is a part of additional preparation for final project. The course is operated on the basis of MOODLE platform, the webinars as well, in some cases such platforms as Microsoft teams and Zoom are involved depending on the country where the student lives. 3. Development In the framework of the Development stage the diagnostic part goes first. A test consisting of three blocks of tasks was worked out: basic, intermediate and advanced [7]. The modules that are included into the course have the similar structure consisting of the three above-mentioned blocks. As an example, the module “Nanotechnology” is presented: • Introductory video “Introduction to Nanotechnology” for all levels of study. • Intermediate level

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– Introduction of new professional vocabulary (30 words with translation). – Listening: video to watch and cloze-test 1 (“Precision Nano systems’ Technology”). A student should select a word from the list and drag it into a text (this stage correlates with the stage “recognition” in Bloom’s taxonomy). – Reading: A text readability index is 60–70 points based on Flesch-Kincaid scheme, tasks are offered to determine the main topic and information, that is, tasks for choosing the title of the text, determining true and false information, tasks for connecting parts of a sentence and cloze test 1 (dragging the words into the text). – Translation skills: translation of the sentences from the native language into the target one. The task is rather useful as the research of the students mostly is done in their native language and it is necessary to translate the information accurately. – Productive tasks: to make a speech on a certain topic connected with the major, for example, “Aims, products, advantages and disadvantages of nanotechnology”. – Assessment: multiple choice test. • Upper-Intermediate level – Introduction of new professional vocabulary (30 words with translation). – Listening: video to watch and cloze-test 2 (“New Nanotech Microscope”). Students should enter the missing words by themselves (the task demands logical thinking from the student as the summary doesn’t coincide word for word with the script and correlates with the stage “understanding” in Bloom’s taxonomy). – Reading: Scanning and cloze test 2 (a readability index is 50–60 points). Tasks aimed at determining logical and semantic relationships and search for specific information are offered for intermediate level. They check understanding of the structure of the text and general meaning, and restoring the missing details of the text. – Translation skills: translation of the sentences from the native language into the second one. – Productive task: The task is practically oriented and interdisciplinary, for example, to find information about one of the methods of nanoengineering and to present it. – Assessment is operated with the help of cloze test and translation of words. • Advanced level – Introduction of new professional vocabulary (30 words with explanation in English) – Listening: audio tracks, multiple choice task and cloze-test 2 (printing the words into the text) – Training of translation skills: translation of a coherent text. – Productive task: A set of tasks aimed at preparation for final project is presented, such as presentation of different parts of their research. – Assessment – cloze test. – Two additional modules are provided. The first one is focused of producing a research paper that can be published in international journals and the form of assessment is the paper that can correspond to the final project or not. The second

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one presents information about the way an accurate and successful presentation of the project is operated. – two additional webinars about successful presentation are offered as well. 4. Implementation and evaluation The online course started operating in 2015 with only 15 students there. Now there are more than 100 students entering the program every year. The pilot version showed the following problems that are being solved now: • It is necessary to upgrade the material quickly, as Chemistry is one of the fastdeveloped sciences in the world. As a result, now mostly the teachers here are those who graduated from the program before because they know Chemistry as well as English. • Cooperation of the teachers, representatives of the industries and the scientific supervisors can be difficult to operate. • Problems with motivation appear as the students start enthusiastically, but then they start finding other ways to spend their time. It is necessary to monitor, to use individual approach, to involve students in planning their individual track to keep them interested in studying. • Difficult to choose time for webinars as the students can live in different time zones.

5 Conclusions The use of online education in higher institutions makes it possible to actualize a differentiated approach to studying English online. The necessity of proper organization of work makes it important to use the instructional design model, that is a Process Model type and should be flexible as it is necessary to change it quickly depending on the demands of industry and the interests of the graduate. The model of instructional design ADDIE is appropriate here, but the main peculiarity is that the second stage “Design” is combined with the system of backward design, because the program has two forms of assessment: the final project and the final exam. The final project is an example of interdisciplinary approach and can be strongly recommended as a part of ultimate assessment for advanced students who are selected with the help of differentiated approach. That is why three learning paths (advanced, upper intermediate, intermediate) are offered, following which a student has an opportunity to show himself to potential employers from international companies. Training soft skills here are as important as the productive ones.

References 1. Francom, G.M.: Principles for task-centers instruction. Instr. Des. Theor. Models 4, 88–108 (2016) 2. Power, R.: Everyday instructional design. Power learning solutions, Canada (2023) 3. Smith, P.L., Ragan, T.J.: Instructional design. John, Hoboken (2005) 4. Merrill, M.: Components of instruction toward a theoretical tool for instructional design. Instr. Sci. 29, 291–310 (2001)

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5. Yelamarthi, K., Drake, E., Prewett, M.: An instructional design framework to improve student learning in a first-year engineering class. J. Inform. Technol. Educ. Innov. Pract. 15, 195–222 (2016) 6. Kanuka, H.: An exploration into facilitating higher levels of learning in a text-based Internet learning environment using diverse instructional strategies. J. Comput. Mediated Commun. 10(3) (2005). JCMC1032, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2005.tb00256.x 7. Semushina, E.Y., Volkova, E.: Training professional vocabulary on-line when studying “English for special purpose” in Technological University. In: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing. AISC, vol. 1328, pp. 663–670 (2021) 8. Dávila, A., Wiggins, G., McTighe, J.: Understanding by design. Colomb. Appl. Linguist. J. 19(1), 140–142 (2017) 9. Kraysman, N.V., Shageeva, F.T., Ziyatdinova, J., Pichugin, A.B.: Training engineering university students to participate in academic mobility programs. Lect. Notes in Netw. Syst. 634, 447–454 (2023)

Gamification Influences on Students’ Motivation in the EFL Classroom Ruth Infante-Paredes1(B) , Carlos Mayorga-Gaona1 , Cesar-A. Guerrero-Velástegui2 , and Daniel Morocho-Lara1 1 Grupo de Investigación Marketing Consumo y Sociedad, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas y de

la Educacion, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ambato, Ecuador {rutheinfantep,cmayorga7300,hd.morocho}@uta.edu.ec 2 Grupo de Investigación Marketing Consumo y Sociedad, Facultad de Ciencias Administrativas, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ambato, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. The era of technology demands innovative technological teaching tools that have a positive impact on the learning environment. This present study is expected to describe “gamification influence on motivation,” in the EFL classrooms. The investigation was coordinated to use a quantitative approach was used as this allowed to describe, analyze and interpret the benefits that gamification has on motivation so students can learn English in a more dynamic environment. The instrument applied was a survey that was validated by expert judgments and supported by Cronbach’s alpha index with a result of 0.78. The process of data from the validated survey was done with the quantitative approach since it helped with the comparative analysis. Finally, Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test and the One sample for the hypothesis test summary was generated this help determined that the null hypothesis was rejected. The population consisted of 111 students from the Pedagogy of Foreign Language Program at Technical University of Ambato. According to the research carried out, it can be determined that the use of gamification improves students’ motivation. The results in the survey affirm the influence of gamification in the EFL classroom. The most noticeable game elements that students chose in the survey were cooperation and competition with 25% freedom to make mistakes with 22% and lastly progress with 17%. Cooperation and competition allow students to be involved in the classroom. Freedom to make mistakes allow students to improve upon their errors. Progress motivates students to see their development. Keywords: gamification · motivation · game elements · intrinsic motivation · extrinsic motivation

1 Introduction The world has evolved over time, and parallel to this, human beings have created a variety of resources that have radically changed all aspects in life [1]. An example of this is Information and Communication Technologies that have made traditional society © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 31–38, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_4

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become a network society. Today, Higher Education Institutions have remained using lectures as the traditional teaching method. This is a problem since teachers spend most of the time explaining theoretical contents instead of observing the practice that students perform on the subject [2]. These gaps that occur in the application of the teaching methodology among English teachers make students have the feeling that the classes are monotonous, and nondynamic [3, 4]. This leads to discouragement and loss of motivation to learn, due to lack of interaction with their peers and teachers during class. Currently, with the help of games in the educational field, the aim is to reduce lack of motivation and poor performance [5]. This process involves in “playing”, but not in a playful way, but with a more educational approach. This is known as “Gamification.” [6] define Gamification as the application of the mechanics of play situations or contexts in a non-game context. As a result, the proposal was to create a handbook to incorporating gamified activities in lessons to motivate students of the first, second and third semester of basic education in the PINE program at Universidad Técnica de Ambato. It was observed that students lack motivation during classes since they are too streamlined and non-dynamic. The population was 111 students from the first to the third of basic education. This investigation expected to describe the relationship between gamification and EFL learners’ motivation. The surveys were sent throughout students’ institutional emails in order for them to complete a questionnaire. The results obtained were positive since the alternative hypothesis was accepted and the null hypothesis was rejected. All the data was collected and analyzed through the use of the IBM SPSS software. Gamification in the EFL classroom allows for the level of motivation to remain high due to the state of flow caused by the balance between the degree of difficulty. According to what was collected in the survey, it can be determined that gamification influences students’ motivation when learning. Gamified tools catch the interest of students since it breaks boundaries of traditional learning methods.

2 State of the Art According to [7] gamification aims to transmit information or modify a habit. The use of playful elements is intended for players to assimilate the information they receive thanks to the stimulation that the brain receives when having fun. Likewise, they will become protagonists of the process instead of only being spectators [8]. The main objective of gamification seeks to persuade the student to be interested in getting involved in the dynamism of the process that constitutes the transformation of the class; so that learning becomes attractive since it would represent a challenge similar to that of winning a game [9]. What this practice intends is for the learner to become actively involved in the acquisition of relevant knowledge and, from this, to be able to take advantage on occasions that warrant it. The aforementioned can be achieved by presenting activities that represent a challenge to the learner instead of a traditional class [10]. The degree work carried out by [11]. Gamification: a mission to foster students’ engagement and interaction in the EFL classroom, aimed to determine the impact of using gamification as a pedagogical strategy in strengthening an attractive environment to improve student interaction.

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For this work, a qualitative action-research paradigm was followed due to its approach based on the identification of a problem and the subsequent attempt to improve it [12]. Through different interviews, surveys, field diaries and recordings, obtained from the fourth-grade students of the IED Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, the lack of strategies and activities that promote commitment and interaction within the classroom was evidenced [13] and [14]. To solve the problem raised, a proposal is designed based on the different gamification techniques to create a system of lessons and cycles understood as missions. In which students manage to explore and discover how to talk about themselves, talk about their environment and finally be able to interact with other students in a more natural and independent way [15]. Those missions used a personalized and gamified rating system, which was based on obtaining coins during each application cycle. These coins reflected the interest of the student in interacting during class time, while it meant the passage to the next level [16]. The foregoing was a key and necessary element to understand the way in which engagement and interaction were interrelated in the English class [17]. As a result, it is concluded that gamification has a positive impact on student participation. In addition, it is a key strategy to establish an attractive environment where significant learning occurs, by relating to their interests and tastes [18]. Through this strategy there is an effective impact on the curiosity, vivacity, and enthusiasm of the students. This allowed them to learn in a more playful and motivating way [19]. Thus, this work provides important contributions for the present work since it allows us to understand that the principles and mechanics of gamification contribute to the creation of a motivating experience. On the other hand, it supports the use of some gamification techniques as a grading system, so that the student has the possibility of monitoring his progress and is aware that this depends mainly on himself, motivating him to give his best [20]. Gamification is a strategy applied in education with the purpose of generating interest in students when learning. “The new educational demands seek to generate changes in the way of transmitting knowledge to students, which is why space has been given to new strategies such as gamification to make education a more fun activity”[13]. In this way, gamification brings game mechanics to the educational field to improve the teachinglearning process. This is possible with web 2.0 tools, so that the student finds a more striking and entertaining learning model [2]. Due to the evolution that education has had in recent years to adapt to new generations and technologies, teachers have been forced to adapt to these changes. Today teachers not only fulfill the function of transmitting knowledge, but also with that of helping their students while learning. More and more teachers seek to increase motivation in the class in a way that has helped them gain the trust of students without neglecting mutual respect. In addition, this way of teaching prevents the class from being routine or boring. Also, analyze the deficiencies in obtaining knowledge by students, so that they trust that this methodological strategy enables the cycle of learning and understanding of academic content to develop satisfactorily within the classroom [3]. Take into consideration that, to apply gamification in the classroom, it is necessary for the teacher to know what the weak points of the students are when learning new topics. Based on this, you will be able to develop activities to apply this strategy with your

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pupils as a vehicle for learning new topics and make sure that they understand it [7]. The most important thing is that the students trust that this will happen optimally, otherwise, the results would not be as expected when applying gamification. It is necessary to remember that, when playing, it is essential that the participants do so voluntarily; the same goes for gamification [21]. Motivation is the force or the reasons why a person performs activities. This force is an internal and positive attitude that keeps the subject motivated to learn or perform various tasks. “Motivation, from the Latin motivus (relative to movement), is that which moves or has efficacy or virtue to move; in this sense, it is the engine of human behavior” [5]. However, this motivation is driven by interest since the subject keeps doing an activity because he wants to achieve certain objectives. This interest is born from a need that occurs in the individual since there is a level of disagreement. Currently, students have been more influenced by technology and the use of social networks, and video games. This has caused demotivation in the educational field because there is no factor that stimulates this interest [11]. “One of the most relevant aspects for learning to occur is motivation and there is no doubt that when this does not exist, students hardly learn” [1]. In this way, there are two types of motivation since one is given by external motivation and another internal one that influences the behavior and actions of the subject. Also, it is important to mention that this motivation is the one that regulates the level of intensity with which an individual will develop certain activities [9].

3 Methodology This present study consisted of a field research by applying a validated survey which were applied to a group of students from the “Universidad Técnica de Ambato (UTA). The population considered for this study was students from all the educational unit of the first, second and third semester of the Pedagogy of National and Foreign Languages (PINE) program. The first semester consists of 42 students 11 male and 31 female. The second semester consist of 35 students 9 male and 26 female. The third semester consists of 34 students 11 male and 23 female. The grand total of students for this study was 111 students 31 male and 80 female. The effectivity of the information collected was done in a timely manner by using Microsoft forms. The online survey link was generated and sent out to students’ institutional email. All the information was stored in google forms and later it was exported to an excel file to assure the safety and accessibility of the data. The instruments used in this research were subjected to review and validation by three University professors from the faculty. The reliability of the test is verified by means of the statistical program SPSS based on the result of Cronbach’s Alpha with a reliability value of 0.786.

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4 Results The study provided results about gamification resources that positively influenced on students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to learn English. The results include the students’ opinions about how the use of gamificaction improve students’ motivation. They also display the One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test results (Table 1). Table 1. Do you believe that the use of gamification improves students’ motivation to learn English?

Valid

Missing

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Occasionally

2

1.8

1.8

1.8

Sometimes

17

15.2

15.3

17.1

Often

42

37.5

37.8

55.0

Always

50

44.6

45.0

100.0

Total

111

99.1

100.0

System

1

.9

112

100.0

Total

The result shows the grand majority of students believe that the use of gamification improves their motivation to learn. These results are key for the investigation as they affirm the importance of gamification influence on motivation in the EFL classroom. Finally, the trend is positive since it was evidenced that the majority use say that gamification improves students’ motivation to learn English (Table 2). Table 2. One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Do you believe that the use of gamification improves students’ motivation to learn English? N

111

Mean

4.26

Std. Deviation

.783

Absolute

.278

Positive

.180

Negative

−.278

Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z

2.926

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

a Test distribution is Normal. b Calculated from data.

36

R. Infante-Paredes et al.

According to what can be observed in the table below, the results are key components for the investigation. They affirm the importance of gamification and its positive influence on students’ motivation. The results obtained are positive since it shows that gamification aids students improved their overall motivation since traditional teaching is no longer in play (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Differences test

As demonstrated in the hypothesis table above, according to the chi-square test the null hypothesis is rejected. H_0: Gamification does not influence on motivation in the EFL Classroom. H_1: Gamification influence on motivation in the EFL Classroom.

5 Conclusions Gamification is based on the ability of their systems to stimulate the motivation of the players so that they develop specific behaviors. Gamifying classes we can combine both types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic, weighing according to which are the tasks of the team that participates in the dynamic. Teachers have sought alternatives to involve the student’s motivation without the obligation to show them the reward before presenting the activity. Therefore, the reward will be an element of surprise. That said, the problem is not giving a reward, but the way and the moment in which it is done. In short, motivation levels are not always the same: sometimes they will be higher while others will be lower. In order for the subject to carry out an activity on occasions, what leads him to do so is intrinsic motivation, and on others extrinsic motivation will do so. Therefore, when teachers develop a class, they need to take this factor into account and opt for alternatives that increase the level of motivation in their students. The results of this research demonstrate that the use of gamification influences students’ motivation when learning. Overall gamified tools in the EFL classroom catch the

Gamification Influences on Students’ Motivation in the EFL Classroom

37

interest of students since it breaks boundaries of traditional learning methods. The implementation of mechanics, dynamics, and components of gamification, within the activities transform the academic space into a pleasant and motivating experience, in which students take an active role and encourage both cooperative and collaborative learning. To broaden the horizon of this study sociolinguistic aspect can be implemented within the context of the research to further analyze the societies effect on the language. Acknowledgments. Thanks to the Technical University of Ambato, to the Research and Development Department (DIDE-UTA) For Supporting Our Research Project “Gamification and Digital Marketing: Perspectives of industry 4.0 from a Higher Education viewpoint” (PFCA25). Approved under resolution UTA-CONIN-2023-0042-R, and being part of the research group: “Marketing, Consumption and Society”.

References 1. Torres, T.A., Rodríguez, R.L.: Gamificación en Iberoamérica: Experiencias desde la comunicación y la educación. Universidad Politécnica Salesiana (2018) 2. Castro, M.P.: Gamification as a Strategy to Increase Motivation and Engagement in Higher Education Chemistry Students, researchgate (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/computers101 00132 3. Chans, G.M.: Gamification as a Strategy to Increase Motivation and Engagement. Computer MDPI (2021) 4. Mcleod, S.: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, canadacollege (2018). https://canadacollege.edu/ dreamers/docs/Maslows-Hierarchy-of-Needs.pdf 5. Trivedi, A.: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory of human motivation, raijmr journal (2019). http://www.raijmr.com/ijrsml/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/IJRSML_2019_vol07_i ssue_06_Eng_09.pdf 6. Vargas, Z.L., Sánchez, C.L.: Digital games (Gamification) in Learning and Training: An Approach to Adaptation and Integration in the Classroom. Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia (2020). https://latinjournal.org/index.php/gist/article/download/765/646 7. Malinowski, M.: Advantages and disadvantages of Gamification, researchgate (2021). https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/352019952_Advantages_and_disadvantages_of_Gamific ation 8. Klock, A., Gasparini, I., Pimenta, M., Hamari, J.: Tailored gamification: a review of literature. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 144 (2020) 9. Souders, B.: Motivation and What Really Drives Human Behavior, positivepsycholog (2019). https://positivepsychology.com/motivation-human-behavior/ 10. Rincon, E.: Gamification as a teaching method to improve performance. Educ. Sci. 11–12 (2021) 11. Gómez, L.M.: Gamification: a mission to foster students’ engagement and interaction in the EFL classroom. Universidad Pedagógica Nacional (2019). http://repository.pedagogica.edu. co/bitstream/handle/20.500.12209/10368/TE-23309.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y 12. Flores Bueno, D., Limaymanta, C.H., Uribe Tirado, A.: The gamification in the development of information literacy from the perspective of university students. Rev. Interam. Bibliot. 44(2), 1–13 (2021) 13. Ardilla Muñoz, J.Y.: Theoretical assumptions for the gamification in the higher education. Magis. Int. J. Res. Educ. 12(24) (2019)

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14. Gerdenitsch, C., et al.: Work gamification: effects on enjoyment, productivity and the role of leadership. Electron. Commer. Res. Appl. 43 (2020) 15. Juan-Lázaro, O., Área Moreira, M.: Thin layer gamification in e-learning: evidence on motivation and self-regulation. Pixel-Bit Media Educ. J. 12(62), 146–181 (2021) 16. Alarcon, M.A., Alarcón, H.H., Rodriguez, L.S., Zapata, N.: Gamification-based educational intervention: experience in the university context. Eleuthera J. 22(2), 117–131 (2020) 17. Delors, J.: Learning: the treasure within; report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century (highlights) (1996) 18. UNESCO. https://es.unesco.org/futuresofeducation/la-iniciativa 19. Peoza Fuentes, C.A., Mercado Guerra, J.L.: Methodological innovation and learning approaches in university students: a case study of the commercial engineering degree at the Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile. Form. Univ. 13(3), 111–122 20. Pegalajar Palomino, M.D.C., Burgos García, A., Martínez Valdivida, E.: Education for sustainable development and social responsibility: keys to initial teacher training from a systematic review. J. Educ. Res. 40(2), 421–437 (2022) 21. Hurtado Talavera, F.J.: Education in times of pandemic: the challenges of the school of the xii century. CIEG Refereed J. Center Res. Manag. Stud. (44), 176–187 (2020)

Gamification as an Essential Factor for Developing Management Skills Cesar-A. Guerrero-Velástegui1(B) , Pamela Silva-Arcos1 , Ruth Infante-Paredes2 , and Leonardo Ballesteros-López1 1 Grupo de Investigación Marketing Consumo y Sociedad, Facultad de Ciencias

Administrativas, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ambato, Ecuador {ca.guerrero,psilva7510,lg.ballesteros}@uta.edu.ec 2 Grupo de Investigación Marketing Consumo y Sociedad, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas y de la Educación, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ambato, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. Our current pace of life revolves around an era with demands and needs based on technology, within these needs is methodological innovation in higher education, since traditional teaching structures show demotivation and low level of participation in students, who are considered digital natives. This article aims to demonstrate the positive influence of the implementation of gamification as a learning strategy with the support of technological resources such as Kahoot, Genially and Canvas to achieve progress on the students’ learning. The instruments used were first a survey whose content validity of the instrument was verified with an average of 0.9 of “V of Aiken” coefficient, in which 5 experts evaluated the clarity, relatedness and relevance of the items, and for internal consistency, Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient was applied, obtaining a value of 0.908. Then, a pre and posttest was employed to measure the leadership skills based on Whetter & Cameron model. The experiment consisted of 5 interventions with gamification resources (rewards, points, progression, challenges, among others.) for the development of leadership skills (decision making, leadership, knowledge) in the students at Administrative Sciences Faculty of the Technical University of Ambato to form in them the ideal profile of a manager who meets the socio-labor demands of their context. Finally, through a TAM questionnaire, students obtained positive trends in the level of 92% of acceptance and satisfaction. Keywords: Gamification · Management skills · Leadership · Human · Conceptual · Technical skills

1 Introduction The chaos caused by COVID-19 and its effects on human health, represented the transition from face-to-face to virtual education. Due to the teaching-learning process’ needs in the educational field, students were forced to learn in a purely technological environment, which strengthens the interaction between students and technology, not only for © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 39–46, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_5

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social purposes, but also for educational purposes. As a result of this constant technological interaction, students develop digital skills that generate a positive impact on the development of their academic activities [1]. It is well-known that education is responsible for the common good and for the achievement of a fairer and more livable planet [2] through the development of capacities that contribute to socio-labor progress. UNESCO goals (2019) for sustainable development from an educational approach (ESD) are based on using the cognitive process in students to achieve individual and collective goals, to have a society with far-reaching innovations [3]. Implementing factors that stimulate positively in the students’ formative phase, improves the student’s experience in cognition [4], therefore, the teaching-learning process becomes more effective. Improving this process is closely linked to the methodological innovation that university teachers need to implement in their classes to ensure that emotional aspects such as students’ motivation and participation are complemented by their autonomous learning progress [5], with active classes where students can develop useful skills required by the business environment. In this context, it is possible to identify that gamification applied to education is a strategy that generates interactive lessons where students have a high percentage of participation with an evident increase of interest and motivation in the assigned activities. Additionally, it strengthens teacher-student and student-student relationships due to the gamified activities. Achieving the development of management skills is directly linked to the need for companies to find and retain personnel who have knowledge on business and who are able to innovate and raise the competitiveness of the organization and for the achievement of its objectives [6]. On leadership skills contain the importance of effective and autonomous management training and performance.

2 State of the Art Currently, ESD seeks to raise the quality of education for university students with the aim of successful social and labor insertion [7]. The need to create a new scenario in education is urgent [8]. It assumes that this is achieved through the use of technological resources, leaving behind rote teaching structures that shows demotivation and low performance [9]. Aligning technology and pedagogy allows us to identify gamification as a viable tool for methodological innovation [10]. Flores-Bueno et al., indicates that gamification is a learning strategy that has relevance in the progress and improvement of skills that would not be developed in a traditional educational environment [11]. In this sense, gamification consists of the use of game elements applied to different contexts, to enhance creativity and productivity [12–14]. It must be considered that university students are in a digital stage in which they are native managers, which makes it easier for them to get involved in a gamified environment and become protagonists of their educational process [15]. In 2015 Chou proposed the “Octalysis” model made up of eight drivers of gamification: Vocation, achievements, creativity and feedback, property, social influence, scarcity, curiosity and loss [16]. All these factors generate emotional awareness and

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encourage concentration in the learning process and promote motivation in the individual, both intrinsic and extrinsic, as a response to the stimulus generated by gamification [17]. Gamification is divided into three dimensions; dynamic (progression, emotions), mechanics (reward, challenge, feedback) and component (avatars, points, content unlock) [18]. Experts recommend the implementation of scoring systems to show progress and generating positive effects on learning [19]. With the use of scoring systems interest, participation and degree of attention in learning are increased [20], which raises the percentage of qualified professionals for society. A wave of popularity of gamification has been generated in recent years for its effectiveness in the development of skills [21]. However, higher education must be adapted to new socio-labor demands in the business scenario [22], which has been modified due to globalization and rapid evolution of technology [23], organizations require managers who have skills and knowledge to be effective and achieve innovation [6]. In experimental research, it is stated that including practical activities in the curriculum increases the degree of employability due to the experience generated by the development of these activities [24]. With gaming resources one can recreate real organizational experiences for the development of management skills and contribute to an adequate business training [25]. Thus, management skills are a set of interrelated and often incompatible behavioral capacities that can be controlled and developed in individuals for proper management [26]. Katz states that the ideal profile for a business manager has three basic competences: conceptual skills (decision making, conflict resolution and creativity), human or interpersonal (leadership, teamwork, and competitiveness) and technical (experience, specific knowledge). Hence, conceptual skills involve perceiving the company as a whole and recognizing the interdependence of organizational functions and resources [27], considering that making a decision to solve a conflict can cause a significant change, either positive or negative. These skills are aimed at senior management, due to their global vision and ability to create strategies in complex projects and ensure access to human, financial and technological capital to achieve success [28]. Second, human skills that refer to the ability to interact effectively in an executive environment as a member or leader of a team [27]. Higher education assumes the challenge to train people in interpersonal skills such as teamwork and knowing how to communicate effectively because these skills enrich performance at work [29], and they are related to all administrative levels by virtue of their effect on people’s motivation. Finally, technical skills involve the intellect, mastery of methods and procedures in specific activities that are required to generate experience and specialized professional knowledge [27]. Branches such as production management, quality control or industrial safety are examples of areas in which specific technical skills are needed for their execution such as: mathematical, operational, maintenance and equipment control skills.

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3 Methodology This study is supported by the positivist paradigm under a hypothetical deductive method, since it is intended to identify research gaps and generate emerging knowledge supported by the quantitative research approach, with a descriptive and correlational. It has a quasiexperimental design and involves the comparison of reporting agents, with longitudinal scope. A survey was used consisting of 16 items with a Likert scale, to measure frequency and agreement. The content validity of the instrument was verified using the “V of Aiken” coefficient, in which 5 experts evaluated the clarity, relatedness and relevance of the items, obtaining an average of 0.9 that demonstrates a high validity prior to its application. To determine the construct validity, it was submitted to the KaiserMeyer-Olkin (KMO) test, with a result of 0.837. Additionally, the Barltlett sphericity test was applied with a degree of significance yielded 0.000; that is, less than the p-value. Finally, the reliability of internal consistency of the instrument was assessed; applying Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient, obtaining a value of 0.908; these parameters statistically demonstrate that the instrument is valid for application. As a next step, a test was applied twice to evaluate management skills; in the first instance as a pretest and in the second instance as a post test, to university students. The test was adapted from the model proposed by Whetter & Cameron, with a total of 23 questions and a maximum score of 92 points. Once the pre-test was applied, an experiment was designed consisting of 5 interventions 0f 40 min using gamification resources; with the support of platforms such as Kahoot, Genialy and Canvas, addressing issues related to the development of management skills. A simulation of belonging to a variety of enterprises was used from the first to the last intervention. After the intervention, the post test was applied, for the analysis of the contrast between pre and post test with the Wilcoxon test was applied in which a positive variation between tests of 8.2 points was identified, this because it generated interest, motivation, and entertainment in the students in the process. Finally, the technological acceptance model (TAM) was applied which reflected a positive trend of acceptance and satisfaction with the gaming resources used. The objective of this experiment is to identify how gamification influences the learning of management skills in students at the Technical University of Ambato (Ecuador), with a population of 277 students from the Faculty of Administrative Sciences and a sample of 162 students to be surveyed.

4 Results This section presents the results extracted from the answers of the questionnaire that was analyzed in the IBM SPSS software to evaluate its validity prior to its application. Additionally, the variance between the pre and posttest is evaluated by dimension of management skills. Finally, the level of satisfaction with the use of gamification in learning with the TAM questionnaire is presented. The initial questionnaire was applied to 162 students of the Faculty of Administrative Sciences, Fig. 1 represents the management skills that can be developed with the use of gamification resources in which they chose the 3 skills with the greatest incidence

Gamification as an Essential Factor for Developing Management Skills

43

in a context in which the student assumes the role of manager and makes decisions based on previously established parameters. Then, for the experiment chosen randomly. It indicates that leadership 71.6%, teamwork 62.4% and creativity 47.5% are the 3 skills that are best developed in this context, human and conceptual skills are highlighted.

Fig. 1. Management Skills developed with gamification resources.

For the experiment 5 interventions were carried out with 50 students from the Faculty of Administrative Sciences in which gamification resources were used (rewards, progress bars, points, challenges, feedback, characters, and content unlocking), in each intervention a combination of management skills was developed, in which leadership, teamwork, creativity and inherently decision making were prioritized (Table 1). In the first instance, the pre-test was applied based on the model proposed by Whetter & Cameron in which 7 dimensions of management skills were identified, with 23 items and a maximum to be obtained of 92 points, after the 5 interventions the same test was applied again to know the variance between both instances, for this the nonparametric Wilcoxon test was performed. It is observed that in the pre-test an average value of 70.58 was obtained while in the post-test 78.78 points were obtained, with a statistical difference of 8.2 points, therefore, a significant difference in their development of management skills is evident, which indicates that gamification contributes positively to the development management skills. Figure 2, represents that at the end of the 5 interventions, the technological acceptance model (TAM) was applied to the 50 students to know the level of satisfaction perceived when executing the academic activities with gamification resources, obtaining a satisfaction value of 92%.

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C.-A. Guerrero-Velástegui et al. Table 1. Differential and statistical analysis between Pre and Post periods

Management Skills dimensions

Pre

Post

P

M

DS

M

DS

9,46

±1,57

10,08

±1,61

Stress under pressure

6,06

±1,24

6,80

Problem resolution

9,10

±1,76

Innovation

9,14

Motivation

Differences Pre – Post M

Ds

0,023*

0,62

±2,26

±1,20

0,006*

0,74

±1,79

10,18

±1,61

0,001*

1,08

±2,49

±1,68

10,40

± 1,65

0,000*

1,26

± 2,54

15,30

±2,41

17,28

±2,74

0,000*

1,98

±3,78

Leadership

15,64

±2,34

17,36

±2,93

0,001*

1,72

±4,02

Teamwork

5,88

±1,27

6,68

±1,27

0,003*

0,80

±1,82

Total management skills

70,58

±9,55

78,78

±11,52

0,000*

8,20

±15,89

Self knowledge

50

Note. Analysis of mean values (M), standard deviation (SD) with significant differences at a level of P ≤ 0,05(*)

Fig. 2. Satisfaction Level

5 Conclusions We can conclude that the use of gamification positively influences in the development of management skills in students, mainly in competencies focused on leadership, team-work and creativity. Resources such as rewards, points, progress bars and challenges raise the level of participation, interest and motivation. In addition, it strengthens competitiveness, communication and interaction between students.

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The TAM questionnaire showed a level of satisfaction of 92% in which it is evident that there is a high degree of acceptance of the interaction with gamification tools and resources supported by technology for the development of their learning; in this context, the interactive platform Genially achieved greater interaction, interest and motivation in students. Additionally, due to the high degree of interaction generated by gamification, its hedonic factors are identified as useful to facilitate the learning of management skills. Furthermore, based on the results obtained, using gamification in higher education is an inherent methodological innovation. As a future line of research, the focus on the development of human skills using gamification resources has a wide gap, its importance is due to the fact that these skills cover the three levels of management, therefore, its contribution will be focused on the efficient administrative management of companies. Acknowledgements. Thanks to the Technical University of Ambato, to the Research and Development Department (DIDE-UTA) For supporting our research project “Gamification and digital marketing: Perspectives of industry 4.0 from a Higher Education viewpoint”, PFCA25. Approved under resolution UTA-CONIN-2023-0042-R and being part of the research group: “Marketing, Consumption and Society”.

References 1. Kastorff, T., Sailer, M., Stegmann, K.: A typology of adolescents’ technology use before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: a latent profile analysis. Int. J. Educ. Res. 117 (2023) 2. Delors, J.: Learning: the treasure within; report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century (highlights) (1996) 3. UNESCO. https://es.unesco.org/futuresofeducation/la-iniciativa 4. Akdim, K., Casaló, L.V., Flavián, C.: The role of utilitarian and hedonic aspects in the continuance intention to use social mobile apps. J. Retail. Consum. Serv. 66, 102888 (2022) 5. Peoza Fuentes, C.A., Mercado Guerra, J.L.: Methodological innovation and learning approaches in university students: a case study of the commercial engineering degree at the Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile. Form. Univ. 13(3), 111–122 6. Pedraza Rodríguez, J.A., Ruiz Vélez, A., Sánchez Rodríguez, I., Fernández Esquinas, M.: Management skills and organizational culture as sources of innovation for firms in peripheral regions. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 191, 122518 (2023) 7. Pegalajar Palomino, M.D.C., Burgos García, A., Martínez Valdivida, E.: Education for sustainable development and social responsibility: keys to initial teacher training from a systematic review. J. Educ. Res. 40(2), 421–437 (2022) 8. Hurtado Talavera, F.J.: Education in times of pandemic: the challenges of the school of the xii century. CIEG Refereed J. Center Res. Manag. Stud. 44, 176–187 (2020) 9. Aldalur, I., Perez, A.: Gamification and discovery learning: motivating and involving students in the learning process. Heliyon 9(1) (2023) 10. Dávila Santillán, L.N.: Gamification strategies applied to the development of digital teaching skills. Casa Grande University, Postgraduate Departament, p. 60 (2019) 11. Flores Bueno, D., Limaymanta, C.H., Uribe Tirado, A.: The gamification in the development of information literacy from the perspective of university students. Rev. Interam. Bibliot. 44(2), 1–13 (2021) 12. Ardilla Muñoz, J.Y.: Theoretical assumptions for the gamification in the higher education. Magis. Int. J. Res. Educ. 12(24) (2019)

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13. Gerdenitsch, C., et al.: Work gamification: effects on enjoyment, productivity and the role of leadership. Electron. Commer. Res. Appl. 43, 100994 (2020) 14. Juan-Lázaro, O., Área Moreira, M.: Thin layer gamification in e-learning: evidence on motivation and self-regulation. Pixel-Bit Media Educ. J. 12(62), 146–181 (2021) 15. Alarcon, M.A., Alarcón, H.H., Rodriguez, L.S., Zapata, N.: Gamification-based educational intervention: experience in the university context. Eleuthera J. 22(2), 117–131 (2020) 16. Chou, Y.-K.: Actionable Gamification Beyond Points, Badges, and Leaderboards (2015) 17. Collazos, C., Habib, F., AlSekait, D., Pereira, C., Moreira, F.: Designing online platforms supporting emotions and awareness. Electronics 10(3), 251 (2021) 18. Calderon, M.Y., Flores, G.S., Ruiz, A., Catillo, S.E.: Gamification in the reading comprehension of students in times of pandemic in Peru. Soc. Sci. J. XXVIII(Special 5), 63–74 (2022) 19. Wang, Y.-F., Hsu, Y.-F., Fang, K.: The key elements of gamification in corporate training – the Delphi method. Entertain. Comput. 40, 100463 (2022) 20. Morales, J.B., Mercedes Rico, H.S.: Fun programming learning with gamification. RISTIIberic J. Syst. Technol. 41, 17–33 (2021) 21. Koivisto, J., Hamari, J.: The rise of motivational information systems: a review of gamification research. Int. J. Inf. Manag. 45, 191–210 (2019) 22. Vélez, O., Palacio López, S.M., Hernández Fernández, Y.L., Ortiz Rendón, P.A., Gaviria Martínez, L.F.: Learning based on educational games: case university in Colombia. Electron. J. Educ. Res. 21 (2019) 23. Tseng, H., Yi, X., Yeh, H.-T.: Learning-related soft skills among online business students in higher education: grade level and managerial role differences in self-regulation, motivation, and social skill. Comput. Hum. Behav. 95, 179–186 (2019) 24. St˘aiculescu, C., Richi¸teanu-N˘astase, E.-R., C˘at˘alin Dobrea, R.: The university and the business environment - partnership for education. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 180, 211–218 (2015) 25. Araujo, J., Pestana, G.: A framework for social well-being and skills management at the workplace. Int. J. Inf. Manag. 37(6), 718–725 (2017) 26. Whetten, D.A., Cameron, K.S.: Developing Management Skills, 8th edn. Pearson Education, London (2011) 27. Katz, R.: Harvard Business Review (1974). https://hbr.org/1974/09/skills-of-an-effective-adm inistrator?language=es 28. Ahmed, R., Philbin, S.P.: It takes more than the project manager: the importance of senior management support for successful social sector projects. Proj. Leadersh. Soc. 3, 100042 (2022) 29. Suarez, F.: Intelligent management system for universities with startups vision: a literature review. Educare J. UPEL-IPB 26(2), 348–361 (2022)

The Formation of a Virtual Educational Environment as an Element in the System of Improving the Digital Competences of Teachers Halyna Sazhko1

, Olesia Nechuiviter1(B) , Anastasiia Kovalchuk1 and Lina Fatieieva2

,

1 Ukrainian Engineering Pedagogics Academy, Kharkiv 61003, Ukraine

[email protected] 2 National Scientific Center «Hon. Prof. M. S. Bokarius Forensic Science Institute»,

Kharkiv 61177, Ukraine

Abstract. Under influence of latest information and communication technologies, the processes of digital transformation are taking place in all areas of social development: economy, production, public administration, legislative sphere, socio-cultural sphere, science and education. Undoubtedly, specialist in any field has to meet modern requirements of the digital society, and the problem for the education system is the formation of such a specialist. Modern social development and formation of a competitive specialist underlies digitalization of education, which requires an appropriate level from teachers as subjects of the educational process, digital educational environment, corresponding improvement of training system and professional development of pedagogical workers. These are the issues that are raised in the study. The analysis of the main legal normative documents that determine the direction of the development of pedagogical education in Ukraine and regulate the procedure for improving skills. The research analysis of the leading Ukrainian and European scientists gave grounds for a detailed consideration of the system main components to improve digital competences of teachers. The components of digital competence are singled out and ways of their formation and improvement are proposed. There is considered a problem of qualitative renewal of the system for a professional development of pedagogical workers, in particular, in the field of digitalization. A virtual educational environment is proposed to form and improve digital competences, its modular structure and fill it with the necessary digital educational resources. The expediency of its implementation and use to ensure the improvement of the digital competence of teachers has been scientifically substantiated. Keywords: Virtual educational environment · Digital competence · Professional development of teachers

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 47–54, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_6

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1 Context The integration of Ukraine into the global educational space requires constant improvement of the national education system, searching for effective ways to improve the quality of educational services, implementing innovative pedagogical systems, modernizing the content of education and its compliance with global trends, labor market requirements, ensuring the continuity of education and learning throughout life. The innovative development of education in Ukraine actualizes the problem of qualitative renewal of the professional development system of pedagogical workers. A modern teacher needs flexibility and non-standard thinking, the ability to adapt to rapidly changing conditions of professional activity. This is possible due to profound professional hard skills, the presence of developed Soft skills and currently necessary digital skills [1].

2 Purpose or Goal The existing education system should take digital transformation as a vector of development and correspond to the global trends of digitalization of education. Every individual has an opportunity to realize their potential, but for its successfull realization, any professional requires to have a certain level of digital competence and mastery of the latest technologies. This issue in Ukraine was exacerbated not only by the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, but also by the war, which makes it impossible to use traditional forms of education and requires the transition to distance or, in the best case, to a mixed form of education. The Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine has prepared a project of the Concept of Digital Transformation of Education and Science for the period until 2026 [10]. In this regard, approaches to the organization and formation of the content of educational courses have also changed, and the organization form of the educational process has been transformed into digital learning. Within the scope of this work, digital learning is considered as the use of digital educational content with feedback implemented by means of communication technologies. As a result, the issue of increasing the digital competence of pedagogical workers and scientists has became more acute. In order to solve this issue, Ministry of Education and Culture of Ukraine approved the “Standard program for improving the qualifications of pedagogical workers regarding the development of digital competence”, which was developed in accordance with modern requirements of society. The analysis of the main regulatory documents that determine the development direction of pedagogical education in Ukraine [3–5] and regulate the procedure for improving qualifications, the analysis of the research of leading scientists of Ukraine and other European countries gave grounds for a detailed consideration of the main components of the system for improving the digital competences of teachers. In view of the above, the general goal of the study was determined, namely the formation of a virtual educational environment (VEE) as an element in the system of improving the digital competences of teachers. The research hypothesis is as follows: scientific substantiation and development of a virtual educational environment for improving the digital competences of teachers will allow to improve the digital competence of teachers; development of their ability

The Formation of a Virtual Educational Environment as an Element

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to support communication, cooperation, creativity and innovation; solve professional problems with the help of digital technologies; development of the ability to evaluate, select, adapt existing digital educational resources in the educational process, as well as develop author’s resources; to use digital technologies for monitoring, control and objective assessment of the results of educational activities of students.

3 Approach 3.1 Digital Competence What belongs to the field of digital competence? It covers concepts such as information and media literacy, communication and collaboration, digital content creation (including programming), security (including protection of personal data in the digital environment and cybersecurity), as well as problem solving and lifelong learning. This is the ability to navigate in the informational space, receive information and use it in accordance with one’s own needs and requirements of modern high-tech society. You can visually depict the components of digital competence as shown in the figure (Information computer technologies are marked with the abbreviation ICT) (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Components of digital competence

3.2 System of Formation and Improvement of Digital Competences Given that the continuous professional development of teaching staff is a mandatory component of a teaching career, a teacher should improve their digital competence without breaking away from their professional activity. There have been prepared standard training programs for the purpose of the professional development of pedagogical workers [20], which were approved by the relevant laws of the Ministry of Education and Culture of Ukraine. Standard training programs were prepared by a working group, which included representatives of the State Scientific Institution “Institute of Education Content Modernization”, the Institute of Pedagogy of National Academy of Educational Sciences of Ukraine, post-graduate pedagogical education institutions and higher education institutions. The programs consist of thematic modules, the content of which

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corresponds to the requirements of the professional competences of pedagogical workers, which are defined by professional program standards. One of the key competences is a digital competence, which should be formed by all teachers and constantly improved with the development of modern information technologies. 3.3 Virtual Educational Environment Prior to determining the concept of “virtual educational environment”, the authors analyzed modern foreign scientific literature. The analysis of scientific sources indicates the presence of a large number of interpretations of concepts related to the “virtual educational environment”. Some of them are considered below. In the work [14], the authors T. Zhuravel and N. Haidari consider the “virtual educational environment” as an open system within which an effective and interactive self-learning is ensured in the educational process based on the use of virtual reality technologies. M. Skurativska and S. Popadyuk in their work [8] interpret it as an organized system of information, technological, didactic resources, various forms of computer and telecommunication interaction of educational subjects. O. Arkhipova [15], V. Tereshchuk [16], Yu. Falshtynska [17] define a virtual learning environment as a software system for supporting distance learning with an emphasis on learning and filled with the necessary resources for knowledge formation. However, Jingfang Feng defines it as a method of learning, thinking, a way of knowing and means of control in a real learning environment [18]. Another point of view is held by Fengru Huang, Hui Lin, Bin Chen. In their study, the authors defined the concept of “virtual learning environment” as a concept of the virtual world that referred to the real world and is represented in five types: Internet space, data space, 3D-graphic space, personal perceptual-cognitive space and social space [19]. Summarizing the experience of scientists and adding their vision, the authors of this article define as a system of various resources (informational, didactic, technological) and forms of interaction (synchronous, asynchronous; face-to-face, remote; computer, telecommunication) of the subjects aimed at forming individual educational trajectory. The technological implementation of VEE has two main functions: resourceful, which includes the formation, uploading and storage of digital educational resources and tools, and communicative function, which provides operational remote access to resources. It is rational to use cloud technologies for the VEE expansion, which allow to expand the teachers’ skills of working in the Internet; develop a single information space; create the conditions of presence in the educational space at different times and independently from each other; allow you to create, develop and effectively use managed information and educational resources with the possibility of universal access to work with them [2].

4 Actual or Anticipated Outcomes Under the circumstances of the education transformation into a digital one, the problem of modernization of the educational space arose. Distance learning has developed as an alternative form of traditional education. A wide range of learning management systems (LMS - Learning Management System) is offered for remote learning: “Moodle”,

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“Sakai”, “eLearning Server”, “REDCLASS Learning”, “WebTutor”, “eLearning 4G”, “Claroline LMS”. The above-listed systems provide the user with tools, the use of which allows you to create and place your training course in the system and organize the activities of the student in its development. In the comparative analysis of the available educational management systems, the authors gave preference to Moodle and Google Class, on which a virtual educational environment is deployed and filled with digital educational resources. VEE is built based on modular principles and modules include the following (see Fig. 2). In Fig. 2, in modules 2 and 3, digital educational resources are marked with the abbreviation DER.

Virtual educational environment in the system of improving the digital competences of teachers Pedagogical design of the DER complex 2 and its software realization

1

Modern information technologies

1.1

1.4

Artificial intelligence 1.2

Example 3 Center complex DER

SMART

Thematic forum

5

Manual

1.5

Cloud technologies

1.3

4

Virtual and augmented reality

STEAM

6

Object-oriented programming

Fig. 2. Virtual educational environment.

Taking into account the specifics of the VEE content, each module is a separate component and it contains a set of digital educational resources, namely: software and methodical resources (manual, video presentation, list of necessary software); educational and didactic resources (lecture notes, presentation, video lecture); educational and methodical resources (project of a practical training, methodological instructions for a practical training, educational and didactic game); controlling resources (tests, individual tasks); supporting resources (glossary, useful links for online resources on the topic) and expected learning outcomes. The modular principle of VEE provides the possibility of non-linear learning. Let us consider the module contents and direction on the formation and improvement of each of the components of digital competence in more detail (see Fig. 1). Informational component presupposes the availability of knowledge in the field of modern information technologies, as well as the ability, readiness and experience of using them to solve professional tasks. Studying modules 1, 2, 3, 6 will contribute to the formation and improvement of this component.

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Didactic and methodical component. Understanding the role of digital technologies in education and their didactic capabilities. Studying modules 2 and 3 will contribute to the formation and improvement of this component. Technological component. Skills in working with technical devices and software. Studying module 2 will contribute to the formation and improvement of this component. Motivational component. Personal needs in the use of digital technologies. Studying modules 3 and 4 will contribute to the formation and improvement of this component. The field of information technologies is developing rapidly. An advantage of the developed VEE is that it can be quickly modernized: add new modules, adjust the content, add multimedia resources, change the architecture and content. Undisputed advantages of VEE are: 1. Available software products with open access and author’s developments are maximally concentrated in VEE in order to save the teacher’s time in searching for different resources. 2. Digital support: implementation of creative developments in the educational process (examples included). 3. The use of VEE as a toolkit in teaching the subject “Instrumental support of Elearning”, which is an educational component of the educational and professional program “Professional education (Digital technologies)”. 4. The use of VEE modules as educational elements for the formation of mass open online courses (MOOC), provided it is placed on the platform of open educational resources. 5. Independence from the subject taught by the teacher. Digital competence is necessary for everyone, but at different levels. Therefore, for example, a specialist in the field of information technology will need to use modules 2 and 3; computer science teacher – 1, 2, 3; physics teacher – 1.3, 2, 3; innovative teacher - 1, 2, 3, 5, etc. 6. Modernization of existing modules; adding new ones; updating the content of each of the modules; use both as a whole and separately of each module; use both in distance learning and mixed or offline learning. 7. Currently, the VEE is used as a pilot project within the scope of the scientific research work “Organizational and methodical principles of digitalization of the educational process in schools”. The virtual educational environment designed on the Google Class and Moodle web platforms can therefore be used on any gadget on which one of the Windows, macOS, Linux, Android and iOS operating systems is installed. All you need is internet access and a web browser. Both platforms have unique capabilities and functions that allow you to effectively conduct the educational process in a distance or mixed format. The proposed VEE was developed taking into account the needs of teachers and students of education and provides an opportunity to form the components of digital competence: technological, informational, motivational and didactic-methodical.

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5 Conclusions/Recommendations/Summary Considering the diversity and novelty of existing approaches, methods and technologies of VEE development, its formation and use for educational purposes, it can be concluded that these issues require clarification in approaches, models, methods, possible ways of implementation and experimental research. As stated in the main part of the study, VEE is currently being used as a pilot project. Therefore, the processing and analysis of experimental data, the evaluation of the effectiveness of the use of VEE to develop and improve digital competences of teachers, the further modernization of VEE (if need be) and the introduction of VEE into the system of upgrading teachers’ qualifications in the field of digital technologies at the Ukrainian Engineering and Pedagogical Academy are ahead.

References 1. Nechuiviter, O., Sazhko, H., Kovalchuk, A.: Digitalization of the educational process of training future engineering-teachers. In: Hu, Z., Zhang, Q., Petoukhov, S., He, M. (eds.) ICAILE 2022, vol. 135, pp. 204–213. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3031-04809-8_18 2. Sazhko, H., Pirsl, D.: Cloud technologies in the development of the e-lerning: theoretical aspects. Probl. Eng. Pedagog. Educ. 66, 90–97 (2020) 3. Law of Ukraine on Education. Statements of Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, vol. 38–39, p. 380 (2017). (in Ukrainian) 4. Law of Ukraine on the Concept of National Informatization Program. Statements of Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, 27–28, article 182 (1998). (in Ukrainian) 5. Strategy for reforming higher education in Ukraine for 2021-20312021. Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine (2021). (in Ukrainian) 6. Digital Agenda of Ukraine, 2016 (2020). (in Ukrainian) 7. On the Recommendations of the parliamentary hearings on the topic: “Reforms in the field of information and communication technologies and the development of the information space of Ukraine”: resolution of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine dated March 31, 2016 No. 1073-VIII. Information of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, no. 17. Art. 191 (2016). (in Ukrainian) 8. Skurativska, M., Popadyuk, S.: Virtual educational environment as an innovative component of the educational process in higher education. Collection of scientific papers. Pedagogical sciences, LXXX, vol. 2, pp. 251–255 (2017). (in Ukrainian) 9. Telyatnik, K., Sokol, I.: Creation of a virtual educational environment using modern Internet services. Bull. Zaporizhzhya Natl. Univ. 1(24), 183–190 (2015). (in Ukrainian) 10. Project Concept of digital transformation of education and science for the period until 2026. https://mon.gov.ua/ua/news/koncepciya-cifrovoyi-transformaciyi-osviti-i-nauki-monzaproshuye-do-gromadskogo-obgovorennya. Accessed 20 Apr 2023 11. Lyakhotska, L.L.: Peculiarities of professional development of pedagogical workers in elearning conditions. In: Sydorenko, V.V., Skrypnyk, M.I. (eds.) Professional Development of Specialists in the Adult Education System: History, Theory, Technologies: A Collection of Materials of the II All-Ukrainian Internet Conference 2017, pp. 118–121. TsIPPO, Kyiv (2017). (in Ukrainian) 12. Samoilenko, O.O.: The use of the mobile version of the LMS MOODLE in the process of improving the qualifications of pedagogical workers in the postgraduate education system. In: Sydorenko, V.V., Skrypnyk, M.I. (eds.) Professional Development of Specialists in the

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H. Sazhko et al. Adult Education System: History, Theory, Technologies: A Collection of Materials of the II All-Ukrainian Internet Conference 2017, pp. 147–150. TsIPPO, Kyiv (2017). (in Ukrainian) Chakraborty, M., Nafukho, Fr.M.: Strategies for virtual learning environments: focusing on teaching presence and teaching immediacy. Internet Learn. 4(1), 2 (2015) Zhuravel, T., Haidari, N.: Virtual educational environment as a means of formation of regional studies and linguistic regional studies competences in students of non-linguistic specialties. Collection of Scientific Papers. Series “Pedagogical Sciences”, pp. 208–212 (2017). (in Ukrainian) Arkhipova, O.: Advantages and disadvantages of the virtual educational environment. http://dspace.udpu.edu.ua/jspui/bitstream/6789/3018/1/Perevagi%20i%20nedoliku% 20virtualnogo%20navchalnogo%20seredovysha_pdf. Accessed 20 Apr 2023. (in Ukrainian) Tereshchuk, V.: Virtual educational environment: essence and psychological and pedagogical conditions of its creation. Scientific Bulletin of Uzhhorod University. Series “Pedagogy. Social work”, vol. 1, no. 38, pp. 279–283 (2016). (in Ukrainian) Falshtynska, Yu.: The virtual educational environment is an inseparable component of distance learning. Scientific Bulletin of the Melitopol State Pedagogical University, “Pedagogy”, vol. 1, no. 16, pp. 89–93 (2016). (in Ukrainian) Jiangfan, F.: Virtual reality: an efficient way in GIS classroom teaching. IJCSI Int. J. Comput. Sci. 3, 363–367 (2013) Huang, F., Lin, H., Chen, B.: Development of Virtual Geographic Environments and Geography Research. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-11743-5_1. Accessed 29 May 2023 On the approval of a typical program of professional development for teachers of general secondary education institutions implementing the new state standard of basic secondary education. Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, № 904 (2022). https:// mon.gov.ua/ua/npa/pro-zatverdzhennya-tipovoyi-programi-pidvishennya-kvalifikaciyi-vch iteliv-zakladiv-zagalnoyi-serednoyi-osviti-yaki-vprovadzhuyut-novij-derzhavnij-standartbazovoyi-serednoyi-osviti. Accessed 29 May 2023

Approaches to Foreign Language Teaching of Future Engineer-Teachers in the Context of Digitalization and Distance Learning Sergii Trokhymchuk , Olena Bryntseva(B)

, and Maryna Pasichnyk

Ukrainian Engineering Pedagogics Academy, Kharkiv, Ukraine [email protected]

Abstract. The article describes the experience of applying distance digital educational technologies in the process of teaching the discipline “Foreign Language” at higher engineering educational institutions, highlighting both the positive possibilities of the digital format and certain limitations related to the organizational, pedagogical, material and technical conditions of its implementation, and the psychological difficulties of the teaching staff and students in switching to a distance learning format. The results are implemented on the example of bachelors’ professional training at the Ukrainian Engineering Pedagogics Academy (Kharkiv). The proposed model of organizing a distance learning course in a foreign language for future engineer-teachers allows to develop and implement a combined model of the foreign language educational process: traditional interaction of students and teachers in combination using online courses with synchronous learning in a distance format provided by digital didactics, create a system of control and monitoring of knowledge in all types of foreign language activities; to improve the quality and effectiveness of the distance learning format, as well as to develop the skills of independent work of future engineers-teachers within the distance course in the discipline “A Foreign Language”. Keywords: future engineer-teacher · foreign language communicative competency · distance learning course · digital technologies · students’ independent work

1 Problem Statement Higher engineering education in Ukraine, as well as all spheres of society, is undergoing serious changes in the context of the current war. At present, a great practical experience of applying digital technologies in the educational process of engineering universities has been accumulated, electronic educational resources, online courses on curriculum disciplines of various majors, profiles and levels of training have been implemented. The national experience of organizing the educational process using electronic and digital technologies and creating an electronic and digital educational environment has allowed the Ukrainian higher engineering educational system to easily transform into a format of mass online education for students. These resources provide an uninterrupted academic © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 55–61, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_7

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process in Ukraine even today, during a full-scale war. However, distance learning under martial law is significantly different from distance learning during the quarantine period - destroyed universities, internally displaced students and teachers studying and working throughout Ukraine and abroad, absence of some students and whole groups because of air raid alarms, military operations, massive power failures and other reasons directly related to the war. However, it should be mentioned that the crisis has served as a strong push and stimulus for innovations in the system of higher engineering education. In order to achieve a continuous process of education and students’ professional training, new approaches to the education system in general and to teaching a foreign language at an engineering university in particular have begun to be adopted. The extraordinary circumstances taking place in the world contribute to the rapid modernization of online learning and, as a result, the emergence of the term “online learning”, covering advanced distance learning practices: the use of various Power Point presentations, testing and development of e-courses on various information and education platforms as a single integration model. In the process of learning, there is an expansion of the functions of online learning as a tool of the academic process, allowing teachers to consider different levels of students’ knowledge when organizing webinars, guided by the results achieved by students on different educational platforms. So, it is possible to state that there is a priority changing in the process of online learning role estimation in the academic process at engineering universities. Online learning is no longer an auxiliary function, but occupies a leading spot in the modern system of higher engineering education.

2 Methods of Research The following methods have been used in the research: comparison, analysis of the students’ survey, analysis of the teachers’ survey, synthesis, generalization. The survey was carried out in early December 2022, and for all respondents it was not the first time they had switched to distance learning, which could contribute to greater objectivity of the answers. Teachers of the department of foreign language training, European integration and international cooperation and first- and fourth-year full-time students of Ukrainian Engineering Pedagogics Academy (Kharkiv) faculties took part in the survey, as follows: Faculty of Energy and Automation, Faculty of Innovative Technologies, Educational and Scientific Institute of Pedagogy, Psychology, Management and Adult Education. Three questionnaires, for both students and teachers, were created, each with multiple choice questions. In addition, respondents were given the opportunity to leave comments, which provided an additional source of information to make assumptions about the reasons for the answers chosen.

3 Statement of Basic Material and the Substantiation of the Obtained Results Students and teachers were asked to assess their satisfaction with foreign language learning in a distance format. 90% students and 85% teachers have a positive attitude towards the change to the online format, first of all emphasizing such benefits as saving

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time resources and security. In their comments, some respondents-teachers mention “a slight decrease in the efficiency of foreign language classes”, and “it is quite difficult and time-consuming to work in this format compared to the traditional one”. Nevertheless, according to students and teachers “it is worth saving lives”. For some students who are internally displaced or have gone abroad, distance learning is the only chance to continue studying at the academy. Only 15% of students consider that their preparation time for foreign language classes has increased and 25% note that they have started to spend less time on homework, but about 45% of students note that their overall foreign language course grade has dropped (comments indicate reasons - the distance learning format, inability to attend each session and inability to work independently). According to the survey, the teacher’s workload has increased significantly. More than 80% of teachers say that they now need to spend several times more time preparing for classes (selecting material, creating presentations, methodological materials, tests and other forms of control). As far as psychological comfort is concerned, most teachers do not notice any changes, while at the same time only about 10% students feel uncomfortable in online foreign language classes. The survey showed that almost 95% teachers note a decrease in the objectivity of students’ foreign language knowledge assessment (decreased reliability of control results due to the impossibility to check who exactly is taking the test or doing homework). Students also note an increase in stress when taking tests, credit due to the reduced time for this type of activity and possible technical problems. However, 94% students and 85% teachers believe that distance learning lessons have become more interesting and focused on applying the foreign language in practice, students note in their comments that their activity in the classroom has increased significantly, homework has improved in terms of creativity, there is opportunity to use multimedia visual aids in every lesson, to conduct joint online projects with English-speaking specialists. The analysis of the educational practice of engineering universities in applying distance learning courses on foreign language has revealed the availability of several ways to organize the academic process: – Asynchronous mode, under which students study the educational content at any time convenient for them, in accordance with the deadlines set by the teacher. The asynchronous version of distance learning is a traditional face-to-face training using a modern information and educational environment and distance learning technologies, providing for a time-delayed interaction between the teacher and the student. This learning format requires students to have not only a high level of proficiency in information and digital technologies, but also high learning motivation, self-learning ability, and developed skills of independent learning activities. However, it should be emphasized that not every student is able to study independently; only one in three students in the full distance education format completes their studies successfully. Another limitation of this learning format is the lack of “live communication” between the teacher and students, which significantly reduces the possibility of implementing the educational and developmental functions of foreign language learning, affecting the development of the students’ personalities.

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– Synchronous mode, where teachers and students participate in the learning process, for example, in a webinar format. Although this model has all the characteristics of traditional learning implemented in a virtual environment, limited face-to-face interaction reduces the effectiveness of the learning process. – Blended mode, involving a combination of synchronous and asynchronous interaction. It partially overcomes the mentioned limitations, as it preserves live communication between participants in the educational process [1]. Each of the aforementioned ways to organize academic activities of higher engineering education has its advantages and disadvantages, caused by a number of organizational, pedagogical, scientific, methodological and psychological factors directly affecting the efficiency and quality of the foreign language educational process. The combination of these factors allows us to assess the adaptation of Ukrainian higher engineering education on the example of Ukrainian Engineering Pedagogics Academy in the context of foreign language teaching to the extreme operating mode related to the transition to a digital learning format under martial law. Every method of distance learning is based on students’ independent gaining knowledge and working with different information sources. An analysis of the practical activities of engineering universities in implementing distance learning courses in the discipline of “Foreign Language” shows that the efficiency of this teaching method requires the interconnection of many factors. Firstly, it is the effective cooperation between the teacher and the student, despite the physical separation by distance; the use of educational technologies; the quality of teaching materials and ways of their presentation; and the effective feedback [2]. Since the basis of the learning process is the student’s independent cognitive activity, it implies greater students’ autonomy and self-control. At the same time, a foreign language distance learning course focuses the student on an internal assessment and planning system. However, it might not always be successful if students have poor planning and goal-setting skills. The key condition for the functioning of a distance learning course is self-discipline, organization and students’ responsibility. We believe that the rational organization of foreign language distance teaching at an engineering university can be achieved primarily through active work, clear planning of students’ independent work, and modernized curricula. Given the limited number of classroom meetings, session time should be used primarily for language practice and for teaching independent work. From the earliest stage of independent knowledge acquisition by distance learners, it is necessary to engage them in active cognitive activities involving the use of language knowledge to solve communicative tasks in joint creative activities in groups. The uniqueness of distance learning consists of eliminating the personal factor in learning and the possibility to involve several channels of information perception by students, to neutralize the subjective factor during the teacher’s control. The distance foreign language course in UEPA is based on the Moodle platform, online classes in the mode of video conferencing are held on informational platforms (Zoom, Google Meet, Microsoft Teams, etc.) using an interactive whiteboard, simulators and online tests are created on Moodle, Quizlet, Google Forms, etc., allowing to practice foreign language vocabulary and grammar, posting useful links to video resources in the e-learning environment for repeating and consolidating the material, as well as

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independent work. In addition, an individual format of work is also possible through the teacher’s control of students’ knowledge by means of audio and video recording of individual tasks. All these activities not only consolidate foreign language knowledge, but also increase motivation to learn a foreign language due to the interactive form of such activities. Besides, technologies such as online testing allow the teacher to quickly receive test results in an automatic mode, and students to increase their internal selfesteem. We can also note that among the positive aspects of distance learning is a higher level of psychological comfort as a result of the individualization of the process. However, the survey of teachers and students showed a low level of computer literacy and self-organization skills, which, on the contrary, are stressful factors. In addition, according to the educators, distance learning can have an ambiguous impact on the emotional sphere, up to and including autism, as well as consumerism, which borders on a complete rejection of independent efforts [3]. Moreover, the teaching practice in the distance learning course in the foreign language discipline demonstrates that the effective application of digital technologies in the educational process of an engineering university imposes a number of demands on the informational and communicative competence of teachers, managers and students. There is a need to develop effective and adequate technological solutions and the conditions for their implementation. At the same time, it should be noted that not all the main spheres of students’ life at the university can be transferred to the virtual environment. Apart from the lack of computer literacy, the survey revealed a huge number of technical problems, for example, not all participants in the educational process have access to sufficiently fast internet to connect to video during classes or to receive this connection in adequate quality (without sound or image distortion). At the same time, technical failures also occur on the platforms under increased user load. In addition, there is also the possibility of abuse by students who justify their absence from classes by video communication or refusal to answer by technical problems. This issue is particularly acute during the midterm examination, when students can use available Internet resources and any other sources of information when writing a test due to the impossibility of objective control by the teacher. At the same time, the control of knowledge in the format of video communication does not exclude reading answers to questions (for example, opening several pages on a computer screen). Real or imaginary technical difficulties on the part of students create favorable conditions for academic cheating. Unjustified high ratings received by students in the process of test control give students an inadequate idea of their own success, which could lead to further conflict. Accordingly, digitalization affects not only the learning process and passing tests, but also the means of bypassing the foreign language teacher’s control. As a result, the qualitative aspect suffers: in this case, the level of knowledge decreases, and the assessment of the quality of this knowledge does not correspond to reality [4]. There are also a number of difficulties associated with working on different aspects of a foreign language in distance learning. The distance learning format limits the possibility of different types of lexical and grammatical foreign language content processing. Despite the formal availability of technical possibilities (for example, in a chat room), it is virtually impossible to control cheating (both from the notebook and from other sources). As for other types of written work, such as essays, practice shows that many

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students plagiarize the work, which makes the idea of the task completely meaningless [5, 6]. As for the translation of the text, control over the independence of this task is also complicated by the active use of online translation by students. In the spoken aspect, dividing students into small groups to practice dialogues is technically possible (for example, in Zoom or Google Meet), but such dialogues are less realistic due to the lack of live communication as in face-to-face classes. All these factors interfere with achieving the main goal of foreign language teaching - the development of students’ communicative competence. The main disadvantage of distance foreign language learning in an engineering university using e-learning platforms is the lack of personal contact between the student and the teacher, impeding the successful implementation of the competence-based approach. When learning foreign languages, personal interaction between students and teachers and with each other is considered to be an important part of the learning process, increasing motivation and effectiveness of the sessions. Excessive formalization of the learning process does not develop students’ creativity and ability to analyze and synthesize new foreign language information. The indirect communication between the subjects of the learning process results in higher requirements for lesson planning and a greater role of feedback. Therefore, implementing a distance learning foreign language course changes the teacher’s role, who is responsible for coordinating, correcting, coaching and guiding the distance learning process. Many of the identified weaknesses of foreign language teaching through the use of information and communication technologies have become a significant barrier to the involuntary transition to a distance format [6, 7]. Practitioners still have to comprehend the challenges of the new reality and propose ways to develop education, including in the teaching of foreign languages to students at engineering university. The distance format also significantly makes the work of the teacher more complicated and increases the workload, as the teacher now has to search, select, prepare and present information via the Internet as not only a teacher-organizer, but also a methodologist. Increasing the readiness of the Ukrainian higher engineering education system to transition to a new educational format under martial law necessitates the organization of a system of administrative support for teachers: providing methodological recommendations, creating sections of official university websites to inform and assist teachers in the current mode. We also consider it advisable to use variable e-learning technologies, including regular remote learning using a combination of synchronous and asynchronous modes of student learning, as well as work with digital educational resources - massive open distance courses. By massive open distance courses, we mean a set of structured, unified material within a single learning environment, access to which is provided not only to representatives of a single educational institution, but also to the general population without verification of input parameters and knowledge, and involves the use of digital technologies [7, 8].

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4 Conclusions Therefore, the analysis of the educational experience of engineering universities, and in particular UEPA, in the format of distance teaching the discipline “Foreign Language” in the conditions of martial law allows us to draw the following conclusions: the system of Ukrainian higher engineering education has successfully managed to mobilize and restructure the academic activities of universities in the distance learning format using elearning technologies in the conditions of a large-scale war. Teachers experience the labor intensity of foreign language distance learning using information and communication technologies to a greater extent than students. The main reason for that is the urgent development of a large number of teaching materials for implementation in the online format and changes in the curriculum. As communication with students and colleagues has moved to email and messengers, working hours are being restructured and the limits of working time are being expanded. Obviously, this problem requires the development of additional regulations for both teachers and students. The extraordinary transition to the online format has revealed many problems in organizing monitoring forms during foreign language distance learning at an engineering university. The imperfection and unreliability of technologies create opportunities for academic cheating, and that has become a real challenge for methodologists, psychologists and teachers. Consequently, it is advisable to develop and implement a blended model of the educational process: traditional interaction between students and teachers in combining the practice of online courses with synchronous learning in a distance format provided by digital didactics; it is necessary to accelerate the development of electronic and digital resources of the educational process and practices of educational activities based on electronic and digital technologies and to stimulate the improvement of information and communication competence of the university teaching staff.

References 1. Kim, S.-W.: MOOCs in higher education. In: Virtual Learning. InTech, London (2016) 2. White, C.J.: Distance language teaching with technology. In: The Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning, pp. 134–148. Wiley, Hoboken (2017) 3. Shien, H.-Y., Kwok, O.-M., Yeh, Y.-C., et al.: Identifying at-risk online learners by psychological variables using machine learning techniques. Online Learn. 24(4), 131–146 (2020) 4. Zimmerman, W., Altman, B., Simunich, B., et al.: Evaluating online course quality: a study on implementation of course quality standards. Online Learn. 24(4), 147–163 (2020) 5. Hew, K.F., Jia, C., Gonda, D.E., et al.: Transitioning to the “new normal” of learning in unpredictable times: pedagogical practices and learning performance in fully online flipped classrooms. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. (17), Article 57 (2020) 6. Dawes, L.: What stops teachers using new technology? In: Leask, M. (ed.) Issues in Teaching Using ICT, pp. 61–79. Routledge, London (2001) 7. Chaker, R., Bachelet, R.: Internationalizing professional development: using educational data mining to Analyze learners’ performance and dropouts in a French MOOC. Int. Rev. Res. Open Distrib. Learn. 21(4), 199–221 (2020). http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/ view/4787/5389. Accessed 20 May 2023 8. Bruff, D., Fisher, D.F., McEwen, K.E., Smith, B.E.: Wrapping a MOOC: student perceptions of an experiment in blended learning. MERLOT J. Online Learn. Teach. 9, 2 (2013)

Controlling Active Learning Through the Enhanced Learning Dyad Amalia-Hajnal Isoc1,2 , Teodora Surubaru1,2 , and Dorin Isoc1,2(B) 1 GRAUR (Group for Reform and University Alternative), Cluj-Napoca, Romania

[email protected] 2 Cybertrainer Ltd., Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Abstract. Purpose – The purpose of this article is to justify finding a technical solution through which interventions in the student-centered framework can be described through the available information and through the temporal sequence in order to achieve an automatic learning system. Design/methodology/approach – Learners’ functional autonomy while working is captured by using the learning dyad concept. The dyad makes the description through details that allow the identification of the individual contribution of the learners through the specific forms of problem and solution. Findings – The authors find that the conventional dyad can be supplemented with the analysis action available to the learning team members. Such a treatment allows the learning process to be decomposed into elementary structures with a standardized processing towards the learners and the teacher. Practical implications – Practically, the teacher is relieved of auxiliary activities of preparing the group for learning. At the same time, the premises are created so that all learner interventions are possible in relation to everyone’s interests. Originality/value – The elementary structure introduced describes the individual contribution to learning and its unitary treatment paves the way for the achievement of a “virtual teacher” application that takes over all the teacher’s secondary activities. In this way, student-centered learning, problem-solving, active learning, and peer-learning are found together. The premise is created that the entire control treatment will be completed in the future by automatically evaluating the activity of the learning team members. Keywords: learning dyad · active learning · problem solving method · control system · learning process

1 Introduction Active learning is a desire that can confirm the attractiveness of a school activity. The literature insists on significant efforts by the teacher to construct conclusive examples and to combine individual and team work [1] even if the notion itself is not very well defined. It is worth noting that [2] finds quite definitely that “…according to this approach, the most important element is the fact that students are located in the center and teacher © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 62–73, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_8

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guides them. That is, students actively participate in their learning. For example, students could have full responsibility to teach the topic…”. However, there are two ideas that seem constant, namely that active learning is a form of collaboration between teacher and students, and that there are areas that allow and areas for which this learning is effective. The challenge arises when learning becomes student-centered. From that moment the collaboration between teacher and learners diminishes and, in this way, the previous conditions for active learning seem to no longer exist. If active learning is more of a concept, solutions are sought in the activation of learning [3]. The focus is mostly on the millennial generations, considered quite different from the “mature” generations. Studies mostly show the existence of new areas of interest, such as emotional intelligence, but the concern for the relationship with the teacher is just as constant. Student-centeredness increases student responsibility and initiative for learning, but rarely does the teacher relinquish control over the learning process [4–6]. A rather organizing occurrence is described in the literature as the dyad and is used to organize learning groups from tutor to novice [7–9] from informed to uninformed [10]. The cybernetic principles that would be used in learning are mostly based on building a model that meets the information processing requirements. Assisted learning is the first step towards automating the learning process. Some of the working principles are presented in the introduction. The second chapter makes a formulation of the problem that is complex precisely by the fields it must investigate and exploit. In the third chapter, the construction of the automatic system is addressed, in which the essential is the definition and improvement of the elementary structure that then allows the manipulation of information flows according to cybernetic principles. The fourth chapter is dedicated to the dyad and how it becomes the essence of the action of technical synthesis of a quintessentially human activity. The conclusions chapter outlines some consequences resulting from the systematic treatment of the learning dyad.

2 Problem Formulation The problem to be defined, treated, and solved is the basis of the design and construction of the active and assisted learning service Cybertrainer installed at www.cybertrainer. online. Current Conditions. There is a lot of talk about several methods that bring innovation to learning: student-centered learning, problem-based learning, active learning, assisted learning. In all situations, recommendations are made for the teacher who remains the center of the learning process. The solutions are mostly special cases with limited effectiveness for certain school subjects.

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The Purpose of the Research. The research is directly aimed at automating the team learning process. As learning is a quintessentially human activity, the automation of the learning process should look at all the activities that stimulate it, that it facilitates. For automation, it is necessary to identify some information structures that allow the construction of abstract machines as general as possible. Whatever the working technique, every learner should enjoy every moment of attention, every learner should learn those things that he/she lacks. Open Initial Aspects. The most important open aspect is to find a form of approach to the individual in the whole learning team and the way in which team members can promote individual learning. Assumptions, Constraints, and Pathways. Be supposed to: • The teacher is involved in the coordination and orientation of the learning process through the competence and vision he/she possesses. • It is required that the solution to the control problem represents an alternative of automatic service, in which the uncovered secondary attributions are as few as possible and the main effort of the beneficiaries is oriented towards achieving their own interests. • An integrated service is sought to cover all current tasks of the teacher in relation to interactions with learners. • The learning method is assumed to be student-centered. Findings. In this state, the control of the learning process cannot be done directly because there is no usable and faithful model of it.

3 About Automatic Control of the Team Learning Process The modernization trends of the learning process aim at innovation but also at conserving many of the traditional solutions. The most intense steps occur when the question of automation arises. Efficiency efforts cannot avoid the presence of the teacher and his/her complex role in the learning process and the atmosphere around him/her. The first problem of system analysis is to identify those aspects that can reduce the operation to uniform and essential information flows. The second problem is obtaining a degree of generality sufficient for the operation to become context-independent. Techniques and solutions that learning embraces with the idea of being more effective will be analyzed. 3.1 Elements of Cybernetics Learning contains intrinsic cybernetics specific to situations involving human activities. This implies the existence of the negative reaction defined by the way the human being relates to the purpose and objectives of the activity.

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It is evident that the human being, as a singular element in the learning process or as a component within an ad hoc constructed team, acts as a cybernetic element. Its role is to act so that the gap between the learning goal and the negative reaction, the momentary learning performance is diminished. We will hereafter refer to the expressed negative reaction as a conglomerate set of reactions of individuals during the learning process. The two forms of centering the learning activity primarily mean a different emphasis with reference to the student’s activity. It is the student-centeredness that presupposes an increased intensity of the learning activity, and hence, the intensity of the negative reaction. Even though student-centeredness has the individual as an essential element, it manifests itself specifically in the social framework of the learning team. 3.2 Integration of Learning Techniques Automatic system building aims to use available or detectable information flows and subject them to operations that support specific cybernetic principles. Student-Centered Learning. An attractive direction for learning is studentcenteredness. In apparent contradiction to the teacher-centered method, the technique fundamentally alters the information flows in the learning process. Teacher-centered learning is the specific form of work for a process with unique coordination and ongoing action under that coordination. The option for student-centered learning means introducing new features in information processing. The first feature is that the system becomes a distributed one, that is, each learner can manifest himself dually: subordinately in relation to the goals imposed by the teacher, autonomously in relation to his/her own intentions and desires. The second feature is that the time evolution of the process must be explicitly imposed because it is no longer a self-evident one. Basically, every learner acts when they want to show their initiative. The Method of Learning by Solving Problems. Problem solving is undoubtedly an effective way of learning. The literature deals quite little with the concrete way of formulating the problems and the way of approaching them, especially in the group. One often notices the phenomena of polarization of the initiative towards certain individuals in the working groups organized for projects. Another phenomenon that appears through the application of this method is the limited and simplified spectrum of the problems with which it operates. The tendencies to use real examples are welcome but they accentuate the polarization of the initiative mentioned earlier. Thus, the participation of all team members in the learning process becomes an illusion. In our construction, we will assume that all problems are authored by members of the learning group. These problems concretely represent the form of manifestation of their interest. For methodological reasons some systematic definitions will be assigned to the problem and the solution.

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Thus, the problem is a way of presenting in writing a lack of knowledge, consistent, encountered or imagined, in relation to a volume of information available and which prevents the achievement of an imposed goal. The problem contains a context, a set of conditions in which it can be highlighted, one or more suggestive examples. The presentation necessarily includes the bibliography used in its identification. In turn, the solution represents an arrangement, an interpretation, with or without completion, of a given context, expressed in writing, and argued that a problem identified, reported, and posted be, as appropriate, mitigated or eliminated.

3.3 The Dyadic Approach to Learning The dyadic approach to dealing with a group activity is to divide it into two subunits and then forming subsets called dyads, with two elements, one from each subunit. In what follows, the dyad will be used as an elementary structure in the treatment of the phenomena that occur in the learning process in the considered group. In the absence of such a structure, it is impossible to monitor the events associated with the evolution of the group. For learning, the dyad involves describing a mentor-novice relationship with reference to knowledge transfer. The analysis of the reported cases highlights the fact that dyadic learning presupposes a transfer of knowledge, from a competent individual to a less competent one, specify that this is done at a given time and in relation to some topics set by the teacher. For the learning process as a dynamic system, dyad structuring can be considered as a way of decomposing the activity into component parts, where partitioning refers to problem identification and solving and not to individuals with different competence. Physically, the dyad as in Fig. 1a) is the pair systematically made up of a tutor and a novice.

Fig. 1. The learning dyad and its information content: a) the dyad in its conventional form; b) information orientation in the problem-solution convention; c) information orientation in the solution-problem convention.

Informationally, the two individuals can be associated with the initiative in launching a problem-solution pair. If a systematic convention is admitted, then it is less important if the meaning of information propagation is from the novice to the tutor, as in b) or from the tutor to the novice, as in c). In this way, the dyad generates a unitary information element, problem-solution that can be considered essential for the learning process.

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Operationally, the learning dyad will be associated with the “disputable situation”, denoted by D. The disputable situation is always based on a problem that requires a solution. In essence, the learning process that is built based on problem solving has such an evolution that it tries to reach the formation of balanced disputable situations, made up of problem-solution ensembles. A new aspect appears when the aspect of student-centered learning is introduced. As the dyad appears both in the teacher-centered relationship and in the student-centered relationship, it is necessary to analyze the changes that occur. It is recalled that group learning assumes an implicit relationship with the teacher through the accepted subject matter. Any information and information transfers admit the existence of this relationship and are, in turn, subordinate to it, at least thematically, at least by content. We will further admit that by centering the student, the learning process becomes a distributed one. In this framework, each learner can take the initiative by which they seek to preferentially benefit from the learning process. This initiative appears at any time and in relation to any subject. There is no kind of restriction that the individual initiative can consider itself materialized in a formulated problem. 3.4 Refining the Learning Dyad The previous steps aimed at the operationalization of the learning dyad and its preparation for the construction of an automatic learning system. In the following, the dyad will be treated only as a basic informational element in the sense of systems theory. For a more complete description of the situation present in the learning group it is necessary to monitor the integration of the input of the multitude of individuals and the way in which they interact. The fact that human beings interact and that their interaction is specific and permanent forces us to build an operating framework. In this way, we admit that the problem-solution relationship remains essential, P-S. Regarding this relationship, it is considered that every one of the group can intervene with reference to each component through critical analysis actions. We denote these actions by Pa1, Pa2, Pa3,… when they refer to the problem, respectively Sa1, Sa2, Sa3,… when they refer to the solution of the dyad. The new situation is described in Fig. 2. It is obvious here is described a “discussion” in which any interested and present person can intervene. There is no reason not to admit that the disputable situation can be considered together with these effects of interactions. On the other hand, there is no restriction on the concrete way in which these actions are expressed. Each action can in turn contain a set of information in their specific form. If the Cybertrainer service is considered, for it each action can be carried out by means of a numerical criterion value loaded with significance but also with a complex action initiated, for example by a written report.

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Unlike the reported cases where the dyads were the fruit of a selection made by an authority, such as that of the teacher, we accept that in our endeavors the authors of problems and/or solutions can be any individuals.

Fig. 2. Refining the group learning dyad relationships.

Fig. 3. How to form learning dyads in a group of three learners {La, Lb, Lc} who act autonomously with reference to the same given topic.

In Fig. 3 fully exemplifies the way of evolution of a learning process in which the students {La, Lb, Lc} who interact through the sets of problems-solutions dyads D(La) = {P11, S1a}, D(Lb) = {P1b, P2b, S1b}, D(Lc) = {P1c, S1c, S2c, S3c}. On the time axis, the problem first appears and then the related solution. The same learner, La can give two solutions to the same problem P1a. It is also noted that in a couple of learners, be it Lb and Lc, in two different moments they can alternately play the roles of problem authors and solution authors, respectively. This hypothesis assumes that the group is characterized by an “interested competence” that affects each of its members.

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Findings. The enhanced dyad can be a sufficient informational structure for describing and developing the control of the learning process. With its help, the fact of learning and the expression of critical thinking are done spontaneously and voluntarily, and the interactions of the learning process are subjected to the desired control actions.

4 Learning Dyad Implementation Details The following references detail how the refined dyad was implemented in the Cybertrainer service application at www.cybertrainer.online [12]. In the way it was introduced, the enhanced dyad underlies the disputable situation. Functionally, the disputable situation constitutes a structure that accumulates the information that the specialized service will later use in the assisted learning process. Conceptually, the set of disputable situations makes up the learning dispute space [11]. In operation, the disputable situation is permanently available to the members of the learning group. The goal is to know the situation and the need to collect the constituent information. A second relevant aspect is the relationship that the interactions with the disputable situation present over time. 4.1 Implementing the Enhanced Dyad on the Learning Interface Since the number of disputable situations is some and that all disputable situations are of interest for the learning process, the solution of building a learning interface was chosen. Several functions are provided through this interface: • Introducing problems and solutions into the workflow. Upon entering a problem, a new disputable situation is launched. • It is allowed to access the components of the available situations both for their completion and for their knowledge. Note that this is only about components that are files and can be issues, solutions, or bug reports. Nonconformities represent forms of problem analysis and solutions expressed as free texts. • For using synthetic criteria value analysis, the interface provides distinct sequences. In Fig. 4a) the method of separating the analysis information of a problem Pa, respectively of a related solution Sa is given. Excp, respectively Excs are feature extractors. In Fig. 4b) one identifies the fields of a disputed situation represented and accessible, by components, on the learning interface of an application such as Cybertrainer [12]. They describe: D00 – the field of labels of disputable situations in which the disputable situation D03 is located, P00 – the field of problems with the problem P03, S00 – the field of solutions in which the solution S02 is located. On the Opp field, the value of the opportunity criterion is placed with Opp = 0.70 and on the Usa field, the value of the usability criterion Usa = 0.90 for the P02 solution. Field Pi0 is associated with non-compliance incidents report for problem P03. In the specific case, this incident is i3p with the meaning of logic incident from the list of predefined incidents. The Sep field corresponds to the severity value associated with the reported i3p incident [12].

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Fig. 4. Implementation detail of the disputable situation associated with the enhanced dyad on the learning interface.

4.2 Implementation Details of the Enhanced Dyad Over Time Unlike the traditional learning dyad, the enhanced dyad is thought in the context of an automatic system, that is, in a functional context in the time domain. Whatever the dynamics imagined, it is necessary to identify the states that such a system should go through. There is thus no restriction preventing the association of the functioning states of the enhanced dyad with some stages in which the members of the learning team interact during the learning process. Before doing an analysis of the states, it is necessary to specify that the states that will be defined must be perceived, must be ascertained by all the members of the learning team. It is chosen that the practical form of highlighting the states is the posting on the learning interface. The use of the learning interface also meets a requirement with a pedagogical impact. The problem and the solution are signs of situations that need to be reproducible for learners. We accept that reproducibility exists if the problems and their solutions have some form of written presentation. With these assumptions, it is identified: • Stage E1 of posting the problems to the learning interface as files uploaded from the author’s computer. • Stage E2 of analysis of posted issues. The analysis must allow access to the written form of the problem as well as the use of the forms chosen to express the position. • Stage E3 of posting on the learning interface the solutions to the problems available as files uploaded from the author’s computer. Implicit is the requirement that the association of the solution with the related problem is possible without equivocation. • Stage E4 of analysis of posted solutions. The analysis must allow access to the written form of the solution as well as the use of the chosen forms to express the imagined position.

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With these details, the temporal chain associated with the use of the enhanced dyad can be drawn up as in Fig. 5. The sequence diagram indicates that each duration stage, Te1, Te2, Te3, respectively Te4, is activated only once in a problem identification – problem analysis – solution proposal – solution analysis cycle.

Fig. 5. Enhanced dyad association details with the time variable.

It should be emphasized that in each duration, each learner can intervene as many times as possible with their own working durations, shorter than the duration of the stage, but with the same predetermined activity. A disputable situation is associated with a problem to which only one solution can be associated, but the number of analysis interventions depends on the number of learners and their initiative. The definition of the „assisted learning session” is introduced as a sequence of activities carried out by a team working on an explicit topic and which consists of a problem identification - a problem analysis - a solution formulation for the identified problem - an analysis of the formulated solution. The duration of the assisted learning session is Tals = Te1 + Te2 + Te3 + Te4

(1)

It follows from (1) that, by default, for this way of thinking about the learning dyad, session duration includes individual study time.

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4.3 Default Restrictions The automatic operation of a machine in which the enhanced dyad is the basic component, with its informational image, the disputable situation, imposes the need to define a set of rules that pursues the proposed goal, namely an efficient automatic learning process. Choosing this set of rules is enough, but its expansion is always possible: • Interactions between learners involve written, posted documents only. • The authors of the posted documents are always anonymous. • All learning analytics information is anonymous. Numerical information becomes public only after the analysis stages are completed. • No author can review his/her own contribution, no problem author can author the solution to his/her problem. • No two problems or solutions can be identical or similar. The first problem or solution is kept, the following ones are removed from the learning process. The decision to identify identity or similarity is made based on the vote of the learning team members. Findings. The enhanced dyad allows the introduction of states for active and studentcentered learning, i.e. learner activity with real autonomy.

5 Concluding Remarks The dyadic approach represents an innovative way that associates the didactic activity of a group of autonomous students in a lot of disputable situations based on elementary problem-solution pairs. These situations correspond to distinct tutor-novice pairs, so that monitoring of active learning is ensured simultaneously with monitoring of autonomous student-centered learning activity. Another significant effect achieved by refining learning dyads is the implicit merging of individual study time with planned learning activity durations. The fact that the machine based and implemented is independent of the language used and the school discipline, offers the possibility of unifying the learning process and the automation achieved reduces the teacher’s effort by at least 30%.

References 1. Gleason, B.L., et al.: An active-learning strategies primer for achieving ability-based educational outcomes. Am. J. Pharm. Educ. 75(9), 1–12 (2011) 2. Karamustafaoglu, O.: Active learning strategies in physics teaching. Online Submission 1(1), 27–50 (2009) 3. Chmielewska, K., Gilányi, A.: Computer assisted activating methods in education. In: 2019 10th IEEE International Conference on Cognitive Infocommunications (CogInfoCom). IEEE (2019) 4. Rayens, W., Ellis, A.: Creating a student-centered learning environment online. J. Stat. Educ. 26(2), 92–102 (2018) 5. Scott, B., Shurville, S., Maclean, P., Cong, C.: Cybernetic principles for learning design. Kybernetes 36(9/10), 1497–1514 (2007)

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6. Hannafin, M.J., Hannafin, K.M.: Cognition and student-centered, web-based learning: Issues and implications for research and theory. Learn. Instruction Digit. Age 11–23 (2010) 7. Lavigne, A.L., Good, T.L.: Using dyadic observation to explore equitable learning opportunities in classroom instruction. Educ. Policy Anal. Arch. 149–149 (2021) 8. Gommans, R., Segers, E., Burk, W.J., Scholte, R.H.: The role of perceived popularity on collaborative learning: a dyadic perspective. J. Educ. Psychol. 107(2), 599–609 (2015) 9. Rotgans, J.I., Cleland, J.A.: Dyadic explanations during preparatory self-study enhance learning: a randomized controlled study. Med. Educ. 55(9), 1091–1099 (2021) 10. Jia, F., Lamming, R.: Cultural adaptation in Chinese-Western supply chain partnerships: dyadic learning in an international context. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manag. 33(5), 528–561 (2013) 11. Isoc, D.: Student-centered supported learning: an alternative from concept to specialized service. In: INTED2023 Proceedings. IATED, pp. 3335–3344 (2023) 12. www.cybertrainer.online. Active, assisted learning service with “virtual teacher.” On-board documentation (2023)

Applying UX Methodologies for Improving Moodle Usage Uriel Cukierman1(B)

and Jessica Cukierman2

1 National Technological University, Buenos Aires, Argentina

[email protected] 2 Baufest, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Abstract. According to several market research reports, Moodle is the most widely used Learning Management System (LMS) in the world, but how intuitive is it for teachers? Does it make teachers’ experience easier or is it a burden for them? Does it help teachers reach the expected learning outcomes? In line with our experience, teachers find barriers when designing a course in the LMS and, hence, students face difficulties affecting their learning process. Even more, considering that users (both teachers and students) have different needs and levels of expertise with this tool. The pandemic, and the consequent forced migration to distance learning scenarios, made these difficulties even more visible and the need for solutions much more urgent. This article will explain how to improve teachers’ experiences using Moodle by applying User Experience (UX) methodologies such as quantitative and qualitative research, user journey mapping, and heuristic evaluation. Inclusive and accessible design principles were applied in this work to consider a wide variety of users. The research methods used, the results obtained, and the guidelines for improving the quality and effectiveness of Moodle-based courses will be explained throughout this article. Keywords: Moodle · user experience · user journey mapping · heuristic evaluation

1 Introduction 1.1 Context Moodle was developed 20 years ago by Martin Dougiamas [1] as a free and opensource Learning Management System (LMS), distributed under the GNU General Public License. The goal of the creator of this platform was not only to improve the quality of a postgraduate course, “but also to improve the ability of Moodle as a tool to create online courses that embody and further develop our social constructionist pedagogical framework” [2] During all these years, according to several market research reports [3, 4], it became the most widely used platform of its kind. But despite its popularity, it has some drawbacks. Questions arise, such as how intuitive is it for teachers? Does it make teachers’ experience easier or is it a burden for them? Does it help teachers reach © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 74–85, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_9

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the expected learning outcomes? Our main doubt is that we do not know if teachers use Moodle because they must or if it is actually a helpful tool for their day-to-day tasks1 . 1.2 Purpose In line with the authors’ experience, teachers find barriers when designing a course in the LMS and, hence, students face difficulties affecting their learning process. Even more, considering that users (both teachers and students) have different needs and levels of expertise with this tool. The pandemic, and the consequent forced migration to distance learning scenarios, made these difficulties even more visible and the need for solutions much more urgent. Other proprietary LMS, such as Blackboard or Canvas, have a strong focus on designing a good user experience, but Moodle, due to the way in which it is developed, sometimes lacks this approach. The goal of this research project is to understand how much Moodle helps teachers reach the expected learning results. Our hypothesis is that this LMS is used to its minimal potential, and it is not prepared to help teachers meet those learning results. In order to concentrate on this specific goal, we will focus on the teachers’ experience. 1.3 Approach The mainstream educational trend today is the one that puts the student at the center of the process, the so-called student-centered approach. But education is not the only field in which the “receiver” of the product or service (also referred to as client) is the focus of the design process. Indeed, there is a standard issued by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) describing human-centered design for interactive systems. That standard establishes that “human-centered design is an approach to interactive systems development that aims to make systems usable and useful by focusing on the users, their needs and requirements, and by applying human factors/ergonomics, and usability knowledge and techniques” [5]. This paper will describe how we studied the teachers’ behaviors and interaction with Moodle by applying Design Thinking methodologies [6], which allow us to find improvement suggestions on the User Experience (UX) of the teachers. Some of the methods and artifacts used for this approach are quantitative and qualitative research, user journey mapping, and heuristic evaluation. Inclusive and accessible design principles were applied in this work to consider a wide variety of users. This research took place in a Higher Education institution in Argentina, but it may be applicable in other scenarios and locations, such as organizational training (companies, NGOs, public institutions, etc.) The authors will explain the research methods used, the results obtained, and the guidelines for improving the quality and effectiveness of Moodle-based courses. Considering that Moodle is an open and free platform, these results can be used to improve it, having a potential impact on thousands of students and teachers all over the world.

1 This is a revised and extended version of a presentation given on the TLIC 2023 Conference.

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2 Literature Review As it has been described in the previous section, Moodle is one of the most popular LMS. However, there is little research about the users’ – teachers and students – experience. Indeed, a simple search in the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) [6] using the expression “user experience” AND “Moodle” offers only seven results and none of them apply formal UX methodologies such as, user journey mapping, and heuristic evaluation. Another search, now into the Google Scholar database [7] using the expression “user journey mapping” AND “heuristic evaluation” AND “Moodle” offers only two results and none of them clearly refers to these concepts as a formal way to evaluate the UX. Even though these previous works do not make explicit use of these methodologies, some of their outcomes are valid references for our research. In a comparative study made among Blackboard, Moodle, and Canvas [8] the authors used three different satisfaction scores, SUS (System Usability Scale), usability and learnability and in all of them Moodle was classified approximately with 50 points in a 0–100 scale. Another research [9] concludes that “designers of LMSs may pay more attention to the UI, communication features and compatibility of Moodle with other web platforms and the learnability of Moodle by students”. The authors also explain that “Moodle is not suitable for teaching philosophy completely online due to the lack of personal communication”, but they do not propose a concrete way of solving these issues, based on their research findings, they just point out the drawbacks of Moodle in terms of usability. The issue of the communication features was also mentioned in another research [10] where “the students indicated that the usefulness could be improved if Moodle could be used to support communication with their lecturers instead of using other applications such as Telegram or WhatsApp and support online video meetings so that the students do not have to use other applications to meet their lecturers”. In the same study, students identified some issues related to the mobile application saying that it is not user friendly. Nowadays, young adults tend to communicate among them through social networks or instant messaging tools rather than through email. As it is described in [11] in the case of an online master program, “all participants used instant messaging to contact their instructor rather than communicating via email”. Our own experience shows the same fact. By the beginning of the academic year, we sent an email message to all the students registered for the course informing them the classroom where the course would be delivered, but only two of them arrived in time. After several minutes waiting for the remaining students, we asked the administrative staff if they knew where they could be, and they told us that the information in the announcement board was incorrect and that they had gone to a different classroom. When we asked those students if they had not received our mail, they confessed that they had not read it. As we mentioned earlier in this section, the research about teachers and students’ experience using Moodle is very scarce. Even though the concept of UX can be traced back to ancient times [12], it has not been since modern times, most precisely in the last two decades, that this concept was applied to software design and, more precisely, to the user interaction with that software. That is the reason why the UX acronym is commonly associated with the UI one. The release of Don Norman’s “The Psychology of Everyday Things” in 1988 [13], afterwards renamed “The Design of Everyday Things”, marked

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the debut for the term “user experience”. It was a significant step from the previous usercentered system design to a more focused user-comes-first approach and established the basis for modern UX methodologies such as those used in this research work.

3 Research Methods Our research was focused on the teacher’s experience. To understand it we used both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Any Design Thinking (DT) or UX process starts with empathy, so even though we are teachers, our role in this project is that of Researchers and Designers, and in order to gain perspective and find relevant insights, we needed to take a step back and listen to the users. We also considered inclusive design principles [14] that allowed us to broaden the range of perspectives by including and learning from people. The DT ideology is based on a user-centric approach to discovering problems and finding innovative solutions. It comprises six distinct phases, as defined and illustrated in Fig. 1. In this work we covered only the first three phases of the DT process, Empathize, Define, and Ideate. The latter stages of the process should be covered on a subsequent project.

Fig. 1. Design Thinking process [15]

3.1 Empathize The first phase was conducted in the form of an online survey including 16 questions. This survey served mainly as quantitative research, providing us with measurable, objective data. It was previously tested with several colleagues which gave us some suggestions about how to improve it. This survey was answered by 378 university teachers in February 2023. Afterwards, we selected six of them to participate on a video-conference interview. We based this selection on a diversity criterion (gender, university, experience, etc.), and focusing on those who had faced problems with Moodle and expressed the platform had a low

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contribution to their teaching activity. These interviews were conducted in March 2023 and were based on their answers to get a more insightful vision about their personal opinions and understand the reasons behind their actions and thoughts, which enriches the qualitative side of the research. These interviews were recorded with the approval of the interviewees and later, conveniently debriefed to summarize their answers and find patterns. We finalized this stage of the process gathering our findings on an aggregated Empathy Map, which is an easy-to-digest visual that captures knowledge about a segment of users’ behaviors and attitudes (Fig. 2) [16].

Fig. 2. Empathy Map Canvas [17]

3.2 Define The following phase of this study was to combine all the findings and define what problem the user is facing. We followed a very well-known technique among designers known as “user flow”, namely a visualization document that showcases the path taken by a user to complete a task. It consists of a detailed step-by-step, including interface screens, and the action the user performs on each of them. We combined this artifact with a “User journey”, which contextualizes the actions, emotions, and thoughts of an archetype user, which is very useful for analyzing and optimizing the experience [18]. Finally, a heuristic evaluation phase was conducted, an inspection method that analyzes how user-friendly an interface is, following a set of established guidelines (e.g., Nielsen-Molich’s). This is a helpful tool to find if key factors of interaction design are met: Useful, Usable, Findable, Credible, Desirable, Accessible, and Valuable [19]. In summary, the methods stated above allow us to obtain three key elements in a DT process: data, findings, and insights. Data refers to an unanalyzed collection of

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observations about users that may include transcripts, notes, metrics, or survey output. In our study, it refers to the results of the survey and the interviews. Findings describe patterns in collected data or summaries across it. They lack consideration of background, past research, and organizational factors. Finally, Insights are focused explanations of opportunities, based on other user research and business context [20]. These last two concepts are the basis upon which we elaborate our results, discussions, and conclusions described in the following sections. 3.3 Ideate For this stage of the process, we reframed our Insights into questions, using the “How Might We” structure. These are open-ended questions that offer a broad spectrum of possible solutions [21]. This stage would be followed by instances of prototyping and testing, before implementation, to check our ideas with real users and iterate as many times as needed until finding the solution that best fits their goal. As explained before, our project is focused on the first part of the DT process and will finish with improvement opportunities found in the Ideation phase.

4 Results and Discussion 4.1 Empathize As we have explained before, the survey was answered by 378 university teachers. Half of them are full-time professors and 80% have been using Moodle for more than three years. Most of them (70%) use Moodle for distance education and also as a complement to presential learning. When asked if they faced difficulties when using the LMS, 54% answered affirmatively. We found that most of the referred problems are related to a high learning curve, meaning that they struggle adapting to the platform because, they either have used other tools in the past, or find Moodle hard to understand because it has so many options. They also expressed that “the platform is not very intuitive” due to the following reasons: • • • •

Its tools are complex to implement. They do not achieve the desired result with an activity or tool used. The process of using it is cumbersome and time consuming. They do not feel that the interface adapts to their needs, they perceive it as rigid and inflexible. • They find the platform “uncomfortable” and “unfriendly”. The functions with which teachers encounter the most specific problems are with Quizzes, Assessments, and Grading. In turn, it is one of the most used tools (81%). Evidently, teachers need tools to assess and evaluate the students but find these specific tools hard to use. The quizzes often do not coincide with the type of evaluation that the teacher wants to perform or are not flexible enough to adapt to their needs. These results align to our hypothesis, suggesting that the platform does not help teachers meet the learning results. We will cover this issue widely on the following Sect. 4.2. Other findings that came out from the survey are:

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• 66% of those who manifested difficulties when using Moodle were able to find solutions, but the most repeated solution was to migrate to other tools. • Users say they learned to use the platform based on “trial and error”. Many use the term “self-taught”. • Users repeat that they need a lot of time to learn how to use the platform, and on many occasions, they don’t have enough time. 66% of the respondents answered that they need to use additional tools to Moodle being instant messaging, like Slack, Teams, or WhatsApp, and email the most widely used. This shows that the need to communicate with students is very important and Moodle is not being able to satisfy it. As it was previously described, we conducted interviews as well. The most important findings of this step are listed in the following lines. Regarding the use of Moodle, teachers say they use it mainly as a repository and because it is the tool provided by the university. They access the LMS typically, once per week and stay connected for an hour or two. Teachers agree that they do not have a deep knowledge about it. They say that it may have solutions that suit their needs, but they have not been able to investigate them, and they have solved it faster with other tools. We found this comment repeatedly in surveys and interviews, teachers feel “guilty” for not having dedicated more time to research the tool. Again, during these interviews, the issue about assessment and evaluation tools emerged. Although they use these tools, they find it difficult to manage competences and personalize the questionnaires. They also find it difficult to visualize and compare the answers of the students, and they solved this need with other tools such as Google Forms. They carry out self-assessments and simple questionnaires but handle the qualifications separately (manually or with another tool). Finally, and regarding the teaching process, they do not see Moodle as a great support in their teaching work. They cannot evaluate the level of contribution to their students, or see it as low or null, since the students have very little interaction with the platform. All these findings were processed and organized using the aforementioned Empathy Map (Fig. 2) by answering the questions included in it. 4.2 Define Once we had a deep understanding of our users, we proceeded to analyze the platform from the teachers’ point of view, to define how their interaction with Moodle is and what usability problems might be lying below the obstacles stated above. We decided to focus on one of the main tasks needed by teachers, the Quiz tool. As it was previously explained, we built a User Journey Map, a User Flow and performed a heuristic analysis. To mirror a teacher’s flow in preparing a quiz, we used a demo course provided by Moodle2 , with a teacher role. The first steps were to log on to the platform, choose a course, enable Edit mode, scroll down, click on “Add an activity or resource”, and choose Quiz. The following screen (Fig. 3) offers options for this new quiz, in which the user must complete 15 different vertically stacked sections of information -known 2 Created in the Moodle.org website (https://school.moodledemo.net/).

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as accordions on interface design- by opening and closing each one of them. We noticed that most of the items solicited in these sections are non-mandatory, but the user will not be informed of this fact unless they open each accordion, scroll down to the end of the screen, and see the label “required” that shows only the exclamation marked inputs are obligatory.

Fig. 3. Adding a new quiz

After the professor completes and saves a long list of settings, he or she will have created the quiz, but it will not have any questions yet. To add them, the professor will need to re-enter the Quiz, click 4 times through 3 different pages to choose the question type, and go through 5 accordion tabs just to create 1 question. The quiz is not ready yet, and the user is already feeling tired and lost, due to so many options and steps to complete the task. We can see in Fig. 4 that these negative emotions impact the users’ experience, and we believe that it increases the learning curve and fatigue towards Moodle, as we mentioned earlier. Later, we performed a heuristic evaluation, and found most of Nielsen’s heuristics failing on different parts of the flow. At least 3 of them are failing only on this screen (Fig. 3). Due to the long list of options, the user most probably loses track of what he or she is doing. There is no progress indicator, and the title of the action (Adding a new quiz) remains unseen when scrolling down. The first heuristic, “Visibility of system status”, explains that when users are aware of the current system status, they learn to predict interactions and determine next steps, which builds trust in the product [22]. They cannot trust the product if they do not know where they are. Furthermore, there is a

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gap between the language used in the system and the one from the real world (heuristic N° 2). The interface uses complex words that may not be familiar to the user, such as “Safe exam browser” or “Overall feedback”. In addition, regarding heuristic N° 7, “Flexibility and efficiency” of use, we found no shortcut that allows the users to go straight to creating questions, decide which step they would like to perform first, or skip non mandatory questions. According to our research, users use LMS tools that adapt to their previously established teaching methodology and curriculum, so teachers would usually start -digitally or analogically- by defining the type of evaluation quiz that fits their required learning outcome (open-ended, multiple choice, etc.), and then create the questions.

Fig. 4. User Journey designed on Miro3

In a nutshell, the interface organizes information in a different way than the user would, since they cannot distinguish which items is more relevant than the other, there is no hierarchy. This layout is repeated through most of the tools provided by Moodle. Thanks to the findings of this journey analysis, we discovered a relevant example of why teachers have a fairly high learning curve, which causes mistrust and weariness towards this LMS and, more often than not, migrate to other platforms for the tasks they cannot fulfill with Moodle. We infer that this factor also contributes to teachers not being curious to learn new functions. 4.3 Ideate The main goal of our project was to find out if Moodle helps teachers reach the expected learning results. Our insights show that teachers do not see a direct link between using the LMS and the expected learning results on students. Even more, teachers do not see in Moodle –as a technological tool– the possibility to enrich their teaching methodology, bring in diverse multimedia content or promote interaction with their students. Users agree that the value of their lessons is in its content, not in the tool. This aspect of the 3 User Journey template by Hanan A.S. https://miro.com/miroverse/profile/hanan-a-s/ (Included

photo by Marivi Pazos on Unsplash).

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problem is bigger than Moodle itself and involves other aspects of the users’ experience throughout their teaching methodology, which would require broader research. For now, we will focus on how Moodle could make tasks easier and lighter, instead of making them long and confusing. We reached this step of the process with many ideas about why the platform is failing their users, focusing on the Quiz creation tool. To find improvement opportunities, we reframed our insights into “How Might We…?” questions, such as: – – – –

How might we add flexibility to Quizzes? How might we save the users valuable time when building a Quiz? How might we make the quiz creation process quick and intuitive? How might we make users feel confident with the task they are performing?

These questions allowed us to brainstorm and generate multiple ideas, some of which we will share hereafter. We could review the metrics behind the tool and find out which inputs are less often or never filled and remove them from the forms. The accordions could be replaced by steps and stages, to show the user progress, and also auto-save the content each time they move to another step. Wizards [23] provide less cognitive effort in completing a process, prevent from overwhelming users and give them visibility of the quantity of steps ahead. Non-mandatory inputs should be labeled more clearly, placing the label closer to the input itself. These are simple changes that would increase usability and are also very important factors to design an inclusive solution, we must take into account that users have diverse cognitive demands and capabilities, and as designers we should create inclusive experiences that adapt to people and context, and create along the emotional and functional spectrum [24]. A simple wireframe -a visual skeleton of a website- of how the Quiz page could look like with these suggestions implemented is showed in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Quiz page wireframe

Another interesting idea, which we can see in many interactive workspaces e.g., miro.com, is to give users the chance to choose a blank template or pre-filled when starting a new course or adding a resource like a quiz. This provides freedom and flexibility to the user, allowing them to choose between a template –acting as a shortcut to save time- or a blank quiz.

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5 Conclusions Throughout this research we verified our hypothesis that Moodle is used to its minimal potential, and it is not able to help teachers meet their expected learning results. As we have previously expressed, users do not see a connection between the use of this platform and their teaching methodologies, they see it mainly as a repository. We firmly believe that the reason why Moodle has so many options, lists, and steps within every tool, is because it was created as a technology-based software, as opposed to human-based. Martin Dougiamas, its creator, is a computer scientist specialized in education and a promoter of open-source software [25]. This leads us to conclude that it was developed around technological possibilities, leaving to the user the task to understand how the platform works by his or her own exploration, training, blog-reading, and peer-consulting. The approach we propose with this project is centered around understanding what users need before designing the platform. This is, from our perspectives, the way to lower the learning curve and make the platform more intuitive for teachers, allowing them to enrich their teaching practices. As one Moodle user expressed, “Many of the ‘problems’ that we see here in the forums are not really Moodle problems as much as they are problems with users not understanding the multitude of features (and subsequent settings) that Moodle has” [26]. This sentence perfectly explains the lack of a human-centered approach. What we are saying is that “user problems” are in fact, “business problems”, and that is why Moodle should be adapted so as to solve these issues; the goal is to facilitate the use of the platform without having to read a manual or receive tedious trainings. From our point of view “It’s a critical step in moving beyond an era of technology that forced people to adapt to products—and toward a future where technology adapts to people” [24].

References 1. Moodle Pty Ltd. Moodle. Accessed 8 Apr 2023 2. Dougiamas, M., Taylor, P.C.: Interpretive analysis of an internet-based course constructed using a new courseware tool called Moodle. de HERDSA 2002 Quality Conversations, Perth, Western Australia (2002) 3. Gamage, S., Ayres, J., Behrend, M.: A systematic review on trends in using Moodle for teaching and learning. Int. J. STEM Educ. 1–24 (2022) 4. Babber, A.: LMS Statistics: Data, Trends & Predictions (2023). https://imagestation.com/ lms-statistics/. Accessed 1 Apr 2023 5. International Organization for Standardization. ISO Online Browsing Platform (2010). https:// www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:9241:-210:ed-1:v1:en. Accessed 8 Apr 2023 6. Institute of Education Sciences. ERIC. https://eric.ed.gov/. Accessed 30 Apr 2023 7. Google. Google Scholar. https://scholar.google.com/. Accessed 30 Apr 2023 8. Fatih, D., Charmaine, B., Fahad, A.: User experience matters: does one size fit all? Evaluation of learning management systems. Technol. Knowl. Learn. 27, 49–67 (2021) 9. Ilia, M., Shahrokh, N., Preben, H.: Exploring user experience of learning management system. Int. J. Inf. Learn. Technol. 38(4), 344–363 (2021) 10. Layla, H.: Examining user experience of Moodle e-learning system. Int. J. Adv. Comput. Sci. Appl. 12(11), 358–366 (2021)

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11. Christina, G.: Facebook in tertiary education: the impact of social media in e-Learning. J. Univ. Teach. Learn. Pract. 17(1), Article no. 3 (2020) 12. Tania, V.: TNW (2020). https://thenextweb.com/news/a-brief-history-of-ux-design-and-itsevolution. Accessed 30 Apr 2023 13. Donald, N.: The Psychology of Everyday Things. Basic Books, USA (1988) 14. Microsoft. Microsoft Inclusive Design. Microsoft. https://inclusive.microsoft.design/. Accessed 21 May 2023 15. Gibbons, S.: Nielsen Norman Group (2016). https://www.nngroup.com/articles/design-thi nking/. Accessed 6 May 2023 16. Leigh Brown, J.: UX Booth (2018). https://www.uxbooth.com/articles/empathy-mapping-aguide-to-getting-inside-a-users-head/. Accessed 2 May 2023 17. Gray, D.: Game storming (2009). https://gamestorming.com/empathy-map/. Accessed 2 May 2023 18. Kaplan, K.: Nielsen Norman Group (2023). https://www.nngroup.com/articles/user-journeysvs-user-flows/. Accessed 15 May 2023 19. Interaction Design Foundation. https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/topics/heuris tic-evaluation. Accessed 16 May 2023 20. Ramaswamy, S.: Nielsen Norman Group (2023). https://www.nngroup.com/articles/data-fin dings-insights-differences/. Accessed 2 May 2023 21. Design Kit. https://www.designkit.org/methods/how-might-we.html. Accessed 16 May 2023 22. Nielsen, J.: Nielsen Norman Group (2020). https://www.nngroup.com/articles/ten-usabilityheuristics/. Accessed 16 May 2023 23. Budiu, R.: Nielsen Norman Group (2017). https://www.nngroup.com/articles/wizards/. Accessed 16 May 2023 24. Microsoft. Microsoft Inclusive Design for Cognition Guidebook (2023) 25. Prabook. Prabook. https://prabook.com/web/martin.dougiamas/2274527. Accessed 21 May 2023 26. Hollowell, J.: Moodle forums (2007). https://moodle.org/mod/forum/discuss.php?d=80637# p357476. Accessed 21 May 2023

Bloom’s Taxonomy and Online Learning: The COVID-19 Scenario in Indian Perspective Rita Karmakar1(B)

and Sukanta Kumar Naskar2

1 Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences, Amity University Kolkata,

Kolkata, India [email protected] 2 NITTTR Kolkata, Kolkata, India [email protected] Abstract. With the advent of modernization and urbanization, the world has undergone some rapid changes. There have been some major transformations in the lifestyles of people and these transformations have reformed the education system as well. While previous education simply focused on imparting information, the present-day education system emphasizes on building the creative and analytical skills of the students. This shift in the purpose of education is believed to be quite beneficial in helping students develop the life skills required to cope effectively with the modern world. Organizations, today, prefer to recruit employees who possess good problem-solving skills, critical thinking skills and can suggest innovative ideas. In order to meet such requirements, the education system requires drastic restructuring. The Indian education system, for a long time, focused only on the memorization skills of the students but experts in the field of education, have started to recognize the limitations of this trend. They have realized that the need of the hour is not simply the retention of facts but learning how to apply them as well. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic has brought some major modifications to the education system in India. During the pandemic, online learning replaced faceto-face learning. As interaction in online classes posed to be a challenge, teachers and other educationalists came up with new techniques to increase the engagement and interaction in students. Instead of simply giving lectures and dictating notes in class, teachers adopted a more interesting mode of teaching. Brainstorming sessions, presentations, discussions, etc. were frequently conducted which helped students to develop higher-order thinking skills. This shifted the focus of education from a teacher-centered approach to a learner-centered approach. Using the Bloom’s taxonomy as a guide, many reformations were brought to the Indian education system which have been discussed in this paper. Keywords: Bloom’s taxonomy · Bloom’s digital taxonomy · COVID-19 · Indian education system

1 Introduction The education system has always aimed at helping people to thrive in this dynamic world. But the purpose of education today, has shifted from simply being a means of survival to becoming the backbone of a nation. Education opens numerous doors of opportunities © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 86–94, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_10

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for students who in turn help the society to develop and prosper. Many people believe that higher education is a necessity for becoming successful in life [22]. This is one of the reasons as to why there is a growing interest in a majority of the students for pursuing higher education degrees. Today, about 220 million students worldwide have taken admissions in higher educational institutions [29], but despite holding prestigious degrees from the best colleges and universities, only a small percentage of students succeed in getting good jobs. Employers and managers of many organizations have reported that there is a wide gap between the curriculum taught in schools and colleges and the skills that organizations look for in their employees [30]. This clearly indicates the limitations of the education system. Just like the employers and managers of multiple organizations, many students too feel that the syllabus followed by their colleges is outdated [31]. Not only the curriculum, the teaching methods adopted also requires some modifications. Instead of following an application and interactive based teaching method, schools and colleges continue to emphasize on conventional methods like rote learning which simply aim at obtaining high marks in exams and not on teaching students the new-age skills which are essential for becoming global citizens [1, 2, 23, 24, 32]. However, gradually, the experts in the field of education have started to acknowledge the importance of bringing a shift in the teaching approach and promoting creativity, innovation, problem-solving, critical and rational thinking in students [3, 4]. The Bloom’s taxonomy is one of the most famous models of learning utilized by educational institutions to reform their teaching-learning practices. This model helps categorize learning objectives in a hierarchical order thereby emphasizing in bringing a shift from the lower order learning approaches like memorization to the higher order learning approaches which focuses on creativity, innovation and problem-solving [5]. The onset of the Coronavirus pandemic in December 2019 brought about some major changes in the educational structure across the entire globe. Due to lockdowns and curfews, schools and colleges had to be shut down temporarily and the mode of learning shifted from offline to online classes [6]. This major shift in the mode of learning changed the teaching practices as well. E-learning in order to compensate the absence of face-to-face interactions, emphasizes heavily on increasing the engagement and participation of students as much as possible. As a consequence, teachers have attempted to move from the traditional lecture and rote learning method to adopting innovative teaching techniques during the online classes [7, 8].

2 Objectives of the Study In view of the major challenges faced by the educational institutions during the COVID19 pandemic due to the drastic shift from offline to online classes, the study attempted at increasing the quality of education and the learners’ sustainability and engagement using the Bloom’s taxonomy.

3 Methodology Relevant literature has been included in this study to understand the topic in a comprehensive manner. Scholarly journal articles, books, online government reports, websites, and other academic publications have been referred to in writing the paper.

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4 Results 4.1 Bloom’s Taxonomy: Original and Revised Versions The Bloom’s taxonomy, previously referred to as the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, was developed by Benjamin Bloom with Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill, and David Krathwohl in 1956. This model attempts to classify the intellectual skills and thought processes which are important for learning [9, 33]. Bloom’s taxonomy identified three major domains of learning: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive domain includes the component of knowledge and the development of intellectual skills and abilities. The affective domain covers the emotional aspects such as our feelings, attitudes, interests, and the development of appreciations. The psychomotor domain includes the aspect of motor skills and development. While Bloom’s original intention was to address all three domains, Bloom’s taxonomy ended up focusing mainly on the cognitive domain [10]. Bloom’s taxonomy is arranged in a hierarchical pyramidal structure including six levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Such an arrangement had led to the division of the six levels into lower-order thinking skills (LOTS) (knowledge, comprehension, and application) and higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation). To reach the highest level of the taxonomy, one has to gradually pass through all the lower levels [9]. Knowledge is the basic cognitive level and includes the retention of information. The second level, comprehension, involves understanding the meaning of the information that one comes across. Comprehension requires higher cognitive processing than the task of simple recollection. The next level of Bloom’s taxonomy is characterized by the application of one’s knowledge and skills. The fourth learning objective is analysis wherein, critical thinking skills are utilized to analyze information. The fifth level, synthesis, includes the generation of new ideas and concepts by putting together the previously encountered information. The last level and the highest learning objective is evaluation wherein, one critically appraises the information to form a judgment about its value [11]. A revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy was published by one of Bloom’s former students, Lorin Anderson in 2001. The revised version has been considered to be more suitable for the current century. The prominent difference between the original and revised version included a change in the terminology of the six levels. Some other changes with respect to the structure and emphasis of the taxonomy were also included in the revised version [9]. The positions of the fifth and sixth level of the taxonomy were interchanged in the revised taxonomy as Anderson believed that creation or synthesis is a more complex form of cognitive process compared to evaluation [37]. The revised version also used verbs instead of nouns to label the different categories and sub-categories of the six levels of the taxonomy [9]. Lastly, the emphasis of the taxonomy changed from viewing the taxonomy as a tool suitable only for students in younger grades to using it as a tool for assessing a broader audience [34]. The comparison between the original and revised versions of Bloom’s taxonomy has been identified (see Fig. 1).

Bloom’s Taxonomy and Online Learning

ORIGINAL

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REVISED

Evaluation

Creating

Synthesis

Evaluating

Analysis

Analyzing

Application

Applying

Comprehension

Understanding

Knowledge

Remembering

NOUN

VERB

Fig. 1. Original and Revised Version of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Note. From “Teaching with the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy”, by Powers, G., n.d., Slide Player [42].

4.2 Bloom’s Taxonomy and the Indian Education System Ever since its inception, the Bloom’s taxonomy has been widely accepted by educational institutions and is often used to develop educational objectives. The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), utilized the Bloom’s taxonomy in preparing the curriculum for undergraduate and postgraduate courses [35]. A study assessing the effectiveness of medical entrance exams in selecting suitable candidates found that the multiple-choice questions are based more on the recall capability of the students instead of assessing their higher order cognitive skills like analysis, synthesis and evaluation. A proposal was made by the researchers of the study to reform the structure of the exam papers. Recently, AICTE has made many modifications in the examination question patterns which are in line with the suggestions of Bloom’s taxonomy [12, 28]. These findings are an indication of the necessary reformations that the Indian education system needs to make towards improving the quality of education provided to the students [14]. 4.3 Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy and Online Teaching: The COVID-19 Scenario Data reported by Skill Scouter revealed that in the year 2020, more than 50% students engaged in online learning to continue their education even during the crisis of the Coronavirus pandemic [36]. In the last couple of years, numerous researches have been conducted on the effectiveness of online learning in imparting education owing to the rise of e-learning during the Coronavirus pandemic. These studies have found mixed results. One study found that online learning implemented via Whatsapp and Zoom is quite effective for theoretical courses but not so much for practical courses [13]. Many

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studies reported that e-learning was quite effective in terms of fulfilling the objectives of Bloom’s taxonomy [16, 17]. Bahasoan et al., also found that online learning is effective when implemented properly but is cost-ineffective when compared to regular face-toface classes [13]. Adnan and Anwar (2020), Laine, 2003, as cited in Smart and Cappel, 2006; Vidacovic et al., 2003, as cited in Halawi et al., 2009 found contradictory results. As per their findings, online learning is not as effective as face-to-face learning [14–16]. A few studies which assessed the effectiveness of online learning using Bloom’s taxonomy found no significant differences between online learning and offline learning [16]. For online learning to be effective, all the infrastructural facilities must be available and students and teachers must be willing and qualified enough to use this mode of learning. The Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy, developed by Andrew Churches in 2008, was adapted from the Bloom’s taxonomy to create a hierarchy that depicts the learning activities involved in e-learning. This model focuses on improving the quality of digital education by utilizing effective technology and suitable teaching practices. Just like the Bloom’s taxonomy, the Bloom’s digital taxonomy is directed at progressing from LOTS to HOTS [37, 38]. Bloom’s digital taxonomy helps instructors to use digital tools and technology in order to facilitate the teaching learning process and thereby improving Table 1. Bloom’s Taxonomy for the Digital Classrooms Levels as per (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

Explanation

Digitalization

Tools used

Remembering

Retrieving information as and when required

Identification of genuine online platform and understanding the operation of online platform

Using google, yahoo for searching online

Understanding

Explaining ideas, concepts and deriving meaning from the materials searched electronically

categorising and tagging of bookmarks

annotating, blogging, tweeting

Applying

Application of learnt knowledge in new situation

Creating new models and graphics

Editing, charting, uploading presentation and sharing with group

Analyzing

Drawing connections among ideas, concepts in order to generate holistic concepts

Creating online surveys either in order to explore concept or to create overall understanding

Using online survey platform such as google form, SurveyMonkey platform

Evaluating

Critical discussion and making judgements on the basis of certain criteria

Putting forward comments on certain post and blogs

Free blogging platforms where students write comments and encourage comments

Creating

To produce new ideas with the help of divergent thinking

Creating online material such as videos, podcasting, short films and publishing books

Creating account on amazon direct publishing website

Note. “Integrating technology with Bloom’s digital taxonomy”, Sneed, C, 2016 [39]

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learning experiences. The following Table 1 represents a diagrammatical representation of Bloom’s digital taxonomy. Since e-learning is based on the use of innovative and interactive teaching techniques like quizzes, discussions, assignments, presentations, and workshops [25], the focus of learning is more on understanding the concepts clearly rather than simply memorizing them for exams [40]. Blogs and podcasts too are very helpful in increasing the creativity levels of students in higher educational institutions [18].

5 Discussion The Indian education system, due to its innumerable limitations, has become a matter of great concern. Researchers and studies conducted lately have reported that higher education degrees no longer guarantee students placement in organizations. In fact, students with higher education degrees find it more difficult get a job compared to students without any qualifications. And a major cause for this trend is the lacuna in the curriculum and teaching practices [26]. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 is one of the most recent education policies which is directed towards addressing the limitations of the Indian education system. The NEP has reformed some of the features of the education system by implementing certain aspects of Bloom’s taxonomy [27]. Besides the NEP, other policies like the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) are also striving to bring a shift from the ‘teacher-centered’ educational practices to the ‘learner-centered’ practices. The learner-centered approach is considered to be very effective in improving the quality of education. This shift is believed to help eradicate rote-learning methods [19]. Critical thinking which is a crucial life skill in the 21st century is a product of higher-order thinking processes like comprehension, application, evaluation, synthesis, and problem-solving [20]. Numerous studies are being conducted to assess the productivity of online learning using Bloom’s taxonomy, especially Bloom’s digital taxonomy. These studies have proven to be quite helpful during this COVID-19 crisis when online learning via platforms like Microsoft Teams, Zoom and Whatsapp, has taken the place of face-to-face learning. Consequently, it becomes very crucial to take all the necessary steps to ensure that online learning is in par with offline learning, if not better, at imparting quality education to the students. Designing a proper curriculum, using audio-visual aids, conducting quizzes, workshops, presentations, discussions and brainstorming sessions can help make online learning more interactive and appealing. Studies have also shown that using these methods can help shift the focus of attention from rote learning and memorization to HOTS like analysis, evaluation and synthesis [21, 41]. This study, thus, comes to the conclusion that Bloom’s taxonomy is a very effective model which can be successfully used to improve the quality of learning including e-learning.

6 Conclusion The study explored probable limitations of the traditional teaching-learning process which gives emphasis on rote learning and earning academic degrees only. In order to address the drawbacks of the traditional teaching-learning process and to increase students’ competitive advantage and sustainability, Bloom’s taxonomy may be applied to

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the Indian education system. The current study was able to find certain evidences of improving the standard of online classes by implementing the Digital Bloom’s taxonomy. The Digital Bloom’s taxonomy has been successful at improving HOTS such as comprehension, application, evaluation, synthesis, and problem-solving among students which will ultimately help them develop the necessary skills for becoming successful and effective even in critical situations.

References 1. Ahmed, A., Ahmad, N.: Comparative analysis of rote learning on high and low achievers in graduate and undergraduate programs. J. Educ. Educ. Dev. 4(1), 111 (2017). https://doi.org/ 10.22555/joeed.v4i1.982 2. Pandya, R.N.: Indian education system – a historical journey. Int. J. Res. Educ. 3(3), 46–49 (2014). http://www.raijmr.com/ijre/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/IJRE_2014_vol03_ issue_03_12.pdf 3. Kapur, R.: Problems in the Indian Education System (2018). https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/323700593_Problems_in_the_Indian_Education_System 4. Lombardi, M.M., Oblinger, D.G.: Authentic learning for the 21st century: an overview. In: Educause Learning Initiative, pp. 1–12 (2017). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220 040581_Authentic_Learning_for_the_21st_Century_An_Overview 5. Chandio, M.T., Pandhiani, S.M., Iqbal, S.: Bloom’s taxonomy: improving assessment and teaching-learning process. J. Educ. Educ. Dev. 3(2), 203 (2016). https://doi.org/10.22555/ joeed.v3i2.1034 6. Tarkar, P.: Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on education system. Int. J. Adv. Sci. Technol. 29(9), 3812–3814 (2020). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352647439_Impact_Of_ Covid-19_Pandemic_On_Education_System 7. Khan, A., Egbue, O., Palkie, B., Madden, J.: Active learning: engaging students to maximize learning in an online course. Electron. J. E-Learn. 15(2), 107–115 (2017). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317214355_Active_learning_ Engaging_students_to_maximize_learning_in_an_online_course 8. Sruthi, P., Mukherjee, S.: Byju’s the learning app: an investigative study on the transformation from traditional learning to technology based personalized learning. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res. 9(3), 5054–5059 (2020). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342901964_Byju’s_The_ Learning_App_An_Investigative_Study_On_The_Transformation_From_Traditional_Lear ning_To_Technology_Based_Personalized_Learning 9. Forehand, M.: Bloom’s taxonomy. Emerg. Perspect. Learn. Teach. Technol. 41(4), 47–56 (2010). https://www.d41.org/cms/lib/IL01904672/Centricity/Domain/422/BloomsTax onomy.pdf 10. Coffey, H.: Bloom’s taxonomy. Chapel Hill, North Carolina (2008). https://www.researchg ate.net/profile/Heather-Coffey/publication/242546164_Bloom%27s_Taxonomy/links/56b 08c7e08ae9c1968b72026/Blooms-Taxonomy.pdf 11. Adams, N.E.: Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning objectives. J. Med. Libr. Assoc. JMLA 103(3), 152–153 (2015). https://doi.org/10.3163/1536-5050.103.3.010 12. Singh, D., Tripathi, P.K., Patwardhan, K.: What do Ayurveda postgraduate entrance examinations actually assess? Results of a five-year period question-paper analysis based on Bloom’s taxonomy. J. Ayurveda Integ. Med. 7(3), 167–172 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaim.2016. 06.005 13. Bahasoan, A.N., Ayuandiani, W., Mukhram, M., Rahmat, A.: Effectiveness of online learning in pandemic COVID-19. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Manage. 1(2), 100–106 (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.46729/ijstm.v1i2.30

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14. Adnan, M.: Online learning amid the COVID-19 pandemic: students perspectives. J. Pedagog. Sociol. Psychol. 1(2), 45–51 (2020). https://doi.org/10.33902/JPSP.2020261309 15. Smart, K.L., Cappel, J.J.: Students’ perceptions of online learning: a comparative study. J. Inf. Technol. Educ. Res. 5, 201–219 (2006). https://doi.org/10.28945/243 16. Halawi, L.A., McCarthy, R.V., Pires, S.: An evaluation of e-learning on the basis of Bloom’s taxonomy: an exploratory study. J. Educ. Bus. 84(6), 374–380 (2009). https://doi.org/10.3200/ JOEB.84.6.374-380 17. Gündüz, A.Y., Alemdag, E., Yasar, S., Erdem, M.: Design of a problem-based online learning environment and evaluation of its effectiveness. Turk. Online J. Educ. Technol. TOJET. 15(3), 49–57 (2016). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305358199_Design_of_a_problembased_online_learning_environment_and_evaluation_of_its_effectiveness 18. Friedman, H., Friedman, L.W.: Using social media technologies to enhance online learning. J. Educ. Online 10(1), 1–22 (2013). https://doi.org/10.9743/JEO.2013.1.5 19. Brinkmann, S.: Learner-centred education reforms in India: the missing piece of teachers’ beliefs. Policy Futures Educ. 13(3), 342–359 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1177/147821031556 9038 20. Zapalska, A.M., McCarty, M.D., Young-McLear, K., White, J.: Design of assignments using the 21st century bloom’s revised taxonomy model for development of critical thinking skills. Probl. Perspect. Manage. 16(2), 291–305 (2018). https://doi.org/10.21511/ppm.16(2).201 8.27 21. Ganapathy, M., Singh, M.K.M., Kaur, S., Kit, L.W.: Promoting higher order thinking skills via teaching practices. 3L Southeast Asian J. Engl. Lang. Stud. 23(1), 75–85 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.17576/3L-2017-2301-06 22. Immerwahr, J.: The price of admission: the growing importance of higher education. The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education (1998). https://vtechworks.lib.vt. edu/handle/10919/83316 23. Cheney, G.R., Ruzzi, B.B., Muralidharan, K.: A profile of the Indian education system. Prepared for the New Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce (2005). http://sch oolofeducators.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/12/eduction1.pdf 24. Madheswari, S.P., Mageswari, S.D.U., Niranjana, A.P.: Reformation of Indian education system – a critical review. In: 4th International Conference on Teaching, Learning and Education, pp. 12–24 (2021). https://www.dpublication.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/15-6625.pdf 25. Kostadinova, H., Totkov, G., Indzhov, H.: Adaptive e-learning system based on accumulative digital activities in revised Bloom’s taxonomy. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Computer Systems and Technologies, pp. 368–375 (2012). https://doi.org/10. 1145/2383276.2383330 26. Sanghera, T.: Young, Educated and Jobless: The Struggles of India’s Graduates, Aljazeera (2019). https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2019/5/23/young-educated-and-job less-the-struggles-of-indias-graduates 27. National Education Policy 2020, Vikaspedia (n.d.). https://vikaspedia.in/education/policiesand-schemes/national-education-policy-2020 28. Examination Reform Policy. All India Council for Technical Education (2018). https://www. aicte-india.org/sites/default/files/ExaminationReforms.pdf 29. Arnhold, N.: Tertiary Education Overview. The World Bank, 22 October 2021. https://www. worldbank.org/en/topic/tertiaryeducation#1 30. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Frankiewicz, B.: Does higher education still prepare people for jobs? Harvard Bus. Rev., 7 January 2019. https://hbr.org/2019/01/does-higher-education-still-pre pare-people-for-jobs

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31. Banerjee, A.: Why degrees with no skills: youths question country’s faulty education system. Hindustan Times. https://www.hindustantimes.com/education/with-degrees-but-no-skillsyouths-question-country-s-faulty-education-system/story-gbDuzqTSVoWv5jRJeNVqcN. html. Accessed 9 Dec 2021 32. Sharma, P.: 5 Challenges of Indian Education System and the Way Forward, K8 School (n.d.). https://k8school.com/5-challenges-of-indian-education-system-and-the-way-forward/ 33. Armstrong, P.: Bloom’s taxonomy. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching (2016). https:// evawintl.org/wp-content/uploads/Blooms-Taxonomy.pdf 34. Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised: The Peak Performance Center (n.d.). https://thepeakperforma ncecenter.com/educational-learning/thinking/blooms-taxonomy/blooms-taxonomy-revised/ 35. Dewangan, D.K.: Bloom’s Taxonomy and India’s Education System, DKD Lines, 13 September 2020. https://www.dkdlines.com/post/bloom-s-taxonomy-and-india-s-educationsystem 36. Keegan, L.: 79+ Staggering Online Learning Strategies! (All You Need To Know!), Skill Scouter, 20 July 2021. https://skillscouter.com/online-learning-statistics/. Accessed 14 Dec 2021 37. Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy Verbs: A Collection for 21st Century Students, Teach Thought (n.d.). https://www.teachthought.com/critical-thinking/blooms-digital-taxonomy-verbs/ 38. McNulty, N.: How the Best Teachers use Bloom’s Taxonomy in their Digital Classrooms. Niall McNulty, 24 November 2021. https://www.niallmcnulty.com/2017/11/blooms-digitaltaxonomy/ 39. Sneed, O.: Integrating Technology with Bloom’s Taxonomy, 9 May 2016. https://teachonline. asu.edu/2016/05/integrating-technology-blooms-taxonomy/ 40. Studies confirm the power of visuals to engage your audience in e-learning, Shift (n.d.). https://www.shiftelearning.com/blog/bid/350326/studies-confirm-the-power-ofvisuals-in-elearning 41. Brainstorming: Northern Illinois University Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning (2012). https://www.niu.edu/citl/resources/guides/instructional-guide/brainstorming.shtml 42. Powers, G.: Teaching with the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. Slide Player (n.d.). https://slidep layer.com/slide/16663455/

IoT Cybersecurity Virtual Laboratory Based on MQTT Santiago R. Urbano1(B) , Gabriel Diaz2 , and Sergio Martín2 1 Escuela Internacional de Doctorado, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED),

28040 Madrid, Spain [email protected] 2 Escuela Superior de Ingenieros Industriales, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), 28040 Madrid, Spain

Abstract. One of the challenges that the industrial cybersecurity is facing is the lack of trained workers. The MQTT protocol is being used extensively in both IoT and OT environments to send messages between different processes. The aim of this work is to provide the needed tools (virtual machines) and knowledge (practices) to teach the students progressively to understand how the MQTT protocol works, audit the security of its implementation and resolve the weaknesses found. The sessions are thought from a offensive & defensive point of view, making the learners adopt an attacker and defender mindset. Besides, a methodological approach has been taken to increase the difficulty of the topics related to with the protocol. For that, six practices have been designed with different scenarios to, first, learn about the protocol and then progressively improve the security level of the environment. While the first scenarios cover the analysis of the protocol and its basic security functions, in the last ones, a scenario where the IT and OT network zones are segmented, but conduits are not properly implemented can be found. This implementation permits lateral movements from IT to OT environments. That way, the students will see the danger posed by the presence of an exploitable vulnerability. Keywords: Cybersecurity education · virtual laboratory · on-line laboratory · IoT education · MQTT

1 Introduction The industry is facing a change of paradigm where the once isolated production plants, now need to be connected to profit the benefits of interchanging the information between systems. This is what is called Smart Factories in the Industry 4.0 paradigm. In this sense future workers and students need to have available a testbeds where they can get familiar with the new protocols used for the intercommunication of industrial elements in the plants. But making available just the technological means, is not enough. A pedagogical and methodological approach needs to be taken. The industry and academia are investing in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 95–103, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_11

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improving performance appraisals, education, pedagogy, and technology, as per [1], in order to improve the skills of the workers that, now, need to be taught to use these new technologies and have a more critical thinking. In this paper, a systematic approach is proposed so the students will, first, learn about how identify and analyze a communications protocol. Then, they will learn about the design weaknesses of the protocol and how to identify, exploit and resolve them. To foster the critical thinking, the scholars will need to adopt an offensive and a defensive role. This will also improve their mindset as they will need to be creative to conceptualize each of the proposed use-cases.

2 The MQTT Protocol Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol belong to a category called messaging protocol which’s aim is to send messages between processes in a single or multiple machines. It has become broadly used in IoT environments such as smart grid or smart cities. In order to be adequate to be used in hard conditions was designed to use low resources and low bandwidth. This meant that security was not considered in its design process, but later, some security capabilities were added to the MQTT standard as per [2]. The MQTT protocol follow a publisher – subscriber model. The publisher writes a message in a topic, and the subscriber subscribes to the topic to receive all messages published in the given topic. To coordinate this, there exists a broker which acts as a coordinator to receive the messages from the publisher and deliver them to the subscribers. The publisher, publishes the messages in a topic and the subscribers which desire to receive the messages, subscribe to those topics. This way of working can be seen in the following scheme (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Publisher-subscriber model followed by the MQTT protocol as per [3]

The Mosquitto framework is an opensource framework that can be deployed very easily in almost any linux-based machine. It consumes very little resources which makes it very suitable for the scope of this practices. It has a broker and a client which includes the subscriber and the publisher.

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3 The Scenario The proposed scenario tries to reproduce an industrial network which is not aligned with the Purdue Enterprise Reference Architecture (Also known as Purdue Model). The Purdue Model is widely used as a reference in the industry and the standards (i.e.: IEC62443) and often provide a high-level view of fundamental features, separated into distinct zones, as per [4]. In this case, exists a network which is somehow segmented with isolated corporate and productive networks. To isolate them, opensource firewalls (PFsense) are used. An HMI endpoint, which sits in the corporate network, has access to both the production and corporate networks, but is vulnerable, putting in risk both networks. In the corporate network, a MS.Windows endpoint can be found, which is there just to create confusion. In the production network, two brokers and three endpoints can be found. For that the Mosquitto suite is deployed in Debian Linux Operating systems. The endpoints used, have all the tools needed to secure the communications between the endpoint and the broker. The broker will also be used to subscribe to topics. In each of the networks, a Kali Linux attacking machine is deployed to perform the offensive operations in the scenarios. To deploy the machines, a virtualization environment can be used. For training purposes, the commercial VMware ESXI is used, so the students can learn to use a commercial tool that can be found in their current or future work environments. The networking scheme built for supporting the practices can be seen in the following figure (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Networking scheme used in the laboratory

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4 Practices Proposed The practices are based in a Problem Based Learning (PBL) methodology. As per [5], PBL is a methodological approach that suggests that “for effective acquisition of knowledge, learners need to be stimulated to restructure information they already know within a realistic context, to gain new knowledge”. But the pure investigative environment proposed by PBL methodology, has some drawbacks. These include, in example, that the student can get overwhelmed by the technological scenarios and lose focus of the scopes proposed by the practical environment. To resolve this issue, the practices are guided by a step-by-step guide where every concept is explained before being used to resolve the exercise. Following this model, and with the scope of teaching progressively about the MQTT protocol security, the practices are described in the following subsections. 4.1 Practice 1: How the MQTT Protocol Works The first thing to learn about a network protocol is its structure and how it looks like when being transmitted. Objectives: – Use the basic functionalities of the MQTT protocol by using the Mosquitto framework – Learn how to capture traffic with Wireshark – Review the traffic to identify the MQTT packet in the wire and its contents. Outcome: The student will first need to use the publisher subscriber scheme in a single machine. Then, he will need to put the publisher and the broker and subscriber in different machines. In the last steps, he will need to publish a message and capture the traffic with wireshark to identify the contents of the MQTT packets within the wireshark user interface, as shown below: (Fig. 3). 4.2 Practice 2: Reconnaissance of MQTT Brokers The first step, in the MITRE ATT&CK framework, as per [6], is reconnaissance. This means, in an attack, gathering information about the target which will be profited during the successive phases of the attack. Objectives: – Identify an MQTT subscriber in the network and in which ports the Mosquitto framework works by default. – See the information exposed by the broker.

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Fig. 3. Wireshark showing the MQTT packet sent to broker

– As a defender, learn how to “hide” the broker – Learn where the mosquito.conf file is located. Outcome: The student will first sit as an attacker by mapping the network looking for a Mosquitto broker, then, as a defender, he will need to learn how to modify the configuration features of the broker to be able to hide it in a different port in a “security by obscurity” tactic. This is shown in next figure. (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Mosquitto broker found in a different port than default

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4.3 Practice 3: Securing MQTT with Authentication To progressively increase the level of security, the next security feature provided by Mosquitto is authentication and authorization. The student will need to use them. Objectives: – Get familiar with user and password options in mosquitto.conf and use it to secure the comms. – Learn about the Access Control Lists in the Broker. Outcome: The access to a topic will be secured by a user and password and an Access Control List will restrict the access to a certain topic. When a message is refused by a wrong user or password, an error message is received as shown in the following figure (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Mosquitto broker refuses a message as authentication is not provided.

4.4 Practice 4: Securing MQTT with Authentication and Encryption In this practice, is shown how secure is the implementation of nearly every service using certificates. To progressively increase the level of security, the next security feature provided by Mosquitto is authentication and authorization. The student will need to use them. Objectives: – How to secure the communications of the MQTT broker with a certificate. – Capture traffic and see the effects of encryption. Outcome: The communications become secure with the usage of the certificates and when the traffic is captured no useful information can be found as shown below (Fig. 6).

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Fig. 6. Mosquitto TLS packet not showing any valid information.

4.5 Practice 5: Poisoning the Broker When the communications travel in clear, is relatively simple use a technique Man-inthe-Middle (MiTM) to manipulate the packets so, the message delivered is different that the one sent. Objectives: – Poison the broker and use the MiTM technique to manipulate the message sent to the topic. Outcome: When the publisher publishes an “OFF” message to shutdown something, it is replaced by “ON” keeping it alive. To do so, using Ettercap is relatively simple. The effect can be seen in the following image (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Packet manipulation using MiTM technique.

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4.6 Practice 6: Exploiting Vulnerabilities and Pivoting Between Networks Further phases in the MITRE ATT&CK framework can be used by an attacker such as lateral movements, exploiting vulnerabilities (impact) and so on. This practice will profit a vulnerability from and endpoint with access to both IT and OT networks to discover and attack a broker in the OT network from the IT network. Objectives: – Use Metasploit framework to exploit the vulnerability and use it to pivot from IT to OT networks. – Discover and use the broker in OT network from the attacking machine in IT. Outcome: The EternalBlue vulnerability in the HMI-PC is profited to pivot from the IT to the OT network. This enables the AttackIT machine to create a subscriber and publish a message in the Broker machine as shown next (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. AttackIT creates a subscriber and publishes into it in the broker machine in OT.

5 Conclusions and Future Works Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol is a very suitable protocol to be proposed for developing students´ practices to learn about industrial networking and network security given the easiness of use and the handful of features it has. A practical, actual, and progressive approach should be adopted when teaching network security, but the teachers and researchers need to be aware that the students can remain overwhelmed with the complexity of the day-by-day scenarios (machines, services, available, and others). To resolve this issue a very didactical guide must be proposed. In the moment this paper was produced, some technologies such as edge computing/edge security and cloud were rising very fast, so next steps could be taking these practices to a cloud IaaS/PaaS/SaaS or containerized environment and use SSE (Security Service Edge) features to protect the assets instead of using classical On-Prem security and virtualization solutions. Anyway, these practices consider basic security features that remain valid for network security teaching. Acknowledgments. This publication is part of the In4Labs project with reference TED2021131535B-I00 funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by European Union “NextGenerationEU”/PRTR.

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References 1. Ras, E., Wild, F., Stahl, C., Baudet, A.: Bridging the skills gap of workers in Industry 4.0 by human performance augmentation tools: challenges and roadmap. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Pervasive Technologies Related to Assistive Environments, pp. 428–432 (2017) 2. IT Explained: MQTT webpage. https://www.paessler.com/it-explained/mqtt. Accessed 05 May 2023 3. MQTT Publish, Subscribe and Unsubscribe 101. https://cedalo.com/blog/mqtt-subscribe-pub lish-mosquitto-pub-sub-example/. Accessed 16 May 2023 4. Geng, Y., et al.: A survey of industrial control system testbeds. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 569, 042030 (2019) 5. Kilroy, D.A.: Problem based learning. Emerg. Med. J. 21, 411–413 (2004) 6. MITRE ATT&CK Homepage: https://attack.mitre.org/. Accessed 21 May 2023

A Holistic View of Using Real and Virtual Models in Teaching Astronomy Concepts Charilaos Tsihouridis1(B) , Nikolaos Mitrakas1 , Marianthi Batsila2 , and Dennis Vavougios2 1 University of Patras, Patras, Greece {hatsihour,nmitrakas}@upatras.gr 2 University of Thessaly, Thessaly, Greece {marbatsila,dvavou}@uth.gr

Abstract. Students construct mental models as internal symbolic representations based on their observations of occurrences and events to comprehend the world around them. Various methods have been reported to diagnose students’ misconceptions among which questionnaires with multimodality characteristics that can be utilized as tools for detecting learners’ alternate perceptions. The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy of two pedagogical approaches, namely a self-constructed tangible model and a 3D virtual model, in terms of learning outcomes related to astronomy concepts and phenomena. The study encompassed every aspect of a didactic course path, including identification and assessment of alternative ideas, diagnostic evaluation, final evaluation, and fostering of metacognitive skills. Our research sample consists of 105 Junior high school students, aged thirteen to fifteen, coming from six different classes. The research approach included students’ ideas detection, a teaching intervention and analysis of the results. A mixed method approach (quantitative and qualitative) was followed for validity and reliability reasons. Research revealed that the use of a well-designed model (real or virtual) may comprehensively help in the detection students’ alternative ideas, the elicitation of hypotheses/predictions, provision of feedback and students’ metacognition. Keywords: Astronomy · Models · holistic approach

1 Introduction In order to comprehend the world around them, students develop mental models, which are internal symbolic representations, using their own observations of occurrences and events [1]. They are built on pre-existing ideas, perceptions and experiences and they play a particularly important role in cognitive change, mainly because of their functionality and less because of their accuracy [2]. Students’ unwavering beliefs have a direct influence on the quality of science education. This, in turn, affects the capacity of science teachers to facilitate a profound comprehension of established scientific concepts among their pupils [3]. In the realm of science education, it is crucial to acknowledge students’ © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 104–115, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_12

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practical ideas and how they apply them to comprehend scientific and technological occurrences. In order to provide effective science instruction, it is crucial to incorporate the identification and consideration of students’ alternative conceptions [4]. Researchers have reported various methods for diagnosing misconceptions in science education. However, they have not yet reached a consensus on the most effective approach for this purpose because it depends on the context of the topic to be investigated, the characteristics of the subjects to be investigated, as well as the abilities and resources of the researcher or teacher [5]. Nevertheless, it is widely acknowledged that utilizing multiple methods is more effective than relying on a singular approach, [6, 7]. Appropriately structured questionnaires can be used as tools for student alternative ideas detection, having characteristics of multimodality, using a combination of semiotic modes to convey messages and significantly increasing the range of detection of alternative ideas [8]. Additionally, teaching models, whether self-structured by students or by teachers or developed through their collaboration, can serve as a crucial intermediary between mental models and scientific models, or between scientific theory and practical application in this domain. An appropriately formulated and organized pedagogical framework should provide pupils with a lucid understanding of its intended application and the constraints that regulate it.

2 Models in Astronomy Concepts Astronomy has garnered the attention of numerous scientific education researchers since the inception of conceptual change research [9] and continues to do so even today [10]. When students first enter the classroom, they tend to have conceptions of the universe that differ greatly from the scientific consensus [11]. Numerous studies have examined students’ alternative ideas in geocentric aspects of astronomy regarding Moon phases [12] celestial bodies their size and scale [13] and eclipses [14] (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Students using Hands on model and 3d virtual model for the purposes of this research.

Models are used in every aspect of astronomy education to help students and facilitate teachers understand phenomena and transmit this understanding to others [15]. Based on astronomy, and as opposed to ‘everyday-situations’, students’ activities will enhance two aspects of modeling: inferring the right model that should best relate to the real situation; selecting physical parameters that can be observed in the modeled situation. [16].

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3 Rationale for the Present Study The prevalence of misinterpretations and alternative conceptions among students is considerable, due to the fact that they possess preconceived notions that are derived from their everyday experiences and often contradict established scientific knowledge [17]. Childrens’ unconventional ideas are not considered as insignificant mistakes, regarding teaching approaches of Natural Sciences, but rather as cognitive frameworks that they utilize to comprehend natural phenomena. Educators’ pedagogical Content Knowledge encompasses comprehension of students’ potential alternative perspectives with the primary objective of developing coping strategies for achieving optimal learning results. It is widely acknowledged that each assessment technique exhibits distinct advantages and drawbacks, and that employing multiple techniques is more effective than relying on a singular approach [5]. The use of questionnaires as research tools are often subject to loss of important detailed answers and information on behalf of the respondents, due to lack of accuracy honesty of their answers, as well as subjectivity in the interpretation of the questions posed. In the use of models there is often a substitution of the particular features of the models by local elements of images and constructions and the consideration of the virtual representations they include as real physical objects. According to the above, the authors of this paper decided to conduct this research in order to investigate the approach of using the combination of common research/detection/assessment tools (questionnaire) and teaching tools in natural sciences (didactic real and virtual models) for the multimodal detection of students’ alternative ideas and their range of conviction regarding astronomy concepts and also assessing the learning outcomes of using these models as didactic tools fully integrated in teaching scenarios. The concepts which were studied were related to the Solar system, Solar eclipse, Lunar eclipse, and Moon phases.

4 The Research 4.1 Purpose The aim of this research is multiple. Firstly, to test the effectiveness in terms of learning outcomes of two teaching models (a self-constructed real model and a 3D virtual model) in the teaching of astronomy concepts and phenomena (Earth-Moon-Sun-movements and related phenomena). This will be across the full spectrum of teaching path (detection and range of power of alternative ideas, movement and strengthening of students’ curiosity, teaching intervention, diagnostic evaluation, recapitulation and final evaluation, development of metacognitive skills). The representations of the used teaching models (real and virtual one) reflected the currently accepted scientific model in such a way so as to avoid, during their use, the possibility of any enhancement of alternative ideas in the specific subject of research during the teaching process, but also as modern teaching tools involved in the entire spectrum of the educational course. Specifically, it emphasized the interactivity between students and models, as well as among students and between students and instructor. Additionally, it underscored the importance of documenting these interactions through participant observation. The aforementioned

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methodology attempts to familiarize students with techniques for augmenting their inquisitiveness, which serves as a pivotal element in cultivating more robust learning incentives for subsequent educational process. More specifically the research questions were: • To what extent and depth can the use of these models detect students’ alternative ideas focusing on the degree of their persistence? • To what extent do the results of these detections differ from the results of the administered questionnaire? • Which are the learning outcomes of using these models as didactic tools for teaching astronomy concepts? • To what extent can the use of these models help students meta-cognitively regarding astronomy concepts? 4.2 Research Sample Our research sample consists of 105 Junior high school students, aged thirteen to fifteen, coming from six different classes and divided into four groups. During the teaching intervention the hands-on model was used in the first group consisting of three classes, for all the astronomy concepts taught and the 3D virtual model was used in the second group consisting also of three classes. The students performed activities that were described in suitably structured worksheets designed for this purpose. The intervention lasted eight hours. Specifically, one hour was assigned for the filling in of the questionnaire during the pre-intervention phase, and one hour for further detecting students’ ideas through observation and semi-structured interviews with small groups of five students in each class. The remaining four hours were divided into four consecutive hourly sessions for the implementation of the actual intervention for all the classes. Finally, another hour was assigned for the completion of the initial questionnaire and one hour for a focus group discussion to detect any permanent change in the students’ perceptions regarding astronomy phenomena. 4.3 Research Tools For the purposes of the research, a mixed method approach (quantitative and qualitative) was used. This approach can integrate and synergize multiple data sources which can assist the study of complex problems. The proposed research plan comprises the identification of students’ alternative conceptions through the administration of a questionnaire and the use of both real and virtual models, the main teaching intervention which involves the utilization of a fundamental teaching tool, with the models being integrated into structured teaching scenarios and accompanying worksheets appropriate for this purpose. A well-designed questionnaire must contain clearly written questions that can be understood as intended by all respondents, ensuring that all respondents can provide reasonably accurate answers to all questions, minimizing undesirable response behaviour. Taking the aforementioned into account the first teaching tool used was a questionnaire that was designed based on the principles of multimodal logic consisting of twenty-five questions aiming not only at detecting students’ alternative ideas but also at assessing

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their level of significance in terms of the astronomy concepts taught: The Solar System, Solar, Eclipse, Lunar Eclipse and Moon Phases. Each concept in the questionnaire was associated with a set of questions which included a) four multiple choice questions, two of which were presented in text format and two of which included visual aids such as images, diagrams, or representations b) two choice questions that required a short justification, one of which was presented in text format while the other one included a visual aid c) finally, each concept was also accompanied by an open-ended question related to design. Concerning the teaching models employed in the study, the first model, denoted as the hands-on model, was constructed by students with the guidance of their instructor and emphasized the use of simple materials, such as a flashlight to represent the Sun, a plastic ball to represent the Earth, and a golf ball to represent the Moon. Additionally, the model was designed to prevent any misconceptions regarding the actual sizes of the celestial bodies and their counterparts in the model. The educator additionally cited particular constraints of the model, including its incapability to precisely portray astronomical distances. The second model, known as the virtual 3D online model, is a space simulation that demonstrates the orbital motions of the Earth and the Moon, along with associated occurrences such as eclipses, day-night cycles, seasonal changes, and lunar phases. The selection of this particular model was predicated upon its educational goals, scientific rigour, and ease of use. The study utilized both quantitative and qualitative approaches to enhance the validity of the results. The latter involved interactive discussions through observation and semi-structured interviews with a small group of students of each class during the initial discovery phase of the research, where their alternative ideas were identified and recorded. The observation during this phase was carried out by the instructor who held the leading role of the interviewer and an independent observer who also recorded and evaluated both the students’ answers and reactions. The questions of the semi-structured interview were based on the main pillars of the questionnaire. Additionally, a focus group discussion was conducted with a sample of 12 students, randomly selected from two students of each class, to evaluate the teaching intervention, at the final stage of the research. The questionnaire, the structured interview and focus group questions were tested for validity, including structural and content validity, as well as for reliability on a small number of students. The final version of the research tool was developed through a modification and reconstruction process based on data obtained during the pilot phase. The internal reliability of the questionnaire was tested with the internal consistency factor Cronbach’s a. The analysis showed that its value was 0.85 for the entire questionnaire. The teaching objectives of the specific questionnaire used are presented, grouped in various categories, in Table 1 below.

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Table 1. Categories of Teaching Objectives for the Subject Taught. Categories of teaching objectives

Question numbers

Teaching Objectives

O1: Solar System

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 15, 17, 19

To understand the types of celestial bodies the solar system consists of To understand the position of the planets and their orbit in the solar system To understand the relative sizes of celestial bodies in the solar system

O2: Solar Eclipse

8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 20

To understand which celestial bodies are involved in a solar eclipse To understand the position of the participating celestial bodies in a solar eclipse

O3: Lunar Eclipse

16, 18, 23, 24, 25

To understand which celestial bodies are involved in a solar eclipse To understand the position of the participating celestial bodies in a solar eclipse

O4: Moon phases

11, 21, 22

To understand the phases of the Moon

4.4 Research Stage The intervention lasted eight hours. Two of these hours were assigned to the participants to complete the questionnaire. Specifically, one hour was assigned for the filling in of the questionnaire during the pre-intervention phase and one hour for the completion of the questionnaire after the didactical intervention. The remaining four hours were divided into four consecutive hourly sessions for the implementation of the actual intervention. Analytically 1st phase of intervention (1-h): During the first phase a questionnaire was administered (as a pre-test) for the purpose of recording any preliminary ideas regarding the subject taught. 2nd phase of intervention (1-h): At the second phase semi-structured interviews and discussions were held, in each class with groups of 5 students, in order to further investigate in depth students’ ideas on the subject. During this phase, both the teacher, who played the role of the interviewer, and an independent observer observed the students’ responses and evaluated their reactions through the interactivity between students and models, as well as among students and between students and instructor. 3rd phase of intervention (4-h): During this phase, models were utilized as instructional tools, fully integrated in suitably designed scenarios and worksheets, to teach the astronomy-related concepts of the Solar system, the Solar eclipse, the Lunar eclipse and Moon phases. More specifically in the first group of three classes, the hands-on model

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was utilized to teach all astronomy concepts. In the second cohort, which also consisted of three classes, the 3D virtual model was utilized for all astronomy concepts taught. 4th phase of intervention (1-h): In order to examine students’ ideas even further, semi-constructed interviews and focus group discussions were carried out. 5th phase of intervention (1-h): The same initial questionnaire was administered to the same learners one week after finishing the intervention for the purpose of detecting any change of students’ ideas.

5 Results 5.1 Statistical Analysis-Data Analysis The IBM-SPSS statistical package and Wilcoxon tests for dependent samples were utilised to analyze our current data for each group of students. The non-parametric test was used in this study because the data distribution was not normal. For the purposes of the present study, the level of significance was set at 5%. The research hypotheses for each group of students were: H0: Null hypothesis: The distributions of performance in the populations of students will be the same before and after the teaching intervention. H1: Alternative hypothesis: The distributions of performance in the populations of students will differ in their averages before and after the teaching intervention. It should be noted that, in H1, there is no attempt to predict which group displays the best or worst performance. Therefore, a two-sided checking of hypotheses is formulated. The results are presented below. 5.2 Discussion of the Results The SPSS – Statistical package was used to analyze all data collected from the administration of the questionnaires. The focus group discussion and interviews were analyzed by applying the content analysis method. The analysis of the questionnaire data of the pre-test phase reveals that the students’ knowledge regarding the teaching goals of all categories for the group, which used the hands-on model, ranged from 11,40% to 47,23% with average overall value of 28,87% while for the group that used the virtual one from 12,92% to 42,15% with average overall value of 24,23%. After the end of the intervention the analysis of the post-phase data revealed that for the group that used the hands-on model there was a clear improvement of students’ performance regarding all categories ranging from 37,37% to 64,64% with an average overall value of 49,13% per teaching goal. The highest improvement was presented in the instructive target concerning the Solar Eclipse (improvement by 28.83%) while the lowest one related to the concept of Moon Phases (improvement by 16.85%). (Table 2). Regarding the group that used the 3D virtual model there was a clear improvement of students’ performance regarding O1, O2, O3 categories ranging from 30,63% to 61,7% with an average overall value of 47,24% per teaching goal. The highest improvement was presented in the instructive target concerning the Solar Eclipse (improvement by

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29.61%) while the lowest one related to the concept of Lunar Eclipse (improvement by 17.71%). Regarding the concept of Moon Phases, no improvement was observed. (Table 2). Table 2. Results per teaching subject category (pre – post testing) Group 1 (Hands-on model)

Group 2 (3D Virtual model)

Objectives

Pre-test

Pre-test

Categories

Mean

O1: Solar System

47,23

O2:Solar Eclipse O3: Lunar Eclipse O4: Moon Phases

21,40

Post-test SD

Post-test

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

9,85

64,64

11,79

42,15

10,26

61,70

9,83

27,44

12,75

56,27

14,76

19,79

10,79

49,40

14,72

11,40

6,30

37,37

14,93

12,92

9,73

30,63

14,31

10,15

38,25

11,54

22,08

9,05

22,08

12,42

Based on the non-parametric Wilcoxon criterion and the results of the above Table 2 we can conclude from all the possible comparisons of the pre and post-tests that for all categories O1, O2, O3, O4 regarding group 1 the result is statistically significant (p < 0,05) and leads to the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis. Concerning group 2 the result is statistically significant only for categories O1, O2, O3 but not for category O4 where there was no improvement observed. (Table 3), (Fig. 3 and 4). Table 3. Results per teaching subject category/subcategory (pre-post testing) Group 1(Hands-on model)

Group 2 (3D Virtual model)

Categories

Z

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

Categories

Z

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

O1: Solar System

−5,543

< 0,001

O1: Solar System

−5,149

< 0,001

O2:Solar Eclipse

−5,839

< 0,001

O2:Solar Eclipse

−5,211

< 0,001

O3: Lunar Eclipse

−5,262

< 0,001

O3: Lunar Eclipse

−4,209

< 0,001

O4: Moon Phases

−4,463

< 0,001

O4: Moon Phases

−0,106

0,915

The same conclusions can be reached by using a chart (Figs. 3, 4) with the intervals of confidence at 95% of the means of each group’s performance and agree with the results of the qualitative analysis (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Error chart for the participating groups for the 4 categories (O1, O2, O3, O4) in the pre-post testing process for Group 1 and Group 2

5.3 Focus Group Results In the preliminary stage of recording alternative ideas via student interactive engagement with models, peers, and the instructor, some responses verified the survey questionnaire results, while others showed a deviation. The examination of the survey data revealed that a considerable proportion of the participants appeared to lack familiarity with the term of “eclipse”. Throughout this phase, the instructor was repeatedly queried regarding what the meaning of the word “eclipse” is. During the second phase interactivity with models helped students overcome terminology problems and express their ideas regarding the phenomenon which they described as occurring when the Sun or Moon is hidden. Further recording of their alternative ideas made it possible to highlight the range of power of some of their perceptions, one such as that during a lunar eclipse the Moon goes into the Sun’s shadow and appears as a crescent Moon. Also, in some cases misinterpretation of questions regarding satellites was observed. In the initial stage, a group of students characterized a satellite as an apparatus that observes terrestrial activity from space but in the second phase model observation clarified that the question concerned celestial bodies. This helped in detecting further any perceptions regarding satellites and in some cases confirming the pre-recorded idea that satellites don’t move, that they don’t participate in the eclipse phenomena and sometimes the cause of lunar eclipses is the atmosphere or clouds. After the phase of the main intervention, concerning the solar system concepts, learners realized that the Sun is a star and that the planets are celestial bodies that move around the Sun. They also understood that the Earth’s position within the Solar System is not right next to the Sun, but is the third planet away from it, that some planets have satellites, and that the Earth’s satellite is the Moon which orbits around Earth. A large number of students realized that the Moon is not a body that produces its own light but reflects the sunlight. They reported that the real-world model helped them understand that all planets do not have the same size and are not positioned at the same distance from the Sun and that the Sun compared to Earth is huge. However, there in some cases there was a difficulty in students’ understanding regarding the scale of sizes as reporting that if the Earth is considered to be the size of a grain of sand then the Sun’s size must resemble the size of a basketball. Regarding the phenomenon of the solar eclipse taught, the students of both experimental groups understood that the Earth, the Moon and the Sun take part in the solar eclipse, that during a solar eclipse the Moon comes in front of the Earth and hides it,

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while the reason of this occurrence is the fact that these three bodies need to be aligned. It also became clear to several students of both groups, but especially to those who used the real model, that the solar eclipse cannot be seen by all people on Earth because the Moon’s shadow is not large enough to cover its surface and that the three celestial bodies are not always positioned along the same line and for this reason, we observe different types of eclipses. The students of the group that used the 3D virtual model expressed the opinion that depending on the position of the three bodies and where we are on Earth we have a different type of solar eclipse each time but they expressed several times their question about how such a small body as the Moon could hide the sun as in fact, the representation of the phenomenon by this model was the closest to the scientifically correct one but could not depict the actual distances of the three celestial bodies. Regarding the lunar eclipse, several students of the 1st group stated that the phenomenon occurs when the three bodies (Sun, Earth, Moon) are positioned in a straight line and that the Moon goes behind Earth where the part of space is not illuminated by the flashlight (Sun). A number of students in the 2nd group reported that the three bodies align and the Moon is covered by the Earth’s shadow, but several learners of this group expressed again their doubts about the actual distances and sizes of the three participating celestial bodies. Concerning the phases of the Moon, several students of the real model group understood that this occurs due to the fact that a different part of the Moon is illuminated each time as it revolves around the Earth. Regarding the students of the 2nd group, a large number did not seem to understand the nature of the phenomenon, however, some stated that the phases of the Moon happen because the Moon shows a different face to the Earth every night because it reflects the sunlight in a different way. Interest and curiosity of students were sparked more in the group that used the real model, enhancing their active involvement to a greater extent. According to a large number of learners of the first group the simulation unfolding in front of them seems closer to reality and impressed them the fact that it (the hands-on model) can be easily built and reproduced using simple materials. In the group using the virtual model a learning interest concerning the study of astronomical phenomena was also observed but it soon decreased as they stated that simulations of this kind (on a pc or tablet) seem more fake and sometimes confusing. Moreover, assessing students’ ideas, using the two models after a period of time, revealed that a larger number of students of the first group had a permanent change regarding their initial perceptions compared to the learners of the second group.

6 Conclusion and Results The objective of the current study was to assess the effectiveness of two instructional models, using them holistically throughout the teaching course. The research approach followed included students’ alternative ideas preliminary detection phase, a teaching intervention and a final detection phase of any permanent change in learners’ initial perceptions. As the discussion of the results revealed there was an overall improvement regarding learners’ ideas about the astronomy concepts taught.

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As research results revealed the combined use of an assessment tool and a didactic model can become a valuable method to further assess in a great extent students’ alternative ideas and their degree of persistence. Misinterpretation of questions, terminology problems and respondents’ fatigue are overcome through learners’ interaction with a tactile or virtual model relating to the concepts taught. The visual feedback recorded, and the interest sparked by such interactions lead to an in-depth investigation and confirmation or invalidation of alternative conceptions which were pre-recorded by the preceding questionnaire assessment. Furthermore, regarding the learning outcomes of the intervention and upon analyzing the research data, during the concluding phase of the study a differentiation in the outcomes between the two cohorts of students in terms of the qualitative characteristics of the questions across all categories was observed. The utilization of a hands-on model and the active engagement of students with it resulted in enhanced curiosity and interest, facilitating a more comprehensive understanding of astronomy concepts (e.g. in terms of the position and relative size of the celestial bodies involved in an eclipse). In some cases, the use of the virtual 3D model helped the students to better observe and clarify certain features of the phenomena by better visualizing concepts where the real hands-on model presented weaknesses (e.g. in the relative motion of the Moon around the Earth). Moreover, the models were used successfully meta-cognitively for assessing students’ ideas, after a period of time from the conclusion of the intervention, revealing that a large number of students had a permanent change regarding their initial perceptions. In conclusion, as shown by the research, a properly designed teaching model (real or virtual), apart from its interactive role, can also be used holistically, for the detection of the spectral range of students’ alternative ideas, the elicitation of hypotheses/predictions, their feedback and reflection, finally the ability to lead students themselves to the paths of understanding or knowledge creation. Acknowledgments. This paper has been financed by the funding program “MEDICUS”, of the University of Patras.

References 1. Ahmed, F.: Determining students’ mental models about the sun, earth, and moon celestial objects for sustainable learning in astronomy education in Libya. Afr. Educ. Res. J. 9(3), 825–832 (2021) 2. Tsihouridis, C., Vavougios, D., Ioannidis, G.S.: The effectiveness of virtual laboratories as a contemporary teaching tool in the teaching of electric circuits in Upper High School as compared to that of real labs. In: 2013 International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL), Kazan, Russia, pp. 816–820 (2013) 3. Asghar, A., Huang, Y.S., Elliott, K., Skelling, Y.: Exploring secondary students’ alternative conceptions about engineering design technology. Educ. Sci. 9(1), 45 (2019) 4. Potvin, P.: The coexistence claim and its possible implications for success in teaching for conceptual “change.” Eur. J. Sci. Math. Educ. 5(1), 55–66 (2017) 5. Kaltakci Gurel, D., Eryilmaz, A., McDermott, L.C.: A review and comparison of diagnostic instruments to identify students’ misconceptions in science. Eurasia J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ. 11(5), 989–1008 (2015)

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6. Beichner, R.J.: Testing student interpretation of kinematics graphs. Am. J. Phys. 62(8), 750– 762 (1994) 7. Schmidt, H.J.: Students’ misconceptions- looking for a pattern. Sci. Educ. 81(2), 123–135 (1997) 8. Gómez-Soberón, J.M., Gómez-Soberón, M.C., Corral-Higuera, R., Arredondo-Rea, S.P., Almaral-Sánchez, J.L., Cabrera-Covarrubias, F.G.: Calibrating questionnaires by psychometric analysis to evaluate knowledge. SAGE Open 3(3), 215824401349915 (2013) 9. Baxter, J.: Children’s understanding of astronomy and the earth sciences. In: Glynn, S.M., Duit, R. (eds.) Learning Science in the Schools: Research Reforming Practice, pp. 155–177. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ (1995) 10. Shen, J., Confrey, J.: Justifying alternative models in learning astronomy: a study of K–8 science teachers’ understanding of frames of reference. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 32(1), 1–29 (2010) 11. Gali, F.: Secondary school children’s understanding of basic astronomy concepts. J. Stud. Soc. Sci. Hum. 7(3), 328–342 (2021) 12. Lelliott, A., Rollnick, M.: Big ideas: a review of astronomy education research 1974–2008. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 32(13), 1771–1799 (2010) 13. Cheek, K.Q: Students’ understanding of large numbers as a key factor in their understanding of geologic time. Int. J. Sci. Math. Educ. 10, 1047 (2012) 14. Pundak, D.: Evaluation of conceptual frameworks in astronomy. Prob. Educ. 21st Century 69, 57 (2016) 15. Taylor, I., Barker, M., Jones, A.: Promoting mental model building in astronomy education. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 25(10), 1205–1225 (2003) 16. Rollinde, E.: Modeling astronomy education, the case of F-HOU tools: SalsaJ and Human Orrery. In: Ros, R.M., Garcia, B., Gullberg, S., Moldon, J., Rojo, P. (eds) Education and Heritage in the era of Big Data in Astronomy Proceedings IAU Symposium, Virtual, France, no. 367 (2021) 17. Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., Cocking, R.R.: How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. National Academy Press, Washington DC (1999)

A Study of Virtual Reality Applied to Welder Training Manuel Couto1,2(B) , Marcelo R. Petry1 , and Manuel F. Silva1,2 1

2

INESC TEC - Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores, Tecnologia e Ciˆencia, Porto, Portugal [email protected] Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Polit´ecnico do Porto, Rua Dr. Ant´ onio Bernardino de Almeida, 431, Porto, Portugal

Abstract. Welding is a challenging, risky, and time-consuming profession. Recently, there has been a documented shortage of trained welders, and as a result, the market is pushing for an increase in the rate at which new professionals are trained. To address this growing demand, training institutions are exploring alternative methods to train future professionals. The emergence of virtual reality technologies has led to initiatives to explore their potential for welding training. Multiple studies have suggested that virtual reality training delivers comparable, or even superior, results when compared to more conventional approaches, with shorter training times and reduced costs in consumables. This paper conducts a comprehensive review of the current state of the field of welding simulators. This involves exploring the different types of welding simulators available and evaluating their effectiveness and efficiency in meeting the learning objectives of welding training. The aim is to identify gaps in the literature, suggest future research directions, and promote the development of more effective and efficient welding simulators in the future. The research also seeks to develop a categorical system for evaluating and comparing welding simulators. This system will enable a more systematic and objective analysis of the features and characteristics of each simulator, identifying the essential characteristics that should be included in each level of classification.

Keywords: Welding

1

· Training · Virtual reality

Introduction

Currently, there is a labour shortage in the welding industry [1]. Despite being essential work for most industries, the number of technicians has been decreasing over the years, due to a number of issues associated with this profession, including physical wear, health issues, and the difficulty and cost of training. The process of training new welders is laborious, risky, and expensive. It is challenging since it needs several hours of training in addition to a great c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 116–127, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_13

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deal of mental and physical hardship. Welding is inherently dangerous, but the risks are amplified for apprentice welders. Finally, professional training requires many hours of practical instruction, which incurs wear and tear on equipment, materials, and electricity bills, resulting in a high training cost [2]. Virtual reality simulators are being developed to provide a safer and less complex introduction to welding. Their goal is to help trainees gain a foundational understanding of welding techniques before working in a real-world environment, thereby reducing the risks associated with the learning process, as well as the training time and costs. Given these ideas, Sect. 2 explains the concepts of welding and virtual reality. Section 3, focuses on the specific application of virtual reality in welding, encompassing an analysis of the underlying motivations, objectives, and essential requirements, it also encompasses two pivotal studies, culminating by presenting three commercial solutions. Subsequently, in Sect. 4, an elaborate proposal for a classification system dedicated to virtual reality welding simulators (VRWS) is presented, along with the encompassing philosophies that these simulators should adhere to. Finally, Sect. 5 provides a comprehensive conclusion that encapsulates key findings and insightful recommendations for future research.

2 2.1

Theoretical Foundations Welding

This manufacturing method involves fusing two pieces together using heat or pressure, creating a junction known as a weld. The welding process is applicable to metals, thermoplastics, and wood [3], although the focus of this paper will be on metals. This procedure has been in use since the beginning of human metalworking. Because of this, it has a broad range of uses, shaping itself to each one of them, leading to the development of numerous welding processes [4]. There are two classifications for these: pressure welding and fusion welding. In the first category are resistance welding, friction welding, ultrasonic welding, and other techniques. The second category includes gas welding, arc welding and power beam processes. From these, the arc welding process is the most common, being Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) and Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) the most used arc welding techniques. Due to the wide variety of welding applications, the personnel must be trained to be adaptable. To accomplish this, a number of “welding positions” were developed, which can be classified into two groups (planes and pipes) and further subdivided based on orientation, location relative to the welder, and movement. From these, there are four that stand out: 2F (horizontal filet weld), 1G (flat groove weld), 3F (vertical filet weld), and 3G (vertical groove weld) [2,5,6]. During welding, employees are unavoidably exposed to a broad spectrum of health risks, ranging from acute to chronic conditions. This job can also have an effect on one’s eyes and skin, although lung cancer is by far the most frequent of these diseases [7]. Even though a virtual reality welding simulator is unable to directly prevent or reduce these issues, the knowledge that this software will

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hopefully pass on to the trainees will ideally instruct them in a way to prevent, and not let them be so exposed, to the hazardous of welding, as if they were directly trained in real environments. On the other hand, virtual reality technology may be utilized in human-robot interaction, in which the welder performs the weld in a virtual environment and the robot mimics the action in the real world, thus minimizing the human contact with welding’s inherent dangers [8]. 2.2

Virtual Reality

Virtual Reality (VR) is a technology that immerses the user in a simulated environment, allowing him to interact in a seemingly real way [9]. It is typically achieved through the use of a VR headset, covering the user’s eyes and ears, and, sometimes, hand-held controllers, to provide a sense of presence and physical interaction within the simulated environment. VR is designed to give users a feeling of being inside a virtual world, allowing them to explore and interact with the environment in a way that feels natural and intuitive. VR is used in a variety of applications, including gaming, entertainment and therapy [10]. Over the past years, this technology is increasingly being used for education purposes [9]. In VR, trainees can interact with simulated environments and objects, providing an immersive and interactive learning experience, something that traditional methods, such as lectures or textbooks, cannot. VR has been shown to boost trainees’ motivation and engagement while also increasing their knowledge of content’s spatial structure and purpose, acquisition of linguistic linkages, longterm memory retention, improved performance on physical tasks, and more [9]. VR technology can be used for a wide range of learning applications, such as technical training, where trainees can practice complex procedures and techniques in a safe and controlled environment before trying them in the real world. These systems are used in areas like medicine [11,12], academics [9,13], industry [14,15] and even military purposes [16,17].

3

VR Welding Training

Welding is a critical skill in the majority of sectors. As a result, constant efforts have been made to identify the most efficient and cost-effective technique of teaching new welders [18]. Welder training programs have been around for almost as long as welding has been in use. The evolution of these training technologies may be traced back to simple mechanical welder trainers, and continues through increasingly complicated mechanical systems, and finally to computerbased teaching systems [18]. As part of their training and education, trainees who are learning the fundamentals of welding through hands-on experience utilize a significant amount of expensive welding materials. In addition, the welding industry is continuously searching for trained welders, for this reason, schools need to constantly be looking for new ways to get trainees ready for the field as quickly as possible. On the other hand, learning this method is challenging for both the apprentice and the master. Besides, gloves, a helmet, and other

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protective items make it difficult for trainees to move and see well, hindering their education and diminishing their confidence. Furthermore, the trainee is continuously troubled by the heat as well as the sparkling and loud noise, which causes him to worry that he may be harmed [19]. Expert welders understand how to decode information from the welding pool, which allows them to perform high-quality welding. Meanwhile, the trainees have no idea how they should adjust their behaviour based on the visual cues they are given. The difficulty in effectively passing on knowledge from master to apprentice is one of the primary challenges that must be overcome throughout the training of welders. The transmission of theoretical information is done through lectures, whereas the transmission of practical knowledge is done through demonstrations. However, passing on information through demonstrations is difficult due to the fact that the apprentice is unable to follow the body movement of the master when they are welding at the same time. This is because of the constraints imposed by the gear welders are compelled to utilize in their work. To be able to look directly at the weld, which is essential for the apprentice to understand the construction of the weld pool, it is necessary to wear a welding helmet. However, this drastically reduces the trainee’s field of vision (FOV) and luminosity, which results in only the brightest areas, the welding area, being visible. 3.1

Objective

Following the challenges discussed, the simulator’s primary function is to offer the trainee directional cues in the form of visual, tactile, and/or audible feedback. The trainee may be able to obtain advice in real time on how to modify his position and the way that he welds [18,19], for example, using visual guides to help him follow the correct path while welding. Typically, they illustrate different indicators such as the torch’s trajectory, travel angle, work angle, and contact to work distance. These indicators change colour and shape depending on the position and movement of the user. Nonetheless, the VR system also makes it feasible to shorten the amount of time spent training since trainees may weld at the same time that they are getting knowledge. This is not possible in traditional training methods, where the trainees are limited to observing the instructor’s demonstration without being able to practice themselves. Finally, the goal is to give trainees their first taste of welding in a virtual environment. This way, schools can save money on supplies, while still preparing trainees for the rigours of welding, including the loudness, sparks, and fumes to which they will be exposed. These simulators are designed for implementation in schools and vocational schools, accommodating trainees as young as 14 years old. It is worth noting that the age group most receptive and accepting of VR technologies typically ranges from 16 to 34 years old [20]. 3.2

Related Works

As technologies improve, a number of researchers examine the created applications in an effort to continue their development. Virtual reality assisted welding

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is not an exception. Chan et al. [2] conducted a comprehensive analysis in 2021, based on papers published between 2000 and 2021, to determine the primary functionalities that a VR simulator for welding should have, as well as the most common types of exercises and welding processes. According to the research conducted, a welding simulator should contain three primary categories: Welding Training, Post-Training Assessment and Instructors’ Assistance. – The first is the use of the simulator for welding instruction, which includes the entire virtual world and the simulator’s feedback mechanisms used to instruct the welder. Figure 1 illustrates the primary feedback methods utilized by simulators. – The second focuses on the system’s ability to collect and retain welding data in order to analyze and enhance the student’s performance at a later stage. – The third concentrates on teacher-specific features that allow monitoring the learner during, or after, the practical session. There are also cases of systems that allow the instructor to interact with the learner in real-time in order to better assist him. Concerning the “welding positions”, and according to the same study, the majority of studies carried out focus on plate positions, specifically on flat fillet (1F) and flat groove (1G). However, while these positions are encountered regularly by welders, newer simulators should aim to include as many other positions as possible. The study shows that there are almost no references to pipe positions, indicating a need for correction in newer simulators. The study also highlights that the majority of the currently available welding simulators (WS) concentrate on the processes of GMAW. It would be beneficial for future developments in WS to encompass additional welding procedures, enabling welders to enhance their preparation across a broader range of techniques. In addition to studies conducted to improve WS, there are also studies conducted to verify their effectiveness. Stone et al. [18] compare the cognitive and physical effects of simulators and traditional training. Two classes were developed, one with a 100% traditional training component and the other with a

Fig. 1. Primary feedback methods utilized by welding simulators (adapted from [2]).

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50% virtual training component, both of which were subjected to two weeks of instruction in order to gain certificates for four welding positions. During training, trainees were required to use electromyography electrodes to analyze muscle activity accurately. This study found that the use of a VR simulator in welding training allowed training trainees with the same, or more, efficiency as the traditional method. Moreover, by providing frequent feedback, the trainees didn’t need to spend time asking the instructor for assistance, leading to an effective decrease in training time by 18% to 20%. While there were no significant differences in physical or cognitive development between the VR and traditional training groups for most positions, the VR group showed greater muscle activity and utilized alternative welding techniques for position 1G (Flat Groove Position), demonstrating that the use of VR technology motivates the trainees to discover new methods, different from the ones being taught. Additionally, there were no differences in mental load between the two groups. Overall, the study suggests that the use of VR simulators in welding training can be a beneficial tool for trainees and instructors. 3.3

Commercial Solutions

In this section, three VRWS will be presented: the Mobile VR Welding Kit, CS WAVE, and ARC+. This selection encompasses a range of options, including both more affordable and less sophisticated simulators, as well as higher-end, advanced solutions. The choice of these simulators is based on their market presence and their ability to showcase the diverse landscape of VR welding technology. In 2021, Isham et al. [23] proposed a low-cost mobile welding VR simulator, the Mobile VR Welding Kit. This simulator utilizes a 3D printed torch, a set of markers, and two smartphones, one for tracking the markers and the other for the head-mounted display. Despite its functionality and cost-effectiveness, this solution has certain limitations. For instance, the narrow FOV of the smartphone can result in marker occlusion, and the limited performance of the system, with a maximum of 30 frames per second (fps), may lead to difficulties in trainees’ concentration. With the backing of the European Commission, the company CS and the Agence nationale pour la Formation Professionnelle des Adultes established the WAVE R&D project in 2002 [19]. The software developed in the scope of this project, CS WAVE, aims to distinguish welding motion skills from complete welding training and provides users with the ability to interact in a virtual environment that is continuously monitored. The virtual environment removes the hazards involved with welding and provides the learner with easy-to-follow visual instructions to assist him in maintaining control of his motion. To utilize CS WAVE, the trainee walks to one of the workstations, then is first exposed to the concepts he must learn, followed by a video demonstrating the proper body orientation for the activity, and lastly trains the welding process in a virtual environment. During training, the learner receives real-time feedback from the simulator. Afterwards, the simulator evaluates the trainee’s performance and

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identifies potential areas for improvement [19]. Experiments with CS WAVE demonstrated that during the introductory period of a trainee’s instruction, the system may decrease raw material consumption by 30% and reduce training costs by half, while partially replacing the instructor [19]. Montreal-based 123 Certification Inc. developed the ARC+, a welding simulator that has undergone extensive testing, since the early 1990s, and was launched in 2006 [24]. The ARC+ welding simulator is a VR system and web-based teaching facility that mimics multiprocess, multi-material, multiposition, and multipass welding. It consists of an actual welding electrode holding and gun, a helmet-mounted display, a tracking system with six degrees of freedom for hand and head interaction, and external audio speakers. The simulation of welding is based on the rules of physics and twenty years of welding test data from industrial applications [24]. Using a local neural network, the simulation determines the quality and shape of the weld in real-time, depending on the direction, distance, speed of the torch, and depth of penetration. With the use of interactive training modules, the virtual environment depicts the welding procedure and the final weld bead. After welding, the weld quality and recorded process parameters can be evaluated and diagnosed. The instructor can construct a learning curve for each student, and each virtual welding session, to facilitate the learning process [24]. To summarize this section, Fig. 2 provides a clear analysis of the unique features of the three simulators. This figure illustrates the specific characteristics that each simulator embodies.

4

Proposed Classification for the VR Welding Simulator

VRWS offer a diverse range of functionalities. As such, it becomes crucial to select the characteristics to be implemented during the simulator’s development, considering the specific objectives of the application. This selection ensures the creation of a well-balanced and cost-effective product that meets the desired goals. This study proposes to classify simulators into three categories: Minimum, Recommended, and Advanced, based on the elements that each level should provide. Each category is assessed based on the characteristics of the simulated welding environment, the feedback offered, and other parameters. Figure 3 shows the three categories described as well as their respective characteristics. The first category, Minimum, describes the very minimum characteristics that must be included in a welding simulator. As such, it is the least expensive of the three and may be utilized on devices with lower features, such as mobile phones. This is ideal for individuals who wish to practice at home without needing to acquire expensive equipment. This level stipulates that a VR welding simulator must be able to provide a basic depiction of welding, replicate at least one of the principal welding techniques, and demonstrate the actual functioning of the welding torch and helmet. In addition, it should include a visual feedback system that aids the user with torch travel speed, angle, route, and distance to the weld. It must also include at least one of the main welding positions.

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Fig. 2. An analysis of the distinctive features of the three simulators.

The second choice, Recommended, is an intermediate answer that schools should strive towards. In comparison to Minimum, this renders a realistic-looking weld based on physical principles. In addition, trainees should have the flexibility to manage the device’s current, voltage, mode of operation, and gas and wire supply. The simulator should include the three most common welding techniques (SMAW, GTAW and GMAW) and be capable of simulating the resulting noise and sparks. The equipment used to record the user’s motions (controllers and headset) should be as similar as feasible to that utilized in the actual welding operation (welding torch and helmet). In terms of real-time feedback, it should have a phantom guide that the student may follow while welding, a vibration mechanism that informs the student when they deviate too far from a desirable parameter, as well as audio instructions and warnings. After the simulation, this

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Fig. 3. Suggested categorisation of VRWS based on their characteristics and functionalities.

system should be able to offer a record that scores the weld’s quality, its appearance, and the user’s performance. It must also highlight areas for improvement. At this level, the simulator must include at least the four primary welding positions (2F, 1G, 3F and 3G). Advanced, the third and final level, has the most expensive equipment and software. This is the solution with the most sophisticated technology and the most functionality. This system must support as many welding techniques as possible and imitates the heat and smoke created during welding. Regarding realtime feedback, it should comprise a system that makes use of a cooperative robot arm to improve trainees’ motor skills. The suggested method uses high stiffness impedance control to guide the trainee’s hand along the expert’s trajectory, helping them learn the motion pattern through proprioception. To familiarize the trainee with the expert’s force amplitude and direction, the robotic system applies a force to the learner’s hand. With this technology, an expert’s motor skill can be digitalized and used to teach novices [22]. In the post-simulation feedback section, it should use neural networks to analyze the weld and electrodes to read the student’s muscle activity. This system should include all weld positions [2] and allow trainees to freely interact with a variety of objects in order to generate new welding scenarios. With the advancement of cloud services, the simulator should allow trainees to compete against one another and engage with teachers in real-time, in other simulators. Regardless of category, all simulators may adhere to the methodology stated by Beck et al. [21], which represents the immersion dimensions (narrative, system

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Fig. 4. Three-dimensional space from Beck et al. philosophy [21], and the framework of VRWS within it.

and challenge) in a 3D scatterplot. The narrative axis represents the storytelling component of VRWS. It includes instructional design, scenario creation, and the general structure of the learning experience. This axis measures the capability of the system to engage and direct the trainee. The system axis measures the level of immersion and realism within the VRWS. It includes technological aspects such as the quality of imagery, sound, and haptic feedback, as well as the degree of interactivity and presence felt. The challenges axis represents the variety and difficulty of the presented tasks. It involves various levels of difficulty, variations in welding techniques, and the incorporation of problem-solving scenarios. Figure 4 illustrates the three-dimensional space described, encompassing the proposed categories of WS.

5

Conclusions

The results of the conducted study support the use of VR systems for training novice welders, as they have been found to develop the same cognitive skills as traditional methods. Additionally, VR training has demonstrated greater efficiency in terms of time and resource utilization and has produced welders with comparable, or superior, performance levels to those trained through conventional methods. The simulators were shown to encourage trainees to improve their outcomes and explore different welding techniques. The work done so far suggests that there is significant potential for further development in VR systems for welding training. One possible enhancement would be to broaden the range of welding techniques and positions provided in the simulation. The studies revealed a paucity of GTAW and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) technique coverage, as well as a narrow number of pipe training positions. On the other hand, the simulators could benefit from a greater focus on narrative to increase trainee motivation. It’s also worth noting that, with the advancements in cloud and edge computing, the simulators should embrace mechanisms that allow trainees and instructors, from different simulators, to

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engage together. This would enable them to compare their work and compete with each other, fostering a sense of community and healthy competition. This research is in the process of developing a categorical system for evaluating and comparing WS, which will assist in identifying the essential characteristics that should be included in each level of classification. By doing so, this study aims to provide a useful resource for both researchers and instructors in the welding field, facilitating the assessment and selection of the most appropriate simulators for their needs and promoting the development of more effective and efficient simulators in the future. It should be noted that the cost of implementing these solutions can vary significantly. For the Recommended category, excluding the simulator license and the required space (2 m by 2 m), the estimated cost in 2023 ranges from 1000 € to 2000 € for the VR system, with an additional 1500 € for a computer to run the simulation. Acknowledgment. This work is financed by National Funds through the Portuguese funding agency, FCT - Funda¸ca ˜o para a Ciˆencia e a Tecnologia, within project LA/P/0063/2020.

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Usability Verification of Virtual-Reality Simulators for Maritime Education and Training Baiheng Wu1(B) , Arnfinn Oksavik2 , Romeo Bosneagu3 , Ottar Osen1 , Houxiang Zhang2 , and Guoyuan Li2 1

Department of ICT and Natural Science, NTNU, 6009 ˚ Alesund, Norway [email protected] 2 Department of Ocean Operations and Civil Engineering, NTNU, 6009 ˚ Alesund, Norway 3 Mircea Cel Batran Naval Academy, Constanta, Romania

Abstract. The shortage of seafarers in the maritime industry persists until fully autonomous maritime transportation is achieved. To address this challenge, improving the efficiency and effectiveness of knowledge delivery in maritime education and training (MET) is crucial. Currently, MET relies on expensive scale maritime ship-bridge simulators to provide immersive training experiences for apprentices. While effective, these simulators come with high costs and safety concerns. Lower-cost alternatives are needed, and virtual-reality simulators (VRS) are considered viable options. This study investigates the usability of VRS in MET through qualitative experiments involving bachelor students in nautical science and experienced seafarers. The suitability of VRS is evaluated in comparison to traditional scale maritime ship-bridge simulators. By exploring the potential of VRS, this research aims to address the need for cost-effective solutions in MET, particularly in less developed countries and institutions with limited resources. Keywords: virtual reality simulator-based training

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Introduction

Although the advancement of maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS) in the industry is underway, the shortage of skilled seafarers will persist until fully autonomous maritime transportation is achieved and demonstrated to be capable of operating without human intervention. Therefore, improving the efficiency and effectiveness of knowledge delivery in the maritime education and training (MET) sector to maritime navigators and operators is a pressing issue, given the rising demand for marine and other waterborne transportation [1]. Currently, the predominant pedagogical approach employs scale maritime ship-bridge simulators (SBS) to provide apprentices with a realistic experience for acquiring c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 128–137, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_14

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occupational skills on board before they can navigate an actual ship. This stateof-the-art technology has proven effective in MET, as it eliminates the need to take apprentices on board, thereby reducing expenses and preventing any safety issues or potential accidents that may arise from inexperienced operational techniques. However, certain issues remain, such as the relatively high cost associated with scale maritime ship-bridge simulators, which includes construction, licensing, technical support, maintenance, and service. This issue is particularly prevalent in less developed countries and institutions with limited funding. A more cost-effective solution is required to meet the MET requirements, and virtual reality simulators (VRS) are considered viable alternatives [2]. Practitioners have developed VRS, integrating various ship-bridge configurations and types of ships, as well as multiple navigational marine environments and water areas. VR is also used to promote the navigation environment with more information display and decision support [3]. On the other hand, modeling and analyzing the operational behavior of mariners (including apprentices and experienced captains) remains crucial for the traffic safety. Considering that MASS at human-in-the-loop levels (HITL) will continue to dominate maritime transportation for the next few decades, whether the operator is on board, at a shore-based remote operation center, or intervening in the autonomous navigation system (ANS) of the vessel, it is essential to address the issue of avoiding errors and accidents caused by human factors. Modeling their behavior can be approached from two perspectives. Firstly, by analyzing log data of ship maneuvering control and considering factors such as current environmental conditions and vessel response to model specific maneuvering patterns [4]. However, the limitation of this approach lies in its retrospective modeling, as it overlooks the operator’s pre-action behaviors, including perception of the environment and the interaction with auxiliary systems (ECDIS, ARPA) leading to corresponding actions. Modeling this process is particularly challenging as it involves capturing a range of biological signals, such as EEG, eye movements, and body motions. This necessitates additional monitoring devices and sensors, which may introduce interference as mariners operate under different physical conditions compared to normal operations [5]. Furthermore, these devices often require significant preparation and calibration time, which is unfavorable for extensive data collection. However, Virtual Reality Simulators have the potential to address this issue. In the case of traditional scale simulators, the main challenge lies in the fact that having operators wear wearable devices fundamentally creates a scenario different from normal maritime operations. Analyzing the impact of these wearable devices on operations is difficult. VRS, on the other hand, does not have this issue. As the biological signal sensors (such as EEG, eye movements, and motion signals) are directly integrated into the VRS system, mariners using VRS are required to wear these devices regardless. Therefore, the problems present in scale simulators are avoided. Additionally, the portability and low cost of VRS make it more accessible and easier to widely adopt, creating possibilities for extensive data collection.

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Fig. 1. Platforms used for MET (including (a) an immersive MET simulator; (b) standard scale martime simulator for MET; (c) developed VRS; (d) research vessel for practical training).

Scholars in related domains have started investigated how VR can benefit the MET and discuss its potentials, for instance, in maritime installation [6], safety education for ship engine training on maintenance and safety [7,8], evacuation on passenger ships [9], crane operation [10], and specific navigation scenarios, including watch change and collision avoidance [11]. Besides these practical maritime applications, scholars also make efforts in enhance the user experience considering the feature of ocean environment, for instance, reduce seasickness through visual compensation of ship motions [12]. Apart from the interests from researchers, students from the nautical science are also attracted by learning enabling technologies to promote their skills and careers in the future [13]. This paper investigates the usability of VRS in MET, employing qualitative method by conducting experiments with experienced seafarers. The eligibility of VRS is discussed in comparison to the traditional scale maritime SBS. Through this study, our main aim is to verify the usability of VRS in MET, which is of great significance for the future promotion of VRS replacing traditional SBS, and/or as a complementary option to the current simulator facilities (as shown in Fig. 1) [14]. Firstly, we need to verify that the basic requirements and conditions for seafarer training in MET can be achieved on VRS with no less effectiveness than SBS. This includes basic operations such as navigation,

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ship handling, remote traffic control, construction of maritime traffic scenes, and other related ship operations (such as lifting operations), which are the most basic requirements for the widespread use of VRS in MET. Secondly, we need to compare the similarities and differences between MET and SBS as well as real ship bridges in terms of operational logic. This requires an intuitive comparison of the operational interface of the two methods, as well as subjective evaluations from trainees and experienced seafarers after actual experience. Finally, we need to identify the shortcomings of VRS at the current stage and explore to what extent these shortcomings will affect training effectiveness and crew performance, as well as how to compensate for these shortcomings.

2

Methodology

The research methodology and technical approach of this study are illustrated in Fig. 2. The study requires apprentices/experienced seafarers to conduct comparative testing on both SBS and VRS. The experimental procedure includes the following steps:

Fig. 2. Workflow of the study.

– Discuss and determine the navigation or operation scenarios and design with the Navigation course coordinator. The scenarios should include some challenging operational environments to better understand the interaction threshold between the navigator/operator and simulators. – Participants are required to conduct tests on both simulators simultaneously. – Collect participants’ usage experience and comparative feedback on the two simulators to conduct a qualitative analysis of VRS usability. – Meanwhile, record the participants’ actual operating/navigating data, mainly ship log data. – Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of VRS and provide feedback to the VRS development team to continuously improve the VRS performance, making it more suitable for MET requirements.

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Fig. 3. Sketch of the proposed docking maneuvering operation.

In this study, the testing experiment scenario is set to docking operations. The simulated environment is a harbor in the western part of Stavanger, Norway. A sketch of the scene and route is illustrated in Fig. 3. The simulated navigational vessels are passenger ferries with a length of 170 m and a beam of 27.5 m, featuring the same ship bridge layout. The selection of docking operations as the test scenario is based on the requirement for a challenging routine operation, as mentioned earlier in the text. Docking represents a critical phase in general vessel navigation that requires a high level of overall navigation skills from the mariners, including environmental perception and vessel maneuvering. It is also a task that current Autonomous ANS cannot fully handle autonomously [15,16]. Furthermore, since this study aims to assess the usability of VRS, the level of realism in the VRS scene construction (not limited to the marine environment but also including coastlines and harbor facilities) is an important evaluation factor regarding its suitability for MET. The experiment is conducted with a group of bachelor students from nautical science in their third year (final year) and an experienced seafarer. Figure 4 and 5 show that they are operating on different simulators. Prior to the formal commencement of the experiment, participants spent 60–90 min familiarizing themselves with and adapting to the use of the Virtual Reality Simulator (VRS).

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Result and Discussion

In this section, we will present the results of the experiments, briefing from participants, and the corresponding discussions.

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Fig. 4. Navigator on the traditional SBS.

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Fig. 5. Navigator using VRS.

Performance on Different Simulators Table 1. Time to complete the task No.

SBS (mm:ss) VRS (mm:ss) Difference (s)

1 2 3 4

12:56 12:15 12:45 13:04

13:55 11:46 12:30 13:05

59 −29 −15 1

Average 12:45 Standard Deviation 18.58

12:49 47.28

4 –

First, we assessed the overall performance of the experiments by primarily evaluating the completion time of the tasks by the participants. All participants successfully completed the designated tasks of docking the vessel into the specified berth using both the SBS and VRS. The completion times for each task are presented in Table 1. From the average completion times, participants took an average of 12 min and 45 s to complete the task in SBS, slightly higher than the average completion time of 12 min and 49 s in VRS. However, it is worth noting that the standard deviation for completion times in SBS was 18.58, significantly lower than the standard deviation of 47.28 observed in VRS. Given that the participants were experienced students or seafarers who were already proficient in using SBS, the smaller individual differences observed in SBS performance can be explained. On the other hand, the larger standard deviation in VRS can be attributed to differences in individual adaptability and acceptance of the new platform. Since docking is a complex operation and all participants were deemed to have performed within operational standards and successfully completed the

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docking task, the observed differences, both at the individual and overall levels, are considered reasonable. An important lesson for future experiment design is to incorporate an assessment of participants’ proficiency in using VRS prior to the experiment. This would enhance the rigor of the formal experiment results. 3.2

Layout of Ship Bridges

Fig. 6. Standing-out maneuvering panel at the starboard.

As mentioned in the Introduction, one of the most significant advantages of VRS is their cost-effectiveness. Traditional SBS are pre-designed, and the layout of an SBS space generally corresponds to only a few specific ship bridge configurations found in real vessels. However, various types of vessels such as commuter ships, ferries, cargo ships, cruise ships, tankers, and specialized vessels like research vessels may have different ship bridge layouts. The limitation of traditional SBS lies in its ability to meet the layout requirements of specific vessel types, while only partially fulfilling the functionality for different layout requirements. This discrepancy between SBS and real vessels results in differences in the training experience provided. In contrast, VRS is not constrained by these limitations. Ship bridge scenes in VRS are created through software-based 3D modeling and projected onto VR headsets. This enables easy modifications or complete reconstruction of the ship bridge layout, accurately replicating the ship bridge layout found on real vessels. For example, larger tankers or cruise ships often have separate conning panels on the port and starboard sides of the ship bridge, specifically used for operations like docking. However, due to factors such as limited space and equipment procurement, SBS may not include these separate conning panels. In contrast, VRS is not restricted by these factors, making it easy to implement features such as separate conning panels within the virtual environment (as shown in Fig. 6).

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Feedback from Participants

According to the accounts of the participants, they all found the experience on VRS to be highly engaging and enjoyable. However, they also noted distinct differences compared to SBS. Their negative feedback regarding VRS mainly centered around two aspects: the sensation of dizziness while wearing the VR headset and the lack of realistic tactile feedback during interactive operations, particularly when using the ECDIS and ARPA interfaces. Participants emphasized that the lack of tactile feedback from the control lever was particularly notable. This is important, especially during operations that require precise manipulation of course and thruster orders, such as docking. Conversely, participants recognized that VRS primarily meets the needs of maritime students in terms of mastering the practical operation of ECDIS and ARPA. Additionally, VRS provides a fully immersive environment, surpassing the flat projection used in SBS, particularly in terms of modeling and displaying the external scene. 3.4

Summary

In this section, we presented the results of the experiments and the comparative evaluations of SBS and VRS from the participants. Overall, both in terms of experiment completion and participant feedback, VRS is capable of meeting some of the requirements for MET. As the participants mentioned, at least in lower-level maritime courses, VRS provides students with the opportunity to directly engage with practical ECDIS and ARPA systems. However, there are still deficiencies in human-computer interaction, whether it be specific methods of using ECDIS and ARPA or the feedback from control levers. These aspects are worth considering for developers, as the ultimate goal of MET remains to train crew members who can perform operations on actual vessels. Due to the uncertainty surrounding whether VRS meets the requirements of MET, complies with existing regulations, and how to utilize it effectively, the framework for MET in relation to future technologies is still open for discussion. Regarding the repeated mention of tactile feedback by participants, if current VR devices are indeed unable to provide it, should Augmented Reality (AR) also be considered as a technological category for MET? Additionally, the application of VRS should not be limited to offline MET in the long run. Given that VRS inherently incorporates characteristics of the internet of things and the metaverse, it is worth exploring how to promote the widespread use of VRS in more MET institutions and increase user participation to establish a MET metaverse [17]. This would enhance communication between different MET institutions and improve the efficiency of MET. For example, in traditional collision avoidance exercises, either computer agents need to be programmed in SBS (lacking the communication abilities of real human navigators) or multiple interconnected local SBS systems are required. However, with the development of a MET metaverse, in response to such exercises, one could simply issue a request or proposal and await the cooperation of other online players to complete the task, enabling

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all participants to gain training in navigational skills to some extent. Furthermore, VRS itself has the potential to be used as an operational platform for remote control centers.

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Conclusion

As introduced, VRS has its unique advantages in achieving educational equity and reducing costs, and there are more advantages worth exploring. Every evolution in educational technology is not accomplished overnight, just as before the emergence of SBS, seafarers could only train on real ships. Today, the emerging VRS technology is reshaping MET, and we explore the positive potential of VRS technology in this paper. It is unquestionable that the existing VRS can be used in simple navigational/operational tasks; however, we also discovered the urgent problems that need to be solved, including its incapability in providing necessary tactile feedback and dizziness under using. If VRS aims to replace SBS, further efforts are needed in this regard. Nevertheless, existing VRS systems may already be suitable for use by lower-level students and for maritime simulation training in regions or countries where acquiring SBS is not feasible. The application prospects of VRS in MET are promising, and further experiments will be conducted to validate its usability in various scenarios. Acknowledgment. The research is supported in by the IPN project “SAFE Maritime Autonomous TEchnology (SAFEMATE)” (Project No.: 327903), sponsored by the Norwegian Research Council.

References 1. Wu, B., Li, G., Zhao, L., Aandahl, H.-I.J., Hildre, H.P., Zhang, H.: Navigating patterns analysis for onboard guidance support in crossing collision-avoidance operations. IEEE Intell. Transp. Syst. Mag. 14(3), 62–77 (2021) 2. Vargas, D.G.M., Vijayan, K.K., Mork, O.J.: Augmented reality for future research opportunities and challenges in the shipbuilding industry: a literature review. Procedia Manuf. 45, 497–503 (2020) 3. Butkiewicz, T.: Designing augmented reality marine navigation aids using virtual reality. In: OCEANS 2017-Anchorage, pp. 1–9. IEEE (2017) 4. Wu, B., Li, G., Wang, T., Hildre, H.P., Zhang, H.: Sailing status recognition to enhance safety awareness and path routing for a commuter ferry. Ships Offshore Struct. 16(sup1), 1–12 (2021) 5. Wu, B., et al.: A camera-based deep-learning solution for visual attention zone recognition in maritime navigational operations. In: 2022 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), pp. 699–706. IEEE (2022) 6. von Lukas, U.F.: Virtual and augmented reality for the maritime sectorapplications and requirements. IFAC Proc. Volumes 43(20), 196–200 (2010) 7. Markopoulos, E., Luimula, M., Porramo, P., Pisirici, T., Kirjonen, A.: Virtual Reality (VR) safety education for ship engine training on maintenance and safety (ShipSEVR). In: Markopoulos, E., Goonetilleke, R.S., Ho, A.G., Luximon, Y. (eds.) AHFE 2020. AISC, vol. 1218, pp. 60–72. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-030-51626-0 7

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8. Markopoulos, E., Luimula, M., Ravyse, W., Ahtiainen, J., Aro-Heinil¨ a, V.: Human computer interaction opportunities in hand tracking and finger recognition in ship engine room VR training. In: Markopoulos, E., Goonetilleke, R.S., Ho, A.G., Luximon, Y. (eds.) AHFE 2021. LNNS, vol. 276, pp. 343–351. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80094-9 41 9. Chae, C.-J., Kim, D., Lee, H.-T.: A study on the analysis of the effects of passenger ship abandonment training using VR. Appl. Sci. 11(13), 5919 (2021) 10. Markopoulos, E., Luimula, M.: Immersive safe oceans technology: developing virtual onboard training episodes for maritime safety. Future Internet 12(5), 80 (2020) 11. Markopoulos, E., Lauronen, J., Luimula, M., Lehto, P., Laukkanen, S.: Maritime safety education with VR technology (MarSEVR). In: 2019 10th IEEE International Conference on Cognitive Infocommunications (CogInfoCom), pp. 283–288. IEEE (2019) 12. Stevens, A.H., Butkiewicz, T.: Reducing seasickness in onboard marine VR use through visual compensation of vessel motion. In: 2019 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR), pp. 1872–1873. IEEE (2019) 13. Wu, B., et al.: Survey for interdisciplinary co-supervision on bachelor thesis in nautical science. In: 2023 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), pp. 1–6. IEEE (2023) 14. Wu, B., Sæter, M.L., Hildre, H.P., Zhang, H., Li, G.: Experiment design and implementation for human-in-the-loop study towards maritime autonomous surface ships. In: 2022 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), pp. 1948–1953. IEEE (2022) 15. Skulstad, R., Li, G., Fossen, T.I., Vik, B., Zhang, H.: A hybrid approach to motion prediction for ship docking-integration of a neural network model into the ship dynamic model. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 70, 1–11 (2020) 16. Zhao, L., Li, G., Remøy, K., Wu, B., Zhang, H.: Development of onboard decision supporting system for ship docking operations. In: 2020 15th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ICIEA), pp. 1456–1462. IEEE (2020) 17. Markopoulos, E., Nordholm, A.D., Illiade, S., Markopoulos, P., Faraclas, J., Luimula, M.: A certification framework for virtual reality and metaverse training scenarios in the maritime and shipping industry. In: Creativity, Innovation and Entrepreneurship, vol. 31, pp. 36–47. AHFE International (2022)

A Study on Enhancing Education Quality in E-Learning: Examining the Triad of Students, Educators, and the E-Learning Environment Kaoutar Boumalek1(B) , Ali El mezouary2 , and Brahim Hmedna1 1 Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Zohr University, Agadir, Morocco

{kaoutar.boumalek,brahim.hmedna}@edu.uiz.ac.ma 2 EST, Ibn Zohr University, Agadir, Morocco [email protected]

Abstract. In the realm of education, particularly in the domain of online learning, the lives of students and teachers have undergone significant transformations. The dynamic landscape of education has necessitated adaptations and support systems to effectively cater to the evolving needs of students. Notably, the global outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has unleashed a wave of unprecedented challenges, reshaping the way education is imparted and received across the globe. The far-reaching impact of the pandemic has not only disrupted traditional modes of learning but has also highlighted the imperative for resilience and innovation in the face of adversity. As students and educators grapple with these profound changes, it becomes paramount to recognize the significance of quality in online education and digital learning, particularly as higher education institutions transition towards hybrid flexible, and socially engaged models. This paper aims to delve into the multifaceted effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on education, focusing on the pivotal roles played by students, teachers, and instructors in navigating these uncharted waters and fostering successful learning outcomes. By examining the challenges faced and the strategies employed in this transformative period, we can gain insights into the ways in which education can continue to thrive and evolve amidst unprecedented circumstances while ensuring a high standard of education quality and promoting hybrid flexible and socially engaged higher education. Why is quality in teaching and learning crucial in the context of online education, and how can effective student engagement be achieved to promote meaningful learning experiences? Keywords: E-learning quality · Educational Transformation · Engaging Students · Empowering Educators · Meaningful Interactive Platform

1 Introduction In the aftermath of the pandemic, in this evolving educational landscape, educators have embraced a wide range of digital platforms to facilitate online learning and instruction. With platforms like Zoom, Blackboard Collaborate, Line, or Google Meet at their disposal, teachers have adapted their teaching approaches to align with the unique requirements of each subject and teaching style. These versatile tools enable teachers to engage © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 138–148, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_15

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students effectively, foster meaningful interactions, and deliver educational content in a dynamic and interactive manner. By leveraging the features and functionalities of these platforms, educators can create immersive virtual classrooms that promote active participation, collaboration, and knowledge sharing among students. The choice of platform is a crucial decision that depends on various factors, including the subject matter, desired level of interactivity, and the technical capabilities of both teachers and students. As technology continues to advance, educators must remain adaptable and explore new tools and platforms that enhance the online learning experience and support the achievement of educational goals. [1]. In the domain of online education and digital learning, ensuring quality goes beyond the mere presence of technology or the availability of content. It hinges upon a more profound element—the meaningful engagement of students in the learning process. As Dianne Conrad, a renowned expert in online learning and distance education, aptly stated, “Quality in online learning is not just about the technology or the content, but about the meaningful engagement of students in the learning process.” This quote encapsulates the essence of our exploration, emphasizing the vital role that student engagement plays in achieving quality outcomes in online education.[2]. Thus, the choice of platforms is crucial for creating immersive virtual classrooms that promote active student participation and collaboration. Ensuring quality in online education goes beyond technology and content. it depends on meaningful student engagement in the learning process. Educators must adapt to advancements in technology and explore new tools and platforms to enhance the online learning experience and achieve educational goals.

2 Methodology: Systematic Review In this paper, we employ a systematic review methodology to comprehensively analyze and explore the topic of enhancing education quality in e-learning. Our review encompasses various dimensions of education quality in the online context, including student engagement, interactive and powerful online platforms, and the challenges and limitations in online education. Through an extensive literature review and careful analysis of selected sources, our aim is to provide a holistic understanding of the factors and strategies that contribute to improving education quality in the digital era. By employing a systematic review approach, we ensure a rigorous and structured evaluation of existing papers and publications, allowing for an in-depth examination of the applicability and relevance of standards in e-learning. This study not only provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of research in the field but also offers valuable insights and recommendations for educators to enhance their practices and optimize student engagement in online education. The findings from this systematic review will provide valuable insights for educators, decision-makers, and scholars, providing practical guidance and evidence-based recommendations for enhancing education quality in the dynamic and evolving landscape of online learning.

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3 The Three Pillars of Quality Online Education Based on the empirical research conducted in this paper [1], the study explores the essential dimensions of education quality in e-learning. The first dimension focuses on the course content and design, emphasizing the significance of relevant, accurate, comprehensive, and well-organized educational materials. Furthermore, the course design, including its structure and engaging presentation, plays a vital role in ensuring quality learning experiences. The second dimension highlights the importance of administrative and technical support, aiming to provide students with user-friendly interfaces, reliable technical infrastructure, prompt troubleshooting, abundant resources, and effective communication channels. Lastly, the instructor and learner characteristics dimension recognizes the crucial role of instructors’ expertise, responsiveness, and communication skills, along with learners’ motivation, engagement, active participation, and collaborative learning opportunities. Together, these dimensions contribute to the enhancement of education quality in the context of e-learning. In the realm of e-learning, the dynamic and interconnected relationship between students, educators, and the e-learning environment forms the cornerstone of successful online education. Students and educators, both occupying the same foundation, share a symbiotic bond as they actively engage and collaborate within the e-learning environment (Fig. 1). Elearning Environment

Supporting Learner

Engaging

Educator

Fig. 1. Driving Quality in Online Education: Examining the Triad of Students, Educators, and the Elearning Environment source: [3, 4]

As showen in this synthetic figure, students play a pivotal role in the e-learning process. They are the driving force behind their own education, seeking knowledge, and actively participating in the learning experience. As active participants, students bring their unique perspectives, diverse backgrounds, and individual learning styles to the e-learning environment. Their active engagement and commitment to their studies are essential for successful online education. Students’ motivation, dedication, and willingness to embrace the challenges of e-learning contribute to the overall quality and effectiveness of the educational experience.

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Educators, on the other hand, serve as facilitators and guides in the e-learning journey. They harness their expertise, knowledge, and instructional skills to create a supportive and engaging learning environment. Teachers employ various pedagogical strategies, instructional methods, and technological tools to deliver content, foster interaction, and provide guidance to students. They play a crucial role in designing meaningful learning activities, assessing student progress, and providing timely feedback. Teachers’ commitment to excellence, adaptability, and effective communication are vital in promoting active learning and fostering student success in the e-learning environment. The e-learning environment itself serves as the platform and conduit for the exchange of knowledge, ideas, and collaboration between students and teachers. It encompasses a range of digital tools, online resources, and interactive learning materials that facilitate communication, content delivery, and knowledge sharing. The e-learning environment provides a virtual space where students and teachers interact, engage in discussions, submit assignments, and access course materials. It must be designed to be user-friendly, accessible, and conducive to active learning. A well-designed e-learning environment fosters seamless communication, encourages collaboration, and empowers both students and teachers to maximize their potential in the online educational landscape. Ultimately, the successful integration of these three pillars of students, teachers, and the e-learning environment requires a reciprocal and synergistic relationship. Students and teachers rely on each other’s active engagement and efforts to create a vibrant and effective e-learning environment. Students actively participate, seek knowledge, and demonstrate commitment to their learning journey. Teachers, in turn, provide guidance, support, and high-quality instruction to facilitate meaningful learning experiences. Together, they collaborate within the e-learning environment, exchanging ideas, fostering interaction, and driving the pursuit of knowledge and educational excellence in the online realm.

4 The Dynamic Interaction of Students, Educators, and E-Learning Environments: Strategies for Promoting Quality in Online Education In this section, we will explore the various innovative approaches and strategies implemented by students, educators, and e-learning environments in the context of distance learning and online education. We aim to gain a comprehensive understanding of the complex dynamics of student engagement in digital learning and its profound connection to the overall quality of online education. By delving into the diverse array of adjustments made by educators to adapt to the digital landscape, we can glean valuable insights into the ever-evolving nature of teaching and learning, and the potential implications for educational outcomes in the digital age. 4.1 Encouraging Student Engagement for Improved Quality Outcomes in Online Education The mind map figure on the topic of enhancing quality outcomes in online education through student engagement. This comprehensive visual representation explores a

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range of concepts and strategies that can contribute to the delivery of high-quality online learning experiences. By incorporating active learning strategies, fostering collaborative learning communities, personalizing learning paths, integrating real-world applications, incorporating gamification elements, utilizing multimedia and interactive content, providing effective feedback and assessment, promoting social presence and interaction, encouraging learner autonomy and self-regulation, and creating a supportive learning environment, educators can create an environment that engages students and leads to quality outcomes. This mind map serves as a guide to the various dimensions of student engagement. By integrating these concepts effectively into online education, institutions and educators can create a rich and engaging learning experience that promotes student success, satisfaction, and the attainment of high-quality learning outcomes (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Student Engagement: Enhancing Quality Outcomes in Online Education source: [5, 6, 7]

The concepts outlined here can contribute to quality outcomes in online education through various mechanisms. Here’s an overview of how each concept can lead to quality outcomes: 1. Active Learning Strategies: By incorporating simulations, case studies, and problemsolving tasks, students actively engage with the learning material, leading to a deeper understanding and retention of knowledge. 2. Collaborative Learning Communities: Online discussion forums, group projects, and peer-to-peer collaboration foster social interaction and collective knowledge construction, enhancing learning outcomes through shared experiences and perspectives. 3. Personalized Learning Paths: Adaptive learning technologies, individualized progress tracking, and customized learning materials allow students to learn at their own pace, addressing their unique needs and promoting personalized learning experiences. 4. Real-World Applications: Integrating real-world experiences such as field experiences, internships, and project-based learning connects theoretical concepts with practical applications, enhancing the relevance and applicability of knowledge.

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5. Gamification Elements: Game-based learning, badges, rewards, and competitions can enhance student motivation and engagement, promoting a positive learning environment and encouraging active participation. 6. Multimedia and Interactive Content: Utilizing videos, animations, and virtual reality (VR) or augmented reality (AR) enhances content delivery, making it more engaging, immersive, and interactive, which can improve understanding and knowledge retention. 7. Feedback and Assessment: Immediate feedback mechanisms, formative and summative assessments, as well as peer and self-assessment, provide students with timely guidance, helping them track their progress and identify areas for improvement. 8. Social Presence and Interaction: Online learning communities, discussion boards, and live virtual classrooms facilitate social presence and interaction, fostering collaboration, peer learning, and a sense of belonging, which positively impact learning outcomes. 9. Learner Autonomy and Self-Regulation: Promoting self-paced learning, goal setting, and reflection empowers students to take ownership of their learning process, develop self-regulation skills, and enhance their overall learning outcomes. 10. Supportive Learning Environment: Accessible course materials, online student support services, and clear communication channels contribute to an inclusive and supportive learning environment, enabling students to fully engage in their education and achieve their learning goals. By integrating these concepts effectively into online education, institutions and educators can create a rich and engaging learning experience that promotes student success, satisfaction, and the attainment of high-quality learning outcomes. 4.2 Designing Quality Online Instruction: Equipping Educators for Impactful Online Learning The continuous advancement of online education has highlighted the importance of equipping educators with the necessary skills and knowledge to ensure high-quality learning experiences. To enhance the quality of online education, educators must be equipped with digital competencies, including technology integration skills, digital literacy, and pedagogical knowledge of online teaching. Additionally, effective online course design and development, along with the implementation of engaging teaching strategies, play a crucial role in creating meaningful learning experiences. Providing educators with professional development opportunities, such as continuous learning and participation in online workshops and communities of practice, further contributes to their growth and expertise in online teaching. By focusing on equipping educators and enhancing their skills, online education can foster a supportive and engaging learning environment, ultimately leading to improved educational outcomes and student success. Equipping educators with meaningful online learning involves developing their digital competence and providing them with the necessary skills and knowledge. For example, educators need to have technology integration skills, enabling them to effectively use various digital tools and platforms like learning management systems (LMS). Digital literacy is essential, as educators should be able to navigate online resources, critically evaluate information, and promote responsible digital citizenship. Additionally,

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educators need to possess pedagogical knowledge of online teaching, understand the unique aspects of online instruction, and employing effective strategies. These include designing engaging online courses using multimedia elements, facilitating discussions to foster collaboration, and implementing active learning techniques to promote student engagement and application of knowledge (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. A Mind Map for Equipping Educators in Meaningful Online Learning source: [8, 9]

4.3 Mapping the Dimensions of Powerful and Interactive E-Learning Platforms: Optimizing Online Education Quality Powerful and interactive e-learning platforms play a crucial role in enhancing the quality of online education. These platforms assist educators in delivering engaging and interactive online classes, facilitating discussions, and providing timely feedback to students. They combine two important dimensions: course content and design, which includes the relevance, accuracy, and organization of educational materials, as well as the structure and presentation of courses, and administrative and technical support, which focuses on user-friendly interfaces, technical reliability, troubleshooting, resource availability, and effective communication channels. While these platforms have the potential to improve education systems, their successful implementation is contingent on the readiness and preparedness of countries and educational institutions. Addressing barriers such as limited access to technology, inadequate infrastructure, and insufficient training for educators is crucial to ensuring a smooth transition to online education. In the next section, I will present a mind map that explores the emerging concepts characterizing powerful and interactive e-learning platforms, further highlighting their role in enhancing quality in online education (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. Mind Map of Powerful and Interactive Platforms for Quality Education source: [10, 11, 12]

5 Challenges and Limitations in Online Education: Enhancing Quality in the Digital Age Online education has experienced significant challenges and limitations, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. Technical issues, including problems with platform access and audio/video playback, have hindered the quality of online learning. Limited digital skills and unreliable internet connectivity have further compounded the difficulties faced by learners. Integrating synchronous and asynchronous tools, addressing technology access barriers, improving online competencies, combating academic dishonesty, and ensuring privacy and confidentiality are essential for enhancing the quality of online education. However, the generalizability of findings is limited due to the lack of participant diversity in some studies. [4, 13, 14]. Furthermore, the pursuit of quality in e-learning presents additional challenges that require attention and action. Effective quality assurance mechanisms need to be established to monitor and evaluate the content, delivery, and overall learning experience in online courses. Consistency and high-quality instruction across diverse online platforms and educational settings must be ensured, involving clear guidelines and standards for course design, instructional strategies, and assessments. Moreover, addressing student engagement, motivation, and interaction is crucial for effective online education. Innovative approaches, effective communication channels, and interactive technologies are essential to overcome the limitations of limited personal interaction and foster an engaging virtual learning environment. Additionally, evaluating students’ satisfaction and outcomes serves as vital indicators of program quality in online learning. Understanding overall student satisfaction with their learning experiences is essential for institutions. Furthermore, learner engagement, characterized by active involvement in the learning process and critical thinking, needs to be promoted and measured effectively. While analyzing platform access logs, such as resource clicks, is a common practice for measuring engagement in online learning, there is limited research on measuring engagement in activity-based hybrid learning environments that combine online and offline activities. [15, 16].

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6 Investigating the Future of Online Learning: Research Priorities for Improving Student Engagement and Outcomes Future research in the field of online education quality is crucial for enhancing the overall learning experience and student satisfaction. While this study has provided valuable insights into education quality and its impact on student satisfaction in the specific context of Thailand, it is important to recognize the study’s limitations, including the small sample size and reliance on self-administered questionnaires. To overcome these limitations, future research should focus on larger and more diverse samples, employing probability sampling methods to ensure representative data. Comparative studies across various educational levels can also contribute to a deeper understanding of the effectiveness of education quality. By addressing these research gaps, we can further enhance the quality of online education and optimize student satisfaction on a broader scale.[1]. By conducting a comprehensive examination of effective strategies, innovative approaches, and best practices, our research aims to provide valuable insights into how educators can enhance student engagement in online education, leading to successful outcomes. We seek to uncover ways to address the challenges and limitations faced during the COVID-19 pandemic, including improving technical infrastructure, promoting interactive learning environments, and understanding learners’ satisfaction and preferences. Through our investigation, we strive to contribute to the advancement of online education by identifying practical solutions and informing the development of guidelines that optimize the quality and effectiveness of online learning experiences.[13]. Future research should focus on equipping educators, administrators, and students with the necessary skills and with digital learning methods, electronic educational tools, and cutting-edge technologies. This includes developing a high level of emergency preparedness to adapt to unforeseen circumstances. Resource allocation for mental health support and additional training in pedagogical methods will be essential for building relationships and enhancing social presence, teaching presence, and cognitive presence in the online medium. Integration of technology should be complemented by rigorous quality assurance methods and continuous quality improvement, such as the implementation of frameworks like Quality Matters. By examining the history, evolution, root causes, fishbone analysis, and SWOT analysis of blended and technology-enhanced learning, this study offers valuable insights and a roadmap that can be adopted by faculty and administrators in various educational scenarios.[17].

7 Conclusion In conclusion, this comprehensive analysis of enhancing education quality in e-learning offers valuable insights and guidance for educators, researchers, and stakeholders in the field. Through a systematic review methodology, various dimensions of education quality, including student engagement, interactive online platforms, and challenges in online education, have been thoroughly examined. The findings emphasize the challenges and limitations faced during the COVID-19 pandemic, such as technical issues, limited digital skills, and unreliable internet connectivity. To address these challenges, recommendations include integrating synchronous and asynchronous tools, improving

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technology access, enhancing online competencies, combating academic dishonesty, and ensuring privacy and confidentiality. Additionally, the study emphasizes the need for effective quality assurance mechanisms, clear guidelines, and standards to ensure consistency and high-quality instruction in online courses. Furthermore, the analysis emphasizes the importance of promoting student engagement, motivation, and interaction in the online learning environment. Innovative approaches, effective communication channels, and interactive technologies are identified as essential for overcoming the limitations of limited personal interaction and fostering an engaging virtual learning environment. The study also recognizes the significance of measuring student satisfaction and outcomes as vital indicators of program quality in online learning. Looking ahead, future research is crucial to further enhance education quality in elearning. Overcoming study limitations, such as small sample sizes and reliance on selfadministered questionnaires, can be achieved through larger and more diverse samples using probability sampling methods. Comparative studies across educational levels can deepen our understanding of the effectiveness of education quality. Equipping educators, administrators, and students with the necessary skills and familiarity with online learning approaches, tools, and technologies is crucial. Rigorous quality assurance methods, continuous improvement, and the incorporation of frameworks like Quality Matters are essential. By implementing the findings and recommendations from this study, educators, researchers, and stakeholders can collaborate to improve education quality and create meaningful online learning experiences for students.

References 1. Puriwat, W., Tripopsakul, S.: The impact of e-learning quality on student satisfaction and continuance usage intentions during covid-19. Int. J. Inf. Educ. Technol. 11(8), 368–374 (2021). https://doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2021.11.8.1536 2. Milligan, C., Littlejohn, A.: International review of research in open and distributed learning. Int. Rev. Res. Open Distrib. Learn. 15(5), 197–213 (2018) 3. Thompson, T.L., MacDonald, C.J.: Community building, emergent design and expecting the unexpected: creating a quality eLearning experience. Internet High. Educ. 8(3), 233–249 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2005.06.004 4. Turnbull, D., Chugh, R., Luck, J.: Transitioning to E-Learning during the COVID-19 pandemic: How have Higher Education Institutions responded to the challenge? Educ. Inf. Technol. 26(5), 6401–6419 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10633-w 5. Paulsen, J., McCormick, A.C.: Reassessing disparities in online learner student engagement in higher education. Educ. Res. 49(1), 20–29 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X1989 8690 6. Salta, K., Paschalidou, K., Tsetseri, M., Koulougliotis, D.: Shift from a traditional to a distance learning environment during the COVID-19 pandemic: university students’ engagement and interactions. Sci. Educ. 31(1), 93–122 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-021-00234-x 7. Morra, C.N., Fultz, R., Raut, S.A.: A lesson from the pandemic: utilizing digital tools to support student engagement during instructional assistant-led sessions. J. Microbiol. Biol. Educ. 23(3), e00143-22 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.00143-22

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Work in Progress: Expanding Learning Opportunities in STEM Courses: The Potential of Haptic VR Laboratories for Students with and Without Visual Impairment Nils Kaufhold(B) and Jan Steinert TU Dortmund University, 44227 Dortmund, Germany {nils.kaufhold,jan.steinert}@tu-dortmund.de

Abstract. The green transition increases the demand for STEM graduates, but high dropout rates and challenges for visually impaired students in laboratory courses hinder their participation. Haptic virtual reality (VR) labs, using haptic data gloves, offer an accessible alternative. Limited research exists on their structure, design, and integration, as well as their impact on learning outcomes. The “CrossLab” project aims to develop digital laboratories combining resources from multiple universities. Virtual labs for fluid dynamics are being developed in Unreal Engine 5.0, linked to haptic VR gloves. Surveys, experiments, and evaluations will assess the experiences and knowledge acquisition of visually impaired and nonimpaired students. Preliminary findings suggest haptic VR labs compensate for impairments and improve learning outcomes. While they cannot replace all learning objectives, they allow impaired students to participate and gain expertise. The integration of haptic VR labs enhances learning in STEM subjects and improves accessibility. With multisensory experiences, students comprehend complex concepts and processes. The multisensory learning theory supports this approach, indicating that the brain develops optimally in such environments. Haptic VR labs create a realistic and immersive learning environment for impaired and nonvisually impaired students, by combining visual, auditory, and haptic information. By fostering a comprehensive understanding, students enhance their abilities to tackle engineering challenges. This technology enriches and expands laboratory training in STEM subjects for all students. Future research will develop and utilize VR and haptic VR labs for various practicals, further improving learning outcomes and accessibility. Keywords: e-learning · VR laboratories · sensoric gloves · visual impairment

1 Introduction The green transition of industry and society creates a great need for graduates of STEM disciplines. However, the number of graduates is decreasing even more [1]. The difficult bachelor programs result in a high dropout rate. These high dropout rates discourage students who are already affected by visual impairments. In addition, the high number © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 149–154, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_16

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of laboratory courses required to complete STEM degrees is a major obstacle for these students. Laboratory training in engineering disciplines plays a crucial role in academic technical education as it enables the practical application of theoretical concepts and promotes independent engineering practices. Students typically participate in multiple laboratory experiments throughout their studies, where they are expected to work in teams to practically and analytically explore modern technical processes. These experiments and analytical abstractions facilitate task-based learning and the development of a scientific and technical understanding. Due to the significance of laboratory training in engineering studies, it is firmly integrated into the curriculum and is typically examinable [2–4]. Despite the evident relevance of laboratory training in engineering studies, there is limited scientific research on aspects such as organization, design, instructional concepts, integration with other teaching formats, and the incorporation of new technologies. Additionally, there is minimal consideration for inclusive laboratory training. However, ongoing research indicates the tremendous potential of technologically and instructionally enhanced laboratory training [4]. One approach to making laboratory training in STEM subjects accessible to individuals with visual impairments is through virtual labs and haptic data gloves. The interface between the physical and virtual environment is a current topic in human-computer interaction. Virtual environments can simulate aspects of the real world that may not be physically available due to various reasons, thereby saving costs and minimizing risks. This potential has also been recognized for individuals with disabilities, leading to the development of various systems. Currently, virtual environments primarily rely on visual displays, with limited utilization of auditory and haptic information. However, haptic perception is particularly crucial for individuals with visual impairments. Haptic, kinesthetic, and tactile devices present new possibilities for making virtual labs accessible to people with visual impairments, assisting them in becoming more independent and confident in acquiring new skills.[5] JohnHattie has already investigated in a study a number of factors that influence the learning achievement of students. This included the influence of tactile simulation programs. He attributed an effect size of d = 0.58 to this. This is above the average of d = 0.4, which means that this factor has a particularly effective influence on students’ learning achievements [6]. Virtual labs with haptic data gloves not only hold significant potential for students with visual impairments but also offer benefits for non-visually impaired students. The multisensory learning theory suggests that the human brain optimally develops, learns, and functions in multisensory environments. By connecting different sensory perceptions, a more comprehensive activation of all brain regions can be achieved, facilitating learning. [7] A study conducted by the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Leipzig demonstrated that vocabulary learning becomes easier when the brain is given the opportunity to associate a word with various sensory perceptions. [8] Thus, virtual labs with haptic data gloves can provide an enriching learning experience for all students. Overall, the integration of haptic data gloves into virtual labs aims to create a realistic and immersive learning environment where students can experience and comprehend

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complex concepts and processes. By combining visual, auditory, and haptic information, they can develop a comprehensive understanding and enhance their abilities to tackle engineering challenges. This technology has the potential to enrich and expand laboratory training in STEM subjects for all students. 1.1 Purpose or Goal of This Work In order to counteract the negative trend of the high dropout rate in STEM courses, teaching has become more digital and student-friendly, especially due to the pandemic, by utilizing new technologies such as VR/AR and remote labs. In order to enable and facilitate access to STEM studies for people with impairments and to improve the teaching of non-impaired students, the following research questions are posed in this contribution: 1. How is it possible for students with visual impairment to participate in laboratory work, which is often necessary to obtain STEM degrees? 2. What is the extent to which haptic virtual reality (VR) laboratories can be used as a substitute for real-life laboratories in STEM studies? This is especially interesting for students with visual impairments in terms of their ability to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills. 3. How does learning success improve for students without visual impairments when using virtual reality laboratories and sensory gloves? 1.2 Context of This Work The contribution in this paper belongs to a research project called CrossLab - Flexibly combined cross-reality labs in university teaching: future-proof competence development for learning and working 4.0 . This project is funded by Stiftung Innovation Hochschullehre [9]. This is a joint project of four German universities, consisting of the Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, the Technical University Ilmenau, the NORDAKADEMIE gAG University of Applied Sciences and the TU Dortmund University. The CrossLab project aims to define the instructional, technical, and organizational solutions for open digital laboratories. These solutions can be combined across universities in a student-centered learning environment, according to specific needs. This work is a part of the tasks of the TU Dortmund within this project.

2 Materials and Method For the data basis, virtual laboratories for fluid dynamics are first developed in Unreal Engine 5.0 and linked to a Manus Prime haptic VR glove. The virtual laboratories contain various fluid mechanics phenomena. The necessary results are generated with the simulation software ANSYS CFX. The data glove makes velocity or temperature fields, for example, haptically tangible. To visualize the virtual environments, the Vive HTC Pro VR headset is used first. To successfully answer the research questions posed in this paper and to validate the developed haptic VR lab different studies with a sample number of 100 STEM students, especially biochemical and chemical engineering (BCI) students ate conducted. Students with visual impairment as well as students without visual impairment are considered.

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1. A survey will be conducted among students from STEM courses with a visual impairment at TU Dortmund University. This will ask about their experiences in connection with laboratory activities. In order to obtain a qualitative statement, a corresponding questionaire will be created. This questionaire is intended to determine the effort required by these students for the respective laboratory and whether they are dependent on auxiliary aids. In addition it is to be asked whether there were also laboratories, which they could not complete at all. If this case occurs, the respective activity of the laboratory should be explained. In order to find out whether the students with a visual impairment have to make an additional effort, students without a visual impairment are also asked about their time effort per laboratory. The effectiveness, efficiency, and appeal of students in both groups and their difference will be examined. 2. An experimental study comparing haptic VR labs and real labs is conducted. The skill and knowledge acquisition of the students will be investigated. Both students with visual impairment and students without visual impairment participate in the study. 3. At the beginning of the laboratory experiment, the learning objectives will be communicated to the students. In addition, in accordance with the learning objectives, the level of knowledge is checked by means of a test before and after the laboratory. The test is structured according to Bloom’s taxonomy. Half of the students perform the laboratory experiment with VR and the other half without VR. At the end of the experiment, the experiment is additionally evaluated to the dimensions Constructive Alligment (CA), efficiency, effectiveness, and appeal.

3 State of the Work The work is still in the early stages. The hardware, the haptic data glove and the VR headset are available. The first simulation results could be generated with ANSYS CFX and implemented in Unreal Engine 5.0. Implemented simulation results in Unreal Enging 5.0 are shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Unsteady extension shown in unreal engine 5.0

Here you can see the flow in a pipe with a discontinuous cross-sectional jump. Arrows and moving particles illustrate the flow within the discontinuous extension.

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In addition, a questionnaire was developed to assess the VR labs in terms of CA‘s, efficiency, effectiveness and appeal. The arrows and particles illustrate the flow and direction of flow within the pipe. By the size of the arrows a quallitative statement about the flow velocity can be made. The greater the velocity, the larger the arrow. Through this representation and the magnification function in the VR enginge, this flow can also be visualized for some people with a visual impairment. The velocity field will be coupled with the data glove in the future. At the TU Dortmund University there is an information and counseling center called “DoBuS” which works for equal opportunities for students with disabilities and chronic diseases [10]. This laboratory is also intended to contribute to equal opportunities for these students.

4 Conclusion and Outlook The outcome of these studies contribute to understanding the potential and limitations of using haptic VR labs as a substitute for real labs in STEM subjects, especially for students with visual impairments. Based on these results, further VR and haptic VR labs for various process engineering practicals will be developed and used in teaching. Thus, learning in general can be improved and STEM subjects can be made more accessible. The next step is to link the haptic glove with the VR engine to make the visualized flow tangible. For this purpose, the glove is connected to the engine via Blueprint programming. Via this programming the strength of the haptic feedback can be adjusted according to the usage. According to the flow velocity, suitable vibration strength is set on the glove. The data basis for various velocity profiles, for example, has already been generated in ANSYS CFX. Afterwards this laboratory will be tested in practice. The preliminary anticipated outcomes for the research questions: 1. To compensate for the students’ visual impairment, the sense of touch can be exploited. 2. Haptic VR labs cannot completely replace real on-site labs, but enable visually impaired students to participate in some lab experiments and gain this expertise in the first place. 3. The learning success and the understanding of fluid mechanics is improved for the majority of the students. In addition to visual perception, the students can also perceive the fluid mechanics phenomenon haptically, which provides a further cognitive stimulus for achieving the learning objectives. Acknowledgements. The work presented in this paper is part of the researche project called “CrossLab-Flexibel kombinierte Cross-Reality Labore in der Hochschullehre: zukunftsfähige Kompetenzentwicklung für ein Lernen und Arbeiten 4.0” funded by Stiftung Innovation in der Hochschullehre (funding code: FBM2020-VA-182-3-01130).

References 1. Statistisches Bundesamt. https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2023/01/ PD23_N004_213.html. Accessed 09 July 2023

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2. Alt, P.A., Bandtel, M., Bäsler, S.A., Becker, A.: Digitalisierung in Studium und Lehre gemeinsam gestalten: Innovative Formate, Strategien und Netzwerke. Springer Nature (2021) 3. Terkowsky, C., et al.: Labore in der Hochschullehre: Didaktik, Digitalisierung, Organisation, 1st ed., wbv Publikation, Bielefeld (2020) 4. Tekkaya, A.E., Terkowsky, C., Radtke, M., Wilkesmann, U., Pleul, C., Maevus, F.: Das Labor in der ingenieurwissenschaftlichen Ausbildung: Zukunftsorientierte Ansätze aus dem Projekt IngLab, acatech STUDIE, utzverlag, München (2016) 5. Troncoso Aldas, N.D., Lee, S., Lee, C., Rosson, M.B., Carroll, J.M., Narayanan, V.: AIGuide: an augmented reality hand guidance application for people with visual impairments. In: Guerreiro, T., (eds.) The 22nd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility, ACM Digital Library, Association for Computing Machinery, New York (2020) 6. Hattie, J.: Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement. Routledge, London, New York (2010) 7. Becker, N.: Die neurowissenschaftliche Herausforderung der Pädagogik, Klinkhardt Forschung, Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn (2006) 8. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. https://www.mpg.de/8930937/vokabel-lernen-gesten. Accessed 09 July 2023 9. Stiftung Innovation Hochschullehre. https://stiftung-hochschullehre.de/. Accessed 06 July 2023 10. DoBuS-Studium und Behinderung. https://dobus.zhb.tu-dortmund.de/. Accessed 09 July 2023

Future of Education

Using Telepresence Robots for ICT Consultancy Janika Leoste1,2(B)

, Jaanus Pöial1 , Martin Rebane1 and Kalle Tammemäe1

, Kristel Marmor1 ,

1 Tallinn University of Technology, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia

[email protected] 2 Tallinn University, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia

Abstract. Although the demand for Information and Communication Technology (ICT) consultants is currently growing, smaller ICT consulting companies face competitive pressure from larger international consulting firms, threatening their survival. Digital transformation with telepresence robots (TPRs) could help smaller consulting firms to address this situation, by increasing consulting efficiency while retaining direct personal contact with their customers. In this pilot study, we explored the feasibility of consulting via TPRs to support students who in turn used TPRs to solve their pair-programming tasks. In total 12 students and 1 teacher took part in the experiment. Their feedback was collected via focus group interviews and analyzed qualitatively. Although the use of TPRs was sometimes frustrating due to problems with audio and video, or due to TPRs’ inability to manipulate physical objects, the participants found their use justified in occasions where consulting activities extended into the physical room (e.g., lab supervision). TPRs were reported to improve social presence of TPR-mediated persons and facilitated making consulting contacts and decisions. However, for screen-based activities, the participants preferred classical methods, such as screen sharing. Keywords: Telepresence Robotics · Higher Education · ICT Consulting · Social Presence · Body Language Cues

1 Introduction The demand for Information and Communication Technology (ICT) consultants has sharply increased around the world, and different countries report a severe shortage of them [1]. One reason why this cannot be easily solved is that ICT problems often require on-site visits and a review of the situation in order to intervene or provide precise instructions to the person present, which require synchronous feedback [2]. With the help of a telepresence robot (TPR), we have the opportunity to bring an ICT specialist to different locations (e.g., from regular office work to space stations) where their services are currently needed. Using TPRs could help save time and money spent for traveling, making ICT consulting more efficient and possibly alleviating the shortage of consulting specialists. Compared to teleconferencing-based methods, TPRs are reported to support greater levels of social presence, as people can work in each other’s zones © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 157–168, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_17

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of physical proximity, expressing and perceiving better their body languages – and this could lead to improved feedback and decision making in consulting situations. The topic of using telepresence robots for ICT (and other) consulting purposes needs urgently more research. For example, in the database of EBSCO Discovery all-inclusive search service (https://www.ebsco.com/products/ebsco-discovery-service) there is currently only one paper that fits the search criteria “telepresence” + “robot” + “consulting” (as of 24 May, 2023). 1.1 ICT Consultation The field of ICT consulting involves assisting businesses in their digital transformation and streamlining of operations [2]. Despite also employing modern digital tools, such as videoconferencing or chat and chat-bots, ICT consulting still uses face-to-face meetings a lot, keeping the demand for ICT consultants and the consulting fees high [2, 3]. The market penetration attempts from large international consulting companies are reducing profits of smaller local firms, with digital transformation seen as a key factor for boosting consulting process efficiency and ensuring companies’ survival on the market [3]. While digital transformation of ICT consulting involves using Big Data, AI and similar automation solutions, direct contact with customer retains its importance. Oliver [4] suggests that the level of customer satisfaction relies on how customers perceive and emotionally react to their consumption experience, emphasizing the importance of factors beyond strict two-way information exchange. The richness of human communication in face-to-face communication situations involves both verbal (informative) and non-verbal (contextual) channels that, combined, allow people assess both information received and its importance. The complexity of natural human communication poses a challenge for digital transformation in ICT consulting communication (such as through videoconferencing), as the absence of body language can impede accurate interpretation of information. Telepresence robots (TPRs) have been suggested as an approach suitable for overcoming this deficiency due to their ability of improving telepresent people’s social presence [5]. 1.2 Telepresence Robots The term “telepresence” dates back to 1980s when MIT conducted research on teleoperation systems designed to manipulate physical objects remotely [6]. The concept of telepresence, encompassing physical and social elements, characterizes the experience of feeling present in a particular location, despite being physically located elsewhere [7]. In the context of telepresence robots (TPRs), telepresence denotes the sensation experienced by a user of a TPR of being present in a location far from their physical location when operating the TPR. By using a TPR, an individual can remotely experience a real-life environment [8] through the mediated sensory input provided by the robot, and, by using the robot’s body, act in this real-life environment. Presently, TPRs find use in several fields to provide people with physical presence when needed due to disabilities, emergencies or other reasons. In business, TPRs are used to take part in meetings or inspecting facilities; in health care, TPRs are used for elderly care, telemedicine, or for relatives’ visits; in education, TPRs can be used by teachers or students to attend

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normal lessons or generally restricted areas such as surgical operating rooms, or visit museums, etc. [9–14]. The variety of different telepresence robots is extensive. Based on their functionality, their prices could range from $1.5 million for most advanced telepresence systems (such as telesurgery robots) to about $4,500 for mainstream TPRs (e.g., the Double 3 robot) [15, 16]. A typical mainstream TPR has a moving base, head unit with microphones, speakers, display and cameras, and a rod connecting the moving base with the head unit (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. The Double 3 and the Ohmni TPRs.

1.3 Social Presence TPRs are justified in communication situations where people are not able to participate physically for some reason. During the COVID-19 pandemic, videoconferencing systems (such as Zoom or MS Teams) became popular to enable communication without physical presence. However, most distance communication methods decrease people’s social presence, leading to reduced engagement, commitment and achievement [17], causing people to feel being left out and to miss informal conversations [18]. Social presence is understood “as the ability to project one’s self and establish personal and purposeful relationships” [19] and is expressed by non-verbal communication cues. These cues include spatial behavior (e.g., interpersonal distances, moving around to initiate or end conversations), eye contact and posture – allowing communication parties to determine each other’s intent and attitudes, accept communication roles, become intimate and trust each other [20, 21]. In addition, social presence combined with physical

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presence creates a zone of proximal development [22] where social support and bodily presence support learning from more knowledgeable peers. TPRs are reported to support people’s social presence better than computer-based distance communication methods [23, 24] (e.g., video conferencing). TPRs allow persons to have physical bodily presence in a remote location, and improve their social presence via, e.g., stronger sense of being together at the same location [25]. By using a TPR, a telemediated person (TMP) can engage in normal human social practices, expressing behavioral realism [7], allowing thus physically present persons to perceive the TPR-mediated TMP as real and vice versa [7]. 1.4 Research Purpose and Research Questions The aim of this pilot study was to identify the challenges and effectiveness of ICT consultation using a TPR. For this purpose, an experiment was conducted where ICT students, who had previous experience with TPRs, employed TPRs to provide ICT consultation about using TPRs to the students who were taking a course in algorithms and data structures where the pair programming method was used [26]. Each pair-programming student pair had to use a TPR to complete their pair-programming task and present the results to the instructor (Fig. 2). We are aiming at achieving two goals with the study. Firstly, in Sect. 2 (Method) we will describe the experiment with sufficient precision to enable its replication in similar ICT consultation situations. Secondly, in Sect. 3 (Results) we examine the feedback from semi-structured interviews with both consulting and consulted students, and with their teacher, in order to extend understanding about the opportunities and challenges of using TPRs for ICT consulting.

Fig. 2. Pair-programming students (Operator view on the left picture, his TPR, his partner and the lecturer on the right picture) using a TPR to present their pair-programming task to the lecturer.

Based on these aims we formed the following research questions to guide our study: RQ1:What are the challenges of using TPRs for ICT consulting? RQ2:What are the opportunities of using TPRs for ICT consulting?

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2 Method In our experiment, ICT students who had received thorough preparation (Experts) participated as robot experts and consulted unprepared undergraduate students who practiced pair-programming to use TPRs. When solving a pair-programming task, one of the pairprogramming students (Operator) used a TPR to communicate with their partner, while being supported by one TPR-mediated Expert. The whole communication situation was observed by another TPR-mediated ICT student (Observer). We opted for qualitative approach via using semi-structured interviews, conducted later on the same day of the experiment, to collect feedback from Experts, Observers, Operators and their partners, and the lecturer. 2.1 Procedure In this study, the pair-programming students used one Double 3 TPR (Fig. 1, left) for their communication when carrying on their pair-programming task (writing program code together). The pair-programming students were enrolled to a pair-programming course (PPC), and they had no previous experience with TPRs. Another student (Expert) used another Double 3 robot to consult one of the pair members (Operator) to use the TPR. A fourth student (Observer) used an Ohmni TPR (Fig. 1, right) to observe the communication situation passively. Experts and Observers were enrolled to an Erasmus’ Telepresence robotics course; they had learned TPRs for 7 weeks, and written a user guidebook for using TPRs. Operator, telepresent Expert, and telepresent Observer were located in one classroom (Classroom 1) of Tallinn University of Technology (TalTech). In this classroom, there was also a computer with a webcam and speakers for Operator to control the TPR. Using a TPR, Expert gave assistance to Operator when needed, examined what was happening on the screen of the computer that was used for controlling the Operator’s TPR, and followed the Operator’s reaction and body language (Fig. 3). The Operator’s TPR, the Operator’s partner, and the lecturer conducting the pairprogramming course were in another classroom of the same university (Classroom 2, Fig. 4). Expert and Observer themselves were located at their homes. The participants’ locations and tasks during the experiment are listed in Table 1 to provide readers with more background details for assessing the context of the experiment. In total, three experiments were conducted at different times (two experiments in the same day, one experiment in the next day; each experiment lasting for two hours). In each of the experiments, there were in total four student participants and one teacher. For each experiment, there were new student participants, while the same teacher took part in all three experiments. Therefore, the total number of participants was 13 (12 students and 1 teacher). All of the participants were recruited on voluntary basis and they agreed to be photographed and giving their feedback through focus group interviews. Participation did not bring any benefits to students. After the first and the third experiment, their participants attended to a focus group interview that was video recorded. The recordings were later qualitatively analyzed and open-coded by two researchers. For the reasons described below (Sect. 3.1), the second experiment’s pair-programming

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Fig. 3. The locations of Operator (sitting behind the desk), Operator’s computer and Observer (in the background via a TPR).

Fig. 4. The pair-programming students presenting their coding task to the lecturer.

participants were not interviewed, while the students in the Expert and Observer roles were interviewed together with the third experiment’s participants.

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Table 1. The experiment participants’ locations and tasks. Location

Participant

Task

University Classroom 1

Operator

Write program code

-“-

Expert’s TPR

Mediate consulting Operator

-“-

Observer’s TPR

Mediate observing the consultation

University Classroom 2

Operator’s TPR

Mediate writing program code

-“-

Operator’s partner

Write program code

-“-

Lecturer

Evaluate program code

Expert’s Home

Expert

Consult the Operator

Observer’s Home

Observer

Observe the consulting situation

3 Results 3.1 The Flow of the Experiments and the Participants’ Spatial Behavior In the first experiment, the pair-programming students collaborated actively to get good results in their coding task – they communicated actively, Operator was looking for the best location for their TPR in order to follow both their pair-partner and the computer screen with the code. The locations of the TPR, the partner and the computer formed a shape of equilateral triangle on the floor of the Classroom 2 (Fig. 5). As an IT student, Operator was able to learn how to control the TPR in just a few minutes. However, he also asked Expert to explain a few of the robot’s functions. Expert monitored the Operator’s reactions, body language and his computer screen. As a result, a similar triangle to that of in Classroom 2 was also formed in Classroom 1 (Fig. 3). In addition, a similar triangle was formed when the students presented their task to the lecturer (Fig. 2). In the second experiment, the pair-programming students failed to use the TPR to reach any meaningful contact. They divided the tasks between themselves, worked independently and only used text-based chatting channels. The TPR was occasionally used as an audio channel, but not as an Operator’s bodily agent. In addition, Operator kept a large distance between his TPR and his pair partner, and the way the TPR was positioned in the room made it impossible to see the pair partner. This pair was unable to finish and present their task. As put by Participant #2–5: “Perhaps they could have finished earlier if they had actually communicated with each other. At one point, he even looked at me when he really wanted to ask something from his partner. I was very confused about what had changed. Because when someone looks at me and asks something, my assumption is that it’s related to me…” As there was no meaningful use of the TPR then the pair-programming student pair was not interviewed. In the third experiment, the participants formed similar triangles in the room when working as in the first experiment (see above). Their pair-programming student pair finished their coding task quickly and then they focused independently on exploring the robot’s features. They asked additional questions from Expert and were discussing about the possibilities of using a TPR. For Expert, the situation was intriguing as instead of consulting he became involved and questioned in the discussion.

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Fig. 5. Locations of the Operator’s TPR, the physically present student and their computer.

3.2 The Challenges of Using TPRs for ICT Consulting (RQ1) The results show that ICT students embraced well telepresent consultation via a TPR, when solving pair-programming tasks, while one of the partners was telepresent. However, the students who participated as experts, described circumstances that made it difficult for them to provide maximum support. For example, they reported additional stress due to not being able to use their fingers to command the keyboard directly, instead having to rely on verbal or written instructions, as the Double 3 robot has no pointers or other manipulators. Participant #1–4: “Sometimes you’d like to use keyboard, to quickly solve something. However, with a TPR you cannot connect directly to someone’s computer, even if you are there. You have to tell them to do this or that.” Next, limited hearing and seeing was often perceived as a problem: it was sometimes inconvenient to read texts on the computer screens via a TPR, requiring extra effort. Using camera zoom compensated this disability only sometimes. Participant #1–3: “My experience with using the robot was that it was a bit hard to see some of the finer details on the screen, even if I took the 4K picture.” In addition, with bad or overloaded internet connection, the audio quality suffered, making sometimes impossible to understand what was said. Participant #1–2 (referring to bad-quality audio): “Well, if he needed help, then most likely I wouldn’t be able to understand him because I… Every second word was in ‘robotic’.” These problems of audio and visual are mostly caused by insufficient internet connections (for example, at Expert’s or Observer’s homes), as recognized by the lecturer: “So the problem was that bandwidth wasn’t so good, and the robot requires high bandwidth for both ends, OK.” 3.3 The Opportunities of Using TPRs for ICT Consulting (RQ2) Despite the discomfort, both Operators and Experts considered TPRs as promising tools for ICT consultation. TPRs are easy to learn: many Experts reported that they felt themselves useless due to Operators learning quickly. Participant #1–3: “My experience was

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that the moment I mentioned the robot can do something they figured out how to do it. As long as they knew it was doable, they were like ‘oh OK, I will figure that out.’ I also felt a bit useless because they got it so quickly that after the first 5 min I didn’t really have a lot to say anymore.” Compared to videoconferencing, TPRs can improve consultant’s independence and provide better ability to supervise various activities that are taking place around a physical room. Participant #1–5: “If you need to be in a lab and you at least want to check that your hardware is well, you don’t need to ask someone to send you a picture or to do that, you can just do it yourself.” and Participant #3–5: “For example, in an electronics lab… Where you need to write some code and then connect cables…, it is good to check through the robot if everything is connected correctly, that there is no short circuit. In this case robot is better.” Besides allowing people to become physically present (even in multiple locations, as stated by Participant #2–5, “Yes, I was in several rooms at the same time, and… I understood better what is going on.”), TPRs improve social presence for TPR-mediated people. It is easier for TPR-mediated consultants to observe body language of physically present persons (PPPs) and to take appropriate actions based on the body language cues (e.g., to understand when the PPP is confused and needs help, or when everything is going smooth). Participant #2–4: “Quite being present and, like, help and guide and you can see what the student is doing and then interfere when needed.” In addition, vice versa, it is easier for the PPP to turn to the TPR-mediated consultant, if they are constantly present in the room. Participant #2–3: “Well,…, I tried not to disturb their work. I think it is also important that if you are really in trouble, you will eventually ask for help when there is a free moment. But in the end, it seemed like he became interested on his own and started asking all sorts of things.” All Experts found that (compared to TPRs) using screen sharing could be more efficient when consulting activities that take place only on computer screen (e.g., coding). TPRs become justified when activities have a connection to the physical room, if they extend from the logical space into the physical one (for example, in lab activities). Participant #3–8: “And if you are consulting and the person is not just on the screen but instead they have or do something additional that needs to be taken into consideration then TPRs are justified. But if there is only the computer screen then sharing screen is the most appropriate.” It was also pointed out that using TPRs should be considered in situations where only few people participate remotely. Participant #1–5: “That kind of device is good when instead of having 20 people sharing their screen to you, and then you have to look at all of them at the same time.”

4 Discussion and Conclusions Our experiment results indicate that TPRs can be successfully used to provide consultations in ICT fields. First, it seems that people working in the field of technology do not have trouble in using a robot body or communicating with a person using a robot body. In addition, the technology is easy to learn in a matter of moments. Second, as an advantage of this method, the robot can be moved around the consultation location, providing more thorough overview of the on-site conditions. Consultation via a TPR can be more effective than a video call if there are several consulted persons in different areas of the

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room and if the activities include a component that extends into a physical room (e.g., checking hardware wiring). Regular video calls and screen sharing can be more effective if the activities stay always on the computer screen (e.g., writing code). However, even in the latter case, a TPR could allow consultant to observe the working environment and the body language cues of the consulted persons, leading to more spot-on consultation decisions and advice given. Based on these notions, TPRs could be useful tools for smaller ICT consulting companies helping to address the competitive pressure from larger international consulting companies [3]. By keeping TPRs on-site at their customers’ locations, ICT companies could broaden their reach in terms of distance, while keeping the richness of face-to-face communication that is important for building customer trust and for facilitating accurate interpretation of information. TPRs are far from being perfect right now. Our results suggest that telepresence robotics is currently immature. Compared to a human body, TPRs are still limited in their capacity to convey human expressions and influence. Therefore, special usage approaches and scenarios that consider the robot’s limitations should be created. For example, consultants could use combinations of several distance consultation methods – a TPR to establish their presence and direct remote control of the consulted person’s computer to compensate the TPR’s lack of manipulators. Based on our results, in order to reduce the workload of TPRs’ operators, we suggest AI-assisted operation where physical operations are defined by a user but executed by an AI-assisted system. AI-assisted movement, navigation and camera control could significantly improve the usability of TPRs. Broader implementation of TPRs could require additional support from the organization in terms of infrastructure, user training and consultation (see also [27]). In addition, questions regarding cybersecurity, privacy, ethics, further development of robots, and possible areas of use need to be addressed through proper and in depth research as the relevant knowledge is currently limited. A limitation of the experiment was the small number of participating students, who were all volunteers. We are currently preparing with a larger scale study to address this limitation. In addition, all participants were from the ICT field. Similar studies should be repeated with subjects outside the ICT field, in real-world consultation situations, in order to understand how they would accept TPR-mediated consultation. Instead of using students as ICT consultants, consultants active in this field should be used, to match the real-world conditions better.

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Competence-Oriented Qualification in Digital Community Management Anna Leichsenring and Alexander Clauss(B) Chair of Business Information Systems – Information Management, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. Digital communities are a crucial part of corporate communication – they enable networking, knowledge sharing, and professional development. Managing digital communities effectively requires qualified Digital Community Managers (DCM) with digital competences. The necessary competences are not standardized, and there are hardly any company-independent formal qualification programs. This article contributes to the advancement of the professionalization and qualification of DCMs by developing a didactic orientation framework for their competence-oriented qualification. The article follows the Design-Based Research paradigm and combines a systematic literature review and expert interviews. Six (preliminary) design principles for the creation of competence-oriented qualification measures were derived: 1) Creating optimal personal conditions, 2) orienting towards relevant competences, 3) adopting a constructivist and connectivist approach to learning, 4) including problem-solving and action orientation, 5) using simulation methods as digital formats that combine formal and informal learning, and 6) applying a competence-oriented selection and implementation of didactic-methodical design approaches. Keywords: Digital Community Management · Competence-Oriented Qualification · Design-Based Research

1 Introduction Digital transformation is the adoption of disruptive digital technologies that leads to comprehensive changes in a company’s business model, products, processes and structures [1]. It involves both technological and organizational aspects, and requires a high level of digital maturity [1]. As knowledge structures, digital communities form the basis for dialogue with relevant stakeholders of an organization externally and for collective knowledge generation and sharing, as well as the professional development of employees internally [2]. Digital community management contains planning, development, and maintenance of organizations’ external and internal online communities as well as the moderation and activation of communication [2]. Digital community management supports digital transformation by facilitating the exchange of information, feedback, insights and ideas among different actors involved and contributing to the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 169–180, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_18

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development of organizations’ digital maturity [3]. It enables and enhances communication and collaboration among different actors, while mutually supporting each other in creating value and innovation for the organization [3]. For the strategic management of these activities professionalized support and new job profiles in the field of digital communication are becoming relevant [3]. Regardless of specific titles, these newer job profiles combine active moderating, organizing, and formal management activities in such digital communities and are summarized in this article as Digital Community Managers (DCMs) [2]. DCM jobs require constant development and an expanded range of digital competences. “Digital competence involves the confident, critical and responsible use of, and engagement with, digital technologies for learning, at work, and for participation in society. It includes information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, media literacy, digital content creation (including programming), safety (including digital well-being and competences related to cybersecurity), intellectual property related questions, problem solving and critical thinking” [4]. There are still hardly any formal qualification programs such as vocational training, study programs or training courses for the new DCM job profiles. Consequently, employees with different backgrounds and previous knowledge are qualified self-directed on-thejob to meet professional requirements and develop digital competences. A promising approach in this regard is the provision of individualized and competence-oriented qualification measures, which, in contrast to traditional qualifications and rigid study modules, enable the design of individual and flexible further qualification measures. These enable the consideration of individual educational biographies, different levels of knowledge and company-specific organizational conditions. Qualification measures are defined in this article as activities that enable the improvement and development of competences. There is a lack of comprehensive scientific studies to advance the professionalization of these job profiles and the establishment of suitable competence-oriented qualification measures. For this purpose, this article provides a basis for the development of a didactic orientation framework for the creation of competence-oriented qualification measures by deriving stepwise (preliminary) design principles. This study directly addresses the capabilities and competences required by organizations in response to the changing needs of digital workers, especially in Digital Community Management. The following research question arises from this objective. RQ1: How should competence-oriented qualification measures be systematically designed to develop digital competences for DCMs? This study is guided by the Design Science Research (DSR) paradigm as methodological approach.

2 Methodology The competence-oriented qualification of digital competences is a topic which is already acknowledged in the literature but lacks systematization. A systematic literature review is conducted to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research. Subsequently, expert interviews aim to transfer this overview to DCMs and derive concrete recommendations as design principles. The systematic literature review and expert interviews enable a broad data collection with in-depth insights. The data is validated on different levels, which provides a reliable basis for later analysis and interpretation.

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2.1 Systematic Literature Review The literature review provides orientation in the research context, elaborates on connections and controversies of previous research, and enhances the understanding of valid theoretical constructions and terminologies [5]. The literature review in this study is based on the sequential schemes according to Machi and McEvoy [5]. For the literature search, the scientific databases “Fachportal Pädagogik”, “Emerald Insight”, “Science Direct” and “Springer Link” were selected based on the research focus of the study. Due to the researchers’ language background, both English and German search terms and databases were used. Dissertation publications, research papers with access rights and scientific journals were included. The time frame of publication was not restricted to include additionally older foundation publications. The pre-selection of scientific journals was based on ranked publications according to the journal impact factor. With the queries “Digital Competence*” AND “Improvement” OR “Development” in English and German a number of 901 relevant results were identified after an initial selection was made to determine a concrete reference to the research topic. The relevant findings were subjected to a step-by-step critical analysis and interpretation of the abstract. For this purpose, excerpts were created to ensure a systematic research-related classification, processing and structuring of the material. This led to the exclusion of further literature resulting in 330 articles after the abstract screening. In the next step, the articles’ contents were analyzed and central assumptions, core theses and results of the publications that corresponded to the research focus were summarized in the excerpts; 252 articles without research-relevant content were eliminated, resulting in a final number of 81 articles. 2.2 Expert Interviews The theoretical findings of the systematic literature reviews were further subjected to a qualitative examination by guideline-based expert interviews to achieve a deeper understanding of the transfer potential for the qualification of DCMs [6]. The expert interviews were conducted in the period from June to July 2020. The length of the qualitative interviews ranged from 45 to 60 min. To eliminate negative influencing factors, the interviews were conducted at the experts’ familiar workplaces. Two university professors and two research associates were selected as experts because of their extensive multi-perspective experience regarding competence-oriented qualification of digital competences. The experts have relevant publications, present their expertise in seminars and presentations, and are working on externally funded projects in the topic area. 2.3 Qualitative Data Analysis A structured content analysis, according to Mayring [7], was used to evaluate the expert interviews. A mixed deductive-inductive approach was chosen to form the category system. The structuring dimensions were based on the theoretically founded main categories: “organizational and social framework conditions”, “individual learning prerequisites,” “design of competence goals”, “theoretical teaching-learning assumptions”, “didactic guiding ideas”, “teaching-learning methods”, “digital teaching-learning formats”,

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and “systematization approaches to competence development”. In the next step, the structuring dimensions were deductively broken down into 27 detailed main categories. The analysis made it apparent that the deductive main categories needed to be complemented by thematic subcategories. An inductive approach was required in the absence of concrete theoretical or empirical findings. A conscious distinction was made from the classically theory-oriented category formation. For inductive category identification, Mayring’s [7] interpretation rules for summary content analysis were followed.

3 Results and Discussion The results from the analysis of the systematic literature research as well as the complementary expert interviews are presented combined due to the limited page count. Results with references derive from the systematic literature review. The focus was on literature references describing relevant statements several times in detail. Not all 81 relevant articles could be included in the results of this article. The interviewed experts agreed extensively with the literature findings and expanded them in specific aspects. The experts did not contradict the results of the systematic literature review. The results are directly discussed and interpreted in this chapter to create a basis for a didactic orientation framework. By identifying needs, design principles can be derived and embedded in a stepwise process to enable a systematic and competence-oriented qualification of DCMs’ digital competences. 3.1 Organizational, Social and Individual Framework Conditions The systematic literature review as well as complementary expert interviews result in a multi-perspective picture of relevant framework conditions for the development of digital competences. The identified design requirements are presented in the following. It should be noted that they contain repetitions, overlaps and additions, which have not been aligned to clarify their interrelationships. Organizational Conditions Organizational Structures: The integration in daily work routines, certificate options, and integration into existing curricula or programs help to ensure that competenceoriented qualification can be integrated in existing structures [8], providing employees with a clear roadmap for their development. Additionally, the transformation of these structures can facilitate a culture of continuous learning and development within the organization [9]. Legal Background: Data protection and security are essential for any qualification measure. Ensuring the security and protection of data and personal information is a crucial factor for the professional success [10, 11]. Copyrights are also a central topic in the design of competence-oriented qualifications, as they protect an individual’s or organization’s original work and ensure that they are adequately compensated for their efforts [10].

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Technical Infrastructure: Professional learning software enables the delivery of educational content to learners in an engaging and efficient manner, while data protectioncomplying software ensures that sensitive information remains secure. Sufficient network capacity is necessary to ensure that the software and services can be used without interruption, and service and maintenance are essential for ensuring constant quality [9–13]. Provision of Resources: Financial resources are essential, as they provide the means to create the necessary infrastructure and pay for the training and support services [8, 9, 11]. Individual personal resources for employees, such as time for identifying qualification needs and taking part in qualification measures on the job, are crucial [9]. Social Conditions Management Level: Openness and acceptance are essential for the management level to ensure that employees feel comfortable and have the trust to express their thoughts and opinions. Support and encouragement through enabling techniques allow a more collaborative approach [9]. Staff Level: Collegial acceptance and recognition help to build a sense of community and trust that encourages employees to engage with the process and take ownership of the changes. Collaborative networking is also crucial because it allows employees to share their knowledge and experiences and learn from each other to develop their own competences. Individual Learning Conditions Cognition: Professional prior knowledge provides a foundation of understanding and insight into a specific subject area [14]. Problem-solving skills enable individuals to apply their knowledge in a meaningful way [15, 16]. Furthermore, they are also important for developing transferable skills that can be used across different industries and contexts. Intrinsic Motivation: A strong passion for learning, an affinity for IT, enthusiasm and joy for discovering new knowledge [9], and an openness and curiosity to explore new concepts are necessary prerequisites [17]. These qualities can help individuals to stay motivated during the learning process and drive them to continue learning and gaining progress in competence development [16, 18]. Extrinsic Motivation: Qualified learning facilitators can help to ensure that the learning process is effective and efficient. Gamification elements can promote social interaction among learners. Financial incentives, leisure compensation, and promotion can provide additional motivation. Furthermore, learners should be aware of managerial support, as this can help to boost their commitment to the learning process [16, 19]. Volition: The abilities to learn independently, make decisions, change, and take action are all essential skills for successful learning [15, 20]. Conviction of self-efficacy and reflectivity help learners to develop the confidence they need to take on challenges and to reflect on their progress. Also, resilience is an essential ability, enabling learners to bounce back from failure or setbacks and persist with their learning goals.

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Learning-Related Emotions: Positive basic attitude is an essential factor in the design of a competence-oriented qualification [15, 20]. It encourages motivation and engagement in the learning process, as well as learners’ self-efficacy and confidence [21]. The complexity of various organizational, social, and individual conditional factors highlights the extensive framework conditions, which should be considered when designing competence-oriented qualifications for digital competences. Significant planning and organizational efforts are necessary for an effective implementation. The establishment of such qualification requires the involvement of various roles within an organization, including leaders, technical experts, financial specialists, legal experts, and educators. The results of the systematic literature research focus mainly on organizational factors, while the interviewed experts emphasize social and learner-individual factors. This concludes in the first design principle: I Consideration of organizational, social and individual conditions: Create optimal personal conditions. 3.2 Modelling the Competence Goals The interviewed experts suggest considering different competence levels for designing competence-oriented qualification. Within the literature an orientation towards proposed competence levels of novice, intermediate and expert, referencing different taxonomy levels, is supported [22–24]. This was adopted in earlier research by Leichsenring and Clauss [25] to develop a modified horizontal and vertical competence model for DCMs based on Euler and Hahn [26], which classifies the competences on the three aforementioned levels and in the dimensions: domain, social, and personal. Consistent with the literature the interviewed experts also support a theoretically founded dimensioning of competences. These results highlight the complexity of understanding digital competences and the need for targeted and systematic qualification offers. Consequently, the second step of the design concept follows. II Orientation towards relevant competence levels of competence and dimensions: On the levels: novice, intermediate and expert and the competence dimensions domain, social and personal. 3.3 Theoretical Foundation of Teaching and Learning The systematic literature review [27, 28] and expert opinions provide clear indications to anchor competence-oriented qualification of digital competences within the theoretical teaching-learning frameworks constructivism and connectivism. Both literature [29–32] and experts highlight that constructivist learning theories, active, self-organized, selfcontrolled, and joint knowledge construction should be focused on. In addition, the connectivist approach is also presented as very influential. This approach strengthens the impact of the social dimension and focuses on networked learning between different knowledge carriers, teachers and learners using interactive technologies or digital media [33–35] This leads to the third principle: III Consideration of a constructivist and connectivist understanding of learning: Enabling an active, self-organized and self-directed knowledge construction as networked learning process using digital media.

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3.4 Didactic Concepts of Practice and Problem Orientation The underlying teaching-learning theories continue to justify the orientation of the didactic guiding ideas for the design principles. The experts confirm the theoretical assumptions that a focus on a practice- and problem-oriented as well as action-oriented didactic concept is necessary [31, 36–38]. In this sense, the problem orientation requires a target group-specific and practice-oriented design of the learning environments, which consequently encourages the processing of realistic problems. At the same time, this ensures the practical relevance of the learning content. Finally, the need for applying the learning content in multiple contexts arises to ensure cross-contextual knowledge transfer [36]. Considering an action-oriented didactic, complete and complex actions become relevant, which include self-organized planning, execution, and reflexive engagement [39–42]. The experts also affirm social learning process with an explicit orientation towards other learners and an explicit promotion of knowledge exchange. These didactic core ideas result in the fourth design principle. IV Focusing on a problem and action orientation, promoting social learning processes: Design of target group-specific assignments based on authentic practical problem definitions with multiple contexts. 3.5 Didactic-Methodical Design Approaches This section focuses on approaches for the promotion of digital competences. The expanded competence requirements in view of digitalization require new forms of teaching-learning arrangements [43]. The results of the systematic literature research and the complementary expert interviews provide a comprehensive portfolio of relevant didactic-methodical design approaches for the promotion of digital competences [44–48]. The portfolio shows a broad agreement between the results of the systematic literature review and the expert statements. The interviewed experts confirmed the previously theoretically researched use of action- and problem-oriented simulation methods [26, 49] for the design of case study-based work and role- or game-based learning scenarios. This advances the constructivist orientation and focuses on the learners’ interactivity, ability to analyze and act in complex problem situations. After initial theoretical indications on the meaningful use of complementary informal learning opportunities [45, 46], the expert interviews clearly confirm the potential of combining formal and informal learning opportunities. The implementation of transfer-promoting elements (e.g. mentoring, coaching, moderated team meetings or e-portfolios) is recommended. Subsequently, it is necessary to map in which digital teaching-learning formats the aforementioned methods can be embedded to support the development of digital competences. The results of the literature review and the experts highlight the importance of an integration of synchronous and asynchronous simulation methods [44, 48] which seems feasible in the context of integrated e-learning arrangements and primarily supports social learning processes [44, 46–48, 50, 51]. Table 1 below provides an overview of the identified teaching-learning methods and digital teaching-learning formats. The presented methods and digital learning formats are summarized in the fifth design principle:

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Table 1. Overview of teaching-learning methods and digital teaching-learning formats Teaching and learning methods

Digital teaching and learning formats

Action and problem-oriented

Synchronous approaches

simulation methods

- Webinars

- Work based on case studies

- Video conference systems

- Role plays

- Chats

- Business games/simulations

Asynchronous approaches

- Project work

- Wikis

Combining formal and informal

- Virtual pinboards

learning activities

- Web based trainings

- (Reverse-)Mentoring

Integrat. E-Learning Arrangements

- Coaching

- COIL & Virtual Collaborative

- Moderated team meetings

Classrooms

- (Digital) learning logs

- (Curated) MOOCs

- E-Portfolios

- Blended learning formats - Social learning platforms

V Implementation of problem- and action-oriented simulation methods as digital formats, considering a combination of formal and informal learning: Provide digital and integrated learning environments to support action- and problem-oriented, collaborative and informal learning processes. Systematization of Didactic-Methodical Approaches One aspect that was exclusively addressed in the expert interviews is the competenceoriented selection and application of relevant didactic-methodological approaches. The experts stated that not all teaching-learning methods and digital teaching-learning formats are equally promising to use for every level of competence. It is important to identify suitable learning settings for different levels. The interviewed experts give concrete recommendations and point out that basic webinars, basic web-based trainings, and extended (X)-MOOCs are suitable on novice level. At the intermediate level, the experts described advanced and interactive group work based on complex question and the application-oriented virtual collaborative learning approaches or complete virtual classrooms as suitable formats. On the expert level problem-oriented teaching-learning arrangements such as business games or case studies are recommended. Also, the use of a design-oriented collaborative C-MOOC to enable collaboration at eye level and the integration of moderated settings are described as appropriate formats. On the expert level the focus should be on guided in-depth reflection of personal practices and the exchange of ideas with fellow professionals. Table 2 shows the level-specific allocation of the methodological approaches proposed in the interviews.

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Table 2. Systematized didactic-methodical approaches Novice

Intermediate

Expert

Basics online seminars Basics web-based trainings (X)-MOOCs

Complex and interactive group works Application-oriented collaborative learning approaches

Problem-oriented arrangements Design oriented C-MOOCs Moderated settings

This results in the final sixth design principle: VI Competence-oriented selection and implementation of didactic-methodical design approaches: Choosing methods and formats corresponding to competence levels.

4 Conclusion This study analyzes how organizations should design competence-oriented qualification measures to qualify their employees’ digital competences, focusing on job profiles in Digital Community Management. In summary, it can be stated that a didactic orientation framework for designing competence-oriented qualification measures needs to consider different competence levels. The selection and application of teaching-learning methods and digital teaching-learning formats must be competence-oriented and adapted to these competence levels. The results of the systematic literature review and subsequent expert interviews led to six preliminary design principles as stepwise recommendations for competence-oriented qualification measures for the digital competences of DCMs. However, these results are only preliminary indications for a concrete, practical solution and require further empirical evaluation, especially regarding the competenceoriented selection and application of the didactic-methodical design approaches. For this research, four experts were selected based on their expertise regarding competenceoriented qualification. The small sample size may limit the diversity and representativeness of the experts’ perspectives. Increasing the diversity of the expert sample by including practitioners from the industry, DCMs, and professionals with experience in different organizational contexts in further research would provide a wider range of perspectives and enrich the findings. A meta-study on the use and effectiveness of the different formats depending on the competence levels and experimental comparative studies would also be conceivable for further research approaches. It can be assumed that a complete empirical validation can only be realized with extensive effort. As an alternative approach, a prototypical implementation of selected competence-oriented qualification measures and subsequent reflections on competence improvement as a partial proof-of-concept are conceivable, leading to an iterative further development in the sense of Design Science Research. Further research perspectives involve testing the didactic design and identifying design principles within further application contexts. In this way, the transfer potential to other job profiles or subject areas could be investigated. In light of the ongoing digital transformation, there is an increasing need to establish a comprehensive qualification and promotion of digital competences. In this context,

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the present study advocates the mandatory and continuous integration of competenceoriented qualification measures in the human resources and organizational development concepts of companies.

References 1. Nadkarni, S., Prügl, R.: Digital transformation: a review, synthesis and opportunities for future research. Manag. Rev. Q. 71, 233–341 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-020-00185-7 2. Tanasic, J., Casaretto, C.: Digital Community Management: Communitys erfolgreich aufbauen und das digitale Geschäft meistern. Schäffer-Poeschel (2017) 3. Wagner, D., Schnurr, J.-M., Enke, S., Ellermann, B.: Auf dem Weg zur vernetzten Organisation: Ein Plädoyer für professionelles Community Management in der digitalen Transformation. In: Rossmann A, Besch M, Stei G (Hrsg) Enterprise Social Networks. Springer, Wiesbaden:, S 41–60 (2016) 4. European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth S& C (2019) Key competences for lifelong learning. Publications Office (2019) 5. Machi, L.A., McEvoy, B.T.: The literature review: Six steps to success (2021) 6. Froschauer, U., Lueger, M.: Expert Interviews in Interpretive Organizational Research BT - Interviewing Experts. In: Bogner A, Littig B, Menz W (Hrsg). Palgrave Macmillan UK, London, S 217–234 (2009) 7. Mayring, P.: Qualitative content analysis: theoretical foundation, basic procedures and software solution (2014) 8. Martel, C.: The integration of educational technology in education and in the workplace: an organizational perspective. In: International Handbook of E-learning, Volume 2. Routledge, S 21–32 (2015) 9. Elsholz, U., Knauf, B.: Gelingensbedingungen für den Einsatz digitaler Medien in der Berufsbildung – Entwicklung eines Konstruktionsrahmens für gelingende Lernszenarien. In: 20. Hochschultage Berufliche Bildung an der Universität Siegen. Siegen (2019) 10. Schmid, U, Goertz, L, Radomski, S, et al.: Monitor Digitale Bildung: Die Hochschulen im digitalen Zeitalter. Bertelsmann Stiftung (2017) 11. Bitkom: Weiterbildung für die digitale Arbeitswelt. Eine repräsentative Untersuchung von Bitkom Research im Auftrag des VdTÜV e. V. und des Bitkom eV (2018) 12. Burchert, J., Grobe, R.: Herausforderungen bei der Implementierung digital gestützter beruflicher Weiterbildung. Die Sicht von WeiterbildnerInnen und BildungsmanagerInnen auf Strukturen kulturelle Praktiken und Agency. Mag erwachsenenbildung (2017) 13. Smeureanu, I., Isaila, N.: Adult users’ familiarisation with graphical interface elements for digital competences acquiring. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 131, 517–520 (2014) 14. Helmke, A., Rindermann, H., Schrader, F.-W.: Wirkfaktoren akademischer Leistungen in Schule und Hochschule. Handb der pädagogischen Psychol 1, 145–155 (2008) 15. Brühwiler, C., Helmke, A., Schrader, F.-W.: Determinanten der Schulleistung. LehrerSchüler-Interaktion Inhaltsfelder, Forschungsperspektiven und methodische Zugänge 291– 314 (2017) 16. Heinze, D.: Rahmenmodell zu dem Zusammenhang von Volition und Studienerfolg. Springer Fachmedien, Wiesbaden, S 97–101 (2018) 17. BVCM. Stellenprofil Corporate Community Manager (2016). https://www.bvcm.org/bvcm/ ausschuesse/berufsbilder/. Accessed 16 Oct 2017 18. Otto, B., Perels, F., Schmitz, B.: Selbstreguliertes Lernen. In: Reinders, H., Ditton, H., Gräsl, C., Gniewosz, B. (Hrsg) Empirische Bildungsforschung: Gegenstandsbereiche. Springer, Wiesbaden (2015)

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19. Landmann, M., Perels, F., Otto, B., et al.: Selbstregulation und selbstreguliertes Lernen. Pädagogische Psychol 45–65 (2015) 20. Hasselhorn, M., Gold, A.: Pädagogische Psychologie: Erfolgreiches Lernen und Lehren (3. Auflage). In: Hasselhorn, M., Heuer, H., Schneider, S. (eds.). Stand Psychol Stuttgart Verlag W Kohlhammer (2013) 21. Hascher, T., Brandenberger, C.C.: Emotionen und Lernen im Unterricht. Bild und Emot 289–310 (2018) 22. Klieme, E., Maag-Merki, K., Hartig, J.: Kompetenzbegriff und Bedeutung von Kompetenzen im Bildungswesen. Möglichkeiten und Vor Technol Kompetenzdiagnostik 5–15 (2007) 23. Wilbers, K.: Wirtschaftsunterricht gestalten, 5th edn. E-Publi, Berlin (2020) 24. Ulas, D.: Digital transformation process and SMEs. Procedia Comput. Sci. 158, 662–671 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PROCS.2019.09.101 25. Leichsenring, A, Clauss, A.: An essential basis for the design of an innovative platform to qualify corporate community managers. In: Proceedings of the 14th International Technology, Education and Development Conference – INTED2020, Valencia, pp. 7618–7627 (2020) 26. Euler, D., Hahn, A.: Wirtschaftsdidaktik, 3rd edn. Haupt, Bern (2014) 27. Kergel, D., Heidkamp-Kergel, B.: E-Learning. Springer, E-Didaktik und digitales Lernen (2020) 28. Schelhowe, H.: Technologie. Waxmann Verlag, Imagination und Lernen (2007) 29. Pellegrino, J.W., Chudowsky, N., Glaser, R.: Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment. Washington, DC (2001). Accessed 4 Sept 2015 30. Bendorf, M.: Sozio-konstruktivistisches bzw. situiertes Lernen. Behav Kognitivismus, Konstr Lernen und Expert Verstehen und fördern 77–96 (2016) 31. Reinmann, G.: Studientext Didaktisches Design. Hamburg (2015) 32. Knuth, R.A., Cunningham, D.J.: Tools for constructivism. Des. Environ. Constr. Learn. 163– 188 (1993) 33. Siemens, G.: Elearnspace. Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age (2005) 34. Arnold, P., Kilian, L., Thillosen, A., Zimmer, G.M.: Handbuch e-learning: Lehren und lernen mit digitalen medien. UTB (2018) 35. Heider-Lang, J.: Wie lernt die Web-2.0-Generation?: Dargestellt am Beispiel einer Nutzungsund Wirkungsanalyse elektronischer Lernformen in der technischen Berufsausbildung der Daimler AG. Rainer Hampp Verlag (2016) 36. Kopp, B., Mandl, H.: Blended Learning: Forschungsfragen und Perspektiven. Online-Lernen Handb für Wiss und Prax 2, 139–150 (2011) 37. Nikodemus, P.: Lernprozessorientiertes Wissensmanagement und kooperatives Lernen. Springer (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-17681-5 38. Riedl, A.: Didaktik der beruflichen Bildung. Franz Steiner Verlag (2004) 39. Ballin, D., Brater, M.: Handlungsorientiert lernen mit Multimedia: Lernarrangements planen, entwickeln und einsetzen. BW Bildung u. Wissen (1996) 40. Riedl, A., Schelten, A.: Bildungsziele im berufsbezogenen Unterricht der Berufsschule. Reinhold Nickolaus, Günter Pätzold, Holger Reinisch und Tade Tramm Handb Berufs-und Wirtschaftspädagogik Stuttgart UTB 179–188 (2010) 41. Beyen, W.: Von der handlungsorientierten zur konstruktivistischen Perspektive?Überlegungen zur methodisch-konzeptionellen Gestaltung des Wirtschaftslehre-Unterrichts. Zeitschrift für Berufs-und Wirtschaftspädagogik 99, 107–125 (2003) 42. Herkner, V., Pahl, J.-P.: Handlungsorientierung in der Berufsbildung. Handb Berufsbildung 189–203 (2020) 43. Kreulich, K., Dellmann, F., Schutz, T., et al.: Strategische Entwicklung einer kompetenzorientierten Lehre für die digitale Gesellschaft und Arbeitswelt. Die Position der UAS7-Hochschulen für angewandte Wissenschaften. Spree Druck, Berlin (2016)

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COACH_ING Educational Model: Train to Career Viviana Callea1(B) , Apollonia Matrisciano2 , Mihai Ursache1 , Roberta Tempone1 , and Isabella Chiarotto2 1 FLY FISH SRL, Via Gregoriana. 5, 00187 Rome, RM, Italy

[email protected]

2 Civil and Industrial Engineering Sapienza, 00184 Rome, RM, Italy

{lia.matrisciano,isabella.chiarotto}@uniroma1.it

Abstract. This article presents a new application of the COACH_ING model integration of COACHing and INGegneria (engineering) skills model – to career which aims to identify the potential of trainees from the professional categories to possible fit them to their major ability. The study started from the validation of two COACH_ING tools: DIRECT_ING, a questionnaire-based tool that assesses individuals’ potential to cover professional categories, and Macro Capabilities (MCs), which evaluate behavioral and operative skills. The article discusses the reliability of these tools using data from 100 samples of students who have graduated or were close to graduation. The results show that both tools have high reliability and can effectively assess individuals’ skills and potential. The article also discusses the history and objectives of the COACH_ING model, which seeks to define new MCs aligned with today’s market demands. Furthermore, the study explores the tools and COACH_ING training methodology used in a university laboratory program, emphasizing the importance of equipping future engineers with complex and valuable skills applicable in the job market. The analysis of collected data highlights the relationship between professional categories and MCs, providing valuable insights for individual educational and career development. The article concludes with reflections on the results and implications for future research and practice to realise specific grid to monitor the growth of the trainees. Keywords: Coaching · Engineering · Education · Job Market · Soft Skills

1 Introduction 1.1 Macro Capabilities and DIRECT-ING Tools The COACH_ING training model was born from the idea of the need to design a stepby-step engineer oriented and structured based coaching method for fellow engineer colleagues [1]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 181–188, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_19

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The purpose of such model is to assist in charting a path toward one’s professional, personal growth and enhancement through the transversality of their skills and competencies [2]. It was noted during close observation that the career paths of engineers who were associated with companies or organizations accelerated more rapidly and effectively when supported by skills other than technical ones, more precisely, behavioural skills such as relationship building, communication and the ability to learn and adapt their behaviour to complex situations [3, 4]. The COACH_ING model we have designed-already in the development phase of resource-allows engineers to equip themselves with new skills that address new market demands. In fact, COACH_ING is an interactive training strategy which aims to transmit and build its platform around sixteen reference skills consolidated in coaching and engineering teachings; adaptability, assertiveness, communication, relationship building, creativity, decision making, initiative, social intelligence, self-investment, time and resources management, orientation result, prospective thinking, planning acumen, intercultural sensibility and all-encompassing vision [5, 6]. The proposed model has been experimented over the arc of the last ten years with senior and junior engineers from the Council of Engineers of Rome and its Province, the faculty of Civil and Industrial Engineers from Sapienza University of Rome. As well, additional support has come from corporate technical professionals. It is essential to introduce the following eight professional categories; research and develop, sales and marketing, operation, free-lance and entrepreneurship, project manager, finance and control, support services and human resources in other to identify the potential of trainees. For each category we matched as many six skill sets taken from the COACH_ING model. The results of this work were presented at global Engineering EDUcation CONference (EDUCON) in the 2022 [7]. To achieve this objective, preliminary work was carried out that involved the application of a tool called DIRECT_ING (presented for the first time at International Conference on Environment Friendly Energies and Applications - EFEA21), formatted as a questionnaire it provides feedback on the individual’s potential to cover several professional categories [8]. That trend was evidenced in responses to targeted questions associated to specific skill sets. This tool has been revelated a useful way to guidance person to show his tendency to professional categories for the develop of his career fit with his potential abilities. This tool has proved to be useful both in orientation and guidance to help trainees individualize their ideal professional categories to develop a career in sync with his or her aptitude. Another tool of the model is composed of eight MCs, using this tool trainees can evaluate themselves and others. The eight MCs are: resilience, fast thinking, realization, confidence, courage, optimism, inspiration and flexibility. These MCs represent complex entities that characterize personal and professional profiles through a set of

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the behavioural skills (to be–COACH) and the operative skills (to do–ING) of the COACH_ING model. Before entering into the heart of this article we wanted to validate the tools introduced thus far. The final goal of this work has been to offer those who participated in the trial a double awareness that, on the one hand encourages following their university path and on the other, provides the tools with which to design and structure their professional careers through a broader vision that comes with the capacity to define with confidence and determination (conscious decision-making) a career that corresponds not only to their graduate degree but to their inherent capabilities. 1.2 Validation of Data Gathering Tools Complex capability is a skill construct (latent magnitude) not directly observable; a capability includes different concepts for example from intellectual capability to standard requirements for every individual, needed to do a specific action. For this reason, the complex capability has been defined thru a set of observable elements (skills of model), where each element represents a different aspect of the same latent magnitude. To validate the tools (DIRECT-ING and MCs) described, data relating 100 samples taken from students close to the graduation or recently graduated was used. In the case of the DIRECT-ING questionnaire responses graduated on the Linkert scale. To verify and control reliability of the questions using the Cronbach Alpha calculation method [9, 10] was chosen. The reliability demonstrated also to be effective for the MCs. In fact, for each of the eight MCs the Cronbach Alfa obtained results respectively from 0,814 to 1 and 0,797 to 1 for the eight professional categories. In particular, the professional category shown in the charts (Fig. 1) is finance and control. The graphs at the top refer to the overall scores of the respondents which vary according to the sample administered. The distribution of the scores is not symmetric. From the histogram the presence of a significant portion of respondents with low scores (left tail) is evident. The majority is concentrated in the middle of the distribution. There is also a non-negligible group of individuals with very high competency levels (right tail of the distribution). This empirical evidence is corroborated by the second graph on the top right. The bottom left panel shows the distribution of the overall score in each item of the questionnaire. There is great variability among the items with low performances in the third item (building relationships), revealing the difficulties the individuals in the sample have in establishing a good network. Similarly, the bottom right panel shows how low are the scores in the third item. Only the first item has an estimated value above the mean. 1.3 History: Objectives Reached and Expected Results During the initial experimentation of the COACH_ING model we started from the observation of a single skill (sixteen comprise the model) as the indicator to specific behaviour patterns from an engineering and coaching perspectives, respectively. Subsequently, it was necessary to adopt a more complex vision of behavioural patterns and skills from the samples in order to verify which MC (complex skills studied

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Fig. 1. Analysis relative to Alpha in a professional category

as emerging skills) arose from an integral observation of all the skills in play – selected from specific sets. The approach used is inspired by a complex pattern [11]; observed behaviour such as emergent capabilities which are combinations of COACH_ING skills set. The model proves to be a dynamic learning method (strategies, methodology) that aims to define new MCs useful in today’s market place. These Capabilities may, over time be representative entire professional categories. These can offer flexible support to the recruiter. We present a dynamic model which is evidenced by market requests and which also reinforces our idea that the market seeks out new capabilities, ones that are in line with the pursue of digital and sustainable skills. Our work consists, therefore, in building useful tools to match market needs with profiles in training through the development of abilities and knowledge that integrate specific/technical preparation in each individual course of study. The purpose of this study is to construct competency assessment grids, both individual and combined, which become standard models to be utilised by university professors throughout academic and professional careers; to evaluate and have learners self-evaluate their own “learning” process and professional growth. The process can be autonomously conducted by professors taking the following steps: Allow students to access their own competencies (sixteen COACH_ING skills, eight MCs). Provide them with guidance as how best to evaluate what the market offers (professional categories), i.e., that would entail understanding the different professional categories. Evaluate the trend of their professional potential (DIRECT-ING).

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Monitor the growth of these elements (Monitoring). All of the above are implicit to the professor’s task: to stimulate students during university path. This kind of methodology is useful also to recruiters in the evaluation of candidates, to managers to the evaluation of their resources, etc.

2 Findings and Conclusions 2.1 Tools and Training Methodology in the Classroom The study presented in this article is based on data collected from 100 samples who have participated in multiple editions of the innovative university laboratory program called “Entering the World of Work: Tools, Scenarios, and Strategies,” up to the current ongoing edition titled “Soft Skills for Today’s Engineer” [12, 13]. The experimental laboratory is conducted using the COACH_ING methodology, operating on two parallel levels: understanding the “individual” (distinctive traits of the individual) and understanding work contexts (organizations, professional studios, research world, etc.). All of this is aimed at equipping future engineers with the ability to acquire complex and valuable skills applicable in today’s market scenarios. The lessons are structured as theoretical stimuli and group workshops, as well as self and mutual evaluations and experiences in the context of technological work. Through the self-assessment of the eight MCs and the results of the DIRECT-ING questionnaire, we have highlighted the relationship between each of the Professional Categories and the MCs for each future engineer. This is done in order to observe the potential expressed in individual samples as a valuable element for their personal educational and career development project. Since each professional category is characterized by a set of six skills and each MC consists of a set of five skills, the level of proximity is highlighted between each individual professional category and the MC based on the common skills they share. From the analysis of the data collected over the years, the weight of each MC within the set of each professional category is clear. Among the competencies with the highest weight, three have been chosen. A cycle of focus group conducted in the classroom was then formed to verify the students’ perception in terms of the weight of MCs as associated with each individual professional category. In the following graphs, the green arrows highlight the most representative skills chosen for each professional category during the focus groups; blue represents the results of the first group work and orange represents that which has emerged from the data collected over the years. During the classroom proceedings, each student was asked to assign a maximum of three MCs to each professional category. This was first conducted as an individual exercise among the students, using a work grid then, in a guided manner, organized into work groups using the focus group methodology. The collected data was then compared. In observing the predominant size of each category, we see the difference between skills perceived as necessary to excel at roles belonging to these professional categories compared to the association derived from the results of our analysis of the Model’s skills.

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Fig. 2. Measure of proximity between professional categories and MC

The groups discussed professional categories and offered a rational discourse as to the types of situations a typical professional might encounter. Our analysis instead, is a quantitative measurement based on data collected over the past years. In other words, in blue and with the green arrows we see evidenced what the subjects view as necessary (Fig. 2). For this reason, categories such as “operations - specialist technicians” have a greater conformity while categories such as “support services” are less defined with less between “imaginary” and disclosed, as they are not known quantities to the student in course of development. 2.2 Data Analysis and Reflections for the Future It was also interesting to analyze the training model with the students themselves; in this way, they had the opportunity to work on their ability to choose the skills they wanted to develop. As well, their ability to give definition to their confidence and comfort level.

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Finally, they were able to reflect on their use in the surrounding context, being aware of their own personal predisposition. In this way, they were also provided the opportunity to evaluate themselves as a “product” to be introduced onto the market with certain distinctive characteristics. The natural evolution of the model will consist of transitioning from classification in professional categories, to identifying actual profiles, based not only on specific technical expertise but, with equal importance, on a precise set of MCs to be developed in each academic path. This way, orientation towards the market will no longer be limited to the sector of specialization indicative to the course of study but will encompass broader professional opportunities, increasing the possibility of intersecting market demand and overcoming the increasing mismatch between demand and market supply, simply more prominent in this present day. 2.3 Conclusions Over time, this approach will facilitate the construction of new MCs, linked to the socio-economic contours of the market, representative of required competencies and profiles. It is clear that the sixteen skills will remain the standard referral in the COACH_ING model, while the inter-associations between professional categories and MC may undergo changes over time, due to; an increase in the number of samples studied and, as a result of changes in market needs. Nonetheless, the questionnaire tool DIRECT-ING, enriched through the selfassessment of MCs, permits students to broaden their perspective on possible roles and to appreciate the flexibility of market demands in terms of soft skills and new aspects of MCs, during the ongoing transformation. Finally, a direct confrontation with the students a dedicated one-on-one meetings (feedback), permitted us to highlight how useful self-reflection on the concept of combining skills and evaluating the opportunity to understand how the market may require specific behaviours and attitudes to fulfil ever-changing roles constantly in evolution: from the ability to manage multidisciplinary teams to the participation in intercultural projects, to remote planning (read digital skills), to sustainable planning (Green skills). It would be interesting to observe from these new skills which competencies coexist naturally and cannot be separated one from the other. In defining the additional associations between competencies within the MCs, it is possible to establish newer standard sets that are more representative. The aim is to identify functional dependencies among the various competencies that compose new MCs, in both the present and the future. This means enriching the COACH_ING model with new data collection grids useful as a stimulus in training engineers in order to awaken them to their capacity to make choices fundamental to their career – hence, “Train for Career.”

References 1. Angel, P., Amar, P.: Le Coaching. Presses Universitaires de France, France (2012)

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2. Cappiello, C.: “Il Coaching: nessuno in cattedra” (Coaching: Nobody in the Chair). Paper 1/15, Council of Engineers of Rome, Italy (2015) 3. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): “Transformable Skills training for researchers supporting career development”. World Science Forum, Brazil (2013) 4. Callea, V., Santini, E., Tempone, R.: COACH-ING, an integrated system of skills: experimentation and guided validation. EFEA, Roma (2018) 5. Spencer, L.M., Jr., Spencer, S.M.: Competence at Work: Models for Superior Performance, 1st edn. Wiley, United States (1993) 6. Whitmore, J.: Coaching for Performance: The Principles and Practice of Coaching and Leadership, 5th edn. Nicholas Brealey Publishing, United Kingdom (2017) 7. Callea, V., Tempone, R., Matrisciano, L., Ursache, M., Remigi G.: COACH_ING EDUCATIONAL MODEL: analysis and application for business. In: 2022 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), Tunisia (2022) 8. Callea, V., et al.: COACH-ING: From model to tool. EFEA, Bulgaria (2021) 9. Rasch, G.: Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests (Expanded ed.). In: University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1960) 10. Fischer, G.H., Molenaar, I.W.: Rasch Models. Foundations, Recent Developments, and Applications. Springer, New York (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4230-7 11. Zangwill, A.: “A Mind over Matter: Philip Anderson and the Physics of the Very Many”. Oxford University Press, United Kingdom (2021) 12. Pujitha, S., Prasad KDV, Y.: “Complete And Competent Engineers: A Coaching Model To Developing Holistic Graduates”. In: 5th World Conference on Educational Sciences, pp. 1367–1372. WCES - Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116, Rome (2013) 13. Bettinger, E., Baker, R.: The Effects of Student Coaching in College: An Evaluation of a Randomized Experiment in Student Mentoring. In: Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, pp. 3–19. American Educational Research Association, United States (2011)

Peace Engineering Minor: Actionable Knowledge Ramiro Jordan(B) , Eric Hamke, Mohammad Yousuf, and Donna Koechner University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, USA {rjordan,ehamke,myousuf,dmkoechner}@unm.edu

Abstract. Peace Engineering is an emerging area of study. Peace Engineering is defined as the intentional application of system-level science, technology, culture, and engineering principles to directly promote and support conditions for peace. It works directly towards a world where prosperity, sustainability, social equity, entrepreneurship, transparency, community voice and engagement, ethics, equity, and a culture of quality thrive. Engineers have the power to play a vital role in creative solutions that can radically transform and improve the wellbeing of people and other living systems. At the core of Peace Engineering is our planet’s sustainable future, which is calling leaders to act in concert from a systems mindset. It is a call to develop solutions differently: that is, collaboratively; integrating transdisciplinary expertise and education programs; simultaneously applying technology solutions while supporting ethics, policy and living systems. Peace Engineering uses, and acts upon, verifiable trusted data. In November of 2018, the University of New Mexico (UNM) School of Engineering (SOE) hosted the First Global Peace Engineering Conference from which the description of the field presented above was developed. As an outcome of the conference, UNM created a Peace Engineering Minor. While aimed primarily towards students majoring in Engineering Bachelor of Science (BS) degree programs, the Minor is open to students of all majors. Peace Engineering is inherently interdisciplinary and doesn’t rely solely on engineering content. Rather it includes relevant courses taught by faculty across different disciplines. Keywords: Peace Engineering · curricula · verifiable trusted data

1 Context In November 2018, the University of New Mexico (UNM) School of Engineering (SOE) hosted the first global Peace Engineering conference in the WEEF-GEDC 2018 annual event. Peace Engineering is the application of Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Mathematics (STEAM) principles, sustainable practices, cultural sensitivity, and innovation to promote and support peace, and its profile is rising among institutions around the world [1, 2]. Peace Engineering’s mission is to actively cultivate a culture of peace, and this mission requires that peace engineers, global citizens, professionals of all disciplines be well-rounded global thinkers and doers, cognizant of: (i) their professional and personal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 189–199, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_20

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ethical responsibilities; (ii) their roles in society as citizen engineers and/or scientists, practitioners or policymakers; and (iii) intended and unintended consequences of their decisions relating to design, planning, management, and operation of projects in different socioeconomic, cultural and political situations. Peace engineering is defined not only by its sociotechnical applications, but by its ethos and aims with an agenda formulated in service to social justice. Notably, there are urgent calls to action by the NAE [3], the Nobel Prize Summit [4], the United Nations (U.N.) [5], and scientists [6] worldwide to address and solve crucial and widely recognized global challenges to peace and security before they become more complex and more environmentally, financially, and socially costly; before we reach the point of no return, the year 2030. Peace Engineering answers these calls by recognizing the important contribution that engineering, the hard and social sciences and other disciplines such as law and finance make toward the building of a more sustainable, stable, secure, equitable and peaceful world. Peace Engineers must use verifiable trusted data and act upon the verifiable trusted data; it is a holistic way of problem solving for the global challenges. There are other academic programs that intersect with Peace Engineering, including Humanitarian Engineering, Engineering for Good, Green Engineering and Contextual Engineering, to mention a few. We believe that providing Peace Engineering curricula and degrees is a good approach to create new talent that can address the global challenges before we meet 2030. We have 77 months left as of July 2023. One planet, one environment, one chance!

2 Peace Engineering Minor: Purpose and Goals In 2020, UNM’s SOE created an undergraduate minor in Peace Engineering (PENG Minor) [8]. We reached out to other UNM departments and centers to collaboratively develop fifteen credit hours of coursework in the School of Engineering that is open to all disciplines. Content includes topics related to sustainability, environment, conflict management and avoidance, diplomacy, systems thinking, community outreach, justice, equity, diversity, inclusion, metrics, modelling, prediction, international relations, technology management, health, ethics, and other relevant issues [9, 10]. The goal is to educate “street smart” professionals of all disciplines, not only engineers, who can adapt, and pivot quickly based on the context in which they are placed. They must have the necessary tools to be agile, resilient, resourceful, and ethical along with the leadership and communications skills to work across disciplines and cultures. A principal goal and tool for Peace Engineering is verifiable trusted data. Trustworthy data is essential for making decisions (actionable knowledge). Many important and impactful decisions are being made in the absence of science and verifiable data. Science is about replicability of processes/phenomena, observation is the judge. The Peace Engineering Minor is comprised of two required 3-credit-hour courses: ENG 220 - Engineering, Business, Sustainability, Ethics, Society, and JEDAI and ENG 320 - Design Thinking, Metrics, Analytics, AI, ML, Trusted Data, and JEDAI. The remaining 9 h are electives from any discipline that must be pre-approved by the Peace Engineering faculty and Peace Engineering Consortium and conform to the ABET guidelines. We are open to expanding the course offerings for the minor.

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The Peace Engineering Minor is a new program and thus the collection of data is very important to measure learning outcomes and overall impact. We are in the process of developing scales to measure effectiveness in the future. We want to touch a wide range of students across all disciplines early on in their programs of study, connecting the hard and soft sciences and having students work together on projects where each student contributes to the overall design and becomes a better global citizen. The Minor allows us to reach out and challenge undergraduate students. We are developing entry and exit surveys for better assessment and collection of program data. UNM is also collaborating with members of the Peace Engineering Consortium (PEC) for content, presentations, invited talks, discussions and sharing of projects. The Peace Engineering Consortium [11, 12] is an outcome of the first global Peace Engineering conference. Multiple academic institutions joined the consortium to develop curricula, micro-credentials, certificates, workshops, and webinars on topics related to Peace Engineering. The goal is to eventually launch one global online program on Peace Engineering and allow interested students to get an M.S. degree from a member institution. Drexel University, a PEC member, has an excellent Peace Engineering graduate program model and is actively collaborating. We are also engaging with faculty from Duke University, U. Colorado at Boulder, Purdue University, University of Illinois, Georgia Tech University, Stanford University and Stanford Peace Tech Lab, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Colombia, CETYS University, Mexico, and many others academic institutions as well as various industry partners. Outcomes of the PENG Minor have been adapted from ABET’s [13] guidelines for engineering program outcomes and are as follows. At the end of the program, students will have introductory-level skills in the following areas: 1) an ability to apply design thinking to problems with consideration of public health, safety, diversity, and welfare, as well as global, cultural, social, and environmental factors; 2) an ability to communicate effectively with a range of audiences; 3) an ability to recognize ethical and professional responsibilities in professional (engineering) situations and make informed judgments, which must consider the impact of engineering solutions in global, environmental, and societal contexts, addressing unintended consequences that may create conflict or negative impacts; and 4) an ability to function effectively on a team whose members provide leadership, create a collaborative and inclusive environment, establish goals, plan tasks, and meet objectives. Student accomplishments will be measured through specific questions on the exams, by analyzing parts of the writing assignments designed to measure specific outcomes, oral presentations, videos produced and observation of student behavior by instructor (assessed using a rubric).

3 ENG 220: Engineering, Business, Sustainability, Ethics, Society, and JEDAI The year 2019 was a difficult year for all of us because of COVID-19. Every established network was tested and challenged - networks like health care, supply chains, energy, telecommunications, education, finance, policy, insurance, employment, etc. In the Fall

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2020, UNM developed and offered a 3-credit hour pilot course, ENG 220: Engineering, Business, Sustainability, Ethics, Society, and JEDAI, Business and Society. The course had seven registered students and three student observers. In Fall 2021, the PENG Minor was approved by the UNM Faculty Senate, and the subsequent course had 32 registered students from UNM and 12 from CETYS University, an academic institution in Baja California, Mexico. It was all online because of the COVID pandemic. Students worked in teams across the border and presented projects that included all 17 U.N. sustainable development goals (SDGs) that touched their city, county, state, and country (Ensenada, Mexico and Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA). The key task was to find verifiable trustworthy data, analyze it, and present the team’s interpretation in a report. In the Fall 2022, enrollment in ENG 220 had to be capped at 50 students because of increasing interest in the course. All 50 students enrolled were UNM students. They worked in teams focusing on two to three SDGs each. The final project for the course was to develop an online Peace Engineering dashboard (Fig. 1) for New Mexico and the U.S. The purpose of the dashboard is to provide a better understanding of the SDGs, find credible sources of data and resources for solutions and provide this information on a platform that can easily be accessed by the public (https://peacedashboard.world). In addition to the dashboard, the students present the process of finding the dashboard’s data, analyzing it, and interpreting it in videos and reports. The course uses a team-teaching format to foster students’ understanding of the interaction of engineering practice with business and society. Students learn about innovation, entrepreneurship, global engineering standards, and professional ethics. Business and technical writing are incorporated throughout the course. The course invites people from professional and related global communities to come and present talks and lead discussions. The course goals include introducing engineering students to the broad context of engineering practices both nationally and internationally, fostering skills and attitudes necessary for success in the modern engineering workplace, understanding the ethical issues that practicing engineers may face, and improving technical communication skills. Possible topics covered are the National Academy of Engineering Grand Challenges for the 21st Century, United Nations 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), entrepreneurship, innovation in engineering practice, design thinking, and teamwork in the modern engineering workplace, international engineering standards, global awareness, Industry 4.0, ethics, transparency, social justice, trusted data, and engineering communication with a nontechnical community. 3.1 ENG 220 Course Outcomes: (Adapted from ABET [13] Engineering Program Outcomes) As indicated before, ENG 220 equips students with introductory-level skills in the following areas: 1) application of design thinking to engineering problems with consideration of public health, safety, diversity, welfare, and global, cultural, social, and environmental factors; 2) effective communication with a range of technical and nontechnical audiences; 3) recognition of ethical and professional responsibilities in engineering situations and make informed judgments, which must consider the impact of engineering solutions in global, environmental, and societal contexts. Deal with unintended consequences that

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may create conflicts; 4) functioning effectively on a team whose members together provide leadership, create a collaborative and inclusive environment, establish goals, plan tasks, and meet objectives. The Engineering Ethics section of this course introduces students to modern-day aspects of engineering professions. Goals for the engineering ethics portion of the class are: 1) to understand what a profession is and to understand the professional nature of engineering; 2) to understand what a code of ethics is and how it can be used; 3) to understand the theoretical underpinnings of professional ethics; 4) to learn how to apply ethical problem-solving tools to real and hypothetical ethical problems; and 5) to be sensitized to the potential ethical issues involved in engineering practice. Student accomplishments are measured through specific questions on the exams, by analyzing parts of the writing assignments designed to measure specific outcomes, or observation of student behavior by instructor (using a published rubric). Emphasis is placed on teamwork as evidenced in group presentations, engaging the audience, vocabulary, focusing and impact. 3.2 Course Projects The following five figures outline the topics and exercises used in the course projects and the expected student outcomes. The purpose of the first project (Table 1) is to get the students focused on the U.N. SDGs and the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) Grand Challenges. The second project is about how public opinion can be shaped by technologies such as captology. Project 3 focuses on how to measure and acquire relevant data. The fourth project focuses on sustainability as it relates to their community. The final project is to combine the skills learned in the previous projects. Table 1. Project 1 - U.N. SDGs, NASEM Grand Challenges, Engineering for One Planet. Module

Critical Thinking Topics

Discussions and Essays

1.

Goals

• • • •

2.

Thinking in a societal frame of reference • What is your legacy? • Your impact? • Where is the connection?

3.

Engineering for One Planet (https://eng ineeringforoneplanet.org/)

17 SDGs 14 NASEM Grand Challenges Map the 17 SDGs to your smartphone How can your smartphone be used to measure/record data, help, etc. the 17 SDG

• Can we meet the 2030 deadline? • Think globally, act locally • Scales in order of priority: city, county, state, country, region, world

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In Project 2, the students prepare arguments for an in-class presentation after researching persuasive technology, disinformation, and future employability. Their research focuses on captology (also known as persuasive technology) from the perspectives of the U.S. and New Mexico. The sources for research include: • NETFLIX documentary titled “The Social Dilemma” [14] • Video “The Social Dilemma - Tristan Harris - New Age In Tech Presentation” [15] • Article “Persuasive Computers: Perspectives and Research Directions” by BJ Fogg [16] • Article “Stewardship of Global Collective Behaviors” by Joseph B Bak-Coleman, et al. [17]. • Video “The Global Threat to Democracy from Disinformation with Maria Ressa” [18] Project 3, the class is divided into teams. Each team prepares a presentation on data metrics, standards, and sources. The teams explore topics that cover: • Mathematics for Peace Engineering – – – –

Deterministic, random Probabilities and statistics Use the MATLAB scripts and data to visualize the exponential function. Analyze and visualize an immediate issue/threat (such as COVID) with real data.

• Analyze your trusted data. – Use data from Datametica [19] – Paper “Systems-Thinking-in “25-Words or Less” [20] Project 4 is about sustainability. Each team prepare a presentation on sustainability considering: • • • • • •

Systems thinking and design. Digital twins Reuse, repurposing, repair, recycle. Engineering for One Planet National security Technology forecasting and social change impact Project sources should include:

• “International Good Practice Principles for Sustainable Infrastructure, 10 Guiding Principles” prepared by UN environment program. [21] • Paper “Introduction to Systems-Thinking” by Daniel H. Kim [22] • Paper “Systems-Thinking-in “25-Words or Less” [20] • Report “The Risk of Not Innovating” prepared by Fresh Consulting [23] • Video “The challenge of climate change - Martin Siegert” [24]

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The final project is to design and implement the “Start2End – ABQ-NM-US-Global Dashboard” (www.peacedashboard.world) see Fig. 1.

4 ENG 320 - Design Thinking, Metrics, Analytics, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Trusted Data The ENG 320 course has been approved for the Spring of 2024, and ENG 420 for the Fall of 2024. Both courses focus on verifiable trustworthy and scalable data as well as their sources, look at the transparency, responsibility, user focus, sustainability, and technology (TRUST) [14] standards, ethics, open science, replication of experiments/processes, generative artificial intelligence (A.I.), machine learning (M.L.), trusted data, complex systems, avoidance of conflict, policy, and finance. The course uses an interdisciplinary team-teaching format advancing the students’ understanding of the interaction of engineering practices with business and society. The interdisciplinary approach will include non-engineering perspectives of the impact of technologies. Students will learn about Design Thinking, Metrics, Analytics, Artificial Intelligence (A.I.), Machine Learning, and Trusted Data. Innovation, entrepreneurship, and global professional ethics, policy and regulations will be introduced. Advanced communication using multimedia will be incorporated throughout the course.

Fig. 1. ENG 220 final project – Peace Engineering Dashboard.

This course will include collaboration with the PEC partners at Drexel and Stanford. There will also be collaboration with partners in Colombia and Argentina.

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The course uses an interdisciplinary team-teaching format advancing the students’ understanding of the interaction of engineering practices with business and society. The interdisciplinary approach will include non-engineering perspectives of the impact of technologies. Students will learn about Design Thinking, Metrics, Analytics, Artificial Intelligence (A.I.), Machine Learning, and Trusted Data. Innovation, entrepreneurship, and global professional ethics, policy and regulations will be introduced. Advanced communication using multimedia will be incorporated throughout the course. This course will include collaboration with the PEC partners at Drexel and Stanford. There will also be collaboration with partners in Colombia and Argentina. The course will focus on the differences in the perspectives and interpretations of information and data. The students will learn how to identify resources that are relevant and trusted by the community and examine the social hierarchy of credibility. The students will learn social factors affecting the rate of the adoption of new technologies and the application of these understandings to distinguish between the advantages and disadvantages of using this information in the process of design and implementation. Student success will be measured through a series of modules (Table 2) that guide the students through the process of developing an effective multimedia presentation of their ideas/results. The final projects will be reviewed by the teaching team composed of professors from engineering, social sciences, digital media and journalism. Table 2. ENG320 Modules. Module

Topic

Lab Activity

1

Introduction to the Engineering Design Process

Setting up Google Colab, Python

2

Computer Programming Principles

Basic Scripting Interface, Python

3

Systems Thinking, Project Management Principles

Basic Scripting Interface, Python

4

Engineering Ethics, Policy, Regulations

Basic Scripting Interface, Python

5

What problems engineers solve; whose problems engineers solve; and what new problems engineers create

Basic Scripting Interface, Statistical Tools

6

Trusted Data and Basic Statistics

Basic Scripting Interface, Statistical Tools

7

Big Data, Analytics

Basic Scripting Interface, Big Data, Analytics

8

Natural Language Processing; Building Automated Classifiers

Basic Scripting Interface, Natural Language Processing

9

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

Basic Scripting Interface, Natural Language Processing

10

Peace Data Standard

Basic Scripting Interface, Natural Language Processing

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4.1 ENG 320 Course Projects The course covers many topics that undergraduate students may find challenging. To encourage students to conduct in-depth research and critical thinking, we will ask each student to choose a faculty member from the campus with whom they can explore and research these topics. Engineering is about trusted data. An objective of the course is for students to learn about trusted data, repositories, the TRUST standard, and policies [25]. Students will be encouraged to think critically about the concept of trust, that can mean different things to different people depending on their backgrounds – be it academic, professional and/or personal. Also, students will be challenged to find a set of trusted data and write an essay justifying the credibility of the dataset. There is a lab portion to the course. We intend to use Google Colab [26] and teach Python scripting. The data to be used is in the public domain. The Google Patents website (https://patents.google.com/) [27] contains 8 million patents. Our goal is to have the students develop a visual network of the original patents that generate a collection of technologies and resulting social impact. The data will be pre-processed, that is, the data will be scraped to extract important features before the students can process it using Natural Language Processing and A.I. tools. Important features are the name(s) of a patent holder, abstract, description, patents it is based on, number of patents of the holder. Another tool to be used in the course is ChatGPT [28] that will assist students in writing a technical paper, starting with an abstract; or instance, working with ChatGPT to generate three versions of an abstract and then completing the abstract on their own. Students will learn how to benefit from generative A.I. tools such as ChatGPT through proper articulation of questions and verification of the outputs.

5 Actual and Anticipated Outcomes Having students connect the dots among different disciplines, social and hard sciences, and considering the intended and unintended consequences when designing a solution is a major expected outcome. We have to change the mindset of all disciplines to come up with NEW solutions that the planet demands. One planet, one environment, one chance. The PENG Minor is breaking down the silos that exist in academia and it touches a greater number of future global citizens from different disciplines. The Peace Engineering Consortium members help facilitate talks, lectures, workshops and equip students with different perspectives and context awareness. In addition, curricular changes or revisions are brought by the Peace Engineering Consortium; we have a peer review process in place. Clearly, the increase in the number of students enrolling during the first three semesters of this program demonstrates that the PENG Minor is a success. We are in a situation where we must limit the number of students that can register for the courses.

6 Conclusions/Recommendations/Summary The PENG Minor is breaking down the silos that exist in academia and it touches a greater number of future global citizens from different disciplines. We strongly believe that the Peace Engineering Minor at UNM answers the calls that the planet is demanding by

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recognizing the important contribution that engineering, the hard and social sciences and other disciplines such as law and finance make toward the building of a more sustainable, stable, secure, equitable and peaceful world. Enrollment is growing in the PENG Minor at UNM. The pilot project started with 7 registered students and 3 observers in the Fall 2020. In the Fall of 2021, once the Minor was approved by the Faculty Senate, we had 32 registered students from UNM and 12 students from CETYS University in Mexico. In the Fall 2022 semester we had to set a maximum of 50 for registered students. The Minor also fulfills ABET outcomes which is excellent to accredit our engineering programs. Peace is about sustainability and Engineering is about developing NEW solutions that consider the planet. In the Peace Engineering Consortium, we have agreed to collaborate and develop content for micro-credentials, certificates, and graduate work in-person and on-line. Problem solving is holistic. The young generations are deeply concerned with climate change and the planet as a whole and the PENG Minor is a positive step in the direction of global peace and sustainability. The PENG Minor touches undergraduate students from all disciplines and allows them to work in teams using the framework of the 17 SDGs of the U.N., it breaks the silos in academia. The principal goal is verifiable trusted data. Trustworthy data is essential for making decisions (actionable knowledge). Many important and impactful decisions are being made in the absence of science and verifiable data. Science is about replicability of processes/phenomena, observation is the judge. We believe this is a good approach to create new talent that can address the global challenges before we meet 2030, the projected tipping point. We have 77 months left as of July 2023. One planet, one environment, one chance! Extremely important are the increasing impacts of climate change, urbanization, population growth and migration, that, along with the rapid adoption of technology in our day-to-day lives will continue to create conflict within and among communities. When systems lack the resiliency necessary to dampen this conflict, the outcome is often violence. Knowing that engineering design can both contribute to or mitigate conflict, future engineers will be increasingly involved in all stages of conflict progression, and ultimately in the outcome of either peace or violence. We must incorporate Peace Engineering Principles into all curricula, not only Engineering.

References 1. Jordan, R., Agi, K., Maio, E., Nair, I., Koechner, D., Ballard, D.: Invitation to Shape Peace Engineering, November 12, 2018”, WEEF-GEDC-2018, Albuquerque, NM, November 12– 16, 2018 (2018) 2. STEAM – Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Math with a philosophy of integration. Instead of teaching disciplines in independent subject silos, lessons are well rounded, project and inquiry based, with a focus on interdisciplinary learning. https://www.steam-poweredfa mily.com/education/what-is-stem/. Accessed 18 May 2023 3. Nobel Prize Laureates and Other Experts Issue Urgent Call for Action After ‘Our Planet, Our Future’ Summit. https://www.nationalacademies.org/news/2021/04/nobel-prize-laure-atesand-other-experts-issue-urgent-call-for-action-after-our-planet-our-future-summit. Accessed 18 May 2023

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4. Nobel Prize Summit, OUR PLANET, OUR FUTURE. https://www.no-belprize.org/events/ nobel-prize-summit/2021/. Accessed 18 May 2023 5. IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/. Accessed 18 May 2023 6. COP26 kicks off: What is it and why is it the ‘world’s best last chance’ for climate action? https://www.cnet.com/news/climate-change-cop26-is-the-biggest-conference-in-theworld-heres-why-it-matters/ 7. Jordan, R., Giusti, M., Franco, P., Koechner, D., Agi, K.: 28 Years of walking the global streets and challenges: ISTEC 1990–2018. In: 2018 World Engineering Education Forum -Global Engineering Deans Council (WEEF-GEDC), Albuquerque, NM, USA, November 12–16, 2018 (2018) 8. Jordan, R., Nair, I., Agi, K., Koechner, D.: How do we frame peace engineering education? A complex but vital question. In: ASEE 126th Annual Conference & Exposition (Tampa, FL, USA, June 16–19, 2019), Education/Engineering & Society Division Technical Session 3 (2019). https://www.asee.org/public/conferences/140/papers/25534/view 9. Jordan, R., et al.: Peace engineering in practice: a case study at the University of New Mexico. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 173, 121113 (2021) 10. Jordan, R., et al.: Peace Engineering (PENG) for a Sustainable Planet by 2030: Call to Action 2020- 2030. In: Summary of Peace Engineering Biome Kickoff Workshop, University of New Mexico and Sandia National Laboratories, October 28, 2021 (2021) 11. Jordan, R., et al.: Outcomes of the First Global Peace Engineering Conference, WEEF-2019, Chennai, India, November 13–16, 2019 (2019) 12. Jordan, R., et al.: “Peace Engineering Consortium: Outcome of the First Global Peace Engineering Conference” WEEF-2019, Chennai, India, November 13–16, 2019 (2019) 13. Every year 200,000 problem solvers graduate from ABET accredited programs around the world. https://www.abet.org/. Accessed 18 May 2023 14. The Social Dilemma. https://www.netflix.com/title/81254224. Accessed 24 May 2023 15. The Social Dilemma - Tristan Harris - New Age In Tech Presentation, https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=iYVVgGWUKKg. Accessed 24 May 2023 16. Fogg, B.J.: Persuasive computers: perspectives and research directions. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 225–232 (1998) 17. Bak-Coleman, J.B., et al.: Stewardship of global collective behavior. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 118(27), e2025764118 (2021) 18. The Global Threat to Democracy from Disinformation with Maria Ressa. https://www.you tube.com/watch?v=ochx5IPTaMg. Accessed 24 May 2023 19. Datametica, giving data wings. https://www.datametica.com/. Accessed 24 May 2023 20. Lyneis, D.: “Systems thinking” in 25 words or less (1995). http://www.clexchange.org/ftp/ documents/whyk12sd/Y_1995-8STIn25WordsOrLess.pdf 21. International Good Practice Principles for Sustainable Infrastructure, 10 Guiding Principles. https://www.unep.org/resources/publication/international-good-practice-principles-sus tain-able-infrastructure/. Accessed 24 May 2023 22. Kim, D.H.: Introduction to Systems Thinking, vol. 16. Pegasus Communications, Waltham (1999) 23. The Risk of Not Innovating. https://www.freshconsulting.com/insights/blog/the-risk-of-notinnovating/. Accessed 24 May 2023 24. The challenge of climate change - Martin Siegert. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VRN YmZU6BaE/. Accessed May 2023 25. Lin, D., et al.: The TRUST principles for digital repositories. Sci. Data 7(1), 144 (2020) 26. Bisong, E., Bisong, E.: Google colaboratory. Building machine learning and deep learning models on google cloud platform: a comprehensive guide for beginners, pp. 59–64 (2019) 27. Noruzi, A., Abdekhoda, M.: Google patents: the global patent search engine. Webology. 11(1), 1–12 (2014) 28. Open AI (2021) ChatGPT. http://www.openai.com/. Accessed 18 May 2023

A Digital Twin of a Remote Real-Time Accessible Labs Ibrahim Badawy1(B) , A. M. Bassiuny1,2 , Rania Darwish1 , and A. S. Tolba3 1 Faculty of Engineering, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt

[email protected]

2 Faculty of Engineering, Heliopolis University, Cairo, Egypt 3 Department of Computer Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt

Abstract. Industry 4.0, which includes artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things (IoT), has created new opportunities in various fields, including education, leading to the emergence of Education 4.0. This paper proposes a model for linking education with Industry 4.0 by creating a digital twin of a remote real-time accessible lab. The model combines automation and educational tools such as Learning Management Systems (LMS) with artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and the IoT to enhance the learning experience. A detailed diagram outlines the process of building the proposed digital laboratory is presented. The lab is controlled remotely in real time through virtual reality and combined with an educational platform. To test the model, a servo system mechatronics lab is assembled, and the student and teacher feedback evaluated the efficiency of the digital lab. The study found that the digital lab model increased comprehension and imagination among students, allowing more time for laboratory training, and enabled teachers to evaluate student performance and issue reports. The findings suggest that incorporating modern technologies into education through a digital laboratory model can significantly improve the learning process. The study recommends further integration of advanced techniques in artificial intelligence and industrial applications to enhance the model. Overall, the integration of present industrial technologies into education through the digital laboratory model can optimize the efficiency and effectiveness of the learning process. Keywords: Digital Twin · Education 4.0 · Industry 4.0 · IoT · Remote Labs · Game-based learning

1 Introduction The industrial sector has experienced numerous transformational phases, leading to the highly connected and technology-driven world of today. Everyday life is now intertwined with technology, from simple machines in transportation systems to robots automating mundane tasks. The next sections outline the phases of transformation that the industry has experienced. One of the key elements of Industry 4.0 is the concept of digital twins (DT), which are virtual representations of physical systems. Using DT, the ability to have real-time © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 200–212, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_21

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operation and monitoring, as well as predictive analysis based on real-time data is made possible. The collection of data is largely dependent on IoT devices, while AI algorithms aid in the improvement of automation processes. IoT devices play a cru-cial role in collecting data, while AI algorithms enhance automation processes. Robotics replaces human labor in hazardous and heavy-duty tasks, improving precision, efficiency, and safety. Additionally, additive manufacturing techniques, such as 3D printing, enable rapid prototyping and customization in the industrial process [1]. Industry 4.0 has had a significant impact beyond the industrial sector, bringing about notable changes in society, culture, and business. Digitization has enabled the preservation and sharing of cultural heritage, while IoT devices, AI models, and social media have revolutionized communication, respecting privacy, and mental health. Automation has led to job replacements for repetitive tasks, increasing product accuracy and efficiency, and extending effective production hours. Advanced data analytics, automation, and AI have become core components of decision-making processes in the business field. The digital business model, supported by leading companies, has improved efficiency, agility, and competitiveness. The advent of e-commerce has also transformed traditional retail stores to better align with customer preferences. The impact of Industry 4.0 has led to the birth of Education 4.0, a transformative approach to learning that integrates advanced technologies and innovative teaching methods. Education 4.0 focuses on developing skills such as critical thinking, creativity, problemsolving, and digital literacy to meet the demands of the modern workforce. By aligning the principles of Industry 4.0 with the trends of Education 4.0, a more immersive and efficient learning experience can be created. This integration of advanced technologies into the educational process empowers students to become proactive, independent learners, equipped to thrive in an interconnected and complex world [1]. As the impact of Industry 4.0 on various aspects of life, particularly education, becomes evident, there is a need to explore how educational processes can be effectively integrated with the technologies of Industry 4.0. By creating a more immersive, efficient, and future-ready learning environment, students can develop the necessary skills to succeed in a rapidly evolving world. This paper aims to address this integration challenge and propose strategies for incorporating Industry 4.0 technologies into the educational landscape.

2 Review of the Existing Work The advancements in artificial intelligence and the IoT within the framework of Industry 4.0 have brought significant changes to various industries. However, there exists a significant disconnect between the education system and the demands of the labor market, resulting in societal challenges. To address this, it is crucial to reevaluate and adapt the educational process, ensuring its seamless integration with cutting-edge technologies that are shaping modern industries. Two key technologies within Industry 4.0 are the IoT and digital twins, which play a vital role in automation processes [2]. The IoT has emerged as a transformative technology, connecting everyday objects to the internet, and enabling seamless communication and data exchange. It has found applications in diverse fields, ranging from smart homes and wearable devices to industrial

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automation and environmental monitoring. Researchers have explored the potential of IoT in education, such as linking laboratories to the internet for fault detection and incorporating IoT-based models into mechatronics training and self-learning environments [3, 4]. Digital twin technology, originating from NASA’s Apollo program, involves creating a virtual representation of a physical system [5]. It encompasses digital models, real-time data storage, and data processing, enabling simulation, prediction, and optimization throughout the product lifecycle. Digital twins have applications not only in industry but also in education. A study developed a digital twin course in engineering education, highlighting the need for further development to fully harness its potential. Another initiative established a learning factory to provide hands-on experience in modern manufacturing techniques, utilizing Industry 4.0 technologies such as IoT, Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) [6], and additive manufacturing. Furthermore, the US Air Force envisions using digital twin technology to create virtual models tailored to each aircraft, enabling flight profile simulations and predictive maintenance. These digital twins constantly represent the aircraft’s state, aiding in structural damage prediction and optimization [7]. While previous models have focused on improving the industrial process, Gueye and Expósito [8] Propose the concept of university 4.0, aligning with Education 4.0. University 4.0 integrates automation and optimization techniques into the learning processes, fostering adaptive and personalized learning paths. Their model utilizes semantic web technologies, an ontological knowledge base, and IBM’s autonomic computing architecture to promote intelligent collaboration and coordination. Jhonattan M. et al. [9], summarized four components to demonstrate the usefulness of Education 4.0 for creating new learning tools, approaches, and infrastructure. They presented three case studies to illustrate how programs adopted the concept and vision of Education 4.0. Laura Icela, et al. [10] discussed the integration of Industry 4.0 and Education 4.0 to create adaptable teaching practices that develop 21st-century skills. They highlighted the need for educational models that integrate technology and identify competency models for educators, trainers, designers, researchers, and policymakers. Jeanne Kim [11] described a conceptual model that links heutagogy to the four learning principles of Education 4.0. He proposed the model to be a starting point for additional research and discussion on how heutagogy and other strategies can meet the requirements of Education 4.0. In summary, the review of existing work highlights the importance of integrating Industry 4.0 technologies, such as IoT and digital twins, into education. It showcases various initiatives exploring the potential of these technologies in educational settings and emphasizes the need for further development and integration to optimize the learning experience and bridge the gap between education and industry. The existing models, however, have limitations in fully connecting education and industry. This paper aims to bridge this gap by presenting a comprehensive model that mutually links education and industry, with education impacting industry development and vice versa. The implementation of this model will be elaborated.

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3 The Proposed Model The integration of Industry 4.0 and Education 4.0 offers a transformative opportunity to revolutionize students’ learning approaches. By combining the principles of Industry 4.0 with the trends of Education 4.0, a more engaging and effective learning experience can be created. The DIGI-LABS model builds upon the University 4.0 concept introduced by Gueye and Expósito, establishing a strong connection between Industry 4.0 and education. This model leverages Industry 4.0 tools to personalize learning experiences, making them more relevant and appealing to students. It also fosters collaboration, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, which are essential for success in today’s workforce. DIGI-LABS is an innovative learning environment designed to merge Education 4.0 trends with Industry 4.0 capabilities, facilitate a hands-on, experiential learning approach and provide students with a unique learning experience. The model comprises two primary components: Industry and Education as shown in Fig. 1. To facilitate the integration between these components, it is essential to identify the elements of each part. Subsequently, shared elements are determined, and their mutual impacts are examined to ensure effective harmonization.

Fig. 1. DIGI-LABS Model Structure

3.1 DIGI-LABS Structure DIGI-LABS reflects the principles of autonomous learning processes to create an autonomous industrial learning model that encourages learners to explore multiple fields. The implementation of DIGI-LABS demonstrates the efficacy and feasibility of its objectives and concepts, which function as compact industrial hubs with the potential for expansion. The model’s main elements are Actors, Environment, Digital-Twin and Semantic Space.

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Actors Actors encompass individuals, organizations, and technological tools that play crucial roles within specific contexts, systems, or processes. These actors hold responsibilities for decision-making, acting, and influencing outcomes within their respective domains. In the realm of education, actors include students, instructors, researchers, institutions, and mentors. In the industrial sphere, actors consist of lab operators and technology providers, among others. The range of actors varies depending on the context, reflecting the diverse stakeholders involved in different settings. Environment The environment comprises a collection of integrated tools that facilitate the automatic modeling process and establish a connection between the virtual and physical models through a gateway. In an industrial context, this includes equipment like sensors, actuators, robotics arms, assembly lines, smart factories, weather stations, servo systems, and condition monitoring systems. In the field of education, the environment encompasses learning management systems (LMS), virtual learning environments, collaborative tools, presentation tools, multimedia creation tools, and online course platforms. By combining these two components, a new environment is created that enables students to imagine the practical use of the lab in industrial machines. Digital Twin Digital Twin is defined as a digital representation of a physical environment, consisting of three main components: Data Storage, Data Processing, and Digital Models. System data can be stored in various databases specific to the system requirements. In an educational context, this may include students’ grades, assessments, and instructor feedback. In an industrial setting, data such as sensor readings, actuator responses, controller responses, errors, and alarms are monitored and analyzed to identify necessary system improvements. These data also serve as training inputs for the digital model to emulate real-world physical responses. Two types of digital models in DIGI-LABS model exist: in education part, models may include Student Response Model, Learning Process and Assessments Model, while in industry part, CAD Models, Mathematical Models, Power Models, and Kinematic Models are utilized. Semantic Space Semantic Space serves as a conceptual framework that facilitates meaningful communication between the actors’ layer by leveraging numeric recordings. In the context of education, semantic space is employed to convert results into a comprehensible format for actors, such as utilizing Blooms Taxonomy or curriculum mapping. In the industrial sector, semantic space relies on industrial standards, data models, and schemes to ensure effective communication among actors. 3.2 Benefits of DIGI-LABS Model Lab’s act as a vital bridge between education and industry, allowing practical application of learned concepts on real machines. Digital Models represent each machine, accurately

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depicting its performance and errors. This enables research and performance enhancement through comparisons with replicas and database access for automatic parameter adjustments. Students benefit from realistic interactions within Digi Labs’ comprehensive learning environment. Digi Labs functions as an industrial education platform, supporting researchers with real-time data, operators with an IoT factory model, and assisting factory founders in problem-solving. Digi Labs owners facilitate connections, ensuring mutual benefits and revenue generation without hindering machine operation. This above section outlines the theoretical framework of the model, while emphasizing the need for an executive framework to implement it. This executive framework is crucial for understanding the essential elements required and establishing the necessary connections to ensure proper system integration.

4 Practical Implementation (DIGI-LABS Platform) The DIGI-LABS platform, illustrated in Fig. 2, is a comprehensive solution for digitalizing the laboratory experience, bridging the gap between education and industry. It consists of interconnected nodes that communicate through various protocols to seamlessly integrate the physical and digital environments for effective education. These nodes include the main server, game client and server, LMS platform, authentication server, Digital Twin server, IoT server, AI machines, control system, physical environment, and operator accessibility devices. The DIGI-LABS platform offers scalability, allowing customization to meet diverse needs. It is a versatile solution that can be applied to different models and is designed to be user-friendly, requiring minimal technical expertise. Security is a priority, with each node equipped with robust security systems, including encryption, firewalls, and access controls, to ensure the protection of sensitive information and client data. Users of the DIGI-LABS platform, including students, teachers, instructors, and researchers, are provided with intuitive and user-friendly interfaces. The platform incorporates 2D and 3D interfaces, catering to different preferences. Game Development principles are utilized to create these interfaces, leveraging multiplayer dedicated servers that ensure seamless interaction and efficient functioning. Special attention is given to security, particularly for nodes that directly interact with clients. The implementation process of the DIGI-LABS platform follows a clear and structured approach divided into five stages. Users begin by registering on the platform and creating an account. In the second stage, their accounts are linked to the Learning Management System (LMS) platform. The third stage grants users access to the digital lab, where they can interact with the virtual environment. In the fourth stage, users can manipulate the lab and conduct experiments. Finally, in the fifth stage, Digital Twin technology and Machine Learning algorithms are employed to analyze and interpret the data collected during the experiments. This division into stages facilitates user understanding and effective utilization of the platform.

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Fig. 2. DIGI-LABS Platform block diagram

Register on the Platform Users begin by downloading the game client and registering on the DIGI-LABS platform. The Authentication server manages the registration process, logins, and authentication services, ensuring secure and efficient management of user information. Link to Learning Management System (LMS) Registered users link their accounts to a compatible Learning Management System (LMS) such as Canvas or Moodle. This connection enables users to manage their accounts on the platform, including accessing courses, registering for them, creating quizzes and assignments, and submitting them. The data collected is stored in the Learning Record Store for future use in autonomous learning. Accessibility of the Laboratory University administrators can add new labs to the platform, allowing instructors to use them in their courses. Students enrolled in these courses gain access to the labs and can schedule appointments to enter and use them during available times. The DIGI-LABS main server creates a new session with appointment information, and at the designated time, the user connects to the game server through the game client to control the physical lab. The platform utilizes the Godot game engine, known for its flexibility and power in developing virtual labs. It offers cross-platform compatibility, a user-friendly interface, and extensive community support. LabVIEW, a graphical programming platform, is used for control systems and IoT integration. It enables complex control systems, IoT applications, and real-time monitoring of the physical environment. Dealing with the Lab During a session, the Game Server communicates with the IoT Server using IoT protocols such as MQTT, CoAP, AMQP, or HTTP [12]. The IoT Server acts as a bridge, facilitating real-time communication between the physical environment, control system, digital twin

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server, and DIGI-LABS game server. The control system ensures smooth operation and addresses any errors, while a lab operator assists with manual tasks if needed. Digital Twin and Machine Learning In the final stage, the digital twin server stores real-time data of the physical environment and control system changes, creating a digital representation. This digital twin is connected to the DIGI-LABS main server, which can request information about users and their performance. AI machines analyze this data, providing insights, guidance, and optimization suggestions. The combination of the digital twin and machine learning enhances the platform’s performance and user experience. By following this implementation process, the DIGI-LABS platform offers a seamless integration of physical and digital environments, empowering educators, students, and researchers with an intuitive and efficient learning experience.

5 Experimental Setup The objective of the experiment was to facilitate the learning process of mechatronics students regarding control theory concepts. The experiment was conducted in the dedicated mechatronics lab situated at the Faculty of Engineering, Helwan University. This lab was intentionally designed to establish an internet connection and integrate IoT protocols, enabling effective control and monitoring of the experiment variables. By leveraging these features, students were able to engage with the practical aspects of control theory, utilizing digital connectivity and IoT technologies to enhance their understanding and practical skills in the field of mechatronics. 5.1 Procedural Steps Lab Concept The lab demonstrates practical motor-load coupling using servo motors. It finds applications in robotics, cranes, and lifts. The Mechatronics Torque Emulation Servo Lab offers a controlled environment to test industrial servo motors, understanding their performance characteristics. Engineers use an electrical drive to generate specific torques, recording the servo motor’s response via a DAQ card. Analyzing the data reveals control strategy effectiveness and areas for improvement. This iterative process compares strategies and torques, aiding informed decisions on optimal design. Hardware Setup The mechatronics servo lab comprises several key components that work together to create an interactive laboratory experience. The SEW Servo Motor is a high-performance motor known for its precision in controlling motion within mechatronics systems. With its ability to deliver high torque and accurate positioning, it is well-suited for diverse applications. Another crucial component is the SEW MOVIDRIVE-B (MDX61B00145A3-4-0T), a drive controller responsible for regulating power supply to the servo motor. Equipped with advanced features like digital signal processing and position control, this

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controller ensures smooth and efficient operation. Figure 3 shows the servo lab hardware setup. In addition to the servo motor and drive controller, the lab incorporates the NI MyRIO-1900, a programmable device that offers real-time control and feedback for mechatronics systems. With its robust data processing capabilities and advanced input/output functions, the MyRIO-1900 plays a vital role in the mechatronics servo lab. Lastly, a powerful PC featuring an Intel Core i5 processor, 8 GB RAM, 250 GB SSD, NVIDIA RTX 3060 graphics card, and a 21-in. Full HD display running Windows 10 serves as the computational hub for the lab. This PC provides the necessary processing power, storage capacity, and graphics capabilities to run complex simulations and experiments effectively.

Fig. 3. Servo Lab Hardware Setup

Software Setup In the software preparation phase, LabVIEW is used to create a real-time control loop program that receives inputs from motors, processes information, and controls outputs. An IoT client is created in LabVIEW to connect with the IoT server, enabling data exchange with other devices. System parameters such as control type, gains, speed, torque, and motor enable are defined in LabVIEW for communication between the IoT client and server. For building the digital twin, Godot is selected as the game engine due to its programming ease and lightweight nature. A CAD model of the mechatronics servo lab, including motors and coupling, is created in Godot as the client version. Parameters like speed, torque, and motor enable are defined in Godot for real-time control. A game server is developed in Godot to process inputs from the client version and control the digital twin. The game server is then connected to the IoT server of the lab, allowing data exchange between the digital twin and the LabVIEW control loop program (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. Servo lab in DIGI-LABS platforms

5.2 Variables of Experiment The experiment must be done through applying multiple iterations (different inputs and outputs). The inputs are represented as the client requests that are to be sent to run the virtual lab. A physical-virtual lab synchronization happens in each iteration. After an iteration is done, the synchronization efficiency will be observed through 1) missing data, 2) errors, and 3) delay time. In addition, feedback from the clients (students and teachers) regarding the success of the educational process will be gathered. The synchronization efficiency data and the clients’ feedback are considered as the outputs (dependent variables). 5.3 Data Collection The research employs various data collection methods, including digital lab data storage, questionnaires for teachers and students, and online forms. Data from users and equipment responses are collected from the platform database and physical lab servers. The questionnaires assess aspects such as experiment simplicity, time efficiency, course productivity, and students’ comprehension and fluency in exams. The students’ questionnaire covers demographic information, opinions on the DIGI-LAB system’s efficiency, and comprehension of the experimental course. System efficiency is evaluated through indicators like simplicity, time efficiency, and personal skill development. 5.4 Data Analysis The data analysis for this research involves both qualitative and quantitative methods. Descriptive statistics will be used to analyze data from digital lab storage and questionnaires, including missing data, errors, and average delay time. Demographic statistics will also be examined. Questionnaire data will be analyzed using numerical methods, particularly for numerical questions with a rating scale. Averages will be calculated and presented in tables and graphs. Qualitative content analysis will be conducted on openended questions, identifying relevant concepts, categorizing texts, and evaluating their implications. This analysis aims to derive valid and replicable conclusions from the data.

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6 Results and Discussion This section provides a comprehensive overview of the findings and implications of the recent experiment that integrated a mechatronic servo lab with the DIGI-LABS platform. The analysis focuses on two key components: data obtained from the digital lab storage and insights gathered from post-experiment questionnaires. These results shed light on the effectiveness of the DIGI-LABS platform, user response, and areas for improvement. Additionally, the discussion explores the broader impact of these findings on interactive learning methods and the potential of digital platforms in transforming lab-based education. 6.1 Results from Digital Lab Data Storage The experiment involved 20 students over a duration of 214 min, generating 3293 requests to the platform, indicating a high level of engagement. However, it also revealed challenges, including instances of missing data (2% of requests) and errors in data arrivals (1% of requests). These findings highlight the importance of enhancing data reliability and transmission accuracy within the system. Notably, the DIGI-LABS platform demonstrated a low average response delay of 1.2 s, enabling nearly instantaneous feedback and creating an optimal learning environment. This successful integration of a mechatronic servo lab with the digital platform underscores its potential for interactive learning while emphasizing the need for continuous refinement. 6.2 Results from Questionnaires Post-experiment questionnaires were administered to evaluate system efficiency and students’ comprehension. Students rated the system’s simplicity highly, with an average score of 4.15. However, time efficiency and the impact on students’ skills received slightly lower ratings of 3.2 and 3.3, respectively. In terms of comprehension, students demonstrated a high level of understanding, with an average score of 3.9. Additionally, 92% of the students expressed their willingness to repeat the experiment, indicating a positive response to the DIGI-LABS platform. These results highlight the platform’s potential while also indicating areas, such as time efficiency and skill impact, where further improvements could enhance the learning experience. 6.3 Discussion The experiment results showcase both the potential and areas for improvement of the DIGI-LABS platform. The high level of interaction and low response delay demonstrate its capacity to create an engaging learning environment. However, the identified challenges related to data reliability and transmission accuracy emphasize the need for enhancements in these areas to ensure a seamless learning experience. Feedback from the questionnaires indicates overall satisfaction with the platform, with the high rating for simplicity suggesting its user-friendliness. However, the lower

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scores for time efficiency and skill impact highlight the importance of continuous refinement to enhance learning outcomes. Despite these areas for improvement, the strong interest from students to repeat the experiment signals the promising future of the DIGI-LABS platform in lab-based learning.

7 Conclusion In conclusion, the DIGI-LABS platform shows promise as an effective tool for integrating digital technology into a mechatronic servo lab. While the system exhibits strengths such as high engagement and quick response times, it also reveals areas that require further improvement, including data reliability, transmission accuracy, time efficiency, and skill impact. The user feedback collected through questionnaires indicates overall satisfaction with the platform, along with suggestions for enhancing the user experience and learning outcomes. Further research and development, along with continuous monitoring and feedback collection, will be essential to maximize the platform’s effectiveness. With these efforts, the DIGI-LABS platform has the potential to revolutionize laboratory learning, making it more engaging, effective, and relevant in the digital age.

References 1. Schuster, K., Groß, K., Vossen, R., Richert, A., Jeschke, S.: Preparing for Industry 4.0 – collaborative virtual learning environments in engineering education. In: Frerich, S., et al. (eds.) Engineering Education 4.0, pp. 477–487. Springer, Cham (2016). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-319-46916-4_36 2. Abiko, T., et al.: OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 OECD Learning Compass 2030 A Series of Concept Notes (2019) 3. Kans, M., Campos, J., Håkansson, L.: A remote laboratory for Maintenance 4.0 training and education. In: IFAC-PapersOnLine (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2020.11.016 4. Matijevi´c, M., Despotovi´c, ŽV., Milanovi´c, M., Jovi´c, N., Vukosavi´c, S.: Laboratory model of coupled electrical drives for supervision and control via internet. In: Auer, M.E., Zutin, D.G. (eds.) Online Engineering & Internet of Things. LNNS, vol. 22, pp. 392–407. Springer, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64352-6_37 5. Piascik, B., Vickers, J., Lowry, D., Scotti, S., Stewart, J., Calomino, A.: Materials, Structures, Mechanical systems, and Manufacturing Roadmap: Technology Area 12. NASA Space Technology Roadmaps (2012) 6. Elbestawi, M., Centea, D., Singh, I., Wanyama, T.: SEPT learning factory for Industry 4.0 education and applied research. Procedia Manufacturing (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pro mfg.2018.04.025 7. Boschert, S., Rosen, R.: Digital twin—the simulation aspect. In: Hehenberger, P., Bradley, D. (eds.) Mechatronic Futures, pp. 59–74. Springer, Cham (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-32156-1_5 8. Gueye, M.L., Exposito, E.: University 4.0: the Industry 4.0 paradigm applied to Education. In: IX Congreso Nacional de Tecnologias en la Educacion, Peubla (Mexico), France (2020) 9. Miranda, J., et al.: The core components of education 4.0 in higher education: three case studies in engineering education. Comput. Electr. Eng. 93 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. compeleceng.2021.107278

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10. González-pérez, L.I., Ramírez-montoya, M.S.: Components of Education 4.0 in 21st century skills frameworks: systematic review. Sustainability (Switzerland) 14(3) (2022). https://doi. org/10.3390/su14031493 11. Kim, J.: The interconnectivity of Heutagogy and Education 4.0 in higher online education. Can. J. Learn. Technol. 48(4) (2022). https://doi.org/10.21432/cjlt28257 12. Naik, N.: Choice of effective messaging protocols for IoT systems: MQTT, CoAP, AMQP and HTTP. In: 2017 IEEE International Symposium on Systems Engineering, ISSE 2017 Proceedings (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/SysEng.2017.8088251

Are ChatGPT-Like Applications Harmful for the Learning Process? Romeo Marin Marian1(B) , Teodora Surubaru2,3 , and Dorin Isoc2,3 1 University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia

[email protected]

2 GRAUR (Group for Reform and University Alternative), Cluj-Napoca, Romania 3 Cybertrainer Ltd., Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Abstract. ChatGPT took the world by storm and generated extensive discussions about its uncanny capacity to generate realistic outputs that, superficially, could look like they are written by humans. Especially education appeared it could be hit hardest, due, mainly to slow but sustained evolution of assessment policies in universities and the slow response to perceived threats. This paper analyses the interference between AI creations and their possible effects on the learning processes. It then presents the proposed computer aided learning framework developed and implemented by one of the authors and its capacity to negate the harms that could be generated by ChatGPT applications. This is shown in an experiment. Cybertrainer, the proposed professional learning service has the capability to remove the threat to academic integrity by several special features: purely student-centred learning, full autonomy and freedom to intervene when desired, anonymised interventions, traceability by entirely written contributions, and, critically, robust quality assurance system guaranteeing integrity. Cybertrainer can truly counteract the dangers of ChatGPT by encouraging humans (students) to do what humans do better – critical analysis, synthesis, and creativity. Keywords: Assessment integrity · Chat GPT · Cybertrainer · student-centred learning · problem-solving methods · peer-learning

1 Introduction Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT) applications, of which ChatGPT [1] is the most famous example at the moment, have been developed and are potential game changers, including in education. They have achieved a level of sophistication and realism in their capacity to provide human-like answers to a wide variety of questions posed by users in a chat-like interface. Generative AI generates text, which is of particular importance to our research, but can also generate images, music, speech, computer code or video. Generative AI has appeared a couple of decades ago. Machine learning has been developed since the 1950’s, and have co-evolved with AI, being a significant part of it. The underpinning technology behind generative AI have evolved since the late 2000s – Deep learning and General Adversarial Networks (GAN). The latest addition is transformers [1]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 213–225, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_22

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The potential problem with ChatGPT and its interaction with the learning process is that it can output material based on existing knowledge in written format that is difficult to distinguish from that produced by a human. This challenges the integrity of the assessment component of the educational system to the point where all existing quality systems can be voided [2]. ChatGPT has the capability to disrupt the education and learning process due to slow but sustained evolutions in assessment processes over many decades. Assessment used to be an interaction between the student and the professor, generally in the form of an exam. The interaction was direct, personal, highly efficient (typically one short session, in parallel with other students’) and traceable (written pieces could be archived and the oral examinations were organized in front of the class). Evolutions in assessment led to dividing the assessable material in several distinctive tasks. Each task has specific requirements, and they tend to be complementary in the presentation format - e.g., short problem-solving tasks, written assignments, projects, quizzes, essays, oral presentations, exams to name just a few. An increasingly litigation-happy world requires traceability and hard evidence to be preserved, and this means that written assessment pieces that are kept for statutory amounts of time have been the preferred option. The heavy share of written assessments in the record of future graduates are a vulnerability in today’s academic settings. Traceability of the material to a student can be difficult and it becomes, often, impossible to guarantee. The pandemic, with its often-draconian requirements for isolation, locally or abroad/overseas, made the relatively scarce use of non-written assessment pieces almost an extinct species. Post pandemic relaxation of isolation requirements made possible the use of alternative assessment modes once again, but this tended to be met with various degree of resistance in favour of assessment structures used in the pandemic. Moreover, ChatGPT appears to have an exponential evolution as capability and accessibility and this clashes with the human-controlled systems, which trend to have a linear evolution or respond to an input with long delays. In support of this statement, ChatGPT has been launched 6 months ago and the influence on academic processes seems to be extreme. This is demonstrated by the number of publications about it and the flurry of activity in academia to attempt to counter its influence. A Google Scholar search on 3rd June 2023 with (‘ChatGPT’ and ‘academic integrity’) as search terms, produced 1190 results in 2023, demonstrating that the issue is genuine and acute. Coupled with the speed of reaction of higher education institutions to new challenges, which often is measured in semesters, bold steps need to be taken, otherwise ChatGPT will evolve and overtake all established rules and regulations. It is notable that some of the papers were written with the aid of ChatGPT [3]. This paper will analyse the state of the art regarding interactions between ChatGPT and the education system. It will then propose an alternative assessment structure that can isolate the education system from the effects of ChatGPT. The novelty of this paper is as follows: – State of the art analysis to establish the limits of existing systems; – Presentation and integration of a new methodology to assist learning and assessment that is immune to ChatGPT;

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– Analysis of possibility to use a specialised software as a service to implement the proposed methodology. This paper is organised as follows: Sect. 2 presents the state of the art in CHAT GPT and its influence on the learning process. Section 3 analyses the interference between AI creations and the learning process. Section 4 details threats to the learning process posed by GPT applications. Section 5 presents the proposed computer aided learning framework. Section 6 presents an experiment assessing ChatGPT’s usefulness in a learning context. Section 7 concludes the paper.

2 State of the Art in ChatGPT and Its Influence on the Learning Process Much research has been conducted and reported since ChatGPT was launched on 30 November 2022, less than 6 months ago. What triggered the interest and attention was the quality and extent of answers, to the point where some authors started questioning whether ChatGPT could replace humans [4]. Higher education can, potentially, be affected by ChatGPT and by other large language models (LLMs) [5]. The effects can simultaneously help some while hindering other existing processes in academia. ChatGPT can be a starting point in generating ideas for assessments, research, analysis, and writing tasks, and can improve learning. At the same time, Chat GPT increases the risk of academic misconduct, bias, falsified information, and this can affect development of specific critical skills that are expected from graduates. Because the information is available, easily accessible, and virtually free, this can promote shallow learning. Educators and students must exercise caution and set clear limits when using ChatGPT for academic purposes, especially for assessments, to ensure its does not affect the integrity of the assessment. Use of ChatGPT in higher education is a fine balancing act between preventing academic misconduct and promoting academic freedom and innovation, including possibility to use the latest tools [5]. Farroknia et al. [6] presented a SWOT analysis on ChatGPT’s possible use in education. The ability to use a refined natural language model to generate reasonable answers, its self-improving capability, and the capacity to offer personalised responses in real time are clear strengths. Thus, ChatGPT can improve access to information, which translates to a possibility to enable personalised and intricate learning, which can alleviate the teaching component of the education process. These strengths can be exploited and translated into opportunities. The superficiality of the answers, coupled with the intractability and lack of assessment of the quality of responses and risk of bias are clear weaknesses. Threats to education in general are a manifestation of a lack of understanding of the context, threats to academic integrity, ease and accessibility to plagiarism, and a potential decline of high-order cognitive skills. Savelka et al. [7] applied text-davinci-003, an addition to GPT-3 model family [8] to a set of 599 diverse assessments (MCQs, coding tasks) from three Python programming courses. The answers to MCQs and the solutions to coding tasks obtained remarkable scores. Although lower than pass marks in the courses, the model has notable capabilities. The challenge for GPT models is in the activities that require chains of reasoning steps.

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This shows that programming instructors can take advantage of QA and code generating capabilities. The predictable evolution of the technology, of the tools and models, will require that in future, programming education code writing may need to be augmented with emphasis on higher end tasks, like requirements formulation, debugging, trade-off analysis, and critical thinking. Instructors will need to adapt their assessments so that GPT evolves into a virtual helper for a student and not an end-to-end solution that is subject to academic integrity checks (Savelka et al. 2023). The difficulty of dealing with ChatGPT in academia originates from the difficulty and sometimes quasi-impossibility to detect the origin of a text, whether it is GPT generated, or it is, indeed, an original creation of a person. Any punishment prescribed, any policy and process [3] can prove futile if the investigation of authorship is challenged in discriminating between human and machine. This may be just because the investigation is extensive and expensive (even if mainly computationally). The need to credibly investigate assessments when suspicion of unauthorised ChatGPT plagiarism is suspected, can lead to a denial-of-service-like loading of computational and human detection infrastructure and resources. Some conclusions can be drawn from this targeted state of the art analysis: • In itself, ChatGPT is not harmful. It is a tool, and it has its uses, but as we will see later, not in education. Care shall be exerted to maximise benefits and avoid traps. • ChatGPT has the capability to destroy institutions using current methods of assessment (i.e. sensitive to ChatGPT). The credibility of an institution lacking robust processed to counteract ChatGPT can be demolished in a very short time. • Even if ChatGPT is used as research or learning assistant, the temptation to abuse its capabilities requires complete re-thinking of the assessment structure. • The speed of evolution of ChatGPT and its exponential increase in capabilities, coupled with the linear, relatively slow response by the academic institutions means that any hope of things going better by themselves in the future is futile. Immunity to ChatGPT applications would require a quantum leap in the approach towards learning and assessment.

3 The Interference Between the AI Creations and the Learning Process A careful analysis of possible interference between AI creations and the learning process shows that they can occur at a) student level; b) at professor level and c) at the studentprofessor interface and interaction. In all these cases, the outputs of the AI applications sit in the realm of intellectual creation. This is a useful observation since, one way or another, the interaction between participants in the learning process with intellectual creations is known and controlled. The premises of the global analysis are: • The professor knows and follows all academic requirements for interaction with the intellectual creations. • The professor imposes a rigorous pursuit of the rules to access and manage the intellectual property. • The students are familiar with accessing and using intellectual artefacts.

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3.1 The Characteristics of the Creations of AI Applications The AI applications of interest to this study are, primarily, information integrators. They have the capacity to operate on a significant volume of information in electronic format, process it based on a set task, and present it to the user. It is important to highlight that, through widespread access and systemic search and processing, AI applications are well placed to handle written information. Particular attention is required to define the working topic. The working topic, generally called ‘problem’, limits the extent of the search and integration space for the input information. In fact, the defined search space, aligned with the working topic establish a ‘well-conditioned problem’, which has defined limits. Philosophically speaking, the topic is devoid of what can be called ‘interest’ or ‘resolve’. These are strictly human characteristics and cannot be embedded in a machine format. These two characteristics comprise not only the deterministic characteristics of human minds, but also its accidental side. 3.2 The Uniqueness of the Creations of AI Applications Uniqueness is an attribute of the AI applications creations and guarantees their perishability. The AI applications creations have no traceability to (a) human(s) which would be equivalent to a(n) ‘author(s)’, which ensures responsibility over the meaning and content. This is the framework which contradicts the principles of learning. When the human responsibility is absent, the object of the intellectual creations can pass the veracity test, but only in limits that cannot be declared a priori by the machine. This way, the ‘doubt’, as manifestation of relationship between information and its user exceeds reasonable limits for usage. If it is true that, in regular situations, the results of search of creations of AI applications are confirmed, implicitly, by the user’s prior professional experience, but this is not the case when education and learning are concerned. The specific experience of learning can develop when and only when the results of learning are traceable from premises to conclusions, and the other way round, from conclusions to premises.

4 Threats to the Learning Process Posed by GPT Applications Potential threats to the learning process originating from GPT applications are multifaceted and multi-dimensional. Table 1 presents a synopsis of attributes for information sources used in learning processes. A pertinent question here would be: why a source of information could be harmful to the learning process? a) It cannot be relied on as a correct source of information. The correctness of a source of information can be assessed through the logical and factual interaction between its components. The correctness of the source is derived from the way it is established and traceability of the components it integrates.

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Attribute

Traditional

AI Product

Book

Article

Lecture

Quality of content

Correct

Correct

Correct

Presentation of content

Diluted

Concentrated Concentrated Concentrated

Quality of arguments

Reasonable Good

Concentrated Good

Degree of integration

Average

Reduced

Average

High

Volume of information aggregated Average

Small

Average

Large

Identification of sources

Systematic

Systematic

Average

Nil

Quality of information

Good

Very good

Good

Good

Capacity for training

Average

Average

Average

Reduced

Correct

An application like ChatGPT is constructed so that it uses the information from an existing space at one point in time and it integrates the information through logical mechanisms. The consequence is that the output of such an information source can be, in principle, correct. The implicit condition for the correctness of the output is that the elementary set of input information should be correct. The set of elementary information is important for the AI integrative applications. Because the mechanisms are based on averaging, the outliers and exceptions will be ignored or discarded. Exceptions: a) there is a document which contradicts a derived solution and b) known or identified assumptions are overlooked when the solution is elaborated. b) The proposed solution is unusable. The usability of the solution produced by an AI application is a very subtle and difficult to assess attribute. First, the solutions of applications refer to specific problems, and these problems are always defined by humans. In other words, the useability of a solution can only be assessed if it concerns at least one human being. To illustrate this, it is sufficient to analyse two problems. First refers to buying 2 sodas, each having a price of 3 dollars, and I must pay a certain amount. Second problem refers to buying a tuxedo for a black-tie event. In the first case the operation leading to an answer is simple, direct, with no other details required, and the unique solution is obtained by a simple multiplication. In the second case, the specific preferences of the person, a human, are an obligatory input and affect the solution. Thus, without seeming to appear explicitly as a part of the problem, the personality and circumstances of the person who formulates the problem will penalise a general solution.

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The exceptions encountered here: a) specific and significant assumptions for the problem are incorrectly formulated or ignored b) there is a known and considerably more competitive solution; c) the solution does not permit improvements. c) It is not an efficient solution for training The training aspect is directly related to the learning activities. It is important to highlight that not everything that informs can be used for training. The training character of an activity can be analysed only with reference to the individual, personalised requirements of the participants in the training process. The exceptions encountered here: a) it does not identify or permit identification of the elementary components used; b) does not allow creation of a hierarchy of information based on framework imposed by the individuals who are involved in training. d) It does not permit traceability of the logical and scientific vein or lode of sources of information. Much more profound in the learning process is the need to pace the scaffolding of the knowledge accumulated and manipulated. In general, this requires qualified academic staff. This is directly related to the granularity of the information used to derive an answer or a solution. If we accept that the most efficient learning process occurs in groups, then the granularity of information and the capability to reconstitute or trace the logic and scientific vein needs to be aligned with the specific capabilities of the group. e) It limits the individual creation capability of the learner. The limitation of the individual’s capacity occurs through offering a synthesised solution to a problem that was formulated without a personal contribution. This may lead to appropriation of a solution generated by an AI to a given problem without need of personal effort. All this leads to the conclusion that, behind the glamour and the provocative headlines, GPT applications have serious flaws and limitations when it comes to the possibility to be used in learning in anything but a token role.

5 The Proposed Computer Aided Learning Framework The study of the interactions between ChatGPT and the learning process in this study is achieved with reference to a professional learning service, Cybertrainer™ [9]. This service is distinctive in that it incorporates implicit instruments which it makes available to students during the learning process. These instruments, critically, can limit the contamination of the learning process with products that disrupt the formation and information of each individual student in the class. 5.1 Aspects of Cybernetics of Assisted Learning Isoc [10] has developed a new theory of assisted learning. He has used and enhanced the theory of primary learning dyads. The primary learning dyad is made of a pair tutornovice, Fig. 1a). In a cybernetic context and student-centred learning, the enhanced dyad

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is associated with the specific set of information flows, as shown in Fig. 1b). The essential difference is that the enhanced dyad is a learning object interposed between a problem P and a solution S. In the group of students, the problem is analysed by Pa1, Pa2, Pa3 …, and after the problem’s resolution, the solution is analysed by Sa1, Sa2, S3. Here, Pa1, Pa2, Pa3, … Sa1, Sa2, Sa3 … are students in the study group, who are involved in the analysis phase of the problem and solution, respectively. The learning dyad P-S constitute, together with the analysis information, Pa1, Pa2, Pa3, … Sa1, Sa2, Sa3 …, a set of situations which create the learning process and environment.

Fig. 1. The learning dyad: a) the primary format; b) the improved format.

The sum of disputable situations within a learning group constitutes the space of arguing and debating of the learning process. This space is specific to a given learning team. This specificity is driven by the topic of the learning session and manifests itself through the way problems are identified and formulated and the way the solutions to the set of identified problems are composed [2]. It this clear that, in this proposed structure, the analysis has two forms of expression. The first expression concerns the application of quantitative criteria – the criterion of opportunity of the problem and the criterion of useability for the solution. The second expression of the analysis is that concerned with incidents of conformity. 5.2 The Construction of the Framework for Controlling Conformity Conformity is the quality of a document to respond to specific constraints of presentation and quality level, as formulated by the instructor of the session aided learning [2]. The dimension of quality expressed through conformity enhances the learning process through the addition of critical, professional, ethical, and social responsibility components. It is essential to note that: the access to the conformity framework is open and possible for each member of the learning group; during the learning session, the student’s identity is undisclosed; any action of a student is rewarded and interpreted in the context of attitude and competence of the learning team. The requirements, derived into rules are presented in Table 2. A few notes: • The following refer to the Cybertrainer service (www.cybertrainer.online).

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• For ease of notation, the incidents have a uniform coding, inx, where n refers to the incident type, n = 0…5, x is p or s, and are indicating that they refer to a problem or a solution, both in written format. • The description of each incident refers to the way it appears in the table of incidents. There is no restriction that, within the same 5 + 1 incident types, they can be reconsidered and made available to students.

Table 2. Description of non-conformity incidents. Description of incident Incident code: i0p/i0s Incident type: revealing the identity of the author Description: includes any indication which can lead to revealing the identity of an author. Depending on the gravity of the action, this can lead to the removal of the guilty party from the learning session with a zero score Incident code: i1p/i1s Incident type: plagiarism Description: involves the appropriation without referencing of text(s), figure(s), mathematical equations Incident code: i2p/i2s Incident type: multiple contribution incident Description: refers to a contribution that is very similar or identical to another, already posted contribution in the same category Note: requires reference to the other, similar/identical contribution Incident code: i3p/i3s Incident type: formatting non-conformity Description: refers to formatting which does not follow standard instructions provided by the instructor Incident code: i4p/i4s Incident type: incoherent writing Description: refers to logical blocks of text devoid of elements essential for understanding Incident code: i5p/i5s Incident type: grammar/spelling incident Description: refers to grammar or spelling errors, sketchy, slack text, or text not allowed for the contribution

This section demonstrated that the learning process is active, interactive and every student needs to participate, analyse, review and nave his/her work analysed and reviewed by peers – the student group colleagues.

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6 An Experiment – Assessment of ChatGPT’s Usefulness in a Learning Context An experiment was conducted, consisting of presentation of two questions related to this article’s topic, and the answers are analysed. The two questions and answers are shown below: Question: Are ChatGPT - Like Applications Harmful for the Learning Process?

Answer by ChatGPT [11]: ‘The impact of chatbot-like applications, such as ChatGPT, on the learning process can vary depending on how they are used and the context in which they are employed. Here are a few considerations: 1. Dependency on the application: Relying solely on chatbot-like applications for learning without engaging in active learning strategies, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and independent research, can be detrimental to the learning process. It is important for learners to actively participate and engage with the material they are learning to develop a deeper understanding. 2. Potential for misinformation: Chatbots and AI models like ChatGPT are trained on vast amounts of data, but they can still produce incorrect or misleading information. They might not always have access to the most up-to-date information, and their responses can be influenced by biases present in the training data. Therefore, it is crucial to verify and cross-reference information obtained from such applications with other reliable sources. 3. Limitations in complex learning: While chatbots can be useful for simple and straightforward questions, they may struggle with more complex or nuanced topics. They might not fully understand the context or provide in-depth explanations. As a result, relying solely on chatbot-like applications for complex learning tasks may hinder the development of higher-order thinking skills. 4. Lack of personalized feedback: Chatbots typically provide generalized responses and cannot provide tailored feedback based on an individual's specific learning needs. Personalized feedback and guidance from human instructors or mentors can be invaluable for effective learning and skill development. It is important to strike a balance when using chatbot-like applications in the learning process. They can be a valuable tool for accessing quick information, generating ideas, or exploring basic concepts. However, they should not replace active learning strategies, critical thinking, and human interaction, which play crucial roles in a well-rounded and comprehensive learning experience.’

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Question: Who is the author for “Seek human interaction and guidance: While chatbots can offer information, they lack the personal touch and guidance that human interaction provides. Engage with instructors, mentors, or peers to discuss complex topics, receive personalized feedback, and engage in meaningful discussions.”?

Answer by ChatGPT [11]: ‘As an AI language model, I don't have a specific author for the statement you mentioned. It is a general observation and recommendation based on the understanding that human interaction can offer a level of personal touch, guidance, and depth of understanding that chatbots or AI models like me cannot replicate. This recommendation aligns with common educational principles and the value placed on human interaction in learning environments.’

The experiment proved that: a) A partner useful for education shall be able to answer any question based on the existing knowledge, not generate excuses. b) An answer to any problem leads to development of critical thinking and this is a fundamental attribute of the real school. c) Extrapolating this, we can include Cybertrainer, as a service that implements a fully student-centred learning. Any student can propose problems which have definite and clear answers. The control of learning is done in such a way that students do not know if the problem is proposed by a colleague or ChatGPT, if ChatGPT is part of the picture. However, the framework for controlling conformity is part of the service and any transgression will be made available and caught by the other members of the team due to non-conformities. The system, thus, has very robust incorporated quality control. A genuine and correct learning environment expunges ChatGPT inputs simultaneously with the students’ development. Two conclusions can be derived: c1. ChatGPT has limited (if any) use for learning. c2. ChatGPT falls short of requirements of real school. Thus, due to its limitations, ChatGPT is not a threat for the school, and it is not a genuine help. It is rather, in a way, a ‘gobbledygook generator’. Realistic sounding, but gobbledygook nevertheless - the answers could, superficially, look interesting or informative, but this is quickly demystified once deeper meaning or more focussed questions are posed and examined. The results of this experiment and many others from the state-of-the-art lead to the conclusions that real school cannot accept Chat GPT and that Chat GPT is incompatible with real learning in any circumstances.

7 Concluding Remarks In this article we have shown that Chat GPT has the potential to create the spectrum of a threat to many professions, with education seemingly particularly exposed.

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Education has co-evolved continuously with humanity since the dawn of time. It has suffered the occasional correction once the circumstances have changed, and new technologies were introduced. Sometimes, the changes needed to be reversed when they proved counterproductive. The analysis of the use of ChatGPT in education proved that the answers provided by the system appear, superficially, realistic. This is extremely counterproductive, as people may waste much time and resources before concluding that they are on the wrong track and that the work needs to be re-done, properly. ChatGPT may be a threat where the production of knowledge does not reach the threshold required to use humans to reach an answer. ChatGPT has created a perceived or real threat in education in general and higher education, in particular due to the over-reliance on written assessment in an uncontrolled environment. Cybertrainer™ has the capability to remove the threat to academic integrity by several special features: purely student-centred learning, full autonomy and freedom to intervene when desired, anonymised interventions, purely written contributions, and, critically, robust quality assurance system - each learning team participant has their anonymised contributions made available for peer assessment and conformity check to each other member of the team. All contributions are rewarded and add to the students’ assessments results. Moreover, Cybertrainer™ guarantees the - obligatory for learning - traceable connectivity between problems, solutions, the specialised knowledge developed in the current learning module and background knowledge in the state of the art. Cybertrainer™ can truly counteract the dangers of ChatGPT by using humans to do what humans do better – critical analysis, synthesis, and creativity [9]. The limits of the paper constrained the extent and presentation of analyses of the potential benefits and limitations of ChatGPT-like applications on the learning process and the capabilities of Cybertrainer™ (partially, addressed in the references). These analyses, along with others, involving experts in the field, will be conducted, and presented in future articles reporting on our research.

References 1. Larsen, B., Narayan, J.: Generative AI: a game-changer that society and industry need to be ready for (2023). http://tinyurl.mobi/KxJW. Accessed 25 May 2023 2. Kalley, H.: Alarmed by A.I. Chatbots, Universities StartRevamping How They Teach. International New York Times. International Herald Tribune (2023) 3. Cotton, D.R.E., Cotton, P.A., Shipway, J.R.: Chatting and cheating: ensuring academic integrity in the era of ChatGPT. In: Innovations in Education and Teaching International (2023) 4. Lock, S.: What is AI chatbot phenomenon ChatGPT and could it replace humans? The Guardian (2022) 5. Rasul, T., et al.: The role of ChatGPT in higher education: benefits, challenges, and future research directions. J. Appl. Learn. Teach. 6(No. 1) (2023) 6. Farrokhnia, M., et al.: A SWOT analysis of ChatGPT: implications for educational practice and research. In: Innovations in Education and Teaching International (2023)

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7. Savelka, J., et al.: Can generative pre-trained transformers (GPT) pass assessments in higher education programming courses? In: 28th Annual ACM Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education (ITiCSE 2023), New York, NY, USA. ACM (2023) 8. OpenAI: How do text-davinci-002 and text-davinci-003 differ? (2023). https://help.openai. com/en/articles/6779149-how-do-text-davinci-002-and-text-davinci-003-differ. Accessed 2023 9. Cybertrainer (2023). www.cybertrainer.online. Accessed 27 May 2023 10. Isoc, D.: Cybernetics of assisted learning systems (under publication) (2023) 11. OpenAI: ChatGPT (2023). https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt

A Long-Term Impact on Attitudes Towards Science After Five Years of a STEM Intervention Elena Elliniadou(B)

and Chryssa Sofianopoulou

Harokopio University, Athens, Greece [email protected]

Abstract. There is a longstanding research discussion on how important the introduction of science and modern Physics is, as early as in primary school, and how crucial this is for attitudes toward science. Early experiences affect later decisions in high school subjects and life, concerning professional pathways. At the same time, there is a global concern about students’ low expectations that prevent them from STEM careers. PISA reports keep underlining the importance of science and confirming that teenage students lack the motivation and confidence to choose a science-related future. In 2017, a study of a STEM teaching intervention in a Greek upper primary school (K-6) was conducted. In 2022, the teenage participants of that study (aged 17) were invited to attend a focus group discussion to evaluate the impact that the experience had on their school or professional aspirations, five years after the initial intervention. The outcomes of the discussion indicate a very positive impression and memory of it and also revealed other issues of middle school science lessons and attitudes towards science. Keywords: Attitudes Towards Science · STEM · Scientific Literacy · Evaluation

1 Introduction Science education is an essential area of study for students, as it is intrinsically linked to a society’s economic growth. Scientific and technological advances have greatly benefited the economies of many countries. But policymakers continue to be concerned about students’ intention to engage with science and pursue a science-related career since there is a confirmed decline in their interest in the subject [1]. One of the goals of science education is to generate a favorable perspective on science and increase young people’s desire to pursue scientific careers. It helps students address the challenges and opportunities of the future. Students’ attitudes towards science subjects during their school years can impact their future involvement in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) careers, necessitating efforts to improve these attitudes. Primary school is an ideal time to introduce students to STEM concepts and practices and possibly impact their future aspirations. Prior research indicates that most students have positive attitudes towards science at the age of 10, but by the age of 14, lose interest and their attitudes have diminished [2]. Reports from assessments, such as PISA, demonstrate that teenage students have generally low aspirations for a future in science [3–5]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 226–238, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_23

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21st-century professions require skills that schools and universities should focus on teaching. More than often, the current educational system is associated with a lack of up-to-date science and technology courses, which are essential for preparing students for the work requirements of the 21st century. Some countries’ science curricula, such as Greece’s, are out of date and disconnected from current discoveries and technology [6]. Enhancing attitudes and enthusiasm for science is crucial for developing STEM skills and pathways. Students’ mindsets and beliefs about science play a significant role in determining their aspirations and career choices. Engaging in science programs introduced at an early age, preferably before the age of 14, may influence attitudes and shape positive perceptions about science [6]. Efforts to measure and influence students’ attitudes towards science have led to the inclusion of science projects in curricula worldwide, starting very early in education [6]. This highlights the global recognition of the need to foster positive attitudes towards science at all levels of education.

2 Attitudes Towards Science For the past 40–50 years, the investigation of students’ attitudes towards studying science has been a significant feature of the work of the science education research community [7]. Its eminent significance is underscored by rising evidence of a decline in young people’s interest in following scientific careers [2, 4]. Attitudes towards science, as perceived in this study, comprise the sentimental disposition and the behavioral stance regarding science. It’s about beliefs, feelings, values for science and what it implies, school science, the impact of science in society, the value for our lives, and scientists themselves. Students’ mindset, including motivation and self-confidence, has a greater impact on their performance than any other factor - and doubles that of their social and economic background [5]. There is a global movement to implement STEM courses and Modern Physics teaching modules, at younger ages, noticed in Australia [8], the USA [9], China [10] Indonesia [11] and Europe, UK [12], Spain [13], Italy [14], Greece [15–17] with significant results on students’ STEM skills and attitudes. In this paper, intending to explore the educational impact of a modern physics approach for primary school students, we report the results the initial intervention has on students’ attitudes towards science five years later, with the same students being at high school.

3 Research Aims The purpose of this research is to explore students’ attitudes towards science and how they are shaped after a STEM intervention teaching program that took place five years before students were interviewed. In the academic year 2016–2017, “Playing with Protons”, the STEM initiative, was implemented in three classes of sixth graders of two co-located Greek primary schools,

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as a part of a CERN project among other 10 schools in Greece. The program introduced aspects of Modern Physics, science themes, and STEM activities with hands-on workshops, experiments, and artifacts with simple materials alongside the official curriculum of Natural Sciences subject. In the summer of 2016, one of the authors was among the 10 teachers that attended at CERN the CPD (Continuous Professional Development) “Playing with Protons” course for teachers teaching in primary schools [18, 19]. In the aftermath of the training, the teacher trained, with a team of colleagues, and implemented the project on 72 K-6 students of that school year. The study, five years after the first implementation of the project, seeks to look into the impression such programs leave on students and explore changes in attitudes towards science, possible future aspirations that gave birth to, activities remembered, evaluation, and perspective such efforts may induce. Consequently, this research aims to investigate: 1. What impression and memories this STEM initiative left on them? 2. What, in their opinion, was the value of the science content of the project for them, and whether it was helpful for science subjects in the following school years? 3. Did participation in the program, in their opinion, affect their attitude towards science and perhaps their aspiration for future professional engagement?

4 Approach 4.1 STEM Initiative The “Playing with Protons” project was implemented for at least 6 months on 72 K-6 class students (37 girls, 35 boys) of two co-located primary schools in Greece in the academic year 2016–2017. A group of teachers, responsible for the implementation of the course, led students to scientific adventures, space simulations, and digital explorations. The context of the program involved everyday materials and hands-on workshops and used models and analogies to teach concepts of science. Students created video storytelling on exploring CERN1 , Big Bang models and cosmic funnels2 , solar systems on a subscale3 (Fig. 1).

1 Exploring CERN. 2 Big Bang. 3 Solar system on a subscale.

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Fig. 1. Solar system out of class, in the school’s corridor, on the wall, on a foam board

LHC and CMS models (Fig. 2), particle demonstrations, online quizzes4 on Kahoot and other applications, CERN premises map5 , crosswords, word clouds, Scratch games on gravity-air matters6 and particles7 , and board games.

Fig. 2. Big Bang model, LHC model, CMS cut, CERN premises map.

Interactive poster on great physicists with digital presentations8 , scientists’ posters (Fig. 3), and poems for the Universe. There also happened a live virtual visit in the CMS experiment during school hours. Students composed songs for Big Bang and performed a theatrical play inspired by the project. At the end of the school year, all creations, artifacts, and representations were disseminated on a “CERN Festival Day” for the 4 Kahoot quizzes. 5 CERN map. 6 Scratch-air matters. 7 Scratch-particles Zoo. 8 Thinglink-Prezi-scientists.

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school community, students, teachers, parents, and local authorities. Figures 1, 2, and 3 give a small indication of the project.

Fig. 3. Interactive scientists’ poster, scientists’ wall, word clouds

Students were acquainted with Physics terminology, were creative and expressing phenomena in their own yet scientific way, used online tools, labs, resources, repositories, and the scientific method as a way of approaching problems and everyday issues, collaborated, connected, created, transformed, expanded, and grew through teamwork and a certain goal to achieve. 4.2 Qualitative Research Thematic analysis of qualitative data was followed [20, 21]. Data inference was made inductively. The recorded interviews were transcribed with absolute fidelity into text, studied very carefully, coded, classified, and stored in tables. The list of codes was reduced to main and secondary themes/categories -similar codes constituted a theme, that captured the answers to the research questions by layering and interrelating them. The results were presented in the context of a narrative discussion, where dialogues, excerpts, and details were included. They were also interpreted and compared with the literature [20, 22, 23]. Focus group discussions were preferred to offer a non-threatening, naturalized social context where students would feel supported and secure not to respond to questions they don’t want and on the other hand, free to express themselves among old classmates in a friendly interaction [24]. This paper presents results based on 4 focus group discussions with 21 participants (10 girls, and 11 boys aged 17 in 2022) and group size from 4 to 6, almost 30% of the original class that lasted about 30 min each. The discussions were recorded and filmed with the parent’s consent. Parents were first approached by phone and afterward sent an

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email explaining the purpose of the study. The focus groups took place at the premises of the co-located primary schools. A structured questionnaire was created following the focus group protocol (Appendix). The questions were not discussed until the time of the group interview. 4.3 Research Limitations The majority of the students were difficult to trace since they haven’t been all living in the same area or even country, attending the same high school after graduating from primary school. Despite the small sample size, the findings of the interviews are interesting and worth presenting regarding a long-term impact of an intervention. Results give an insight into the experiences, views, and beliefs students have, years after the initiative, providing researchers with data they don’t often have the opportunity to acquire.

5 Outcomes The study examines the effect on students’ attitudes towards science, of a STEM project, five years after it was first employed at a primary school. Students offered to deposit their views and opinions in focus group discussions. Their responses to the discussion questionnaire were grouped into themes, reflecting the initial intention of the study. The themes are memories and feelings, the value of the project, attitudes towards science, and future aspirations. 5.1 Memories and Feelings The first question was “What you remember from the project”. Students seem to have a fond memory of the hands-on practical workshops, the artifacts, and the end-of-the-year festival day. Cosmic funnel and Big Bang activities were mentioned by all the groups as well as solar system mock-ups and out-of-class activities and the live virtual visit at CERN. Table 1 gives the adjectives and the frequency of what they are thinking now about the project, five years later. “I remember many tasks we did based on the planets and science in general. It made me want to be a physicist and go to CERN as a little kid. Although I have changed orientation now, I still like physics. Science was never my favorite subject until this program.” - Student 10. During the conversation flow, students expressed their feeling about the program and talked vividly about it. As an extra-curricular activity, they have found it more interesting than the book and have learned more about science. One student admitted that it had broken up the monotony of the lesson, and another one added that being at a young age, was much easier to study science with hands-on activities and interactive experiments. Science was almost no student’s favorite course at primary school for the majority of the students interviewed, but the “Playing with Protons” initiative changed their opinion.

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Adjectives

Frequency

unprecedented

3

interesting

8

creative

3

interactive

3

innovative

1

different

1

distant

1

large

2

modern

1

fun

5

dazzling

2

pleasant

7

useful

4

educational

2

smart

3

18 in 21 participants in the focus groups have liked science more because of the project, and some of them have still this liking in high school. It made them see that they like science and if they can study and understand it in sixth grade, they can also do it now. But this wasn’t the case, not for all and not for long. “I saw it as something that I can read and discuss because since I did it in sixth grade, obviously I can do it now. So, it was something I was always willing to study.”-Student 2. “ It brought me closer to science, it piqued my interest, and then I went to look for more things about it. Of course, after that (in middle school) I lost interest a bit, too. But yes, I think it made me feel more open to the idea of science.” -Student 7. “I would say that it was the only fun part I have done in my life, on the concept of science. I don’t like Physics and I don’t understand it the way it’s taught now. But when I was in primary school, I learned things about it that I don’t think I would have learned otherwise” -Student 6. Table 2 presents the number of mentions the workshops had, among the students.

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Table 2. List of workshops students recalled in focus group interviews. Workshops

Number of mentions

Big Bang

4

Atoms

3

CERN

6

Planets

7

Festival Day

8

Scientists

1

5.2 Value of Project “It gave us an extra motivation to have an extra interest in physics class, in my opinion.”-Student 13. When the discussion came to the value the project had for them, students agreed that they have felt having known more than their classmates in high school. They highly valued the fact that they knew science subjects and themes that made them feel more prepared for middle and high school. “I remember in middle school we did the same things we did in primary school, and I knew them from primary school, and I was already in high school, 1st of Lyceum, actually. I knew more things than others. We did things, which I had already learned, and it was easier for me to pay attention in class and study because I did better in science.” Student 1. Reflecting now on what has happened then, they feel that it “opened their minds to science” and “gave answers to questions they had about being”, as well as a feeling of standing “a step above the others”. “The Big Bang helped us understand how the world was created in the first place, because no one was sure yet, and no one has succeeded so far and has not answered this question for us. We believed that we simply exist, and this gave us something, a piece of information to grasp essentially. Many do not know this information and we learned it through this program. Many children, our age, don’t know about the Big Bang, they haven’t heard anything, and they haven’t even heard that it exists. And we were lucky enough to find out what it is and be able to somehow explain how this world was created, to us.” -Student 10. Students couldn’t avoid talking about how they see science in secondary school and comparing it with the initial experience they had. If they loved science in primary, this was discontinued due to the nature and the content of science schoolbooks and subjects. Secondary education is focused on exams and course content, all students interviewed mentioned it. The lesson is more traditional, by the book, with constant testing and

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math formulas. The relation with science as a school subject has changed. They stopped considering Physics as their favorite, 14 out of 21 students. Research confirms the decline of interest in the secondary level [3, 4]. “It was good that we started in primary school, but it should have continued in middle school, and I wish it was done in the following grades, as well”, -Student 19. 5.3 Attitudes Towards Science and Future Aspirations Motives to study science as a school subject and as a general theme of interest differed. Students made a distinction on their interest in scientific advancements that can search about on the net and their motivation to study the school subjects related to science. The STEM initiative seems to influence their interest to explore more out-of-school science and follow the news regarding discoveries and space explorations. “Learning about science is different from studying school science. I’ve googled and youtubed many times, to search and learn things about science and space and everything that’s going on. Learning the formulas in physics and learning to explain things that happen in physics in writing is a bit different.” -Student 6. “For a while after the program, I liked watching documentaries about the universe, about how things work, etc. I was intrigued by this science program, and I was already impressed” Student 17. At least six students, five girls, and one boy are going to pursue a scientific career in Physics, Chemistry, or Medicine, and believe that the program gave them the impulse for it. “That program was a nice introduction to science, and I can say that it helped me to get involved with physics. I continue to be interested in, at school mainly, for the exams and maybe later for the university.” -Student 9. They acknowledge the significance of science to their daily lives and especially the ability to question everything and not accept ready-made answers or solutions not confirmed by logic. It was stated now that it helped them grow themselves, besides deciding what to follow in the future and the value that added to science for them. “To doubt, in general, about everything that exists. This is so, why is it so? I personally think this project left me more.” -Student 11. “But through this course, it helped us a lot to learn about the universe, how it works, and to see it all from a different perspective.” -Student 17.

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There is another feature that came up from the STEM initiative. In all discussions, the collaboration and the bonding between classes were vividly brought up as a positive characteristic and a natural consequence of the program implemented. It was a fine chance for students to interact, work and come close to each other, make memories, develop, and collaborate for a targeted cause. “You learn a lot of things about how to work in a task, how to cross-reference information, how to collaborate with other people which in primary school is very important.” -Student 11. “I remember all of us becoming a team to look for things that are very unusual for our age and I remember that hard work. Eager to search, a willingness to cooperate and I believe that we also bonded on an interpersonal level, the program helped to build a relationship through tasks. My friend and I also said that we remember every assignment. Who made it, how we made it and that is very beautiful.”- Student 2. “It also helped us to grow as people. Because it put us in a process of thinking about everything, about what science is and all that it stands for.” -Student 10.

6 Conclusion Attitudes towards science are a multifaceted issue that has been studied for decades to determine the most effective ways to attract students to science and STEM-related careers. There are very few studies on attitudes towards science that follow a qualitative approach attempting to shed light on students’ deeper views and mindsets [25]. It is neither easy nor often to gather data for a project years after its implementation. Many programs stay in the memory of the participants and have a long-lasting effect, but researchers don’t have the chance to assess what has been done, especially in features such as feelings and attitudes. The goal of most studies investigating students’ perspectives on science is to create an atmosphere in which students “make sense of” and “feel positive about” their experiences in science lessons [26]. Students had a pleasant memory of the STEM initiative, mostly as a feeling of doing something out of the ordinary in class. Details have faded out but the general essence of something different and big has happened and followed them in the years to come. They evaluated it as something important to their lives since it gave them the impetus to engage with science and the confidence to address school challenges in secondary education. It proved to be beneficial to their learning experience. In their opinion, the program affected their attitudes towards science and for some of them, mostly female students, this was a start for a science aspiration for future professional occupation. Despite the limitations of our study, the findings confirm that a student-centered science initiative can be integrated into the curriculum and affect students’ attitudes to science. This research complements the results of quantitative studies investigating attitudes [15, 16] and needs to be extended to a larger number of students who have had such experiences.

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The research community discussion indicates that the paradigm shift in science education may come with an integration and a continuity of STEM projects [27] at all levels of education, in order to develop and expand the scientific capital of young people, a standing request of our modern world. Acknowledgment. This paper was supported by the Special Account of Research Grants at Harokopion University of Athens. The authors are grateful to the “Playing with Protons” team of 2nd and 6th Primary schools of Artemis, Attica, Greece, and especially Kassiani Katsiouli (principal of 2nd PS) Fani Karaoli (IT teacher), Ariadne Sotiriadou, Angela Florou, Fenia Felekou (class teachers), Callirrhoe Tsolakou (music teacher), the students and their parents. The authors are solely responsible for any remaining errors or omissions.

Appendix Focus Group Questionnaire Focus Group Questions. In the 2016–2017 school year, in the sixth grade, we implemented a Modern Physics program, “Playing with Protons”. 1. What do you remember from this program? 2. How do you feel about it now? 3. Are there any details of the program that impressed you the most? Describe a memory, scene that you remember. How do you feel? 4. What was the most positive memory from those actions? What feelings/impressions do you have today? 5. Do you remember concepts, actions, the Physics textbook, and workshops you did and really liked? Which one do you like the most? 6. Did you enjoy doing out of textbook science-related activities at school? 7. What value did it have for you to learn about CERN, scientists, the solar system, the Big Bang, the Atom, dark matter, about the creation of the Universe, at that age? Did you gain knowledge that helped you later in school? 8. Did you like Physics class until then? Was it your favorite class? 9. Do you still like Physics? What has changed so far? 10. Did you enjoy making presentations in digital environments? Do you remember elements of the program that you found useful later? 11. When you think of Physics and Science at school what comes to mind? How would you describe your motivations for Physics and your motivations for learning/reading Physics? 12. Did your participation in the program make you see Physics and science in general differently? 13. Having this experience in your elementary school years, did it affect your attitude toward middle school/high school science courses and perhaps your choice of related work in the future? 14. Are you more interested in science news after the program? Do you enjoy reading school books about science? Extracurricular? News? Newspapers, magazines, shows, and documentaries on TV?

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15. Would you be interested in a career involving science? 16. Looking back on the program you implemented with your teachers, how would you describe it today in a few words? 17. We’re winding down, does anyone want to add one last thing? Did we forget something? Thank you for your presence and participation.

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14. Ruggiero, M.L., Mattielo, S., Leone, M.: Physics for the masses: teaching Einsteinian gravity in primary school. Phys. Educ. 56, 065011 (2021) 15. Elliniadou, E., Sofianopoulou, C.: A STEM intervention on students’ attitudes towards science. In: 2022 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), Tunis, Tunisia, pp. 386–393. IEEE (2022). https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON52537.2022.9766715 16. Elliniadou, E., Sofianopoulou, C.: A two-year STEM initiative on students’ attitudes towards science. In: 2023 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), Kuweit, pp. 1–8. IEEE (2023). https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON54358.2023.10125130 17. Nantsou, T.P., Kapotis, E.C., Tombras, G.S.: A lab of hands-on STEM experiments for primary teachers at CERN. In: 2021 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), Vienna, Austria, pp. 582–590. IEEE (2021). https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON46332.2021. 9453915 18. Nantsou, T.P., Tombras, G.S.: Hands-on physics experiments for K-6 teachers at CERN. In: 2022 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), Tunis, Tunisia, pp. 180– 188. IEEE (2022). https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON52537.2022.9766515 19. Alexopoulos, A.: Playing with protons: engaging teachers to engage K-6 students with science, technology, and innovation. In: CERN homepage. https://ep-news.web.cern.ch/con tent/playing-protons-engaging-teachers-engage-k-6-students-science-technology-and-inn ovation. Accessed 8 July 2023 20. Tsiolis, G.: Thematic analysis of qualitative data. In: Zaimakis, G. (ed.) Research Routes in the Social Sciences. Theoretical – Methodological Contributions and Case Studies. University of Crete – Laboratory of Social Analysis and Applied Social Research, pp. 97–125 (2018) 21. Lochmiller, C.R.: Conducting thematic analysis with qualitative data. Qual. Rep. 26(6), 2029– 2044 (2021). https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2021.5008 22. Creswell, J.W.: Research in Education: Design, Conduct, and Evaluation of Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Kouvarakou, N. (ed.). Athens, Ion (2016) 23. Isari, F., Pourkos, M.: Qualitative research methodology. Applications in Psychology and Education. Greek Academic Electronic Books and Aids (2015). https://repository-web.kal lipos.gr/handle/11419/582 24. Krueger, R.A., Casey, M.A.: Focus group interviewing. In: Handbook of Practical Program Evaluation, Fourth (2015) 25. Adams, K., Dattatri, R., Kaur, T., Blair, D.: Long-term impact of a primary school intervention on aspects of Einsteinian physics. ArXiv (2021). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6552/ac12a9 26. White, E., Dickerson C., Mackintosh J.: ‘I have enjoyed teaching science more’: changing the attitudes of primary teachers and pupils towards science. PRACTICE 4(3), 137–153, 2065648 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/25783858.2022 27. Nantsou, T.P., Tombras, G.S.: STEM lab on climate change with simple hands-on experiments. In: 2022 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), Tunis, Tunisia, pp. 249–256. IEEE (2022). https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON52537.2022.9766619

Future Skills in Software Engineering and Health Care – Similar but Different Yvonne Sedelmaier1,2(B)

and Dieter Landes2

1 SRH Wilhelm Loehe University of Applied Sciences, Merkurstraße 19, 90763 Fuerth,

Germany [email protected] 2 University of Applied Sciences Coburg, Friedrich-Streib-Straße 2, 96450 Coburg, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. In order to cope with current disruptive technical and societal transformations, e.g. through digitalization or AI, new competences, commonly called future skills, are indispensable for everyday as well as for professional life. Many organizations, large and small, work on defining a set of future skills. This might imply that future skills are generic and identical across all professions. In contrast, it is a consensus in pedagogical research that generic competences are specifically shaped by the professional environment. Clearly, these two positions contradict each other. But what does this contradiction mean for future skills? This research rests on the assumption that these context-sensitive generic competences including future skills are developed differently for each occupational field. In order to be able to offer target- and competence-oriented teaching, target competences must be known in the first place, taking into account the specific professional characteristics, currently and in the future. This paper provides evidence that the initial assumption of context-specific competences is true by collecting and comparing qualitative research data. To do so, qualitative data was collected for different occupations, in particular software engineering and health care. Our research shows that in fact each profession expresses competences specifically, and this applies to technical as well as non-technical competences. The details of relevant competences need to be identified and characterized as a prerequisite for being able to devise and offer competence-oriented learning approaches. Keywords: Future skills · health care · software engineering

1 Motivation and Research Question In order to cope with current disruptive technical and societal transformations, e.g. through digitalization or AI, new competences are indispensable for everyday as well as for professional life. These novel competences are commonly called future skills. Many organizations, well-known or not, work on defining a set of future skills. This might imply that future skills are generic and identical for all professions. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 239–249, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_24

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However, it is a consensus in pedagogical research that generic competences are specifically shaped by the professional environment. Clearly, these two positions contradict each other. But what does this contradiction mean for future skills?

2 Definition of Terms In pedagogy future skills are considered to be a kind of competences. Even if the concept of competence as such has been used in social and educational sciences for more than 50 years, it is still very fuzzy and partly contradictory [1], thus it is theory-relative [2]. A very common distinction of the concept of competence in educational science was introduced by Roth [3]: the triad of social, self, and subject competence. This triad is also reflected in Weinert’s general, cross-cutting concept of key competences: “skill is an ability to perform complex motor and/or cognitive acts with ease, precision, and adaptability to changing conditions.” [4]. Similarly, Erpenbeck [2] distinguishes four competence classes that can be broken down into 64 sub-competences. But even if a widely accepted concept of competence would exist, no common definition can be given. Various models agree that competences are a dispositional concept. They are tied to a person, are based on personal characteristics [2], and aim at selforganized action. Competences “are founded by knowledge, constituted by values and attitudes, dispositional as abilities, consolidated by experience, and realized on the basis of will or motives” [5]. For Rhein and Kruse [6], the core theoretical idea is that “it is the specific inter-play of knowledge, skills, abilities, personal characteristics, experiences, and motivational structures {…} that constitute a competence, without it being possible to reduce it to its individual components, although the description of competences must always draw on these building blocks” (original in German). Competence is manifested in performance [7], which is interpreted situationally or subject-specifically in almost all concepts of competence [1]. This suggests that action competence is not only person-specific, but also situation-specific, and thus occupationspecific. Consequently, each occupational profile requires its own competence profile, including general generic, occupational generic, and subject-specific competences (cf. e.g. [8]). Thus, competence profiles are not easily transferable to other job profiles due to their subject-specificity. Competences in general are often characterized in very abstract terms such as flexibility or communication competence. At this level, these competence definitions are too generic to give an idea what they look like for specific professions. Some research gave insight into the specific understanding of competences for different professions (see e.g. [9]). Sedelmaier and Landes [9] distinguish context-sensitive soft skills, generic soft skills, and factual knowledge. Factual knowledge consists of basic and advanced facts and methods from a specific subject domain or profession. Generic soft skills are abilities that are largely independent of a profession and are relevant for most disciplines. Presentation skills are a typical example: they are equally relevant for a social worker, a business person, or a software engineer. In contrast, domain-independence does not hold for context-sensitive soft skills. Skills in this category exhibit a specific, unique

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profile in the context of a profession, e.g. software engineering. A lack of these skills leads to specific consequences in the professional processes. If context-sensitive communication skills are available only to an insufficient degree, the whole process may fail. Therefore, it is important to understand what context-sensitive soft skills exactly mean in a professional context. The combination of various context-sensitive soft skills yields a specific profile of competences for each profession. Sedelmaier and Landes derived a competence profile for software engineering [9], based on a scientific research design to identify in particular context-sensitive soft skills [10]. Strictly speaking, the term “future competences” is a pleonasm since competences as such are oriented towards future challenges, without need for the word “future” to express this [11]. Yet, all definitions agree that competences are occupation-specific and continue to gain importance. Future competences are often still unknown in detail. At present, there are – similar to competences in general – hardly any systematic and methodologically sound studies on what future competences do exactly mean, especially since they may differ significantly depending on the field and region, e.g. between software professionals, nurses, or social workers [9]. This paper gives an overview of context-sensitive soft skills for health professions, their different shapes for nursing, emergency medical services, surgical assistants, and healthcare teachers and relates them to the competence profile for software engineers. The basis to do so is the hypothesis that these different professions exhibit different required competence profiles, maybe even within health professions.

3 Research Design To answer the research question and substantiate the initial hypothesis, we followed a qualitative research design, similar to earlier work for software engineering [10]. In contrast to qualitative interviews, we carried out a document analysis. As a first step, we collected documents of health professionals who should describe competences that they currently need and will also need in the future for mastering the typical professional situations well. Attention should be paid to both professional and multidisciplinary competences. They should develop “thick” descriptions and not just catchwords in order to gain a detailed understanding of the required competences. Furthermore, they were requested to focus on whether and how the required competences might change in the future. Each professional worked individually on these competence descriptions. We merged the resulting competence descriptions occupation-specifically using a qualitative research approach [12] that follows Grounded Theory [13] and is similar to the approach taken in prior work [9, 10]. The aim was to identify central competences, elaborate occupational specifics, and present them in comprehensible, in-depth competence profiles.

4 Data Collection and Analysis The data collection for health professions resulted in 21 documents specifying future skills in healthcare. 4 out of these 21 documents dealt with nursing-specific future skills, 4 with those for surgical assistants, 5 documents focused on para medical services,

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and 8 took the perspective of healthcare teachers. Documents were analyzed following Grounded Theory [13] and coded with a total of 593 codes which were grouped into clusters.

5 Results: Competences for Health Professions 5.1 Competences of Health Teachers Essential competences for health teachers are the ability to agree on common goals within the group of teachers. This can be seen as an instance of the competence to work in a team. Sometimes conflicts have to be resolved. Some health teachers see technical skills as a main competence. This may be due to the fact that they want to offer good vocational education in their field. In Germany, a new vocational educational concept for nursing unifies three former professions into a joint one, which may give health teachers the feeling of not giving enough factual knowledge to their pupils. 5.2 Competences of Nurses For nurses, the focus of work is permanently directed towards patients. Therefore, nurses see empathy as their core competence: “In the field of health care, one often has to deal with severe strokes of fate and highly stressed people. It is helpful to have the willingness or even the ability to empathize with their feelings and motives.” Empathy is the basis for building up trust and providing a feeling of safety. A further very important competence is a sense of responsibility. Nurses need a high level of responsibility because they are in charge of giving the proper dose of medication at the right time to the right person. Mistakes do have severe consequences. Communicative competence is also very important: “Very important for a nurse is the competence of communication skills. Nursing takes place in relationships with other people. In order to build such a relationship, communication is needed. Nurses must be able to communicate both verbally and nonverbally. They must also be able to recognize and eliminate disruptive factors. Communication within the interprofessional team is also important in order to provide the best possible treatment to patients.” Furthermore, self-reliance, organizational capabilities, and structure in the work process are relevant for nurses. As health systems are highly burdened, nurses need high resilience since otherwise, they are not able to carry out this profession for long. Creativity is also important. Nurses have to solve problems for their patients since the latter are not able to do so on their own. Nurses work with many different types of persons: medical doctors, colleagues, patients, their relatives, and other medical and administrative persons. So, they have to be able to switch positions and communication patterns continuously within short timeslots and find creative solutions for upcoming problems. By reflection on their work processes and results, nurses could and should develop an attitude to their profession and some kind of professional pride of being a nurse. Digitalization currently plays only a minor role in nursing.

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5.3 Competences of Surgical Assistants The documents of surgical assistants show a very interesting and specific competence profile among health professions. First, surgical assistants need a high amount of flexibility, concentration over a long time, the ability to follow standard processes while concurrently and anytime being able to react to unforeseen events without established routines: “In the operating room, it can happen at any time that the planned surgical procedure has to be changed or even completely replaced by another procedure. A high degree of flexibility and absolute concentration on the part of the operator is required here, as he/she must plan and coordinate the next steps in such a situation under his/her own responsibility and self-organization.” “But even in the “normal” operating room routine, standards must be adhered to and certain schedules must be worked through. When the operating room program runs late into the night or into the early hours of the morning, you need a high level of resilience of your own body and mind to withstand the daily demands and the ever-increasing pressure due to a lack of skilled personnel.” „It is important to plan the work processes in the operating room in a sensible and coordinated manner. The different tasks (am I a floater or an instrumentalist) each require different situational work, for which I have to set different priorities.” „In the operating room, good self-management should be present, which means being able to set priorities and differentiate according to importance.” Surgical assistants have to exhibit high responsibility. In combination with longlasting, permanent concentration without exactly knowing how long surgery will last, surgical assistants must constantly reflect upon themselves in order to recognize and communicate their mental and physical borders. This is a personal competence. „Another important competence required in the operating room is personal competence. It can often happen in the operating room that you reach your personal and professional limits. It may be due to one’s own level of training, professional experience, or an emergency from a different field comes into the operating room. Then you have to be able to cope with the changed conditions. In other words, the operating room program no longer runs according to the operating room plan. The situation in the operating room has changed, and it is often necessary to act quickly and without routine. In this situation, you have to be able to recognize whether your own professional and personal limits have been reached and communicate this promptly.” A methodical competence which comes along with digitalization and which becomes more and more important is the ability to look for and find documentations of new operations and surgical processes and instruments. „In the future, digitization will also continue to progress in hospitals. In the operating room, digitization is still in its infancy. The operation is documented digitally, but the patient file is usually not yet digitized or access is restricted and it is not possible to access the file. Many colleagues in the operating room are downright afraid of further digitization. Manufacturers of prostheses now very often no longer provide their operating instructions in printed form, but only in digital form. Employees need to be able to find the surgical instructions. Either in a file or on the internet. They need to know where to look

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to get the information they need.” „In the operating room, it is also important to obtain and acquire information for special operating procedures and techniques. Therefore, one should have a good methodological competence. This competence includes work organization and time management.” Surgical assistants also need elaborate communicative competences: “Communication is a key function that is indispensable not only in everyday life, but also in the operating room. Here, many different teams come together, such as anesthesia, nursing and surgeons, among others. They need to exchange information with each other in order to work successfully together. In the first step towards a successful operation, it is therefore necessary to obtain the correct information from the patient and then to ensure that this information is passed on correctly and completely to the next professional group. Regular exchanges also take place during the operation, whether sterile supplies are required by the non-sterile assistant or the anesthetist informs the patient that there are problems with anesthesia. Collaborative working is therefore based on the exchange between different professional groups and the combination of their skills and knowledge to achieve a common goal. The health of the patient.” Surgical assistants must behave forward-looking and think ahead: „Even if the course of the procedure is different from what was expected from the diagnosis, it is a challenge for the entire team and the operating room nurse to think ahead and provide instruments, materials, or other equipment that may be needed in addition.” 5.4 Competences for Paramedics Similar to surgical assistants, paramedics have to follow established rules while at the same time being able to flexible react on unexpected situations: “Flexibility means that the emergency paramedic can quickly adapt to new circumstances or situations and apply the procedures he has learned. The working methods and procedures in the prehospital are based on algorithms and guidelines, which prescribe the treatment of various clinical pictures. Due to the constantly changing work environment and the diversity of the people themselves, missions may be similar, but will never be the same. The emergency paramedic therefore finds himself in a new situation in every mission, which he must assess quickly and make decisions according to the emergency situation using learned procedures. In addition, it is quite possible, especially in emergency operations, that the situation changes very quickly and a different procedure is necessary.” A paramedic must be able to quickly assess clinical situations and make decisions which often are vital for patients, e.g. if patient need to be hospitalized or are in risk for death. Paramedics need a solution-oriented problem-solving competence: “Solutionoriented problem-solving means that the emergency paramedic must recognize a problem within the shortest possible time, understand its background and derive a therapy and further decisions from it. In some emergencies, such as a polytrauma after a traffic accident, the emergency paramedic must determine the exact injury pattern (clinical picture) within minutes, perform immediate life-saving measures and initiate further therapy.” Paramedics need the ability to solve conflicts: “Conflict skills mean that the emergency paramedic is able to manage conflicts constructively. On the one hand, this can

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be a conflict with the patient, since not every patient is insightful and cooperative in the prehospital setting or can make rational decisions. On the other hand, conflicts can also arise within the team, for example on a personal level or due to decisions regarding patient treatment. These can disrupt the entire operation and impair cooperation to the detriment of the patient. The emergency paramedic should be able to recognize the other person’s point of view, filter out the differences with his own views or the conflict and find a solution on a factual level by communicative means. If the communicative conflict resolution fails, it is up to the emergency paramedic to look for alternative ways of dealing with the conflict in an escalating manner.” Paramedics must have a high communicative competence: “The most important point, however, is the clear transmission of all relevant information. […] A big problem is the lack of the possibility to work with facial expressions and gestures.” Paramedics communicate in a multi-disciplinary team (police, medical personnel including doctors, fire department, civil protection, etc.) and with patients in exceptional situations. Furthermore, paramedics must have a high amount of self-reflection competence: “In order to manage conflicts as described above, the emergency paramedic requires a high degree of self-reflection. One’s own actions and thinking must be critically questioned and analyzed. The emergency paramedic should be able to reflect constructively on his actions after a mission using common guidelines and procedures. In doing so, any mistakes can be identified and avoided in the future. Good self-reflection in emergency services also includes the ability to acknowledge one’s own powerlessness. Despite all efforts, missions can be frustrating. In this case, the emergency paramedic must recognize that a bad course of action may not be due to a lack of competence on his part, but to external circumstances.” Paramedics must ensure that their factual knowledge is up to date. As a consequence, live long learning is highly relevant for paramedics. This also holds true for the ability to perform practical medical measures. 5.5 Competences of Software Engineers We refer to an already published competence profile for software engineering [9, 14] and summarize the main competences in this paper: The main competence of software engineers is the ability for professional collaboration with others. This means that software engineers have to communicate within a team, but also with several external stakeholders, e.g. for eliciting requirements. Only those individuals who are capable of collaborating with other humans are able to solve the problems that are posed to software engineers. These problems cannot be solved without taking the organizational context into account. Furthermore, software engineers need communicative competence: For a similar reason, competencies for professional collaboration with others are followed by communicative competencies of software engineers. Software engineers need to be capable of accepting and understanding foreign views of the world and of reacting accordingly. They need to be willing to engage in foreign views of the world and they need to be capable of handling foreign views of the world appropriately. Software engineers often communicate with persons of other disciplines, such as health professionals.

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Software engineers should be capable of handling criticism, i.e. they are capable of appropriately advancing their point of view, of contributing objectively to discussions, and of providing and receiving feedback. Software engineers need competences for structuring one’s own way of working. This means that software engineers need to structure themselves and their way of working in a complex environment. Since software development is extremely based on a division of labor, any involved party depends on others’ contributions in order to come up with a working final result. Therefore, software engineers need to be capable of organizing themselves and of structuring their way of working. This includes analytic thinking, self-dependent work, motivating themselves to contribute their share, even in complex workflows, in complex team structures, and over an extended period of time. Software engineers need the capability to understand complex processes, systems, and relationships, they need problem awareness: These competences aim at abstracting complex problem settings and devising and implementing potential solutions. Software engineers get in touch with many other professional disciplines. Thus, they need to be willing to and capable of thinking out of the box, and of understanding and accepting the signification and necessity of allegedly strange procedures and artifacts. They must be capable of abstracting and modelling complex situations. They must be able to recognize which abstract solution pattern might be applied to a specific situation. 5.6 Discussion As it turns out, the competence profiles for the professions that were investigated in this research differ considerably. In particular, also the most important competences vary across disciplines, but also among seemingly related professions in the health sector. While software engineers need to interact with different stakeholders and try to make sense of their requirements by abstracting from details to the essence of what is needed, reduce complexity, and come up with creative solutions, nurses need to establish trust and safety to patients through empathy and responsibility. Paramedics, in contrast, do regularly face unknown situations. Consequently, they need to analyze these situations quickly to recognize their criticality and respond by making decisions with serious effects on patients. Surgical assistants require resilience in the first place to be able to cope with physical and psychological stress in the operation room. This is mainly due to the fact that they need to remain focused over extended periods of time, without knowing how long this will last – unexpected complications may cause surgery to last hours longer than planned originally. In addition, they need to respond to unusual situations with flexibility without abandoning established procedures, e.g. concerning hygiene standards. Yet, for all professions in the health sector, responsibility is of paramount importance while this is not a prominent issue for software engineers. Figure 1 illustrates the most important competences for the investigated professions. Another finding substantiates the assumption that competences that are relevant for various professions differ considerably in detail, depending on the particular profession. For instance, communication is a necessary and indispensable means of information exchange whenever humans collaborate. Yet, in detail, each competence has a specific shape for each profession.

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Fig. 1. Core competences for different professions

While software engineers have to change perspective to understand the requirements of stakeholders, nurses need communicative skills that establish trust and safety to patients. Paramedics and surgical assistants have still another focus: paramedics need to resolve critical solutions in which various, partly uncooperative stakeholders pursue conflicting goals and interests. Surgical assistants, in contrast, need to make their point quickly and comprehensively since time matters in the operation room. Also, they need to maintain oversight of the current situation and communicate precisely with patients, surgeons, and colleagues. Figure 2 summarizes these findings.

Fig. 2. Communication for different professions

Each profession requires communicative competences, creativity, and the ability to solve problems, yet with different degrees of relevance and in different shapes.

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For instance, solving problems looks different for each profession: paramedics need to quickly recognize critical situations for patients and make decisions with serious effects, whereas software engineers have time to abstract and model situations without causing real problems instantly if they get it wrong. None of the stakeholders of software engineers faces an exceptional critical situation when communicating on a software system. This is different in healthcare. Even if surgical assistants and paramedics follow established procedures – similar to software engineers in programming, surgical assistants and paramedics must be able to react to unexpected situations at any time. These results support the theory that context-sensitive soft skills are specific for each profession and future competences such as communication skills or creativity have a specific characteristic for each profession.

6 Summary and Outlook Current disruptive technical and societal transformations, e.g. through digitalization or AI, call for new competences, commonly called future skills, to cope with everyday as well as professional life. Many organizations, large and small, work on defining a set of future skills. This might imply that future skills are generic and identical across all professions. In contrast, it is a consensus in pedagogical research that generic competences are specifically shaped by the professional environment. This research provides indications that competences largely vary across professions, and even do so within related professional fields, e.g., in the health sector. To that end, a qualitative research design has been conceived to identify competence profiles for several professions in the health domain, namely for nurses, surgical assistants, and paramedics. To obtain an in-depth understanding of required competences, health professionals were asked to report on competences that are indispensable for their current and future work. This led to 21 documents that were analysed using a qualitative approach that follows Grounded Theory. This resulted in a code system of approximately 600 code items. The analysis showed that even within the health sector, the competence profiles for nurses, surgical assistants, and paramedics largely differed in terms of which competences were relevant. Even when there was an overlap of shared competences, the degree of relevance for the respective field varied and, more importantly, the competence gained a profession-specific shape. The competence profiles from the health sector were also compared to an already existing competence profile for software engineers which exhibited even larger variances. These results support the hypothesis that context-sensitive soft skills are specific for each profession and future competences such as communication skills or creativity have a specific characteristic for each profession. As a consequence, professional education, whether at university or in vocational education, must address context-sensitive soft skills. Thus, educational concepts must react on this fact and develop specific subject-matter didactics for each profession in order to address the professional requirements precisely. A first step and a prerequisite for developing adequate learning settings, specific competence profiles for different professions must be developed in a scientific and systematic way.

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Because context-sensitive soft skills are closely related to technical knowledge, students and pupils must be trained and advanced with respect to these skills in the context of their profession. Only in relation to technical expertise and factual knowledge (e.g. in healthcare) students and pupils will develop awareness of the inherent problems of their profession. These competence profiles can be the basis for evaluating them in a competence assessment approach. Existing competence assessment tools (CAT) [15] can be adapted to context-sensitive soft skills and different professions.

References 1. Klieme, E., Hartig, J.: Kompetenzkonzepte in den Sozialwissenschaften und im erziehungswissenschaftlichen Diskurs. In: Prenzel, M., Gogolin, I., Krüger, H.-H. (eds.) Kompetenzdiagnostik, vol. 8, pp. 11–29. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften (2007) 2. Erpenbeck, J., Rosenstiel, L.V. (eds.): Handbuch Kompetenzmessung. Erkennen, verstehen und bewerten von Kompetenzen in der betrieblichen, pädagogischen und psychologischen Praxis. Schäffer-Poeschel, Stuttgart (2003) 3. Roth, H.: Pädagogische Anthropologie. Schroedel, Hannover (1971) 4. Weinert, F.E.: Concept of competence: a conceptual clarification. In: Rychen, D.S., Sal-ganik, L.H. (eds.) Defining and selecting key competencies, pp. 45–65. Hogrefe Huber, Seattle (2001) 5. Maag Merki, K.: Kompetenz. In: Andresen, S. (ed.) Handwörterbuch Erziehungswissenschaft, pp. 492–506. Beltz, Weinheim (2009) 6. Rhein, R., Kruse, T.: Kompetenzorientierte Studiengangsentwicklung an der Leibnitz Universität Hannover. In: Nickel, S. (ed.) Der Bologna-Prozess aus Sicht der Hochschulforschung, pp. 79–87. CHE, Gütersloh (2011) 7. Arnold, R.: Von der Bildung zur Kompetenzentwicklung. Literatur- und Forschungsreport Weiterbildung, vol, 26–38 (2002) 8. Maag Merki, K.: Überfachliche Kompetenzen als Ziele beruflicher Bildung im betrieblichen Alltag. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik 50, 202–222 (2004) 9. Sedelmaier, Y., Landes, D.: SWEBOS - The software engineering body of skills. Int. J. Eng. Pedagogy 5, 12–19 (2015) 10. Sedelmaier, Y., Landes, D.: A Research Agenda for Identifying and Developing Required Competencies in Software Engineering. In: 15th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL); 41st International Conference on Engineering Pedagogy; (2012) 11. Ehlers, U.-D.: Future Skills. Lernen der Zukunft - Hochschule der Zukunft. Springer VS, Wiesbaden (2020) 12. Sedelmaier, Y., Landes, D.: Steps towards Enabling Health Professionals through Future Skills. In: HEAD Organizing Committee (ed.) 9th International Conference on Higher Education Advances (HEAd’23), pp. 701–708. Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia (2023) 13. Glaser, B.G., Strauss, A.L.: The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Aldine Transaction, Chicago (2009) 14. Sedelmaier, Y., Landes, D.: Software engineering body of skills. In: Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), pp. 395–401. IEEE (2014) 15. Sedelmaier, Y., Landes, D.: A multi-perspective framework for evaluating software engineering education by assessing students’ competencies. In: 44th Frontiers in Education (FIE), pp. 2065–2072 (2014). doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/FIE.2014.7044331

Challenges of Technical Training and Technical Teacher Training in Africa Ibolya Tomory(B) Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary [email protected]

Abstract. The countries of the Sub-Saharan Africa are nowadays in the center of the world’s attention, parallel to the growing interest in global energy needs and sustainability and international trade. The study reviews the situation and challenges of technical teacher training, and its current processes, relying on literary sources, reports, research, news portals, and own prior knowledge and on-site information gathering. We examine the collected data with a qualitative text/content analysis, and by grouping and text comparison, we look for focal points that appear widely and generally in relation to African countries. The author is a cultural anthropologist and African researcher. Building on this expertise and the author’s previous field experience. The study primarily brings examples from the East African region, but also examines other regions as a whole, and the findings also take other countries into account. It places the questions and problems discussed in the sources in sociocultural and economic contexts and looks for and presents examples of strategies and programs designed to solve the problems. It outlines the current trends in technical training and technical teacher training, the importance of measures to promote interest in teacher training, the hindering factors and alternative solutions. Keywords: African education · Technical training · Technical teacher training in Africa

1 Introduction Nowadays, Black African countries are no longer the focus of international interest not only because of economic and educational problems or the need for development, but also because of global energy needs and sustainability, and they are be-coming an increasingly important player in international trade as well. One of the main problems of education throughout Africa is of a financial and economic nature, the labor market, wages, income, and self-employment are one of the key factors in the prosperity of the countries. Looking at the latest studies, some people think that education has a smaller effect on economic growth than we think, but the connection cannot be disputed. [1]. A series of studies on education emphasize the positive and significant impact of education, and according to some research results, different levels of education affect © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 250–261, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_25

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development differently. In order to achieve certain results, primary and secondary education is essential, and may even be more important than higher education, while in other cases, for example, when looking at income growth, higher education may be more important. According to experts, this leads directly to economic growth. [2]. According to Gyimah-Brempong, the educational and economic benefits accrue at both individual and societal levels, in the form of better employment prospects, better health and quality of life, thus starting a spiral that results in poverty reduction. We can also see that in Africa, the private and public sectors can be placed in multiple contexts, and in addition to the often-mentioned poverty reduction, the authors link sustainable income growth directly to higher education. [2]. The 4th Sustainable Development Goal of the UN draws attention to the connections between continuous learning and the labor market, on the World Bank’s knowledge economy index, African countries are at the bottom of the index, but their goals include a new focus on knowledge and the creation of a knowledge-based society. On a tenpoint scale, South Africa, Botswana and Mauritius score better, but Nigeria, Cameroon, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya and others score less than two. [3–5] Support for secondary and higher education must therefore be strengthened.

2 Data Collection, Methods The methodology is largely based on the examination and analysis of various sources and the comparison of research results. The sources, research and research questions are diverse in terms of the methods used. They discuss the issues of education in different perspectives, raising different problem areas, and they differ in terms of their research questions, empirical scope, and applied methods. For data collection, we used a multistage framework, which focused on TVET and technical teacher training. To guide the search, we asked the following main question: In what contexts does teacher education and technical teacher education appear and what are their main characteristics? The search was carried out with broadly interpreted key terms to ensure a broadspectrum research. [6] The main keywords were: Sub-Saharan Africa, Black Africa, Africa, education systems, vocational training, technical education, TVET, teacher training, TVET and teacher training. We used different combinations of these keywords. Exclusion criteria were sources older than 2005, content only remotely related to the topic, the thesis, only an abstract. Journal articles, volumes or conference volumes, reports, current news were accepted. The main database is the ERIC, Elsevier (Scopus), JSTOR, ResearchGate, UNESCO, WORLD Bank databases, ministries, official bodies, development organizations and program pages. In the framework of online data collection, we examined available sources, 930 results. We noticed features that, based on earlier and more recent research and studies, discuss similar topics, raise and describe problems, such as the general situation of the education and vocational training sector, its ‘map’, national ‘standards’, regulations and common aspirations, current perspectives and developments. Of these, 116 sources were finally left after various revisions. (see Table 1.)

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Selection process

Sources, databases

No

Search with keyword items

ERIC, Elsevier (Scopus), JSTOR, ResearchGate, UNESCO, WORLD Bank, Other webpages

930

Delete identical results

850

Reviewing Titles

Articles whose topic is not relevant (remote connection only))

358

Content review

Articles whose content is not relevant

94

Abstract in itself - it is dropped

Abstract without a study Articles that hinted at the topic but did not elaborate on it

104

Discard articles where the population/sample focus is different

Subsampled results discussing subtopics 44 (girls’ education, church and private sector, IT education, etc.)

Final sample

116

In the end, we created four topic groups: the general situation of education and its economic connections (19 items), educational policy steps, collaborations, development programs (18 items), the challenges of vocational and technical training (31 items), teacher training and technical teacher training (48 items). The ratios were influenced by the fact that most sources discuss the general prob-lems of education, even in a significant part of the reports and studies. During her cultural anthropological fieldwork in East Africa, the author also observed that, in addition to the similarity of the problems indicated in the literature, we encounter many phenomena and interrelationships that are shown by the ethno-graphic approach and that are not revealed by mere statistical analysis. [7]. On the other hand, following daily events and news, the author gathers additional information (allAfrica.com/Education, africanews.com) and looks at current topics, debates, news, education policy and development initiatives and their educational perspectives. All of these are integrated into the content of the study in an effort to provide realistic information and avoid excessive generalization.

3 The General Situation of Education and Its Economic Connections 3.1 Limited Access to Education Enrollment rates in primary school have long been recognized as a critical point in education, but lately, high school graduation and access to higher education have also received a lot of attention. Although the implementation of EFA (Education for All) in the sub-Saharan African region has been more successful since 2000, it is still uneven. The average primary net

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enrollment ratio (NER) increased from 57% to 70% between 1999 and 2005, in some countries the individual goals (early childhood care, education, learning needs of young people and adults, adult literacy and quality of education) did not receive sufficient attention. There are still 33 million children not enrolled in school in the region. The development and enrollment programs provide assistance for equal access to education, keeping in mind the chances of living [8]. According to the UN Sustainable Development Goal4, “Ensuring Inclusive, Equitable, and Quality Education and the Promotion of Lifelong Learning Opportunities for All, recognizes several impediments for universal education and attempts to address them through targets to increase the number of scholarships to students in developing nations and create educational facilities….” [4]. What the reports don’t talk about are ordinary additional factors that make it dif-ficult to get to and stay in school. The distance to the school, the issue of mandatory uniforms, and the language of instruction are also serious complicating factors, which the author herself experienced during his on-site visits. 3.2 The Question of the Language of Education: Language Barriers The language barrier is increasingly evident at all levels of education in Sub-Saharan Africa. In addition to the official languages - English, French, Portuguese - there are intermediate languages, such as Swahili in East Africa, but in many places the ethnic group only speaks and understands their own mother tongue [9]. Based on the author’s on-site observations and the information received from the locals, this is a difficulty for the low-status strata that specifically hinders the school’s popularity, and since the family is unable to help the child with the tasks, a significant percentage of the cases result in school dropouts. This is only further strengthened by the foreignness of the learned content, the westernized curriculum approach, not to mention the difficulties of getting to school (distance, quality of roads, dangers). Looking at the example of Kenya: they follow a policy of two languages of instruction. In grades 1–3 of the lower school, the language of instruction is the mother tongue, then English is the focus. However, Kenya has 42 ethnic groups, each with its own spoken mother tongue. [10] The use of the mother tongue in basic education is thus practically indispensable. In reality, some schools use the mother tongue mixed with Swahili and English even in the eighth grade. This gives it the peculiarity that is supported by the literature and the author’s experiences: the mixing of the mother tongue, Swahili and English, also takes root in the later everyday use of the language outside of school [11].

4 Education Policy Steps, Collaborations, Development Programs. Many forms of educational and development cooperation can be found in Africa. In addition to the already mentioned international organizations and well-known programs (EFA), the program of education policies also includes the cooperation of neighboring countries in the economic, labor market and education sectors. Harmonization of higher education is one of the priority areas in the African Union’s renewed action plan. Among the biggest challenges are the emigration of the qualified

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layer, the quality and relevance of the training programs being too high, and not enough suitable graduate work. By creating centers of excellence in regional centers, they help mobility by taking into account foreign experiences, but by creating their own ‘African property’, their own path, their own case and procedure [12]. The East African Community’s harmonization of education is a good example of this. In the large member countries of the community (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda) there is a common reference framework to promote the comparability, compatibility, equalization and mutual recognition of education/training systems and qualifications, which will also affect public education. The partner countries are working on harmo-nizing education systems and curricula in the region, which is currently being imple-mented in higher education. Cross-border programs typically appear in public education, such as the soccer tournament planned for August 2019 in Nairobi, where Tanzania was represented by 48 students from the Up-endo Friends Sports Academy in Arusha. (allafrica.com).

5 The Challenges of Vocational Training and Technical Training in Africa. The general view of the education systems of sub-Saharan countries is that they are at a disadvantage compared to Western countries and are implemented at different levels of development. The critical point of education is secondary school, and its completion, which is the most important link for further education or the transition to work. In the case of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), cooperation with the economy is essential, and many countries face very basic but difficult challenges in preparation. For the majority of African countries, this is where the lack of a certain middle ground appears in post-school education. The result of this is that a significant number of young people neither participate in training nor enter the labor market, and there is little prospect of alleviating the lack of professional qualifications. Integration into TVET could therefore be a proven way to increase the employment of young people, but this requires changing the bad image. ACET (African Center for Economic Transformation) research conducted in six countries shows that enrollment is increasing, but parents and potential students see vocational training as a ‘back-up’. Stakeholders, concerned participants from Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Ghana, Niger, Rwanda and Uganda were interviewed with the aim of mapping the alignment of education and training trends and outcomes with labor market needs. [13] Three basic aspects emerge in the descriptions of studies and development programs: enrollment rates, the assessment of vocational training, and the participation of girls. 5.1 Challenges and Paradoxons Enrollment rate: The number of enrollments in TVET is clearly increasing, in some countries it is exceptionally high. In Ethiopia, for example, it rose from 5,264 to 387,792 in 2018. In Niger, student rates in both formal and non-formal TVET institutions have similarly increased. Here, it increased from 68,486 in 2013 to 332,025 in 2017. In Ghana,

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3,32,025

68486

5264 1999

255

2018

2013 Ethiopia

38459 2017 Niger

2016

59583 2019

Ghana

Fig. 1. Increase in TVET enrollments

in just three years, between 2016 and 2019, the number of students in vocational schools increased by 35%, from 38,459 to 59,583 students. (see Fig. 1.) The perception of TVET: The perception of TVET is paradoxically opposite to the enrollment rate, usually negative or mixed. This may be due to the fact that it is relatively easy to find a job with a technical degree, regardless of real technical knowledge and preparation. This is a particularly common phenomenon in Rwanda, but the author has seen the same in Tanzania and other East African countries. Another paradox is that although the respondents acknowledge the perspectives inherent in TVET, parents still see it as a backup option, which they turn to when someone is not successful enough in the general academic field. In Ghana, despite the government’s promotion activities and making TVET more attractive, it appears similarly negatively in public opinion as a place of escape for academically weak students. Participation of girls: The participation of girls in TVET training is low, and in Ghana, for example, girls enrolled in 2012–2013 dropped from 31% to 26% in 2015– 2016. There are no such stark differences in other countries, but the participation rate of girls is lower everywhere. Even in Rwanda, where gender equality in education has been a political priority for years, 57% of boys and 43% of girls study in TVET. In Uganda, too, the number of male students exceeds that of female students, by a ratio of two to one. Cultural and gender stereotypes are also present in girls’ subjects, with the selection following traditional female roles, such as tailoring and cooking, STEM courses such as construction, ICT and engineering are reserved for boys. In Côte d’Ivoire, girls are only 11% present in agricultural vocational training, despite the fact that this is the main economic sector in the country [13]. 5.2 Challenges and Solutions Based on the results of the ACET Youth Employment and Skills (YES) project dealing with the employment, skills and job opportunities of young people, as well as related country reports and educational documents, the focus is on the connections between education/training systems and changing workforce needs, but digital technologies and the nor the impact and challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) [14].

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One of the shortcomings that can be identified is that TVET and secondary education in general are not coordinated with the needs of the labor market. A particularly high proportion (65%) of Ethiopian participants indicated this problem (decision-makers, authorities, students, employers). In the background, there may be a lack of coordination between the curriculum and the practical side. 81% of Ivorian employers do not participate in curriculum development, revisions or reforms, although they are open to cooperation. Almost 80% of Ghanaian employers also expressed that they would participate in the development of secondary education and TVET curricula [15]. The Uganda Business, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (BTVET) curriculum has been revised according to the 2011–2020 strategic plan and according to 81% of participants it is well suited to current and future labor market needs. They implement a successful solution by targeting specific employers with specific courses, which benefits all partners. According to the new curriculum, the proportion of theory and practice is equally divided, while non-formal TVET students spend more time on practical training than on theory. Limited personnel and equipment may be an obstacle to implementation, but according to participants, the strategy points in the right direction [16]. Ghana has focused on competency-based training and has developed a TVET Voucher Project to support the technological and digital skills of craftmans/artisans, laborers and apprentices in the informal sector. The TVET system does not yet accredit learning outside of formal education, but the initiative appears to be popular based on surveys of participants. 71% of them are happy to participate in further training for employers or their employees [15].

6 The Situation and Trends of Teacher Education and Technical Teacher Education 6.1 Teacher Training Today Keeping in mind the saying that an education system is only as good as its teachers, the most important challenge for African governments in developing their education systems is to create well-functioning teacher training programs. At the same time, the challenges of the EDF must also be faced, which requires quantitative growth in teacher training, but the demand for quality and relevance must also be kept in mind more and more in the training of teachers. It is a general view that the teacher is the most important factor in determining the student’s performance, and learning to teach is a multidimensional process that requires significant financial and time investment. [17] Most countries struggle with the problem of meeting the high demand for teachers due to the introduction of free primary education. East African countries develop a common goal of achieving successful educational outcomes and occasionally borrow from each other best practices in teacher education to improve their own systems. The comprehensive East African Higher Education Qualifications Framework introduced in 2015 is a key tool for harmonisation. The new credit system, named EACAT (East African Credit Accumulation and Transfer), aims to make

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academic qualifications more comparable, facilitate the transfer of credits between programs and facilitate the recognition of previous studies. The training structure itself is not yet the same, but part of the harmonization is also its construction [18]. There are two basic types of training: primary school teacher training colleges, which recruit trainees from lower secondary education to become primary school teachers; and national teacher training colleges, which recruit trainees from upper secondary education to become secondary school teachers. Another important source of secondary school teacher training is the university. Those who have graduated from the university and also have a teaching degree can teach at both O-level and A-level. In each country, the problem of the structure and the provision of a sufficient number of teachers contains similar elements, but the focus and manifestation of the problems may be different or result in different phenomena to be solved in educational practice. “Countries have attracted teachers to the profession by lowering teacher training admission requirements (Mozambique), making the paths to teacher training more flexible (South Africa) and shortening the initial teacher training cycle (Ghana, Guin-ea, Malawi, Mozambique, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania). Attracting teachers to underserved areas remains a challenge in many countries; in Lesotho and Nigeria, teachers who agree to teach in rural schools are paid bonuses or hardship allowances. However, due to various factors, such as insufficient allowances and payment delays, these policies have not led to extensive relocation to rural areas.” [19]. 6.2 The issue of working conditions, training and detaching quality. Working conditions are one of the most defining factors of education in Black Africa. Various sources indicate that the number of students per teacher is among the highest in the world. In the case of secondary schools, the rates decrease in accordance with the lower enrollment rates [20]. In the light of the studies and the on-site interviews and observations made by the author, many places are taught by teachers who have not received any training to teach. According to the World Bank’s database, in 2017 only 65% of primary education teachers received training. This is less than the combined average of all low-income countries (72% in 2018). Teacher training needs to be renewed due to the Eurocentric content, the sociocultural environment and expectations, and the needs of today [21]. Lack of training or low-quality training manifests itself in such serious deficiencies as incomplete knowledge in individual subject areas. A striking example is lack of mathematical preparation or English language skills. More than 33% of primary school teachers in Uganda and Tanzania could not pass an English language test, and 40% could pass the written part. Uganda’s national survey results in 2015 also indicate that only about 60% of primary school teachers are somewhat proficient in numeracy. [22] The author encountered another example of this in Ethiopia, in a teacher training institution in the capital. Talking to the students, it turned out that several applied for the English course without knowing the language at all and understanding almost nothing of the course.

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6.3 Technical teacher training: difficulties and aspirations. According to the World Bank’s 2015 business surveys, more than 25 percent of the formal companies surveyed in sub-Saharan Africa consider inadequately trained labor to be the main obstacle, and more than 29 percent of those working in production are classified by employers as unskilled workers. Shortages of specific technical and vocational education (TVET) skills are particularly acute in transport, energy, manufacturing, including agroprocessing, and ICT, and may slow down the industrialization agenda. The development of technical teacher training and the filling of its gaps have become urgently important [5]. However, the shortage of vocational and technical teachers is so significant that countries are taking urgent steps to replace them. The reasons are explained by factors related to the profession’s limited appeal, including employment conditions, salaries, and the lack of financial incentives and career support, and development plans are built around them. In this area as well, the harmonization of training curricula is becoming more and more prominent, while the countries are integrated into a single trading block. However, several unresolved issues are delaying the process. First of all, it would be necessary to unify the higher education systems in the countries, for example, the officials of the EAC nations do not agree on what should be kept or discarded (EAC website) [23]. The aim of the development of vocational and technical training is to coordinate agriculture and industry: integrated rural development, local businesses, development of entrepreneurial skills, support of large and small-scale production, orientation towards new professions. However, the annual output of technical teachers is well below the required number, on average 50–120 people. The shortcomings clearly reflect the situation of vocational training and technical teacher training. (see Table 2.) Table 2. Shortcomings of professional training in technical teacher training Training problems, education issues

Broadly related problems

Poor design

There is no vertical mobility for higher education

The undeveloped administrative structure

Lack of information, uncertainty

Lack of personal conditions and educational foundations: teachers, curriculum, textbooks

Students who have completed technical/vocational training are not capable of self-employment (lack of entrepreneurial skills and financial resources)

Lack of material and instrumental conditions: building, equipment, workshop, laboratory

The practical side – gaps in professional knowledge

Teacher absence from school

Deficiencies in health care

Lack of ICT tools and educational techniques used for it

Up-to-date skills and labor market opportunities

Negative attitudes: technical education is considered secondary area

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The author often saw teachers absent from classes for unexplained or unknown reasons, the most common reason being the illness of the teacher or a member of his family. According to the informants, this is due to the weak healthcare system. In Kenya, it is trying to remedy the supply of technical and engineering teachers by improving the attractiveness of the profession. Targeted incentives and support are built into initial teacher training and to encourage participation in professional development. Incentives are also focused on industry professionals working in shortage areas to help attract professionals with relevant experience. Vocational teachers who receive targeted career support are also more likely to stay in the profession. The attrition rate of new in-service teachers can be reduced by placing them in a less challenging work environment on their first placement and by reducing their teaching or administrative workload, allowing them enough time for mentoring and structured induction programs. TVET in Tanzania is divided into Vocational Education (VET) and Technical Education and Training (TET). Vocational training centers are under the administration of the Vocational Training Office, Education and Training Authority (VETA). VETA’s objectives include the coordination, regulation, financing, promotion and provision of vocational education and training in Tanzania. Currently, VETA is responsible for the vocational training programs of the training centers, including the Regional Vocational Training and Service Center, the Vocational Training Centers, the Vocational Training College and the District Vocational Training Center. The TET centers are under the administration of the National Council for Technical Education (NACTE). The task of NACTE is to provide technical education in all non-university institutions of higher education. The Council provides technical, semi-professional and professional level training leading to certificates, diplomas, diplomas and related qualifications. To overcome the huge shortage of professional teachers, the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training is renewing teacher training. The government is trying to make the career of technical and engineering teachers more attractive by providing them with a hardship allowance, especially in peripheral areas. The process is still slow, but more and more young Tanzanians are joining, which is also influenced by scholarships and free accommodation or housing support. In Ugandan education system, students who complete their studies in lower secondary school can move on to higher education, while those who graduate from technical school can only move on to technical training institutions. Although vocational education in Uganda has a long history since national independence in 1962, the promotion of vocational education and technical teacher training is needed again and again due to unemployment. The need to update the entire paradigm came to the fore. The proportion of the budget dedicated to skills development rose from 16% in 2013 to 45% in 2018. [19] Career counseling and recruitment, accreditation are under development; the certificate and control and evaluation system. The latest news confirms that discussions are underway to strengthen technical/technical teacher training in East Africa. The negotiations are not ineffective because the EAC has reported that the number of students in technical and vocational institutes in East Africa is increasing fourfold. This is thanks to a project funded by the World Bank. Enrollment in technical and vocational education (TVET) colleges supported by the East African Skills for Transformation Project (EASTRIP) has more than quadrupled,

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according to the project’s mid-term evaluation report. According to the report, “student enrollment in the 16 Regional Flagship TVET Institutes (RFTIs) increased from an initial 6,971 students to 30,776 students during the semester, which is higher than the overall project target. 20,000 students are admitted to long and short-term training programs every year.” [24].

7 Summary, Conclusion Various sources point out and the author’s field experiences confirm that in the countries of Black Africa, education is generally seen as the key to individual and national progress and economic security, and teacher training and technical teacher training are given an increasingly prominent role. Accompanied by the difficulties of professional development, the countries are looking for solutions individually and collectively. The development of occupational standards, training packages, curriculum and TVET teacher training is cited as the key to improving quality in all affected countries. The prominent element of the programs are the students enrolled in the TVET institutions and the corresponding instructors and teachers, who are the first-line supervisors and supporters of the national developments. Strengthening and harmonizing teacher training and technical teacher training results in an increase in participants but achieving quality and adequate motivation is the task of the present and the future. However, contrary to stereotypes, Africa is far from being a continent of backwardness. On the contrary: it is successfully progressing through adaptation, changes, flexible solutions and opening to the outside, as the examples given here show.

References 1. Glewwe, P., Maiga, E., Zheng, H.: The contribution of education to economic growth in SubSaharan Africa: a Review of the Evidence. Elsevier World Dev. Vol 59, July 2014. 379–393. (2014) 2. Kwabena, G.-B.: Education and economic development in Africa. African De-velopment Rev. 23(2), 219–236 (2011) 3. United Nations Homepage, https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/education-all, Accessed 29 Mar 2023 4. United Nations: The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2022, New York (2022) 5. World Bank: Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Tertiary Education. World Bank, Washington DC (2015) 6. Arksey, H., O’Mally, L.: Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int. J. soc. Res. Method., Vol 8. 2005 – Issue 1 19–32. (2005) 7. Kottak, C.P.: Cultural Anthropology, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Boston, USA (2022) 8. UNESCO: EFA Global Monitoring -report, Regional Overview: Sub-Saharan Africa, USA (2015) 9. Bashir, S., Lockheed, M., Ninan, E., Tan, J.P.: Facing forward, schooling for learning in Africa. AFD Worldbank Group, Washington (2018) 10. Eleuthera, S.A: Language Policy for education and development in Tanzania. Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania, USA (2007)

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11. Tomory, I.: A szuahéli és angol nyelv használatának dilemmája a kelet-afrikai országok ok-tatásában. In: Pedagógiai kutatások a Kárpát-medencében (szerk. Tóth, P., Simonics, I., Duchon, J., Varga, A.), Nagyvárad, Partiumi Keresztény Egyetem (2017) 12. African Union, Homepage https://au.int/en/directorates/education, Accessed 05 Mar 2023 13. ACET: The Future of Work in Africa. Implications for Secondary Education and TVET Systems. Background Paper December 2018. mastercard foundation (2018) 14. ACET: The paradox of technical and vocational education in Africa. (2022) ACET Homep-age, https://acetforafrica.org/research-and-analysis/insights-ideas/articles/ the-paradox-of-technical-and-vocational-education-in-africa/, Accessed 05 Nov 2023 15. YES: Strengthening Education and Learning Systems to Deliver a 4IR-Ready Workforce Ghana Country Report, ACET, Accra, Ghana (2022) 16. YES: Strengthening Education and Learning Systems to Deliver a 4IR-Ready Workforce. Uganda Country Report, ACET, Accra, Ghana (2022) 17. Kajoro, M., Nabututu, H., Simiyu, I.: Educational exigencies of the 21st century: implications for teacher education programmes in East Africa. J. Teahcing Learn. 2013. Vol. (9). Dares Salaam: Aga Khan University Trines (2013) 18. Trines, S.: Bologna-type harmonization in Africa: an overview of the common higher education area of the east african community. World Educ. News Rev. (2018) 19. MoFPED (Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development). Business, technical and vocational training: are the objectives being met? BMAU briefing paper 26/19. Uganda, Kampala: MoFPED (2019) 20. Thakrar, J., Wolfenden, F., Zinn, D.: Harnessing open educational resources to the challenges of teacher education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int. Rev. Res. Open Distrib. Learn. 10(4), 1–12 (2009) 21. Chang’ach, J.K.: Teacher education and progress in Africa: the challenges and prospects. Arts Soc. Sci. 7(2), 191. (2016) 22. UNEB.: Achievement of primary school pupils in Uganda in numeracy and literacy in English. Kampala: UNEB. Author, F.: Article title. Journal 2(5), 99–110 (2016) 23. EAC Homepage, https://www.opportunitiesforafricans.com/5th-east-africa-community-eacuniversity-students-debate-2016-for-east-african-university-students/, Accessed 23 Apr 2023 24. EASTREAP Homepage, https://www.eastrip.iucea.org, Accessed 12 Apr 2023

The Implications of Artificial Intelligence in Online Education: A Critical Examination in the Context of Philosophy and Ethics Johanna Marietjie Nel(B) Champlain College Online, Burlington, Vermont 05402, USA [email protected]

Abstract. This paper delves into the implications of using Artificial Intelligence (AI) in online education, with a specific focus on the fields of philosophy and ethics. AI technologies are increasingly employed to assist students in various writing and research tasks. However, this widespread adoption raises significant questions regarding the role of human beings in the academic process and whether AI can/will facilitate or hinder intellectual growth and ethical development. By exploring the potential benefits and challenges associated with AI in online education, this paper aims to shed light on the ethical implications of these technologies and to offer recommendations for their responsible implementation. Through a critical examination of existing literature and arguments, this study underscores the need for caution when employing AI in online education., The importance of maintaining a balance between the advantages and challenges of these technologies is emphasized. Keywords: Artificial Intelligence · Online Education · Ethics · Student-Teacher relationship

1 Introduction In recent years, the integration of AI in online education has gained considerable attention. AI technologies offer promising potential to revolutionize the learning experience, making research and writing more efficient and accurate. However, as AI increasingly becomes embedded in educational practices, it is imperative to critically examine its implications, particularly within the realms of philosophy and ethics. This paper aims to explore the multifaceted impact of AI on the academic process, ethical development, and student-teacher relationships in online education. Creely et al. [1] distinguish between a “narrow AI” with specific uses through for example ChatGPT and specialized bots, and “general AI” based on neural networks capable of independent learning and creative functionality capable of deep learning. Creely et al. [1], Broussard [2] and Naudé [3] consider General AI an unlikely possibility given the complexity of attempting to imitate human-like behaviors. This paper questions this to some extent as interactions with e.g. ChatGPT conveys sentient-like responses © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 262–269, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_26

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(whilst simultaneously being reminded by the AI that it cannot replace human intuition and critical thinking of a human teacher or student yet) and apologizes when “caught out” doing exactly that.

2 Benefits and Challenges of AI in Online Education 2.1 Enhancing Research and Writing Efficiency AI-powered tools can assist students in conducting research, analysing vast amounts of data, and generating insightful conclusions. By automating time-consuming tasks, such as literature reviews and data analysis, AI streamlines the research process, enabling students to focus more on critical thinking and analysis. Let’s say you’re a college student working on a research paper about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You want to gather information from various sources, analyze the data, and draw meaningful conclusions. Here’s how AI can assist you: 1. Literature Review: Instead of manually searching for relevant articles and papers, an AI-powered research tool can streamline the process. 2. Data Analysis: Gathering and analyzing large datasets can be challenging and timeconsuming. AI-powered data analysis tools can help identify trends and provide visualizations and statistical summaries. 3. Writing Assistance: AI-powered writing assistants can help improve the quality and clarity of writing, including style suggestions, sentence rephrasing and detecting potential plagiarism. 4. Language Translation: AI-powered translation tools can help you overcome language barriers. In addition to direct assistance of a student, AI tools can also assist educators in several ways, including: 1. Personalized learning: AI algorithms can analyze student data, including performance, preferences, and learning styles, to provide personalized recommendations and adaptive learning paths. This individualized approach can help students to learn at their own pace, focus on areas of weakness, and receive tailored support. 2. Intelligent Tutoring: AI-powered virtual tutors or chatbots can provide immediate and personalized assistance to students, answering questions, explaining concepts, and patiently offering guidance. Bloom [4] made it clear that the best tutoring is face-toface and one-to-one tutoring, and that this would lead to improved performances for students of all capabilities. 3. Enhanced Content Delivery: AI can facilitate the creation of interactive and engaging content. AI-based content generation tools can automate the production of educational materials allowing instructors to focus on higher-level tasks like curriculum design and student support. 4. Efficient Grading and Assessment: AI algorithms can automate grading processes, especially for multiple-choice or objective assessments, saving instructors valuable time.

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5. Data-Driven Insights: AI can process vast amounts of data to generate valuable insights about student performance, engagement patterns, and learning outcomes. 6. Accessible Education: AI in online education can help bridge the gap between educational resources and learners who may have limited access to traditional institutions. It can provide flexible, anytime-anywhere learning opportunities, making education more accessible to a diverse range of students, including those in remote areas or with physical limitations. 2.2 Facilitating Interdisciplinary Research in Philosophy and Ethics AI has the potential to facilitate interdisciplinary research, allowing students to explore complex philosophical and ethical issues from multiple perspectives. By providing access to diverse datasets and scholarly resources AI can contribute to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of these subjects. From a technological perspective, AI can be used to develop advanced algorithms and tools for data anonymization and encryption, thereby ensuring that personal information remains secure. From an ethical standpoint one perspective could be the individual’s right to privacy. Advocates may argue that AI technologies should prioritize privacy protection, giving individuals control over their personal data and ensuring that it is not misused or accessed without consent. Another perspective could come from researchers and organizations that utilize AI for interdisciplinary research purposes who may argue that access to diverse datasets and scholarly resources facilitated by AI is crucial for advancing knowledge and understanding complex ethical issues. A further perspective could come from policymakers and regulators who may grapple with finding a balance between privacy protection and the potential benefits of AI-driven research. They would need to consider the creation of legal frameworks and regulations that address issues such as data ownership, consent, and accountability. 2.3 Limitations on Critical Thinking and Creativity While AI can enhance efficiency and can perform as a “peer learner” [5] and even “world class tutor” [6], there is a concern that excessive reliance on AI-powered tools may hinder critical thinking and creativity. The algorithmic nature of AI may restrict students’ exploration of alternative viewpoints and limit their ability to engage in independent, original thought processes. Imagine a scenario in which a student is tasked with writing a research paper on a controversial social issue. In the past, students would engage in extensive reading, conduct interviews, and critically analyze various perspectives to develop their own arguments. However, with the availability of AI-powered research assistants, the student decides to rely heavily on an AI tool that generates summaries and provides pre-selected sources. In this situation, the limitations on critical thinking and creativity become apparent. Firstly, the algorithmic nature of the AI tool may prioritize certain viewpoints or sources over others, potentially leading to a biased or incomplete understanding of the topic.

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The student may be less exposed to diverse perspectives and alternative viewpoints that challenge their preconceived notions. Secondly, by relying heavily on AI-generated summaries and pre-selected sources, the student may miss out on the rich experience of engaging with primary texts and conducting in-depth research. This could hinder their ability to critically evaluate information, analyze complex arguments, and develop independent, well-informed viewpoints. The reliance on AI tools may discourage the student from exploring tangential or unconventional ideas that could contribute to original thought processes. Furthermore, the convenience and efficiency offered by AI tools may lead to a complacent attitude towards research. The student may become more focused on obtaining quick and easily digestible information rather than investing time and effort into deep critical thinking and analysis. This could hinder the development of creative and innovative ideas that require intellectual exploration and the ability to think beyond the limitations of existing knowledge. While AI can undoubtedly enhance efficiency and provide valuable assistance in research tasks, it is essential to strike a balance. Students should be encouraged to complement AI tools with traditional research methods, engage in open-ended exploration of ideas, and critically evaluate information from various sources. By doing so, they can develop their critical thinking skills, nurture creativity, and foster independent thought processes, ensuring that AI remains a valuable tool rather than a hindrance to intellectual growth.

3 Ethical Implications of AI in Education 3.1 Plagiarism and Academic Integrity The use of AI in online education raises ethical concerns surrounding plagiarism detection and prevention. AI-powered plagiarism detection tools can undoubtedly assist in maintaining academic integrity. However, it is crucial to strike a balance between preventing plagiarism and fostering an environment that encourages students’ originality and creativity. Here’s an example of how an educational environment can foster originality and creativity while addressing plagiarism concerns: 1. Clear guidelines and expectations: Educators should establish clear guidelines and expectations regarding academic integrity and plagiarism. By providing students with explicit instructions on what constitutes plagiarism and the consequences of such behavior, educators set the foundation for fostering originality. 2. Educational modules on citation and referencing: Incorporate educational modules or workshops that focus on proper citation and referencing techniques. This helps students understand the value of acknowledging and integrating other scholars’ ideas while developing their own arguments. 3. Encourage critical thinking and originality: Design assignments that encourage critical thinking and original thought processes. Encourage students to explore diverse perspectives, engage in thoughtful reflection, and develop their own arguments.

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4. Scaffolded research and writing process: Break down the research and writing process into stages, allowing for feedback and revision opportunities. This approach provides students with the opportunity to receive guidance and support throughout their work, reducing the temptation to resort to plagiarism. 5. Authentic assessments: Utilize authentic assessments that promote creativity and originality. Instead of relying solely on standardized tests or traditional essays, incorporate projects, presentations, group discussions, and problem-solving activities that require students to apply critical thinking skills and express their unique perspectives. 6. Provide resources for self-checking: Offer students access to tools and resources that help them self-check their work for potential plagiarism issues. This can include plagiarism detection software that students can use to review their papers before submitting. 7. Cultivate a supportive learning environment: Foster a classroom or online learning environment where students feel comfortable expressing their ideas, seeking feedback, and engaging in constructive discussions. By creating a supportive atmosphere, students are more likely to value their original contributions and appreciate the importance of academic integrity. Ultimately the goal should be as Floridi, L. et al. [7] states “AI may enable selfrealization, by which we mean the ability for (students) to flourish in terms of their own characteristics, interests, potential abilities or skills, aspirations…”. 3.2 AI in Grading and Assessment The use of AI for automated grading and assessment has gained popularity due to its efficiency and objectivity. However, questions arise concerning the fairness and accuracy of AI grading systems as they may not fully capture the depth and complexity of students’ work, particularly in philosophy and ethics. Consider a philosophy course where students are required to write an essay discussing the ethical implications of a specific moral dilemma. The essay requires students to critically analyze the issue, explore various ethical theories, and develop well-reasoned arguments to support their positions. An AI grading system, while efficient and objective, may struggle to capture the nuances, depth, and complexity present in the students’ work. Here are a few reasons why: 1. Lack of contextual understanding: AI systems primarily rely on algorithms and predetermined criteria to assess student work. They may evaluate the presence of specific keywords or patterns without fully comprehending the broader context. 2. Limited capacity for evaluating creativity and originality: Philosophy and ethics often require students to think critically, challenge conventional wisdom, and offer novel perspectives. AI grading systems may not possess the flexibility to recognize and appreciate innovative or unconventional approaches. 3. Difficulty assessing subjective elements: Philosophy and ethics involve subjective elements, such as personal values, subjective interpretations of ethical principles, and moral reasoning. AI grading systems may struggle to evaluate subjective components effectively. They may prioritize objective factors like grammar, syntax, or

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adherence to a particular structure, while overlooking the students’ ability to express their personal insights, moral intuitions, or emotional responses to ethical dilemmas. 4. Inadequate assessment of critical thinking and analytical skills: Philosophy and ethics courses emphasize critical thinking, logical reasoning, and analytical skills. AI grading systems may struggle to assess these higher-order cognitive skills accurately. While AI grading systems can provide initial feedback and streamline the grading process, they should be used as aids to human assessment rather than a complete replacement. In philosophy and ethics, human graders are better equipped to understand and evaluate the complexity and subtlety of students’ work, considering the multifaceted nature of ethical reasoning and the need for interpretive judgment.

4 Student-Teacher Relationships in the Age of AI 4.1 Redefining the Role of Educators The integration of AI in education necessitates a re-evaluation of the role of educators. “Artificial intelligence can be used to overcome many challenges faced in online distance education and can be further helpful in optimizing teaching and learning processes” [8]. While AI can provide valuable support, human teachers remain irreplaceable in fostering critical thinking, engaging in meaningful discussions, and providing personalized guidance to students. This is the comfort that ChatGPT provides. Yet the Khanmigo of The Khan Academy [9] sitting on top of large learning modules like ChatGPT already accomplishes much in terms of personally tutoring students, helping them to find their own mistakes, and guiding them with the Socratic method to a better understanding of the material. AI seems able to assist in teaching as it does not judge students or look down on their questions but responds patiently and will help students for as long as they are willing to continue. One can certainly feel threatened by this as a human educator. 4.2 Balancing Human Interaction and Technological Assistance Maintaining a balance between human interaction and AI support is crucial to preserve the essential elements of education, such as empathy, emotional intelligence, and mentorship. It is essential to ensure that AI complements, rather than replaces, the unique contributions of human teachers. The use of AI in online higher education brings various concerns that need to be addressed. Here are some common concerns: 1. Quality and Reliability: AI algorithms may not always be accurate in assessing student performance or providing personalized feedback, which can impact the overall learning experience. 2. Equity and Accessibility: AI-powered systems may inadvertently create or exacerbate inequalities in access to education. Students with limited access to technology or resources may be at a disadvantage compared to those who can fully engage with AI-driven platforms.

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3. Data Privacy and Security: AI in online education requires the collection and analysis of large amounts of personal data. There are concerns about how this data is stored, used, and protected. 4. Lack of Human Interaction: One of the key benefits of traditional education is the interaction between students and instructors. The use of AI in online education may reduce the human element, potentially leading to a lack of personalized support, mentorship, and social interaction. 5. Ethical Considerations: AI algorithms must be designed and deployed ethically, considering issues such as transparency, accountability, and fairness. Questions arise about who has control over AI systems, the potential for algorithmic biases, and the ethical implications of automated decision-making in areas like grading or admissions. 6. Job Displacement: The integration of AI in online education could lead to concerns about job displacement among educators and support staff. While AI can automate certain tasks, it is important to maintain human involvement to ensure quality education and employment opportunities. “The availability of big data, artificial intelligence technologies’ ability to generate their own models, and widespread adoption of learning analytics approaches force us to consider how to effectively use artificial intelligence in education in general and online distance education in particular” [8]. It is crucial to address these concerns through careful design, regulation, and ongoing evaluation of AI systems in online higher education to maximize the benefits and minimize potential risks. With careful consideration, AI in online learning can provide “fair, accessible, and quality education for all of society” [10].

5 Conclusion and Recommendations The integration of AI in online education offers exciting prospects, but it is not without its challenges. The use of AI in online education demands a cautious and balanced approach. While AI offers significant benefits, such as improved research efficiency and interdisciplinary collaboration, there are also challenges to consider, including limitations on critical thinking and potential ethical dilemmas. To ensure the responsible integration of AI in education, it is vital to prioritize human values and ethics while leveraging AI as a supportive tool. This requires ongoing research and critical analysis of the ethical implications of AI in education, particularly in the fields of philosophy and ethics. By striking a balance between the benefits and challenges, educators can harness the potential of AI to enhance the learning experience, foster intellectual growth, and cultivate ethical development in students. In a positive sense AI can be seen as a personal tutor for students and a teaching assistant for teachers [6]. Future research should delve into the specific ethical implications of AI in philosophy and ethics education. Studies exploring effective strategies for integrating AI as a supportive tool without compromising critical thinking and creativity are needed. Moreover, investigating the long-term impact of AI on student-teacher relationships and identifying best practices for maintaining a harmonious balance between human interaction and AI assistance will be instrumental in shaping the future of online education. As Kahn [6]

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suggests, we as educators need to fight like hell to have the necessary guardrails and reasonable regulations for when the problems arise, so that AI can be used positively to enhance HI - human intelligence, human potential, and human purpose.

References 1. Creely, E., Henriksen, D., Henderson, M.: Artificial intelligence, creativity, and education: critical questions for researchers and educators (2023) 2. Broussard, M.: Artificial Unintelligence: How Computers Misunderstand the World. MIT Press (2018) 3. Naudé, W.: Artificial intelligence: neither Utopian nor apocalyptic impacts soon. Econ. Innov. New Technol. 30, 1–23 (2021) 4. Bloom, B.S.: The 2 sigma problem: the search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educ. Res. 13, 4–16 (1984) 5. Belpaeme, T., Kennedy, J., Ramachandran, A., Scassellati, B., Tanaka, F.: Social robots for education: a review. Sci. Rob. 3, eaat5954 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.aat5954 6. Khan, S.: How AI could save (not destroy) education (2023) 7. Floridi, L., et al.: AI4People—an ethical framework for a good AI society: opportunities, risks, principles, and recommendations. Mind. Mach. 28, 689–707 (2018). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s11023-018-9482-5 8. Pelletier, K.: 2022 EDUCAUSE horizon report teaching and learning edition. EDUCAUSE, Louisville (2022) 9. Khan Academy: Khanmigo. FAQ. Khanmigo (2022) 10. Casas-Roma, J., Conesa, J.: A literature review on artificial intelligence and ethics in online learning. In: Caballé, S., Demetriadis, S.N., Gómez-Sánchez, E., Papadopoulos, P.M., Weinberger, A. (eds.) Intelligent Systems and Learning Data Analytics in Online Education, pp. 111–131. Academic Press, Cambridge, MA (2021)

The Scarcity and Competence Gaps of Teaching Logistics in Top European Business Schools Tarvo Niine(B)

, Merle Küttim , Rasmus Nuus, and Tarmo Tuisk

TalTech School of Business and Governance, Tallinn, Estonia [email protected]

Abstract. As logistics is an interdisciplinary field, the landscape of higher education in logistics is rather diverse. The goal of this study is to evaluate the presence, scope and content profile of logistics and supply chain topics in undergraduate programme catalogues of all European business schools with EQUIS accreditation and compare their offering with the expectations to the skillset of modern logistics manager as expressed in ELAQF competence model by European Logistics Association (ELA). The study covers 102 schools and provided a catalogue of 414 undergraduate programs, however with only 20 logistics-themed programs among them. In terms of most foundational competencies, these programs mostly demonstrate a strong fit with ELAQF – they are sufficiently broad. However, in various focal areas of logistics, even on assumed introductory levels suitable for undergraduates, there are major shortcomings, especially in terms of sustainability and resilience, but also on various traditional functional topics. These findings indicate a major gap as a systematic and growing problem, as arguably the relevance of supply chain specialists in the current business environment is higher than ever. This future workforce gap, we argue, cannot optimally be filled by students from vocational or engineering-based logistics programs. Keywords: Logistics Competences · Supply Chain Curricula · EQUIS · ELAQF Competence Model

1 Introduction Logistics is by nature an interdisciplinary field of life and so the spectrum of logisticsthemed programmes in universities is also diverse. According to a cluster analysis of logistics undergraduate programs, four categories have been found to emerge: 1) a business-centric approach, 2) interdisciplinary logistics management, 3) transport management, 4) logistics engineering [1]. The first two aim to be more balanced all-rounders between conceptual and application characteristics whereas the third is usually a rather more vocational curriculum directed towards the transport sector and the fourth can be either “broader” or “deeper”, depending on content focus. This implies that logistics programmes can naturally fit both the catalogues of engineering as well as business/economics faculties and more than one type can even co-exist in the portfolio of a same university, although it is an exception rather than a rule. The © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 270–277, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_27

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business-centric view is often titled supply chain management. While there can be specific differences between concepts of logistics and supply chain management, for the practical purposes of this study they are treated as synonyms. The supply chain management term is so widespread that it has broken out from the confines of a business school and are present also in the portfolios of engineering and vocational schools. In this paper, we look into the quantity and profiling of logistics-themed curricula in European top business schools with renowned EQUIS accreditation. The goal of the study is to evaluate the reach of logistics topics in undergraduate programme catalogues of sample schools and compare their offering with the expectations to the skillset of modern logistics manager as expressed in a competence model ELAQF by European Logistics Association (ELA). The main assumption driving this study is to measure the perceived scarcity of logistics and supply chain themed material in order to argue in support of teaching supply chain management in both quantity and quality. In next segment, a few relevant literature findings are presented on modern logistics education, moving then to describing study methodology and presenting main findings. The results allow discussion both in terms universities teaching logistics as well as the needs of the society. While the data is also intriguing on overall business education landscape, we only focus on logistics perspective here.

2 Literature Review Supply chain management has been described as an evolutionary form of logistics management [2]. This correlates with a practical observation that viewing competition purely on the level of company to company was more feasible a few generations ago, whereas the modern understanding is extended to view supply chains competing with supply chains [3]. This rise in relevance of business logistics would logically also demand both quantitative and qualitative development in the provision of respective education, especially considering the dynamic nature of most business environments with multitude of global challenges and technological transformations changing how logistics-related work is carried out even inside a single year, let alone over the 20+ years what ought to be the focal time horizon of planning the education in academia. Recently, a competence model of logistics management by ELA has been expanded to include modern challenges, including the areas of digitalization, sustainability and supply chain resilience management [4]. A range of studies have indicated gaps between the supply and demand in logistics education [5–8]. It has been suggested that academia would not be able to properly close such gaps without in-depth cooperation with industry representatives [9, 10], while other partial solutions rely in pedagogical development, modern technological learning support, encouraging student mobility and increasing cooperation inside academia. It has been suggested (and our study also observes similarly) that in logistics education, one ought not judge the book by the cover, as logistics curricula with same titles can still vary substantially in their content [7, 11]. There can be various historic, local or pragmatic reasons for it, but it does show that logistics education is not substantially standardized in practice, regardless of the efforts of ELA or various (often local) vocational organizations.

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3 Methodology The sample involved all universities or faculties in Europe with EQUIS accreditation by European Foundation for Management Development (EFMD). EQUIS is an international institutional accreditation awarded to business schools after in-depth review. The study took place in spring 2021, when there were 193 schools with EQUIS accreditation, 102 of them in Europe. The study focused strictly on undergraduate level for clarity and for workload reasons. As 16 schools in the list were not providing undergraduate studies, the final sample was 86 schools across 20 countries (25 from UK, 19 from France, 5 from Germany etc.). The data on the curricula was collected from webpages and school information systems, in some cases also via direct contact. The result was a list of 414 business-themed programs. Document analysis was used for reviewing and evaluating the programs [12]. Each program was then marked with one (in some cases two) of the 10 categories: 1) marketing, 2) logistics, supply chain and operations, 3) finance, accounting and business analytics, 4) economics and mathematics, 5) management and strategy, 6) human resources, organization behaviour and psychology, 7) law, 8) business IT, digitalization, and technology, 9) communication and culture, 10) international business and general business administration, or others not specific to be categorized elsewhere. Such categorization was an evolutionary process, which started with the first six as assumedly classic branches in business curricula. In the second round of screening, all specialization options inside programs were also marked similarly. Following the modern view of supply chains, both operations management and purchasing were counted as fitting into the supply chain category. As limitations, it is possible that in data gathering a few programs might have been missed, but it shouldn’t impact the overall scenery. The categorization might have been somewhat subjective – perhaps the thinnest line between management and general business, but also between supply chain and digitalization. Furthermore, there were a few programs that logically could have earned own category (eg. Real estate management and event management), but were merged under closest heading for simplicity. Categorizing specializations is a bit more subjective than full curricula, as there are more niche approaches. To address possible bias, the process included individual and collaborative phases. The overall landscape provided in this study has a higher resolution on the level of programs, but patterns are still visible also on the level of specializations. For the second part of the study, logistics-themed programs were compared to ELA logistics manager competence standard ELAQF, which had been recently significantly updated [4]. ELAQF formulates competences on three levels, marked as “junior”, senior” and “master” and these are matching with levels 4, 6 and 7 as defined by European Qualification Framework (EQF). Our study omitted level 7, as it is considered for graduate level in EQF. The initial plan was to make decisions based on program and module goals and then progress deeper onto course-level goals and intended learning outputs (ILOs). However, the quality of input data on ILOs turned out a major limitation. It was noted that even though most curricula define their program- and module-level ILOs, it is done in diverse ways and in many cases the wording of learning outcomes might not nearly be as thorough as to meet the level of detail provided in ELAQF. Even the top schools can be less-than-perfect examples in this regard. This meant that our analysis could

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only partially be realized on ILO level, so instead the applied method was to evaluate the presence of 12 ELAQF component chapters in our sample curricula on a 4-point evaluation scale (as shown in Table 3 below).

4 Findings The categorization of programs evaluated is presented in Table 1. As about one third of the programs were categorized under two headings for better clarity, the table summarizes 414 programs with 566 markers. The authors are gladly willing to share the full data involved in this study as it did not fit this paper due to formal limitations. Table 1. Undergraduate business-themed programs of EQUIS schools categorized. Category

Programs

Share

Management

124

22%

General business administration

111

20%

Economics

107

19%

Finance and accounting

93

16%

Marketing

34

6%

Communication and culture

31

6%

Human resource

25

4%

Law

12

2%

IT, digitalization and technology

23

4%

Logistics and supply chain

6

1%

A certain level of scarcity of logistics was expected. Still, the positioning of supply chain in the bottom of the list still appears striking. Table 2 presents the situation one level deeper – accounting for major branches inside the programs. While only 41 programs (10%) offered specialization choices, the sum of these options was 242 and even on this level, there were 17 cases of marking a major into two categories. The position of logistics here is better, but still surprisingly low. Overall, out of 86 schools, there were 6 curricula and 14 majors dedicated to supply chain area. From these 20 opportunities to study logistics in EQUIS schools, 7 are in France and 3 in UK, 12 are offered in English, 4 only in local language and 4 are available in two languages. These 20 curricula cover logistics topics only in modest to moderate amount. In dedicated programs, the share of various directly logistics-related courses is 40%–55%, whereas in major-level programs, this ratio is 10%–20%, with only one outlier of 6% (which can be viewed as evidence of a case where the title promises something that the program cannot realistically deliver). As further proof of the diversity of logistics programs, three out of 20 were not actually of the general “business logistics” type, but instead notably more specific: aviation

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T. Niine et al. Table 2. Specializations of undergraduate programs of EQUIS schools categorized.

Category

Number of available specialization tracks

Share

Management

58

23%

Marketing

42

16%

Finance and accounting

42

16%

Economics

26

10%

Business IT

22

9%

International business

16

6%

Human resource

14

5%

Logistics and supply chain

14

5%

Manufacturing and technology

11

4%

Communication and culture

9

3%

management and shipping management. This also means that they really wouldn’t even target to meet ELAQF approach, so our study is not meant as direct criticism towards any case in particular. Table 3. Logistics programs in the perspective of competences formulated in ELAQF. ELAQF competence area

Strong fit

Partial fit

Indirect connection

Lack of connection

Business principles

11

5

-

-

Core management skills

11

4

1

-

Process management

6

10

-

-

Change & project management

7

1

1

7

Demand, production and distribution planning

6

6

3

1

Warehousing

3

3

4

6

Transportation

6

6

2

2

Sourcing

9

3

1

3

Customer service

-

2

2

12

Digitalization

7

3

5

1

Sustainability

1

-

3

12

Resilience

-

5

10

1

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One cannot escape the conclusion that logistics and supply chain area in most of the high-end business schools exists only in the scope of a small number of courses. The data on four programs was deemed insufficient for analysis, so Table 3 shows the linkages to ELAQF competence areas of 16 logistics programs. In terms of many foundational competencies, logistics-themed programs in business schools mostly demonstrate a strong fit – they are sufficiently broad. However, quite a notable number of deeper key topics appear obviously problematic, with major gaps especially in the areas of sustainability and resilience.

5 Discussion and Conclusion The relevance of academic logistics education with a wide range of program profiles appears undeniable. The most direct practical challenge appears to be time – a supply chain specialist what the society would need and labour market would expect cannot be fully prepared in just 3 years of education. While this is by no means a new problem, we argue that this gap has been growing both on concept and practical layers. Therefore, the excuse “the gaps can be filled later in master studies” is only partial, because similar dynamics is also present there. The scope of competences expected from a logistics (and even more of a supply chain) manager has always been extensive, as one would need not only knowledge of transport, warehousing and transaction arrangements, but a broader view across designing the processes of material and information flows, facilitating these processes with people and technologies and managing supplier and customer relationships. On top of these classic topics, some of the modern directly relevant trends are green and digital transformations of business processes and providing an allencompassing approach to supply risk management. All this learning cannot feasibly fit into any master program, no matter how efficient and enriching. Arguably, even any integrated 3 + 2 combination would struggle for the same reasons. So in that sense, our study proposes that as the foundation appears to be lacking, one cannot build sufficient high-quality housing on top and as such the imperfect situation of logistics education on an undergraduate level can be viewed as a root cause resulting in further troubles along the timeline. While most of this problem is “force majeure” from school/faculty perspective, there are also probably supply and demand factors in play. The desire to attract more students is often a priority for business schools and universities, both private and public, perhaps primarily for income reasons. Viewing our Table 1 from this perspective, it appears clear that the list of programs that prospective students of a business school would view the most attractive would usually have finance studies and marketing studies above logistics. It is not that supply chain could not be equally attractive, though one can indeed suggest that logistics is still today suffering from the generations-old reputation problem being seen as a “necessary evil” and more as just a driver of costs than a driver of value. However, clearly there is ample material for great sales pitches to study logistics. Another consideration is that not too many students might eye business schools per se when they are more deeply interested in logistics, as they might find programs with a more dedicated focus elsewhere (both in vocational schools and engineering faculties). Most countries in Europe (and especially ones with a seashore) have both. Therefore,

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business schools with a logistics offering would be mostly attracting only the remnants. In a view “finance versus logistics”, the business schools compete mostly with each other for finance-leaning high school students, whereas in logistics there is a broader range of competition, which limits the hinterland of a business school, ending up being a supply bottleneck induced by perceivably limited demand. Moving on, it seems fitting to address another counterpoint that we see as a typical response to the somewhat alarming message of this study – “If business schools can’t deliver, then surely vocational and engineering schools are happy to serve as full substitutes”. In fact, some would argue that any decent “deep logistics” program is inherently societally superior concept than a broad “logistics management” and while this study provides more fuel to this fire, it is not the only logical conclusion and indeed it can be misleading. While surely this proposition has some merit, we would argue it is limited and perhaps shortsighted. “Broad” appears the logical way of a business school – this reflects modern entrepreneurship competence and organization concepts and appears to fit better with most projections of future labour market needs. Both broad and deep logistics programmes are needed and if any education system would end up letting one go, whichever it is, the outcome would be suboptimal. In fact, the extended scope of modern supply chain issues is a great platform that practically demonstrates a need for a combination of wide analytical competences and self-motivation towards life-long learning, perhaps more so than any other focal area of business studies. A third response (and indeed a limitation of this study) would be that elite business schools are not representative of the total business education landscape. This can be, assumedly and hopefully, true. Still, one must keep in mind that in the current dayand-age academia is a competitive environment (and rather overly so) and the schools with highest ranking spots and the most accreditations can be seen as undeniable “best practices”. Our study proposes that one perhaps shouldn’t take such benchmarking too far. Should business schools improve on their teaching of logistics? This study argues clearly that they should, both in quantity and in quality. “How?” is clearly the main question, as the issue is only in a limited sense a designer balancing act between “broad or deep”, for there are a number of trends combining in the society that expect more of both simultaneously. In a sense it could be called “a curse of innovations” – emerging technologies create a need for “specialists of the area”, and it appears that it is often catered for more quickly in a specialist-style programs than a proper integration into generalist-type programs. Ideally, a major leap in learning efficiency would be needed to resolve the issue. While the gap between “average learning experience in an average business school” and “best imaginable learning value” is arguably still rather sizeable, the aforementioned leap would unfortunately appear clearly more taunting still. Luckily, there does exist “another way” – further integrating logistics with entrepreneurial competences and life-long learning attitudes. While there are various modern models of entrepreneurial competencies, the one the authors of this paper have aimed to implement to an extent in their faculty teaching has been developed by Venesaar et al. [13]. The key linkages of the model to the teaching challenge are growth mind-set, autonomous motivation, metacognition and initiative of students. These aspects would ideally need to be integrated on a level of programme mission and principal pedagogical design,

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interlinking through most of the coursework. The vision of such approach would be to achieve a high level of intrinsic learning motivation in each and all students and this could be seen as a main lever to achieve pedagogical development.

References 1. Niine, T., Koppel, O.: Typology of logistics curricula – four categories of logistics of logistics undergraduate education in Europe. Int. J. Eng. Pedagogy 5(2), 4–11 (2015). https://doi.org/ 10.3991/ijep.v5i2.4579 2. Ballou, R.H.: The evolution and future of logistics and supply chain management. Eur. Bus. Rev. 19(4), 332–348 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1108/09555340710760152 3. Wagner, C., Sancho-Esper, F., Rodriguez-Sanchez, C.: Skill and knowledge requirements of entry-level logistics and supply chain management professionals: a comparative study of Ireland and Spain. J. Educ. Bus. 95(1), 23–36 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2019. 1596870 4. Bisogni, G.P., Brdulak, H., Cantoni, F., Niine, T., Zsifkovitz, H.: The role of European logistics association 2020 standards in facing modern industry expectations and logistic managers competencies. Int. J. Value Chain Manag. 12(2), 171–198 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1504/ IJVCM.2021.116401 5. Van Hoek, R., Gibson, B., Johnson, M.: Talent management for a post-COVID-19 supply chain. Critical role for managers. J. Bus. Logistics 41(4) 334–336 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 1111/jbl.12266 6. Lin, C.C., Chang, C.H.: Evaluating skill requirement for logistics operation practitioners: based on the perceptions of logistics service providers and academics in Taiwan. Asian J. Shipping Logistics 34(4), 328–336 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajsl.2018.12.006 7. Yew Wong, C., Grant, A.B., Allan, B., Jasiuvian, I.: Logistics and supply chain education and jobs: a study of UK markets. Int. J. Logistics Manag. 25(3), 537–552 (2013). https://doi.org/ 10.1108/IJLM-01-2013-0003 8. Birou, L., Lutz, H.: Logistics education: a look at the current state of the art and science. Supply Chain Manag. Int. J. 18(4), 455–467 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1108/SCM-08-20120269 9. Cao, L., Wang, M., Zhou, X.: Cooperative education for intelligent logistics talents in colleges and universities. In: Zhang, Q. (ed.) Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Management and Social Sciences ISMSS 2020, pp. 325–329 (2020). https://doi.org/10.2991/ assehr.k.201202.135 10. Gibson, T., Kerr, D., Fisher, R.: Accelerating supply chain management learning: identifying enablers from a university-industry collaboration. Supply Chain Manag. Int. J. 21(4), 470–484 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1108/SCM-10-2014-0343 11. Bahouth, S., Hartmann, D., Willis, G.: Supply chain management: how the curricula of the top ten undergraduate universities meet the practitioners’ knowledge set. Am. J. Bus. Educ. 7(4), 285–298 (2014). https://doi.org/10.19030/ajbe.v7i4.8817 12. Bowen, G.A.: Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qual. Res. J. 9(2), 27–40 (2009). https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027 13. Venesaar, U., et al.: Model of entrepreneurship competence as a basis for the development of entrepreneurship education. Estonian J. Educ. 6(2), 118–155 (2018). https://doi.org/10. 12697/eha.2018.6.2.06

Future of Education on Pre-university Studies Rita Bezerra1 , Beatriz Lacerda2 , Dalila Durães2(B) , and Paulo Novais2 1

2

Polytechnic of Cavado e Ave Institute, Barcelos, Portugal [email protected] Algorithm Centre/LASI, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal [email protected], {dad,pjon}@di.uminho.pt

Abstract. By incorporating technology into education, students’ skills can be enhanced while still recognizing the importance of personal and social abilities. Therefore, it is crucial for pre-university education to prioritize the development of self-awareness, empathy, teamwork, and leadership skills. This will enable students to become more productive members of society and make positive contributions to the world at large. To explore the academic achievements of different courses and the subjects chosen by students before entering higher education, we analyzed a dataset containing student information. Our goal was to examine the relationship between these variables and other factors like gender, socioeconomic background, and parents’ education. It is widely recognized that certain outcomes are influenced by gender and the selection of academic fields. As a result, there are academic programs that tend to be predominantly chosen by males, while others are preferred by females. To obtain predictive results, we employed machine learning algorithms that have proven successful in similar studies. Keywords: Pre-university Education Gender Prediction

1

· Machine-Learning Models ·

Introduction

One of the biggest challenges facing pre-university schools is to provide their students with a more practical education that goes far beyond traditional academic subjects. This requires developing critical thinking, fostering creativity, stimulating communication and promoting social and teamwork skills, through the use of technology and integration of digital tools in the classroom. In the research conducted in [1], attention is given to gender, differences in self-assessment of skills and the reasons underlying gender disparity in engineering education. Some of the reasons, highlighted by this study, that lead women to drop out of engineering courses, are typically attributed to a competitive male-bound engineering culture and its effect on eroding female confidence [2]. Efforts to raise awareness of potential gender-based issues relate to the motivation that parents give children when they are young, incentives from primary and c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 278–289, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_28

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secondary school teachers, short-term classes for children can uninhibit gender disparities. In the study published in [3], it goes in line with the study [4], where it identifies that women completing computer science and computer engineering have been a minority compared to their male counterparts for the past 30 years. This study chose three barriers to gender diversity in computer science and computer engineering that they wished to mitigate the effects, such as: stereotypical traits, perceived abilities, and learning environment. The students in the study conducted in [3] were involved in courses, surveys were conducted before the courses, during and after. The responses were presented in graphs and separated by gender. Overall, the differences in perceived abilities and learning environment between women and men were not as great as the authors feared at the beginning of this study. They therefore considered that the efforts made initially to combat the initial implicit bias had been a sign that they had been successful, however without guarantees. While they consider that there is still room for improvement in the classes they had envisioned, it is encouraging to note that women’s responses are somewhat similar to men’s responses. They also reveal the importance of other institutions doing the same in order to gain a deeper understanding of the ever-changing challenges facing their groups of learners. 1.1

Main Contributions

The research questions to be addressed are: RQ1) What factors are pointed for the low representation of women in STEM courses? RQ2) What can be done to increase women’s attendance? RQ3) What leads students to choose a STEM course? From very early on there has been concern about the insertion of women in higher education and in areas, until now mostly sought after by men, such as engineering. The document is divided into six main sections. Next, the methodology used for the systematic review is described, including the research strategy and exclusion criteria. Then, the Data Mining section presents the dataset and the preprocessing work. The Results section where some outputs are present. Then the discussion section show a discussion of the findings. Finally, all the preceding themes are summarised and the main conclusions are drawn, providing some directions for future research.

2

Methodology

The systematic review was based on the PRISMA statement and checklist (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) [5]. This choice is justified by the fact that PRISMA is widely accepted by the scientific community in engineering and computing. The steps considered in the in this approach were: Identification of the study’s research questions and relevant keywords; creation of the necessary search string to query academic research

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databases; definition of exclusion criteria to filter the articles and reduce the sample; analysis of selected studies; and, finally, presentation and discussion of the results. This search took place in April 2023. The query was entered into the SCOPUS database (https://www.scopus.com). The first set of keywords that have been entered are the ones presented in the following query: ( TITLE-ABS-KEY ( women AND in AND engineering ) AND TITLEABS-KEY ( future AND of AND education AND on AND pre AND university ) )

2.1

Literature Review

So, for this query, the returned 27 documents as a result. The number of articles returned was reasonable to do an analysis of these and so the initial query was not modified.

Fig. 1. PRISMA Flow Diagram

The PRISMA flow diagram presented in Fig. 1 was performed to achieve an SLR analysis, starting with the identification phase, based on the articles found in the selected repositories and the queries. The exclusion criteria that were considered when selecting a paper are described below and represented in Fig. 1. In order to screening the articles found, some exclusion criteria were defined. Thus, the documents are excluded if fall in one of these: EC 1: Duplicate records removed EC 2: Not free accessible

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EC 3: Do not focus on the variables studied or is out of women in engineering EC 4: Studies focus attention on ethnic minorities or students with low economic resources to access to higher education In the study published in [6] in the Bangladesh region, although the number of male and female enrolments in both primary and secondary education is almost equal, when it comes to higher education or even at the level of employment, the picture changes radically as a sharp drop in the number of women in the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) is observed. The quantitative data for the study comes from over 1.18 million higher education students from eight public universities and over three academic years from 2018 to 2020. In addition, the qualitative study was conducted with 48 participants in times pre- and during COVID-19 to understand the barriers that hinder women in STEM-related education and jobs. The shortage of women in science, engineering and mathematics (STEM) is a global phenomenon [7]. Studies show in how preferences imposed by society have a strong impact on female students’ choices. Female students are expected to choose non-STEM subjects and male students are expected to prioritise STEM subjects (e.g., [8]). Social ideals have shown that male students are considered more competent in engineering subjects than female students (e.g., [9]). In addition, there are structural challenges, for example, the phenomenon of sexual harassment against women, which negatively influence the act of gender students’ participation in STEM disciplines [10,11]. Women’s participation in STEM is an area of concern in several countries. For example, in the United States, women represent about half (52%) of the higher education workforce, and between 2003 and 2017, even though there has been an increase in women in science and engineering (S & E) jobs, they still accounted for 29% of S&E employment in the year 2017. According to Women’s Engineering Society, in 2017 in the UK, only 11% of the engineering workforce was female [12]. In the EU, only 36% of STEM graduates and only two in five scientists and engineers are women.

3 3.1

Data Mining Dataset

The data explored is taken out of a school’s management system and it’s a secondary school of the municipality of Guimarães. This dataset is composed by 625 students whose ages range from 14 to 20 years old. For each of the students there is information regarding the grade they are currently in, the subjects they are enrolled in, their grades to each subject, their age, gender, number of people living on their household, their parents’ academic education and their respective jobs/areas of work. The data was explored using popular machine learning libraries such as pandas and numpy and the Python language was used.

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In order to provide context, it is important to note that the Portuguese high school system spans over a period of three years. During these three years subjects such as Portuguese and Physical Education are mandatory to all students. However, before commencing their studies, students must also choose the field they are best suited for. Typically the fields most commonly offered by schools are the following: “sciences and technology”, “arts”, “humanities and social sciences” and “socio-economic sciences”, which are also the fields available at the school we are analysing the data from. The subjects the students have vary depending on the area chosen by them. Students who choose “sciences and technology”, for instance, will have subjects such as maths and physics while students who opt for “humanities and social sciences” have history and geography. In their senior year students will also be able to choose two optional subjects that are usually also correlated with their field. The scale used to evaluate the student’s results ranges from 0 to 20, being that 0 is the lowest possible grade and 20 is the highest. A score of 10 and above is considered positive. 3.2

Data Preparation

Through machine learning techniques, the same data referenced previously was used in order to predict the students’ final “Mathematics A” grade and assess the importance of gender in this prediction. However, to make predictions the data had to be clean and preprocessed. In a primary stage, some columns were dropped such as “School Year”. The reason behind this was the fact that it was constant data meaning that the value of the columns didn’t change across the dataset. Then columns that corresponded to the id of the student were also eliminated since their sole purpose was to identify students. Not only this information didn’t contribute to the predictive power of models but it also should be dropped to maintain the students’ anonymity. Lastly, columns referring to other subjects were dropped. The only grades maintained on this particular dataset were the math grades at the end of each term (first, second and third term), being that our target variable was the final grade. Duplicate values as well as null values were eliminated from the dataset. Following that, the target variable was balanced by synthetically creating new instances in our dataset. This was achieved through the use of RandomOverSampler. The motive for this was the fact that the distribution of the grades wasn’t even. For example, there are 60 students with a grade of 10 but only 10 students with a grade of 19. This way the models will have more examples available which will help the model’s ability to capture the patterns and characteristics of the minority class. Finally, all the categorical values were converted into numerical values so they could be used as input for our models.

4

Results

Our work started out by dividing the students according to the fields chosen. Initially, it was investigated the gender distribution within each field. Out of

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all the fields, “sciences and technology” was the most evenly balanced. With a total of 256 students it has exactly 128 female students and 128 male students. “Socio-economic sciences” was the only field in which male student’s outnumbered female students, being that 54.3% of students are male and 45.7% are female. For both the field of “arts” and “humanities and social sciences”, female is the most represented gender. Female students constitute 55.3% of enrollees in the “humanities and social sciences” fiels and 59.7% in the “arts” field (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Gender distribution by area.

Across the board, however, female students have better grades and present better academic performance than their male counterparts. In the field of “sciences and technology”, female students recorded an average grade of 16,05 while male students recorded an average grade of 15,38. These averages are the highest across all fields studied at this school. In the case of “socio-economic sciences”, female students present an average of 14,96 while male students have the average grade of 14,10. The female students’ grade average for the field of “arts” was 14,86 and for the field of “humanities and social sciences” was 14,81. For their male counterparts, their grade average was of 13.89 and 14.25 respectively. This tendency to higher academic ambition can already be detected when examining data related to the students’ parents. When assessing the parent’s level of education not only did the mothers have higher rate of high school graduates than fathers but they also had more college degrees. In terms of the optional subjects chosen by students in the “sciences and technology” there were detected in the data 3 combinations chosen by students: “computer applications B + chemistry”, “computer applications B + biology” or simply “computer applications B”. The first combination was chosen by 73.9% of students, while the second was chosen by 25% of students. The last combination was only chosen by a student, representing 1.1% of all senior students in the field. Computer applications B was chosen by all senior students of the field. Out of all of these students, 51 are male and 41 are female. When it comes to chemistry, out of the total of 68 students who enrolled in the subject, 40 are male. When it comes to biology, out of the 22 students, 12 are female, the only class in which this gender represents the majority.

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Fig. 3. Last year subject distribution by gender.

The attained findings when analysing the data by field were reinforced by the analysis made by subject. Regarding “Mathematics A”, there were more male students than female (there was a difference of 12 students), but the female student’s still outperformed their male colleagues by almost a full value. Chemistry and physics, taugh to students in grade 10 and 11, is enrolled by mostly females (52.6%) and, yet again, they hold the best grades in class (average grade of 14.01 for female and 12.83 for male). With the aim of studying the impact of different features various datasets were created and tested. For instance, one of these datasets doesn’t contain previous grades of the student. Even though the impact varies depending on the model used, in general, this dataset with only non-academic data didn’t perform as well. In other dataset the gender column was dropped so as to evaluate the impact of this feature in the performance of the models and their capacity to predict math grades. The results obtained are as follows: Table 1. Results for Machine Learning Models Dataset

Model

Complete Dataset

SVM

Accuracy Precision F1 Score Recall CV 0.87

0.87

0.86

0.87

0.7961

XGBoost

0.85

0.85

0.84

0.85

0.8349

Random Forest 0.85

0.84

0.84

0.85

0.8438

Adaboost

0.19

0.78

0.11

0.19

0.2991

Gradient Boost 0.83

0.8199

Dataset With No Gender SVM XGBoost

0.83

0.83

0.83

0.86

0.87

0.86

0.86

0.7871

0.85

0.85

0.84

0.85

0.8512

Random Forest 0.85

0.84

0.84

0.85

0.8498

Adaboost

0.19

0.78

0.11

0.19

0.2991

Gradient Boost 0.83

0.82

0.82

0.83

0.8258

As it is noticeable in Table 1 the model that provided the best accuracy was Support Vector Machine (SVM). The models were fine-tuned using the GridSearch technique, which enabled the identification of the optimal combination

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of hyperparameters for each model. Additionally, the accuracy of the models was assessed using a fivefold cross-validation approach. Even though there is a slightly better result when taking gender into account the difference between the results is not significant. This may be explained by the fact that the data in question is from a Portuguese high school where the disparity between genders is not as accentuated as in an university setting.

5

Discussion

This section explores and discusses the findings research questions introduced at the introduction section and based on the literature review. RQ1) What factors are pointed for the low representation of women in STEM courses? Research work by [13] shows that social and environmental factors contribute to the under-representation of women in STEM. In another study of successful women at a UK university, [7] found that other women may not reach senior positions in STEM due to social expectations, low confidence or lack of support. Moreover, scientists and engineers are portrayed as male and cultural stereotypes of science as masculine is quite prevalent [14]. According to the study [15], some reasons for low interest in STEM fields among women are: experience of gender discrimination related to low pay, fewer promotion opportunities, less access to administrative staff and higher unemployment than men within the same field. Although a combination of professional career and motherhood are gaining acceptance in many countries, they are often a factor conditioning women to abandon their STEM careers due to inability to balance work with family responsibilities [13]. It states that social ideals, security issues, and work-life balance should be the main socio-economic barrier for women in STEM. Another study [16] reports importance of the combination of several factors for choosing engineering courses such as: self-confidence; self-efficacy; accessibility, concern and fairness of teachers; pre-college interest and grades in mathematics/science; years of mathematics/science in secondary school; parents’ education; previous encouragement; pre-college consideration to apply to a career-oriented university; household income; student genders. This study finds that despite an increase of women in SMET programmes to 20% of total undergraduate enrolment, this number still falls short. According to the American Society of Engineering Education (ASEE) journal some researchers point out that, teachers’ teaching techniques, dissatisfaction with STEM programs, parental discouragement, male dominance, and stereotypes can greatly contribute to women’s lack of self-confidence and retention of female students in undergraduate degrees [17]. According to our findings, even if there are balanced the science and technology area, on the last year of the course and as depicted in Fig. 3, it is evident that women tend to show a preference for selecting Biology as their optional subject within the health course, rather than opting for Computer Science B or Chemistry, subjects within the engineering field.

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RQ2) What can be done to increase women’s attendance? The article [18] is a description of a collaborative effort between a small community college, an urban comprehensive university, and a highly diverse high school district in the San Francisco Bay Area to increase interest and improve the preparation of female and underrepresented high school students in engineering through a two-week residential summer camp. The Summer Engineering Institute makes a combination of lectures, hands-on lab activities, field trips, workshops, panels, and projects. Program evaluation results include pre- and post-program student surveys that measure student interest in pursuing an engineering degree, academic self-efficacy and motivation, participants’ attitudes and enthusiasm for program activities, knowledge of specific engineering topics, and awareness of the resources and skills necessary for success in engineering. A follow-up survey was also developed to track changes in students’ attitudes, interests and educational plans years after participating in the programme. The paper presents results in how the programme was effective in promoting interest in engineering, and in enhancing success among those who decided to pursue a degree in engineering. RQ3) What leads students to choose a STEM course? This study [4] argues that pre-university courses should use innovative and more targeted pedagogical approaches for young people to identify themselves as scientific and engineering professionals of tomorrow. The study presented in [19] is of the same opinion as the previous one. Project-based work oriented towards engineering-oriented areas are determinant for the increase of skills and interest in attending these courses in higher education. This article [4] made also an analysis of the reasons that led students to drop out of SME subjects, through surveys, and where the answers were separated by gender, among which the most indicated were: lack of/loss of interest in SME; non-SME majors offer better education/more interest; poor teaching by SME faculty; Curriculum overloaded, fast pace overwhelming; feel SME career options/rewards are not worth effort to get degree. Thus, the opposite of these reasons could be given as reasons for choosing engineering fields. The study published in [20] focuses on pre-college experiences of first-year engineering students at Comprehensive Polytechnic State University (CPSU) in semi-rural California and offers lessons for recruitment based on comparative analysis of survey data collected in 2013, and which were based on the questions: 1) when students chose to major in engineering, 2) why students chose engineering as their first choice, 3) how students made their decisions, and 4) who students are and how their identities compare to dominant images of what it means to be an engineer. Three different explanations for the continued underrepresentation of women in engineering were identified at the beginning of the study: 1) the social structure of society; 2) the social structure of STEM educa-

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tion; and 3) the content and application of STEM knowledge. The data analysed in this paper suggests that these explanations overlap and intersect, pushing some women into engineering and others out. Recruitment and retention efforts must continue. Based on our findings, it is apparent that the STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) course is the preferred choice during preuniversity education. However, within this course, women tend to transition towards fields other than engineering.

6

Conclusions

One of the main challenges that pre-university education systems face is to prepare students with the skills and knowledge they will need to thrive in an everchanging and rapidly evolving world. With technological advancements, global connectivity, and shifting job markets, students must be prepared to adapt to new challenges and opportunities. In response to this challenge, many preuniversity education systems are beginning to shift their focus towards providing students with a more holistic education that goes beyond traditional academic subjects. Additionally, pre-university education must prepare students to navigate an increasingly digital world by developing digital literacy skills and familiarity with various technologies. It must also help students understand and navigate the ethical and social implications of technology. We employed a pre-university school student dataset to examine the academic outcomes of various courses. This dataset encompasses courses that lead to further university education, as well as courses that lead to employment after completing pre-university studies. In addition to evaluating students’ academic achievements, we will also analyze the socio-economic background of the students. We will compare whether there are any social or economic factors that impact students’ academic outcomes. Lastly, a gender analysis will be conducted, and some predictive outcomes will be derived. There are certain outcomes that are associated with gender and choice of academic fields. As a result, some areas of study are typically chosen by males, while others are typically chosen by females. There are certain social aspects of a student’s life that can impact their academic performance. Regarding the large number of available classification algorithms and the enormous possible values to assign to the algorithm hyperparameters, considerations that clearly affect the performance of the models, we decided on some of the algorithms which have been proved successful in related work, which were Random Forest, XGBoost, and Decision Tree. Future research should focus on comprehending the progression of student outcomes to determine the subject options chosen in the final year of the preuniversity course. This investigation could shed light on the reasons behind the underrepresentation of women in the engineering field.

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Acknowledgements. This work has been supported by FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia within the R&D Units Project Scope: UIDB/00319/2020.

References 1. Knight, D.W., Carlson, L.E., Sullivan, J.F.: Gender differences in skills development in hands-on learning environments. In: Frontiers in Education Conference, STIPES, vol. 1, T4D-17 (2003) 2. Seymour, E., Hewitt, N.M.: Talking About Leaving, vol. 34. Westview Press, Boulder (1997) 3. Alford, L.K., Dorf, M.L., Bertacco, V.: Student perceptions of their abilities and learning environment in large introductory computer programming courses. In: 2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition (2017) 4. Swimmer, F., Jarratt-Ziemski, K.: Intersections between science and engineering education, and recruitment of female and native American students. In: 2007 Annual Conference & Exposition, pp. 12-956 (2007) 5. Asar, S.H., et al.: PRISMA; preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses. J. Rafsanjan Univ. Med. Sci. 15(1), 68–80 (2016) 6. Ahmed, N., et al.: Impact of socio-economic factors on female students’ enrollments in science, technology, engineering and mathematics and workplace challenges in Bangladesh. Am. Behav. Sci., 00027642221078517 (2022) 7. Chapple, A., Ziebland, S.: Challenging explanations for the lack of senior women in science? Reflections from successful women scientists at an elite British University. Int. J. Gend. Sci. Technol. 9(3), 298–315 (2017) 8. Andaleeb, S.S., Khan, H.R., Ahmed, M.: Education and national development: Selected papers from the 2008 and 2009 conferences on Bangladesh at Harvard University. (No Title) (2011) 9. Iftekhar, L., et al.: Electrical and computer engineering laboratory education for female undergraduate students: challenges and solutions from an urban perspective of Bangladesh. In: 2015 10th International Conference on Computer Science & Education (ICCSE), pp. 389- 394. IEEE (2015) 10. Ahmed, N., et al.: Motherhood in science-how children change our academic careers (2020) 11. Ahmed, N., Urmi, T., Tasmin, M.: Challenges and opportunities for young female learners in STEM from the perspective of Bangladesh. In: 2020 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment, and Learning for Engineering (TALE), pp. 39-46. IEEE (2020) 12. Peers, S.: Statistics on women in engineering. Women’s Eng. Soc., 2018-01 (2018) 13. Hill, C., Corbett, C., St Rose, A.: Why so Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. ERIC, Washington (2010) 14. Brush, S.G.: Women in science and engineering. Am. Sci. 79(5), 404–419 (1991) 15. Settles, I.H.: Women in STEM: challenges and determinants of success and wellbeing. Psychol. Sci. Agenda 28 (2014) 16. Agajanian, A., Timpson, W.M., Morgan, G.: A multiple regression analysis of the factors that affect male/female enrollment/ retention in electronics and computer engineering technology programs at a for profit institution. In: 2008 Annual Conference & Exposition, pp. 13-67 (2008) 17. Felder, R.M., et al.: A longitudinal study of engineering student performance and retention. III. gender differences in student performance and attitudes. J. Eng. Educ. 84(2), 151–163 (1995)

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18. Enriquez, A.G., et al.: Developing a summer engineering program for improving the preparation and self-efficacy of underrepresented students. In: 2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, pp. 24–390 (2014) 19. Krayem, Z.N., et al.: Pre-college electrical engineering outreach: the design of a home security system (Evaluation). In: 2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition (2018) 20. Lehr, J.L., Finger, H., Snelling, A.C.: When, why, how, who-recruitment lessons from first year engineering students in the millennial generation. In: 2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, pp. 24-1375 (2014)

Project Based Learning

Unit Operations Engineering Design: Extraction and Distillation Columns Karen Silva Vargas, Marc Lavarde , Mohamed Fadhel Ben Aissa , Sandra Kirollos, and Rabah Azouani(B) EBInnov, School of Industrial Biology, 49 Avenue des Genottes, CS 90009, 95895 Cergy Cedex, France {k.silva,m.lavarde,mf.benaissa,s.kirollos,r.azouani}@hubebi.com

Abstract. This paper presents our implantation of project-based learning (PBL) in our pedagogy in process engineering with two approaches, experimental one with process pilots and simulation one with ProsimPlus3 Software. The objective is for each unit operation at the laboratory process scale, we integrate a digital simulation twin with industrial software that allows to build a process model and then simulate it using complex calculations and thermodynamic models to optimize design and improve energy consumption. The study takes place in the Mass and Energy Transfer course with 167 graduate students’ cohort. The developed project is based on simulation of an industrial unit containing extraction and distillation columns. Our purpose is to improve the acquisition of design skills using simulation as part of industry 4.0. Through students’ survey, using 4-Point Likert Scale, evaluating the impact of this approach on process engineering learning, the results show that PBL promotes students’ motivation and improves their critical thinking skills. In addition, students have acquired better technical training as well as developing their transversal skills as communication and teamwork. Keywords: Project Based Learning · Digital Twins · Process Engineering · Mass Transfer

1 Introduction Engineering science education generally requires a deductive method of demonstration, application on concrete cases and generalization of theories. With the advent of new generations of students with a lack of conceptualization and concentration capacity, it has become more than critical to adapt one’s pedagogy to keep the same level of requirement and skills for our future engineers. Active pedagogies seem to be more adapted to teach difficult concepts such as process engineering with multidisciplinary vision: mathematics, modeling, heat & mass transfer, fluid mechanics and unit operations. University teaching techniques are changing worldwide, the model proposed in this paper involves the transition from an education system based on teaching to a system based on active learning, making the student the center of the educational process, and involved in constructing their own learning [1, 2]. Among these learning active methodologies, PBL seems to be adapted to engineering education including interdisciplinary © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 293–304, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_29

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learning. Several studies reported the implementation of PBL in control process [3], separation process [4], unit operation simulation [5], Biopharmaceutical Process [6, 7] and chemical engineering [8–11]. In our previous operation, we integrated PBL only in one unit operation such as sizing of heat exchanger [10], In this operation, we implement a PBL in the third year of biotechnology engineers’ program with the approach of integrating both notions of heat and mass transfer, to size and optimize an industrial unit. Our aim is to establish a correlation between multidisciplinary notions, with a particular focus on developing critical analysis through the identification of optimization levers and critical parameters as a real industrial unit.

2 Pedagogical Approach Bioengineering degree at Ecole de Biologie Industrielle (Cergy campus) is a five-year program with an all-rounded pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food, environment engineering backbone. This distinctive feature requires students to acquire knowledge In Industrial Process Engineering, identify possible drawbacks and propose the best solutions. Throughout the first three academic years, students acquire basic knowledge in Thermodynamics, Mathematics and Mass and Energy Transfer, which they apply in projects focused on the fundamental industrial processes of the chemical industry. This learning approach enables the development of a high standard of professional engineering competences. In particular, the processes of separation and purification of molecules of industrial interest are mainly addressed by techniques such as liquid-liquid extraction and distillation. Currently, practical projects are focused on determining the ternary diagram of components during liquid-liquid extraction and performing batch distillation of a component, using extraction-distillation pilot (Fig. 1, a), allowing the development of competencies in the chemistry field. Nevertheless, these separation and purification techniques are operated in a continuous mode in the industry. Hence, it is important for engineering students to be skilled in the design and optimization of these processes under these conditions. As shown in Fig. 1, this PBL module is focused on exposing engineering students to the real sizing and optimizing problems in the chemical industry, mainly in the design of extraction and distillation columns as acetone separation process to identify the key design parameters and carry out the corresponding sensitivity analysis. The project is executed in a group of 167 students enrolled in the Mass and Energy Transfer course. Students are placed into 33–34 groups of 5–6 people. Each group is given an identical project brief and tasked to perform the modeling process in three hours using Prosimplus software. During this time, students must use their knowledge in thermodynamics models, liquid-liquid equilibrium (ternary diagram), heat and mass balance. The methodology of this study is based on the project realization approach of liquidliquid extraction and distillation design and simulation. The target of the process is to recover acetone from water using MIBK as extraction solvent in a first separation stage and then use a distillation column as a purification stage, to obtain pure acetone as high value-added molecule. Hence, the objectives are:

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Case Study 167 Engineer students heat and mass tranfer course

Pedagogical objectives: Heat & Mass Balance Design of heat exchangers et extraction Column

New PBL based on Design of extractions and distillation column

Heat and mass balance Extraction

Ternary diagramm

Thermodynamic models

Parametric studies

Simulation Tool: ProSimPlus3

Replace ternary diagramm lab work

Process simulation

Extraction & distillation column design

Fig. 1. General overview of PBL applied to engineering design of unit operation

1. Understanding the importance of thermodynamic interactions of molecules through the choice of thermodynamic models. 2. Checking that the molecular interactions will be correctly modeled through the binary coefficients and estimating the missing information using the UNIFAC model. 3. Performing simulation diagrams: process flow diagram (PFD) 4. Recovering the highest amount of acetone using MIBK as extraction solvent and a liquid-liquid extraction column. 5. Using the shortcut distillation column as a first purification approach. 6. Verifying the relevance of the separation: solvent rate, number of stages of the extraction column, solvent purity, the feed position of the distillation column and the reflux rate. 7. Determining and optimizing all the key parameters via sensitivity analysis

3 Process Simulation with Prosimplus The first evaluated task is to identify the most appropriate thermodynamic model for the process simulation, considering the chemical properties - polar interaction, nonpolar interaction, boiling point- of the molecules under study, in this case acetone, water and MIBK. Following this conceptual overview, students must select the NRTL prosim (Eq. 1–2) as thermodynamical model and confirm that all possible binary interactions of the components are defined in the program. In this project, the prosim database is employed, and only the water-acetone binary interactions are found. Therefore, the student has to estimate the missing binary coefficients through the UNIFAC predictive model, and thus define all the thermodynamic properties of the system. For extraction and distillation column, fij value of 0.2 and 0.3 was used, respectively. n n   n xj Gij j=1 τji Gji xj k=1 xk τkj Gkj n τij −  (1) + Lnγi = n n j=1 k=1 Gki xk k=1 Gkj xk k=1 Gkj xk

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τij = aij +

bij , αij = fij , Gij = e−αij τij T

(2)

where xi is the composition of the molecule in the liquid at equilibrium state and aij , bij , fij are the interaction coefficients between the possible binary mixture. Once the thermodynamic information has been established, the PDF diagram of the process can be carried out as shown in Fig. 2, b. A first stage of countercurrent extraction is modeled, the acetone-water feed solution is introduced at the top of the column (stream 1) and MIBK extraction solvent is fed at the bottom of the column (stream 3). The acetone is recovered by stream 4 (extrait), and most of the water is recovered by the refining stream (stream 2). Since the extract contains a small amount of water, a separator is modeled to remove the water by stream 6, finally the acetone-MIBK mixture is fed to a shortcut distillation column to evaluate the operating and purification conditions.

Fig. 2. Pilot extraction plant in process laboratory (a), ProsimPlus3 simulation extraction & distillation unit (b)

3.1 Initial Parameters of Simulation The initial simulation parameters used in the extraction and distillation column are detailed below. Extraction Column The initial operating conditions of the extraction column are detailed in Table 1. The initial acetone-water solution and extraction solvent feed flow rates are 3600 kg/h and 2000 kg/h, respectively. The aqueous solution has a mass fraction of 40% in acetone and the extraction solvent has no impurities. The two feed streams have a temperature of 20 °C and atmospheric pressure. A MIBK recovery rate of 1 is set in the separator, and the operating temperature and pressure conditions are maintained. Distillation Column The initial operating conditions of the distillation column are detailed in Table 2. The reflux of the distillation column is set at 1.2 Rmin. The Winn-underwood-Gilliland

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Table 1. Initial parameters of simulation in the extraction column Components

Feed Masse fraction

Extraction solvent Masse fraction

Acetone

0.4

0

Water

0.6

0

Methyl isobutyl ketone

0

1

Flow rate [kg/h]

3600

2000

Pression [atm]

1

1

Temperature [°C]

20

20

mathematical model is used as a method of calculating the number of stages. The initial sizing of the column is carried out with an acetone and MIBK recovery rate of 0.991 in the distillate and residue, respectively. Table 2. Initial parameters of simulation in the distillation column Distillation column parameters Type of column

Distillation short cut

R/Rmin

1.2

Condenser pressure [atm]

1

Number of stages Method

Winn-underwood-Gilliland

Feed stage method

Kirkbride

Recovery rate (light and heavy key)

0.991

Maximum temperature [°C]

80

Type of condenser

Total

4 Experiments: Extraction and Distillation Unit A sensitivity analysis of the main operating parameters is carried out to optimize the operating conditions of the separation process. From an economical point of view, the number of extraction stages has been studied to obtain an optimized recovery rate. Then, the influence of the quantity, purity, and type of extraction solvent on the acetone recovery rate is evaluated. Finally, an analysis of the impact of solvent rate on the number of distillation stages is carried out.

5 Assessment of Learning Outcomes The assessment was carried out with the 3rd year cohort Taking Heat and Mass Transfer courses in the 2021/2022 academic year. The academic results were analyzed for a total of 167 students where the gender distribution of 90% female and 10% male. For quality

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assurance and assessment of the learning outcomes, student’s perception, and satisfaction with the PBL project was evaluated via Wooclap survey, containing six questions, and divided in two categories, as detailed in Table 3. Table 3. Assessment questionnaire on the project’s effectiveness on students’ learning. Questions Content

Options

Q1

Have you identified the relationship between this project simulation and your mass transfer lessons?

Very satisfied

Q2

This approach aims to integrate digital twins: laboratory Satisfied experimentation on pilot and simulation on ProsimPlus, at your level do you consider this approach relevant to facilitate and reinforce the learning of industrial unit design?

Q3

Based on your simulation results, can you imagine an experimental approach targeting critical parameters of your production unit?

Dissatisfied

Q4

Do you find that this project has made you aware about economical and energetic evaluation of your unit?

Very dissatisfied

Q5

Do you master the critical analysis of the extraction-distillation unit from the key parameters of the process?

Q6

What is the most motivating element in this project?

Prosimplus software Teamwork Industrial approach Process engineering

For Questions 1–5, 4-point Linkert scale was used. This Linkert scale allowed the students to choose between four extreme options without a neutral option, which is difficult to analyze when someone is not interested in participating. The different degrees of importance are as followed: very satisfied, satisfied, dissatisfied, and very dissatisfied. Question 6 is related to the overall evaluation of the key element of the project, in the student’s point of view. For the entire survey, the data was treated and analyzed statistically. Percentages were calculated and represented as histograms in Sect. 6.4.

6 Results and Discussion This study focuses on the influence of key parameters. Prosimplus software allows to evaluate the change of a variable within a given range. For each parameter, the range of influence is indicated, which allows the students to improve their critical analysis in respect to the technical-economic objectives of the process. 6.1 Influence of Number of Extraction Stages and Solvent Purity Number of extraction stages as well as solvent purity are key parameters for the optimization of the production unit. It is important for an engineer to know the sensitivity

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of these parameters to the amount of product recovered during the process. For the optimization of the number of stages, the students must analyze whether to increase or decrease this variable, starting from an initial value of 7 stages. As shown in the Fig. 3.a, increasing the number of stages results in a high product recovery (acetone) as well as a high installation cost. According to the results, a reduction of three extraction stages can be carried out without modifying the performance of the process. The Fig. 3.b shows the influence of solvent purity – Methyl-isobutyl-ketone (MIBK) - on the extraction yield. A decrease in solvent purity involves a decrease in the acetone recovery rate and in the solvent price, leading to an increase in acetone loss in the effluent of the process. This allows the student to analyze in detail the overall objective of the process of the alteration of the product quality and the variation of the waste treatment cost.

Fig. 3. Influence of number extraction stages (a) and MIBK purity (b) on the acetone recovery rate. Operating conditions: Acetone mass fraction in the feed: 0.4, Extraction temperature: 20 °C, solvent rate: 0.56

6.2 Influence of Extraction Solvent Different solvents were used for extraction of acetone, which included MIBK, Toluene, Diethyl ether, 1-octanol and 1-pentanol. The purity of the corresponding components is 99.9%. As shown in Fig. 4, low acetone recovery is obtained with aromatic solvents and long-chain alcohols such as toluene and 1-octanol, respectively. Concerning toluene, this is due to the low relative polarity of the molecule (0.099) in comparison with acetone (0.355). Despite their similar polarity (0.537), the high viscosity (7.288 mPa.s at 25 °C) of the molecule may explain the low recovery rate, due to the difficult mass transfer during the extraction process [12, 13]. Concerning Diethyl ether, slight polarity (0.201) coupled with low viscosity (0.224 mPa.s), make a good option as solvent for acetone extraction process. The best extraction performance is obtained with 5-carbon chain solvents such as MIBK and 1-pentanol, this number of carbons maintaining similar relative polarity (around 0.568) and low viscosity (around 4.06 mPa.s at 25 °C) [14], and thus similar selectivity in acetone extraction. This study allows the students to analyze the chemical properties of the components and link them to the extraction process.

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Fig. 4. Influence of extraction solvent on the acetone recovery rate. Operating conditions: Acetone mass fraction in the feed: 0.4, extraction temperature: 20 °C, solvent rate: 0.14.

6.3 Influence of Solvent Rate The acetone recovery rate as well as the number of distillation steps necessary for the purification of the product are studied as a function of the solvent rate used. The solvent rate represents the ratio between solvent and feed flow rate, respectively. The feed flow rate was kept constant at 3600 kg/h and the solvent flow rate is varied. To analyze this variable, the first challenge for the students is to decide whether to increase or decrease the amount of solvent to be used, starting from 2000 kg/h (solvent rate of 0.56). Increasing the solvent capacity keeps the acetone recovery rate high (Fig. 5), which is a good first indication, nevertheless, using higher solvent levels may oversize the production unit and increase production costs, while maintaining the same production capacity. Regarding the number of distillation stages, it could be observed that the number of stages indicated by the shortcut distillation column does not vary with the solvent quantity used (250– 3500 kg /h). The main reason is because the number of stages depends on the relative volatility of the components (liquid-vapor equilibrium behavior) and not on the feed flow that is entered into the column, which is related to the extraction feed. Increased solvent flow can oversize the distillation column in diameter and not in height. This

Fig. 5. Influence of solvent rate on the acetone recovery rate. Operating conditions: R = 1.2 Rmin , Acetone mass fraction in the feed: 0.4, Extraction temperature: 20 °C, sol-vent rate: 0.56

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analysis allows the students to analyze the extraction-distillation process as a single unit of production. 6.4 Pedagogical Evaluation This section contains the results of the survey performed to analyze the learning outcomes of the group of students. The data collected - where the overall participation rate is 40% - are analyzed for each question of Table 3. The feedback from students of Q1 and Q2 is shown in Fig. 6. These questions show the level of satisfaction with the project concerning the relationship between theory, simulation, and experimentation of the process. Most of the students, (47% very satisfied) and (45% satisfied), recognized the relationship between this simulation project and their mass transfer lessons (Q1), with only 8% of dissatisfaction. 83% of students found this approach to be the best way to improve the learning of industrial unit design (Q2), with only 17% of dissatisfaction.

Fig. 6. Results of Questions Q1 and Q2 of the survey taken by students involved in the PBL project. These questions show the level of satisfaction with the project concerning the relationship between theory, simulation, and experimentation of the process

These results show a higher impact of the PBL in the linking of theoretical, practical, and numerical knowledge. These questions show the student’s ability to identify/analyze the critical parameters of the production unit in an economic-energy framework. The student’s ability to identify/analyze the critical parameters of the production unit in an economic-energy framework is analyzed by the question 3 and 4 (Fig. 7). The results show that 98% of students consider that they have acquired the ability to identify the critical parameters of the production unit and, on that basis, to propose experimental approaches (Q3 ). 83% of the group confirm the influence of this project on the awareness of the economic and energetic analysis of the unit in the optimization of the operating conditions. These results show that this PBL improves the learning of the operating process, allowing to highlight the role of each key variable from an economic approach. The questions Q5 and Q6 show the students’ overall ability to make a critical analysis of the extraction-distillation unit and their perception of the most important element of the project concerning their learning framework, respectively. According to the results depicted in Fig. 8, 88% of students consider that they have successfully improved their

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Fig. 7. Results of the question Q3 and Q4 of the survey taken by students involved in the PBL project.

Fig. 8. Results of the question Q5 and Q6 of the survey taken by students involved in the PBL project. These questions show the students’ overall ability to make a critical analysis of the extraction-distillation unit and the most important element of the project in their learning framework, respectively.

critical analysis based on the critical parameters of the process unit (Q5). In addition, they indicate that the most important element they have identified is the industrial approach, with a 57% approval rate, followed by teamwork with a 23% approval rate (Q6). These results confirms the development of new skills and the students’ ability to adapt to new learning practices. The identification of key parameters and their use within a critical analysis of the production unit coupled with the industrial approach of the project allows the students to adapt their analysis in a professional environment. 6.5 Limitation of the Research The successful development of this PBL requires prior knowledge of the Prosimplus simulation software. The students who participated in this study had basic knowledge and had already participated in similar simulation projects [8]. Concerning the participation in the survey, since participation was voluntary and given after the completion of the Mass and Energy Transfer course, only 40% participation was obtained.

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7 Conclusion In conclusion, this PBL methodology applied in an extraction-distillation production unit gives the students a different approach to one of the most important courses, Mass and Energy Transfer course, in their engineering degree. The proposed PBL supports the development of the critical analysis of an industrial process from the theoretical knowledge acquired during the course. The integration of basic knowledge of Thermodynamics, Process Simulation and Chemistry within an industrial approach allows the students to develop key skills for their professional career: identification/critical analysis of parameters, sensitivity analysis, process optimization, economic/energy analysis of the process. This PBL provides students with new tools in simulation and design of important unit operations such as extraction and distillation. Moreover, the degree of student satisfaction, ascertained through the survey, is noticeably high, indicating that the proposed simulation project, with active learning methodologies, has been well received. The students consider that the most important element is the industrial approach, which highlights that the main motivation for their learning is the challenge of applying their knowledge in a real production unit. The same activity can be implemented in the same operation units – extraction & distillation - in other different degrees and editions to have more data and compare them.

References 1. Fields, L., Trostian B., Moroney, T., Dean B.A.: Active learning pedagogy transformation: a whole-of-school approach to person-centred teaching and nursing graduates. Nurse Educ. Pract. 53 (202) 2. Saad, A., Zainudin, S.: A review of Project-Based Learning (PBL) and Computational Thining (CT) in teaching and learning. Learn. Motiv. 78 (2022) 3. Yusof, K.M., Hassan, S.A.H.S., Jamaludin, M.Z., Harun, N.F.: Cooperative problem-based learning (CPBL): framework for integrating cooperative learning and problem-based learning. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 56(Ictlhe), 223–232 (2012) 4. Calvo, L., Prieto, C.: The teaching of enhanced distillation processes using a commercial simulator and a project-based learning approach. Educ. Chem. Eng. 17, 65–74 (2016) 5. Ballesteros, M.A., Daza, M.A., Valdés, J.P., Ratkovich, N., Reyes, L.H.: Applying PBL methodologies to the chemical engineering courses: unit operations. Educ. Chem. Eng. 27, 35–42 (2019) 6. Elm’selmi, A., et al.: Enhancing understanding and skills in biopharmaceutical process development: recombinant protein production and purification. In: Auer, M.E., Tsiatsos, T. (eds.) The Challenges of the Digital Transformation in Education. AISC, vol. 917, pp. 381–392. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11935-5_37 7. Elm’selmi, A., Boeuf, G., Elmarjou, A., Azouani, R.: Active pedagogy project to increase bio-industrial process skills. In: Auer, M.E., Guralnick, D., Uhomoibhi, J. (eds.) Interactive Collaborative Learning. AISC, vol. 544, pp. 265–274. Springer, Cham (2017). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-319-50337-0_23 8. Gomez-del, R.T., Rodriguez, J.: Design and assessment of a project-based learning in a laboratory for integrating knowledge and improving engineering design skills. Educ. Chem. Eng. 40, 17–28 (2022) 9. Beneroso, D., Robinson, J.: Online project-based learning in engineering design: supporting the acquisition of design skills. Educ. Chem. Eng. 38, 38–47 (2022)

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10. Azouani, R., Dadi, R., Mielcarek, C., Absi, R., Elm’selmi, A.: Engineering design of a heat exchanger using theoretical, laboratory and simulation tools. In: Auer, M.E., Tsiatsos, T. (eds.) The Challenges of the Digital Transformation in Education. AISC, vol. 917, pp. 331–341. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11935-5_32 11. Arden, N.S., Fisher, A.C., Tyner, K., Yu, L.X., Lee, S.L., Kopcha, M.: Industry 4.0 for pharmaceutical manufacturing: preparing for the smart factories of the future. Int. J. Pharm. 602, 120554 (2021) 12. Wells, D.A.: Liquid-liquid extraction: strategies for method development and optimization. In: Progress in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, vol. 5, pp. 307–326. Elsevier (2013) 13. Reichardt, C.: Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry, 3rd edn. Wiley-VCH Publishers (2003) 14. Hussein, N.M., Asfour, A-F.A.: An experimental study of the viscometric and volumetric properties of 1-Alkanol (C3-C11) ternary systems at different temperature levels. Int. J. Nat. Eng. Sci. 12(1), 26–36 (2018)

The Point for the Practice – Criteria Based Competence Measurement Method Comet Ralph Dreher1(B)

and Gesine Haseloff2

1 University of Siegen, TVD, Breite Strasse 11, 57076 Siegen, Germany

[email protected]

2 Humboldt University Berlin, Geschwister-Scholl-Strasse 7, 10177 Berlin, Germany

[email protected]

Abstract. Competence measurement is an essential moment - both for the determination of actual professional ability and its developmental status as well as for the educational performance of an institution and its didactic implications. In the following, we will show how the COMET model for competence assessment can be used to achieve targeted competence promotion within the framework of a STEM project (STEM - science, technology, engineering and mathematics) at general schools. At the same time, this project can be used to illustrate the actionoriented direction (using elements of project-based learning) in which general schools must work. This, on the one hand, to strengthen the students’ interest in science and technology and, on the other hand, to prepare the students for vocational learning at EQF level 6. Promotion of STEM interest can be achieved in particular through the use of the holistic COMET process - in which the criteria of social compatibility and ecological responsibility are included to a special degree. However, it must also be noted that the further training of teachers to become raters, i.e. qualified evaluators according to the COMET concept (“interrater reliability”) with the task identification included therein, represents a considerable challenge. Keywords: competency measurement · STEM · PBL · COMET

1 Justification of the Necessity 1.1 For Vocational Education and Training Vocational education - and here engineering education should be explicitly addressed, especially with its claim for the bachelor education - should “[…] enable to participate in shaping the world of work and society in social, ecological and economic responsibility” [1]. This requirement is of great importance, especially for people working in technology, since their developments and products have a great and often decisive influence on people’s lives [2]. In order to be able to meet this responsibility, there is a need for “professional action competence” [3], which learners should acquire during their training. Such professional action competence cannot be mapped with a difficulty model (multiple-choice test items © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 305–319, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_30

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leading to true or false statements) but only with a value-based ability model (measuring the ability dimension on certain task characteristics) [4]. The latter shows “how subjects whose solutions show different degrees of proficiency cope with open occupational tasks” [5]. 1.2 For General Education The acquisition of action competence must be considered as a process of continuous further development, not as learning in the sense of reproduction or application. Teachinglearning scenarios aimed at the acquisition of such action competence should therefore begin as early as possible. For this reason, the scope of the COMET model was extended to general schools (9th and 10th grade) as part of the LOBB project (see Sect. 2). This expansion was preceded by the following factor analysis: • The focus of vocational education on the ability to act and create in a self-responsible manner is a response to a working world that demands precisely this and for which preparation is needed. Beginning this preparation in the career identification phase makes it possible to show at an early stage what it means to learn a profession. • In recognizing that the culture of digitality [6] also opens up completely different design possibilities for the New Citoyen [7], it becomes clear that a domain-unspecific design competence needs to be promoted. • The recent discussion about freely available AI tools such as CHAT-GPT shows that previous forms of certification, if they were ever meaningful, are losing their value in an almost inflationary manner. This is because they often test the cognitive levels of knowing and describing, but not those of analyzing and synthesizing [8]. But the latter already has a dominant importance in a world of work that requires fewer and fewer standardized work routines but demands more problem solving competencies (perfected in the notion of Holacracy; [9]). Consideration of these factors leads to the conclusion that it makes sense to start promoting shaping competence at the secondary I/junior high school level.

2 Short Description of the LOBB Idea 2.1 LOBB as Regional Project LOBB is the acronym for “Lernort Berufliche Bildung” (Learning locations in VET). It signals that with the concept of the learning situation as a • description of a vocational task and • its solution by means of a complete action (informing, planning, deciding, executing, controlling, reflecting) • students should work on a corresponding project task.

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The goal of the project is to, • to promote greater interest in STEM-related occupations in general and • to relativize the current imbalance in the choice of occupation between academictechnical and commercial-technical training by illustrating the advantages of company-school training based on the learning field concept (project-based learning with a holistic approach). This is of great importance for the region of Siegen-Wittgenstein because it is economically dependent on a large number of so-called “hidden champion” companies. These companies are highly specialized and thus correctly define themselves as world market leaders in their narrow field of business. At the same time, they are highly dependent on both developing engineering work and executing skilled labor. Here, the realization has prevailed that it is precisely the dovetailing of theory and practice, i.e. the joint teamwork between engineer and skilled worker, that gives rise to the actual innovation potential that is necessary to maintain market leadership. This makes the interest of companies in recruiting trainees as future employees all the greater, which ultimately makes the LOBB project so significant for the region. Analogous to the innovation work in companies, LOBB should therefore offer a project task which, on the one hand, realistically depicts the complete design, realization and optimization process and, on the other hand, also enables relevance on the part of the students (identification with the product). 2.2 The LOBB-Project-Task Based on the previously outlined criteria for the LOBB project, the following project task was formulated under the aspects of high designability, presumably complex CAD acquisition and an equally comprehensive examination of the aspects of ecological as well as social responsibility: The project task relates to the design and manufacture of a cell phone holder using 3D printing. In addition, in both the information and control phases, university-supervised micro-teaching units take place on the following topics: • Pricing; • Sustainability (social and ecological responsibility) and • Dealing with production problems (printing time, use or abandonment of support structures). A low-rated example (high material consumption, complicated production) in relation to the task is shown in Fig. 1, a high-rated example in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 1. “Disholistic” Holder (left)

Fig. 2. “Holistic Holder” (right)

3 The COMET Competence and Measurement Model The COMET competence and measurement model was developed on the basis of Felix Rauner’s theory of multiple competence since 2007. It states that professional action competence is considered to be acquired when the following eight requirements/partial competencies for the solution of a professional work task can be met [10]: • Functionality/expertise Instrumental expertise and context-free technical knowledge are present. • Clarity/presentation The result of professional action can be anticipated, i.e. the professional action process can be planned, evaluated and communicated. • Sustainability/usability orientation The usability desired by the customer is considered in the task solution and attention is paid to sustainable implementation. • Economy/efficiency Efficiency and economic aspects play a role in the task solution. • Business and work process orientation Upstream and downstream work areas in the hierarchy and process chain for solving the task are included. • Social compatibility

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Humane Appropriate work conditions and work planning, occupational safety and social aspects influence the task solution. • Environmental compatibility Not only general environmental awareness but also occupational and technical environmental requirements are involved in the task solution. • Creativity It is visible that (all) creative scope for solving the task is sensibly exhausted. In connection with the theories of the novice-expert paradigm of Dreyfus & Dreyfus [11] as a measuring for existing competence (i.e. the ability to solve unknown tasks, see further [12]) and the theory of complete action of Hacker and Volpert [13], Felix Rauner and his team have set up a complex competence measurement procedure in the first COMET project (2018). Thus, in line with the educational theory foundation outlined before, on the one hand, the action competence (development) of teachers and learners can be considered. On the other hand, the procedure allows to draw conclusions about the strengths and weaknesses of teaching and its educational value (especially with regard to a domain-specific regulation of action). As a result, the didactic action of teachers and teaching institution can be further developed.

4 Example: The LOBB Project (bc:Olpe) 4.1 Project Conditions The following project took place in spring 2021 as the second project (after a pilot project at another school [14]) with the aim, to measure the competence of the students: • as a disposition in coping with a design task in the beginning of the project (pre test) and • after the end of the project (main test). • Participants were students and teachers of two 9th and 10th grades at the “Städtisches Gymnasium in Olpe” (North Rhine-Westphalia). 4.2 Task Development The team of raters (teachers and researchers) first formulates the test task - development of the cell phone holder - as an idea, then discusses it on the basis of the COMET criteria, and finally tests it in a pre-test. The task itself is characterized mainly by the following features [15]: • realistic problem; • wide scope for design (no unambiguous solution) with corresponding design openness (“many things are possible”); • enables a holistic evaluation according to the COMET criteria (cf. Sect. 5.2); • challenges to document and justify the solution found.

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For the degree of fulfillment, a solution space is finally defined in the course of the task development (When are the requirements fully fulfilled?). It is based on the utility value, the sustainability, the aesthetic quality and the subjective interests of the users [16]. 4.3 Rater Training The development of the task can already be seen as a first preliminary stage of the rater training, i.e. the evaluation of task solutions by means of the COMET criteria. The raters use the COMET criteria to determine the suitability of the task and get to know it by checking whether the task allows for the acquisition of the 8 sub-competencies and the corresponding 5 items. They decide whether certain sub-competencies/items should be particularly emphasized due to the objective of the task or whether certain sub-competencies/items should be omitted. They revise individual formulations in the task and finally decide on a final version of the learning task. During the main phase of the rater training, the team members practice evaluating the learners’ solutions before the start of the project by comparing the results and recordings of the students provided by the university from previous LOBB projects with the COMET items step by step and comparing their evaluations immediately afterwards. If the assessments differ too much from each other, they justify and discuss their assessment and look for a consensus. The raters assign points (not at all fulfilled: 0, rather not fulfilled: 1, rather fulfilled: 2, fully fulfilled: 3) and formulate their opinion independently of each other as to what extent the solution corresponds to the item. The aim is to find a common evaluation basis with a high interrater reliability, i.e. the greatest possible agreement, when comparing the individual ratings. See table 1 shows an example of the items used for the criterion “Creativity” and the rater results achieved in the main test: Table 1. Das COMET criterion “creativity” with rater results Creativity Evaluation Rater 1 criteria

Rater 2

Rater 3

Rater 4

Rater 5

Arithmetic mean

Does the solution contain meaningful elements that extend beyond the expected solution space?

3,0

3,0

2,0

2,5

3,0

2,7

Are the criteria 2,0 balanced against each other?

3,0

2,5

3,0

3,0

2,7

Does the solution show problem sensitivity?

2,0

3.0

3,0

3,0

2,6

2,0

(continued)

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Table 1. (continued) Creativity Evaluation Rater 1 criteria

Rater 2

Rater 3

Rater 4

Rater 5

Arithmetic mean

Is the design scope offered by the task being exhausted?

1,5

2,0

2,0

2,0

1,0

2,1

Has applicability been considered in the case of an innovative solution?

2,0

2,5

2,0

2,0

2,0

2,1

Sum / Arithmetic mean x 10 Score for creativity

12,2 2,44 24,4

The scores of all raters are summed up, the arithmetic mean is calculated and multiplied by a factor of 10. Initially, the rating results differed greatly from one another because the raters based their assessment on their own competence rather than on the solution space to be covered by the rating (see Sect. 4.2). After reflecting on this procedure, the rating results of the student solutions are more consistent. After two practice runs, the LOBB (bc:Olpe)-project achieved a final value of 0.8 for interrater reliability (FINN-Coefficient). 4.4 Interrater Reliability as a Quality Benchmark The above-mentioned finite value of 0.8 (0.71 as the lowest limit value) is considered a benchmark for the quality of a competence measurement according to the COMET procedure, because it means a high degree of agreement in the independent assessment of the learning outcome by the individual raters. To maintain the quality of the COMET instrument, the test results are therefore only reflected and published if the raters succeed in evaluating the task solutions in all criteria with this high interrater reliability. For the LOBB (bc:Olpe) project this means: The result of the rater training shows a professional handling of the test procedure by the teachers and furthermore led to numerous discussions about didactical questions. Up to now, the teachers at the Olpe school have rarely carried out project-based teaching that is geared towards design orientation and focuses on solving real-life (vocational) tasks. They now see the COMET method as an opportunity to design realistic and interdisciplinary lessons. 4.5 Presentation of the Project Phases The entire project sequence for the LOBB (bc:Olpe) project is shown in Table 2 below:

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Project step

Project phase

Project content

1

Introduction of the project group to the testing procedure: Forming a team of raters

Clarification of the term “competence”; explanation of the COMET approach;

2

Development of test items(-designs) and learning tasks

Discussion of the task “cell phone holder” from the pre-test with regard to the COMET criteria

3

Rater training

Use of the work results from the previous project for rater training; target value: interrater reliability of 75%

4

First test with Students (pretest): first development task “cell phone holder” in individual work

First rating; interrater stability was achieved

5

Analysis of the pretest results and feedback

Feedback with focus on feasibility, economic viability, environmental responsibility

6

Project phase: design and production of Vgl. Abb. 1 und 2 an ‘optimal’ cell phone holder

7

Second test (main test) with students

Further development of the cell phone holder draft in knowledge of the criteria

8

Rating, analysis and feedback

Presentation and discussion of the main test results

5 Results 5.1 Determination of the Results The individual results were determined analogously to the example of creativity according to Table 1. For further presentation, the achieved score is assigned to a competence level as follows (according to [17]): Competence level 0: Nominal competence Test persons with this competence level have only achieved a score of less than 11.2 for the criteria functionality and clarity/presentation. They do not yet have professional action competence. Competence level 1: Functional competence The score of the test persons for the criteria functionality and clarity/presentation is above 11.2. They have elementary technical knowledge and skills - an understanding of context is not yet present. Missing scores can be compensated with scores up to 8.3 from other competence dimensions.

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Competence level 2: Processual competence This competence level is achieved if the scores for Functional Competence and Processual Competence (criteria economic efficiency, utility value orientation, business and work process orientation) are each higher than 11.2. Learners who achieve this test result are able to make connections between their tasks and everyday (business) (work) processes. Missing scores can be compensated with scores up to 8.3 from other competence dimensions. Competence level 3: Shaping competence Learners who have achieved at least 11.2 points in all 3 competence levels (and thus also in the criteria of environmental compatibility, social compatibility and creativity) are at this level. At this level, tasks are perceived in their full complexity and solved under consideration of diverse framework conditions. Social and ecological consequences of one’s own actions are reflected upon and solutions to tasks are developed independently. 5.2 Result Evaluation Table 3 shows the rating-argumentation comparing the student-solutions Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Table 3. Comparison of solutions “Handy-Holder” based on the defined solution space Common Criteria fullfilled

Criteria failed Fig. 1

Criteria failed Fig. 2

Functionality: Working with a lot of Handy-types and Phablets

Sustainability: The Holding arms will broke often; the mounting of the holding arms is too simple (only plug connection)

Sustainability: May be too small for handy over 6,7

Clarity/presentation: Both groups make a clear presentation about the benefits and disadvantages of their solution

Economy: Long printer time; A lot of material for the base-part

Business-Orientation: Two separate parts – one can be lost. Better to find a solution to clip them together out of use

Creativity: It is easy to remount both Holders

Business-Orientation: A lot of single parts need a lot of work and space (packing and packaging) Environmental Compatibility: High Use of resources (Material, Production energy)

Social compatibility: Was not a specific field in the

The test results are presented in the form of competence profiles (“competence spider”, Fig. 3).

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As an example, Fig. 3 shows the competence profile for a group of students before and after the LOBB project (bc:Olpe) as an averaged rater result:

Fig. 3. COMET comparison (K1 = vividness/presentation, K2 = functionality, K3 = usevalue orientation, K4 = economy, K5 = business and work process orientation, K6 = social compatibility, K7 = environmental compatibility, K8 = creativity).

The competency developments shown in Fig. 3 are repeated in their basic characteristics for the other groups of students: • From the beginning, the students succeeded in finding a usable solution when considering K2 (functionality). This was also due to the fact that cell phone holders on the market or in personal use served (consciously or unconsciously) as a model. • A strong competence development takes place over the course of the project, because the initial design was very comprehensively reflected by the student groups through the project-flanking micro-teaching and the moderation of the teachers during the supervision of the group work. • This is especially true for factors K3, K6, and K7, all of which are at the level of procedural competence. The increase in factor K3 (utility orientation) is primarily due to the realization that the cell phone holder was designed in such a way that it fits universally for many cell phone models - and thus remains usable for much longer. This leads to an increase in K7 (environmental compatibility). • As an extension for K7 in addition to the material requirements: the packability (small spatial dimensions, little filling material) was frequently discussed in an intensive manner. • The criterion K6 “Social compatibility” was discussed by the learners in a special way with regard to the working conditions (both in plastics processing, in the actual

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printing process, but also in filament production as well as the elimination of support structures) and included with great emphasis (self-)critically in the description of the respective solution by the groups of students. • In contrast, the value K8 (creativity) drops. It became clear that the groups of students did not succeed in completely discarding their design, which as a rule was not completely new. Instead, they stuck to it with the goal of optimizing it - even if the result threatened to become suboptimal. The willingness to completely revise their product was rather non-existent. • As a critical point from the today’s perspective: The intended focus on K7 (environmental compatibility) and K6 (social compatibility), which was close to the students’ hearts, did lead relatively quickly to the very pleasant discussion of demanding alternative materials to plastic - BUT this could not be achieved in the project at this time and against the given background of actually realizing the design as a prototype. Here, the students’ wishes (recycled filament) could only be met gradually.

6 Conclusion for the LOBB-Project bc:Olpe LOBB project confirms that the intended transfer of a competence measurement procedure from vocational education to general education has been successful. The teachers are able to adapt to the role of the raters; the students perceive the COMET criteria as supportive rather than instructional. This can be seen above all in the fact that the criteria essential for acquiring professional competence (K4–K8) have experienced a considerable increase. A possible thesis on this (which, however, could not yet be investigated): Such a holistic and subjectintegrative teaching seems to meet the current demands of the learners in a special way, which can be justified by the high commitment of the groups of students in the project phase. However, further work in the project must take these findings into account: • The project content does not yet appear optimal in view of the material definition; here a compromise must be found between concept development on the one hand and the prototype realization, which is conceived and perceived as motivating; • A careful rater training with a sufficient interrater stability is a prerequisite - which, if necessary, must lead to a project termination in case of an unsuccessful rater training; • On the school side, in addition to the university-prepared micro-teaching units, a corresponding interdisciplinary interlocking for a more continuous supervision of the student groups is to be strived for. This requires a higher degree of cooperation with the school (and thinking outside the curriculum).

7 Outlook: Conclusions on the Challenge of AI in Teaching 7.1 Basic Assumptions about the Use of AI in Technical Education Technical education has always defined its didactic basis from concrete professional requirements. This means that an engineer or skilled worker is already specifically educated with regard to his or her later job; changes in the respective working world find their way

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into technical education sooner rather than later. The constantly observable redefinition of technical courses of study on the one hand (especially the merging of mechanical and electrical engineering to form mechatronics, which in turn forms an additional intersection with computer engineering) and major changes in job content (in metal production, for example, the cutting machine operator, who is now trained primarily in data handling and programming, but less in the manual control of a machine tool) can serve as evidence of this. And even if AI did not yet play a role in the school example presented above: It is becoming increasingly clear that AI will become an increasingly natural tool of technical work - both in terms of taking over tasks in programming, production and process control and resource procurement, and as a tool for decision-making with regard to design processes, whether these are business process-oriented or design-oriented. AI systems will thus be used, their handling will thus become a component of technical teaching, both in terms of their benefits and their dangers, and above all: their mastery as a supporting tool - and not as a substitute for a decision-making process that is human (because holistic) in the best sense. A small example of this: The authors of this paper provided the AI software “CHAT-GPT” with the design theory exam of a renowned German technical university with the request to solve it. The result was not surprising: CHAT-GPT was able to. The exam, which was set to 180 minutes, could be solved correctly within a few minutes. Whereby: “Correct” is relative here, because as is well known, many calculations in mechanical engineering require the selection of dimensioning factors according to requirements. CHAT-GPT solved these tasks by using the correct formula (or generating the correct formula construct) and by choosing average values for the dimensioning factors to be used. The AI ignored the hint that, depending on the task, it would be a light-weight or heavy-weight construction to be executed in each case. Instead, a visual factor of 2.2 was used for the calculation, regardless of the task. What becomes clear from this example is the following: AI systems are capable of • to use task-related correct algebraic formulas. • solve more complex algebraic tasks correctly by formula interleaving. AI systems are not able to • make case-dependent individual decisions (here: choosing the adequate safety factor), • because they are incapable of deliberation, since they do not generate solution spaces, i.e. they do not generate and compare different possible solutions. 7.2 Relation Back to the COMET Approach Before it can be used, COMET always requires the formulation and testing of a design task, i.e. a task that cannot be solved unambiguously (hence the need to formulate a solution space for the task) and that usually requires the weighing of controversial criteria (in the classic case: economic efficiency versus ecological and/or social responsibility).

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This then also includes enduring corresponding criticism of the prioritization of COMET factors and the necessary justification of one’s own decisions. The example of the construction theory exam outlined above is not necessarily in contrast to a COMET task, but it can quickly lead to a situation in which technical teaching leads itself into obsolescence through the USE of AI systems if it is not didactically focused accordingly: Concretely, in the professional reality in the field of machine and plant design, AI will be increasingly used as a calculation aid; likewise, it will become even more of a professional task to take all factors into account and to weigh them up; the design will therefore have to be • functional and business-process-oriented (good manufacturability) • as well as with regard to the choice of materials and the manufacturing effort and process, • transportability (in the case of large-scale constructions) and the • recyclability and durability (avoidance of rapid obsolescence), In other words, they must be designed in an energetically sensible manner and with justifiable stresses at the workplace during production. The actual calculation with the factors resulting from the design can then be performed by AI, but the final inspection must be carried out by humans for legal reasons. Similarly, AI can support the choice of materials, for example, by providing basic calculations on the energy consumption of material extraction and recycling, but - and this is where the special function of a COMET solution space comes into play - it must be proven that this calculation has been carried out objectively and satisfies the criteria of a science-based estimate. Thus, the plausibility of an AI must also be made the subject of technical work. COMET tasks with the aforementioned design moments are therefore tasks that precisely cannot be entrusted to an AI - but use it reflexively and in a controlling manner wherever it is relevant in relation to the known professional work processes. 7.3 Conclusions for Technical Teaching Technical education must finally and sustainably move away from the idea of placing established procedures of design, calculation or dimensioning and function control at the center of teaching, in order to then demand these schemes as imparted technical knowledge or to demand their application (in some cases, downright traditional tasks). Instead, it must be more open to tasks that demand a high degree of design potential, but at the same time are less clearly assessable in terms of their correctness. • are initially less clearly assessable in terms of their correctness, and • take into account the aspect of responsible use of AI. COMET represents such an evaluation scheme, because via its system of • • • •

of the open design task with his solution space based on the, holistic COMET criteria with their differentiation via the items

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So COMET enables a valid, objective and reliable evaluation of such project tasks as well as the consideration of a beneficial use of AI via the factors of responsibility. However: COMET requires, on the one hand, the careful development of appropriate design tasks and solution spaces, as presented in the school-based project in advance. And on the other hand, the use of COMET requires careful rater training and the availability of domain-specific knowledgeable raters. This, in turn, requires an institutional development process that includes. • further develops curriculum work (transition from content to competency descriptions and pools of project tasks), • uses flexibilities in accreditation, and above all • installs a supportive and engaging human resource management to address these reforms. But: An insistence on the status quo of schema application as an educational process, which was already irrelevant in the past with the reference to the educational claim, can now a fortiori no longer exist: For such an understanding of instruction as exclusively Vocational Training can no longer be justified by the existence of and easy access to AI.

References 1. KMK: Rahmenlehrplan für den Ausbildungsberuf Industriemechaniker/Industriemechanikerin (Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 25.03.2004 i. d. F. vom 23.02.2018). Berlin (2018). https://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/pdf/Bildung/BeruflicheBildung/rlp/Industriemechan iker-IH04-03-25-idf-18-02-23.pdf. Accessed 26 May 2023 2. Dreher, R.: A benchmark for curricula in engineering education: the leonardic oath. In: ICL Conference: ICL 2015 Conference Proceeding, pp. 713–715. Firenze (2015) 3. ibid loc.cit 4. Mertens, T., Rost, J.: Zum Zusammenhang von Struktur und Modellirung beruflicher Kompetenzen. In: Rauner, F., Haasler, B., Heinemann, L., Grollmann, P. (eds.) Messen beruflicher Kompetenzen. Band 1. Grundlagen und Konzeption des KOMET-Projektes, p. 100. Lit, Berlin (2009) 5. ibid loc.cit 6. Stalder, F.: Kultur der Digitalität. 5th edn. Suhrkamp, Berlin (2021) 7. Meßmer, A.-K., Sängerlaub, A., und Schulz, L.: “Quelle: Internet”? Digitale Nachrichten- und Informationskompetenzen der deutschen Bevölkerung im Test. Stiftung neue Verantwortung e.V., Berlin (2021) 8. Oldenburg, R.: Künstliche und natürliche Intelligenz. Zur Gestaltung eienr zukünftigen Bildung. In: Forschung & Lehre, Heft 5/21, pp. 346–347. Bonn (2021) 9. Plötz, F.: Das Ende der dummen Arbeit. Wie Du als Angestellter zu mehr Sinn, Geld und Freiheit kommst, p. 230ff. Econ, Berlin (2018) 10. Rauner, F.: Methodenhandbuch. Messen und Entwickeln beruflicher Kompetenzen, p. 21f. wbv, Bielefeld (2018) 11. Dreyfus, H.L., Dreyfus, S.E.: Künstliche Intelligenz: von den Grenzen der Denkmaschine und dem Wert der Intuition. rororo, Reinbek bei Hamburg (1987) 12. Weinert, F.E.: Leistungsmessungen an Schulen. Beltz, Weinheim (2014) 13. Volpert, W.: Handlungsstrukturanalyse als Beitrag zur Qualifikationsforschung. Köln, PahlRugenstein (1974)

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14. Haseloff, G., Weiß, T.: The potential of a learning project’s task. In: Auer, M.E, Pachatz, W., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) Learning in the Age of Digital and Green Transition Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL2022). LNNS, vol. 2, 634, pp. 428–439. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26190-9 15. Haasler, B., Heinemann, L., Rauner, F., Grollmann, P., Martens, T.: Testentwicklung und Untersuchsungsdesign. In: Rauner, F., Haasler, B., Heinemann, L., Grollmann, P. (eds.) Messen beruflicher Kompetenzen. Band 1. Grundlagen und Konzeption des KOMETProjektes, p. 105. Lit, Berlin (2009) 16. Rauner, F.: Methodenhandbuch. Messen und Entwickeln beruflicher Kompetenzen, p. 23f. wbv, Bielefeld (2018) 17. ibid, p. 245f

Teaching Electricity Topics with Project-Based Learning and Physical Computing to Enhance Primary School Students in Science Education. An Educational Experiment with BBC Micro:bit Board Stamatios Papadakis1(B)

, Effransia Tzagkaraki1

, and Michail Kalogiannakis2

1 Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, Rethymno, Greece

[email protected] 2 Department of Special Education, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece

Abstract. In the present study, we investigate the effect on student performance of using a project-based learning approach combined with a robotic application. From the current intervention, we expect positive results from combining ProjectBased Learning with focused activities and physical programming through BBC Micro: bit in implementing the specific design and producing solutions to future problems. From the processing of the data, a slight improvement was observed in the performance of 5th-grade students at a conceptual level. In addition, it emerged that in a similar approach, children’s prior knowledge should be considered, and a combination of physical programming tools should be tested to increase performance improvement. Keywords: Project-based learning · Physical computing · Micro:bit

1 Introduction The literature review shows that Project-Based Learning (PBL) is not an innovation. In 1918, based on Dewey’s work, Kilpatrick gave the name “project method” to what Dewey had called learning by doing. In a project-based learning context, in addition to performance outcomes, we observe and evaluate students’ stages to solve an authentic problem situation or question [1]. Designing and implementing a project-based robotic construction, especially if it involves physical and visual (block–based) programming, as in our case, challenges students’ creativity, computational thinking, and problem-solving skills. They are invited to collaborate and offer sustainable solutions with real meaning [2–5] while cultivating programming and computational skills, central educational goals in most countries [2]. Supporting these computer science educational goals is understood to require special handling from educators. For young or older students, programming is often very demanding in teaching and learning the rationale and how to compose commands [2]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 320–330, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_31

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The educational benefits derived from the Project-Based Learning approach for students and teachers make its use widespread. Nevertheless, there needs to be more research on integrating it into the classroom, with teachers looking for guidelines for its constructive application [6]. The present study aims to contribute to this by examining the effect of the proposed teaching and learning options on the understanding of Physics concepts about electricity. First, the purpose and the research question of the study are presented, a brief reference to the background of the research, the method, and the main results are described, and finally, the conclusions that have been reached are mentioned.

2 Background As pointed out in the literature, nowadays, there are many tools and methodological approaches for education at all levels. However, the different needs of the student population, who have different backgrounds and learning styles, require continuous efforts to modernize and enrich the methods used. This necessity is also imposed by the rapid and constantly evolving uses of technological means and programming techniques. At the same time, however, educators with little or no experience in these pathways are challenged to implement new curricula and use tools for the first time in their careers to find new ways to engage students with dynamic, practical, and meaningful activities and enhance “digital creativity” and a host of other 21st-century skills [7]. In project-based learning, students experience and understand by constructing primarily tangible artefacts. Following the basic principles of project-based learning, students construct projects and, in their endeavour, through collaboration and questionanswering, build knowledge. It is an active construction where prior knowledge and experiences are connected, reconstructed, and given new content through inquiry and more profound understanding [3, 8]. This pedagogical strategy involves a learner’s ability to be activated to collect and organize information to produce knowledge that will also have personal meaning through collaboration. Compared to other pedagogical approaches, project-based learning has some unique characteristics [9]. The process starts with a question/case that is the reason for an open investigation. Learning is student-led according to learning objectives. The approach to the problem follows the scientific approach with research hypotheses, experimentation, interpretation, conclusions, discussion, and communication of the results to the group. A key element is the cooperation of students with students, teachers with teachers, and students with teachers. Exclusively knowledgeable teachers promote individual learning and peer collaboration. The discussion and reflection that develops are critical to learning in order to understand ideas and concepts that arise in research. The viability of the solution given in response to the case is also documented through the discussion. In many cases, technological tools are used during research, and finally, the answer to the original problem may be given by one or more different artefacts [5, 9]. Salam (2022) states that despite its advantages, project-based learning and related research on its inclusion in the teaching and learning process needs to be enriched by providing meaningful directions. Thus, strategies are suggested with teamwork, simulation,

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storytelling, experiments, and a collective approach to solving a game-based problem [6]. Also, examining the literature on how teachers integrate project-based learning, several difficulties were identified that affect the successful implementation of such projects. The most frequently mentioned difficulty has to do with the different roles and organization of the educational context of the teacher. Instead of the knowledge transmitter, he acquires the role of organizer, tests techniques/strategies, and adapts materials and means, creating a climate of initiative and collaboration [9]. Physical programming is a cognitive tool where, using the technology of the time, the type of projects and phenomena that students can explore and experience through projectbased learning is expanded. Physical computing creates interactive systems that perceive and respond to the real world. The resulting interactive objects are programmable and can be part of a more comprehensive network of objects. The dominant advantage is that as the hardware is combined with the software, various applications and many aspects of computer science and other knowledge subjects can be implemented. The resulting visible artefacts can be presented and evaluated, and now having a wide range of physical computing devices with different technical capabilities and functions, there is no limit to [10]. Physical devices can support an inquiry approach described above through projectbased learning, where students build on existing knowledge and follow a step-by-step problem-solving pedagogy to build knowledge. In the school context, this is achieved with structured projects where in the process, they learn concepts related to programming. From the students’ point of view, using physical utensils is a positive experience that stimulates their motivation and creativity [7]. Various studies report that using physical devices, such as programmable boards, improves learning [10]. Also, findings from research by Theodoropoulos, Leon, Antoniou & Lepouras (2018) showed that learning improved with students indicating that their attitudes towards learning programming were positively affected by exposure to physical programming while their self-efficacy also improved [11]. In addition, the attractiveness of physical devices for children was highlighted. More detailed, the research of Chung & Lou (2021) concludes that students’ programming abilities, computational thinking, and practical application skills were enhanced through the authentic design of a project [2]. In this study, Micro:bit’s single-board device exposed children to physical programming. It is the latest tangible device with many valuable and easy-to-use functions and is increasingly becoming the subject of research and experimentation [4, 12]. All the studies examined the impact of project-based learning and/or physical computing concerning areas of computer science rather than their applications in other disciplines. The present study attempts to bridge this gap by linking the project-based learning approach and physical programming with physics for elementary students and in a specific context related to electricity to show the proposed approach’s broad applicability precisely. The study examines whether project-based learning combined with the proposed application of physical computing improves student achievement to a greater extent than traditional instruction in the electricity course for 5th-grade students. The research question of the study based on the purpose is:

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RQ: Did children’s performance in understanding concepts and applications of electricity improve?

3 Introduction 3.1 Participants A total of 140 fifth-grade students, 65 males and 75 females (Table 1), from four public elementary schools in an urban area in Greece participated in this study. Each school had two departments, one randomly selected as the experimental group and the other as the control group. Most students had prior experience with programming and basic knowledge of the block-based programming environment Scratch. Table 1. Demographic information. Group

Male

Female

N

%

Control

31

37

68

4846

Experimental

34

38

72

51,4

Total

65

75

140

100,0

3.2 Procedure An educational experiment was carried out, which was implemented gradually to answer the research question. Before experimenting, the students completed a worksheet (pretest) to detect pre-existing knowledge. The experimental procedure lasts ten teaching hours for each group (45-min period). Upon completing the process, students complete the worksheet again (post-test). The survey was conducted from February to April 2023, and the consent of children and parents was sought. The students were divided into two numerically equivalent groups: experimental and control. The researchers developed a two-part project, and a primary school teacher and a research team member undertook the project in the classroom. The first was about introducing students to block-based programming, and the second was about implementing projects in practice following the project-based learning strategy. In the first part, students explored how Microsoft’s MakeCode program works as it uses colour-coded blocks familiar to anyone who has used Scratch before and gives access to all the board’s features. The simulation screen, command palettes, and code generation areas were used. From the basic programming structures, the sequential and control structure was used. In the second part, students in groups of four (allocation was done via ClassDojo) implemented two different and independent scenarios in real-time. The scenarios concerned using the terminals for listening to music from headphones (Fig. 1) and constructing a movement mechanism where a motor was used (Fig. 2). Before the post-test, each group presented their project to the others. The research protocol was reviewed and approved by the Ethics and Research Ethics Committee of the University of Crete (REC-UOC) [13].

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Fig. 1. Headphone connection

Fig. 2. Movement mechanism for coins with a motor

3.3 Measurement The researchers developed a five-activity printed assessment designed to assess students’ knowledge of electrical concepts. The tasks given to the students are available at the link: https://shorturl.at/filnR. We considered the official syllabus of the specific country for the evaluation tasks. Each activity was evaluated with 6 points, and the total evaluation gave a maximum of 30 points. We also capture data from the board programming during the experimental process via the BBC Micro: bit platform. Statistical analysis of the results was performed using the IBM SPSS. The nonparametric Wilcoxon test (Table 2, 3) was chosen to identify whether there is a statistically significant difference between the scores.

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Table 2. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test.

Total post – Total pre

N

Mean Rank

Negative Ranks

2a

Sum of Ranks

8,50

17,00

Positive Ranks

137b

70,90

9713,00

Ties

1c

Total

140

a. Total post < Total pre b. Total post > Total pre c. Total post = Total pre Table 3. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Statistics. Z

−10,200b

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

,000

a. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test b. Based on negative ranks

4 Results This section presents the research results conducted from February to May 2023. The research was about using the programmable Micro:bit device and gaining knowledge about electricity. Most of the participants we studied from both groups had a higher score in the post-test than the pre-test, as was seen from the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test (137 students out of a total of 140 had better performance in the post-test). Observing the differences in the performance (Table 4) of the experimental group compared to the control group, we notice that during the pre-test, the control group performed better than the experimental group by 2.04%. While during the post-test, the experimental group performed slightly better (0.20%). We find a difference in performance improvement rates (27.04% for the control group and 30.28% for the experimental group). Table 4. Differences in performance by the group. Control Group Experimental Group Difference in performance Pre-test

57,50%

55,46%

−2,04%

Post-test

85,54%

85,74%

0,20%

Performance improvement 28,04%

30,28%

2,24%

The table below (Table 5) shows the average of the answers of the students of each group to each of the individual tasks of the tool. All tasks were equivalent, and the maximum score was 6 points.

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S. Papadakis et al. Table 5. Detailed results per task. (Maximum score per task.)

Tasks

Control Group

Experimental Group

Difference

1 (pre)

3,85

3,24

−,62

2 (post)

5,19

5,04

−,15

Improvement

1,34

1,81

,47

2 (pre)

3,91

3,56

−,36

2 (post)

5,12

5,46

,34

Improvement

1,21

1,90

,70

3 (pre)

1,94

2,11

,17

3 (post)

5,25

5,44

,19

Improvement

3,31

3,33

,02

4 (pre)

3,71

3,81

,10

4 (post)

5,21

5,19

−,01

Improvement

1,50

1,39

−,11

5 (pre)

3,84

3,93

,09

5 (post)

4,90

4,58

−,31

Improvement

1,06

,65

−,41

Looking at the improvement of each group for every task, we can see no significant differences between them. It is worth noting, however, that the experimental group performed better in task no. 2 (see Fig. 3), where the group achieved a score of 5,46/6,00, whereas the control group achieved a score of 5,12/6,00.

Fig. 3. Exam task no. 2

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Also, looking carefully at the mistakes of task no. 5 (Fig. 4), we can see that many students were confused with the verbal term of opening and closing a circuit in their native language (Greek) which is opposite to the correct term in physics (“open the light” means closing the circuit).

Fig. 4. Exam task no. 5

As we can see in the following table (Table 6), there are differences between males and females of the two groups. Males of the experimental group have an almost identical improvement in the post-test with the males of the control group. In contrast, the females of the experimental group have a 3,91% bigger improvement in the post-test. Table 6. Detailed results per gender. Males

Females

Contrl Group

Experimental Group

Group Difference

Control Group

Experimental Group

Group Difference

Pre-test

55,38%

57,06%

1,68%

59,28%

54,04%

−5,24%

Post-test

83,33%

85,39%

2,06%

87,39%

86,05%

−1,33%

Improvement

27,96%

28,33%

0,38%

28,11%

32,02%

3,91%

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5 Discussion – Conclusion The main results are analyzed and interpreted in this section of the study. Through the tool used, we tried to examine whether the student’s performance improved in terms of understanding concepts such as the model of a simple bipolar electric circuit consisting of a light bulb, battery, wires, lamp holder, and switch and the role that the materials we use to play in its flow of electricity (if it is conductors or insulators). Through the project-based learning approach, students worked in groups. Observing the data, we conclude that all the children, regardless of the group, improved their performance in the electric circuit concepts. This element is essential for the overall research and the use of the proposed approach. Besides, we have already mentioned evidence from the literature that project-based learning improves learning [6, 9]. In the experimental group, the students had the opportunity to work on using the Micro: bit single board device. Nevertheless, the difference observed in the post-test between the experimental and the control group is small (2,24%). However, the experimental group had lower performance in the pre-test (55,46%) than the control group (57,50%), so the improvement is slightly better for the experimental group. Prior knowledge should be taken seriously in developing the teaching and learning process. The results show that the students with higher performance on the pre-test also performed higher on the post-test [8]. In conclusion, the post-test results for all students were very high (85,54% for the control group and 85,74% for the experimental group), showing a high understanding of the basic concepts of electricity regardless of the means used and many of their mistakes were caused by confusing a specific term which is opposite in their native language. Generally, the significant impact of using the Micro: bit board was observed in the student’s behaviour towards the subject and not so much in their test performance. A finding confirms that various cognitive learning results arise, such as improving student performance and technical skills, but also emotional results related to enhancing interest, motivation, and involvement [14]. Looking at the gender-specific results, we can see that the females of the experimental group had the most significant improvement by far. The fundamental difference in the improvement of the experimental group is caused by the females’ performance (the males of the experimental group had almost identical improvement – 0,38% difference). The difference in the performance of the two groups indicates that the experimental group performed better. The sample size, the performance measurement with a test score common to both groups and the statistical analysis performed led to this conclusion. The slight difference in the improvement of the performance of the two groups shows the necessity to form new educational environments, enriched, however, with the appropriate tools or a combination of tools for maximum effectiveness in learning. The typical cognitive learning outcomes that result have to do with improving students’ grades and technical skills related to electrical topics. In terms of affective learning outcomes, an increase in interest, motivation and engagement is empirically found evidence that needs more investigation [15].

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6 Limitations – Future Research Most related research with a similar methodological approach to the present study focuses on investigating computational thinking and coding skills, but, in our case, we focus on conceptual understanding for the physics lesson in primary school students, which would be interesting to assess in addition to understanding the above (for example by using http://drscratch.org/). In addition, a combination of evaluation methods such as observation and interview could capture different aspects of the potential benefits and the obstacles arising from implementing physical programming in various projects. Furthermore, they are likely to reveal remarkable information that is not readily distinguishable from the quantitative approach. Also, the performance improvement in the two groups may be slight. However, we would have an even more comprehensive picture by evaluating the students’ attitudes and the changes in their views on learning specific concepts. In this study, we use a tiny fraction of Micro: bit’s capabilities which are numerous because the age of the students and the subject of the study limit us. In older students, we could use many other functions to help them understand complex subjects. Given the difficulties in understanding physics concepts, gamification applications can be combined with the proposed applications. In this way, emotions such as frustration and anxiety are expected to be reduced, and an increase in student involvement is achieved [16].

References 1. Hasni, A., Bousadra, F., Belletête, V., Benabdallah, A., Nicole, M., Dumais, N.: Trends in research on project-based science and technology teaching and learning at K–12 levels: a systematic review. Stud. Sci. Educ. 52, 199–231 (2016) 2. Chung, C., Lou, S.: Physical computing strategy to support students’ coding literacy: an educational experiment with Arduino Boards. Appl. Sci. 11, 1830 (2021) 3. Shin, N., Bowers, J.H., Krajcik, J.S., Damelin, D.: Promoting computational thinking through project-based learning. Discip. Interdisc. Sci. Educ. Res. 3, 1–15 (2021) 4. Kalogiannakis, M., Tzagkaraki, E., Papadakis, S.: A systematic review of the use of BBC micro:bit in primary school. In: Proceedings of the 10th Virtual Edition of the International Conference New Perspectives in Science Education, 18–19 March 2021, pp. 379–384 (2021). https://doi.org/10.26352/F318_2384-9509 5. Markula, A., Aksela, M.: The key characteristics of project-based learning: how teachers implement projects in K-12 science education. Disc. Interdisc. Sci. Educ. Res. 4(2), 1–17 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43031-021-00042-x 6. Salam, S.: A systemic review of problem-based learning (PBL) and computational thinking (CT) in teaching and learning. Int. J. Humanit. Innov. (IJHI) 5(2), 46–52 (2022). https://doi. org/10.33750/ijhi.v5i2.145 7. Hodges, S., Sentance, S., Finney, J., Ball, T.: Physical computing: a key element of modern computer science education. Computer 53, 20–30 (2020) 8. Kwon, K., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A.T., Brush, T.A., Jeon, M., Yan, G.: Integration of problembased learning in elementary computer science education: effects on computational thinking and attitudes. Educ. Tech. Res. Dev. 69, 2761–2787 (2021) 9. Tawfik, A.A., Gish-Lieberman, J., Gatewood, J., Arrington, T.L.: How K-12 teachers adapt problem based learning over time. Interdisc. J. Probl. Based Learn. 15(1), 1–19 (2021)

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10. Kvaššayová, N., Cápay, M., Petrík, Š, Bellayová, M., Klimeková, E.: Experience with using BBC micro:bit and perceived professional efficacy of informatics teachers. Electronics 11(23), 3963 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11233963 11. Theodoropoulos, A., Leon, P., Antoniou, A., Lepouras, G.: Computing in the physical world engages students: impact on their attitudes and self-efficacy towards computer science through robotic activities. In: Proceedings of the 13th Workshop in Primary and Secondary Computing Education (2018) 12. Simovi´c, V., Veskovi´c, M., Purenovi´c, J.: Micro:bit as a new technology in education in primary schools. In: 9th International Scientific Conference Technics and Informatics in Education (2022). https://doi.org/10.46793/TIE22.082S 13. Petousi, V., Sifaki, E.: Contextualizing harm in the framework of research misconduct. findings from discourse analysis of scientific publications. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. 23(3/4), 149–174 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSD.2020.10037655 14. Ariza, J.Á., Baez, H.: Understanding the role of single-board computers in engineering and computer science education: a systematic literature review. Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ. 30(1), 304–329 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22439 15. Tzagaraki, E., Papadakis, S., Kalogiannakis, M.: Teachers’ attitudes on the use of educational robotics in primary school. In: Papadakis, S., Kalogiannakis, M. (eds.) STEM, Robotics, Mobile Apps in Early Childhood and Primary Education: Technology to Promote Teaching and Learning, pp. 257–283. Springer, Singapore (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-190568-1_13 16. Zourmpakis, I.-A., Kalogiannakis, M., Papadakis, S.: A review of the literature for designing and developing a framework for adaptive gamification in physics education. In Ta¸sar, M.-F., Heron, P.-R.-L. (eds.) The International Handbook of Physics Education Research: Teaching Physics. Melville, New York (2023). https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735425712_005

Evolution of Technical Projects with Social Commitment in Degrees of Industrial Engineering Alpha Pernia-Espinoza1(B) , Andres Sanz-Garcia2 , F. Javier Martinez-de-Pison-Ascacibar1 , Fermin Navaridas-Nalda3 and Julio Blanco-Fernandez1

,

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of La Rioja, 26004 Logroño, Spain

{alpha.pernia,fjmartin,julio.blanco}@unirioja.es

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Salamanca, 37700 Bejar, Spain

[email protected]

3 Department of Education Sciences, University of La Rioja, 26004 Logroño, Spain

[email protected]

Abstract. A service-learning project, the so-called OSOR (Open-source and SOcial Responsibility) have been implemented from 2018 to 2022 in the “Manufacturing Technology” (MT) subject. Its aim is to manufacture products to assist people in a dependency situation. We investigate how the OSOR evolution has affected students’ learning outcomes, the subject’s significance, the level of difficulty, and other factors. We identified four main variants, which depended on internal and external factors. We discovered that the various variants had no effect on MT’s final score. The COVID-19 pandemic in the academic year 2019–2020 reduced hands-on activities and, presumably, the acquisition of essential technical knowledge. Regardless of the implemented format, a sizable portion of students thought the MT subject was fascinating and crucial to their future jobs. The introduction of an assigned patient and the ill-defined nature of cases could be the reason for an increase in the perceived subject difficulty. Additionally, this may help to explain why students’ general feedback focused less on the OSOR and more on their overall ‘satisfaction with the subject’. Having complete creative freedom and control over the deliverables during variant 1 gave a higher level of satisfaction than working on scenarios with loose requirements imposed by actual patients during variants 2 to 4. The most notable products were successfully produced despite the challenges in variants 3 and 4 being more complex. The final poll for the upcoming edition of OSOR will include particular questions to evaluate the development of social responsibility competency. Keywords: Manufacturing Technology · service-learning · social responsibility

1 Introduction. A student-centered learning strategy in the Manufacturing Technology (MT) subject, the so-called OSOR (Open-source and SOcial Responsibility), was implemented during four academic years (from 2018 to 2022) [1–3]. This 2nd-year subject is part of the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 331–342, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_32

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curriculum of the three Mechanical, Electrical, and Electronic engineering programs offered by the University of La Rioja (UR). MT is an introductory course in classical and advanced manufacturing including 60 h of in-person classroom instruction and 90 h of student’s autonomous work. The OSOR’s aim was to allow students to apply their skills to manufacture autonomy-oriented products for people in a dependency situation throughout the semester. Patients affected by the consequences of a stroke, tetraplegia, or multiple sclerosis share their challenges with the students. Our strategy had to evolve gradually over these academic years for several reasons, like some undesirable changes incorporated during the 2019–2020 course affected by the COVID-19 pandemic [2]. The research questions guiding this study were: (i) How and why the OSOR strategy has evolved over the past four academic years? (ii) How have the subject’s final score changed? Do this outcome depend on gender? (iii) How have the students’ technical knowledge acquisition and self-perceptions of soft skills changed? (iv) How have students’ opinions on the subject and OSOR varied over the four years? The average number of students per course was 54, with 217 students for the four academic years, of which 17% were women. Herein, we analyze four academic courses of OSOR strategy in which a total of 72 products were manufactured. Prior to OSOR, the research team completed a two-week socially focused experiment. This initial experience tapped into students’ expertise in a single industrial technology: 3D printing. The major purpose was to build self-driving toy vehicles in order to win a competition and then donate them to children from low-income households [4, 5]. However, the degree of student involvement in the new strategy is much higher as the activities were carried out during the whole semester. In brief, OSOR is a project-based learning (PBL) strategy that aims to produce both social and academic benefits through service-based-learning (SBL) [6]. The focus of the project (help people in dependency situation) is an unfamiliar context to most of the students. This fact, according to [7], produce a deeper learning than solving expected engineering problems. Through OSOR, we intend that students broader their minds recognizing social responsibilities as future engineers and contribute with a sustainable development education, specifically with UN’s sustainable development goals 3, 9 and 10 [8]. Other universities have effectively implemented this type of experience in their first and second-year engineering subjects [6, 9].

2 The OSOR Project Herein, the analysis showed starts from the experience in challenge-based education developed in the industrial engineering degree programs. In general, these degree programs seek to educate student on how to solve real life problems as future engineers, and not only to know concepts. In this main framework, the MT subject is designed to teach students a wide and strong background in manufacturing methods and, at the same time, tries to foster social responsibility. The competencies planned to acquire by students are the following: (i) Basic knowledge of production and manufacturing technologies. (iii) Ability to apply knowledge to practice, (iii) Soft-skills: teamwork, ability to plan and manage time effectively, critical thinking skills, etc., (iv) Social commitment. The OSOR [1] is a service-learning project that incorporates open-ended projects oriented towards social benefits. We developed a technique using the OSOR framework

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and the social commitment competency in which teams of three students create and manufacture things for those in need during the semester. The aim is to promote a strong link between university students and real problems in our societies still to be solved. Students are engaged in various activities alongside the OSOR to reinforce students’ learning process and acquisition of new skills. Lecturers’ activities included offering lectures to provide students with essential knowledge, providing in-depth explanations of real-life scenarios, and performing practical sessions as described in the MT subject’s curriculum. The OSOR itself consisted of four primary stages (Fig. 1): (1) Creativity, (2) Preliminary Project, (3) Progress Report, and (4) Final Presentation. At each stage of the process, meetings in a rapid-fire presentation format are regularly conducted to monitor project progress, pitfalls, and offer prompt feedback to the teams. In the final stage of the project, a public presentation of the functional products is arranged, with invitations extended to the general public, experts, and news media [10]. On that day, experts and lecturers vote for the best product, and the winners earn extra points to add to the subject’s final score. Overall, this activity is highly engaging and exciting for students. Note that the peer evaluation and also the feedback from the people in a dependency situation involved in OSOR varies along the academic years, with some interaction with assigned patient in last experiences.

Fig. 1. OSOR main stages and schedule

3 Evolution of the OSOR The main characteristics of the OSOR strategy and its variants are documented in Table 1. The 2017–2018 academic year has been included in the table to have a reference of a methodology prior to OSOR. In the instructors’ opinion, the variation on the OSOR strategy depended on internal and external factors such as the availability of critical prototyping technologies and the collaborative links with institutions dealing with dependent people, respectively. Following the academic year 2017–2018, the number and quality of 3D printing prototyping machines were enhanced, both in quantity and quality. This enabled us to offer a long-term project in variation 1, taking advantage of 3D printing’s versatility for prototype and final product manufacturing. Moreover, as connections with external institutions were scarce at this point, we allowed students to propose their own generic cases (without a specific beneficiary). To do so, working groups designed their own products, thus increasing their creativity, generation of new ideas and problemsolving skills. Later, once ties were strengthened, specific patients might be included in the OSOR in variant 2. All of this is done to encourage students to become more

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involved in their communities. The incorporation of real cases introduced the feature of ill-definition and the open-ended context. The COVID pandemic caused some unwanted changes during the 2019–2020 and 2020–2021 academic years, such as little to no interaction with experts and patients. In variant 3, the number of collaborating institutions drastically increased, and despite some restrictions due to COVID19, it was possible to carry out full hands-on activities and teamwork. For variant 4, with a larger number of cases and patients, and almost no restrictions due to the pandemic, we aimed to improve product usability and students’ engagement. To do so, we strongly recommended workgroups to test their prototypes directly with the patient throughout the semester. Unfortunately, since this activity was not evaluated, only one of the teams demonstrated that the empathetic student-patient bond, and the progressive improvement of the product with the patient’s collaboration, made possible the optimal product for the patient.

4 Assessment Methodology A tailored survey, a qualitative study of student inputs, and an evaluation of the 73 goods generated contributed to our research. 4.1 The Customized Survey At the beginning and end of the semester, a customized survey was conducted, which was used to guide lecturers in the analysis of various aspects related to students, such as (i) essential technical knowledge acquisition (or ‘etka’), (ii) variations in self-perception of soft skills, (iii) perception of interest, importance, and difficulty of the subject, and (iv) general comments on the subject and OSOR. During the 2019–2020 academic year, barely 10% of students responded to etka questions [2], and no one responded to the other survey questions (related to ii-iv) (Table 2). The low number of responses may have been due to student overload and stress during the COVID19 pandemic situation [11]. etka questions were included for the first time in 2018–2019 [2], and incorporates general and specific questions on manufacturing technologies. The soft skill questions addressed oral communication, teamwork, leadership, conflict resolution (from the 2020–2021 course), creativity, synthesis, time management, and proactivity. When analyzing the data, the 4-point Likert scale was utilized, with levels ranging from one (completely disagree) to four (completely agree), normalized from 0 to 10 (full list of questions in [12]). 4.2 Qualitative Analysis of Student’s Comments Students’ responses to the request for general comments on the subject and OSOR were coded for mayor themes, key points, and patterns. Table 2 shows the number of responses from each academic year. The highest number of responses (86%) were registered in 2020–2021. No feedback was given in the 2019–2020 academic year because overburdened students lost interest in surveys.

Project settings

Short-term project (2 weeks) Social project: 3D print race-toy-cars to compete and donate

Long-term project (11 weeks) Service-learning project: Enhancing the lives of people in a dependency situation

Same as in Variant 1

Same as in Variant 2

Same as in Variant 2

Strategy

Previous to OSOR (2017–2018)

Variant 1 (2018–2019)

Variant 2 (2019–2020)

Variant 3 (2020–2021)

Varian 4 (2021–2022)

Same as in Variant 1

Working groups designing the products from scratch

Most working groups download parts to print from Internet databases, i.e. no designing involved

Who design the product?

Same as in Variant 2. Four institutions, 30 cases from 16 patients. Interaction with the assigned patient was strongly recommended. However, only few workgroups interacted with the patient

Same as in Variant 1

Same as in Variant 2. Three institutions proposed 19 cases from 9 patients. Still some restrictions Same as in Variant 1 due to COVID19. However, full hands-on activities were possible. Some interactions with the experts (not patients) from the institutions were also possible

Two external institution proposes 11 cases (from 6 patients), in an ill-defined open-ended context Workgroups are free to use any manufacturing technology available Every product has a specific beneficiary. No interaction with patient is suggested The COVID19 pandemic situation prevented hands-on activities

Teachers expose the problem in an ill-defined open-ended context Working groups propose the cases and are free to use any manufacturing technology available to solve it Not a specific beneficiary Designs are uploaded to the Internet so that anyone can benefit from them

Teachers clearly define the proper type of product and the manufacturing criteria Working groups manufacture the product using mainly 3D printing technology The beneficiaries are children from low-income families

Who propose? Who benefits? What technologies?

Table 1. Variants in the OSOR strategy and features of the previous social project (2017–2018).

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Table 2. Number of students per year and percentage of responses to surveys and feedback. Course

2017–2018 2018–2019 2019–2020 2020–2021 2021–2022

Nº of students

51

71

51

49

46

Percentage of resp. to etka

-

13%

12%

94%

67%

Percentage of resp. to survey 88%

58%

0%

41%

65%

Percentage of comments

14%

0%

86%

65%

24%

4.3 Products Assessment Three lecturers involved in the OSOR project evaluated the products obtained in the four academic years. To cover the different aspect related to the products manufacture and presentation, the evaluation was divided into four categories: the problem, the process, the solution and the presentation. The category “the problem” comprises the problem’s difficulty, whereas “the process” refers to teams’ participation, teamwork, perseverance, ideas created, and prototyping phase carried out across the semester (or consistency). “The solution” focuses on the final product appropriateness and the use of different technologies. “The presentation” refers to the documentation, video and oral presentation on the day of the public final presentation. The levels of these factors are shown in Table 3 and Table 4. Table 3. Scales for product evaluation in the “the problem” and “the process” categories The problem

The process

Problem complexity

Idea

Involvement

Teamwork

Number of prototypes

Low: 0 Medium: 1 Hight: 2

Poor: 0 Basic:1 Acceptable: 2 Excellent: 3

Low: 0 Medium: 1 Hight: 2

Low: 0 Medium: 1 Hight: 2

None: 0 No: 0 Insufficient: 1 Yes: 1 Excessive: 2 Adequate: 3

Constancy

A final product score was calculated using the expression: Product score = Wpc · Solution Appropriateness; where Wpc allows to consider the problem complexity in the final solution assessment (Wpc equals 1, 2, 3 and 5, when problem complexity is 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2, respectively). The statistic for comparing academic years was chosen as the median of the factor’s values.

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Table 4. Scales for product evaluation in the “the solution” and “the presentation” categories The solution

The presentation

Use of different technologies

Solution appropriateness

Documentation quality

Video quality

Selling capabilities

Low: 0 Medium: 1 Hight: 2

Nil: 0 Partial: 1 Adequate: 2 Optimal: 3

Low: 0 Medium: 1 Hight: 2

Low: 0 Medium: 1 Hight: 2

Low: 0 Medium: 1 Hight: 2

5 Results and Discussion 5.1 Representative Examples of Cases Selected and Prototypes The OSOR project was designed for an engineering school context in which industrial manufacturing techniques are taught. Project’s proposals responded to genuine needs and the introduction of manufacturing technologies, a competency that adds essential skills and knowledge consistent with engineering curriculum. Concretely, a first case proposed by students in 2018–2019 (variant 1) was a hair dryer support for people with limited hand, shoulder and elbow movements. This product was manufactured using a variety of manufacturing technologies, including 3D printing, welding and metal forming. It is powered by a motor and controlled by two switches (Fig. 2a). A prothesis for a woman who lost two fingers, was propose in 2019–2020 course (variant 2) (Fig. 2b). The lockdown situation, due to the COVID19 pandemic, led to a decrease in the prototyping activity, and initial ideas were still unfeasible at the end of the semester. In 2020–2021 academic year (variant 3), a finger exercise product for a patient with stroke sequelae was presented. This product, 3D printing of various types of material was used to ensure ergonomics. In the 2021–2022 course, another device was proposed to assist a patient with stroke sequelae in zipping up a jacket using only one hand. However, further improvement in grip was still necessary for this product. 5.2 Customized Survey Results We observed that the subject’s final scores were high at the end of the four academic years. However, no significant differences (p-value > 0.05) were detected among the variants of the OSOR methodology (Fig. 3a). Gender did not make a difference, until the 2021–2022 academic year, when female students obtained higher scores (Fig. 3c). It seems that the incorporation of real patients into the project (variant 2 and 3), motivates students in performing better, especially female students. In fact, several authors indicate that women are more motivated towards service and helping through their careers than men [13]. We will see in the future if this trend prevails. As for students’ self-perception of their final soft skills, no significant differences were detected either (p-value > 0.05) (Fig. 3d). We have to say that no specific question was asked about soft-skills related to social engagement. Several questions on this topic will be added in the next edition of OSOR, as the ones reported in [6]. Nevertheless, the results of the COVID19

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Fig. 2. Representative examples of products: support for automated motion of a hair dryer for people with limited shoulder and elbow movements (a), prothesis for a woman who lost two fingers (b), finger exercise product for a patient with stroke sequelae (c), device to assist a patient in zipper up a jacket with one hand, for a patient with stroke sequelae (d).

pandemic situation in the 2019–2020 course do not follow the same pattern. A significant difference was detected in the etka as the scores were statistically significantly lower (p-value < 0.05) than those achieved during the previous and subsequent academic courses analyzed (Fig. 3a) [2]. So far, leaving aside the 2019–2020 course, most of the students perceived the MT subject as highly interesting and important for their future careers at the end of the course. Perhaps, students’ motivation, in general, derived from the social commitment ingredient introduced in the methodology was an important reason for obtaining these results. The implementation of variant 3, with a specific patient assigned and cases with uncertain solution, could be the cause of an increase in the perceived subject difficulty (Fig. 3b). Some recommendations to decrease the slope of the trend in students’ perception of difficulty might be to control the nature of the problems presented. Applying a narrow filter to the initial proposals, selecting a less diverse range of challenges, or creating topics that group similar cases per year could be mechanisms implemented within the OSOR to mitigate the perceived difficulty of the subject in upcoming academic years.

5.3 Results of the Qualitative Analysis of Student’s Comments In coding students’ general feedback about the subject and the OSOR (Table 2), the two main themes emerged were (Fig. 4, left): (i) Satisfaction with the subject in general (and particularly with: the organization, the methodology, the learning, the future utility); and (ii) Satisfaction with the OSOR project. With the introduction of variant 3 in 2020–2021, students expressed more “satisfaction with the subject” than in 2018–2019, but also less comments on the “satisfaction with the OSOR” were registered (Fig. 4, right). Perhaps the fact that they were able to propose their own cases and had total control over the products throughout the 2018– 2019 semester, provided more satisfaction than working on ill-defined cases. This is consistent with the increased perception of subject’s difficulty (Fig. 4, right). In general,

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Fig. 3. Subject’s final scores per academic year (a), and by gender (b); students’ perception of subject’s interest, importance and difficulty (c); and students’ self-perception.

Fig. 4. Hierarchy chart showing prominent themes (left). Proportion of responses coded with the “satisfaction with the subject” and “satisfaction with the OSOR” themes (right).

the remarks indicate that the students were motivated and at comfortable while studying, some examples are: 2018-2019. Comment 2: “Both the approach and the development of the subject can be qualified as excellent”. Comment 4: “The OSOR project seemed to me a very original idea to apply the

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knowledge acquired, even if there is not much at this time of the career, and I think this project helps and motivates students as it is a very practical part and not so theoretical” 2020-2021. Comment 12: “In general the subject is very well planned: I consider that theoretical and practical hours are well distributed. And about the OSOR project, I can say that it is a brilliant idea for students to contribute with ideas to improve people’s lives”. Comment 15: “In my opinion it is a very useful subject for our future, and it is also very well carried out, since not only do you learn, but with the OSOR project you have an extra motivation to help another person” 2021-2022. Comment 9: “I believe that the teaching method applied makes the student learn more and understand what is really useful for a future in the working world, unlike what is applied in subjects with a traditional teaching method”.Comment 26: “I believe that the OSOR project is useful to make us practice important skills such as conflict resolution, negotiation, proper communication, initiative, etc.” Only two comments (12 and 15 above), both from 2020–2021 students, mentioned feeling inspired by helping others. We must state that this was a general comment on the subject and OSOR. As mentioned above, integrating specific questions about social commitment, such as those published in [6], will enable us to assess this competency. Furthermore, we hypothesize that increasing student-patient interaction in patient environment (unfamiliar to the students) could increase the social responsibility competence [14]. Also, including demographic questions will provide us with a gender perspective. 5.4 Products Scores Product assessment (Table 3 and Table 4) suggests that there is a high correlation (higher than 0.70, with p-value < 0.001) between the following factors: solution appropriateness and the idea quality, the use of different technologies, and the number of prototypes produced (complete data not shown). Likewise, there is a high correlation between the teamwork and a constancy, and also with the team involvement degree. The problem complexity presents low correlations (less than 0.46) with the rest of factors. The medians of the different factors clearly show that the COVID-19 pandemic situation had a negative impact on the process and the solution categories in the 2019–20 (Fig. 5). A lack of hands-on activities significantly reduced prototyping activity, which was required to remodel too simple or complex initial ideas. Also, the lockdown prevented normal collaborative activities, harming teamwork involvement and continuity. As a consequence, the product score at the end of this course was poor. The rest of the courses presented similar results in the process category, with the exception of the 2021– 2022 course, in which teamwork decreased with respect to previous academic year. This could be the cause of a lower product score. The working groups in 2020–2021 reflected a more effective use of different technologies (Fig. 5) and presented better documentation. Leaving aside the 2019–2020 course, the variants that included a specific beneficiary (2020–2021 and 2021–2022) seems to involve more complex problems, perhaps because the product must be tailored to the specific needs of a patient. Despite the more difficult challenges, the greatest product score was reached in 2020–2021, followed by 2021– 2022. This information is relevant to lecturers because the initial problem statements

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Fig. 5. Median scores from the products evaluation categories (the process, the solution and the presentation) and the final product score.

were never altered based on the student’s level of understanding of the subject. This makes it much easier to export the OSOR for use in other fields.

6 Conclusions and Future Works We examined how the OSOR evolved across four academic years (from 2018 to 2022) and how planned and unplanned adjustments influenced many outputs. The subject’s final score remained high and consistent regardless of the variety. The lack of handson activities and proper teamwork during 2019–2020 academic year, due to pandemic, seems to affect the technical knowledge acquisition. No significant differences were detected in students’ self-perceptions of soft skills. Furthermore, students thought the material was intriguing and relevant to their future jobs. Still, the addition of variant 3 raised the perceived subject difficulty, possibly due to the increased difficulty in satisfying a specific patient’s needs. Students expressed their overall satisfaction with this subject and the OSOR project. Their responses, however, provided little sign of social commitment. Specific questions about social responsibility will be incorporated in future editions to assess this competence. Best products were derived from variant 3 (2020– 2021 course), in which the process, the solution and the presentation categories scored the highest values. The problem complexity seems to not affect a good quality result. The following tasks would involve expanding the application of the OSOR to master programs and investigating disparities in competency acquisition based on undergraduate student performance. Acknowledgement. We would like to acknowledge the University of La Rioja for the financial support received through the teaching innovation program ‘Proyectos de Innovación Docente 2022/23’. We are also thankful to the students involved in the experience.

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References 1. Pernia-Espinoza, A., Sanz-Garcia, A., Martinez-De-Pison-Ascacibar, F.J., Pecina-Marqueta, S., Blanco-Fernandez, J.: Technical projects with social commitment for teaching-learning intervention in STEM students. In: IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), April 2020, pp. 579–586 (2020) 2. Pernia-Espinoza, A., Sanz-Garcia, A., Martinez-De-Pison-Ascacibar, F.J., Navaridas-Nalda, F.: Active learning methodologies in STEM degrees jeopardized by COVID19. In: IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), April 2021, pp. 689–695 (2021) 3. Pernia-Espinoza, A., Sanz-Garcia, A., Martinez-de-Pison-Ascacibar, F.J., Navaridas-Nalda, F., Blanco-Fernandez, J.: Work-in-progress: building up employability skills and social responsibility in the University of La Rioja Industrial Engineering Degrees. In: Auer, M.E., Pachatz, W., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) Learning in the Age of Digital and Green Transition, ICL 2022. LNNS, vol. 634, pp. 283–290. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3031-26190-9_29 4. Pernia-Espinoza, A., Sanz-Garcia, A., Martinez-de-Pison-Ascacibar, F.J., Urraca-Valle, R., Antoñanzas-Torres, J.: Motivation strategies for engineering degrees combining PBL, SBL and gaming. IATED Academy (2018) 5. Pernía-Espinoza, A., Sanz-Garcia, A., Martinez-de-Pison-Ascacibar, F.J., Peciña-Marqueta, S., Blanco-Fernandez, J.: Active learning and social commitment projects as a teachinglearning intervention in engineering degrees, pp. 1–8 (2019) 6. Cabedo, L., et al.: University social responsibility towards engineering undergraduates: the effect of methodology on a service-learning experience. Sustainability 10(6), 1823 (2018) 7. Zitomer, D.H., Gabor, M., Johnson, P.: Bridge construction in Guatemala: linking social issues and engineering. J. Prof. Issues Eng. Educ. Pract. 129(3), 143–150 (2003) 8. United Nations: Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda. Accessed 03 Jun 2023 9. Wolfand, J.M., Bieryla, K.A., Ivler, C.M., Symons, J.E.: Exploring an engineer’s role in society: service learning in a first-year computing course. IEEE Trans. Educ. 65(4), 568–574 (2022) 10. RTVE-La Rioja: TV News: Informativo Telerioja: Informativo Telerioja 2 - 27/05/22 | RTVE Play (2022). https://www.rtve.es/play/videos/informativo-telerioja/informativo-teleri oja-2-27-05-22/6554899/. Accessed 06 Jun 2022 11. Possamai, A., Possamai-Inesedy, A., Corpuz, G., Greenaway, E.: Got sick of surveys or lack of social capital? An investigation on the effects of the COVID-19 lockdown on institutional surveying. Aust. Educ. Res., 1–19 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-022-00569-6 12. Pernia-Espinoza, A.: Spanish version of customized survey (Encuesta final de la asignatura) (2023). https://forms.gle/XzSpGAszdKkqYk4u6. Accessed 31 May 2023 13. Rulifson, G., Bielefeldt, A.R.: Evolution of students’ varied conceptualizations about socially responsible engineering: a four year longitudinal study. Sci. Eng. Ethics 25(3), 939–974 (2019) 14. Ngo, T.T., Chase, B.: Students’ attitude toward sustainability and humanitarian engineering education using project-based and international field learning pedagogies. Int. J. Sustain. High. Educ. 22(2), 254–273 (2020)

Applying a Level Assessment System in Group Project-Based Learning for Teachers of Engineering Disciplines Svetlana Karstina(B) Karagandy University of the Name of Academician E.A. Buketov, 28, Universitetskaya St., Karaganda, Kazakhstan 100028 [email protected]

Abstract. The success of applying the methods of group project learning in engineering teacher training largely depends on the trainer’s ability to use various assessment strategies and tools. In accordance with this, the aim of the work is to develop and approbate the model of level assessment of group project work. The presented results were obtained on the basis of the analysis of the results of project work of the trainees of the module “Problem-based, project-based and practicebased learning” developed within the international project ENTER “Engineering Educotors Pedagogical Training”, co-financed by the Erasmus + program of the European Union. The group project work of the students was assessed using a model that included motivational, operational, reflexive and creative levels. The correlation analysis of the results of the level assessment showed that the initiative of the project team members depends on communication and planning of the project work, and the effectiveness of project implementation can be improved by increasing such indicators as consistency, relevance, responsibility, resource analysis. Based on the analysis of the results of level assessment and evaluation of teachers’ readiness to apply methods of problem-based, project-based and practice-based learning it is shown that the project self-assessment is influenced by the experience of teaching activity, motivation of trainees to transform their own educational courses, high competition between project groups, positive bias towards themselves and negative bias towards others, methodological inertia. Keywords: Group work · Assessment · Project-based learning

1 Introduction Group project-based learning methods are widely used in engineering education. In accordance with this, teachers of engineering disciplines should be ready to apply innovative educational technologies, transform the educational process into group independent research and creative activity of students in different formats. Also, it is important to develop analytical, critical and creative thinking of students, to create an appropriate educational environment for students to find technological solutions and create innovative products. In addition, the instructor should be able to 1) ensure students’ autonomy © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 343–354, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_33

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in choosing forms, methods, pace, and sequence of group project work, in assigning responsibilities, evaluating resources, choosing learning activities at all stages of the project, 2) choose realistic project topics and ensure that project goals and objectives are achievable, 3) assess the adequacy of resources needed to complete learning projects, 4) apply well-developed methodology of group project work, various strategies and assessment tools, 5) update curriculum content, approaches and teaching methods based on feedback from all parties involved in the learning process (students, representatives of partner companies, university administration, government bodies in the field of education and others), 6) act as consultant, mentor, facilitator. With this in mind, during the group project work the teacher not only observes the work of students, but also advises, motivates them to constructive research, stimulates questions, helps and guides to achieve the goals and results of project work, discusses with the project groups their progress, assesses the joint and individual work of students, their level of competence, problem solving skills, project content and activities of students in its implementation [1]. Thus, choosing the method of assessment the teacher should make a preliminary assessment of students’ expectations and needs, determine the format and order of assistance to students when performing project work, develop instructions for each stage of the project work, offer tools for self-assessment of students’ own progress and learning effectiveness, feedback tools to assess the results achieved by students, the obtained skills, tools to assess the results of each group participant, his/her individual contribution to the group task, the content of the project and the process of its implementation [2–11]. At the same time, a set of tools, methods, criteria, indicators and assessment plan should be developed in accordance with the type of students’ project, learning objectives and evidence needed to confirm the achievement of learning outcomes, etc. [12–14]. It is very useful to use different combinations of assessment methods [15] to increase efficiency in achieving students’ learning objectives, observing their basic principles: objectivity, independence, systematicity, continuity, flexibility, openness. As the criteria for measuring the performance of group project work can be used learning achievements, motivation and performance [16, 17]. This approach allows to measure 1) learning outcomes, including achieved knowledge and competences in project implementation, 2) conditions that support students’ interest in project implementation and obtaining project results, 3) students’ gained benefit from the completed project, acquired transversal and professional skills and competences, prospects for applying the acquired knowledge and experience. In accordance with this, the purpose of this paper was to develop and test the model of level assessment of group project work. In order to achieve the goal the following tasks were solved in the work: 1) evaluation of the effectiveness of applying different strategies of project work support, 2) determination of factors influencing the initiative of project group members and the effectiveness of project work based on the results of correlation analysis, self-assessment, expert evaluation and teacher assessment, 3) preparation of recommendations for developing additional competencies of group project work participants necessary to improve the project activities.

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2 Methods of Research The paper analyzes the results of project work of the students of the module “Problembased, project-based and practice-based learning”. This module was developed within the international project ENTER “Engineering Educotors Pedagogical Training”, cofinanced by Erasmus + program of the European Union [4, 18]. The trainees of the module were 28 teachers of engineering disciplines of different profile, 73% of which have more than 10 years of experience in scientific and pedagogical activity, 27% - from 5 to 10 years. By the start of the module, 30.8% of the trainees regularly used problembased, practice-based, project-based learning in their professional activities, 65.4% sometimes used these methods within individual disciplines, training modules, courses, individual topics [4, 18]. In the study we used questionnaires containing open and closed questions, the results of SWOT-analysis on the application of problem-based, project-based and practice-based learning in the training of engineering students. To assess the degree of correlation between pairs of parameters assessed at different stages of the project, we used a correlation analysis. The values of the calculated correlation coefficients (r) within the range from 0.7 to 0.9 corresponded to a strong correlation, from 0.9 to 0.99 - a very strong correlation, from 0.99 to 1 - almost functional dependence. To assess the results of the group project work of the trainees of the module, we propose a model that includes three levels of assessment: motivational, operational, reflexive-creative. Self-assessment, expert assessment (peer assessment), and teacher assessment were used for the motivational and operational levels of assessment, and only self-assessment was used for the reflexive-creative level of assessment. All module trainees evaluated the project work of their group and the work of their colleagues from other project groups (peer review). The basis for the participation of module trainees in the expert assessment is their experience of teaching and application of problem-based, practice-based, project-based learning in their professional activities. For each level of assessment a list of indicators was developed. In this case, for the motivational level of assessment primarily used indicators to evaluate the content of the project, for the operational and reflective-creative levels of assessment - indicators to evaluate the process of project implementation. The parameters of the reflective-creative level of assessment were chosen so that students could independently evaluate their work on the project in terms of knowledge, motivation, and performance. The project was assessed through the process of planning, execution, and presentation after completion. The list of indicators used for each level of assessment is presented in Table 1. For each level of assessment a rubric was developed by the module teacher together with the trainees and criteria and indicators of assessment were defined. This approach made it possible to ensure transparency of the evaluation system for the trainees, reliability and trustworthiness of the evaluation process, to determine trainees’ progress in achieving module learning outcomes. The indicators of all levels were assessed on a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 - very low; 2 - low; 3 - average; 4 - above average and 5 - high. To compare the performance of individual groups, the average results of self-assessment, expert assessment, and teacher assessment were used.

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Table 1. Table of indicators for the three-level system of group project work assessment. Assessment level

Assessment indicators

Assessment form

Motivational level (ML)

1-ML - analysis of challenges, 2-ML - identified contradictions, 3-ML - problem selection and analysis of the problem situation, 4-ML - project goal setting and definition of project results, 5-ML - choice of methods and tools of project implementation, 6-ML resource analysis, 7-ML - project results, 8-ML - implementation prospects of project results

Self-assessment, expert assessment, teacher assessment

Operational level (OL)

1-OL - consistency, 2-OL relevance, 3-OL - goal-oriented, 4-OL - transparency, 5-OL accountability, 6-OL - resourcing, 7-OL - manageability, 8-OL efficiency

Self-assessment, expert assessment, teacher assessment

Reflexive-creative level (RCL)

1-RCL - communication, 2-RCL - Self-assessment initiative, 3-RCL - even involvement, 4-RCL - distribution of roles and responsibilities, 5-RCL - planning, 6-RCL achieved project goals and results, 7-RCL - prospects for implementation of results, 8-RCL - sufficiency of theoretical knowledge, 9-RCL - sufficiency of practical experience, 10-RCL project management

When forming project groups, it was important to ensure the most comfortable conditions for work, communication and interaction, a high level of mutual trust, understanding and respect, to ensure timely diagnosis and resolution of contradictions. All project groups were formed by the trainees independently and included teachers of different engineering disciplines. The number of project group members was 4–6 people. The total number of projects in progress is 5. During project work, group members independently allocated roles, applied different methods of group work: brainstorming to identify and formulate problems, group discussion, case studies, SWOT-analysis, detailing project tasks and solving them sequentially-parallel. This approach allowed the trainees to combine knowledge, skills, experience in problem solving, increase the value of each team member’s contribution, provide mutual support, demonstrate creative competencies, individuality, increase motivation for group work and learning outcomes, immerse themselves in the conditions of social interaction based on motivational, social

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and cognitive aspects, improve understanding of their academic and professional capabilities, provide an interdisciplinary approach in the stages of analysis and project problem solving [19–22]. In this case, the relationship between the members of the project group, the motivation and personal qualities of group members were considered in the work as important predictors of the success of the project work.

3 Research Results Trainees of the module “Problem-based, project-based and practice-based learning” in the process of training had to perform group project work on the transformation of the teaching academic disciplines/units. For this purpose, while performing group projects it was necessary to determine the goals of project-oriented learning of engineering students, means of educational environment organization, prospects of problem-oriented, practiceoriented, project-oriented learning in engineering education and possible obstacles, tools for control and evaluation of learning projects, administrative services and additional resources to apply these methods in the educational process, sources of ideas when choosing topics for individual and/or group projects for the courses taught. Assessment of the results of group project work was considered as one of the important aspects of the learning process and a tool for collecting information about the students’ learning achievements. This is due to the fact that the group project work is quite often evaluated by teachers based on the choice of the problem, the content of the project proposal, the methods used in the implementation of the project and the results obtained. At the same time, other effective and reliable tools, including intergroup and intragroup assessment, self-assessment, portfolio, rubrics, surveys, interviews and other options are used less often [23]. In this paper an attempt is made to combine different tools of assessment and propose a level model of assessment of group project work. The proposed model allows assessing the content of the project and the process of its implementation on the basis of intergroup and intragroup assessment, self-assessment, expert evaluation and teacher’s assessment. At that, the use of self-assessment at all stages of project implementation provides the module trainees with an opportunity to correct the chosen strategy of project implementation, to reflect on the results of their own work, to identify weaknesses and strengths of the project, to find ways to improve the implemented project, to correlate their achievements with the goals and learning outcomes. Expert assessment allowed the trainees to compare the overall progress of the project groups, evaluate the effectiveness of the projects, compare their work with the work of other project groups. The instructor’s assessment was important for providing the trainees with constructive feedback on the development of their skills and competencies in the application of group project-based learning, the level of progress they achieved, the identification of areas for improving the content of the training module, forms and methods of organizing the trainees’ learning. The assessment results obtained at different levels of the proposed model were processed by the method of correlation analysis. The calculated correlation coefficients between the self-assessment results for all the assessed indicators presented in Table 1, at all three levels of the assessment model proposed in the work were less than 0.5 and in most of them did not exceed 0.3, which indicates their weak correlation. In accordance with this, it is necessary to use all three levels of assessment proposed in

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the work in order to obtain an objective assessment of the performed project. Analysis of the results of the reflexive-creative level of self-assessment showed that the initiative of team members will increase with improved communication between team members and planning of work on the project. The values of correlation coefficients (r) for each pair of these parameters ranged from 0.77 to 0.84. At the same time, the initiative of team members is weakly influenced by such indicators as 6-RCL - achieved goals and project results, 7-RCL - implementation prospects (r < 0.2). The indicators 8-RCL sufficiency of theoretical knowledge, 9-RCL - sufficiency of practical experience (r for these parameters are equal to 0.46 and 0.35, respectively) have a moderate influence on the initiative of project team members. A noticeable influence on the initiative of project group members has 3-RCL - evenness of involvement, 4-RCL - distribution of roles and responsibilities, 10-RCL - project management (r > 0.6). Application of correlation analysis for operational and motivational levels of assessment allowed to establish that the effectiveness of project implementation can be increased by increasing such indicators as consistency, relevance, responsibility, resource analysis (correlation coefficients for these parameters r > 0.7), and project implementation efficiency - by correct choice of methods and tools of project implementation. At the same time, the assessment of the parameter 2-OL - relevance is strongly influenced by the parameter 3-OL - goal orientation (r = 0.74), and the self-assessment of 5-OL - responsibility - 4-OL - transparency (r = 0.74). Thus, the practical application of the three-level system of assessment and correlation analysis of the results of self-assessment, expert assessment and teacher’s assessment of the observed correlations in the organization of project work will allow the teacher to improve the initiative of students, the effectiveness and efficiency of group projects. At the same time, considering that one of the tasks of the group project module performed by the trainees was transformation of the taught academic disciplines/units based on the methods of problem-based, project-based and practice-based learning, then at the end of training it was important to assess the readiness of trainees to apply methods of group project-based learning in their professional activities. The correlation analysis of the trainees’ questionnaire results showed that their readiness to apply methods of group project-based learning significantly depended on the level of theoretical knowledge in the field of pedagogy, psychology, pedagogical innovation (r = 0.87), ability to anticipate changes and challenges in the external environment (r = 0.81) and generate non-standard ideas (r = 0.74), desire to realize, create and use innovations in pedagogical activity (r = 0.73). The ability to anticipate changes and challenges of the external environment, in turn, strongly depends on the ability to generate non-standard ideas (r = 0.94), originality and flexibility of thinking (r = 0.87), ability to adequately assess yourself and your work (r = 0.87). The results of correlation analysis also showed that for the formation of a high level of theoretical knowledge in the field of pedagogy, psychology, pedagogical innovativeness the experience of applying methods of group project learning in professional activity (r = 0.84) and aspiration to master, create and use innovations in pedagogical activity (r = 0.82) are important for a teacher (see Fig. 1). Among the important factors inhibiting the application of group project-based learning in the educational process by the module participants the need for additional assessment

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of administrative, organizational, resource capacities of the university (26.7%), the need for additional theoretical and/or practical training/self-training (44.4%) were noted.

Fig. 1. Assessment of factors affecting teachers’ readiness to use group project learning methods in professional and pedagogical activities.

Based on the results of the correlation analysis of the assessment results according to the proposed level model and students’ readiness to apply methods of group project learning in professional activities, we can conclude that the choice of correct tools in planning of students’ project work, methods and tools of project implementation, relevant topics of project works, organization of effective communication at all stages of project work, analysis of main systems and subsystems interested in project results, qualitative analysis of available resources necessary for project implementation, responsibility of executors for the result of the project performed are important factors of effective project work with maximum involvement of all members of project teams to achieve qualitative results of project activity. Our conclusion agrees well with the published results of studies on a similar problem [9, 16, 18, 22–24]. The results of the correlation analysis also agree well with the results of the analysis of the average assessments of the indicators of operational and motivational levels of assessment (see Fig. 2, Fig. 3). Thus, for the operational level of assessment, the average assessments of consistency (1-OL), relevance (2-OL), goal orientation (3-OL), responsibility (5-OL), and efficiency (8OL) were the highest by project implementers and experts. The average scores for the criteria of transparency (4-OL), resourcing (6-OL), and manageability (7-OL) by the project implementers (self-assessment) and experts had lower scores (see Fig. 2). At the same time, the average score of the project implementers for all criteria, except for the 6-OL indicator - resource endowment, was higher than that of the experts (see Fig. 2). The average self-assessment for this level of assessment was 1.72% higher than the experts’ assessment. The biggest absolute difference between the average selfassessment and the expert assessment was observed for the 3-OL - goal orientation (5.32%) and 6-OL - resource endowment (4.5%). By indicators 1-OL - consistency, 4OL - transparency, 8-OL - efficiency, the difference between self-assessment and expert

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evaluation ranged from 3.01% to 3.63%. On average, the difference between these two types of assessment was 5.04%. The greatest difference between self-assessment and expert assessment was observed for 2-ML - contradictions identified (7.99%), 1-ML challenge analysis (5.71%), 3-ML - problem selection and problem situation analysis (5.45%), and 7-ML - project results obtained (5.19%). The smallest difference between self-assessment and expert assessment was observed for the indicator 8-ML - prospects for implementation of project results (2.91%). For all other indicators the difference between the two types of assessment was from 3.69% to 4.99%. At the same time, the assessment of the module trainer for almost all criteria of motivational and operational levels coincided with the expert assessment and, for this reason, is not shown in Figs. 2 and Figs. 3.

Fig. 2. Comparison of the operational level average results assessment by project participants (self-assessment) and experts.

For the motivational level of assessment there was also a higher self-assessment compared to the expert assessment (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Comparison of the motivational level average results assessment by project participants (self-assessment) and experts.

The observed difference between self-assessment and expert assessment is consistent with the work of P.M. Sadler and E. Good, who showed that peer assessment tends to be underestimated, while self-assessment tends to be overestimated [25]. One way to address the observed discrepancy in [25] suggests the development of specific assessment criteria for each category. However, in this paper, the rubrics and assessment criteria were developed with the course participants, which suggests that there are other factors that influence the results of self-assessment and peer review. In addition, as can be seen from Figs. 2 and 3, the greatest difference between the results of self-assessment and

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expert assessment is observed for the motivational level of assessment, which exceeds the same indicator for the operational level of assessment by 2.94 times. Similar trends are observed when considering the results of self-assessment and expert assessment separately for each project (see Fig. 4, Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Comparison of the average results of the operational level of project assessment by project participants (self-assessment) and experts.

Fig. 5. Comparison of the average results of the motivational level of project assessment by project participants (self-assessment) and experts.

The exception is the ratio of self-assessments and expert assessments of the operational level for the group performing the fourth project. The peculiarity of this group is that all participants of the group have experience of pedagogical activity more than 10 years, 40% of group participants regularly apply problem-based, practice- based and project- based learning in professional activities, 60% of group participants sometimes apply these methods within individual disciplines, training modules, courses, etc., 80% of group participants regularly conduct research in the application of methods of problem-based, practice-based, project-based learning. By the end of the module 60% of the participants of this group considered themselves fully ready to apply methods of problem-based, practice-based, project-based learning in professional activity. This may have determined a more critical self-assessment of their project. In all other project groups most of the participants believe that in order to apply methods of problem-based, practice-based, project-based learning they need additional theoretical and/or practical training (self-training), additional assessment of administrative, organizational, resource capabilities of the university, these groups were composed of less experienced teachers (experience of teaching activity 5–10 years) up to 50%, 25% or more of the teachers in these groups considered themselves “newbies” in the use of problem-based, practicebased, project-based learning methods. At the same time, as can be seen from Figs. 4 and 5, the greatest difference between the results of self-assessment and expert assessment

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is observed for the motivational level of assessment (7.8%). For the operational level of assessment this indicator was 3.5%, that is 2.25 times lower than for the motivational level of assessment. The tendency of higher self-assessment compared to expert assessment revealed in this way in the work suggests that the results of the operational level of self-assessment are influenced to a greater extent than the motivational level of assessment by the motivation and readiness of trainees to apply the results of the completed project in their professional activities, teaching experience that allows trainees to better assess the possibility of transforming their own academic disciplines and modules through the use of problem-based, practice-based, project-based learning. Also, in general, project assessment was influenced by high competition between project teams, trainees’ biases based on the fact that their own project results are more optimistic and more important than those of their colleagues [26]. This situation can be characterized as a positive bias towards oneself and a negative bias towards others [27]. Among the reasons for higher self-assessment should also be included methodological inertia, which affects the perception of new methodological strategies, changes and challenges of the external environment, and the generation of non-standard ideas. Methodological inertia inhibits the processes of awareness, creation and use of innovations in pedagogical activity, in overcoming predisposition to a certain method of work or methods of cognition. This conclusion follows from the results of the assessment of the factors affecting the teachers’ readiness to apply methods of group project learning in professional activity. Involvement of teachers in various forms of professional communication, group design, assessment and self-assessment of professional competencies plays an important role in solving this problem.

4 Conclusions Assessment of the results of group project work is an important aspect of the learning process, a tool for collecting information about trainees’ learning achievements and the factors influencing them. In accordance with this, the paper proposes a level model, which allows assessing the content of the project and the process of its implementation on the basis of intergroup and intragroup assessment, self-assessment, expert assessment and teacher’s assessment. This model provides a good correspondence between the results of correlation analysis of assessments of group projects performed and assessment of trainees’ readiness to apply methods of problem-based, practice-based, project-based learning in their professional activities. The analysis of the results of self-assessment, expert assessment and teacher’s assessment of group project work according to the model of level assessment showed that the choice of correct tools in planning project work of students, methods and tools of project implementation, relevant topics of project works, organization of effective communication at all stages of project work, analysis of main systems and subsystems interested in project results, available resources necessary for project implementation, responsibility of performers are important factors of effective project work with maximum involvement of all members of project teams. In this case, the initiative of team members will significantly increase with improved communication between team members and good planning of work on the project, and the effectiveness of project implementation by

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increasing such indicators as consistency, relevance, responsibility, analysis of resources. At the same time, the work has established that for all levels of assessment, for all criteria, except for the assessment of resource endowment, the average results of project executors’ self-assessment are higher than the expert assessment and assessment of the module trainer. The correlation between self-assessment and expert assessment is influenced by pedagogical experience and trainees’ motivation to apply the results of the completed project in their professional activity, high competition between project groups, positive bias towards themselves and negative bias towards others, methodological inertia. The method of level assessment proposed in the paper can be used to identify the factors that inhibit teachers to use various innovative technologies in their professional activities. In addition, the level assessment system allows to establish various direct or indirect relationships between the parameters affecting the initiative of project teams and the effectiveness of their work, managing which can be provided by high results of project work.

References 1. De Carvalho, C.P., Ferreira, E.P.: Team-based learning and project-based learning: innovative assessment methodologies comparison. J. Mod. Educ. Rev. 10(11), 973–981 (2020) 2. Rahayu, W.P., Hidayatin, H., Churiyah, M.: Development of a project-based learning assessment system to improve students’ competence. J. Pendidikan Ekonomi Bisnis 8(2), 86–101 (2020) 3. Parwati, N.W., Suarni, N.K., Suastra, I.W., Adnyana, P.B.: The effect of project based learning and authentic assessment on students’ natural science learning outcome by controlling critical thinking skill. J. Phys. IOP Conf. Ser. 1318, 1–7 (2019) 4. Karstina, S.: The role of group project-based learning in engineering training. In: Auer, M.E., Pachatz, W., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) Learning in the Age of Digital and Green Transition, ICL 2022. LNNS, vol. 634, pp. 239–245. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3031-26190-9_24 5. Kesianye, S.K.: The three perspectives of integrating assessment and instruction in the learning of school mathematics. J. Educ. Pract. 6(19), 212–214 (2015) 6. Jankowski, N.A., Timmer, J.D., Kinzie, J., Kuh, G.D.: Assessment that matters: trending toward practices that document authentic student learning. National Institute for Learning Outcomes Assessment (NILOA), University of Illinois and Indiana University, Urbana, IL, January 2018. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED590514.pdf. Accessed 05 May 2023 7. Wenninger, H.: Student assessment of venture creation courses in entrepreneurship higher education—an interdisciplinary literature review and practical case analysis. Entrep. Educ. Pedagogy 2(1), 58–81 (2018) 8. Hutchings, P.: What new faculty need to know about assessment. National Institute for Learning Outcomes Assessment (2019). https://www.learningoutcomesassessment.org/wpcontent/ uploads/2019/08/Assessment-Brief-Faculty.pdf. Accessed 05 May 2023 9. Poobalan, G., et al.: Creative project work as a 21st-century education tool. Int. J. Acad. Res. Progress. Educ. Dev. 11(3), 167–176 (2022) 10. Karstina, S.G.: Engineering training in the context of digital transformation. In: 2022 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), pp. 1062–1068 (2022) 11. Liao, R., Chang, C., Chen, C.: Influences of peer assessment types on performance and students’ perspectives on online peer assessment. Int. Res. Educ. 2(8), 43–56 (2020)

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12. Dixson, D.D., Worrell, F.C.: Formative and summative assessment in the classroom. Theor. Into Pract. 55(2), 153–159 (2016) 13. Murray, M., Pérez, J., Guimaraes, M.: A model for using a capstone experience as one method of assessment of an information systems degree program. J. Inf. Syst. Educ. 2(19), 197–208 (2008) 14. Karstina, S.G.: Educators training in the context of socio-economic and technological trends of Kazakhstan. In: Auer, M.E., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) ICL 2020. AISC, vol. 1329, pp. 68–75. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_7 15. Cifrian, E., Andrés, A., Galán, B., Viguri, J.R.: Integration of different assessment approaches: application to a project-based learning engineering course. Educ. Chem. Eng. 31, 62–75 (2020) 16. Ngereja, B., Hussein, B., Andersen, B.: Does project-based learning (PBL) promote student learning? A performance evaluation. Educ. Sci. 10(11), 1–15 (2020) 17. Pradanti, P., Muqtada, M.R.: Students’ perceptions on learning, motivation, and performance through project-based learning: undergraduate students’ case. PYTHAGORAS: Jurnal Program Studi Pendidikan Matematika 12(1), 16–26 (2023) 18. Khusainova, G.R., Karstina, S.G., Galikhanov, M.F.: Assessing educators’ readiness for innovative professional and pedagogical activities. Vysshee obrazovanie v Rossii = High. Educ. Russia 7(31), 42–60 (2022) 19. Knapp, S., Merges, R.: An evaluation of three interdisciplinary social science events outside of the college classroom. Coll. Teach. 65, 137–141 (2017) 20. Backlund, F., Garvare, R. Individual assessment of students working in project teams. In: Bennedsen, J., et al. (eds.) Proceedings of the 15th International CDIO Conference – Full Papers. Aarhus Universitetsforlag, 2019, pp. 353–365 (2019) 21. Fagerholm, F., Vihavainen, A.: Peer assessment in experiential learning assessing tacit and explicit skills in agile software engineering capstone projects. In: 2013 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), pp. 1723–1729 (2013) 22. Zhan, Z., Shen, W., Lin, W.: Effect of product-based pedagogy on students’ project management skills, learning achievement, creativity, and innovative thinking in a high-school artificial intelligence course. Front. Psychol. 13, 849842 (2022) 23. Gupta, B.L.: Assessment of project and research-based learning in the context of NEP 2020. In: National Conference on National Education Policy 2020, 30–31 July 2022, Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Deemed University Sarnath, Varanasi, pp.1–18 (2022) 24. Ibrahim, D., Rashid, A.: Effect of project-based learning towards collaboration among students in the design and technology subject. World J. Educ. 3(12), 1–10 (2022) 25. Sadler, P.M., Good, E.: The impact of self- and peer-grading on student learning. Educ. Assess. 11, 1–31 (2006) 26. Van Duzer, E., McMartin, F.: Methods to improve the validity and sensitivity of a self/peer assessment instrument. IEEE Trans. Educ. 2(43), 153–158 (2000) 27. Ryan, G., Marshall, L., Porter, K., Jia, H.: Peer, professor and self-evaluation of class participation. Act. Learn. High. Educ. 1(8), 49–61 (2007)

Preparing Master’s Degree Students for Doctoral Studies - A Lecturer’s Perspective: Results of a Case Study of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) Nele Nutt1

, Katrin Karu2 , and Jane Raamets1(B)

1 Tartu College, School on Engineering, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5,

19086 Tallinn, Estonia {nele.nutt,jane.raamets}@taltech.ee 2 School of Educational Sciences, Tallinn University, Narva rd. 25, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia

Abstract. Problem-based and project-based learning (PBL) is a learner-centered approach that promotes active learning through solving real-life problems. It enhances self-direction, constructive feedback, and cooperation skills in students. The aim of the study is to explain the implementation of problem-based learning (PBL) in higher education to improve student learning and prepare graduates for research. At N University of Technology, PBL was implemented among 47 master’s degree students in industrial ecology curricula in 2021/2022. The problem arose from large group sizes during lab practicums, causing anxiety and time constraints. To address this, smaller groups (3–4 members) with different time slots were formed. The lecturer provided relevant articles, theses, and materials for students to work through before solving the problem. Resources were accessible through the Moodle platform, encouraging effective individual and group work. Reading master’s theses prepared students for their own thesis writing, considering the course’s volume limitations. Whether to explain hidden goals, such as thesis preparation, was debated due to students’ limited ability to absorb oral information. A detailed written guide is proposed, with consideration for the appropriate level of detail. Keywords: problem-based learning · project-based learning · active learning · case study

1 Introduction Problem-based and project learning is an output-based and learner-centered active learning method, the learning content of which is the solution of a real-life problem linking different fields because of teamwork and independent work. While traditional teaching methods focus on the transfer of knowledge from the lecturer to the student, problem-based learning is aimed at creating, evaluating, and improving knowledge together. Several researchers [1, 2] in different study fields have explored the impact © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 355–365, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_34

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of PBL on student achievement and attitudes, for example, increased conceptual understanding, fostered critical thinking through problem-solving, developed attitudes consistent with life-long learning, and enhanced problem-solving abilities that could be applied to real-world situations. Problem-based and project-based learning are parts of inquiry-based learning [3] which are based on situated learning theory [4]. Learning and accompanying activities take place in a context where they function normally. One way to incorporate inquiry-based learning is to conduct science experiments. By applying the scientific research method to solving problems, students can establish a connection between knowledge and experience, and reach fundamental knowledge specific to the subject area (for example Dewey, and Bruner as historical developers PBL). In higher education, both project-based and problem-based learning is based on eight characteristics: (1) adult learners are independent and self-directed, (2) adult learners are goal-oriented and internally motivated, (3) learning is most effective when it applies to practice, (4) cognitive processes support learning, (5) learning is active and requires active engagement, (6) interaction between learners supports learning, (7) activation of prior knowledge and experience supports learning, and (8) elaboration and reflection supports learning [5]. Thus, in this case study, we assume, that learning is an active student-centered form of teaching which is characterized by students’ autonomy, constructive investigations, goal setting, collaboration, communication, and reflection within real-world practices [6]. Problem-based learning aims to find a comprehensive answer to a problem in an agreed format (e.g., experiment, research, suitable action plan, etc.). In higher education, PBL is increasingly used in various disciplines such as architecture and engineering studies, nursing, social work, and business administration and leadership education. The widespread application of the method has raised the question of what must be the problem and its level of difficulty to enable effective learning using PBL? Based on the classification of Jonassen and Hung [7], the problem can be well-structured or ill-structured and simple or complex (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Classification of problems [7]

The study used a complex problem that is novel and dynamic because its solution depends on several factors often unknown to the learner. It was also based on the assumption that a complex problem has several solutions of approximately equal correctness. The authenticity of problems ensures learning in a situation like reality and makes a difference. In our research context, students must carry out a real scientific experiment, the results of which are not known even to the lecturer. Conventionally, laboratories have

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specific instructions for conducting an experiment that leads to a specific result that is verified. Problem-Solving is an important activity in PBL, which is influenced by individual characteristics of students (e.g., prior knowledge, ability to find the material, ability to consider initial data, etc.), characteristics of the problem task (e.g., problem task, problem contexts), and characteristics of the work/study environment (peer support). It means that in a learning situation, the efficient interaction between the problem-solving students and situational conditions depends on the task. It demands the use of cognitive, emotional, and social resources and knowledge [8]. Previous studies indicate that the experiences of lecturers in the implementation of PBL are positive, they identify students’ motivation and engagement as well as a better understanding of the application of concepts in real life as important outcomes of the project. In addition, teachers also emphasize the importance of implications for practice [9]. When applying PBL, the lecturers supporting activities are as follows: direct students to the information they should use in solving the problem, ensure material resources (room, work materials, technical aids, tools), establish work organization agreements and criteria for the final result, give feedback on students’ activities and intervene with specific recommendations and with instructions, especially when an obstacle has arisen, the elimination of which requires more comprehensive and deep knowledge and experience [10]. Through this, students’ cooperation skills, creativity, and imagination, as well as critical thinking and problem-solving skills develop, which is also considered important in previous research [11]. The aim of the study is to explain the implementation of problem-based learning (PBL) in higher education to improve student learning and prepare graduates for research.

2 Context of the Study The case study reported in this paper was carried out at Tallinn University of Technology. Project-based learning (PBL) has been implemented in the autumn semesters of 2021 and 2022 among master’s degree students in industrial ecology curricula at Tallinn University of Technology. In our case study, a total of 47 students participated. Remaining central to everyday life needs, problem-based learning in academic learning only fulfills part of its goals. In addition to solving everyday problems, the goal of academic education is also to develop science-based solutions. As part of the project, a solution that considers the needs of academic education in the direction of research, was developed. Using the method of problem-based learning, research, and teaching were connected to the whole. During our project, problem-solving paths were developed by applying different scientific methods for students to acquire skills and gain personal experience in research and therefore be more prepared for writing their master´s thesis and for the following studies at the Ph.D. level. The students gained experience of how to look at the world like a scientist and got an understanding of what reliable science is. 2.1 Description of the Process During our course, based on PBL stages, research work was carried out and the outcome was not predetermined. Students started by formulating the problem and hypotheses.

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The experimental plan and test mixtures were composed also by students. They worked in groups of 5–6 people and independently of the other groups. At the end of the experiments, they prepared the report and got involved in the discussion of larger scientific issues and knowledge, that did not remain only at the center of their working group. Groups defended their reports in the seminar, which was open to the public - all other interested students and university staff were welcome at the meeting. Figure 2 shows tasks done during the course to conduct a scientific experiment based on PBL stages and cooperation.

Fig. 2. Course Description

Groups organized the data, analyzed the data, and prepared a report in which they presented the results and compared them with the results of previous experiments. Completed reports went to peer review. The reviewers were students of the same course who were familiar with previous studies, knew the methodology, and had experience in conducting a similar experiment. Additional points were given by the lecturer for the reviewing process. Any overlooked error not highlighted by the reviewer resulted in a minus point for the reviewer. Based on the reviewers’ comments, the students add to their reports and make a conference presentation of their research, which they present to an audience of fellow students and faculty. Students evaluate others’ presentations.

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2.2 Methodology This paper aims to attempt to address the following research questions: 1. How does PBL prepare students for research? 2. What are the difficulties of research work for students? 3. What are the implications of PBL for teaching and learning in higher education? When collecting data, we proceeded from the point of view that a case study is a detailed description or a multifaceted in-depth analysis of one specific entity, which can be a group of people, an event, a project, etc. and the use of several research materials adds precision to the study. We also took as a basis the knowledge that student feedback to the lecturer and the subject is important for project learning. As suggested by researchers of university pedagogy we analyzed data involving an educationist. We collected data from two parties using both oral and written sources. After the end of the course, students (n = 47) gave scores on 10 questions on a 5-point scale during the feedback survey organized by the university in the university’s study information system. Comments could be added to the score. Students also rated their motivation on a 5-point scale. In addition, we collected material by analyzing students’ coursework. How the students have managed to solve the given task, where there are shortcomings. During the course, we conducted an observation to identify bottlenecks. Finally, the lecturer of the course wrote a reflection on the subject course (Table 1). Table 1. Stages and methods of the data collection Stage

Academic year

Participants in the study

Methods

First stage

2020/21

24

Students feedback Lecturers’ reflection

Second stage

2021/22

23

Students feedback Lecturers’ reflection

As ethical aspects related to the sample, we point out that the feedback collected from students and the analysis of study reports took place when the subject had already been completed. Thus, we ruled out the possibility that students’ evaluation of course performance is related to participation in the study. We started from the principle of confidentiality because the feedback questionnaire is anonymous for the students and the answers are anonymous when the results are presented.

3 Findings 3.1 Developing Lab Skills for Research Students pointed out several advantages of using the method. They found that making paper plaster in the labs taught them how to conduct a science experiment. Students pointed out that the choice of topic is relevant, interesting, and applicable to everyday

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life. Discussions with the lecturer and fellow students contributed to a better understanding of the subject. During the group work, they learned to work in a team even more effectively and actively supported their group members. Groups were sized optimally, they complemented each other and encouraged cooperation, and working together encouraged mutual discussion. Students wrote in their feedback that the practical experiments in the laboratory were interesting, and they liked that the subject had practical laboratory experiments. They pointed out that more such activities should be included when teaching the curricula and found that laboratory experiments etc. practicum are very welcome as a learning method. On the other hand, some students did not see the benefit and value of practical work in further activities. They wrote in their feedback that the paper plaster part took a bit too long in the overall course. Students found that their lecturer is a top specialist in her field, but the value of the subject for students as future industrial ecologists was a bit confusing - how to apply this knowledge in a company? The lecturer mentioned that since this subject is part of a session-based teaching curriculum when teaching takes place twice a month for three days, students lose focus between sessions, and the follow-up is lost. During the entire experiment, the students were obliged to analyze the constantly arriving test data in a special data environment and to check that the conditions for completing the experiment have been met, after which they must report this in the e-learning community forum. The students did not take the task seriously. Either they didn’t realize that they were responsible for whether the experiment continued or stopped, or they simply couldn’t handle the task (the task was overwhelming). The lecturer found that to achieve learning outcomes, student participation throughout the process is extremely important. Due to students’ periodical work, the lecturer mentioned that the learning experience for students was one-sided, and they did not perceive things differently. To keep the students in the process between sessional school days, it is necessary to solve and submit the task in parts. The preparation of the next part cannot be started until the previous part has been submitted and approved by the lecturer. For example, a report’s literature review and analysis of previous research results must be provided before a plaster mix recipe is developed. Description of the method before the design of the test plan. Paper plaster was seen as something for home-renovating enthusiasts rather than a learning matter for how to build up and experiment. Since simple lecturer-to-student methods were applied during the course, the students were unfamiliar with different approaches, where they must take on the role of the researcher. The students did not understand that everything that is used in the industry starts in the laboratory. Laboratory works are the basis of everything, and they last for years before the material reaches production. In the students´ feedback questionnaire, the course was given a high rating (Table 2). The analysis of the research reports revealed that the students acquired the necessary skills to work in a laboratory and how to conduct a scientific experiment. 3.2 Obstacles and Challenges in Cooperative Learning in a Group Based on the reflection of the lecturer, it can be said that overall students were active, mostly positive, and interested. Their cooperation skills were expressed as being able to

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Table 2. Number of students who declared the subject, percentage of students, who gave feedback, and average mark to the course (in a scale of 5). Academic year Number of students, who The number of students, Average mark to the declared the subject who gave feedback (%) course (in a scale of 5) 2020/2021

24

87.5%

4.83

2021/2022

23

69.6%

4.43

organize (they organized group work, and shared tasks among themselves). During the course, there was also sometimes destructive and not very hardworking. Some individual students did not actively participate in group work or did not participate at all. The results revealed that although this disturbs the other group members a lot, they do not inform the lecturer. Such information reached the lecturer after the end of the course when she talked outside of teaching hours with students. Unequal contribution in group work was also pointed out by students in their feedback, as it leads to unequal evaluation. From the lecturer’s reflection, it can be pointed out that in the future, during the preparation of the course project, in addition to the final evaluation, peer evaluation of the group members must be used. Multiple evaluations during the course are more effective than a single evaluation at the end of the course. According to the lecturer, mutual evaluation gives students information during the process about what other group members expect from them and how they can work more efficiently as group members. In addition, it also provides information about the group’s activities to the lecturer, who can intervene if necessary. When planning the course, it is necessary to think about what part of the final grade will be the evaluation of the group members. It turned out that the lecturer perceives the preparation of questions as a challenge, so that they fulfill the purpose and adequate knowledge reaches the lecturer, i.e., students would not appreciate the other group member’s time consumption but the contribution to the content. For example, if one student spends two days working through the material, while another student spends two hours, their substantive contribution is the same, even though the time resource expenditure is different. This must be kept in mind so that students value quality over quantity. According to the students, the group members did not contribute from the start. Some of the members contributed to the group work to a small extent. It was also pointed out that the group members’ contribution to the group work could not be assessed because the group members do not share this information very easily with the lecturer. The questions that had arisen became apparent only after the work was completed, during the presentation of the work. During the discussion part of the presentation, students pointed out problems that had arisen in the past. It is possible that working individually, the students would have approached the lecturer earlier. Students pointed out that they had forgotten that supportive materials were in the e-course and because the students did not take notes during the lectures some crucial points were missing. It was complicated to acquire oral information because their ability to summarize is very low. They require a lot of written instructions to help them with the experiment planning and report writing process. Most of the students are not hardworking

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and they will do as much as is required to pass. It was very rare to delve deeper into something on your initiative than the threshold requires. 3.3 Recommendations/Suggestions/Plans for Subject Development The problem arose with the overall group size, which turned out to be too large. When using the equipment needed for the laboratory experiment, there was a queue, which made the students anxious about whether they would get everything done by the end of the practicum. Working in smaller groups (3–4 members in a group) would help to solve this problem. The students did not have to orientate themselves in the scientific literature of the whole world, but the lecturer had given them several articles, degree theses, and other materials that had to be worked through before solving the problem. In addition, an auditorium lecture with an introductory practicum. All materials were available, and links or instructions to the materials were gathered in the Moodle environment. There was a lot of independent work because the shared instructions largely involved self-invention and searching for material and very thorough reading, which was somewhat incomprehensible and would have needed more explanation and reasoning to fully understand the matter. Students must be encouraged to work effectively with the materials both individually and in groups. The purpose of reading master’s theses was to prepare for writing the master’s thesis, which will begin later in the semester. Also, the course has a volume limitation, which does not allow working through a large amount of scientific literature. The question is whether the so-called hidden goals (preparation for writing a master’s thesis) should be explained to students (in fact, this was also discussed, but the ability to receive oral information is very low). One student, who had the manual, wrote in feedback that “When doing group work, there were a lot of questions that could not be read from the manual. In the following years, there could be a slightly more precise description.” The lecturer refers to the fact that every student has an important role to follow up and work continuously with materials and contact the lecturer in case of problems or misunderstandings. A detailed written guide should be considered as a proposal. The question is its level of detail.

4 Discussion While traditional teaching methods focus on the transfer of knowledge from the lecturer to the student, problem-based learning is aimed at creating, evaluating, and improving knowledge together. One way to incorporate inquiry-based learning is to conduct science experiments. By applying the scientific research method to solving problems, students can establish a connection between knowledge and experience, and reach fundamental knowledge specific to the subject area. Our experience showed that students are placed in a new situation with problembased learning and need continuous support during the course, unlike when applying traditional teaching methods. At the same time, many students noted that they liked

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the practical tasks that support the theory so that the learning does not remain only theoretical. The co-creation of knowledge characteristic of problem-based learning is unfamiliar to students, and they expect precise instructions from the lecturer. The students were given instructions by the lecturer, but for co-creation, they were more so-called steppingstones than detailed instructions to be completed point by point. In their feedback students pointed out that precise written instructions are required. The results indicate that, like previous views [10] when creating a PBL learning environment, it is important for the teacher to intervene with specific recommendations and instructions in case the obstacle experienced by the students requires more comprehensive and deeper knowledge and experience. In higher education, both project-based and problem-based learning are based on eight characteristics of students [5]. Our experience showed that the characteristics of project- and problem-based learning, independent and self-directed learning, were not fully implemented, because the students did not take responsibility, it was unaccustomed to them. In the form of sessional learning, learning was not constantly active during the course, but periods of activity alternated with periods of inactivity. Students were given every opportunity to be actively involved, but it was their responsibility to use this opportunity. The group work format allowed some students to remain passive bystanders. This means that not all students were goal-oriented and intrinsically motivated as adults. At the same time, the criterion of project-based and problem-based learning is applied, which requires the application of learning in practice. The form of group work supported the interaction of learners, which in turn supported learning. According to the students, the method used as reflection, and mutual evaluation of group work, was effective and contributed to the acquisition of knowledge. According to the literature [7], the goal of problem-based learning is to find a comprehensive answer to a problem in an agreed format. We used a structured but complex problem, the solution of which was not known to the lecturer in advance. Students had to conduct a real science experiment to make connections between knowledge and experience. Finding the problem wasn’t difficult. However, it had to be described very precisely so that students without previous scientific experience could understand its essence. A clear structure and course of action helped guide the entire process and gave the students an idea of the science experiment. Lack of prior experience and patchy knowledge of data analysis made it difficult for students to analyze and interpret data and find cause-andeffect relationships. The final reports of the experiment results prepared by the students did not provide answers to all the research questions with sufficient depth. Our experience shows that experimenting with an unpredictable result can cause problems in fitting into the time frame and solving new questions that constantly arise will take more time than planned. In the case of a real scientific experiment, the results of which are not known in advance and the plan of the experiment may change during the experiment, it is difficult to use in teaching. While the goal is the implementation of problem-based learning, PBL does not only suffer from scientific results. Previous studies [9] showed that students are satisfied with PBL learning, their motivation and involvement in learning is high, this was also shown by the satisfaction indicators of our study. At the same time, when applying PBL, it is important to rely on students’

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previous knowledge and experience, but this study revealed that the students lacked prior knowledge of statistics, data analysis, and the presentation of results. The form of group work solved some of the shortcomings because the different experiences and skills of the group members made it possible to complement each other. Unlike previous studies [5, 6] which emphasize students’ self-directedness, constructiveness and mutual interaction when implementing PBL, in this study students do not dare to evaluate each other’s work constructively and give feedback. There is a tendency to overestimate without delving into the content. Out of a whole group of 47, only one student was able to give meaningful and constructive feedback. Therefore, it is important to support and teach students’ ability to give constructive feedback when applying PBL.

5 Conclusion • By applying the scientific research method to solving problems, students can establish a connection between knowledge and experience, and reach fundamental knowledge specific to the subject area. • The co-creation of knowledge characteristic of problem-based learning is unfamiliar to students, and they expect precise instructions from the lecturer. • Our experience showed that the characteristics of project- and problem-based learning, independent and self-directed learning, were not fully implemented, because the students did not take responsibility, it was unaccustomed to them. In the form of sessional learning, learning was not constantly active during the course, but periods of activity alternated with periods of inactivity. • A clear structure and course of action helped guide the entire process and gave the students an idea of the science experiment. • Our experience shows that experimenting with an unpredictable result can cause problems in fitting into the time frame and solving new questions that constantly arise will take more time than planned. In the case of a real scientific experiment, the results of which are not known in advance and the plan of the experiment may change during the experiment, it is difficult to use in teaching.

References 1. Reynolds, J., Hancock, D.: Problem-based learning in a higher education environmental biotechnology course. Innov. Educ. Teach. Int. 47, 175–186 (2010) 2. Alt, D., Raichel, N.: Problem-based learning, self- and peer assessment in higher education: towards advancing lifelong learning skills. Res. Pap. Educ. 37(3), 370–394 (2022) 3. Darling-Hammond, L., Barron, B.: Prospects, and challenges for inquiry-based approaches to learning. In: Dumont, H., Istance, D., Benavides, F. (eds.) The Nature of Learning. Using Research to Inspire Practice, pp. 199–225. OECD Publishing (2010) 4. Lave, J., Wenger, E.: Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1991) 5. Gewurtz, R.E., Coman, L., Dhillon, S., Jung, B., Solomon, P.: Problem-based learning and theories of teaching and learning in health professional education. J. Perspect. Appl. Acad. Pract. 4(1), 59–70 (2016)

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6. Kokotsaki, D., Menzies, V., Wiggins, A.: Project-based learning: a review of the literature. Improv. Sch. 19(3), 267–277 (2016) 7. Jonassen, D.H., Hung, W.: All problems are not equal: implications for problem-based learning. Interdisc. J. Probl. Based Learn. 2(2), 6–28 (2008) 8. Funke, J.: Complex problem solving. In: Seel, N.M. (eds.) Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer, Boston (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_685 9. Alves, A.C., Sousa, R.M., Fernandes, S.: Teacher’s experiences in PBL: implications for practice. Eur. J. Eng. Educ. 41(2), 123–141 (2016) 10. Jonassen, D.: Supporting problem solving in PBL. Interdisc. J. Probl. Based Learn. 5(2), 95–119 (2011) 11. Karu, K.: Üliõpilaste arusaamad õppimisest ülikoolis: andragoogiline vaade (Students’ comprehensions of learning at university: andragogical view). Tallinn University. Dissertations on Social Sciences (2020)

Rethinking Research Methodology in DL Computational Design and Digital Fabrication: A Case Study of the Challenges and Opportunities of Project-Based Learning T. L. Sophocleous(B)

and M. Georgiou

University of Nicosia, 46 Makedonitissas Avenue, CY-2417, P.O. Box 24005, 1700 Nicosia, Cyprus [email protected]

Abstract. This paper discusses the integration of project-based learning (i.e. PrBL) and digital tools in online blended teaching of research methodology to master students with a multidisciplinary background in computational design and digital fabrication. The study focuses on the impact of this approach on students’ involvement and their active engagement in peer learning through group work and online communication. It also highlights the challenges faced in developing critical thinking, communication, teamwork skills, and social responsibility to conduct research in the ever-changing technological landscape. Lessons learned from the MSc in Computational Design and Digital Fabrication, an innovative Distance Learning Structure which allows for remote teaching from faculty of the University of Nicosia in Cyprus and the University of Innsbruck in Austria and selected by internationals with structural, industrial, and other engineering backgrounds, is elucidated to provide useful recommendations. Keywords: Experiential learning · Research methodology · Project-based digital

1 Introduction In an era of rapidly advancing digital technologies and the prompt increase of online learning platforms, project-based learning (i.e. PrBL) and digital tools (i.e. DT) are promising ways to transform distance education and research. Research is the essence of academic advancement, promoting innovation and societal progress. However, undertaking research and producing scholarly work can be challenging, particularly in a distance learning (i.e. DL) setting. With the growing demand for flexible education options, it is crucial to investigate whether the development of research skills can influence the engineers who aim to practice in the computational field. Several research findings imply that there is no significant correlation between computational analytical skills and academic performance, suggesting that better curricular alignment is necessary [4]. In today’s digitally-driven age, PrBL has become a popular and effective method of educating students. There is an increasing need for further research to explore how PrBL © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 366–372, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_35

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can be customized to suit various engineering fields and student demographics, as well as how it can be harmonized with alternative teaching methodologies [1]. The future work suggested in [3] is to provide reflections that may be useful to teachers in many fields of engineering who wish to apply this kind of teaching strategy and design specific actions for their subjects. We need to investigate cutting-edge educational strategies and discuss the findings from individual practices. A review of current approaches to PrBL in engineering education in the UK verifies that project-based activities are often developed by staff operating as lone ‘champions’ with limited time, resources, and support [6]. The necessity of exploring how teachers can furnish constructive evaluations and appraisals in PrBL settings is highlighted in [8]. The findings indicate that the PrBL design promoted collaborative learning, creativity, and critical thinking, and resulted in higher levels of engagement and motivation among the students. Yet, there is a pressing demand among educators for researching the gap in how PrBL, DT, and the development of research skills intersect in the DL environment to increase students’ educational involvement in research and the development of projects that meet high standards. According to academic research, PrBL is an efficient educational methodology for the development of competencies that connects teaching with the professional world. As presented in [2], it facilitates training in technical, personal, and contextual competencies since real problems in the professional sphere are dealt with. Although, there is still a significant gap in the use of academic research in project development [5]. The issue of the use of academic research by future practitioners and society needs to be addressed. By examining the efficacy of teaching the course on research methodology on the Moodle digital platform, during a semester before they undertake their thesis following PrBL, the paper at hand is informative. The exploration of Moodle as a DT followed in [9], suggests that there is a need for more research on the factors that influence the adoption and use of the Learning Management System (i.e. LMS) by instructors and students. The use of DT has made accessing information easier than ever before, but not necessarily analyzing it for research discoveries. Students must be able to differentiate between reliable and unreliable sources, synthesize information, and effectively communicate their findings. Without these foundational research skills, students may struggle to complete their projects and may not fully benefit from their advantages. The present investigation reveals new opportunities by examining the case of the MSc program on Computational Design and Digital Fabrication (i.e. CDDF) offered jointly by two universities in different countries. It investigates the impact on the quality of design projects of receiving training in a prerequisite course on research methodology and, consequently, developing Research Skills (i.e.RS) in the e-learning environment. The paper being reviewed is based on a collection of similar projects to [7]. First, we will define PrBL, DT, research skills, and high-quality project evaluators. Next, we will provide the qualitative context. To investigate participants’ rich narratives and viewpoints, we will use qualitative data analysis to analyze the collected data. Additionally, we will utilize statistical and quantitative data analysis methods to evaluate correlations between Research Skills (RS) and thesis/project quality and verify scientifically the results from the qualitative analysis. We will conclude and give recommendations

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for educators, administrators, and policymakers based on the findings, highlighting the potential of research skills development utilizing DT to enhance the quality of PrBL outcomes in higher education distance learning programs. By investigating the intersection of project-based learning, digital tools, and research skills development, we hope to identify the potential benefits and implications of this innovative educational approach.

2 Context, Parameters and Data Collection This current paper examines the case of MSc in Computational Design and Digital Fabrication (i.e. MSc CDDF), offered jointly by the University of Nicosia, Cyprus, and Universitat Innsbruck, Austria. It is offering Distance Learning courses with ground-based intensive and international workshops. The curriculum teaches computational design, cutting-edge fabrication, and analytical and creative problem solving. Two intensive, onsite workshops, at ARC Fab Lab in Nicosia and the Robotic Lab (REXLAB) in Innsbruck, allow students to apply new knowledge, establish academia and industry connections, and engage with the global research community. Students complete a Design Project for 20/90 ECTS following PrBL based on a Research prerequisite.

Fig. 1. Distribution (normal) of numerical data variables x = RS and y = HqR_PrBL

Project-based learning (PrBL) in the Thesis/Project module is the innovative approach that is adopted as it enables students in their final semester to work collaboratively to tackle complex issues to solve through the development of their Capstone work. A range of Digital Tools (DT) and features, provided by the open-source LMS Moodle is used for the online teaching and learning of the MSc CDDF program. Research Skills (RS) are taught and learned during a separate module on Research Methodology and are assessed based on the following parameters as explained in (Table 1): A*: Information literacy and literature review. B*: Source evaluation and formulating research questions and hypotheses, C*: Search Skills & Research Design, Organizational skills & Data collection, D*: Analysis skills & Data analysis, E*: Synthesis and Writing Skills, and

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F*: Communication skills. High-Quality Research (HqR_PrBL) in CDDF’s projects is evaluated based on technical expertise, creativity, and critical thinking skills, as well as a commitment to ethical and professional standards of research conduct. Objective key parameters of rigor, relevance, novelty, and significance of the Projects provide a reliable assessment guide for it. Document analysis, Observation, and Interviews over the past four (4) years provide the collection of the qualitative data. In total 48 video recordings and 144 h of online tutorials, the assignments, exercises case studies’ analyses, and projects completed by the students, the discussions, and all coursework and final tests were analyzed. Observations of the students and the academic personnel, advisory committee professors, invited and guest lectures behaviors at REX|LAB, Austria and ARC F-LAB, Cyprus settings during the 8 events of f-2-f digital fabrication workshops, were observed without interfering or influencing. Table 1. Rubrics design for objective measures of Research Skills (RS) Criterion

Excellent

Good

Satisfactory

A*. Critical thinking, Finding, evaluating Making effective use. Assessing the legitimacy, reliability, and bias of information beyond the finding of research gaps

Effortlessly Uses reputable sources employs a large and writes a solid range of relevant literature review and reputable sources and gives a comprehensive literature evaluation

Basic information literacy abilities, reputable sources, and a good literature review

B*. Quickly obtain accurate information by using search engines wisely. Reviewing for credibility, reliability, and bias

Excellent source evaluation abilities and well-defined research questions and hypotheses indicate profound understanding and inventiveness

Strong source evaluation and precise research questions and hypotheses

Clearly formulates research questions and hypotheses, and evaluates sources well

C*. Collect and analyze data

Excellent search Searches well chooses abilities, adequate good approaches and research plans well methodologies, and well-structured study plan

Searches well chooses relevant methodologies, and creates a clear research strategy (continued)

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Criterion

Excellent

Good

Satisfactory

D*. Meaningful and reliable data. Record of findings

Excellent organization, data collection, and management

Shows good organization, organizes data well and stays organized for most of the project

Shows good organizational abilities, organizes data well, and follows a disciplined approach

E*. Analyzing data to identify patterns, relationships, and trends

Uses data analysis techniques correctly and interprets results to draw reasonable conclusions

Uses data analysis procedures correctly and evaluates outcomes

Performs data analysis well and understands outcomes

F*. Clear and concise communication of research findings, including using appropriate language, formatting, and visual aids

Synthesizes well, writes eloquently, and delivers research findings professionally

Synthesizes writes, and explains research findings well

Synthesizes well, writes well, and explains research findings

3 Methodology: Statistical Measure The quantitative method is used to generate statistical inferences based on the numerical data respective of the scores of each student in the Research Methodology and the Design Project/Thesis modules. The histogram of each quantified variable (Rs and HqR_PrBL) shows that they are approximately normally distributed [Fig. 1]. The scatterplot [Fig. 2] verifies that the data have no points that are far away from the others and that the relationship between the two variables can be described reasonably well by a straight line, which is the best fit that implies that the relationship between the two variables is linear. In fact, the function is characterized by the following proposed formula:   HqR_PrBL = 0.6575 [RS] + 31.874 (1) The correlational method is followed to examine whether and how strongly the variable “Research Skills (RS)” affects the variable “High-Quality Research of Project Based Learning (HqR_PrBL)”. The Pearson correlation coefficient is selected in the present study to quantify the strength and direction of their linear relationship. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) is the most common way of measuring a linear correlation. It is a number between −1 and 1 that measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables and it is calculated using the following formulas:  (xi−x) × (yi − y) (2) r =   (xi−x)2 − (yi − y)2

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High Quallity Research HqR _PrBL

RS Impact on HqR_PrBL 100 90 80 70 60 50

y = 0.6575x + 31.874

40 30 20 10 0 0

20

40

60

80

100

Research Skills (RS)

Fig. 2. Variation of y = HqR_PrBL with x = RS (best fit: linear).

where: xi, and yi: the score values for RS and HqR_PrBL and {¯x = (x1 + x2 +… + xn)/n and y¯ = (y1 + y2 +… + yn)/n}: the means The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables measured is positive; which shows that as one variable increases the other also increases. The Pearson correlation coefficient calculated equals r = 0.754436263 > 0.50 which shows that there is a strong positive relationship between y = HqR_PrBL and x = RS.

4 Conclusions and Recommendations The paper emphasizes the need for academic research to engage with design and fabrication projects for engineers following the Project Based Learning (PrBL) in their studies. In order for students to succeed in PrBL approach, it is crucial that they develop foundational research skills. Therefore, it is important that educators prioritize teaching these skills alongside the implementation of digital tools (DT) and PrBL. In order to assess the performance in project-based teaching and learning sufficiently we need to consider the level of achievement in each of the research categories: i information literacy, ii -source evaluation, search, iii-organizational – iv-analysis, and v-synthesis skills. The research experience improves thesis and PrBL quality and nurtures excellence in scholarly work among distance-learning students at a master’s level. In the case of the distance learning Master’s program on Computational design and Digital Fabrication (MSc in CDDF) offered jointly by the University of Nicosia and Universitat Innsbruck, Austria, the variables that characterize a high level of research for project-based learning (HqR_PrBL) and the acquiring of research skills (RS) found to be strongly related. A mathematical expression is provided to define the function of

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HqR_PrBL with RS. The study suggests that as RS increases, the HqR_PrBL tends to increase (slope 65.75% and starting point 31.874) as well as is evident from the positive correlation coefficient. The magnitude of the correlation coefficient is 0.754436263 reflecting the strength of the linear relationship. The two parameters are highly associated and tend to vary together in a predictable manner. Considering the data from the scores of the students in the Design/Project thesis and Research Methodology, a straight line when plotted on a scatter plot best represents the relationship between the parameters. This means that for every unit change in research skills (RS), there is a constant change in the high level of research for project-based learning (HqR_PrBL). Although the linear variation does not necessarily imply causation between the parameters, it allows for making estimates or predictions based on the observed linear trend. Potential competences limitations include faculty support and data gathering.

References 1. Auer, M. E., Skoog, M.: Project-Based Learning in Engineering Education: A Practical Guide. Purdue University Press (2010) 2. De los Ríos, I., Cazorla, A., Díaz-Puente, J.M., Yagüe, J.L.: Project–based learning in engineering higher education: two decades of teaching competences in real environments. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 2(2), 1368–1378 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.202 3. Diaz Lantada, A., Munoz-Guijosa, J.M., Lafont Morgado, P., De la Guerra, E.: Towards successful project-based teaching-learning experiences in engineering education. Int. J. Eng. Educ. 29(2), 1–15 (2013) 4. Doleck, T., Bazelais, P., Lemay, D.J., Saxena, A., Basnet, R.B.: Algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, creativity, critical thinking, and problem solving: exploring the relationship between computational thinking skills and academic performance. J. Comput. Educ. 4(4), 355–369 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-017-0090-9 5. Fraser, K., Tseng, T.L., Deng, X.: The ongoing education of engineering practitioners: how do they perceive the usefulness of academic research? Eur. J. Eng. Educ. 43, 860–878 (2018) 6. Graham, R., Crawley, E.: Making projects work: a review of transferable best practice approaches to engineering project-based learning in the UK. Eng. Educ. 5(2), 41–49 (2010). https://doi.org/10.11120/ened.2010.0502004 7. Sophocleous-Lemonari, A., Fereos, P., Georgiou, M., Balabanides, A.: The Case of an Adaptable Rationalization and Structural Dual Generative and Parametric Analysis that may Synchronously Control the Deformation of the Sydney Opera House System. Taylor & Francis Group. CRC Press (2022). eBook: ISBN 9781003023555 8. Soriano, J.: Designing a collaborative e-learning project-based learning environment. J. Educ. Technol. Soc. 21(4), 232–245 (2018) 9. Konstantinidis, A., Papadopoulos, P.M., Tsiatsos, T., Demetriadis, S.: Selecting and evaluating a learning management system: a Moodle evaluation based on instructors and students. Int. J. Distance Educ. Technol. (IJDET) 9(3), 13–30 (2011). https://doi.org/10.4018/jdet.201107 0102

Bring Your Own Device - Enabling Student-Centric Learning in Engineering Education by Incorporating Smartphone-Based Data Acquisition Julia Maria Engelbrecht , Albrecht Michler , Paul Schwarzbach(B) and Oliver Michler

,

TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. Digitization and networking have rapidly advanced across society and the economy, necessitating an increase in students’ acquisition of theoretical and technical skills. Information and communication technology systems and technologies, along with their applications, have fundamentally changed in recent decades. Consequently, engineering didactics and education must reflect these changes. Traditional teaching approaches in fields like electrical and communication engineering involve specialized hardware and measurement technology, as well as data acquisition and statistical processing for immersive education. Remote teaching enables asynchronous learning, accommodating individual student needs. The Digital Learning and Teaching Fund at TU Dresden supports the deployment of digital teaching solutions. Data analysis and evaluation can be conducted using shared pre-recorded datasets. However, data acquisition remains crucial in remote learning environments. To address this, our project focuses on developing a system that utilizes off-the-shelf smartphones for sensor data collection and subsequent computer-based analysis. This approach harnesses the advanced sensor technology and open data interfaces available in modern smartphones, which has already been successfully employed in various teaching contexts, primarily in straightforward physics experiments. Keywords: Real-World experiences · Project based learning (PBL) · Remote and virtual laboratories

1 Introduction Digital transformation and the subsequent interconnection of individuals, devices and processes are rapidly advancing in all areas of society and the economy. As a result, the demands on the acquisition of competences by students in both theoretical and technical skills in these areas are ever increasing. Information and communication technology systems, as well as the associated applications, have changed fundamentally within the last decades. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 373–383, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_36

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These changes must also be reflected in engineering didactics and education. In disciplines like electrical and communication engineering, this traditionally includes the application of dedicated hardware and measurement technology in traditional teaching approaches and learning environments. It also encompassed the entire data management toolchain, spanning from data acquisition to algorithmic processing, evaluation and visualization. Teaching this toolchain through a concrete application example is an essential component of immersive education, particularly for systems that can only be represented in abstract form. However, in the current teaching environment, this learning objective is typically implemented using dedicated hardware and in-person field tests. Nonetheless, modern teaching formats should also accommodate remote and asynchronous learning, enabling part-time learning and individual adaptation to student needs arising from external factors such as: • Personal and family responsibilities, • Pandemic restrictions and • Side jobs. To address the outlined challenges within the existing course structure, a proposed solution is to develop a data acquisition framework based on the capabilities of modern smartphones for sensor data logging. This framework allows the entire data management toolchain, including data acquisition, to be conducted from home. The proposed approach is implemented in practical courses focusing on GNSS and Wi-Fi-based localization.

2 Higher Education Teaching in 2023 One lesson learned from the global pandemic is that the way teaching works at universities has fundamentally transformed [1]. Knowledge transfer at universities and higher education institutions has continued to move away from the concept of frontal and faceto-face teaching, where students tend to be passive and are handed knowledge, towards blended learning concepts such as the flipped classroom. This promotes the individual learning space and thus creates “a dynamic, interactive learning environment where the educator guides students as they apply concepts and engage creatively in the subject matter” [2]. The students and their learning progress are much more in the focus here. 2.1 Student-Centric Learning in Engineering Education The engineering education has two different aspects: the field experience and the basic knowledge in natural and technical sciences [3, 4]. The following skills and learning goals are expected of engineering students: • • • • •

understand technical principals, use technical terms correctly, make technological decisions, interpret data sheets, plan, develop, evaluate and operate systems.

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With the help of active learning, it is possible to promote these qualities in the students. It is important that problem-solving methods and applications are promoted in order to deepen the students’ understanding. The goal is for students to be able to draw their own conclusions and work out the connections themselves. This can be achieved, for example, through student-centered approaches. The task of student-centered learning referring to [5] is to connect the classroom and the students with the life. Teachers are “guides on the side” and have to assist and lead the students to reach the goals defined by teachers and students. Following Collins and O’Brien [6] the teaching instructions specify the “content, activities, materials and pace of learning. The instructor provides students with opportunities to learn independently and from one another and coaches them in the skills they need to do so effectively.” Especially in the context of student projects, this can be supported in a target-oriented way. 2.2 Project-Based Learning in Higher Education Project-based learning (PBL) implies that students have to complete a specific task within the framework of a medium-term project. Learning takes place in the process of working on this project. This is because e.g., engineering students acquire independent knowledge that is relevant to the success of the project. Per definition PBL “refers to an inquiry-based instructional method that engages learners in knowledge construction by having them accomplish meaningful projects and develop real-world products” [7]. Following Krajcik and Shin (2014) [8] six hallmarks of PBL can be indicated: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Driving (research) question, Focus on learning goals, Participation in educational activities, Collaboration among students, Use of scaffolding technologies and Creation of tangible artifacts.

The solving of authentic problems is most crucial, which distinguishes PBL from other student-centered pedagogies, for example, problem-based learning [9, 10]. Through the design process and the solution of real questions, the process of knowledge integration, application and construction is promoted in parallel with the ability to work collaboratively. Lecturers and other people involved support the learners in their learning process through feedback. For the editing process, however, most students use their own technical equipment, such as tablet PCs or notebooks for documentation. In the engineering sciences, students often use their own devices for programming and data analysis, too. 2.3 Bring Your Own Device – Learning In a technological and connected world, the use of digital tools has become natural for us. Due to our daily use of smartphones, tablets and other smart devices, our vision of learning and teaching has changed significantly in recent years. This is because the use of digital media is also increasing significantly in teaching at universities and colleges.

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On the one hand, this leads to increased demands on teaching and, on the other hand, also on the technical equipment of students. In addition to lectures and computer-based exercises, practical courses are an integral part of modern engineering education. In this subject domain, e-learning enables learner-centered imparting of complex knowledge with the inclusion of different teaching formats (teaching videos, self-assessments, etc.). This enables an individual learning pace and flexible time allocation. At the same time, the integration of computer-supported programming exercises supports the needbased and up-to-date teaching of knowledge and its application in digital formats. This includes prepared exercise instructions, interactive templates, explanatory videos and self-checks. The independent approach required for processing the material also promotes the development of problem-oriented approaches to solutions. As mentioned in Subsect. 2.2 many students already use their own devices not only for digital scripts and lecture notes, but for working on student projects as well. For this reason, the support of BYOT, bring your own technology, or BYOD, bring your own device, for use in practical courses is a step forward in increasing student flexibility and agility. Using smartphones as measuring instruments in BYOD for practical engineering education offers several advantages. It is cost-effective as students already possess smartphones. Smartphones provide accessibility and convenience, allowing continuous learning beyond the laboratory. Their familiarity and versatility increase student engagement, and utilizing smartphones aligns with real-world engineering practices.

3 Incorporating Smartphone-Based Data Acquisition In the field of traffic sensors and especially in traffic telematics, new technologies have been introduced over the course of time. Due to digitization and the demand for enhancing safety in the transport sector modern sensors and communication technologies have been established. Many of these solutions are transferred from the industrial and consumer sector, where those are already widely adopted. As an example, wireless communication systems and optical sensors can be found in modern vehicles as well as in the smart city infrastructure. This domain-specific knowledge of traffic telematics and its related fields (electrical and telecommunication engineering) must be taught in a practical way. This includes the use of specialized and mostly expensive hardware and measurement technology as well as data acquisition in application-relevant environments and their statistical processing and visualization. This is an essential component of immersive education, especially for systems that can otherwise only be represented in abstract form. As outlined above, all teaching contents should be available in a remote and asynchronous setup. Therefore, a sustainably usable e-learning offer was developed to enable the individual acquisition and analysis of position data with the integration of personal user devices. On the other hand, smartphones are equipped with a wide variety of sensor and transceiver hardware, which are utilized for various purposes, cmp. Figure 1. The radio communication technologies for communication are for example:

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Cellular network (GSM, LTE, 5G) for voice calls and mobile data services, Bluetooth for connecting hardware and device-to-device communication, Wifi for mobile internet access and Ultrawideband (UWB) for indoor positioning.

Fig. 1. Measurement equipment and sensors installed in a smartphone.

Many of those sensor capabilities are already utilized in learning context. First implementations make use of basic sensor data within the Physics Toolbox Apps [11]. The app phyphox® [12] provides a wide variety of physic-oriented experiments. Furthermore, smartphone-based physics education has been implemented in higher education leading contexts [13]. However, for the learning context of localization, no apps with a coherent learning program are available. As a result, this gap needs to be addressed with a dedicated approach, where the smartphone is used as a measuring device with the help of opensource apps. A downstream processing and evaluation are carried out by synthesizing the learned knowledge in digital group or individual projects. Figure 2 shows the project scope with the existing preliminary work, data processing and analysis, and the project goals: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Individual data acquisition, iOS/Android apps available, Global referencing and Scenario-based analysis.

For this purpose, the Digital Learning and Teaching Fund at Technische Universität Dresden (Fonds DLL), created to integrate more multimedia components in order to shape modern teaching and learning, is supporting this project by funding hardware and developing of a digital teaching solution.1

1 https://tu-dresden.de/zill/foerdermoeglichkeiten/fondsdll?setlanguage=en.

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Fig. 2. Project scope with project goals and preliminary work.

3.1 Data Life Cycle Management A common task in engineering is to acquire, process, analyze and interpret data. In general, there is a wide variety of data sources, such as raw sensor data, accumulated time series, protocol data or qualitative data. Therefore, it is neither sufficient nor necessary to understand the evaluation of a certain type of data in detail, but rather to understand the basic elements and approaches of data life cycle as shown in Fig. 3 and to be able to apply them to other contexts. Data preparation, analysis and evaluation can be performed on shared pre-recorded data sets. However, data acquisition is a key part of the data life cycle. As a result, this needs to be possible in remote learning environments as well. Therefore, the project aims at providing a system for measuring sensor data with an off-the-shelf smartphone and consequent computer-based data analysis. Our approach is to leverage the wireless sensor technology and open data interfaces in recent smartphones for raw sensor data collection.

Fig. 3. Steps of data life cycle cmp [14].

3.2 Data Acquisition in BYOD Practical Course The data acquisition is based on the publicly available apps “GNSSLogger App” and “WifiRttScan App” for recording raw GNSS (global navigation satellite systems) measurements resp. raw Wifi RTT (round trip time) measurements. As both apps rely on

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modern android chip sets, suitable Google Pixel 6A smartphones were purchased in order to be provided to students who do not have fitting Android phones. Apple iPhones are generally not suitable, as Apple does not grant any access to the underlying raw sensor data. The overall toolchain is depicted in Fig. 4. The solution consists of two separate experiments, where GNSS data is acquired in an outdoor experiment, while Wifi data is acquired in an indoor experiment. The GNSS localization experiment is based on the GNSSLogger app, which provides the possibility of logging GNSS raw data. This entails pseudorange, carrier-phase, carrier-to-noise ratio and doppler data for each tracked satellite as well as processed data, such as estimates for position, velocity, time and satellite azimuth/elevation. The data can be collected at any outdoor location with an adequate open sky view. This experiment serves as the primary component of the course setup and is fully implemented within the framework of the DLL funding. Wifi localization utilizes the Wifi standard IEEE 802.11mc, which defines requirements for round trip time-based ranging and localization in Wifi networks. For this technology to be used, both the mobile device and the wireless router or access point acting as an anchor node for localization must support this standard. Additionally, to perform localization, signals from multiple anchors are required. However, implementing such a setup for home and remote learning is generally impractical. Therefore, a testbed will be established within the University lab. This aligns with the bring your own device approach but does not fully facilitate asynchronous and remote learning. As a result, this approach is given a secondary priority compared to GNSS localization. Generally, in both approaches measurement data is exported in open file formats and need to be transferred to a computer for further analysis.

Fig. 4. Toolchain for smartphone-based data acquisition and analysis.

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3.3 Data Handling and Analysis Both approaches allow for exploring the complete data life cycle. The data analysis step is based on the previously acquired data. However, if this step fails to be completed successfully, sample data sets can be provided in order to still allow data analysis. For data analysis, Python and the interactive framework of Jupyter notebooks are used. The procedure consists of multiple steps. Firstly, data parsing is necessary to read acquired log files. Developing a parser is a general engineering skill and exemplifies how to implement interfaces based on a given specification. Data preprocessing is crucial for detect outliers, interpolate or handle missing data, and smooth raw data. This step is essential in robust system design and big data analysis. It involves applying theoretical knowledge of mathematical interpolation and smoothing techniques, as well as statistical tests for outlier detection. The next step involves the implementation of the main localization algorithm. For this, single-epoch least squares estimators as well as multi-epoch Kalman filters can be utilized. This step requires knowledge of linear algebra, filter design, filter parameter tuning, and the efficient numerical implementation of these filters. The final step consists of evaluation and visualization. Common Python frameworks such as Matplotlib are used for this purpose, along with the ability to export to other map-based trajectory visualizations using the Keyhole Markup Language (KML). Additionally, statistical tests can be conducted on the final position estimates. To calculate position error measures, a ground truth is necessary, which is provided in the form of a sample dataset with associated ground truth. This step enables students to evaluate processed data visually and statistically, which is a key skill for future engineers. An example task is depicted in Fig. 5. It is part of the data analysis step and involves the processing of recorded data in order to estimate positions.

Fig. 5. Example task: Least squares position estimation based on satellite positions and GNSS pseudorange estimates.

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Students use recorded GNSS data, apply a given preprocessing script which corrects the measured data for known error components such as atmospheric errors and feed the corrected data into a least squares estimator. In combination with satellite positions, the single epoch standalone least squares filter is used to minimize measurement residuals in order to estimate the receiver position. The filter is given as a skeleton script, which has to be filled according to the theoretic consideration which were discussed in the lecture before. In order to facilitate the implementation, the whole set of necessary equations is given as BYOD smartphone-based data auxiliary material and only has to be implemented as python code. This approach provides a hands-on experience of the common engineering task to implement a given procedure in a programming language, using numerical tools to solve algorithmic equations. 3.4 Embedding and Implementation in the Curriculum The overall toolchain is currently in deployment and will be evaluated on an ongoing basis. All presented parts of the toolchain will be included in the existing curriculum frame. Based on the current diploma programme, there are at least three different modules in which the presented practical training can be used for data acquisition. Nevertheless, the focus is on different learning goals for individual subjects. Figure 6 shows these correlations. The methodological analysis of the collected data is mainly considered in the module “vehicle communication and localization”. The technical aspects, especially those of GNSS positioning, are studied and intensified in the subject “satellite communication and localization”. The filtering and the use of algorithms for the data sets acquired by the students themselves are dealt with in the module “adaptive and intelligent systems”.

Fig. 6. Integration of the practical training in the curriculum assigned to the topics: methodical, technical and analytical analyses.

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4 Summary and Further Work The presented system is expected to enhance the practical sessions in all three subjects, which are currently conducted as field sessions with dedicated measurement hardware. Under normal circumstances, students are still required to attend these sessions but are allowed to use their own hardware for data acquisition. If there is a need for remote learning due to external circumstances, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the experiments can be carried out from any location. However, in such cases, feedback channels from students to teachers need to be implemented to provide support and evaluation. The proposed solution offers several key advantages compared to the existing field experiments. One of the main advantages is the ability to run the complete data management toolchain, including data acquisition, at any time and from anywhere. Additionally, every student has the opportunity to gain hands-on experience with the process, unlike data acquisition using dedicated hardware where only a limited number of devices are available due to the high cost of hardware. This often results in most students merely observing the process rather than actively participating. Of course, BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) in higher education comes with both limitations and challenges. Firstly, not all students may have access to the required devices or technologies, leading to unequal opportunities for learning. Additionally, ensuring compatibility between different devices and operating systems can be a challenge, making it difficult to establish a standardized teaching and learning environment. Data security and privacy concerns also arise when personal devices are used within institutional networks. On the positive side, BYOD allows students to use familiar devices, promoting personalized learning experiences and potentially increasing engagement. It also reduces the financial burden on institutions by shifting device ownership to students. To address the potential issue of students who do not have eligible smartphones for data acquisition, working smartphones will be provided for the practical courses. Furthermore, it is expected that this issue will diminish over time, as the majority of new smartphones (except Apple iPhones) support the necessary features for raw data logging. Currently, the project is in the late implementation and initial evaluation stage. A sample course from the general curriculum has been conducted to test the overall workflow. Quantitative evaluation data is expected to be available after the next round of general teaching evaluations. With a project-based learning approach presented here, it is possible to promote the individuality and interaction of students. This is achieved by making the teaching content more flexible and by enabling virtual collaboration, e.g., by creating virtual group work. Due to the open format, the teaching content can also guarantee barrier-free accessibility. The teaching success will be evaluated on an ongoing basis. The dissection of the learning content, explained in Subsect. 3.4 shows that the modules are interlinked, but there is a high level of redundancy in the individual modules. The Bachelor’s and Master’s courses are currently being finalized, in which the content is better coordinated. For example, the internship will be found in a more developed form in the following two courses:

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• undergraduate course: “satellite-based localization and communication” and • master’s course: “sensor technology for transportation systems”. In the next few years, further digitalized teaching formats will be developed in which teaching content can be examined in greater depth using day-to-day electronics.

References 1. Pelletier, K., et al.: 2021 EDUCAUSE Horizon Report, Teaching and Learning Edition (Boulder, CO: EDUCAUSE, 2021) (2021) 2. Flipped Learning Network (FLN): The Four Pillars of F-L-I-P™ (2014). https://flippedlearning.org/definition-of-flipped-learning/. Accessed 05 May 2023 3. Klocke, F., Pasthor, M.: Challenge and absolute necessity. In: Bach, U., Jeschke, S. (eds.) TeachINGLearnING. EU Fachtagung “Next Generation Engineering Education”. ZLW/IMA der RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, pp. 23–37 (2011) 4. Heckel, U., Bach, U., Richert, A., Jeschke, S.: Massive open online courses in engineering education. In: Frerich, S., et al. (eds.) Engineering Education 4.0, pp. 31–45. Springer, Cham (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46916-4 5. Overby, K.: Student-Centered Learning. In: ESSAI, Vol. 9, Article 32 (2011). https://dc.cod. edu/essai/vol9/iss1/32 6. Collins, J.W., 3rd, O’Brien, N.P. (eds.): Greenwood Dictionary of Education. Greenwood, Westport, CT (2003) 7. Brundiers, K., Wiek, A.: Do we teach what we preach? An international comparison of problem-and project-based learning courses in sustainability. Sustainability 5, 1725–1746 (2013) 8. Krajcik, J., Shin, N.: Project-based learning. In: Sawyer, R. (ed.) The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 275–297). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2014). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139519526.018 9. Blumenfeld, P.C., Soloway, E., Marx, R.W., Krajcik, J.S., Guzdial, M., Palincsar, A.: Motivating project-based learning: sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educ. Psychol. 26(3–4), 369–398 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.1991.9653139 10. Helle, L., Tynjala, P., Olkinuora, E.: Project-based learning in post-secondary education— theory, practice and rubber sling shots. High. Educ. 51, 287–314 (2006). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s10734-004-6386-5 11. Vieyra, R., Vieyra, C., Jeanjacquot, P., Martín, A., Monteiro, M.: Turn your smartphone into a science laboratory. Sci. Teacher 082, 32–40 (2015). https://doi.org/10.2505/4/tst15_082_ 09_32 12. Staacks, S., Hütz, S., Heinke, H., Stampfer, C.: Advanced tools for smartphone-based experiments: phyphox. Phys. Educ. 53(4), 045009 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6552/ aac05e 13. Kaps, A., Splith, T., Stallmach, F.: Implementation of smartphone-based experimental exercises for physics courses at universities. Phys. Educ. 56(3), 035004 (2021). https://doi.org/ 10.1088/1361-6552/abdee2 14. Wing, J.M.: The data life cycle. Harv. Data Sci. Rev. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1162/996 08f92.e26845b4

Digital Education Strategy and Engineering Pedagogy

Elimination of Pain by Enhancing Body Posture in Schoolgirls During Physical and Sports Education Lessons Elena Bendíková1(B) , Laurentiu-Gabriel Talaghir2 , and Cristian Mihail Rus3 1 Faculty of Education CU, Ružomberok, Slovakia

[email protected]

2 Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Galati, Romania

[email protected]

3 Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, Iasi, Romania

[email protected]

Abstract. The prevalence of incorrect body posture among schoolgirls, often a symptom of a dysfunctional movement system, commonly leads to pain. This pilot program aimed to enhance their overall postural health, with a focus on improving body posture and reducing neck pain. The study consisted of  n = 30 prepubescent schoolgirls (n = 15 in the experimental group (EG), with an average age of 15.3 ± 0.9 years; and n = 15 in the control group, (CG), with an average age of 15.2 ± 0.7 years). The program included selected health-oriented exercises as part of physical education and sports education, using the Acral Coactivation Therapy (ACT) method. Standardized methods were used to assess somatometry, body posture, and pain, and the data was analyzed using mathematical and statistical techniques. The results showed a significant improvement in the experimental group’s overall body posture and pain reduction compared to the control group, confirming the ACT method’s effectiveness in Physical & sports education an additional finding was a reduction in weight in the experimental group compared to an upward trend in the control group, with a significant difference. The prevention of this situation in EG may be in a higher number of Physical & sports education lessons in school and a change in the content of education. Keywords: Acral Coactivation Therapy · Physical & Sports Education · musculoskeletal system · pupils

1 Introduction Currently, more attention is paid to the active health and active spending of free time of the school population in the movement mode in relation to the musculoskeletal system. One of the components of health-oriented fitness is the musculoskeletal system in the form of posture, as stated by Bendíková (2017). The author further adds that the musculoskeletal system is a mirror of our health and we do not pay enough attention to it. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 387–397, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_37

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The definition and posture itself must be perceived very sensitively. It is presented from several points of view, be it biomechanical, economic, static, health, etc. In its essence, it includes static (e.g., posture, etc.) and dynamic (e.g. walking, running, climbing, etc.) form and image, which is part of us (Magre, 2014; Carini et al., 2017). Body posture represents the position of individual body segments in time and space, controlled by the central nervous system along with the visual, vestibular and skin systems. The quality of the position of individual segments is a mirror of either correct or incorrect posture with a certain energy requirement (Bendíková, 2017; Sz˝oköl & Kováˇc, 2022). The stabilizing function of posture is very important from the point of view of human health. The correct position of the spine ensures good posture. From the point of view of kinesiology, the spine is the most important part of the skeleton, it is the movement axis of the body, it forms the support of the movement system, on which every movement of the trunk, limbs and head is reflected. The spine fulfills three important functions in the human body: it is the movement axis of the body, it maintains an upright posture, it protects part of the nervous system, the spinal cord. The spine is composed of 33 to 34 vertebrae, which are stacked on top of each other, creating a canal from the arches of the vertebrae - the spinal canal, in which the spinal cord is stored. The spine is divided into 5 areas, according to which we also label the vertebrae: cervical (with convexity forward), thoracic (with backward convexity), lumbar (with convexity forward), sacral and os coccygis. In adulthood, only the first three areas retain their independence (Véle, 2006). The sacral and coccyx vertebrae fuse with age and thus form the sacrum and coccyx. These curvatures of the spine are formed and stabilized around preschool age, after the proprioceptive maturation of the foot. The three curves (cervical lordosis thoracic kyphosis, lumbar lordosis – with is the most important and it connects to the sacrum) are involved in body balance and provide support and resistance to longitudinal pressures (Kapandji, 2004). The full development of postural function occurs around age 11 and then remains stable until about age 65 (Barker, 1998). Physical fitness during childhood and adolescence has been identified as an important determinant of current and future health status (Castro-Pinero et al., 2010; Nemˇcek, 2016; Bermejo-Cantarero, 2021; Lenková, 2021; Pálinkás et al., 2022). The findings of Smith et al. (2014) highlight the importance of developing muscular fitness in youth for several health-related benefits. Garcia-Hermoso et al. (2019) report about negative association between muscular fitness, adiposity and cardiometabolic indicators in childhood/adolescence in later life. At the same time, children with back pain have problems with activities that are a natural part of their daily routine, such as short/long-term standing, carrying a school bag, sports activities, etc. (Trevelyan & Legg, 2010). Preventing the health of the school population from the point of view of promoting physical activity within Physical & Sports Education is one of the ways out of a hypokinetic way of life. It is economically less demanding to invest in physical activity than to treat already existing diseases due to the lack of physical activity in the physical mode (Fanucchi et al., 2009). The statistics of health insurance companies also testify to this. The works of the authors (Bendíková, 2020; Bendíková & Balkó, 2022) show that content-quality Physical & sports education with a minimum volume of 3 times/week and

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medium intensity can improve health-oriented fitness, and thus fulfill the recommended amount and intensity of physical activity (WHO, 2018, Müller et al., 2019). During school attendance, pupils acquire education through the prism of competences, which are involved in creating a strong relationship with the care of their health and physical development. An important role is played in this school education by the creation of interests, needs, emotional and cognitive abilities (Kashuba et al., 2018). To the above, we add that students acquire physical, health and cognitive literacy, among other things. It is one of the spaces for socialization and creation social experiences. The current interests and needs of the school population, also within Physical & sports education, are increasingly oriented towards the application and use of modern forms (Sz˝oköl, 2022; Hrmo et al., 2009; Hrmo & Krištofiaková, 2016; Hrmo et al., 2020) and approaches that contribute to improving their mental and physical condition, as a form of overall health improvement (Mocanu et al., 2018; Butenko et al., 2017; Smoleˇnáková & Bendíková, 2017 Talaghir & Iconomescu, 2018; Nemˇcek & Ladecká, 2020). In relation to body posture, several studies are presented that point to the positive meaning and impact of exercises (Bogdanovi´c & Markovi´c, 2010; Bendíková & Stackeová, 2015; Tomenko et al., 2017; W˛asik et al., 2015; Sz˝oköl & Dobay, 2022).

2 The Aim of the Study Nowadays, there is a lack of new proven health-oriented programs in Physical & sports education that improve the postural health of pupils in Slovakia. From the point of view of prevention and improvement of postural health, there is currently space for diversification of the content of Physical & sports education. The aim of the study was to improve the postural health of female students with the intention of the overall body posture and back pain within Physical & sports education.

3 Methods and Stages of Study Participants The study sample included a total of 30 schoolgirls of prepubescent age, who were divided into two groups for the research: the experimental group (EG, n = 15, with age in average of 15.3 ± 0.9 years) and the control group (CG, n = 15, with age in an average of 15.2 ± 0.7 years). Table 1 present EG and CG samples. Table 1. Characteristic of samples EG (n = 15) and CG (n = 15) Factors

EG (n = 15)

Measurements/values

Body height/(cm)

Body weight/(kg)

BMI/(kg/m2 )

(EG) x ± s

166.34 ± 6.21

58.32 ± 7.76

21.89 ± 2.17

(CG) x ± s

165.21 ± 5.44

59.64 ± 9.55

21.29 ± 2.85

Note: (n) - number, (x) - average, (s) - standard deviation, EG - experimental sample.

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Data Collection and Organization The basic indirect indicator of proportionality between body height and weight is the Body Mass Index (BMI) as a practical and simple screening method for detecting overweight and obesity in children and adolescents (WHO, 1995). Intensity of pain was measured using a Visual Analog Scale (VAS), which is an 11-point Likert scale: 0 = no pain, 10 = worst possible pain (Vojtaššák, 2000). To ensure longitudinality and crosssectionality in monitoring in this area, the standardized aspect method was applied for evaluation of body posture for practice in school (Thomas and Klein modified by Mayer) when assessing the state of the musculoskeletal system. Body posture is divided into 4 levels: 1. Excellent (5 p.), 2. Good (6–10 p.), 3. Poor (11–15 p.), 4. Incorrect (16–20 p.). Each level of body posture has 5 characteristics: I. Head and neck position, II. Shape of thorax, III. Shape of the abdomen and pelvic tilt, IV. Total curvature of the spine, V. Shoulder height and scapulae position, VI. Foot position. Each characteristic is evaluated with a score of 1–4 (Bendíková, 2017). *(Reform in 2008 in Slovakia - changing the name of the subject from Physical Education to Physical & Sports Education. Physical & sports education lasts 45 min, and as part of diversifying the content, an intervention movement program was implemented for 25 min). The experimental group (EG) completed 48 exercise classes of 25 min/3-time week/in 2022 duration over 16 weeks conducted by a special certificated teacher ACT for Physical & sports education (with collaboration with physiotherapist), whilst the control group received no intervention. Without changing the content and number of lessons (2 times a week/45 min.). In accordance with the school curriculum. Health-oriented exercises were based on the targeted exercises that used the Acral Coactivation Therapy method, also known as “ACT.” This method is protected by copyright and a license and was developed by I. Palašˇcáková Špringrová. The ACT method involves a set of resistance exercises to muscle coactivation and aim to improve stabilization and alignment of the spine, as well as activating the body’s intrinsic stabilization system (Palašˇcáková Špringrová, 2018). Data Analysis In terms of data processing, we applied methods of descriptive statistics - arithmetic mean (x), standard deviation (s), percent frequency analysis (%), and frequency (n), (min.) - minimal value, (max.) - maximal value, (Vrmax-min ) - range of variation. We assessed practical and objective significance using effect size (r). To determine the statistical significance of the difference between the V1 and V2 evaluations of the monitored indicators in the monitored sample, we used the Wilcoxon test (p < 0.01, p < 0.05) and to compare the difference between the experimental and control groups, we used the Man -Whitney Utest (p < 0.01, p < 0.05).

4 The Results of the Study The data we obtained were of partial nature. The average (x) body mass of the monitored sample of 15-year-old schoolgirls in the experimental group (EG) (n = 15) was 58.32 ± 7.76 kg in the initial measurements (V1), while in the output measurements (V2) it was on average 56.12 ± 6.69 kg.

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We recorded a difference (Wtest , p < 0.01) between the V1 and V2 measurements, with an average result of a decrease of 2.2 ± 1.07 kg. The situation of the average body mass of 15-year-old schoolgirls in the control group (CG) (n = 15) at the initial measurements (V1) was 59.64 ± 9.55 kg, which showed an increasing tendency throughout the monitored period. At the output measurements (V2), we recorded average values (x) at the level of 61.87 ± 7.66 kg. We found a difference (Wtest , p < 0.01) between the V1 and V2 measurements, with an average increase of 2.2 ± 1.89 kg. When comparing body mass between the EG (n = 15) and CG (n = 15), we noted a significant difference in favor of the experimental group (EG) using the Man -Whitney Utest = 0.00001 (p < 0.01). The average body height of the monitored sample in the EG (n = 15) did not change significantly (Wtest , p > 0.05) (V1(x) = 166.34 ± 6.21 cm and V2(x) = 166.87 ± 6.66 cm) during the monitored period (V1–V2). We also observed a similar situation in the CG (n = 15) (V1(x) = 165.21 ± 5.44 cm and V2(x) = 165.32 ± 5.60 cm). When comparing body height between the EG (n = 15) and CG (n = 15) we did not record any significant difference using the Man -Whitney U test (p > 0.05). The observed changes in the average (x) indicators of body height and body mass are also related to the trend of increasing the unfavorable average values of BMI– an indicator of overweight (or obesity). The average (x) value of the BMI/(kgm2 ) index was 21.89 ± 2.17(kgm2 ) in the EG (n = 15) during the initial measurements (V1). In the output measurements (V2) we recorded an average value of 20.76 ± 1.89(kg/m2) . We found a difference (Wtest , p < 0.05) between the V1 and V2 measurements. The average (x) value of the BMI/(kgm2 ) index in the CG (n = 15) was at the level of 21.29 ± 2.85(kgm2 ) during the initial measurements (V1) and was at the level of 22.15 ± 1.36(kgm2 ) (Wtest , p < 0.05) at the output measurements (V2). When comparing (x) BMI values between the EG (n = 15) and CG (n = 15), we observed a significant difference in favor of the EG using the Man -Whitney Utest = 0.00004, (p < 0.05). Our partial findings suggest and confirm an unfavorable accelerated increase in body weight with growth slowing, which inevitably results in an increase in average BMI values. Based on our posture evaluation findings, we found the following in the EG (n = 15) and CG (n = 15) of pubertal age (Table 2). The outcomes of our study have clearly displayed that basic schoolchildren are missing a good posture. The overall posture evaluation at initial measurements (V1) in both the EG and CG showed that the III. shape of the abdomen and pelvic tilt had the highest percentage representation, which was evaluated with a grade of 3. Similarly, a grade of 3 was given to posture areas such as I. position of head and neck evaluation and V. shoulder height and scapulae position. It is worth mentioning the lower limb area, where we recorded a total of 48% of the total sample of schoolchildren. As a positive at (V1), we evaluate the area of II. shape of thorax evaluation, in which we recorded a total of 66% of schoolchildren. Table 3 and 4 also show the percentage representation of schoolchildren in the EG (n = 15) and CG (n = 15) in individual posture areas. By applying health-oriented exercises (ACT method) in a sample of female students in the experimental group (EG) (n = 15), we observed an improvement (p < 0.01) in

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Assessment areas/p. 1 2

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

25% 28%

66% 29%

15% 10

25% 35%

24% 32%

12% 20%

% 3 35% 5% 60% 30% 4 12% 0% 15% 10% Note: more details are found in the methodology

34% 10%

48% 5%

Table 3. Overall posture evaluation of schoolgirls EG (n = 15) (V1)

Assessment I. II. III. IV. V. VI. areas/p. 1 13% 34% 8% 17% 13% 7% 2 13% 14% 6% 18% 16% 11% 3 18% 2% 30% 16% 17% 25% 4 5% 0% 8% 6% 6% 3% Note: more details are found in the methodology, EG -experimental sample

Table 4. Overall posture evaluation of schoolgirls CG (n = 15) (V1)

Assessment I. II. III. IV. V. areas/p. 1 12% 32% 7% 18% 11% 2 15% 15% 4% 17% 16% 3 17% 3% 30% 14% 17% 4 7% 0% 7% 4% 4% Note: more details are found in the methodology, CG -control sample

VI. 5% 9% 23% 2%

overall body posture in the final evaluation (V2) (x) 8.7 ± 1.3) for all students, which was reflected in the positioning of individual segments in space (Table 5). Table 5. Evaluation of individual segments of body posture of girls (EG n = 15) I. Head and neck position (EG n = 15)

Wtest = 3.107, p < 0.01

II. Shape of thorax (EG n = 15)

Wtest = 3.089, p < 0.01

III. Shape of the abdomen and pelvic tilt (EG n = 15)

Wtest = 3.137, p < 0.01

IV. Total curvature of the spine (EG n = 15)

Wtest , p > 0.05

V. Shoulder height and scapulae position (EG n = 15)

Wtest = 3.089, p < 0.01

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Overall body posture of schoolgirls (n = 30) in the experimental group (EG, n = 15) and control group (CG, n = 15) as assessed in the initial evaluation (V1) (EG (x) 12.9 ± 1.6), (CG (x) 13.3 ± 1.7), is believed to be not caused by primary muscle or muscle group dysfunction, but by incorrect postural stereotype that leads to inadequate movements control of functions with low neuro-muscular coordination (Table 6). Table 6. Evaluation of overall body posture of schoolgirls (EG n = 15) Overall body posture (EG n = 15) factors

Input (V1)

Output (V2)

Difference (d)

x

12.9

8.7

4.2

s

1.6

1.3

0.3

min

7

6

1

max

14

11

3

Vrmax-min

7

5

2

Wtest = 3.127, p < 0.01

Our findings in the initial (V1) diagnosis of musculoskeletal system functional disorders also revealed pain in the cervical spine in schoolgirls. In evaluating pain in the cervical spine with the functional state of muscle groups involved in the upper crossed syndrome, we found that none of the muscle groups individually (Wtest, p > 0.05) contribute to the development of pain in the cervical spine. While at the same time, the shortening of the muscle group m. trapezius pars descendens and m. levator scapulae significantly (r = 0.799) contributed to the development of pain in the cervical area of the spine. By applying exercises that were carried out as part of Physical & sports education classes, we did not record (Wtest, p < 0.01) any algia in the experimental group at the final (V2) evaluation. However, a significant difference (Man Whitney Utest = 0.00005, p < 0.05) was recorded between the EG and CG, where the algia persisted in the area mentioned. At the same time, we found out that excessive BMI is a risk for developing musculoskeletal pain (r = 0.107, p < 0.05), neck pain (r = 0.115, p < 0.05). The prevention of this situation in the experimental group (EG) might be in an expanded number of Physical & sports education classes in school and a change in the content of education. This confirms our further findings in the partial tasks of longitudinal monitoring in this issue.

5 Discussion Posture represents the interplay of the musculoskeletal system, which is controlled by the central nervous system. Its role is to keep the mentioned system in balance, thus protecting the main structures of the body from injuries and accidents, as well as being a prevention against pain and other health problems (Palašˇcáková Špringrová et al., 2020). The key points of a quality life is long-term and active health, which also includes correct posture.

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Children’s postural alignment undergoes many adjustments due to the changes in body proportions during the stages of growth. Louw et al. (2007) state in their study that “poor posture in adulthood often develops from childhood.” Kratenová et al. (2007) state in their study that “poor posture was diagnosed in 38.3% of children, more often among boys. Postural problem areas included protruding scapulae, increased lumbar lordosis, and a kyphotic back. At the same time, they were also diagnosed with headaches and pain in the neck and lumbar spine. On average, children 4 h/week played sports and devoted more than 3 times the time (14 h/week) to sedentary activities. In the monitored group, “children who did not perform physical activities had more often bad posture compared to children who played sports.” Widhe (2001) in her longitudinal research “on children aged 5–6 years and later on in their 15–16 years found a deterioration of posture after 10 years of age. As well as the onset of back pain in 1/3 of the children of the monitored group at a later age.” In this context, it is important to point out that the family, as the basis of society, shapes the personality of children and the creation of a relationship to lifelong physical activity. It contributes to the healthy and harmonious development of the child. Currently, it appears that the family cannot sufficiently cover the volume of physical activity in the child’s movement regime. The most common reason is busy work. Many times, parents believe that the aforementioned absence of physical activity in their children’s physical activity regime is ensured by the school environment. However, in Slovakia, as part of the reform, children currently have only two hours of Physical & sports education. Their degree of involvement in compulsory and optional forms of physical activity in the school environment is relative. The most common manifestation of incorrect posture in children and young people is back pain. Currently, various back pains are appearing more and more often in the younger generation, including the school population. This becomes the basis of various problems associated with the musculoskeletal system in adulthood (Calvo-Muñoz et al., 2018). Szita et al. (2018) state in their findings that in primary and secondary school pupils, “back pain is associated with several risk factors found in their lifestyle (e.g., older than 12 years, watching TV more than 2 h/day, ergometry etc.).” Azevedo et al. (2022) point out in their study that “curvature of the spine is an insufficient stabilometric indicator”. However, as for “increased curvature of the spine in the thoracic part, there is a greater probability of back pain.” Conclusions In the EG we monitored, we noted a qualitative and quantitative improvement in overall body posture, as well as pain elimination. This is a manifestation of the improvement of movement stereotypes as a manifestation of the proper functioning of the muscle system (consciously controlled). In CG, we did not notice positive changes in the monitored factors. The results show and confirm the use of targeted health-oriented exercises in Physical & education classes. It is important that the exercises are performed on a regular and long-term basis. Modern education with new approaches within Physical & sports education for postural health plays an important role in the current school reform.

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Acknowledgements. “The listed study is the part of research project VEGA 1/0427/22 Prevention of pupils’ postural health by physical activity.”

Conflict of Interest. “The authors declare no conflict of interest. The study was conducted according to guidelines of Declaration of Helsinki.”

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Priority Strategic Areas for Further Development István Sz˝oköl1(B) , Beáta Dobay2,3 , and Elena Bendíková4 1 Trnava University in Trnava, Trnava, Slovakia

[email protected]

2 University of Sopron, Sopron, Hungary

[email protected]

3 J. Selye University, Komárno, Slovakia 4 Catholic University, Ružomberok, Slovakia

[email protected]

Abstract. The members of national minorities and ethnic groups should be guaranteed the right to learn the state language. The educational process in schools with the language of instruction of nationalities is carried out in accordance with the instrument of ratification of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The importance of being able to speak the majority language by members of minorities is supported by a number of European recommendations. The paper deals with the introduction of quality management in the teaching process, since one way of improving the quality of education is to build a quality management system at primary schools, focusing exclusively on schools with Hungarian language of instruction. The paper also includes the Analysis of the current state of teaching Slovak language and Slovak literature in schools with Hungarian language of instruction. When teaching this subject at the primary level of education, attention has to be paid to the fact that pupils in the first year of primary school with Hungarian language of instruction come with different linguistic and speech competences. Keywords: teaching methods and strategies · communicative language teaching · primary education

1 Introduction At present, quality in general has a dominant role in all areas of life. The European Union (EU) emphasizes the need for “multilingualism” among Europeans. The majority of European nations can speak two or more foreign languages because of the need to communicate in their own country or with the members of neighbouring countries. The aim is not to master foreign languages at the level of a native speaker, but to develop a language repertoire that applies all language skills, knowledge and experience. The children and pupils of citizens belonging to national minorities and ethnic groups are guaranteed the right to acquire the state language. The importance of speaking the majority language © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 398–409, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_38

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by the members of minority is supported by several European recommendations. Current social changes influence the education system, which emphasizes the active usage of the Slovak language by students at all types and kinds of schools, taking into account students with the language of instruction of national minorities, whose situation is even more complex as for most of them Slovak is not the mother tongue. On one hand, it is essential for students to master the state language at a level adequate for their age, on the other hand pedagogical practice shows that new didactic approaches and innovative methods are not applied in schools in order to improve Slovak language skills.

2 General Goals of Teaching Slovak Language and Slovak Literature in Schools with HLI The complex goal of SLSL teaching is determined on the one hand by the modernization of SJSL teaching and on the other hand by the demanding requirements of society in terms of political, social and linguistic aspects. This goal includes, above all, practical, active mastery of the language, knowledge of the cultural values of the Slovak nation based on the principle of age adequacy. In the teaching of SLSL in schools with HLI, general goals are set, namely: to improve learners’ awareness of cultural and linguistic diversity within Europe and the world and within individual social environments; to arouse learners’ interest in learning another language; to cultivate and strengthen a positive attitude of learners towards learning the Slovak language as L2 ; to motivate learners to use basic cultural tools for cultivated communication; to gradually distinguish different parts of culture; to develop visual, auditory, linguistic and physical literacy and creativity; to develop learners’ awareness of their own cultural identity; to cultivate and strengthen learners’ positive relationship and tolerance of the Slovak nation and other ethnic groups; to teach learners to perceive, understand and respect differences and equality; to develop the ability to respect and tolerate the values of other cultures; to develop learners’ interest in the cultural and literary heritage of the Slovak nation; to lead learners to understand the importance of cultural and artistic monuments in Slovakia. The specific goals of Slovak language and Slovak literature in schools with HLI define the acquired competencies of learners in listening and reading comprehension, speaking and writing at individual levels of education, taking into account the language environment of the school, language skills, the acquired language code and the age of the learners. They determine that the learner should be able to recognize the contrasting features of the Hungarian and Slovak alphabet as well as basic linguistic phenomena, know and apply orthoepic, orthographic and grammatical rules necessary for oral and written communication in a given developmental period of learners, acquire oral communication language skills, achieve a smooth transition from reproductive to productive forms of communication, conduct oral and written communication in various social situations with adequate knowledge of grammar, solve standard social situations within the frame of certain communication topics appropriate to the age of learners, independently express thoughts in Slovak (orally and in writing), describe their own aesthetic experiences and think critically.

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The teaching of SLSL takes into account the fact that language varies with use according to the requirements of the context in which it is used. From this point of view, language is not a neutral tool of thinking. The need and desire to communicate arise in a specific situation, while the form and content of communication are a response to this situation. According to Alabánová (2005), the goals of teaching Slovak language and Slovak literature in a primary school with Hungarian as the language of instruction can be divided as follows: A. Productive-receptive (communicative) command of the Slovak language. Objectives formulated in the productive-receptive command of the Slovak language include cognitive, instrumental (tool of further education) and communicative function as the basic functions of teaching Slovak language and literature. B. Informative aspect, in which, in addition to knowledge of Slovak, knowledge of general educational nature is included. C. The formative function (development of mental cognitive processes) of teaching Slovak language is related to the following: • forming an interest in the Slovak language as a second language, • cultivating and forming a positive attitude to and relationship with the Slovak language, • developing attitudes and habits to cultivate one’s own language, • developing an aesthetic feeling. The priority goal of teaching Slovak language and Slovak literature in schools with Hungarian as the language of instruction is to improve learners’ communicative competence in the interest of achieving bilingualism, resp. Multilingualism at the level of the functional definition of bilingualism, according to which any speaker who uses two languages in his daily linguistic practice is bilingual, regardless of their level of proficiency. This strategic goal at the second stage of primary school and at secondary school is fulfilled if the communicative competence of bilingual speakers is combined with proper mastery and practical use of the rules of using Hungarian and Slovak language and communication in various communicative situations. The main goal of teaching a subject includes three target components: communicative, cognitive and formative, and thus requires the fulfilment of sub-goals in the communicative, cognitive and formative areas, including sub-goals in the social area. The specific goals of Slovak language and Slovak literature in schools with Hungarian as the language of instruction are the following: • to teach learners to recognize the contrasting features of the Hungarian and the Slovak alphabet and basic linguistic phenomena, • to make learners acquainted with orthoepic, orthographic and grammatical rules necessary for oral and written communication in a given developmental period, • to develop oral communication language skills of learners, to achieve a smooth transition from a reproductive to a productive form of communication.

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3 Findings from Pedagogical Research Monitoring the Level of Teaching Slovak Language and Slovak Literature in Primary Schools with Hungarian Language of Instruction The research findings suggest the need to innovate the current SLSL Teaching Concept from 1991 in the sense of a communicative approach, taking into account already existing and valid pedagogical documents. The teacher, his/her linguistic and professionalmethodological competence have a key role in the realization of a communicative lesson. It is a fact that the basic philosophy of the current 1991 Concept is still up-to-date and its goals have not been fully fulfilled, which has been confirmed by the most important findings of the latest questionnaire survey for SLSL teachers in schools with Hungarian language of instruction. The questionnaire primarily focused on finding out the implementation of the communication approach to teaching SLSL. • The teacher has the greatest influence on the pupil’s interest in the subject SLSL and its teaching (methods and forms), but also the content of the subject and its didactic processing. • As the most effective form of (foreign, non-native, second) language teaching, it is recommended to teach in small groups and in special language classrooms. However, the requirement of dividing classes during SLSL lessons does not appear explicitly in the Education and Training Act no. 245/2008 Coll. of 22 May 2008, as amended, and the documents in force thereon (except for Decree No. 65/2015 Coll., on secondary schools). Research has confirmed that the possibility of class division or teaching in special language classrooms is not sufficiently ensured. • The most common organizational form in class is frontal work at all levels of education, which implies that effective teaching techniques and methods are not applied to the required level. • Pupils have great difficulty in acquiring subject skills (oral and written work, listening comprehension, reading resp. Reading comprehension) at all levels of education. • For first level primary pupils, the most motivating factors are the effort to get a good grade, to meet the expectations of the teacher and the parents and competitiveness. Higher grade pupils predominate in trying to get a good grade and the ambition to get to secondary school, respectively university. Efforts to speak in the Slovak language are evident only among the students of secondary grammar school and secondary specialized education. • Despite the fact that most teachers are aware of the need to continue learning, they do not use all forms and opportunities for further education. Teachers prefer methodological materials the most, and open lessons are also popular on the first level of primary school. The most popular form of further education is self-study. Teachers, however, do not, in their own terms, use the literature on foreign language teaching nor the new book publications from the Slovak literature for children and youth. • Teachers use primarily SLSL textbooks and workbooks in the planning and preparation process, they use current Slovak literature for children and youth, and specialized literature less often. • The equipment of school libraries is not at the optimum level. Schools have not made use of the opportunity offered by the Ministry of Education to revitalize their school libraries, and even teachers do not use the services of well-equipped school libraries.

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Based on the observation of lessons, we report the following findings: • the consistent principles of communicative language teaching were not fulfilled, • on the first level of primary education, teaching was predominantly bilingual, • little attention was paid to developing listening and reading comprehension; on the first level of primary education, speaking and writing prevailed at the expense of reading, • teachers mainly preferred controlled, managed teaching techniques instead of partially controlled and uncontrolled techniques; out of organizational forms of work frontal work prevailed, little work was done in groups, in pairs and individual work of pupils, • they almost always used only valid textbooks and workbooks from SLSL, Slovak literature for children and youth and available material didactic tools were used just rarely; they rarely worked with children’s and youth’s magazines. On the basis of recent research findings, it has again been confirmed that the following serious shortcomings persist: • the teaching of morphological phenomena continues to prevail, less attention is paid to the lexical, phonetic-phonological and syntactic differences of the Slovak and the teaching language, • similarly, at the second level of primary and secondary schools with Hungarian language of instruction, more attention is still paid to the grammatical component of the subject at the expense of other components; the teaching of literature focuses largely on literary theory. The above findings and conclusions from the research constitute an argumentation apparatus to justify the need for the elaboration of the Concept.

4 Innovated State Educational Program for Primary Education First Level of Primary School. The document states that, in view of the objectives of communicative teaching, great care must be taken not to create a psychic barrier in the use of the slovak language by the difficulty of learning content and by inappropriate educational techniques. For the specific choice of words, it is necessary to take into account developmental specificities in the formation of word associations, for the younger children there are typical syntagmatic associations that imitate speech, thus meeting the communicative goal of teaching (Lajˇcin-Porubˇcanová, 2021). 4.1 Priority strategic areas for further development Building on the goals and successful implementation of the results and conclusions of the National Project, a qualitative shift in these strategic areas is expected. A) Strategic area focusing SLSL teachers • improving the relationship of the teacher with the Slovak language, the teaching of SLSL, the Slovak nation and Slovak culture,

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• improving the communicative competence of SLSL teachers, especially the cultivated usage of the Slovak language, • increasing the professional competence of SLSL teachers, especially in the area of SLSL teaching in schools with Hungarian language of instruction and the methodology of teaching foreign languages, • improving the work of teachers with pedagogical documents in the field of teaching process planning and preparation for SLSL teaching, • improving cooperation between primary and lower secondary education SLSL teachers, • improving cooperation between SLSL teachers within the subject committee for SLSL and the methodological association within the school. B) Strategic area focusing on the teaching of SLSL • the teaching process must be governed by the principles of teaching foreign languages, • increasing the effectiveness of the SLSL teaching process by dividing the classes into groups, • increasing the efficiency of the SLSL teaching process by applying a communicative approach and applying an activity-oriented approach, • improving the efficiency of the use of material-didactic tools in the SLSL learning process, • improving the ratio of bilingual and monolingual teaching in favour of monolingual. C) Strategic area focusing on pupils • creating and fostering a positive relationship of pupils to the subject of SLSL, the Slovak language, the Slovak nation and Slovak culture, • improving the communicative competence of pupils in the Slovak language by respecting the principle of the support of the mother tongue, • improving the pupils’ communicative competence in the Slovak language by using activating methods, • improving the smooth transition from reproductive to productive forms of pupil communication, • more effective use of Slovak language by pupils in authentic communication situations, • improving the pupils’ study results from Slovak language and Slovak literature

5 The Survey of School Class Climate The climate in the classroom is usually understood as the atmosphere and the mood that prevails in the classroom. According to Hrmo et all. (2020), the term climate, from the point of view of the content, includes settled procedures of the perception, experience, assessment and response of all class participants (pupils, teachers) about what has taken place or what is taking place or is about to take place in the classroom. Kissné-Zsámboki (2021) understands the term climate as typical, relatively permanent interpersonal relations, ways of mutual communication that affect the experiencing, the impressions and the feelings of the persons involved. The climate of the class significantly affects the motivation of the pupils. In successful schools, teachers show their interest in the subject and knowledge in general. There is a

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climate of sophistication where the teachers constantly make it clear by their attitudes that they require good performance from pupils, and they are convinced that the pupils “can make it” to achieve them. Pupils learn to a large extent as their teachers think they will learn (Pygmalion effect). It is important that the teacher in the classroom should create an environment that encourages motivation (by the appropriate choice of curriculum, methods and tools) [3]. Teachers should create an environment in the education process where pupils are not be afraid, are not stressed or bored. They should allow the pupil to experience success, encourage the development of his/her personality, and put demands corresponding to the pupil’s individual abilities. Through their creative work they must strive to humanize the world - not only themselves but also the wider environment, society and nationality (Sz˝oköl, 2016, p. 16). In the academic year 2021/2022, we conducted a survey aimed at mapping the climate of classes at primary school. The survey covered four classes from the third and the fourth grade (3.A., 3.B., 4.A., 4.B.), i.e. 91 pupils, including 42 boys and 49 girls. Aim of the survey: To find out the climate in the classes of Slovak language and Slovak literature. Survey method: Questionnaire. The questionnaire surveyed the state of the social climate of teaching SL and SL. It contained 24 questions that were divided into the following six dimensions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The interest of pupils in the class. Relationships among pupils. Teacher’s help to pupils. Orientation of pupils to tasks. Order and organization in the teaching of the subject. Clarity of the rules for the class.

In each dimension, the arithmetic mean and percentage of success were calculated. In the questionnaire, the pupils circled the answers (yes - no) with which they agreed, which they considered correct. There were no correct, good or bad answers (Table 1). Table 1. Evaluation of the survey investigating the social climate of the class Dimensions (%) / classes

3. A

3. B

4. A

4. B

1. The interest of pupils in the class

60.5

50.9

55.3

61.3

2. Relationships among pupils

79.7

76.6

71.2

87.1

3. Teacher’s help to pupils

70.3

80.4

59.8

80

4. Orientation of pupils to tasks

48.9

47.4

54.5

71.6

5. Order and organization in the teaching of the subject

60.5

52.8

56

73.3

6. Clarity of the rules for the class

89.1

86.2

64.3

87.5

As it can be seen from the above table, the smallest percent of success in each class was gained in these three areas:

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– the interest of pupils in the class, – orientation of pupils to tasks, – order and organization in the teaching of the subject. The factors that contribute to the climate of the school class are different. It is not possible to think more deeply and to draw specific conclusions from this survey, but it will serve to determine the current state in each class.

6 Factors Supporting the Acquisition of the Slovak Language . Hrmo et all (2020) introduces four factors supporting L2 acquisition and the formation of bilingualism, which can be successfully applied in the teaching of Slovak as L2. 1. Organizational factors – among them, alternative learning programmes are important with high degree of success and ensuring the teaching of the second language by a bilingual teacher with good professional and methodological competence. It is necessary to apply alternative teaching programme s for teaching Slovak as L2 first of all for the different language environment of the pupils. Alternative learning programmes can be part of the innovated school education program (hereinafter as ISEP); they can be a guarantee of success also in the acquisition of Slovak language from the first year of primary school to the final leaving exam at secondary school. 2. Factors of affinity – are related to the humanization of the educational process as well as to the appropriate motivation of pupils’ learning activities, e.g. a favourable learning environment, non-authoritative teaching, and internal motivation are related to understanding and sympathy for learning goals. 3. Factors related to learning – creating conditions to ensure a small degree of anxiety, a high degree of motivation, and a high level of self-confidence (feeling of success). 4. Linguistic-social factors – relate both to language and to the social and linguistic background of pupils. An indispensable linguistic factor in the process of acquiring a second language is the high quality teaching of the Hungarian language, because if the child learns to use the language in thinking and problem solving in one language, this potential can also be translated into other languages. The process of teaching the Slovak language is the opposite of teaching the mother tongue. While in the mother tongue, the procedure is from the spontaneous use of the language toward its conscious use, in the Slovak language, it moves from a conscious acquisition to a spontaneous use of the language (Sz˝oköl-Puskás, 2021).

7 Overview of Methods 7.1 Total Physical Response – TPR – Method It is a method of teaching foreign languages that uses physical movement in response to a verbal stimulus, thereby reducing barriers for learners and reducing their affective filter. Author of the theory J. Asher argued that the skill of listening comprehension must be acquired by the learner before learning to speak [8]. The TPR method is based on

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the coordination of speech and activity, which combines information and skills based on the use of a kinetic-sensory system. This combination of skills allows learners to assimilate information and skills quickly, thus contributing to the high learning motivation of learners. The basic teaching technique is based on the teacher giving orders and physically demonstrating them himself/herself. It uses the target language from the beginning (Oberuˇc, Zapletal, 2017b.). Children respond to instructions, spoken speech first physically, only when they acquire listening comprehension, they begin to speak spontaneously and without much effort (Barnová, et all, 2019). This delay in speaking until the learner is ready to speak spontaneously reduces stress and strengthens learners’ self-confidence and confidence in their abilities. 7.2 Structural Global Audiovisual Method This method is based primarily on connecting the situation – context – image – group of words – meaning (the global working in structure). It is based on the thesis that the teaching of foreign languages must be implemented on a situational basis. In addition to influencing hearing and sight simultaneously, it does not practice isolated words, but structured language units. The basic and smallest unit of a structured whole is a sentence. Sentences are chosen as models that can be changed, supplemented, and developed. With this method, the learner gets acquainted with comprehensive expressions as well as the rhythm, the intonation and the melody of the Slovak language. It is important to connect the sound with an image; the culmination of the work is the active use and combination of sentence structures. 7.3 Linguistic-Motor Method It combines verbal, musical and sensory-physical elements of teaching. It develops the learner’s visual, auditory and motor memory. The learner has the opportunity to accompany his/her speech in a situational dialogue with natural gestures and facial expressions. Speech is set in a situational context. 7.4 Activating Methods According to Alabánová (2003), these methods are based on inductive procedures, monolingual semantization and prefer spoken language, in which the emphasis is also on the practice of correct pronunciation and intonation. Specific examples are practiced, grammatical phenomena without knowledge of grammatical rules. Inductive procedures are important for the development of thinking, they are concrete, illustrative, and they support and develop the activity and creativity of learners. 7.5 Direct Method It is basically the teaching of the spoken language through conversation, learning through play and movement. From a methodological aspect, it is based on the principle of imitation of a foreign language environment, situational anchoring of the curriculum, absence

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of any confrontation with the mother tongue, practice of grammatical phenomena inductively, priorities of oral expression and emphasis on correct orthoepic habits (Oberuˇc, Zapletal, 2017a). The acquisition of a second language should be carried out in the same way as in the teaching of the mother tongue. In the process of learning a second language, it does not respect the principle of support provided by the mother tongue at all. When explaining the meaning of words, phrases (even abstract ones), monolingual semantization is applied. Demonstration plays a primary role in this task. The practical goal of this method is the acquisition of living spoken language; it attributes an important role to the practice of pronunciation, the teaching of phonetics through phonetic exercises, and it reduces the role of grammar. 7.6 Partially Reduced Direct Method This method fully respects the principle of support provided by the mother tongue in the teaching of a second language. This is reflected in the implementation of the introductory oral course, in its preference for the communicative method of teaching (in the choice of topics, in forms and means) and monolingual semantization. The explanation of abstract concepts and grammatical rules is carried out in the mother tongue. 7.7 Combined Method It places spoken language at the centre of the teaching process, uses a lot of conversation, monolingual semantization to explain concepts, but also uses the mother tongue, especially in the interpretation of abstract concepts and in the teaching of grammar rules. Two-way translation is also used, which actually checks the level of understanding and learners’ language skills. 7.8 Communicative Approach to Language Teaching or Situational Language Teaching A functional approach to language dominates. The method is not narrowly defined, but is based on the principle that learning is supported only by those activities which are based on real communication and in which language is used to perform meaningful tasks. Learners learn language as a means of expressing their thoughts, values and judgments, to express the functions that are most closely linked to their communication needs. The method is based on the following principles: a) learners learn to communicate through interaction in the target language, b) authentic texts must be used in teaching, c) it is necessary to create such conditions for learners in the classroom so that they can focus not only on the language but also on the learning process itself, d) learners need to be encouraged to use the language independently in order to gain their own experience, as this experience contributes significantly to increasing the effectiveness of language teaching at school, e) it is necessary to link language learning at school with language activities outside the school and the classroom.

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8 Conclusion The process of teaching the Slovak language is the opposite of teaching the mother tongue. While in the mother tongue, the procedure is from the spontaneous use of the language toward its conscious use, in the Slovak language, it moves from a conscious acquisition to a spontaneous use of the language. It is necessary to apply alternative teaching programme s for teaching Slovak as L2 first of all for the different language environment of the pupils. Alternative learning programmes can be part of the innovated school education program (hereinafter as ISEP); they can be a guarantee of success also in the acquisition of Slovak language from the first year of primary school to the final leaving exam at secondary school. In order to improve the teaching of SLSL in primary schools with Hungarian language of instruction, it is recommended to provide regular training for teachers (continuous education, lectures, seminars, workshops) focusing on methodology, conversation and the specific issues of teaching Slovak language and Slovak literature. It is essential to organize joint seminars, workshops, meetings of first level teachers and teachers of Slovak language and Slovak literature at the second grade of primary school with Hungarian language of instruction systematically and continuously in the future.

References Alabánová, M.: Slovenský jazyk a literatúra v menšinových školách. Nitra: Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Konštantína Filozofa (2005). ISBN 80–969389–0–8 Barnová, s., Krásna, s., Gabrhelová, g.: E Mentoring, E Tutoring, and E-Coaching in Learning Organizations. In: EDULEARN19: 11th Annual International Conference of Education and New Learning Technologies, Palma de Mallorca, Spain, pp. 6488–6498 (2019) Döményová, A., Halászová, A.: Vybrané údaje z výskumu Štátneho pedagogického ústavu Sledovanie úrovne vyuˇcovania slovenského jazyka v základných a stredných školách s vyuˇcovacím ˇ jazykom madarským. In: Zborník medzinárodnej vedeckej konferencie Univerzity J. Selyeho – 2014, Vzdelávanie a veda na zaˇciatku XXI. storoˇcia”, Komárno, pp. 114–137 (2014). ISBN 978–80–8122–104–0 Halászová, A.: Zhodnotenie súˇcasného stavu úrovne vyuˇcovania slovenského jazyka na 1. stupni ZŠ s VJM. Nepublikovaná správa. Bratislava: ŠPÚ (2002) Hrmo, R., Krištofiaková, L., Barnová, S.: Internal System of Quality Management in the Context of Ensuring the Quality of Preparation of Managers for Future Practice. In: Littera Scripta ˇ ˇ [textový dokument (print)] [elektronický dokument] . – Ceské Budˇejovice (Cesko) : Vysoká ˇ škola technická a ekonomická v Ceských Budˇejovicích. – ISSN 1802–503X. – ISSN (online) 1805–9112. – Roˇc. 13, cˇ . 2 (2020), pp. 70–81 (2020). https://doi.org/10.36708/Littera_Scripta 2020/2/7 Kalhous, Z., Obst, O.: Školní didaktika. Praha: Portál (2002). ISBN 80–7178–253-X Kissné Zsámboki, R.: Projekt alapú aktív tanulás a kisgyermeknevelésben és az iskolai oktatásban Sopron, Magyarország : Soproni Egyetemi Kiadó, p. 82 ( 2021). ISBN: 9789633343838 (2021) Koncepcia vyuˇcovania cudzích jazykov v základných a stredných školách, 2007 – Schválené vládou SR dˇna 12. (2007). uznesením vlády SR cˇ . 767/2007 Lajˇcin, D., Porubˇcanová, D.: Teamwork during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Emerg. Sci. J. 5, 1–10 (2021). https://doi.org/10.28991/esj-2021-SPER-01 Oberuˇc, J., Zapletal, L.: Family as one of the most important factors in a Child’s upbringing. Acta Technologica Dubnicae 7(2), 105–112 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1515/atd-2017-0018

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In: Acta Educationis Generalis. Vol. 7, iss. 2, (2017). ISSN 1338–3965 Oberuˇc, J.- Zapletal, L.: The role of the direct instruction method in teaching of secondary ˇ school students; G.B. Qepevko, B.L. Optincki.In: Zapisky Naukove. - Lvov : Univerzita manažentu a práva, (2017) Marks, I., Lajˇcin, D.: Anton Štefánek a slovenské školstvo v medzivojnovom období – vybrané problémy. Brno : Tribun EU, p. 119 (2017). ISBN 978–80–263–1362–5. Pokrivˇcáková, S., Pokrivˇcák, A.: Teaching Slovak language and literature in Slovakia. In: Marek Pieni˛az˙ ek & Stanislav Štˇepáník (eds.), Teaching of National Languages in the V4 Countries. Prague: Charles University, pp. 135–170 (2016). ISBN 978–80–7290–926–1 Sz˝oköl, I.: Continuous improvement of the teaching process in primary education. J. Lang. Cult. Educ. 6(1), 53–64 (2018). https://doi.org/10.2478/jolace-2018-0004 Sz˝oköl, I., Puskás, A.: Basic pillars of the concept and strategy of teaching Slovak language and Slovak literature in primary schools with Hungarian as the language of instruction. J. Lang. Cult. Educ. 9(2), 1–10 (2021). https://doi.org/10.2478/jolace-2021-0007

Student Academic Cheating at Technical University Dana Dobrovská(B) and David Vanˇecˇ ek Czech Technical University in Prague, MIAS, Prague, Czech Republic {dana.dobrovska,david.vanecek}@cvut.cz

Abstract. Student academic cheating has been researched from different aspects in most HE institutions as shown in our research review. The aim of our study was to provide and analyze the data on technical university cheating, to investigate the overall frequency, methods and the motivation to cheat/not cheat of students. We were also interested to find out what motives are declared “excusable”/“inexcusable” and in specifying the role of teacher. A total of 360 students participated in our research, data collection was carried out in January 2022. Academic cheating resulted a common phenomenon among students of all faculties, 95% of students declared to have cheated at least once. Students found various ways of misusing their smartphones. Dominant motive for cheating was to avoid “unvaluable courses” “which were not taught properly”. The most “excusable” motives for cheating were attributed to “low didactic skills of teachers”. Keywords: Students · Cheating · Technical University · Detection · Prevention

1 Introduction Higher education forms a significant part of the economy for countries around the world and graduates are trained to undertake important roles in society. Assessment is the means university providers determine whether their students have achieved the learning required for those roles. Some students are dishonest on some assessments, meaning they acquire academic credit for work which is not their own. Student cheating is believed to be deceitful or fraudulent behavior that unfairly benefits the cheater leading to unfair grading of students’ performance, causing difficulties among teachers to adequately respond to students’ performance and knowledge level (Parks-Leduc et al. 2021). For an educational institution, assessment integrity is essential as it affects its reputation. It is necessary to employ traditional and online cheating detection besides prevention methods. For decades there has been research in how and why students cheat, how common it is, what motivation is behind student fraudulent behavior and specifications in which it could be prevented.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 410–420, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_39

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2 Research Review 2.1 Studies of General Cheating Behavior Self-report studies of general cheating behavior are numerous and well established. Liebler identifies 411 studies between 1930 and 2013 which attempted to estimate how many undergraduate students have cheated in the USA. More than half (222) of these studies were survey-based (Liebler 2016). In 1998, Whitley, when reviewing studies on the prevalence of cheating, found 107 studies published between 1970 and 1996 in the USA and Canada alone (Whitley 1998). Results prove urgency of the topic, both at the secondary schools and universities. In most studies, quantitative approach is used and key factors researched are role of gender, forms of cheating and motivation to cheat. Less attention is given to the preventive methods and to the role of teachers. In our previous survey (Dobrovská 2016, 2017), the most common reason students cited for committing academic dishonesty was that they ran out of time. They felt that they were not able to successfully perform the task, e.g., write the computer code, compose the paper, do well on the test. Another reason students engaged in dishonest behavior had to do with overload: too many homework assignments, work issues, relationship problems. Many self-report studies undertake some sort of factor analysis to identify traits/circumstances associated with self-report of cheating. A considerable number of factors have been shown to influence rates of self-reported cheating and these have been reviewed several times (Whitley 1998). For illustration, some of the factors identified include: past cheating behavior, poor study conditions, academic level/year of study, lack of time, gender (men more likely to cheat), grades (poorly performing students more likely to cheat), the perception that other students are doing it, too, lenient institutional approaches to cheating/likelihood of being caught, lack of motivation, discipline studied, age (younger students more likely to cheat), distance learning vs. face to face, an expectation that cheating will result in positive outcomes (Newton 2018). Noorbehbahani et al. suggest in their literature review (2010–2021) key factors analyzed by most researchers:

Noorbehbahani, F., Azadeh, M., & Aminazadeh, M. A systematic review of research on cheating in online exams from 2010–2021. Education and Information Technologies, Vol. 27, pp. 8413–8460 (2022).

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2.2 Key Factors of Cheating as Reported in Research Overviews Cheating Forms and Facilitators Cheating behavior may include a wide variety of behaviors such as the use of crib notes, plagiarism or use of contract cheating. Often, such behaviors are divided into traditional and electronic: traditional cheating methods comprise, for example, hiding crib notes behind ruler, clothes or writing on hands. While traditional forms of cheating relate to the class, electronic cheating classification divides behaviors inside the classroom and outside the classroom. – Cheating Inside the Classroom The first type of cheating happens inside of the classroom where students use electronic devices to access unauthorized information and use unauthorized electronic devices in other ways, primarily during exams. Students use laptops or smartphones, to access the internet and this provides them with an unending source of materials, examples, diagrams, and information. As most courses are provided with e-texts, this also opens up the entire textbook to students during exams if they have access to an electronic device. In addition, smartphones have the capability to store and display almost any type of electronic document. Using this small device is no different than using a laptop or tablet, other than its small and somewhat discreet size (Bain 2013). Other somewhat creative behaviors include the use of MP3 and smartphone cameras. Forward thinking students can record audio files for MP3 players and use these as well during exams (Jones et al. 2008). Again, the pictures from the camera must be sent via text messaging or email to another party making the process a bit more complicated then some of the other methods but certainly doable by students. – Cheating Outside the Classroom The second type of cheating happens outside of the classroom where students tend to copy and use information from the internet. Cheating outside of the classroom requires the use of the internet and the many options available online for accessing a variety of material. This environment provides the ability to easily copy and paste information, purchase ready-made materials, and use a variety of resources to obtain unauthorized help on assignments. These methods are more difficult for instructors to see since they are happening outside of the classroom and away from the normal face-to-face time of a traditional class setting (Bain 2013). Another form is represented by contract cheating: it is the practice of students engaging a third-party to complete assignments. It occurs when someone other than the student completes an assignment and which the student then submits for assessment/credit. It can be buying a paper (or a portion thereof) online, colluding with others on a take-home exam or test, submitting a take-home exam or test that has been written in full or in part by someone else. In other cases, it can be purchasing or otherwise acquiring a copy of exam questions, tests, assignments, etc.

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In his metastudy, Phil Newton from Swansee University reports growing percentage occurrence of contract cheating, from 3–4% of students to 7–8%. In the Czech Republic it is 19%, of which 10% is purchase from a third person and the rest is mutual help from fellow students (ENAI 2021). While Western Europe, USA and Australia preventive methods against academic cheating are based on strengthening inner motivation of students, Eastern Europe suggest sanctions to bet the method. 2.3 Motives to Cheat – Reasons related to teacher didactical skills and personality traits Unfair favoring of bribers to non-bribers, low interest in student learning and behavior, poor pedagogical styles, course difficulty, lack of support for students, restraint of teachers to punish cheaters, poorly designed exam and easy availability of task solutions, lack of connection between course material and exam. – Reasons connected to institution Rools and policies on cheating are not strict (no or unclear academic integrity codex), being easy to cheat, poor quality of online learning equipment of the institution. – Reasons related to student personality Lack of learning skills and skills to find resources, lack of perseverance, emotional impulsiveness, unwillingness to follow the recommended good practice, inability to seek appropriate help, procrastination and poor time management, lack of sufficient interest in course material, low value of acquiring knowledge and learning for students, students positive moral attitudes toward cheating, laziness, low confidence, desire to help others, thrill of taking risks. – External reasons Competing objectives, peer collaboration and pressure for cheating, desire not to set back from cheaters in grades, parents attitudes toward cheating, parents demanding good grades, mental and physical health problems, family problems, financial and time setbacks associated with failure, poor economic conditions, social expectations from students, social attitudes toward cheating, technology evolution in society. 2.4 Cheating Detection Cheating detection methods can be categorized into during the exam and after the exam. To ensure academic integrity for example in online examinations, it is essential to detect cheating during the exam. Cheating detection can be partitioned into two main categories, namely continuous authentication and online proctoring. Continuous authentication methods verify the identity of test-takers, and online proctoring monitors the examinees to detect any misbehavior during the exam (Noorbehbahani et al. 2022). Another approach for cheating detection is a class mole when the instructor enrolls in students’ groups under another name as a mole to detect and combat collusion. In

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this way they can discover dishonest students when they discuss cheating among themselves (Moten et al. 2013). However, this method might contradict professional ethics of teachers-class mole. Although different methods are employed to prevent students from cheating, some will still cheat during the examination. Consequently, a bunch of techniques is proposed to detect cheating after the exam. This way, the reliability of online assessments will be improved. It can be video monitoring, human proctoring (which is a tedious and timeconsuming process), or using webcam. As there are various ways of cheating, various methods are used to detect cheating after the exam. One of the cheating methods is to collude and work on tests together. However, most learning management systems allow the teacher to view IP addresses. Therefore, if different students submit their assessments by the same IP address in a short time frame, it can be detected and considered as a sign of collusion (Moten et al. 2013). Another indicator of dishonest behavior is an extremely short interval between the access time and the completion of the assessment, which can be detected by load time analysis. To detect plagiarism in papers or essay-type questions, platforms such as DupliChecker.com or Turnitin.com can be used. These websites compute a similarity index, the teacher decides about further actions. Similar control exists to prevent plagiarism in university theses as presented by Dobrovská (2017). In addition, the instructor can search the internet by hand periodically and try to find all possible webpages that provide solutions matching the exam questions. This approach could be applied to create a pool of potential solutions from the internet that will be used for plagiarism detection purposes after the exam. 2.5 Cheating Prevention After discussing the student motivation for cheating and reasons which directly or indirectly drive students to commit unethical behaviors during exams or other assessment procedures, concern is gathered around methods how to decrease cheating. Some authors categorize cheating prevention into two major types, before-exam prevention and during-exam prevention (Noorbehbahani et al. 2022). To prevent students from cheating, there are several methods that should be implemented before the exam is held. In any situation that prevention is concerned, a proven and low-cost approach is a cheat-resistent design, i.e. developing personalized exams for each candidate separately. It may be a set of fixed questions with variable assumption values, using data banks with a large pool of questions to select questions randomly, or implementing an AI-based method to produce unique exam. Using novel questions or knowledge questions instead of information-based ones is a unique way to avoid plagiarism or searching the web. These questions challenge the level of knowledge. The answers are difficult to be found on the web or in reference book and students have to use critical thinking and reasoning instead of plagiarising existing resources. Another way how to minimize cheating is using essay questions rather than multiple-choice questions which are highly susceptible. Long essay questions are preferred. Using questions with specific assumptions and facts that give extra and not useful facts may mislead any student, even those taking exam honestly, this method will

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reduce the possibility of web-based plagiarism considerably by making it making it less straightforward to search online. In our experience, using an open book exam when open book exam questions should test students’ understanding, critical reasoning, and analytical skills encourages deep learning style. Since the answers to these questions are not found in any sources directly, open book exams may reduce the cheating opportunity. A cheat-resistent exam design is time consuming for teachers and difficult to be applied in big classes: anyway even when several students share a similar exam design it still be lowering student misbehavior.

3 Research Characteristics 3.1 Research Objective The aim of our study was to provide and analyze data on a technical university students’ cheating, i.e. to investigate the overall frequency, methods and motivation to cheating/not cheating among students. We were also interested to find out what motive is “excusable/“inexcusable” by students and in specifying the role of teacher in student academic cheating. 3.2 Research Method We used a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods in our research: we held introductory interviews with teachers and students in the first phase to provide an overview of the situation. In the second phase, we designed a questionnaire with 11 items: three items examining the types of student academic dishonesty, two items evaluating the motivation to cheat, two researched preventive measures encouraging honesty (motivation to act honestly), other items were used for personal identification (faculty, major, year level). Before designing the questionnaire, we held an interview with students to get more insight into their views on the issue. One more interview with identical students was conducted after a questionnaire had been designed to check its intelligibility. In this qualitative phase, we utilized a thematic analysis to explore the open-ended responses of students. To outline the procedure, we first engaged in iterative readings of the responses, and then coded segments of these responses and created themes from these codes. We corresponded on multiple occasions to discuss the coding processes and decisions regarding groupings and themes. Similar method was used in the teachers’ interviews: teachers from different faculties (biomedical studies, information technology, electrical engineering, and faculty of mechanical engineering) were interviewed to get some knowledge of their views. 3.3 Research Sample The study was conducted at a large, state technical university. A Facebook student group platform was used to gain the answers of respondents. A total of 360 students completed

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the questionnaire, data collection was carried out in January 2022. Approximately 61% (n = 220) of the sample were male, 37.5% (n = 135) were female, and 1,4% (n = 5) were missing gender information. Further, 48.9% (n = 176) of the sample were bachelors, 32.2% (n = 116) were master students and 18.9% (n = 68) were graduate or PhD students. 3,3% (n = 12) were construction and architecture students, and 18.9% (n = 68) were students of machinery engineering, 15% (n = 41) were electrical engineering students and 64% (n = 232) were IT students. 2% (7) were missing classification information. Student responses were evaluated and displayed in the Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

4 Research Results and Discussion Based on the objectives of our research these findings emerged from the collected data: 4.1 Prevalence of Cheating

Table 1. How often (if ever) did you cheat? Frequency of cheating

Students

%

Never

18

5

Once during semester

25

7

twice-three times during semester

90

25

Often

227

63

Alarming level of cheating was found in our results as just 5% of students stated they had never cheated, the rest of undergraduates admitted cheating, 63% have been cheating often (more than 3times during the semester). 4.2 Types of Cheating

Table 2. Which types of cheating did you use? Types of cheating

Students

%

Misusing older tests gained illegally

144

40,0

Using a crib from the mobile phone

85

23,6

Deliberate cribbing from fellow student

82

22,7 (continued)

Student Academic Cheating at Technical University

417

Table 2. (continued) Types of cheating

Students

%

Getting answers from the internet during the test

77

21,4

Used “classical” crib

77

21,4

Distant online test filled with the help of other people

64

17,7

Photographed test questions

61

16,9

Almost half of the respondents admitted illegal misuse of older tests. Frequent incidents regarded misuse of cribs from the mobile phones or from fellow students. Surprisingly, the “classical” forms of cheating were quite frequent among students. They used common cribs/cheat notes which were hidden in clothing, taped to a water bottle or under the class table. Misuse of minicameras connected to mobiles hidden in the pockets (prices have become affordable for students) was another way how to gain tests. 4.3 Motivation to Cheat

Table 3. What was your motive to cheat? Motive to cheat

Students

%

The course was not interesting

99

27,5

Did not want to redo the test

87

24,16

The course was too dificult

83

23

Did not want to fail the semester

78

21,6

Saw the test items before

77

21,38

Course material was not explained clearly

71

19,7

No time to study

65

18

The test was too difficult

59

16,3

Knew other students cheated too

39

10,8

Knew I would not get caught

31

8,6

It helped to get degree

18

5

Did not want to disappoint my family

26

7,2

Wanted to get the scholarship

6

1,66

Most students indicated external reasons which “made” them cheat: they blamed teachers, quality of courses, or admitted they simply wanted to get credits. Few answers were critical to own faults and weaknesses – (internal reasons) and “realistic” reasons (objective situations leading to unethical behavior) were mentioned.

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Next item was designed to assess individual differences in relativism and idealism. It pointed to the ethical classification of motives as perceived by students: they were asked to assess potential motives into 6 categories (one of them was neutral). Table 4. Decide which cheating motives are “excusable” or “inexcusable” Motive

Excusable Partly excusable Neutral Partly inexcusable Inexcusable

The teacher is not fair

92

46

22

12

8

The course is not valuable

77

53

20

19

11

Too much memorizing

75

57

27

12

9

Low-performing teacher

52

71

24

19

14

Demanding teacher

48

78

26

17

11

Fear of get kicked 42 out of school

52

41

24

21

Knew the test

41

28

60

18

33

Not to fail the semester

22

43

53

35

27

To get better job

17

15

49

44

55

Did not understand the material

14

42

47

36

41

No time to study

9

27

37

53

54

Didn´t want to 8 disappoint parents

22

55

43

52

Knew other students cheated too

11

46

50

67

6

Five most “excusable” motives were related to external reasons – to the quality of study material or didactic qualities of teachers (similarly to the motivation to cheat). The most “unexcusable” reason related to the situation when other students cheat. “Cheating of others should not justify person’s own misbehavior”, students said. 4.4 Cheating Prevention Authorized cribs should be permitted during the test, students suggested. Also, organizational interventions of university management could be improving the situation (teachers

Student Academic Cheating at Technical University

419

Table 5. What is the best way to prevent cheating? Suggestions how to reduce student cheating practices

Students

%

Teachers should permit the use of authorized cribs

120

33,3

Teachers should offer more exam dates

85

23,6

More time for preparation (many exams within few days)

55

15,2

Oral exams should substitute written ones

40

11,1

Teachers should control and punish cheating behavior

24

6,6

often concentrate exam terms within first 2 weeks of exam period - comfortable for them, but not for students). Cheating reduction would be more substantial if oral exams were substituted by written ones.

5 Conclusions Student academic cheating resulted a common phenomenon at all faculties at researched technical university. 95% of students declared to have cheated more than once or at least once: these results exceed the average of comparable studies. Most frequent form of cheating as admitted by students was misusing tests from previous term (correct answers found from the smartphones). Dominant motives for cheating were related to external reasons - quality of courses, teacher behavior (“teacher is not fair”), and his teaching performance, few students admitted their own faults and failures. Similar results appeared in the ethical assessment of cheating motivation - “excusable” motives were mostly connected with the quality of courses and teaching, The fact that other students cheated too did not result excusable for cheating, students declared.

References Bain, L.: How students use technology to cheat and what faculty can do about it. Inf. Syst. Educ. J. (ISEDJ). 13(5), 192 (2013) Bouville, M.: Why is cheating wrong? Stud. Philos. Educ. 29, 67–76 (2010). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s11217-009-9148-0 DiPaulo, D.: Do preservice teachers cheat in college, too? A quantitative study of academic integrity among preservice teachers. Int. J. Educ. Integr. 18, 1–14 (2022). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s40979-021-00097-3 Dobrovská, D.: Studentské elektronické podvádˇení. Media4u Magazine. 8(7.05), 30–34 (2016) Dobrovska, D.: Technical student electronic cheating on examination. In: Auer, M.E., Guralnick, D., Uhomoibhi, J. (eds.) Interactive Collaborative Learning. AISC, vol. 544, pp. 525–531. Springer, Cham (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50337-0_49 European Network for Academic Integrity ENAI (2021). www.academicintegrity.eu Hongway, Y., Glanzer, P.L., Johnson, B.R.: Examining the relationship between student attitude and academic cheating. Ethics Behav. 31(7), 475-487 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/105 08422.2020.1817746

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Lancester, T., Clarke, R.: Rethinking Assessment by Examination in the Age of Contract Cheating. Plagiarism Across Europe and Beyond (2017) Liebler, R.: Collecting and reporting self-reports of the number of times cheated. College Student J. 50, 95–101 (2016) Marksteiner, T., Nishen, A.K., Dickhäuser, O.: Students’ perception of teachers’ reference norm orientation and cheating in the classroom. Front. Psychol. 12, e614199 (2021). https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.614199 .Moten, J.M., Jr., Fitterer, A., Brazier, E., Leonard, J., Brown, A., Texas, A.: Examining online college cyber cheating methods and prevention methods and prevention measures. Electron. J. E-Learn. 11(2), 139–146 (2013) Newton, P.M.: How common is commercial contract cheating in higher education and is it increasing? A systematic review. Front. Educ. 3, e00067 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018. 00067 Noorbehbahani, F., Azadeh, M., Aminazadeh, M.: A systematic review of research on cheating in online exams from 2010–2021. Educ. Inf. Technol. 27, 8413–8460 (2022) Parks-Leduc, L., Guay, R.P., Mulligan, L.M.: The relationships between personal values, justifications, and academic cheating for business vs. Non-business students. J. Acad. Ethics 20, 499–519 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-021-09427-z Whitley, B.E.: Factors associated with cheating among college students: a review. Res. High. Educ. 39, 235–274 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018724900565 Jones, K.A., Jones, J.L.: Making cooperative learning work in the college classroom: an application of the "Five Pillars" of cooperative learning to post-secondary instruction. J. Effective Teach. 8(2), 61–76 (2008)

Applying STEM Strategies in the Context of Primary Education in Slovakia Peter Breˇcka(B) and Valentová Monika Department of Technology and Information Technologies, Faculty of Education, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Dražovská cesta 4, 949 74 Nitra, Slovakia {pbrecka,mvalentova2}@ukf.sk

Abstract. The strategies of education and training in Slovakia have been changed several times in the recent period by reforms to meet the needs of graduates and their best preparation for future education and the needs of the practice. The bases of these reforms are always positive examples from abroad. The concept of STEM teaching, which is based on the integration of the sciences and promotes critical and technical thinking in children and pupils in line with the needs of the labour market, is becoming increasingly popular. The main aim of this study is to highlight the results of pilot research on the current state of implementation of STEM strategies in primary education in Slovakia. Teachers are uninformed about this concept but frequently apply some strategies. Teachers mainly apply hands-on activities with materials, and they least apply educational robotics. Teachers perceive a lack of awareness as the most significant barrier hindering them in implementing STEM education. Teachers who have already tried or incorporated the concept into their education confirmed its positive impact on their professional development. The pilot research was carried out within the VEGA project 1/0213/23 Developing the learning potential of preschool and younger school-age children in focus on the concept of STEM education. Keywords: STEM education · Primary education · Education strategies · Implementation · Barriers · Teacher professional development

1 Introduction Modern technology and smart devices have become a phenomenon of our time in all areas of life. Their continuous progress fundamentally changes how we work, communicate, educate, and learn. They strongly impact how young people live. They are the ones who are becoming more and more interested in technological products year by year. However, their attitudes towards education, learning, and technology careers are less positive [1, 2]. A similar situation occurs also in Slovakia. Attitudes of primary school pupils towards technology are positive [3]. However, they do not show interest in technology or working with technology when choosing their future field of study. Technical education plays an essential role in developing a country because it creates a skilled workforce, increases industrial productivity and improves the quality of life. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 421–431, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_40

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However, the demand for technically educated secondary and higher education graduates dominates the Slovak labour market. The European Un-ion „encourages Member States to better prepare young people for changing labour markets and active citizenship in more diverse, mobile, digital and global societies [4], to develop their competencies in science, technology, engineering and mathematics and 21st-century skills“. Hence, there arises a persistent mismatch between skills supply and labour demand. Thus, introducing innovative STEM education, which represents a cross-curricular form of teaching based on acquiring knowledge and skills linked to practice, has become an endeavor in many countries, including Slovakia. This knowledge and skills have already become a measure of employability for many different industries worldwide. STEM is an acronym for an educational program developed to prepare students for study and careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. These four disciplines are also closely linked in the real world [5] and are united in a concept of education that has recently enjoyed great popularity worldwide. Several authors are advocates of this integrated STEM education because it represents a way of engaging students in real-world problems [6–9] developing 21st-century skills, [10–7] which are promoted as essential to take advantage of career opportunities in the future [12]. In addition, STEM promotes critical thinking, creativety, and problem-solving skills in all students [13], regardless of whether they wish to pursue employment or higher education in these fields. 1.1 Current Situation STEM education is a relatively new concept in Slovakia. Unlike in other countries, we do not find schools primarily focusing on STEM education. Nor do secondary or higher education institutions provide education in these curriculum areas. In the conditions of the Slovak and Czech educational systems, this concept is not yet applied in teaching [14]. There are only courses of study in mathematics, natural sciences, technology and informatics. However, there is a space in which we can see the application of STEM activities in our environment, especially in cross-cutting themes that are part of the State Educational Program [15]. Science aims to prepare students to think and act like real scientists, to ask questions, form hypotheses, and conduct analyses and evaluations using standard scientific procedures [16, 15]. In the conditions of Slovak primary education, it is possible to include this area in the subject of primary school science, taught in the first two years of primary school and in the subject of science, taught in the third and fourth years of primary school. In these subjects, pupils develop science literacy, thinking, reasoning, and learning to investigate, seek information, analyse, evaluate and draw conclusions supported by reasoning, whether from past and current experience or otherwise objective information [17]. Technology. Informatics is included in the educational area of mathematics and information work. In this subject, students acquire skills in working with digital technologies and applications [15], thus developing their digital literacy. This subject can be related to another discipline – technology (technologies) that constitutes STEM education. Engineering. It is possible to integrate the field of engineering into a work-based learning course that focuses on a wide range of work activities and technologies based

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on creative teamwork. Through engineering education, pupils can acquire basic user skills in different areas of human activity. The subject focuses on developing practical work skills and adds to the complete primary education a vital component necessary for a person’s employment in later life and society [15]. Mathematics is the foundation of all STEM disciplines [5], providing a precise language for technology, science and engineering [15]. No scientific law or principle could be confirmed without mathematics, nor could new technologies be developed without it. Mathematical equations, scientific laws and engineering processes are overlooked in everyday life, but the technology that emerges from them is ubiquitous [18]. There is no need to integrate this area as it represents a stand-alone subject in which students acquire the foundations of mathematical literacy and develop cognitive skills such as knowledge and applications in which they can solve problems based on the knowledge they have acquired. We also include reasoning, in which pupils solve more complex problems requiring a broader context understanding [19]. A change in the way of teaching STEM principles would be needed. Many countries have already integrated STEM [20] education into their curricula because it provides meaningful learning based on a better and more enjoyable acquisition of new knowledge. The concept makes pupils more active in the classroom, making their knowledge more lasting and meaningful. Current studies indicate that it is crucial to start with STEM education by children in primary school [10, 21, 22]. Indeed, research has found that one-third of boys and girls have lost interest in science by the time they reach fourth grade. By eighth grade, nearly 50 per cent had lost interest in STEM education because they considered it irrelevant to their education or future plans. That is, students stopped believing they would work in these fields in the future [23]. The authors [] argue that students who complete STEM education in secondary school are highly likely to continue in these fields in university and employment. The same situation would occur between primary and secondary school if STEM programs were taught continuously from the early grades of elementary school [24]. The experiences that pupils gain at a younger age can influence and support their sustained interest in STEM education in the long term. Hence, the requirement arises to implement this learning strategy where the teacher has a crucial role. Teachers need to have the knowledge and skills to be able to deliver meaningful knowledge related to STEM subjects [25]. To develop this knowledge and skill in their pupils, teachers also need pedagogical content knowledge and expertise to address learning in these areas in their classrooms [21]. In this regard, providing pupils with the contexts and strategies recommended for developing effective STEM education in schools is vital, which is related to the implementation of classroom tasks that involve real-world, interdisciplinary scenarios [26–27]. However, teachers’ views on STEM are essential and will influence their STEM teaching [28].

2 Analysis of the Use of STEM Education The main aim of this pilot study was to analyse the level of awareness of primary education teachers about STEM concepts and to find out the level of application of these strategies in the conditions of primary education in Slovakia. Specifically, we examined the following issues:

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• • • •

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Primary teachers’ level of awareness of STEM concepts. The level of application of STEM strategies in primary education. What hinders teachers from applying STEM strategies? The impact of STEM education on teachers’ professional development.

The research sample consisted of primary school teachers from all over Slovakia. A total of 365 respondents participated in the survey. The research population was randomly selected, and we used a questionnaire as a data collection instrument. 2.1 Results For schools to incorporate quality STEM education, it is crucial to understand how teachers perceive the concept. STEM [26]. Therefore, we surveyed teachers’ awareness of STEM education in this pilot study. The results revealed the most common response: teachers are unfamiliar with the concept and do not know what it is. Up to 72% of the respondents responded in this way. Of these, only 26% of respondents also said they would like to learn more about the concept. Thus, it seems that some teachers are not interested in this learning strategy precisely because of a lack of information. The results also showed that 28% of the respondents had heard of this concept but did not inquire further; they were not interested in learning more about it. Some responded that they had read about the concept on the Internet, and others learned about it in a webinar or lecture. There was also a response that some teachers thought this concept was part of eTwinning, which provides collaboration between schools that jointly design and implement innovative school projects in a virtual environment. So it is project-based learning. However, we found that teachers’ awareness of STEM education is related to teachers’ age. The age group of teachers above 55 years (5%) had not heard of the concept at all. On the contrary, most respondents (7%) who were aware of this education were 31 to 35 years old. Respondents could also express themselves openly, with the most frequent answer being that they did not know what the concept meant. We recorded this response for up to 18% of respondents. Conversely, some respondents’ answers defined the term STEM almost precisely, and that it is the linking and teaching of the four disciplines of science, mathematics, engineering and technology as a whole. The most accurate responses were from teachers who said they were familiar with the term. Some teachers responded that it was about integrated science teaching, using science and the scientific method, developing mathematical thinking, and linking technology to mathematical thinking. Quite often, teachers define STEM education as learning in a playful way using digital technologies and teaching through hands-on activities. Some defined the STEM concept as innovative teaching, a method where pupils learn playfully. The cross-curricular nature of STEM education is known for applying various strategies and approaches to learning. As part of our analysis of these strategies, we identified several pedagogical approaches and investigated if teachers apply them in their teaching practice and how often. Teachers indicated the extent to which they used the strategies on a scale: I often use it; I use it sometimes; I cannot say; I use it a little, and I do not use it at all. Regarding applying STEM strategies in primary education, we can learn from Fig. 1 that the most frequently used strategy in teaching STEM subjects is

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mainly the strategy of hands-on activities with materials, as 34% of respondents indicated. Subsequently, there follows traditional teaching at 29% and teaching with digital technologies at 25%. Project-based teaching also did not lag behind the most used strategy. Cooperative teaching represents an occasionally used strategy, indicated by 38% of respondents, problem-based teaching by 35%, and exploratory teaching by 31% of respondents. Strategies of excursions, collaborative teaching and integrated thematic teaching were less represented. Educational robotics was among the least used strategies in teaching STEM subjects, identified by 43% of respondents. Educational robotics is mainly used to increase primary school students’ interest, engagement and learning outcomes in various STEM areas. Educational robotics combines play with learning, making learning fun, engaging, easier, and more effective for pupils. Teachers are not applying this strategy to STEM education. However, funding may be a barrier to using this strategy, as educational robotics is costly.

Teaching strategies for STEM subjects hand-on acvies with materials excursions digital games teaching with digital technologies educaonal robocs construcng acvies integrated themac teaching exploratory teaching problem-based teaching collaborave teaching cooperave teaching project-based learning tradional teaching 0%

10%

20%

I oen use it

I use it somemes

I use it a lile

I do not use it at al

30%

40%

50%

I cannot say

Fig. 1. Teaching strategies for STEM subjects.

Limited funding is one of many barriers preventing teachers from implementing STEM strategies. It is essential to know them and find out what would help them to improve in this situation. Our respondents could indicate one or more answers from the following barriers: lack of awareness of STEM education, lack of experience with STEM education, lack of funding, lack of time to plan the teaching process, lack of courses,

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lack of training, lack of motivation, lack of didactic resources, lack of materials, lack of interest, and it was also possible to indicate one’s barrier. Teachers’ responses (Fig. 2) indicated that their most significant barrier to implementing STEM concepts was a lack of awareness in the field. As many as 78% of respondents chose this option. The quality of teacher preparation is crucial to help students achieve higher academic standards. However, the results showed that most teachers in Slovakia are still poorly informed about STEM education because they have received poor-quality training or have not attended any training or webinar on STEM education. The responses of teachers confirmed this situation. They identified the lack of courses and training in STEM education as the third most common barrier that prevents them from using STEM strategies. 45% of respondents identified this option. The second highest percentage (60%) of respondents agreed that they lack experience with STEM education, which can lead to their lower confidence in implementing it in schools. 25% of respondents also identified a lack of time to plan lessons as a barrier. 14% of respondents also considered lack of funding as a barrier. Finances are also why some respondents identified barriers, such as lack of didactic resources or materials, as the resources they use in this training are very costly. Respondents also chose lack of motivation as a lesser identified barrier. A positive finding is that no teacher identified the option „lack of interest“ as a barrier to implementing STEM education. Thus, we believe that by providing the right conditions, teachers are open to this concept of learning.

Barriers to using STEM strategies Lack of interest Lack of materials Lack of didacc resources Lack of movaon Lack of courses and training in STEM Lack of me to plan lessons Lack of funding Lack of experience with STEM Lack of awareness about STEM educaon 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Fig. 2. Barriers to using STEM strategies.

Other research findings revealed the positive impact of STEM education on teachers’ professional development. Respondents who incorporate STEM education into teaching noted the development of their skills and knowledge in integrating different disciplines.

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34% of respondents indicated this option. Education in STEM fields integrates the curriculum of two or more subjects into one. Integrating these disciplines is very important because it can help students understand and find connections between them. A further 25% of respondents have improved their ability to use digital technologies due to implementing STEM education. Digital technologies improve and enhance the teacher’s teaching process. It is essential for teachers today to continuously improve their use of digital tools, which are almost an integral part of education. Another positive aspect of STEM education concerning teacher professional development is the increased ability of teachers to adapt learning to diverse pupils. 22% of teachers could provide equal learning opportunities for all pupils, and 8% of respondents reported a change in personal attitudes towards the quality of pupils’ learning. Teachers with positive attitudes and high awareness of the importance of STEM education are vital to the future of education. Positive attitudes can lead to positive behaviour, greater motivation and confidence in implementing this education. 12% of respondents are more open to innovation in STEM education. Due to this education, 6% of respondents have increased their responsibility for pupils’ educational outcomes. Only 4% of respondents observed their increased engagement in the profession and improved ability to create an

Impact of STEM education on teachers' professional development

My openness towards innovaons in STEM educaon has increased My ability to use new digital technologies has increased. It has improved the ability to create the environment for STEM educaon

It has contributed to developing my skills and abilies in integrang various disciplines 35% My ability to adapt 30% learning to diverse 25% pupils has improved. 20% 15% 10% My responsibility for 5% pupils' educaonal 0% outcomes has increased I have changed my atude to the quality of pupils' educaon. It has increased my movaon in this profession.

Fig. 3. Impact of STEM education on teachers’ professional development.

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environment for STEM education. At the same time, in their short response to this item, as many as 51% of respondents answered that they could not comment because they had no experience with the concept. They also said that the concept had not impacted their professional development (Fig. 3).

3 Discussion The pilot study investigated the level of primary education teachers’ awareness of STEM concepts and the level of application of these strategies in primary education in Slovakia. The results showed that only 28% of teachers know about STEM education. Although they said they had heard of the concept, some teachers could not define it correctly [29]. We recommend schools offer professional development courses for teachers on the STEM concept through training or webinars [28, 30]. If teachers are well acquainted and informed about its benefits, they can engage, inspire and develop students’ interests in STEM areas [31, 32, 33]. We also recommend that schools pay particular attention to the availability of materials [34] and the time teachers have to collaborate, plan and discuss STEM activities, as teachers complain about the lack of materials and time to plan for such teaching [35, 36]. This study’s results showed that most Slovak teachers practice traditional teaching [37]. Therefore, there is a need to transform traditional teaching using STEM principles. STEM education strategies promote practical skills through which they acquire new knowledge, skills, and abilities. Students engaging with the curriculum through handson activities are more likely to remember the studied topic. We recommend implementing STEM education in primary education because it connect students with opportunities in STEM fields [23]. We also recommend incorporating educational robotics into the classroom, which is the least used strategy in STEM education based on research findings [38]. It is a pity, as it represents an excellent way to develop problem-solving, planning, designing, programming, and critical and technical thinking skills. Teachers’ attitudes to STEM education will significantly influence students’ views. Pupils’ motivation to learn in STEM subjects depends on the teacher’s character, teaching practices and views [39]. We recommend that teachers motivate pupils and foster their interest in these fields through their positive perception of STEM education and by using personalities who have become successful scientists, engineers, and technologists who will inspire pupils to choose their future careers.

4 Conclusion There is a great demand for skilled workers with technical education in the Slovak labour market. Although these fields are in high demand, fewer and fewer pupils are applying for them. After finishing primary school, most pupils choose to study at grammar schools, which provide a general education but not a vocational qualification. The STEM curriculum is one of the ways to introduce quality technical education already in primary education. STEM program is essential in preparing the next generation of scientists, technology experts, engineers and mathematicians to meet the demands of the

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21st-century global economy. The STEM disciplines integrate knowledge with practical skills that increase curiosity and the ability to learn. This STEM education can increase pupils’ interest in these subjects, general knowledge, and later interest in technical professions. It is, therefore, crucial to train and inform teachers about ways of making education more attractive for pupils, which will develop their technical skills as far as possible and bring them closer to labour market conditions.

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Possibilities of the Use of Artificial Intelligence and 3D Technologies in Automotive Repairmen Training Alena Hašková1(B) , Dominik Zatkalík1,2 , and Martin Zatkalík2 1 Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Nitra, Slovakia

[email protected]

2 Upper Secondary Vocational School for Transport in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia

[email protected]

Abstract. The development of vocational training and education (VET) in specific auto repair study branches is characterized already in a long-term duration by the lack of qualified and sufficiently erudite teaching staff for the specific needs of car repairmen training shops and very low numbers of students, especially in the study branches of car lacquerer and car bodyworker. The article deals with possibilities to use artificial intelligence and 3D technologies supported VET to eliminate on the one hand financial demandness of the given study branches, and on the other hand to support the process of recruitment of the relevant staff ensuring the vocational training at the concerned schools. The authors share their experience with utilization of different projects for introduction of the new phenomena of artificial intelligence, and virtual and augmented reality to innovate the ways of the commonly used training ways. Keywords: Vocational education and training · Automotive repairmen training · Augmented reality · Virtual reality

1 Introduction One of the current tendencies in education has become a call for a needs-oriented continuing education [1]. The phenomenon of needs-oriented continuing education is an integrating element of such domains of education as quality of education, trends in teacher education, digital education, digital competencies of teachers, or engineering pedagogy. With regard to economic aspects of society, this phenomenon is usually connected mainly with demand-oriented and employment-based engineering education equally on both levels – whether it is secondary vocational education and training, or technically oriented tertiary study programs. In the context of any society the main task of both these levels of engineering education is to ensure professionals appropriately prepared for the particular sectors of the economy who will fulfil needs of the economy and requirements of the labor market, and who will guarante further sustainable economic development [2–9]. On the one hand technical activities are constantly influenced by rapid changes in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 432–441, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_41

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techniques and technologies, which should be reflected in curricula of the engineering (technically oriented) study programs. On the other hand, who has to reflect on these changes first of all are teachers. At this point we are coming to a crucial problem of the vocational education and training, and the problem is assurance of a sufficient number of qualified and sufficiently erudite teaching staff. Development of vocational training and education in specific auto repair branches can be characterized by their acute and persistent shortage. In this context our aim is to analyze and discuss possibilities of the use of artificial intelligence and 3D technologies in the study branches of automotive repair professions. The analysis is done in two dimensions: – one dimension is introduction of a project of the vocational education and training in specific automotive repair study branches (car repairman – bodybuilder, and car repairman – lacquerer) supported by artificial intelligence and 3D technologies, and – the second dimension is a possibility to replace partially specialists involved in teaching and training of automotive repair technologies by artificial intelligence (while keeping the given performance standards).

2 Stakeholders of the Problem to be Solved As it is stated already in the introduction, a crucial problem of the vocational education and training is consistent lack of qualified teaching staff. Portal profesia.sk currently registers within the system of education 1350 job vacancies. A very specific is the region of Bratislava, the capital of the Slovak Republic, where the share from the entire Slovakian offer is more than 50% of all of the offered job vacancies. Reasons for the shortage of teaching staff are mainly: weak motivation of university graduates to work in education, what is mostly caused by low salary conditions, qualification requirements, additionally accompanied by high workload (in frame of which teaching activities represent still less and less part while more and more increasing is the volume of bureaucratic matters, and conflict and stressful situations which the teachers have to, or should be, able to manage, and last but not least the ever-increasing cost of living. For illustration average salaries of vocational education teachers or teachers working in kindergartens are about 960 EUR, primary school teachers are about 1100 EUR, and secondary school teachers about 1200 EUR. Average salaries of university teachers, including research workers are slightly higher, approximately about 1300 EUR. If one compares these salaries with a salary of a full-time body repairman (gross in average 1700 EUR) or a lacquerer (gross in average in 1600 EUR), then it is clear that to fill a job position of a VET teacher (teacher of professional subjects), a workplace instructor or a supervisor (master of the professional training) by a fully qualified and erudite person is more or less impossible. Transport and automotive industry are important sectors of the Slovak economy. That is why to ensure sufficient numbers of appropriately prepared labour forces is an imperative for the system of education, equally for secondary vocational education as well as for tertiary engineering education. One of the providers of vocational education and training of labour forces for transport and transport services is the Upper Secondary Vocational School for Transport in Bratislava [10–12]. The above-mentioned situation regarding to the lack of VET teachers and workplace instructors and low motivation

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to become a VET teacher or mainly a workplace instructor is reflected also in the age structure of the staff of this school. Average age of its 51-member staff is 54.25 years. 11 teachers (21.56%) are above 65 years, 9 teachers (17.64%) are 62–64-year-old, 15 teachers (29.41%) are 50–61 year-old and the age of only 16 members of the staff, what is approximately one third of the staff (31.37%), is less than 49. Vocational education and training for automotive repair professions in specific study branches car repairman – body builder and car repairman – lacquerer is a 3-year training branch, which is in Slovakia carried out totally at seven secondary vocational schools, one from which is the Upper Secondary Vocational School of Transport in Bratislava. The total numbers of the students in these two study branches are 75 students in the study branch car repairman – body builder and 98 students in the study branch car repairman – lacquerer. At the same time the costs for the professional training in these two study branches are very high due to their energy, material and technical demands of the content of the relevant vocational education and training. Profile of the graduate of the vocational education and training in the study branch specialization car repairman – body builder is given by the national system of occupations and the National System of Qualifications. A body builder repairs damaged car bodies after accidents, corrosion, and other damages. He repairs damaged body parts by replacing, gluing, riveting, knocking the bodywork sheet metal, soldering, welding, grinding, straightening and pulling on a straightener or a base frame. To repair other car damages, he uses appropriate technological procedures - welding, straightening and grinding, cementing and sanding of cemented surfaces, repairs of minor damage to the paintwork of car bodies and vehicle cabinets. He mounts electrotechnical parts in vehicles and connects them to the circuit, replaces windshields, makes individual body parts by knocking out sheet metal and laminating. After treating the vehicle with anti-corrosion protection, or after adjusting the geometry of the vehicle, he usually hands the vehicle over to the paint shop, where the process of finalizing the vehicle repair continues. Specific professional knowledge for the areas of the vocational education and training are: technological procedures and procedures of work operations, nanotechnologies in engineering, inorganic chemistry, composite and hybrid materials, nanomaterials, industrial ecology, physics, sustainable development, welding, gluing, shaping and panel beating, ways and methods of anti-corrosion protection, technical drawing in mechanical engineering and metal production, tools, jigs and gauges in mechanical engineering, technologies in mechanical engineering and metal production, types of machines and equipment, grinding technology, systems, standards and quality norms in mechanical engineering and metal production, driving machines and equipment, types of bodywork, treatment methods and maintenance of motor vehicles, motor vehicle repair technology, car body technology, technical materials and semi-finished products. Specification of graduate competencies according to the national system of occupations is the following one: 1. Basic knowledge of regulations for ensuring safety and health protection at work, public health protection and fire protection, principles of safe work and health protection at work, principles of safe behaviour at the workplace and safe work procedures,

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3.

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5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

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11. 12.

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work clothes and personal protective equipment, labour-legal aspects of the occupational health and safety issues, safety of technical equipment and ways of handling waste. Basic theoretical knowledge and practical skills required for standard repairs, procedures for processing metals and non-metallic materials, tinsmith hand tools, gauges, soldering, gluing, sealing and plugging joints, hybrid technology of body repair. Knowledge of ferrous, non-ferrous and non-metallic materials of various types and strengths, elements of various types, composite materials and plastics, technological repair procedure according to the car producer so that the body builder can choose the appropriate technological procedure how to join the materials. Classification, characteristics, labelling, properties and use. Basics of heat treatment metallography, semi-finished products, structural metal materials. Plastics and nonmetallic materials, corrosion, surface treatments, auxiliary materials. Connecting parts, joints and sealing of machine parts, kinematic mechanisms, electrical equipment of machines, elements of automatic control. Know how to search for technological procedures for repairing vehicles according to the manufacturer and, based on them, choose a suitable repair procedure, know how to document the repair. Basics of physics. Power and movement. Mechanical work and energy. Electricity. Gauges and the SI system of units. Basics of mathematical theories of elasticity. Tension, deformation, stability of structures, shape strength and material fatigue. Impact of human industrial activities on particular components of the environment – water, air, soil, and impact on the biosphere, with a focus on the impacts caused by the automotive industry. Ability to evaluate a geometry report done before the repair and based on these input data to perform a correct repair of the vehicle. Know the Ackermann angle, toe-in, toe-out, tilt and deflection of the wheel. Procedures for welding, soldering, gluing, dividing different types of material depending on their properties, ways and methods of anti-corrosion protection. Technical sheet, sketches, search for textual and graphic information from various information sources, technical drawing in mechanical engineering and metal production. Specific tools and technological equipment for repairing and measuring bodywork. Bending, rolling, extruding, pushing, pulling, shearing, drilling and bending on presses, technology of riveting joints. Abrasive materials and their use, types of grinders, etc. Emphasis on grinding parts without disturbing the cataphoretic layer. Methods of adaptation, choice of materials and procedure while welding. An inseparable joint of materials that have good weldability. Fusible (flame, electric arc, electric beam, plasma), pressure (cold - spot, friction) and pressurized melting (electrical resistance). Norms and directives and their binding during the work process. Method of operation and maintenance of basic types of driving machines and equipment.

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18. Types, surface treatment, corrosion protection, equipment, accessories, structural elements, resistance to destruction. 19. Maintenance procedures, keeping the exterior and interior clean, regular maintenance intervals. 20. Types of vehicles, individual aggregates, systems, accessories (electrical accessories) and equipment. Legal vehicle equipment. Basic theoretical knowledge required for standard repairs. 21. Processing procedure and methods used in body repairs. Use of materials, methods of obtaining spare parts through 3D printing, additive technologies and 3D printing in industrial production and engineering. In a similar way there is described also the profile of the graduate of the vocational education and training in the study branch specialization car repairman – lacquerer. Among the basic specific professional knowledge which a graduate should dispose belong the following ones: to describe the basic economic connections and forms of business, to characterize the origin and development of car painting, reproduce basic knowledge from mathematics when calculating ratios and converting units, categorize chemical substances from the point of view of their danger and impact on living organisms, define the principles of health and safety and fire protection in car surface treatments, describe the process of surface treatment of motor and rail vehicles in mass production, define the construction of motor vehicles, name the type and extent of vehicle damage, explain the technical documentation of paint materials, characterize the technological process, materials and the extent of vehicle repair in a car paint shop, define the principles of coloristics and colorometry, list and explain the technological equipment of a car paint shop, describe the maintenance of the technological equipment of paint shops, determine the optimal layout of the workplace for painting, characterize suitable materials for pre-treatment of surfaces for painting, explain the importance of anti-corrosion protection of metal surfaces and its use, characterize suitable materials for priming and filling various surfaces, characterize suitable coating varnishes depending on the desired design and purpose of use, identify types of waste and characterize paint shop waste management, define vehicle masking with various techniques and masking materials, identify surface treatment defects. Skills required for the performance of the profession are: to apply activities according to the regulations on health and safety, and fire protection on technical equipment during their operation, repair and maintenance, to calculate preliminary and real consumption of coating materials and auxiliary agents based on the technical sheet and technological procedure, to demonstrate selection, preparation and application of the first coat materials before painting, to operate and adjust equipment and devices used in the paint shop, to demonstrate applications of surface varnishes, to carry out routine maintenance of all equipment and devices, painting tools, tools and spraying equipment in the paint shop, to handle and sort waste, to drive a motor vehicle. Main competences are responsibility for one’s own actions, fulfillment of one’s tasks and duties, quality of one’s work, responsibility for compliance with the repair procedure, caused damages, safety work and health and hygiene at work, independence at deciding on the technological procedure of the repair, independence at the performance of one’s work and fulfillment of the assigned tasks, critical thinking towards the results of the

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performed work, independence at the organization of one’s workplace and ability to communicate with people. Based on the presented facts one can design a model of an ideal teacher of professional subjects and practical training, who meets all the requirements resulting from the above stated. An ideal teacher disposes by the stated competences, fulfills qualification requirement of having the second degree of university studies, has completed further pedagogical study, fulfills clean bill and clean bill of health requirements, and is willing to work for a salary that is significantly lower than the salary of a graduate employed in the sector for which the completed study branch has prepared him. In reality the concerned schools ensure staffing of teaching the relevant vocational education and training in the monitored study branches in a significant measure based on the availability of unqualified personnel. A question is how this situation can or should be solved. A possible solution to the issues of the absence of professional knowledge and skills is the use of virtual and augmented reality, and artificial intelligence [13–17]. Means of virtual and augmented reality, and artificial intelligence enable to transform content of vocational education and training. To some measure they partially enable also “to eliminate” teacher’s performance while teaching, but his presence at teaching cannot be “replaced” by the virtual reality. However, the means of virtual reality can change character of his work and activities. That was a reason, why the Upper Secondary Vocational School for Transport in Bratislava decided to participate at the project Use of Virtual Reality Technology in Vocational Education and currently is preparing a new project DIGI-CROSS: Improving Cross-Cultural Learning, Environment by Innovative Digital Tools in Europe.

3 Evaluation of Possibilities to Use Means of 3D Technologies and Artificial Intelligence in VET For the purposes of evaluation of the possibilities to use means of 3D technologies and artificial intelligence in vocational education and training at the Upper Vocational School in Bratislava, there was processed a SWOT analysis of the implementation of the means of 3D technologies and artificial intelligence into the above described specific study branches car repairman – body builder and car repairman – lacquerer to support the professional preparation of these branches students. Results of the SWOT analysis are summarized in Table 1. As results from the processed SWOT analysis of the implementation the means of 3D technologies and artificial intelligence into the study branches car repairman – body builder and car repairman – lacquerer, the strengths – opportunities strategy expresses a real chance for the use of artificial intelligence and 3D technologies supported the given specific study branches. Mainly the project Use of Virtual Reality Technology in Vocational Education represents a great potential for introduction of further innovations, technological changes, changes in character of the work character and as well of the use of new modern education technologies.

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Table 1. SWOT analysis of the possibilities to use means of 3D technologies and artificial intelligence in VET in the given specific study branches. STRENGTHS • outputs of the project Digitisation and green technologies in vocational education in the area of ICT and safety systems in automotive industrya • involvement of employers in the system of dual education • technological and material conditions • cooperation with higher education institutions • support provided by the founder WEAKNESSES • • • • •

inability to reflect flexibly innovations, changes in the work character and actual needs and requirements of employers low attractivity (and quality) of technical sciences among the youth low number of specialized secondary vocational schools ineffective education, acute shortage of teachers, workplace instructors and supervisors (masters of the professional training) in technical professions • very low numbers of students in particular specialisations of the VET at the national level • age structure of teaching staff OPPORTUNITIES • • • • • • • • • •

use of the virtual reality and augmented reality in VET use of the virtual reality for practicing painting, welding, soldering ecological approach participation in the project Use of Virtual Reality Technology in Vocational Educationb preparation of a new project DIGI-CROSS: Improving Cross-Cultural Learning, Environment by Innovative Digital Tools in Europec making the educational system more efficient by the means of the use of artificial intelligence innovations of study branches for meeting the needs of Industry 4.0 development of research and education based on the support obtained from higher education institutions cooperation with Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, supporting activities related to the project Virtual Reality in PLC System Programmingd the highest additional need for labor forces until 2024 in the automotive industry and engineering sector

THREATS • • • • •

energy and product prices political and legislative changes legislative restrictions lack of qualified workforce lack of interest in technical (or science) education

a project 2021-1-SK01-KA122-VET-000035628 aimed at sharing knowledge and experiences and

innovation of new “green” methodologies with subsequent partial requalification of vocational teachers and workplace instructors and supervisors (masters of the professional training) involved in teaching and design of the School Educational Program in fields of ICT, autotronics, safety systems in transport and industry; project partners: S.O.A.E School of Automotive Engineering Limassol Ltd. (Cyprus), Industrijsko-obrtnicka skola Pula (Crpatia), Automotive and Technical ˇ Secondary Vocational School in Ceské Budˇejovice (Czech Republic) b project 2021-2-TR01-KA210-VET-000048269 of the call KA2 Cooperation for innovation and the exchange of good practices, KA210-VET - Small-scale partnerships in vocational education and training aimed at creation of virtual educational application for the study branch car repairman – lacquerer; main goal of the project: establishment of a virtual paint shop; receiver and coordinator of the project: Miox Yazılım Teknoloji Ltd. Sti., ¸ Adana (Turkey), project partner: State Institute of Vocational Education Bratislava (Slovakia), implementer: Upper Secondary Vocational School for Transport Bratislava (Slovakia) c project within the call Vocational Education and Training, KA220-VET Cooperation partnerships in vocational education and training, form ID KA220-VET-61A0040E aim of which is to establish a drive-simulator for welding and painting training d project KEGA 009UKF-4/2023 of the Cultural and Educational Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic solved by the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Informatics and Faculty of Education of Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra

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In connection to this project there has been designed already a proposal of content standards for a modular virtual education and training of the study branch car repairman – lacquerer: Module 1: Preparatory painting work – occupational health and safety, personal protective equipment and fire protection in car paint shops, – equipment of the car paint workshop, – identification of the repair scope, – preparatory work for varnishing, disassembly and assembly work, – removal of old paint, grindings, sealing, masking and surface cleaning, – applying varnish and auxiliary materials, – anti-corrosion treatment and grounding. Module 2: Varnishing process – – – – – – – – –

paint box equipment, spraying technique, mixing one- and two-layer varnishes, coloristics, painting process, varnish application methods, drying of varnishes, polishing of paintwork, identification of errors and methods of their elimination.

But the key point which should be solved with respect to the stated project and introduction of features of the artificial intelligence and virtual reality into the vocational education and training is not the innovation of the content standards but of the way in which these standards should be achieved. And the new innovative way is based on the use of virtual drive-simulators for the skill training within the study branch car repairman – lacquerer. However in this context as the main benefit of the use of virtual drive-simulators, besides the expected increased efficiency of the training, we see in elimination of the toxicity of the environment in which the training is carried out (for the vocational education and training at the skill training in the branch of lacquerer is significant demandness of requirements not only on financial complexity of the material and technical assurance, based on the continuously increasing prices of materials and energy, strict ecological standards, but mainly on occupational health and safety, personal protective equipment and fire protection, elimination of toxicity of the environment, and elimination of the high level of chemicalization).

4 Conclusions Augmented and virtual reality are changing the way of technicians’ work and are also changing teaching and learning processes. Service, maintenance, diagnostics, and repairs of modern vehicles are becoming more and more complicated. Augmented reality creates a different way of looking at the issue of modern car repair and modern training and

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education in car repair [18–22]. Keeping up with modern vehicle maintenance, diagnostics and repairs is a challenging task, due to the number of sensors, cameras, innovations in the construction, and technology of engines, transmissions, brake and chassis systems, complex wiring, safety features, and elements of comfort electronics. Particular technologies are becoming more and more advanced, and not only for novices but also for experienced technicians it can be difficult to keep up with the times. Acknowledgement. This work has been supported by the Bratislava self-governing region and State Institute of Vocational Education in Bratislava within the project 2021-1-SK01-KA122VET-000035628 Digitisation and green technologies in vocational education in the area of ICT and safety systems in the automotive industry, and the Cultural and Educational Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic within the project KEGA 009UKF-4/2023 Virtual Reality in PLC System Programming.

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11. Hašková, A., Zatkalík, D., Zatkalík, M.: Employers requirements for graduates of vocational education and training in study branches transport and automotive service and repair. In: Auer, M.E., Hortch, H., Michler, O., Köhler, T. (eds.) Mobility for Smart Cities and Regional Development – Challenges for Higher Education, Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL2021), vol. 2, pp. 331–339. LNNS, vol. 390. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93907-6_39 12. Hašková, A., Zatkalík, D., Zatkalík, M.: Vocational education and training in context of Industry 4.0: development strategy of study branches transport and automotive service and repair. In: Auer, M.E., Pachatz, W., Rüütmann, T. (eds.) Learning in the Age of Digital and Green Transition. ICL 2022, vol. 2. LNNS, vol. 634, pp. 597–606. Springer, Cham (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26190-9_63 ˇ Creation of virtual reality for education purposes. Sustain13. Kuna, P., Hašková, A., Borza, L.: ability 15, 1–19 Special Issue: Digital Transformation, 7153 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/ su15097153 14. Fuchs, P., Moreau, G., Guitton, P.: Virtual Reality. Concepts and Technologies. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton (2011) 15. Christou, C.H.: Virtual reality in education. In: Tzanavi, A., Tsapatsoulis, N. (eds.) Affective, Interactive and Cognitive Methods for E-Learning Design. Creating an Optimal Education Experience. IGI Global, Nicosia, Cyprus (2010) 16. Kobylarek, A.: Science as a bridge. Science in action preface. J. Educ. Cult. Soc. 9(2), 5–8 (2018) 17. Maksaev, A.A., Vasbieva, D.G., Sherbakova, O.Yu., Mirzoeva, F.R., Kralik, R.: Education at a cooperative university in the digital economy. In: Bogoviz, A.V., Suglobov, A.E., Maloletko, A.N., Kaurova, O.V., Lobova, S.V. (eds.) Studies in Systems, Decision and Control, vol. 316: Frontier Information Technology and Systems Research in Cooperative Economics, pp. 33–42. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57831-2_4 18. Kuna, P., Hašková, A., Mukhashavria, S.: Application of virtual reality in industrial control systems. In: DIVAI 2020: 13th International Scientific Conference on Distance Learning in Applied Informatics, pp. 139-1. Wolters Kluwer, Prague, Czech Republic (2020) 19. Martín-Gutiérrez, J., Mora, C.E., Añorbe-Díaz, B., González-Marrero, A.: Virtual technologies trends in education. EURASIA J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ. 13, 469–486 (2017) 20. Arnaldi, B., Guitton, P., Moreau, G.: Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality: Myths and Realities. Wiley, London (2018) 21. Kaufmann, H., Papp, M.: Learning objects for education with augmented reality. In: Proceedings of the EDEN (European Distance and E-Learning Network) Conference, Budapest, Hungary (2016) 22. Gallace, A., Spence, C.: Touch with the Future: The Sense of Touch from Cognitive Neuroscience to Virtual Reality. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2014)

Recommendation System for Personalized Contextual Pedagogical Resources Based on Learning Style Khalid Benabbes1(B) , Khalid Housni1 , Ahmed Zellou2 , Brahim Hmedna3 , and Ali El Mezouary4 1 LARI Laboratory, MISC Team, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University, Kénitra, Morocco

{khalid.benabbes,housni.khalid}@uit.ac.ma

2 SPM Research Team, ENSIAS, Mohammed V University, Rabat, Morocco

[email protected]

3 IMIS Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Zohr University, Agadir, Morocco

[email protected]

4 IRF-SIC Laboratory, EST, Ibn Zohr University, Agadir, Morocco

[email protected]

Abstract. E-learning systems have undergone a significant transformation in the field of education, providing valuable support to learners and trainers. Among the emerging technologies, recommender systems have proven essential in supporting learners in selecting learning resources that best fit their preferences and requirements. However, learning is not limited to specific times or physical environments, making it necessary to customize resources that reflect learners’ contextual backgrounds. To address this challenge, this paper proposes an intelligent recommendation approach that offers highly personalized learning objects using contextual information and the Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model (FSLSM). In order to automatically model the learner, we analyze the learner’s interaction traces and sensor log data. By extracting relevant features, we cluster a population of 624 learners enrolled in two agronomy courses at IAV Hassan II, based on their preferred learning style (global or sequential). To achieve the objective of this study, we developed an innovative rule-based classification model. The results of this study outperform all alternative recommendation methods on both quality and accuracy, with a high precision rate of over 96%. This performance reflects the seamless incorporation of current learner contextual factors. Keywords: E-learning · Adaptative learning · Context-awareness · Learning styles · Recommender System · Learning object metadata

1 Introduction The Learning Management System (LMS) has gained significant popularity as an elearning platform, attracting a diverse community of learners who enroll in numerous free courses [1]. Among these learners, a variation in skills, preferences, background © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 442–454, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_42

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knowledge and learning styles exists. Some learners have a preference for text and audio (verbal learners), while others lean towards images and videos (visual learners) [2]. The collection of data allows for determining each learner’s learning style, facilitating the customization of learning environments by providing tailored content based on their specific learning style and context. This approach enhances learner satisfaction, improves teaching effectiveness, increases course completion rates and reduces learning time. Researchers highlight the critical role of delivering personalized resources to learners based on their learning context, learning style and timing to ensure the quality of educational services [3]. To accomplish this, two methods have been suggested to identify the student’s learning style: the collaborative approach [4] and the automatic approach [5]. The collaborative approach involves learners completing a survey and utilizing a static model [6]. However, it faces challenges in motivating learner participation. Additionally, learning styles are generally considered to be stable and resistant to change over time. Automatic approaches have been designed to overcome this limitation by identifying students’ learning styles through the analysis of their activities within the learning management system (LMS) [7]. This method is highly effective at classifying students since it leverages real-time reports to trace and identify their learning styles. The traditional approach tends to prioritize the initialization of the learner profile based on their learning style, neglecting the importance of learning context [5]. However, this novel approach strives to provide learning resources that align with both the student’s learning style and their specific learning context. This context encompasses various factors such as mobility, time availability, physical environment, lighting conditions, location, noise level, and more. Enhancing system functionality and efficiency involves a crucial aspect of automatically matching learning objects (LOs) to the student’s current context, which does not require additional learner intervention [8]. In our study, we aimed to tackle this challenge by employing the decision tree technique and incorporating adaptation rules specifically customized to suit the student’s unique contexts. In pursuit of these aims, a comparative analysis of four learning style clustering and classification algorithms was conducted. Through this analysis, it was determined that the k-means and decision tree algorithms were most suitable for achieving the study goals. The objective of this study is to address the following research questions: How can the learning styles of students be automatically identified? How can learning resources be recommended to students based on their preferred contextual features and learning style?

2 Related Work Considerable research has been conducted in the field of e-learning resource recommendation, particularly in accommodating different learning styles. For example, Moodle serves as an add-on to learning management systems, offering support for diverse learning styles [11]. Furthermore, the Web-based Learning Style Adaptation System (WELSA) [9] and the Twin-Source Adaptive Learning System (TSAL) [10] have been assessed and proven to effectively reduce learner effort and improve overall satisfaction by taking into account individual learning styles. Thyagaraju and Kulkarni [11] introduced an alternative approach known as the Fuzzy Logic-based Learning Style Model

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(FSLSM), which incorporates context-based recommendation and employs fuzzy logic to capture and represent learning styles. The FSLSM model was validated using real data and demonstrated its efficacy. Additionally, Antony Rosewelt and Arokia Renjit [12] utilized the FSLSM model to develop a recommendation system that integrates collaborative filtering, fuzzy logic, and neural networks. This system was assessed with college students and exhibited a notable enhancement in learning performance. Fasihuddin et al. [13] proposed a customization approach for MOOC (Massive Open Online Course) content, tailored to learners’ individual learning styles. They defined specific sets of activities and educational resources that align with each learning style. Their research revealed that text-based learning resources were particularly effective for this purpose. Simultaneously, the field of e-learning has witnessed a growing interest in contextaware recommender systems. Notably, Guabassi et al. [8] conducted a significant study in this area, introducing a contextual recommender system that caters to users’ requirements. This system provides access to IT course-related questions and exercises, taking into account the users’ context, including their domain-specific knowledge. Likewise, Manouselis et al. [14] focused on the advancement of context-aware recommender systems (CARS) in the context of technology-enhanced e-learning (TEL). Their objective was to deliver personalized and pertinent educational resources by taking into account the user’s specific context. Similarly, Sevkli et al. [15] proposed an alternative approach for integrating context-aware services into an adaptive U-MAS (Ubiquitous Multi-Agent Systems) learning environment, with the goal of enhancing the recommendation of educational resources. These studies aim to enhance the learning experience and increase efficiency in virtual learning environments.

3 Methodology 3.1 Learning Style Identification This section introduces the four main processes that constitute our recommended methodological approach (see Fig. 1). Its purpose is to classify students into groups based on their understanding of the FSLSM dimensions. To accomplish this, the approach begins with extracting and pre-processing data for each FSLSM learning style dimension, aiming to turn each student into a collection of related characteristics. Next, an unsupervised clustering technique is applied to categorize students according to their level of inclination toward a specific learning style. Finally, the student’s learning styles are considered in the process of recommending learning resources. Pre-processing. This phase aimed to enhance the data quality for subsequent processing. The initial step was to extract learner traces specifically from the raw data generated during the winter 2020–2021 sessions. Afterward, a data cleaning process was implemented to enhance the data quality by eliminating irrelevant information. Every flow event was allocated to its respective week and then corresponds to a daily session. The sessions were reconstructed with the consideration that the duration of use of each page accessed should not be more than one hour. Finally, the “Resource_display_name” parameter was utilized to associate each resource with the learning object format.

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3

Understanding dimension

FSLSM

LS

1

2

4

Get learner’s traces

Preprocessing data & cleaning

Feature extraction

5

Feature normalization

6

7

Dimentionality reduction

Clustering learners & prediction of learners style model

8

Analysis & visualization

Feature engineering

Fig. 1. Process for predicting the learning style model

Feature Extraction. This process involves the selection of a suitable model from existing features to accomplish a specific task [16]. In our study, we employed a feature engineering technique called the “knowledge zone” to create a set of features for implementation in machine learning algorithms. These features were gathered from the Moodle Learning Management System (LMS) and subsequently processed and associated with the attributes of the learning style in the comprehension dimension of the FSLSM (global and sequential). Global learners, as indicated by their quick response to questions and holistic approach to discussions [17], are inclined to utilize forums for posting messages. Conversely, sequential learners are expected to engage in browsing topics and providing detailed responses to raised questions within these forums [18]. Feature Normalization. This is a technique used to minimize the impacts of features manipulated by the learning algorithm. These features are scaled between 0 and 1 using the MinMaxScaler function (Eq. 1) from Sklearn [16]. V =

V − Vmin Vmax − Vmin

(1)

where Vmin and Vmax are the minimum and maximum values of element V in the dataset. Dimensionality Reduction. It is a method used to reduce the number of dimension features for each LS of understanding FSLSM dimensions. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is employed to transform the features of a dataset into a 2-D space while maintaining the correlations present in the original data. This process helps to simplify the dataset and enhance our understanding of the underlying patterns and structures within the data. 3.2 Clustering and Supervised Modeling In this section, learners are grouped based on their interest in the sequential/global FSLSM dimension [17]. Different learner profiles and taxonomies were offered after

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examining their characteristics, traces, and learning activity frequency. Only engaged students who accessed a significant number of learning resources were selected [18]. Then, the active learners were automatically organized into groups based on their similar characteristics using the clustering technique. The feature vectors handled were linked to each learning style for the FSLSM understanding dimension. The appropriate number of clusters was determined using these vectors and the Elbow technique [19]. According to Fig. 2, four clusters were chosen. The initial centroid of each cluster was identified using the k-means++ approach, which addresses the shortcomings of kmeans [20]. The resulting data, including 6308 events from 273 learners, were presented as learner traces without observers.

Fig. 2. Elbow point for sequential LS (a) and global LS (b)

We labeled the dataset using the learning style balancer, which combined the sequential_LS and global_LS feature vectors. This labeled dataset was then used by classification techniques to train the prediction model. After training and comparing the accuracy results of three models (Decision Tree (DT) [21]), Random Forest (RF) [22] and K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) [22]. DT showed the highest value, making it the most appropriate model for our goal. 3.3 Context-Aware Recommendation of Learning Objects In this subsection, we delve into the process of learning object recommendation, specifically focusing on global [16] and sequential learners [17]. The contextual model is constructed by combining contextual features [8], learning objects (text, video, and audio) [23], and learning styles [18]. Learning objects are indeed the components that constitute the content of learning resources (LRs), which are used as beneficial tools for learners [20]. In the context of this study, the learning resources considered include Discussions, Applications, Quizzes, Examples, Forums, Outlines, Exercises, Videos, Tests, and Audios. Subsequently, a decision tree model, sensitive to adaptive rules, is developed to propose resources tailored to the student’s profile at the optimal moment. Our approach was inspired by Gope & Kumar’s [24] approach, utilizing a typical learning style (sequential, balanced, and global).

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The metadata of learning objects for both sequential and global learning styles is stored in a JSON file [25]. These metadata serve as the foundation for generating the corresponding learning style scores (scores_LS). These scores consider both the predefined list of learning objects (LO) and learning styles (LS), as well as the occurrence of learning objects associated with examined resources.

Fig. 3. Learning resources recommendation system built on the learner’s contextual model

As shown in Fig. 3, the traces resulting from the learner’s interaction on the e-learning platform interface are transmitted to the recommendation engine responsible for generating resources to be recommended, ordered by learning style score (score_LS). The scores of learning objects (score_LS) are calculated using the preprocessor for each resource and incorporated into the course dataset. Subsequently, a vector of score_LS is created for each learning resource by analyzing the resource database. After aggregating the scores_LO based on the learner’s preferences, the recommendations corresponding to the selected course are displayed. The score_ls is calculated by considering the relationship between different elements and utilizing the ranges provided in Table 1. The learner’s feedback on the received recommendations is then taken into account to evaluate the effectiveness of our proposed approach. The recommendation approach in question employs a combination of decision tree and regression technique known as CART. The analysis result of this approach shown is presented in Fig. 4, which is transformed into a set of rules [26]. Each branch in the decision tree represents a set of conditions on which the rule is based. As an example, the second branch on the right suggests that if the learner is studying in a location with motion but without sufficient light, two types of learning objects (audio and text) are recommended, with audio being the preferred option. Conversely, the second branch on the left indicates that if the area is well-lit but noisy, the learner may be offered only audio and video learning objects.

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Table 1. Relationship Learning Objects’ Frequency Ranges, Learning Styles (LS), and Learning Resources (LRs) LO

LRs

Range

LS Global ✔

Audio

Audios

0–40

Text

Exercises

0–10

Forums

0–20

✔

Quiz

0–10

✔

Discussions

0–100

Tests

0–6

✔

Examples

0–30

✔

Applications

0–20

✔

Outlines

0–15

✔

Videos

0–90

✔

Video

Sequential ✔ ✔ ✔

✔

Based on these rules, learners are categorized according to their context, which includes factors such as learning style, mobility, luminosity, and connectivity. The matching rules between the learning style and learner context are then utilized to determine the most suitable learning objects for their current situation.

4 Dataset The research utilized a dataset provided by IAV Hassan II, consisting of data from two agronomy courses conducted during the winter sessions of 2021 and 2022. The data was collected through the Moodle learning management system (LMS). The 12-week program encompassed diverse learning resources, including forums, video tutorials, quizzes, and course support. A total of 624 learners were enrolled in these courses, generating a total of 107,214 events throughout the program’s duration.

5 Results and Discussion After determining the suitable value of k [19] for the sequential and global learning styles, the students are clustered utilizing the k-means++ [20] clustering technique. Based on their level of interest, the students are categorized into four groups: strong (Clust. 4), moderate (Clust. 3), weak (Clust. 1), and very weak (Clust. 2). Each learning style (global and sequential) has its own set of feature values (Table 2). As indicated in Table 2, Clust. 1 and Clust. 2 display lower feature values when compared to the other clusters. These feature values serve as a reflection of each cluster’s behavior. Notably, these clusters represent a substantial portion, accounting for 72% of all students. It is worth noting that these clusters demonstrate a pronounced preference for the overall learning style.

Recommendation System for Personalized Contextual Pedagogical Resources Audio

Text

449

Video

Connectivity Heigh Low

Node 1

Node 2

Noise

Luminosity

No

Yes

No

Node 4

Node 3

Yes

Node 5

Luminosity

No

Mobility

No

Yes

Node 8

Node 7

Node 6

Node 9

yes

Node 10

Mobility

No

Node 11

Yes

Node 12

Fig. 4. Results of decision tree analysis using a rule-based approach

For both global and sequential learning styles, a significant percentage of learners in the corresponding groups have low preferences (22.97% and 28.37% respectively). Nevertheless, the high dropout rate has resulted in a limited number of students who exhibit strong preferences for both learning styles. The evaluation of the unsupervised technique’s effectiveness incorporated the Calinski-Harabasz index [17], which considers both inter-cluster separation and intercluster similarity. Table 3 showcases a comparative validation value for the index across various cluster algorithms for sequential and global learning styles. Among the algorithms analyzed, the k-means algorithm [19] achieved the highest value, establishing it as the optimal choice. Additionally, the results indicate moderate preferences for both

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K. Benabbes et al. Table 2. Global and sequential learning style clusters interests

LS Global

Sequential

Clusters

Clust. 1

Clust. 2

Clust. 3

Clust. 4

Features (mean)

Weak

Very weak

Moderate

Strong

#avg_global_navig

5.66

0.00

19.73

258.16

#seq_goto

2.16

0.00

10.15

98.71

#seek_video

1.56

0.40

31.81

51.82

#outline_visit

6.17

1.12

109.12

82.19

13.45

0.02

27.12

178.12

#showanswer

6.87

2.13

10.12

88.14

#seq_next

0.03

0.03

91.23

79.23

#page_close

3.36

0.01

41.89

16.12

#mean_sequential_navig

Table 3. Clusters Evaluation Indices Check Index

MiniBatch

Birch

Calinski_ harabaz index (Sequential LS)

4224

4831

Calinski_ harabaz index (Global LS)

15021.53

113207

K-means

Agglomerative

6353.20

3524.33

15129.21

12168.15

learning styles, with a greater percentage of students (14.86%) falling within the global learning style group compared to the sequential learning style group (10.69%). After balancing the learning styles, the obtained labeled dataset was used to train three classification algorithms and compare their effectiveness in providing better prediction of outcomes. As a response to the first research question, the Decision Tree (DT) model was chosen due to its highest accuracy value (96%), making it superior to other classification algorithms (Table 4). Table 4. Models for prediction (the standout ones highlighted) Classification algorithms

f1-Score

Precision

Recall

Accuracy

K-nearest neighbor (KNN)

0.63

0.63

0.63

0.632

Decision Tree (DT)

0.96

0.96

0.96

0.961

Random Forest (RF)

0.95

0.95

0.95

0.954

In the context of learning object recommendation, several studies have explored the integration of context and learning style [27]. Our research aimed to address the second research question, and the findings in Subsect. 3.3 highlighted the significance of context in the adaptation and recommendation process. It was observed that context takes precedence over learning style, and its optimal configuration (Connectivity = High, Mobility

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= No, Luminosity = Yes, Noise = No) has a noticeable impact on the recommendation outcomes. In cases where learners have a global learning style, encounter high levels of noise, and face poor connectivity, the system should suggest learning objects in formats that differ from their preferred learning styles. This suggests the importance of considering contextual factors for effective learning object recommendations. To evaluate our recommendation system, we calculate the utility of the recommended resources using the learning style score (LS_score). This score determines the ranking of resources in the final recommendation list. It is noteworthy that for each recommendation, a position h assigns a utility of 1/h to it. Feedback is collected from learners who have completed their recommended courses. By combining the LS_scores with this feedback, we generate Average Reciprocal Hit Rank (ARHR) scores (Eq. 2) to measure the effectiveness of the recommendations provided to learners [28]. 1 k ri (2) ARHR = i=1 N where k is the number of resources assessed by learners using a rating ri and N is the total number of recommended resources. According to Fig. 5, two types of evaluations were conducted. The first one focused on the contextual recommendation approach, which obtained an average ARHR score of 71.6%. This high score indicates the relevance of the approach to learners’ preferences. However, the second one, which focused on the recommendation lacking context, yielded a significantly lower score of 28.4%.

Fig. 5. ARHR-based accuracy rate for each category of learning recommendations

In the future, we plan to utilize semantic data from scanned resources and the learning object format to provide more granular recommendations that effectively support learners.

6 Conclusion and Future Work This paper aimed to address the problem of learner dropout by personalizing their experiences based on their learning style and contextual features. Our objective was to overcome the challenge of identifying learners’ learning styles through their interactions

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within e-learning environments. To accomplish this, we utilized learners’ learning traces in conjunction with contextual information collected from physical sensors and log files generated over time. The study consisted of two experiments. In the first experiment, an unsupervised clustering technique was employed to label the dataset and ascertain the learners’ optimal understanding of the e-learning environment. Subsequently, three supervised clustering algorithms (K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) [22], Decision Tree (DT) [21], and Random Forest (RF) [22] were evaluated to develop a predictive model for learning styles. Among these algorithms, DT exhibited remarkable effectiveness in identifying learner styles, achieving an accuracy rate of 94%. In the second experiment, we introduced a novel approach to recommend relevant learning objects by creating a decision tree model that utilized adaptive rules. This model enabled the personalization of the learning environment by taking into account the learner’s profile and evolving preferences. The findings underscored the influence of contextual factors, including low mobility, normal noise level, high brightness, and high connectivity on the learner’s learning preferences. For future research, our plan is to utilize forecasting techniques to develop an intelligent Context-Aware Recommender System (CARS) for e-learning. We aim to integrate this model into a practical learning environment, particularly a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) system. By doing so, we anticipate enhancing the recommendation process and providing personalized learning experiences to MOOC participants.

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“Hybrid Work Provides the Best of both Worlds” Software Engineering Students’ Perception of Group Work in Different Work Settings Sofia Ouhbi1 and Nuno Pombo2(B) 1

Department of Information Technology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden [email protected] 2 Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilh˜ a, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. Productivity plays a crucial role in the success of any software project involving individuals. With the rise of hybrid work models due to the COVID-19 pandemic, both higher education and industry settings have witnessed significant changes in how group and individual productivity are perceived. This study aims to investigate software engineering students’ perception of productivity across various group work settings and cultural contexts using a questionnaire-based approach. The study primarily focuses on assessing students’ perspectives on self-productivity, teammates’ productivity, and overall group productivity, along with their emotional experiences related to these factors. Seventy-seven university students from two European countries, namely Portugal and Sweden, voluntarily participated in this study. The results indicated that the majority of students who had experience with hybrid work expressed a preference for continuing this mode of work in future group projects. However, a few students expressed a desire to transition to either fully online or onsite work based on their positive or negative experiences collaborating with others. Additionally, the results revealed that cultural contexts had no significant influence on students’ perception of productivity.

Keywords: software engineering education perception

1

· hybrid · students’

Introduction

Team productivity plays a critical role in the success of software projects [16]. This holds true in both industry and academia. The concept of productivity is commonly defined as “the ratio between output and input” [18]. While productivity is often used interchangeably with terms like efficiency, effectiveness, performance, and profitability [17], it is important to note that these terms have distinct meanings. For example, efficiency refers to “doing things right”, whereas c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024  M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 455–466, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_43

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effectiveness refers to “doing the right things” [14]. Productivity encompasses both efficiency and effectiveness. Performance, on the other hand, is a broader term that encompasses various factors influencing success [17], with productivity being a central component. Profitability is closely related to productivity but primarily focuses on revenue and costs [12]. In the context of software development organizations, there is constant pressure to increase the speed, volume, and quality of software production. However, resource constraints often make it challenging to achieve these goals by simply increasing team size. Therefore, organizations must seek ways to improve the productivity of individuals involved in software production. Empowering software engineering students with skills to cope with this productivity pressure is both timely and promising. Several studies have investigated the impact of work settings on team productivity [3], particularly after COVID-19 pandemic [15]. However, a recent survey conducted in Microsoft with 20,006 global knowledge workers, highlighted that there is a “productivity paranoia” among managers and team leaders of employees working in hybrid mode [8]. Only few employers (12%) responded they have full confidence their team is productive in hybrid work [2]. The motivation of this study is to shed the light about whether this phenomena exists also in the context of software engineering education. Productivity holds significant importance for university students as it enables them to optimize their time, resources, and achieve their goals, thereby setting the foundation for future career success. Several studies investigated productivity in different disciplines [5,10], however there is a scarcity of studies in the context of software engineering education [5]. The objective of this study was to explore productivity perceptions among software engineering students in two European countries, Portugal and Sweden, across various work settings including online, hybrid, and onsite. To achieve this, a questionnaire study was conducted, focusing on students’ perceptions of productivity from three perspectives: individual, group members, and the group as a whole. Additionally, this study aimed to capture the emotions associated with students’ overall experiences in relation to productivity.

2

Methods

The aim of this study is to respond to the following research question: Does the work setting impact students perception of productivity? A self-administered online questionnaire, created using Google Forms, was given to: – Universidade da Beira Interior (UBI) undergraduate students (N = 79) and graduate students (N = 40) who attended software engineering related courses. – Uppsala University (UU) graduate students (N = 104) who attended software engineering related courses. In all of the aforementioned courses, students were engaged in collaborative project work. At both UBI and UU, students were organized into groups consisting of 3–5 members. It was clearly communicated to the students that their

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participation in the questionnaire was voluntary and that their data would be anonymized. No incentives were offered to encourage participation in the study. Participants were informed that the questionnaire was part of a study focusing on assessing students’ perceptions of group work in different settings (online, hybrid, and onsite) at UBI and UU. The questionnaire was structured into five sections, each with its own title: (1) Background, (2) My Contribution, (3) My Teammates, (4) My Group, and (5) My Experience. In the Background section, participants were asked to provide data regarding their age (open question), gender (female, male, other, prefer not to disclose), university (UBI or UU), and course (software engineering, software engineering project, software quality, or software testing). The questions were carefully tested by the authors, and an estimated completion time of 5 min was indicated in the questionnaire. With the exception of the final question, participants were required to respond to all questions before submitting their responses.

3 3.1

Results Background of Participants

A total of 77 students participated in this questionnaire study. Table 1 shows the characteristics of the participants. Table 1. Background information about participants Characteristic

Total % (out of 77)

Gender Female

14

18%

Male

63

82%

Other

–

–

Prefer not to say

–

–

19–24

62

81%

25–29

9

12%

30–35

5

6%

36–39

–

–

40–45

1

1%

UBI

47

61%

UU

30

39%

Undergraduate students 32

42%

Graduate students

58%

Age in years

University

Level 45

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Figure 1 presents the work settings used by the participants to collaborate with their colleagues in group works. The majority of students were working in a hybrid mode (mostly online, similar between online and onsite, and mostly onsite). Ten students reported working fully online and only two students reported working fully onsite. It is worth mentioning that although the results for the onsite setting are presented in the tables and figures, they are not discussed in the text due to the small number of participants (only two students) who reported working onsite.

Fig. 1. Work settings

3.2

Self-perception of Contribution

Table 2 illustrates that there are no significant differences in how students perceive their own contribution across different settings. However, in hybrid mode, students perceive themselves as slightly more productive when working mostly onsite. The average feedback scores indicate that individual feedback is generally well-received by peers, especially when the team collaborates more onsite in a hybrid setting. The average scores for initiative and idea suggestion range from 3.89 to 4.67, demonstrating consistency across different settings. Similarly, the average scores for responsiveness, supporting teammates and prioritizing tasks, and distractions show similarity across different settings. Figure 2 presents the results separately for each university, allowing for a comparison of the findings. Students in Portugal tend to provide more feedback to their teammates compared to students in Sweden. Conversely, students in Sweden tend to take more initiative, suggest ideas, and be more responsive to their teammates’ questions compared to students in Portugal. Additionally, students in Sweden perceive themselves as less easily distracted than students in Portugal. 3.3

Contribution of Teammates

Table 2 indicates that students perceived the productivity of their teammates slightly higher in the online work setting. However, students who worked mostly onsite provided a higher score (3.66) for the usefulness of feedback received from

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Table 2. Questionnaire’s results. Acronyms: Onsite (Ons.), Online (Onl.), Hybrid (Hyb.), Mostly (M.) Average Hyb.

SD

M. onl. Sim. M. ons. Onl. Ons. Hyb. Onl. Ons. Self-perception average score in different work settings I I I I I I I

give my teammates feedback on their work take initiative and suggest ideas plan for my activities in the group myself am responsive to my teammate questions support my teammates in their tasks prioritize my task autonomously get distracted easily when working on a task

3,58 3,90 2,78 3,83 3,95 2,90 2,01

3,68 3,89 2,75 3,80 3,93 2,87 1,96

3,81 4,07 2,81 3,86 4,03 2,86 1,86

3,77 4,17 2,67 3,92 4,06 2,90 2,08

1,50 4,67 4,17 4,33 4,00 3,00 2,83

1,84 1,60 2,02 1,66 1,45 2,00 1,73

1,72 1,34 2,04 1,51 1,37 2,07 1,74

2,35 0,52 0,41 0,52 1,10 2,37 1,72

Perception of teammates’ contribution average score in different work settings My teammates provide me with useful feedback about my work My teammates are responsive to my questions My teammates are autonomous My teammates are often distracted from group work My teammates take initiative and suggest ideas My teammates expectation of my contribution was reasonable

3,39

3,48 3,66

3,50 3,17 1,77

1,74 1,83

3,55 3,03 2,06 3,60 3,36

3,53 3,05 2,07 3,59 3,35

3,54 3,08 1,92 3,75 3,63

1,75 1,87 1,51 1,25 1,67

3,49 3,06

3,52 3,50 3,07 3,17

3,85 3,78 1,83 3,38 3,27 1,91

1,62 2,07 1,81 1,83

3,25

3,28 3,50

3,52 3,69 1,91

1,82 2,07

3,12 3,51

3,13 2,67 3,48 4,00

3,17 3,29 1,90 3,79 3,81 1,70

1,93 2,34 1,40 1,10

3,45 3,64 3,39

3,49 3,33 3,63 3,67 3,41 3,00

3,77 3,73 1,90 3,90 3,76 1,77 3,50 3,66 1,86

1,74 2,25 1,60 1,86 1,85 2,37

2,26

2,28 2,00

2,38 2,42 1,74

1,72 1,67

3,61 2,95 2,12 3,66 3,53

2,50 1,67 2,83 3,17 3,17

1,74 1,88 1,57 1,49 1,85

2,43 2,25 1,33 1,33 1,83

Perception of the group average score in different work settings As a group, we successfully meet project milestones As a group, we kept our motivation high during the project work As a group, we completed tasks within deadlines while reporting high-quality results As a group, we were well-organized As a group, we allocated enough time to complete our tasks

Perception of experience average score in different work settings I enjoy collaborating with my teammates I feel that my contribution in the group is valued I’m confident that my teammates worked seriously in the project I stress while waiting for my teammates contribution

their teammates. Figure 3 reveals that students in Portugal tend to believe that their teammates take more initiative, suggest ideas, and are more responsive to their questions. Moreover, they perceive their teammates’ feedback to be more useful compared to students in Sweden. 3.4

Contribution of the Group

Table 2 indicates that in the hybrid mode, students who primarily worked in an online setting tend to perceive group productivity slightly more positively, except for organization. Students who worked online obtained a higher score in terms of their perception of successfully meeting project milestones (3.85). Students who worked mostly onsite (4.0) had a higher perception of effective time allocation. Figure 4 shoes that students in Portugal tend to perceive themselves as more organized compared to students in Sweden. Moreover, students in Portugal believe that they allocate sufficient time to complete their tasks.

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Fig. 2. Participants’ impression of their own contribution

Fig. 3. Participants’ impression of the contribution of their teammates

3.5

Emotions and Experience

Table 2 indicates that students tend to experience less stress when working mostly onsite, but they have a more positive overall experience when working online. The average scores for enjoying collaboration with their teammates (3.77) and feeling valued for their contributions to the group (3.90) are higher for students who worked online. Figure 5 shows that students in Sweden tend to experience less stress while waiting for their teammates’ contributions compared to students in Portugal. Students in Portugal tend to feel that their contributions to the group are more valued than students in Sweden, as some students expressed disagreement or strong disagreement with this statement.

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Fig. 4. Participants’ impression of the contribution of their groups

Fig. 5. Participants’ experience

3.6

Work Setting Preferences

Table 3 presents the preferences of students regarding future group work settings. The majority of students expressed a desire to continue working in the same mode as their current setting. However, it is noteworthy that 3 out of 4 students who worked mostly onsite preferred to switch to onsite work in the future. Onethird of students who worked online preferred a hybrid setting that allows for some face-to-face interaction with their teammates. Similarly, more than onethird of students who worked mostly online expressed an interest in trying either fully online or onsite work. A total of 18 students, including one who previously worked onsite, preferred working in an onsite setting. Figure 6 illustrates the preferences of students regarding future work settings. It indicates that a larger proportion of students who worked mostly onsite in

462

S. Ouhbi and N. Pombo Table 3. Students’ work setting preference Preferred work setting Current work setting

Online Hybrid Onsite

Mostly onsite Mostly online

1

3

7

20

7

Similar between online and onsite 2

19

6

Totally onsite

1

1

3

1

online

6

Portugal expressed a desire to transition to fully onsite work compared to students in Sweden. Approximately one-fifth of students working online in Sweden indicated a preference for shifting towards onsite work, while in Portugal, the shift is more towards a hybrid mode.

Fig. 6. Preferences for work settings

4

Factors Impacting the Productivity of the Group in Different Settings

Table 4 presents the correlations between students’ perception of group productivity, specifically its efficiency and effectiveness (indicated by GP3: As a group, we completed tasks within deadlines while reporting high-quality results), and other perceptions. The results indicate that there are correlations between the perception of group productivity and various factors, and a correlation between time allocation and serious work in hybrid work settings. This correlation is also observed in online work settings, but to a lesser extent. The results show also

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that there is a low correlation between the perception of group productivity and the emotional experience of students. Additionally, there are very low negative correlations between group work productivity and stress, planning, autonomy, and distraction in hybrid and online settings. Table 4. Correlation between students’ perception productivity of the group (GP3) and other responses. Acronyms: Self-Perception (SP), Teammates Perception (TP), Group Perception (GP), and Experience Perception (EP) Online Onsite Hybrid

5

SP1 - Feedback

0,15

0,35

0,28

SP2 - Initiative

0,15

0,00

0,24

SP3 - Planning

−0,04

−0,83 −0,02

SP4 - Responsiveness

−0,04

−0,37

0,01 0,15

SP5 - Support

0,10

0,09

SP6 - Autonomy

−0,06

−0,57 −0,06

SP7 - Distraction

−0,18

−0,25

−0,17

TP1 - Feedback

0,14

0,08

0,25

TP2 - Responsiveness

0,23

0,58

0,29

TP3 - Autonomy

0,28

0,30

0,28

TP4 - Distraction

0,12

−0,11

0,00

TP5 - Initiative

0,37

0,11

0,39

TP6 - Reasonable expectation

0,24

0,71

0,30

GP1 - Succesful milestones

0,50

1,00

0,63

GP2 - High motivation

0,30

0,97

0,46

GP3 - Within deadline and high results 1,00

1,00

1,00

GP4 - Well organization

0,28

0,58

0,38

GP5 - Time allocation

0,44

0,53

0,56

EP1 - Enjoy collaboration

−0,02

−0,13

0,28

EP2 - Valued contribution

0,10

0,21

0,34

EP3 - Serious work

0,46

0,90

0,61

EP4 - Stress waiting for others work

−0,15

−0,35

−0,12

Discussion and Conclusion

The questionnaire study conducted at two European universities provided valuable insights into students’ perception of productivity in different work settings. The main finding of this study are listed below. Yes for Hybrid Mode but Mostly Onsite. The results of the study indicate that students generally displayed a moderate level of satisfaction with their

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productivity regardless of the work setting. In the hybrid mode, productivity was perceived slightly better when students worked mostly online, while the perception of teammates’ productivity was slightly higher in fully online work mode. This may be attributed to the perception of team members being consistently available and actively engaged in the online environment, which could be seen as a sign of productivity. It is important to note that satisfaction plays a significant role in an individual’s well-being and performance [4]. In the hybrid mode, student satisfaction is influenced by the changes in the learning environment and the potential reduction in social interaction. Creating a personalized and comfortable learning environment, along with increased flexibility, were identified as key factors contributing to higher satisfaction in the hybrid mode [7]. However, challenges such as an increased workload and perceived work autonomy can impact students’ satisfaction [9]. Hybrid Mode Might not be for Everybody. The majority of students who worked in hybrid mode expressed a preference for continuing in the same mode, as it provided them with greater flexibility in managing their workload and availability. However, a few students who faced communication challenges with their teammates indicated a desire to switch to either fully online or onsite mode. This suggests that the hybrid mode may not be suitable for everyone, and individual preferences and experiences should be considered when designing future group work arrangements. The study also revealed a negative correlation (-0.29) between the confidence in others’ seriousness in their work and the feeling of stress. This indicates that factors such as workload and personal life events may contribute to an individual’s stress levels, independent of their perception of their teammates’ dedication. Additionally, there was a moderate positive correlation (0.55) between high motivation within the group and the enjoyment of the group work experience. This highlights the importance of fostering motivation among students to promote positive group dynamics and enhance overall team effectiveness. Productivity Perception is not Influenced by Cultural Context. The difference between Portugal and Sweden, did not have a significant impact on the participants’ perception of productivity. The study results indicated that there were no major differences in the perception of productivity between the two countries. This finding aligns with the notion that, in global software development projects, participants from different countries tend to perceive productivity in a similar manner. However, it is worth noting that only one respondent mentioned a negative aspect related to nationality, expressing a lack of engagement from team members. Research has shown that cultural diversity in the workplace can have a positive influence on productivity [13]. However, it is important to recognize that organizational culture has the most significant impact on productivity, regardless of individuals’ backgrounds and nationalities [1]. Effective teamwork is achieved through diversity and inclusivity. When a team consists of individuals with diverse skills, experiences, and backgrounds, it brings a range of perspectives and ideas that can enhance productivity and foster innovation.

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Additionally, fostering an inclusive culture ensures that all team members feel acknowledged and respected, which in turn boosts morale and engagement. Good Communication is Key in Group Work. There is a weak to moderate correlation (0.30) between the perception of giving feedback and receiving feedback, indicating potential communication challenges among peers. The observed correlation could be attributed to a reluctance to share ideas with others, as effective communication requires the sharing of ideas. Thus, students could benefit from developing proficient communication skills and adopting a mindset to enhance their ability to discuss and share ideas. Similarly, the correlation (0.12) between the perception of taking initiative and teammates’ initiatives is weak, indicating potential communication gaps within the team. Misunderstandings can have a significant impact on team effectiveness as team members may have different understandings of a task, goal, or expectation, leading to an increased risk of ineffective collaboration. Furthermore, the negative correlation (−0.24) between the perception of autonomy and teammates’ autonomy suggests that some team members may feel that they are not able to make decisions or act independently, while others may feel that they have been given too much freedom and responsibility. This may present a twofold risk: first, an uneven distribution of power and decision-making within the team, and second, an inequitable allocation of control and authority. Setting the Right Expectations for a Better Collaboration. The moderate correlation between the level of self-responsiveness and teammates’ responsiveness (0.31), along with the correlation between contribution to the team and teammates’ expectations (0.29), suggests that individuals who are proactive and responsive in their own work are likely to perceive their teammates as being similarly proactive and responsive. On the other hand, individuals with more experience may have higher expectations from their teammates in terms of proactivity, performance, and collaboration, due to their understanding of the requirements for effective teamwork and the importance of individual contribution to the team’s success. The study by [6] focused on the individual expectations of team members. It examined software engineering group project courses and observed that the initial expectation gradually fades along with the teamwork faces breakdown challenges. Moreover, participants in the study identified four major concerns related with the teamwork: the team and its members, the team environment, the required skills to cope with challenges, and the process. In [11] authors highlighted that project team size may affects: 1) schedule decisions, which are also acknowledged as an important factor in project success, and 2) the decision-making on the structure of teams and the eventual partition of projects into smaller sub-projects. Since the majority of software engineering students expressed a preference for continuing with the hybrid work model, we intend to conduct an in-depth study to delve deeper into understanding the specific factors that contribute to their perceived productivity in this setting, and explore ways to optimize productivity in hybrid work environments.

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References 1. Cherian, J., Gaikar, V., Paul, R., Pech, R.: Corporate culture and its impact on employees’ attitude, performance, productivity, and behavior: an investigative analysis from selected organizations of the united Arab Emirates (UAE). J. Open Innov.: Technol., Market, Complex. 7(1), 45 (2021) 2. Christian, A.: The ‘productivity paranoia’ managers can’t shake (2022). https:// www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20221014-the-productivity-paranoia-managerscant-shake. Accessed June 2023 3. Duarte, C.H.C.: The quest for productivity in software engineering: a practitioners systematic literature review. In: 2019 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Software and System Processes (ICSSP). pp. 145–154. IEEE (2019) 4. Hakanen, J.J., Bakker, A.B., Schaufeli, W.B.: Burnout and work engagement among teachers. J. Sch. Psychol. 43(6), 495–513 (2006) 5. Hikmet, N., Taylor, E.Z., Davis, C.J.: The student productivity paradox: technology mediated learning in schools. Commun. ACM 51(9), 128–131 (2008) 6. Iacob, C., Faily, S.: Exploring the gap between the student expectations and the reality of teamwork in undergraduate software engineering group projects. J. Syst. Softw. 157, 110393 (2019) 7. Lonska, J., et al.: Work-life balance of the employed population during the emergency situation of COVID-19 in Latvia. Front. Psychol. 12, 682459 (2021) 8. Microsoft: hybrid work is just work. are we doing it wrong? (2022). https:// www.microsoft.com/en-us/worklab/work-trend-index/hybrid-work-is-just-work. Accessed June 2023 9. Mohammed, Z., Nandwani, D., Saboo, A., Padakannaya, P.: Job satisfaction while working from home during the COVID-19 pandemic: do subjective work autonomy, work-family conflict, and anxiety related to the pandemic matter? Cogent Psychol. 9(1), 2087278 (2022) 10. Paul, J., Jefferson, F.: A comparative analysis of student performance in an online vs. face-to-face environmental science course from 2009 to 2016. Front. Comput. Sci. 1, 7 (2019) 11. Rodr´ıguez, D., Sicilia, M., Garc´ıa, E., Harrison, R.: Empirical findings on team size and productivity in software development. J. Syst. Softw. 85(3), 562–570 (2012) 12. Sadowski, C., Zimmermann, T.: Rethinking Productivity in Software Engineering. Springer Nature, Cham (2019) 13. Saxena, A.: Workforce diversity: a key to improve productivity. Procedia Econ. Finan. 11, 76–85 (2014) 14. Sink, D.S., Tuttle, T.C., Shin, S.I.: Planning and measurement in your organization of the future (1989) ˇ 15. Smite, D., Tkalich, A., Moe, N.B., Papatheocharous, E., Klotins, E., Buvik, M.P.: Changes in perceived productivity of software engineers during COVID-19 pandemic: the voice of evidence. J. Syst. Softw. 186, 111197 (2022) 16. Sudhakar, G., Farooq, A., Patnaik, S.: Measuring productivity of software development teams. Serb. J. Manage. 7(1), 65–75 (2012) 17. Tangen, S.: Demystifying productivity and performance. Int. J. Prod. Perform. Manage. 54(1), 34–46 (2005) 18. Wagner, S., Deissenboeck, F.: Defining productivity in software engineering. In: Sadowski, C., Zimmermann, T. (eds.) Rethinking Productivity in Software Engineering, pp. 29–38. Apress, Berkeley, CA (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-14842-4221-6 4

Material Didactic Resources in Education István Sz˝oköl1(B) , Daniel Kuˇcerka2 , and Lucia Krištofiaková3 1 Trnava University in Trnava, Trnava, Slovakia

[email protected]

2 Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic 3 DTI University, Dubnica nad Váhom, Slovakia

[email protected]

Abstract. Material didactic means (technical means and teaching aids) are means of a material nature and are an important component of education and a means of achieving the goals of the educational process and are part of Engineering Pedagogy. They serve as a means to achieve educational goals. They are part of didactic resources. A technical means as a material means that creates the conditions for the delivery of the prescribed curriculum to students. He is only an intermediary who performs a secondary function in relation to the content of education. Didactic aids are of great importance in preparatory subjects for professional studies, which include mathematics, physics, technology, chemistry and etc. These subjects are preparatory subjects for professional subjects such as Parts of machines, Engineering technology, Science of materials and others. In our research, we focused on the content of the processed innovative professional text for the subject of engineering technology in dual technical education as an effective support for teachers. The result is the evaluation of the processed professional text for the subject mechanical technology through the Close test. The results showed that the text is readable and manageable for the specified group of students. Keywords: Material didactic means · Technical devices · Teaching aids · Professional text · Pedagogical experiment

1 Introduction Material didactic means are means of a material nature and are an important component of education. They serve as a means to achieve educational goals. They are part of didactic resources. Before we start thinking about creating and choosing a method of inclusion in the classroom, we need to know the content of the education for which it is intended. The main criteria for the selection of didactic means are the goal pursued, the content of the teaching, the nature of the phenomena demonstrated, the age, level, level of education of the students, the purpose of the teaching and the level of the teacher and his ability to use the intended didactic means. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 467–478, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_44

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According to Pr˚ucha et al. (2009), the term “material didactic means” narrows the class of didactic means to material carriers of information, to technical devices, equipment of schools and classes that serve educational purposes. Didactic aids accompany teaching since the beginning of cultural history, e.g. when familiarizing with objects and phenomena when using tools, etc. Here it is also possible to consider them a drawing in the sand. From a developmental point of view, several generations of aids can be distinguished: – – – – –

specific subjects and phenomena functionally used in education, pre-machine tools (e.g. sketch, picture, real models), tools associated with the invention of printing (printed materials, books), means that improve human senses (binoculars, microscope, film, etc.), a device enabling human-machine communication (computer, Internet).

Didactic means are divided into didactic technique and didactic content. Didactic technique is a set of technical means (Oberuˇc-Zapletal, 2017b). The didactic content is a set of signals with the subject matter. Teaching depends mainly on the quality of didactic content. Even the best-prepared teacher cannot apply the didactic technique unless he has a high-quality didactic content. Integrated didactic workplaces are part of the material didactic resources.

2 Material Didactic Means The tool serves to achieve educational goals. It complements the word of the teacher, which is a very powerful argumentative tool. The term material-didactic means narrows the class of didactic means to material carriers of information, to technical devices, equipment of schools and classes that serve educational purposes (Pr˚ucha, J., 2009). Didactic tools have an irreplaceable place in the educational process. They became necessary not only in the work of a teacher, but also in the work of a student. The results of use do not only depend on the technical level and ability of the teacher, but especially on the level of didactic content. Didactic means (Fig. 1) are material or immaterial according to their nature.

TEACHING AIDS

MATERIALLY

INTANGIBLE

Forms

Methods

Teaching

Technical devices

Fig. 1. Didactic (teaching) aids (Driensky, 1998)

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Part of the teaching aids are non-material teaching aids, among which we classify forms and methods. These ensure the professional component, while the teaching methods are focused on the thought process of the teacher and the student, on the other hand, the forms ensure the teaching-educational process, i.e. the external side (Bendíková, 2017). Organizational forms of teaching are most often divided according to the number of students participating in the teaching process together with the teacher (individual, collective and mixed), the place of implementation of the teaching process (school and extra-curricular) and the degree of independence of students’ work in the teaching process (individual work of students, group work of students and students’ frontal work).We understand the methods of the teaching process as a deliberate arrangement of the curriculum, activities of the teacher and students, which are aimed at achieving the goals of the teaching process while respecting didactic principles (Turek, 2010). Material didactic means are a means of achieving the goals of the educational process and are part of Engineering Pedagogy. According to Driensky (1998), engineering pedagogy is a frontier scientific discipline that transforms the knowledge of pedagogy and psychology into technical sciences. Its purpose is to increase the didactic effectiveness of engineering education. They include teaching aids and technical means, which inseparably include integrated didactic workplaces. Better results are achieved in the educational process, which means that knowing and acquiring knowledge has a multi-sensory and multi-code character. Driensky and Hrmo (2004) define a technical resource as a material resource that creates conditions for the delivery of the prescribed curriculum to students. He is only an intermediary who performs a secondary function in relation to the content of education. Driensky and Hrmo (2004) define a teaching aid as a material means that is a direct carrier of information and can provide content directly (eg. a model) or through a technical means (e.g. a data projector). Material teaching aids can be shown in a few numbers and the fact that the average person remembers approximately 10% of what he reads, 20% of what he hears, 30% of what he sees in the form of an image, 50% of what he sees and at the same time hears, 70% of what he sees, hears and actively performs at the same time, 90% of what he has arrived at on the basis of his own experience by performing the activity (Fredmann, 1971 in Hrmo et al., 2009). “Didactic means as a category of didactics includes all material objects that ensure, condition and make the course of the teaching process more efficient. These are subjects that, in close connection with the teaching method and organizational form, help to achieve educational goals” (Maˇnák, 1995 in Hlásna et al., 2006). We must know and respect certain requirements for the selection, creation, use and appropriate inclusion of teaching aids in the teaching process. Such requirements are didactic requirements, ergonomic requirements, aesthetic requirements, technical requirements and economic requirements (Hlásna et al., 2006). We must also take into account the functions and requirements placed on material teaching aids. Driensky (1998) lists informational, transformational, activation and regulatory functions among the basic functions of material teaching aids.

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Material teaching aids are teaching aids and those technical aids that perform didactic functions (Driensky and Hrmo, 2004). 2.1 Book Learning Aids Depending on the type of school, I recommend textbooks, teaching texts, scripts, manuals, instruction sheets, workbooks, assignment collections, catalogues, mathematical, physical, chemical, mechanical, etc. Book learning aids according to the design can be printed in classic printed form in printers or in electronic form (Oberuˇc-Zapletal, 2017a). The textbook plays a decisive role in the teaching process, it is the most important teaching aid for pupils and support for the teacher. (Smoleˇnáková-Bendíková, 2017). Pr˚uchu (2009) states that a textbook is a type of book publication adapted to didactic communication with its content, structure and properties. It works both as part of the curriculum (i.e. it presents a certain section of the planned educational content) and as a didactic tool, i.e. directs and stimulates students’ learning, establishes the teaching activities of the teacher. The teaching text belongs to the group of literary teaching aids. In addition to the teaching text, this includes textbooks, catalogues, tables, etc. Depending on the method of production, they can be produced traditionally in printers or in electronic form. (Driensky, 1998). Structural Components and Content of the Textbook The textbook is a unique creation of the author, who creates it for specific purposes. This purpose can be a monograph, specialist book, university textbook, scripts, teaching texts, etc. According to Pr˚ucha (2009), the structure is made up of a set of sub-components, which are represented to varying degrees in each textbook. In summary, a system is created that determines the quality (didactic equipment) of the textbook and its ability to induce effects in the learning subject. There are various taxonomies of the structural components of the textbook. According to one taxonomy (Pr˚ucha, 2009), which was verified by a number of empirical studies, the general model of the structure of the textbook can be represented according to Fig. 5. According to Pr˚ucha (2009), 36 components are distinguished by default in the structure of the textbook (in specific textbooks there may be a larger number), which are classified into three categories according to the function they perform in the textbook: (I) Curriculum presentation apparatus - e.g. explanatory text, curriculum summary, diagrams, models, statistical tables. (II) Curriculum management apparatus - e.g. questions and tasks on topics, exercises, use of special. fonts or colors for certain parts of the curriculum. (III) Orientation device in the textbook - e.g. division into lessons, live header, index. For the teacher, the textbook is a support and for the student, it is a basic professional teaching aid. Blaško (2013) states that the textbook should have the following structure: content, introduction (its task is to introduce the student to the issue, clarify the meaning of

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the subject matter, so that the student accepts this reasoning as the motives of his own learning activity), chapters and subsections, systematization of the subject matter, tasks and self-tests (their results and assessment), control questions and tasks, conclusion and recommended literature. Methods for evaluating the quality of textbooks can be divided into three basic groups (Turek, 2010): 1. Experimental method (based on a pedagogical experiment of textbook quality assessment), 2. Expert methods (e.g. questionnaire for experts), 3. Statistical methods (Cloze test, Fog index, Fog index). 2.2 Technical Devices Appropriate equipment of the school with technical equipment is a basic condition for ensuring the quality of the educational process. Here there must be harmony and agreement between the school management and the school’s teaching staff. In primary and secondary schools, they are teachers, and in secondary vocational schools, in addition to teachers, there are also masters of expert training. Basic facilities include classrooms, specialist classrooms, language classrooms, laboratories, school workshops, etc. Kindergarten students’ classrooms are basic classrooms for the educational process, where, as a rule, some re-educational subjects are taught or, when the capacity of expert options is insufficient, and their equipment is basic school furniture, among which we include school desks, chairs, teacher’s desk and a green or white board, or their combination. In addition to the mentioned equipment, if the schools have the funds, the classrooms are additionally equipped with a PC, a data projector, a projection screen and possibly speakers. Technical aids are such material didactic aids that create the conditions for passing on the prescribed curriculum to students. They are only an intermediary that performs a secondary function in relation to the content of education, e.g. a data projector with a PC that projects a didactic video. For auxiliary equipment, we recommend heating, cooling, air conditioning, darkening, electrical distribution, water supply, etc. Teaching machines also belong to the group of technical aids. They can download learning information according to the embedded program. Furthermore, they can assign tasks for practice, repetition, to consolidate the learning material, evaluate the achieved knowledge and manage the learning with the help of feedback. We recommend informants, examiners, repeaters, trainers and combined types for teaching machines. We use the tools Macromedia Director, Macromedia Flash, Microsoft FrontPage, Macromedia Dreamweaver… to create multimedia applications. Didactic machines and equipment, devices and gauges include those that we use for didactic purposes.

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3 Professional Text for the Selected Chapter of the Subject Mechanical Technology Engineering technology is one of the basic subjects of engineering departments and follows the subjects of mathematics, physics, chemistry, technical drawing, mechanics, electrical engineering. On the basis of the ŠkVP, which is part of the ŠVP Strojárstvo 23, 24 Engineering and other metalworking production, we prepared professional teaching texts for the subject of Mechanical Technologist. This subject is taught in all years in the school educational program 2381 M - mechanical engineering at the secondary industrial school and the processed didactic text is part of the 7th thematic unit: Turning in the 1st year of study. The aim of the subject is for the student to acquire the target knowledge and skills after taking over the individual thematic units. The graduate should know the basic technical terminology for engineering and other metalworking production, the basic types of materials and semi-finished products used in engineering, their production process, know the methods of heat treatment and surface treatment of materials and know the basic technological procedures of manual and machine processing, machining, forming, casting, welding, assembly and functional tests of engineering semi-finished products and products. After studying the teaching text, the student should know: – – – – – – –

characterize turning, list the basic turning knives, name the basic types of lathes, describe the universal point lathe, determine typical turning jobs, prescribe the accuracy and surface quality achievable by turning, determine the cutting conditions of turning.

We have prepared the teaching text into four chapters. After studying the thematic unit, the student should know: – – – – – – –

characterize turning, list the basic turning knives, name the basic types of lathes, describe the universal point lathe, determine typical turning jobs, prescribe the accuracy and surface quality achievable by turning, determine the cutting conditions of turning.

4 Pedagogical Experiment Vargová, M., (2014 in Kuˇcerka, 2021) states that the quality of technical education in schools can be supported by using modern innovative concepts of the teaching process. Innovation is generally understood as “a new phenomenon, a new idea, a new product”. Innovation in relation to education is “the introduction of something new, new methods, new forms in teaching, the introduction of new teaching aids and means”. The

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quality of education also depends on the school’s equipment with teaching aids. LajˇcinPorubˇcanová (2021) stated that appropriate material and technical equipment is the result of mutual cooperation of their management with teachers and masters of professional training. When there is a lack of cooperation from teachers and masters of professional training towards management, it may not result in deficiencies in equipment, the opposite case clearly leads to the emergence of negative phenomena at school. Hypotheses and Methodology of the Experiment The main goal of the pedagogical experiment is to process and evaluate a professional text on selected thematic units in the subject mechanical technology, which will be manageable in the 1st year of the school educational program 2381 M - mechanical engineering at a secondary industrial school. Sub-goals: In order to fulfill the main objective of the research, it is necessary to implement a sub-objective: – Determine the readability of the text Main (initial) hypothesis: The elaborated didactic text on selected thematic units in the subject of mechanical engineering will be manageable in the 1st grade in the school educational program 2381 M - mechanical engineering at a secondary industrial school and the school educational program is part of the state educational program Mechanical Engineering 23, 24 Mechanical Engineering and other metalworking production. In order to verify it, we will evaluate the following working hypothesis: H1: The selected group of students for whom the didactic text is intended from the selected text will complete 13 or more words from the 22 missing. Statistical research method will be used to process the pedagogical experiment. With this method, we can examine various parameters related to the subject matter obtained by measuring certain features of the subject matter in the textbook. Such parameters include: • readability of the text 4.1 Preparation and Processing of the Appropriate Content of the Didactic Text The selection of suitable literature and the processing of a suitable didactic text for selected thematic units in the subject mechanical technology of the 1st year in the school educational program 2381 M - mechanical engineering at the secondary industrial school were the main goals of our experiment. A specific school educational program is prepared for the given subject, which is part of the state educational program Engineering 23, 24 Engineering and other metalworking production. The subject of Mechanical Technology is intended to give students basic and expanding professional key competences for their possible future application in practice. Content of the Didactic Text On the basis of basic pedagogical documents, the subject is Mechanical Technology for the 1st year in the school educational program 2381 M - mechanical engineering at the

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secondary industrial school for tomato units. Turning is taught in the 7th thematic unit. We have divided the selected topics of the 7th thematic unit into 4 chapters and at the end there are control questions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Characteristics of turning Lathe and its main parts Lathes Turning knives Control questions. The structure of the didactic text. We processed the didactic text in the following structure:

– Objective of the selected chapter - contains basic phrases from the given module, which the student should master after studying the chapter – Introduction to the chapter – Subsect. 1: Characteristics of turning – Subchapters 1, 2, 3, 4 – are a teaching text for the given issue and describe the given issue and give an explanation of the topic covered – Review questions - here are questions from the curriculum on the subject of turning. Answering the questions correctly is a prerequisite for successfully mastering the given topic. Preparation and Evaluation of the Cloze Test for Pupils After finishing the work on the professional text, we prepared a Cloze test for the students for whom this text is intended. Pupils of selected schools (Table 1) had to complete min. 13 and max. 22 missing words. If the students do not meet the lower limit and do not complete at least 13 correct words, then the learning text is difficult. The cloze test is based on randomly selecting a text of approximately 250 words. For the text, we consider that the first 35 words remain in their original state, but the 36th word is omitted. Subsequently, every tenth word is omitted, i.e. 46, 56, 66, 76, 86, 216, 236, 246. Table 1. Number and schools for the Close test (own) Name of the school

Number of pupils

Focus of the school

SPŠse Levice

45

mechanical and electrical engineering

SOŠE Trnava

30

electrotechnical

SOŠD Bratislava

27

traffic

SOŠSE Velešín

55

mechanical and electrical engineering

SPŠSaS Tábor 

62

engineering

219

219 respondents completed the Cloze test. The respondents (students) were from the Slovak Republic SPŠse Levice, SOŠE Trnava and SOŠD Bratislava and from the Czech Republic SOŠSE Velešín, SPŠSaS Tábor (Table 2).

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Table 2. Percentage share of the school on the Close test (own) zameranie

Number of pupils

% share

SPŠse Levice

45

0,207

SOŠE Trnava

30

0,132

SOŠD Bratislava

27

0,122

SOŠSE Velešín

55

0,253

SPŠSaS Tábor

62

0,286

spolu

219

100%

4.2 Hypothesis Verification A selected group of students for whom the learning text is intended from the selected text will complete 13 or more words from the 22 missing. Table 3. Evaluation of the Cloze test (own) Number of correct words

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

SPŠse Levice

4

3

8

4

8

6

4

3

3

2

SOŠE Trnava

5

5

2

4

3

4

2

1

2

2

SOŠD Bratislava

1

2

4

4

2

6

1

3

2

2

SOŠSE Velešín

7

8

5

7

9

4

6

2

4

3

SPŠSaS Tábor

12

4

2

5

7

8

9

5

4

6

Poˇcet testov

29

22

21

24

29

28

24

14

15

15

%

13

10

9,6

10,93

13,22

12,74

10,83

6,4

6,64

6,64

Graph 1 shows the evaluation of the number of correct words by single-level schools. The table shows that a maximum of 29 students correctly completed 13 and 17 words, i.e. 13.22% and 28 students completed 18 words, i.e. 12.74% of all added words. The fewest students completed 20 words, i.e. 6.4% and 14 and 15 words were added by 21 and 22 students, i.e. 6.64% of all added words. In Graph 1, we demonstrate the results from Table 3, where the number of pupils in the actor’s school is displayed, how many correctly completed the individual number of words. Graph 2 shows the percentage expression of the number of pupils to the correctly completed words from the total number of tested.

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Graph 1. The number of correctly completed words by individual schools (own)

22

15

6,64

21

15

6,64

20

14

6,4

19

10,83

24

18

28

17

29

16

12,74 13,22 10,93

24

15

21

14

22

13

9,6 10 13

29 0

10

20

30

40

50

Graph 2. Percentage evaluation of the Cloze test (own)

The Hypothesis is Valid: All students completed at least 13 words correctly. A maximum of 12 pupils of SPŠSaS Tábor completed 13 words and also 6 pupils of SPŠSaS Tábor completed the largest number of 22 words.

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4.3 Recommendations for Pedagogical Practice Based on the above, we recommend for further teaching practice: a) finalize the teaching text and process it in the form of a textbook on engineering technology for the 1st year of SPŠ, b) prepare the textbook in pdf format on a CD, when the textbook can be forwarded to the students in electronic form and can be used in that, the teacher can select the covered subject matter and forward only the necessary statements to the students, or use pictures to explain the subject matter c) selected parts of the textbook can be used in the subject of technology in elementary school to expand the curriculum in machining classes, d) use the method of didactic games in professional subjects, e) develop technical skills for the use of modern didactic techniques and modern didactic technologies in teaching and thereby prepare pupils for the possibility of distance education.

5 Conclusion Teaching aids are a very necessary means for ensuring clarity in teaching. In many cases, they connect several subjects and thus bonds in intersubject relationships are created. At the same time, there are important relations between theory and practice. Realistically, e.g. machines, devices, tools and gauges become didactic means and teaching aids in teaching and professional training. In dual education, students have real professional training in a company or factory from the second year, where they are gradually involved in production or companies have their professional training in separate workshops. Here, from the point of view of didactics, there is a connection between theory and practice, but here there is a second big dimension and that is solving the question of where to go after finishing school, if the graduate is looking for his first job. The experimental part was solved using the statistical method, where we examined the readability of the professional text for pupils. After performing the analysis, we found that the hypothesis was confirmed. Our labour market needs a lot of high-quality experts in technical fields, and the biggest problem is with craftsmen, who are massively disappearing from the market. SOŠ and OU began to adapt again to the labor market and the needs of society. Our common goal is to raise good experts and technicians, and for this we also need good teachers not only of theory but also of practice, and above all to get good experts and experienced technicians into education for the department, so that students receive knowledge, experience and skills in practice (Kuˇcerka, 2021). This contribution was supported by the following projects: grant KEGA No. 001TTU-4/2023 “The development of language competences supporting the language education of future primary school teachers in schools with Hungarian as the language of instruction” and Grant KEGA No. 002VŠDTI-4/2022 “Creation of an interactive support tool for beginning teachers of upper secondary education in Slovakia”.

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References Bendíková, E.: Theory of Health, Movement and Lifestyle of Human Beings. University of Debrecen, Debrecen (2017). 978-963-473-219-8 Blaško, M.: Kvalita v systéme modernej výuˇcby, 391 s. Košice: TUKE (2013). [cit. 19.7.2015]. Dostupné na internete: http://web.tuke.sk/kip/download/vuc01.pdf Driensky, D., Hrmo, R.: Materiálne didaktické prostriedky. Bratislava: Vydavateˇlstvo STU (2004). ISBN 80-227-2159-X Driensky, D.: Didatická technika. Bratislava: Vydavateˇlstvo STU (1998). ISBN 80-227-1144-6 Hašková, A., Pisoˇnová, M, Bitterová, M. a kol.: Didaktické prostriedky ako optimalizaˇcný faktor procesu vzdelávania. Hradec Králové: Gaudeamus (2011). ISBN 978-80-7435-160-0 Hlásna, S., a kol.: Úvod do pedagogiky, 356 s. Bratislava: ENIGMA (2006). ISBN 80-89132-29-4 Hrmo, R., Krištofiaková, L.: Quality assurance in higher education with a focus on the quality of university teachers. In: Miština, J., Hrmo, R. (eds). Key Competences and the Labour Market, 298 s. Warsaw: Warsaw Management University Publishing House, Poland (2016). ISBN 978-83-7520-223-6 Hrmo, R., a kol.: Informaˇcné a komunikaˇcné technológie vo výuˇcbe. Trnava: AluminiPress (2009). ISBN 978-80-8096-101-5 Kuˇcerka, D.: Rozvoj informaˇcnej kompetencie prostredníctvom e-learningu. [Dizertaˇcná práca]. Bratislava, Trnava: MTF STU, (2011), 138 s. MTF – 10901 – 52863. Školiteˇl: doc. Ing. Roman Hrmo, PhD., ING-PAED IGIP Kuˇcerka: Materiálne didaktické prostriedky. [Rigorózna práca]. Dubnica: VŠ DTI, 104s (2021) Lajˇcin, D., Porubˇcanová, D.: Teamwork during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Emerg. Sci. J. Ital Publication 5 (2021). ISSN 2610-9182 Oberuˇc, J., Zapletal, L.: Family as one of the most important factors in a child’s upbringing (2017a) In: Acta EducationisGeneralis, vol. 7, no. 2 (2017). ISSN 1338-3965 Oberuˇc, J., Zapletal, L.: The role of the direct instruction method in teaching of secondary ˇ school students; G.B. Qepevko, B.L. Optincki.In: Zapisky Naukove. - Lvov: Univerzita manažentu a práva (2017b) Petlák, E.: Všeobecná didaktika. Bratislava: Iris, 311 s (2004). ISBN 80-89018-64-5. [3] Driensky, D.: Inžinierska pedagogika. Bratislava: Vydavateˇlstvo STU (2007). ISBN 978-80-8096-040-7 Pr˚ucha, J.: Pedagogická encyklopedia. Praha: Portál (2009). ISBN 978-80-7367-546-2 Pr˚ucha, J.: Moderní vzdˇelávací technologie, 93s. Praha: UJAK (2003). ISBN 80-86723-01-1 Smoleˇnáková, N., Bendíková, E.: Effect of the content standard for changing the level of knowledge of secondary school students. J. Phys. Educ. Sport 17(1), 182–187 (2017) ˇ ˇ Švejda, G., Kuˇcerka, D., Hrmo, R.: Technológia vzdelávania. Ceské Budejovice: VŠTE v Ceských Budejoviciach (2018). ISBN 978-80-7468-130-1 Turek, I.D.: Bratislava: Iura Edition, spol. s r.o. (2010). ISBN 978-80-8078-322-8 Vargová, M.: Inovácie technického vzdelávania s využitím IKT v pracovnom vyuˇcovaní, 95 s. Nitra: PF UKF (2014). ISBN 978-80-558-0687-7

Identifying the Learning Needs of Class Teachers in Primary and Secondary Schools in the Slovak Republic: Results of a Pilot Research Ján Záhorec, Adriana Poliaková(B) , and Vladimíra Zemanˇcíková Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovak Republic {zahorec,zemancikova}@fedu.uniba.sk, [email protected]

Abstract. The authors present the conceptual and methodological background of a sample survey aimed at identifying the educational needs of class teachers at the secondary level (ISCED 2; ISCED 3) of education in Slovakia. The results of the main phase of the sample survey will be the basis for the design of the content of the Classroom Management course and the related textbook and web portal. The paper summarizes the results of the pilot testing of the developed measurement instrument, the purpose of which was to assess its reliability and to identify suspect items through reliability/item analysis. The overall reliability of the questionnaire was calculated using Cronbach alpha, standardized reliability coefficient and correlation. The results obtained show the high internal consistency of the developed measurement instrument and guarantee a trustworthy research data collection, which will be followed. Keywords: educational needs · classroom management · class teacher · teacher training · ISCED 2 · ISCED 3 · research instrument verification

1 Introduction Quality professional preparation of teachers is one of the key themes of the expert discussions, devoted to the content changes in the programmes of undergraduate teacher training at universities. In agreement with Hermochova [1], we consider a major problem of the current undergraduate teacher training to be the fact that the area of specific competences of the class teacher is not sufficiently included in the curricula of pedagogical faculties as a standard. The aim of the KEGA project (a project of the Grant Agency for Culture and Education of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic), of which the research instrument presented here is a part, is to contribute to content changes in higher education teacher education in the area of classroom management.

2 Context of the Research and Its Objectives Pedagogical research has always focused on the teacher, but the class teacher has not enjoyed much popularity in the Czech research environment, especially in recent years [2], and the same is true for Slovakia as well. More recent research focusing on the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 479–490, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_45

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position of the class teacher includes the research of Krátka, Gulová, Stˇrelc [3] and Bacúšan Nevolná [4]. However, research on teachers in general also yields valuable findings more closely tied to the specialized activity of the class teacher. Analysis of international theoretical and research studies has identified areas where novice teachers encounter problems, one of which is that their preservice training does not equip them with sufficient knowledge, skills and dispositions to practice the profession [5–8]. Pr˚ucha states that [9], based on the results of research conducted in the countries of the USA, Canada and Australia, beginning teachers encounter problems in practice, such as, in particular, maintaining discipline in the classroom, motivating students, developing relationships with parents, organizing the work of students in the classroom, etc.. This is closely related to the fact that from day one they perform various duties, including those of a class teacher, which is also confirmed by the research of Kalhous and Horák [10], and Bacúšan Nevoˇlná [4]. However, teachers rate the university preparation for the position of class teacher as insufficient [11]. University preparation related to classroom management has long been perceived by teachers not only in our environment but also abroad as a weaker aspect of their preservice training, with teachers pointing primarily to its overly theoretical [7, 12–16]. Preparation in the field is usually evaluated positively by teachers, but preparedness in dealing with pupil discipline, working with pupils with special educational needs (SEN), cooperation with parents, or mastery of pedagogical documentation is evaluated as insufficient [17]. Which areas of classroom management do teachers reflect as deficient in their teaching activities? Based on the analysis of research findings, it appears that communication with parents and problem behaviour of pupils, which are among the significant sources of teachers’ professional load, are not sufficiently covered in preservice training [18–23]. Coping with pupil problem behaviour is a challenging area of classroom management, but not only novice teachers in Slovakia but also abroad [6, 13, 14, 17, 24, 25] specifically perceive their lack of preparedness to prevent and deal with pupil problem behaviour. Similar is the case with preparation for working with pupils with special educational needs [17, 26, 27] and keeping pedagogical documentation [4, 13, 14, 16, 17].

3 Development of a Methodology for Self-assessment of the Educational Needs of Classroom Teachers at the Secondary Level of Education The aim of the conducted sample survey was to map the opinions of a selected sample of teachers at ISCED 2 and ISCED 3 on the need for further training in selected activities of a class teacher with the intention of forming and developing their professional competences. The research set of teachers of the screening investigation was formed exclusively by teachers performing the activity of a class teacher at the secondary level of education according to the legislative provision of § 37 (Sect. 2) of Law No. 138/2019 on pedagogical employees and professional staff [28]. The sample set for the implementation of the questionnaire survey was compiled using the technique of available sampling. We used a quantitative approach to address the research problem. The methodology of the analysis of self-assessment of educational needs of teaching staff in the career position

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of class teacher in primary and secondary schools (ISCED 2; ISCED 3) was based on screening the opinions of teachers with different lengths of teaching experience, with different focus of their approbation subjects, as well as with regard to different degrees and levels of school education at which the teachers in question operate according to the Law No. 245/2008 on Upbringing and Education [29]. To screen the opinions of the research sample of participants, a questionnaire developed by us was used, consisting of 89 items incorporated into seven areas of inquiry: • area A aimed at identifying the respondent in terms of gender, length of their teaching experience in the (career) position of class teacher, as well as with regard to the nature of the subjects they teach or the type of school in which the teachers concerned work, etc.; • area B, aimed at identifying the need for further training of class teachers in selected administrative activities related to the job of a class teacher in a primary school/secondary school; • area C, aimed at identifying the need for further training of class teachers in the area of coordinating the classroom in which they serve as a class teacher; • area D, aimed at identifying the need for further training in selected educational/upbringing activities falling within the competencies of the class teacher in a primary school/secondary school; • area E, aimed at identifying the need for further training for class teachers in selected activities falling within the field of communication and cooperation of the class teacher with the school management, with pedagogical and professional staff of the school, with the pupil’s legal representatives, with representatives of various institutions and organisations, with pupils; • area F aimed at identifying the need of class teachers for further education in the field of pedagogical diagnostics falling within the scope of the class teacher’s work; • area G, aimed at identifying the need for class teachers to undertake further training in the area of selected preventive activities related to their job description as a class teacher in primary schools/secondary schools. The specification of the above-mentioned areas of assessment was based on extensive research of available domestic and foreign sources [3–6, 30], on consultations with all kind of experts in the given field. The basis of any measurement process is data acquisition, which must be objective, reliable and valid [31]. Since the questionnaire used for the purpose of our research was not standardized, but was created by us, we considered it necessary to validate it in terms of its reliability before using it.

4 Verification of the Research Tool The validity of the research instrument was assessed through its use in a pilot research to assess its reliability and to identify suspect items through reliability/item analysis. By analyzing reliability/items we can increase the reliability of the questionnaire, or we can avoid using a poor quality questionnaire through which the data obtained would have no meaningful value, no matter what advanced method we use to process it further. Verification of the questionnaire was carried out in the second half of 2022, prior to the

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administration of the verified questionnaire (=stage 2) on a research sample of 12 female majority secondary education teachers with varying lengths of teaching experience. The pilot research sample of respondents was statistically sufficient and hence it was possible to assess the reliability of the questionnaire and identify suspect items using statistical methods. Out of the total 89 items of the developed research instrument, 60 ordinal items grouped in 6 assessment areas (in the following part of the text referred to as areas B to G) were included in the statistical measurement for the process of its verification. In these items, teachers’ attitudes towards the aspects being assessed are measured using a fivepoint Likert scale ranging from 5 to 1. A higher level of agreement with the statement is marked with a 4 (rather yes = rather I have a need for further education in the activity), complete agreement is marked with a 5 (yes = definitely I have a need for further education in the activity). A higher level of disagreement (rather no = rather I have no need for further education in the activity) with the statement made is indicated by a value of 2, complete disagreement (no = definitely I have no need for further education in the activity) is indicated by a level of 1. The choice of a neutral, emotionally indifferent evaluative attitude towards questions B1 to B12 of the administered questionnaire is marked with a value of 3 (neither yes nor no = I both have and do not have a need for further education in the activity). For each respondent, the value of the scale was recorded for each ordinal item of the administered questionnaire according to the degree of positive or negative attitude towards the aspect under consideration. The research data collection questionnaire was administered electronically. Teachers who completed this questionnaire had successfully completed several innovation and updating programs/courses in their in-service training focusing on selected activities applicable to the intent of their own practice as an primary/secondary school class teacher on which the items of our research instrument focus. On this basis, we can consider the research sample to be representative and the selfassessment of the participating respondents to be relevant in terms of the focus of the research. The reliability of the research instrument developed by us was confirmed by assessing its reliability and identifying suspect items through reliability/item analysis. The overall reliability of the questionnaire in the above six areas of inquiry, i.e. in terms of items B1 to B12 (area B), C1 to C5 (area C), D1 to D14 (area D), E1 to E12 (area E), F1 to F5 (area F) and items G1 to G12 (area G) was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, standardized reliability coefficient and correlation. Finally, the questionnaire was modified in its final form according to the comments identified. Item reliability analysis of the validated research instrument confirmed the results of the data exploration, where the most suspect items reducing the overall reliability of the questionnaire were identified in survey area B, in which we asked teachers through the items to what extent they perceived the need for further training in the stated administrative activities associated with the job of a class teacher in the primary/secondary schools (Table 1). Another area of testing in which suspicious items of the administered questionnaire were identified was area F, through the items of which we asked teachers to what extent they perceived the need for further education in the area of pedagogical diagnosis falling within the intentions of the job description of a class teacher (Table 1). The final area of the pilot testing of the research instrument in which suspect items were

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Table 1. Questionnaire statistics after removing relevant items. Statistical indicator / evaluated item

Mean if deleted

Standard deviation Item-total if deleted correlation*

B2 F5 B10 B4 B12 F4 D5 D4 B9 B6 B8 F2

194.6667 194.0000 195.0833 195.0000 194.6667 193.9167 193.0000 193.0833 195.0000 193.9167 194.2500 194.1667

71.4217 71.0141 71.1928 71.2659 71.0954 70.8501 71.2367 71.2197 71.0176 71.1354 70.7532 70.9000

0.3935* 0.5254* 0.5285* 0.5194* 0.5950* 0.6613* 0.6148* 0.6397* 0.6523* 0.6575* 0.7226* 0.7228*

Alpha if deleted** 0.992447** 0.992431** 0.992347** 0.992339** 0.992286** 0.992252** 0.992251** 0.992232** 0.992231** 0.992218** 0.992184 0.992165

Legend to Table 1: * < average correlation between items; ** > Cronbach's alpha; B2 – agenda related to the record of pupils' achievements; B4 – agenda related to school attendance; B6 – agenda related to the teaching of pupils with special educational needs (SEN); B8 – agenda related to the organization of joint class activities; B9 – agenda related to the distribution and registration of textbooks; B10 – agenda related to the Covid-19 pandemic; B12 – other agenda (informed consent, questionnaire for parents about personal data, class fund...); D5 – cooperation of the class teacher with experts in solving problematic behavior of pupils; D4 – cooperation of the class teacher with parents in solving problematic behavior of pupils; F2 – preparation of the interview, its implementation and data evaluation; F4 – preparation of sociometry, i.e. j. diagnosis of social relations between students in the classroom, its implementation and data evaluation; F5 – other pedagogical diagnostics (e.g. test, scaling)

identified was area D, in which we asked teachers through items to what extent they perceived a need for further training in the educational activities listed above that fall within the remit of a class teacher in an primary/secondary schools (Table 1). On the other hand, we are pleased to note that the results of the questionnaire verification confirmed that query areas C, E and G do not show any suspicious items that would reduce the overall reliability of the developed research instrument. These are items focusing on teachers’ self-reflection on the need for further training in the area of coordination of the primary/secondary school classroom in which they are class teachers (area C), as well as items focusing on teachers’ need for further training in the area of communication and collaboration of the class teacher with other actors, such as with the school administration, with other teaching and professional staff of the school, with pupils and their legal representatives, or with representatives of different institutions and organizations (area E). The area of inquiry, through the items of which we ascertained from teachers how they perceived their need for further training in selected preventive activities related to the job description of a class teacher in primary/secondary schools, was also the area (G), which after testing did not show any suspicious items reducing

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the overall reliability of the developed research instrument. Based on the above, in the next section of the paper, we will focus on a more detailed statistical analysis of the partial results of the item reliability assessment within the queried area B of the administered research instrument, i.e., the area within which the most suspect items of the administered research instrument were identified. 4.1 Analysis of Suspicious Items in Questionnaire Area B In Area B of the research instrument, we asked the respondents of our pilot research – teachers of secondary education (ISCED 2; ISCED 3) through items B1 to B12 about their need for further training in selected administrative activities related to the job of a class teacher in primary/secondary schools. For example, we asked about activities related to the agenda of evaluation of pupils’ progress and behaviour, activities related to the distribution and registration of textbooks, activities related to the education of pupils with SEN, or activities related to the organisation of joint classroom activities, etc. In order to assess the reliability of the measurement instrument used, after receiving survey data from a sample of the subjects – class teachers of the secondary level of education at primary/secondary schools – we assessed its internal consistency, which is an indicator of the targeting of the items to the area under study. On the basis of the postitem analysis performed, we wanted to identify both possible suspicious items in the tested area B of the questionnaire, which would reduce its overall reliability, and the items that had the greatest impact on the variability of the overall score of the used research instrument. The correlation matrix of the test items from the surveyed area B of the questionnaire is presented in Table 2 by means of a color map. In this case, suspect items are those where independence or very low positive correlation (grey, < 0.2), or independence or negative correlation between items (red, > −0.2), or low positive correlation (pale blue, < 0.4) was identified. Conversely, blue indicates a positive correlation (> 0.4), which argues in favour of the targeting of these items to the study area. From the correlation matrix of the questionnaire items (Table 2) we can see that between most of the items of the studied area B the value of the correlation coefficient r > 0.4 from which we can conclude that there is a certain degree of interdependence between these items (the more the correlation coefficient approaches the value of 1, the stronger is the directly proportional dependence). This fact indicates a positive correlation between the items, which speaks in favour of the internal consistency of the questionnaire’s domain of interest. The exceptions are items B2, B4, B7, B10, B11 and B12, which do not correlate with some of the other items in the questionnaire, suggesting that the values are not changing significantly (Table 2). A low positive correlation (correlation coefficient r < 0.4) and a very low positive correlation (correlation coefficient r < 0.2) were identified between some of the items in domain B of the questionnaire, respectively. There is a negative correlation (r < 0) between items B2 and B6, i.e. the values change together but in the opposite direction (while the values of one variable decrease the other variable increases). Based on these results, it is items B2, B4, B6, B7, B10, B11 and B12 that we identify as suspect.

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Table 2. Correlation matrix of the items of the monitored area B of the questionnaire. B3

B4

B1

B1

1.0000 0.1951

B2

0.6278

0.2306 0.4332 0.5264

B5

B6

B7

B8

B9

B10

B11

B12

B2

0.1951 1.0000

0.4264

0.7679 0.4599 - 0.0188 0.3965 0.5550 0.4537 0.3435 0.3241 0.4946

B3

0.6278 0.4264

1.0000

0.4873 0.8250 0.5199

0.9197 0.7159 0.5666 0.2720 0.3870 0.7052

B4

0.2306 0.7679

0.4873

1.0000 0.4916 0.1876

0.4123 0.4856 0.4213 0.7360 0.5510 0.5719

B5

0.4332 0.4599

0.8250

0.4916 1.0000 0.6580

0.6479 0.6962 0.6620 0.3268 0.3742 0.7069

B6

0.5264 - 0.0188 0.5199

0.1876 0.6580 1.0000

0.3915 0.4190 0.5277 0.2964 0.3915 0.5074

B7

0.7483 0.3965

0.9197

0.4123 0.6479 0.3915

1.0000 0.7825 0.5469 0.3268 0.4030 0.7344

B8

0.4583 0.5550

0.7159

0.4856 0.6962 0.4190

0.7825 1.0000 0.7807 0.4861 0.3903 0.9037

B9

0.4507 0.4537

0.5666

0.4213 0.6620 0.5277

0.5469 0.7807 1.0000 0.4453 0.1471 0.8556

B10 0.2072 0.3435

0.2720

0.7360 0.3268 0.2964

0.3268 0.4861 0.4453 1.0000 0.6679 0.5627

B11 0.4185 0.3241

0.3870

0.5510 0.3742 0.3915

0.4030 0.3903 0.1471 0.6679 1.0000 0.3226

B12 0.5028 0.4946

0.7052

0.5719 0.7069 0.5074

0.7344 0.9037 0.8556 0.5627 0.3226 1.0000

0.7483 0.4583 0.4507 0.2072 0.4185 0.5028

Legend to Table 2: r >= -1 -0.80 -0.60 -0.40 -0.20 0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80

As part of the testing, we also applied a multivariate exploratory technique namely reliability/item analysis of the developed research instrument. Tables 3 and 4 visualize the results obtained from the above analysis. By analyzing the reliability/items, we can increase the reliability of the questionnaire, or we can prevent the use of a low-quality questionnaire, through which the data obtained would have no meaningful value, no matter what advanced method we use to process it further. The reliability coefficient value of 0.99 (99%) reflects the proportion of the sum of the variability of the scale items to the total variability of the questionnaire. Both estimates (Cronbach’s alpha and standardized alpha) are exactly the same, indicating high internal consistency of the questionnaire items (Table 3). Table 3. Summary statistics of the questionnaire.

Summary for scale:

Valid N

Mean

Standard deviation

Average inter-item correlation

Cronbach’s alpha

Standardized alpha

12

197.3330

75.1197

0.7285

0.9922

0.9922

The questionnaire can be considered highly reliable in terms of the above group of items, however, the average item to item correlation (0.7285) suggests that the reliability of the constructed research instrument could be further increased after potential removal of some items or their modification. The data tabulation (Table 4) approximates the statistics of the area B questionnaire after removing the relevant item for the entire research population of respondents without differentiating them according to individual segmentation factors. The mean values of the total questionnaire score after removing the item, the standard deviation values, the

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correlation values between the item and the total questionnaire score, and the reliability coefficient values are reported. Table 4. Area B questionnaire statistics after removal of relevant items. Statistical indicator / evaluated item

Mean if deleted

Standard deviation if deleted

Item-total correlation*

Alpha if deleted**

B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12

194.4167 194.6667 194.5000 195.0000 194.1667 193.9167 194.5000 194.2500 195.0000 194.4167 194.6667 195.0833

70.9712 71.4217 70.8267 71.2659 70.8012 71.1354 70.8549 70.7532 71.0176 70.7407 71.0954 71.1928

0.7532 0.3935* 0.7442 0.5194* 0.7942 0.6575* 0.7554 0.7226* 0.6523* 0.8162 0.5950* 0.5285*

0.992136 0.992447** 0.992147 0.992339** 0.992095 0.992218** 0.992133 0.992184 0.992231** 0.992073 0.992286** 0.992347**

Legend to Table 4: * < average correlation between items; ** > Cronbach's alpha; B1 – the agenda related to the interim and final assessment of pupils' performance; B2 – agenda related to the record of pupils' achievements; B3 – agenda related to the assessment of the pupils' behavior and the granting of educational measures; B4 – agenda related to school attendance; B5 – agenda related to the class teacher's reporting obligation; B6 – agenda related to the teaching of pupils with SEN; B7 – agenda related to the preparation of documents for the meetings of the pedagogical council; B8 – agenda related to the organization of joint class activities; B9 – agenda related to the distribution and registration of textbooks; B10 – agenda related to the Covid-19 pandemic; B11 – agenda related to class meetings and parent associations; B12 – other agenda (informed consent, questionnaire for parents about personal data, class fund...); D5 – cooperation of the class teacher with experts in solving problematic behavior of pupils; D4 – cooperation of the class teacher with parents in solving problematic behavior of pupils; F2 – preparation of the interview, its implementation and data evaluation; F4 – preparation of sociometry, i.e. j. diagnosis of social relations between students in the classroom, its implementation and data evaluation; F5 – other pedagogical diagnostics (e.g. test, scaling)

Measurement using the scale showed (Table 4) that six items – B1, B3, B5, B7, B8, B10 from domain B of the administered research instrument correlated with the total score of the scale and after removing them, the reliability coefficient – Cronbach’s alpha (0.9922) decreased. For the remaining items, i.e. B2, B4, B6, B9, B11 and B12 we observe the opposite situation, in these cases the reliability coefficient (Alpha if deleted) increased. In the context of the findings obtained in items B2, B4, B6, B9, B11 and B12, it is possible to hypo-ethically talk about items reducing the overall reliability of the questionnaire, so we will subject them to a more in-depth qualitative analysis.

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From the pilot testing of the research instrument, it is noteworthy, among other things (Table 4), that for items B2, B4, B6, B9, B11, B12 reducing the overall reliability of the questionnaire, the correlation between the respective item and the overall score of the questionnaire (Item-total correlation) shows smaller values than the average correlation between items (0.7285). For the second item (B2), which was identified as suspect through the correlation analysis of the items of the research instrument, we observe the lowest correlation with the total questionnaire score (0.3935*) among all the items of domain B tested. At the same time, after removing it, the reliability coefficient increased the most (0.9924**). An interesting finding is that for the eighth item (B8), as in the case of items B2, B4, B6, B9, B11, and B12, a lower correlation value with the total questionnaire score (0.7226*) than the average correlation between items (0.7285) was observed, but after removing it, the reliability coefficient remained almost unchanged (0.99218**). This means that items B2, B4, B6, B8, B9, B11, B12 correlate but below average with the total scale score of the questionnaire, from which we can infer that the values vary independently. Based on these results, it is these items that have been identified as suspect. For the remaining items, i.e. B1, B3, B5, B7, B10, an above-average correlation was identified – a directly proportional linear relationship between the items and the total questionnaire score. It is evident from the tabulation of the data (Table 4) that the overall resulting values of the standard deviation if deleted of the respondents’ answers to the single items B1 to B12 were not extremely different. For all the items tested in area B of the questionnaire, we observe a phenomenon where the value of standard deviation (75.1197) decreased after the respective item was removed. The smallest decrease in standard deviation is observed for items B2, B4, B6, B9, B11 and B12 reducing the overall reliability of the questionnaire. In terms of this statistical indicator, the most homogeneous responses were observed for item B2 (standard deviation after removing item B2: 71.4217), where the variability of the overall questionnaire score decreased the least after its removal. This is the item in which we looked at the responses of lower secondary and upper secondary teachers in primary/secondary schools on their need for further training in the agenda related to recording pupils’ academic achievements. The measurement using the scale showed that when any of the test items B1 – B12 of area B of the research instrument were deleted, the mean score of the questionnaire (Mean if deleted) decreased. The most noticeable drop in the value of this statistical indicator is seen for item B6 (193.9167). Through their responses to this item, primary/secondary school teachers were positive about the need for further training in the agenda related to the teaching of students with SEN. Along with this statement, it should be added that the respondents’ responses to this item were among the most homogeneous among the items B1 to B12. Regarding the heterogeneity of the responses of the selected items related to the administrative responsibilities of the classroom teacher B2, B4, B9, B11, B12, these disturb the homogeneity or internal consistency of the research instrument. According to current research on administrative load on inservice teachers [32], these point to a reduction or minimal streamlining of administrative load. Comprehensive information systems, such as Edupage and similar, with which the regional education system in Slovakia is equipped, would contribute to this to a large extent. Teachers are supported

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and a huge amount of accompanying material in the form of manuals or video tutorials is produced. Through them, class teachers can almost easily manage even a small part of the class teacher’s agenda related to e.g. B2 – with the recording of pupils’ achievements, B4 – with school attendance, B6 – with the teaching of pupils with SEN, B9 – with the distribution and recording of textbooks, B11 – with the class meetings and parent associations, B12 – with other agendas (informed consent, questionnaire for parents on personal data, class fund…). In our opinion, item B6 reduced the reliability of the whole questionnaire due to the fact that respondents perceived the greatest educational need in that area. The high median value in item B6 is explained by the fact that the problem of optimal education of pupils with SEN in primary and secondary schools is one of the permanently topical, but at the same time persistently unsolved problems. Pupils with SEN are increasingly becoming a “chapter” in the work of class teachers. Based on the findings of other research, we know that Slovak teachers declare a high level of need for further education in the area of teaching pupils with SEN [14, 16, 17, 33], while the management of the administrative agenda related to the education of pupils with SEN is an indispensable part of it. Among the key sources of administrative burden for Slovak teachers, the individual integration of pupils is an important one. Although the “form of pupil educated in school integration” [32] has been significantly simplified since 2015, teachers still perceive this administrative agenda as burdensome, which was evident in the pilot testing of this research. We hypothesize that the differences in the responses to the questionnaire items B2, B4, B6, B9, B11, B12, of experienced classroom teachers and novice classroom teachers may have caused them to be classified as suspicious. Other reasons may include the fact that there is no coherent methodological practices in both the administrative and other areas of class teachers’ training as well as practice in the country.

5 Further Stages of the Research Survey In the next phase of the research investigation, a random selection of subjects into a representative group was carried out. The final version of the author’s questionnaire was distributed electronically to class teachers working at ISCED 2; ISCED 3 in Slovakia and the Czech Republic. Coding, digitization and data analysis are currently underway. In the near future, the research findings will be interpreted and conclusions will be formulated, which will form the basis for the creation of the main outputs of the project (university textbook, web portal). These outputs will be content-compatible, while the web portal will be supplemented with multimedia in addition to text elements. Both outputs will be created as part of a battery of didactic materials that would help, especially in the undergraduate preparation of students at universities, as well as classroom teachers in practice, to orient themselves in the stated activities (agenda) of the classroom teacher (areas B – F, page 3) with the intention of forming and developing their professional competences. Acknowledgment. This work was supported by the Grant Agency for Culture and Education of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic under the project No. KEGA 066UK-4/2021.

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Adults’ Readiness to Embrace 4th Industrial Revolution Emerging Technologies in the South African Context Ntima Mabanza(B) Department of Information Technology, Central University of Technology, FreeState, Bloemfontein, South Africa [email protected]

Abstract. With the advent of the 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR), emerging technologies have influenced individuals and society. Yet, most of the available literature in South Africa focuses on implementing 4IR in the education sector, namely, colleges and higher education institutions. As a result, little is known about ordinary adults’ readiness to embrace 4IR. This study sought to investigate the adults’ readiness to embrace 4IR emerging technologies. A designed questionnaire was used to collect data from 103 adults about their technophobia level and willingness to embrace emerging technologies. Collected data, using the questionnaire, was analysed using descriptive statics. The general findings of this study demonstrated that adults had positive attitudes and perceptions regarding emerging technologies. Furthermore, it was discovered that adults were aware of the social influence, usefulness and benefits they could derive from 4IR emerging technologies and were enthusiastic over learning about them. Furthermore, the study suggested how to assist these adults, so they are able to take advantage of 4IR and become part of the future workforce. Keywords: Adults · 4IR · emerging technologies · readiness

1 Introduction The 4IR ushered in different emerging technologies that have become part of our everyday life and influenced our lifestyles, as we interact with them daily. Introducing these technologies aims to accelerate economic growth and improve quality of life. Hence, in the 4IR era, being literate is not only about the ability to read and write, however, it is further about being technologically literate. Here, the term technologically literate refers to the ability of an individual to have a basic understanding of the technology, and, be able to use it. 1.1 Technology Several definitions of technology have been proposed over the years. In this study, technology has been defined as the practical usage of scientific knowledge to solve © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 491–500, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1_46

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problems related to human needs [1, 2]. Technology is considered to be one of the crucial tools that may be used to advance society. Society has become technologically dependent; it has made society’s life easier. Humans use technology for various reasons, such as communicating, studying, travelling, carrying out business, etc. Humans’ lives and needs have evolved over the years; likewise, technology has evolved over the years, to keep pace with humans’ evolution and to meet humans’ needs. Usually, the term industrial revolution has been used to refer to technological change. Koloszar and Nemeth [3], described the industrial revolution as a period in which new technologies are widely adopted or used as a replacement for previously used ones. A systematic review of the existing literature reveals that there have been several industrial revolutions and these are ever-evolving. These include the First, Second, Third, and Four Industrial Revolutions. Additionally, each of these different waves of industrial revolutions varies in terms of their characteristics. Figure 1. Shows the different Industrial Revolution timelines, including a brief description of their different characteristics.

Fig. 1. The Industrial Revolutions [4]

Referring to various industrial revolutions shown in Fig. 1. Above, this study focuses on the 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR). 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR): two concepts are key points of the 4IR, namely convergence and connection [4]. • Connection: refers to how the use of technology eases the relationship or association between people, objects and space. • Convergence: describes how the use of technology facilitates things (i.e. people, objects and space) to come together and interact between them to form a new whole. The era of the 4IR has brought along different emerging technologies. A Few examples of these emerging technologies include Artificial Intelligence, the Internet of Things, 5G, Blockchain, Robotics, Virtual Reality and more [5]. Figure 2. Illustrates some characteristics, including a few examples of the components of 4IR technology. Furthermore, these technologies are ever-evolving and currently affecting both our individual and work life. Similar to any other technology, 4IR emerging technologies

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Fig. 2. Characteristics and components of 4IR technology [6]

also bring both benefits and challenges. Firican [7] identifies the following as some examples of many benefits that 4IR emerging technologies may bring: • Higher productivity: 4IR emerging technologies may improve productivity, as well as efficiency, in different professional fields. These technologies may enable individuals to perform their work-related tasks more effectively. • Improved quality of life: 4IR emerging technologies may provide opportunities for the creation of new types of products and services that may assist in increasing the efficiency and pleasure of our living conditions. • New markets: 4IR emerging technologies may provide a platform for enabling businesses or individuals to be innovative and allow them to stay competitive in their respective or new business markets. • Acquisition of new knowledge and develop new skills: 4IR emerging technologies provide prospects for lifetime learning and upskilling, allowing individuals to equip themselves with new knowledge and obtain new skills. Furthermore, [7] pointed out a few of the challenges associated with the 4IR emerging technology. These include: • Inequality: due to the differences within the society (i.e. intellectual level), there may be groups within the population that benefits from these 4IR emerging technologies. Hence, the largest beneficiaries of these technologies, tend to be individuals who are technologically oriented. • Cybersecurity risk: the risk of data breaches and identity theft for malicious intent, increase legitimate concerns regarding the use of emerging technologies. • Core industries disruptions: the adoption and use of emerging technologies have brought challenges and competition to the traditional ways of conducting business. For example, traditional taxi operators are competing against Uber.

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• Ethical Issues: the introduction or use of emerging 4IR technologies such as Artificial Intelligence, genetic engineering, etc., has raised issues regarding new ethical concerns, as well as morality questions. 4IR Emerging Technologies in the South African Context: The advent of 4IR emerging technologies has influenced individuals, as well as society, as a whole. South Africa (SA) is no exception to this movement. In line with this, the South African government has, thus far, put in place various strategies to drive the 4IR implementation in the country. The National Electronic Media Institute of South Africa (NEMISA) [8], is one example of such strategies. Nemisa’s mission consists of providing national digital skills training for the appropriate use of technology, to improve the quality of life of all people in South Africa [8]. NEMISA offers various forms of training, which seek to empower the South African citizenry with 4IR capabilities. A few examples of this training include Artificial Intelligence, Cloud Storage, the Internet, the Internet of Things and Digital Awareness. The NEMISA training is targeted at the South African population, to equip the citizens with the necessary 4IR skills. This may further allow the SA government to bridge the digital gap that exists within the South African population. The South African population consists of various types of individuals. These include children, young adults, adults and elders. In the context of this study, the emphasis will be on adults.

1.2 Adults The definition of an adult may be defined based on various aspects such as biological, legal, and so forth. In the context of this study, the focus will be on the legal aspect of the adult definition. An adult is an individual who has attained the age of majority and is, therefore, able to participate as a citizen in civil issues as a member of society [9, 10]. Adults make up the majority of the workforce in society. The World Health Organization (WHO), recognises the age of the majority to be older than 19 years of age [11]. However, in reality, the age of the majority may vary, depending on the national law of a given country. For example, according to South African law, the age of the majority is 18 years of age [12]. Emerging technologies have affected approximately every societal sector, such as education, industry, manufacturing, etc. Furthermore, it has reshaped the workforce’s future, by bringing novel ways and approaches to conduct business or to carry out work. Manda and Backhouse [13] argued that the ability of citizens to fully participate and benefit from a digitally transformed and innovative society, is specifically dependent on their e-readiness (e-literacy and e-skills). Additionally, Bayode, Van der Poll and Ramphal [14], acknowledged a limitation in the availability of literature related to the 4IR, concerning South Africa. For this reason, very little is known, regarding adults’ preparedness to embrace emerging technologies. To address these gaps in the literature, this study sought the answer to the following research question: “What is the readiness of adults to embrace the 4th Industrial Revolution’s emerging technologies?”.

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2 Related Works The existing literature reveals that a few studies have been carried out on the 4IR, in the context of South Africa, over the years. Below are a few examples of these previous relevant studies: Kayembe and Nel [15], investigated the challenges and opportunities for education in the 4IR in their study. They found that insufficient funding, infrastructure and skills to prepare graduates in participating in the 4IR, are the main challenges that are preventing the education sector in South Africa from adapting to the 4IR. Based on their findings, [15] suggested that the government invests in the following areas: infrastructure, human and technical development, as well as financial capacity, to develop the education system in participating in the 4IR. Denhere and Moloi [16], conducted a study to determine the readiness of South African Public Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) colleges, to operate in the 4IR. Their research revealed several problems that prevent the complete readiness of the majority of the TVETs for 4IR. These include insufficient teaching and learning technologies, the inability of some teaching staff to use the available technology, as well as poor connectivity. Furthermore, they also found a lack in the following areas: computing equipment, ICT infrastructure, ICT strategies and policy directives. A study by Ogunlela and Tengeh [17], aimed at determining the readiness of South African higher education institutions, for the 4IR in entrepreneurial universities, found varied issues preventing the implementation of 4IR in the majority of higher education institutions, such as a lack of requisite infrastructure, connectivity issues and inadequate funding. Referring to the previous studies discussed above, it is noted that these studies focused on the use or implementation of 4IR in the education sector, specifically in South African colleges and higher education institutions. In addition, in terms of population, college or higher institution students, were the focus of these studies. For this reason, not much is known, regarding the readiness of the general adult individuals within the South African society, to participate in 4IR, leaving a gap in the literature that should be filled. Hence, it is necessary to investigate these issues and fill that literature gap. In line with that, there is a requirement for the current study to examine South African adult individuals’ readiness to adopt emerging technologies.

3 Methodology 3.1 Study Participants Purposive sampling was deemed to be an appropriate sampling technique to decide on the types of potential participants to be included in this study. The following were the two reasons as to why purposive sampling was selected over others:(i) the researcher knew the characteristics of the targeted study participants, and (ii) further, had knowledge of the place and, where to acquire them. Henceforth, the population sample in this study consisted of a group of adults from Mangaung Municipality in Bloemfontein, South Africa.

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In this study, all necessary ethical processes were followed. The contents of the consent form were read and clearly explained to the participants regarding their rights, their contributions to the study, and the protection of their privacy. Furthermore, all individual study participants were requested to complete and sign a consent form, prior to participating in this study. 3.2 Data Collections Instruments The questionnaire was the main instrument used for collecting the essential data required for this study. Data collected using a questionnaire was information regarding the adults’ technophobia level and readiness to embrace emerging technologies. The questionnaire was administered manually.

4 Experiments and Results This section presents an analysis of data collected from respondents who freely participated in the study and answered the questionnaire. 4.1 Biographical Data Respondents’ ages varied, with the majority of them belonging to the 20 to 30 years age group (56%); 26% were between the ages of 31 to 40 years old; furthermore, 14% were under 20 years old, and 4% were above 40 years old. It may be deduced that all the respondents were adults, as they all met the requirement of the age of majority (i.e. 18 years), as defined by South African law. 4.2 Access to a Mobile Phone Data displayed in Fig. 3, indicated that all 103 respondents (100%), agreed to have a mobile phone. It may be deduced that each of these respondents owns a mobile phone.

Fig. 3. Access to a Mobile Phone

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4.3 Technophobia Level Figure 4. Displays data regarding the respondents’ technophobia level toward emerging technologies. 99 of the 101 respondents (98%), agreed that they do not feel intimidated when people discuss new technologies. Furthermore, 91 of the 102 respondents (89.0%), stated that they are not unnerved in learning about emerging technologies. To summarise, the data in Fig. 4. Indicates that the majority of the respondents are not technophobic toward emerging technologies. Rather, they have particularly positive attitudes and perceptions regarding 4IR’s emerging technologies.

Fig. 4. Technophobia Level

4.4 Will to Learn About Emerging Technologies As shown in Fig. 5. Below, 97 of the 102 respondents (95.0%), recognised the importance of learning emerging technologies. All 100 respondents (100.0%), are aware that using emerging technologies would increase their work prospects. 102 of the 103 respondents (99.0%), indicated that they are willing to be trained in emerging technologies if given the opportunity. Referring to the results displayed in Fig. 5, it may be presumed that the respondents have a strong enthusiasm for learning about emerging technologies. In addition, they are fully aware of the social influence, usefulness, as well as the various benefits they may derive from the emerging technologies.

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Fig. 5. Learning About Emerging Technologies

5 Discussion In an effort to understand the adults’ readiness to embrace emerging technologies, research entailing answering one main research question, was conducted. This design was preceded by an assessment of the status of the adults’ technophobia level and their willingness to learn about the 4IR’s emerging technologies. This was achieved through a questionnaire. The results of the questionnaire analysis, indicated that adults own mobile phones; they had significantly positive attitudes and perceptions regarding emerging technologies. Furthermore, it appeared that the adults had a strong enthusiasm for learning 4IR emerging technologies and were fully aware of the social influence, usefulness and various benefits that they could derive from them. These results indicate the adults’ substantial needs and willingness to learn more about emerging technologies. Based on these results, it is suggested that support systems should be in place, to facilitate access to emerging technologies training for adults. For example, providing the training that will equip adults with the necessary skills for the future, to participate fully and benefit from a digitally transformed society. Although the population group used in this study differs from the previous studies, nonetheless, the suggestion made in the current research is in line with the ones made by Kayembe and Nel [15], that the government has to invest in infrastructure, human and technical development, as well as the financial capacity to develop the education system to participate in the 4IR. This indicates that the requirements are equal across the board regarding the 4IR implementation in South Africa. Hence, the South African government’s intervention is crucial to successfully implement 4IR. The South African government, thus far, has strategies to drive the 4IR implementation. However, the implementation of 4IR is in its infancy; challenges currently should be addressed. For example, Manda and Backhouse [14], claimed that challenges such as poor monitoring and evaluation of policy implementation, governance challenges, as well as power and politics in the prioritisation of policies, impend South Africa’s vision of an inclusive digital society by 2030. Hence, according to [14], inclusive growth (i.e. government,

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business, higher education and civil society come together) is the optimal solution to these challenges.

6 Conclusion This study answered the question: “What is the readiness for adults to embrace emerging technologies?” To answer this question, a designed questionnaire was used to collect data about the adults’ viewpoints on their technophobia level and their readiness to embrace emerging technologies. The questionnaire analysis revealed that adults are competent in using (are able to use) mobile phones. The respondents’ technophobia data analysis indicated they had positive attitudes and perceptions regarding emerging technologies. Furthermore, the questionnaire result showed that respondents were fully aware of the social influence, usefulness and various benefits they could derive from 4IR emerging technologies and were enthusiastic about learning about them. Applying these findings to the research question posed in this study, it may be said that adults are ready to learn and willing to embrace emerging technologies. In line with this, it is suggested that support systems be put in place, to make it easier for adults to access 4IR emerging technologies training, equipping them with the necessary skills for the future, to participate fully and benefit from a digitally transformed society. Fortunately, the South African Government has, thus far, put in place programs, such as NEMISA, which has the mandate to provide digital skills training to empower the SA population with 4IR capabilities. Although NEMISA is in its infancy, with time, it may surely bear positive results. Furthermore, the current study had its limitations. Hence, based on the identified limitations, the following possible suggestions are formulated for future research: • All the respondents agreed to have a mobile phone. The possibility of including more adults from other provinces in the future and, further, including adults who do not own mobile phones, could be explored. • All the respondents have mobile phones; this indicates they may, thus far, be using some of the new 4IR technologies. As with any other technology, 4IR emerging technologies do have challenges. The possibility of investigating 4IR emerging technologies’ challenges (i.e. security issues, privacy, etc.) among adults, could be carried out in the future. • Technophobia data analysis, revealed that 11% of respondents felt intimidated to learn about emerging technologies. The possibility of investigating 4IR technology adoption reluctances among adults, should be explored in future. • According to the study results, 5% of respondents did not acknowledge the importance of learning emerging technologies. The possibility of a study to educate adults about the implication and benefits of 4IR emerging technologies in society, could be carried out in the future. Furthermore, the possibility of evaluating the progress of programs, such as NEMISA, which is mandated to provide digital skills training to empower the SA population with 4IR capabilities.

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References 1. Wiki Didactic. . What is the meaning of Technology? Concept, Definition of Technology (2013). https://edukalife.blogspot.com/2013/01/concepts-and-definition-of-technology.html (Accessed 02 June 2023) 2. Britannica. Technology (2022). https://www.britannica.com/technology/technology (Accessed 02 June 2023) 3. Koloszár, L., Németh, N.: The characteristics of the fourth industrial revolution: buzzword, hype or a radical change? E-CONOM 9(1), 91–104 (2020) 4. Samsung SDI, Technology (2016). https://www.samsungsdi.com/column/technology/detail/ 55162.html (Accessed 02 June 2023) 5. CompTIA. Emerging Technology Top 10 List (2020). https://connect.comptia.org/content/ infographic/emtech-top-10-2020 (Accessed 02 June 2023) 6. Selamat A., Rose A.A., Syed N. H., Marlia P., Siti H.T.: Higher Education 4.0: Current Status and Readiness in Meeting the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Minist. High. Educ. Malaysia, pp. 23–24 (August 2017) 7. Firican, G.: The pros and cons of the 4th industrial revolution (2020). https://www.lightsond ata.com/pros-cons-4th-industrial-revolution/ (Accessed 02 June 2023) 8. NEMISA. National Electronic Media Institute of South Africa (NEMISA) (2020). https:// nemisa.co.za/about-us/ (Accessed 02 June 2023) 9. Wikipedia. Adult (2020). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult (Accessed 02 June 2023) 10. Longe, O., Boateng, R.: Information & communication technology adoption among adults in south western nigeria: an assessment of usage-phobia factors. J. Inform. Technol. Impact 10(1), 65–86 (2010) 11. World Health Organization (WHO). Definition of key terms (2013). http://www.who.int/ hiv/pub/guidelines/arv2013/intro/keyterms/en/ (Accessed Retrieved 02 June) 12. Legal Aid South Africa, Child rights based on age (2022). https://legal-aid.co.za/2018/09/ 26/child-rights-based-on-age/#:~:text=The%20age%20of%20majority%20in,the%20age% 20of%2018%20years (Accessed 02 June 2023,) 13. Manda, M.I., Backhouse, J.: Towards a “Smart Society” Through a Connected and Smart Citizenry in South Africa: A Review of the National Broadband Strategy and Policy. In: Scholl, H.J., Glassey, O., Janssen, M., Klievink, B., Lindgren, I., Parycek, P., Tambouris, E., Wimmer, M.A., Janowski, T., Soares, D.S. (eds.) EGOVIS 2016. LNCS, vol. 9820, pp. 228– 240. Springer, Cham (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44421-5_18 14. Bayode, A., van der Poll, J.A., Ramphal, R.R.: 4th industrial revolution: challenges and opportunities in the South African context. In: Proceedings of the 17th Johannesburg International Conference on Science, Engineering, Technology & Waste Management, Johannesburg, South Africa, 18–19 November 2019, pp. 4–10 (2019) 15. Kayembe, C., Nel, D.: Challenges and opportunities for education in the fourth industrial revolution. African J. Public Affairs 11(3), 79–94 (2019) 16. Denhere, V., Moloi, T.: Readiness of public TVET for the fourth industrial revolution: the case of South Africa. Innovation of Vocat. Technol. Educ. 17(1), 37–51 (2021) 17. Ogunlela, B., Tengeh, R.: The fourth industrial revolution and the Future of the entrepreneurial university in South Africa. Inter. J. Res. Bus. Soc. Sci. 10(3), 91–100 (2021)

Author Index

A Azouani, Rabah

293

B Badawy, Ibrahim 200 Ballesteros-López, Leonardo 39 Bassiuny, A. M. 200 Batsila, Marianthi 104 Ben Aissa, Mohamed Fadhel 293 Benabbes, Khalid 442 Bendíková, Elena 387, 398 Bezerra, Rita 278 Blanco-Fernandez, Julio 331 Bosneagu, Romeo 128 Boumalek, Kaoutar 138 Breˇcka, Peter 421 Bryntseva, Olena 55 C Callea, Viviana 181 Chiarotto, Isabella 181 Clauss, Alexander 169 Couto, Manuel 116 Cukierman, Jessica 74 Cukierman, Uriel 74 D Darwish, Rania 200 Diaz, Gabriel 95 Dobay, Beáta 398 Dobrovská, Dana 410 Dreher, Ralph 305 Durães, Dalila 278 E El Mezouary, Ali 138, 442 Elliniadou, Elena 226 Engelbrecht, Julia Maria 373 Exler, Markus 3 F Fatieieva, Lina

47

G Georgiou, M. 366 Guerrero-Velástegui, Cesar-A. H Hamke, Eric 189 Hammer, Niels 11 Haseloff, Gesine 305 Hašková, Alena 432 Hmedna, Brahim 138, 442 Housni, Khalid 442 I Infante-Paredes, Ruth 31, 39 Isoc, Amalia-Hajnal 62 Isoc, Dorin 62, 213 J Jordan, Ramiro 189 K Kalogiannakis, Michail 320 Karmakar, Rita 86 Karstina, Svetlana 343 Karu, Katrin 355 Kaufhold, Nils 149 Kindl, Jakob 3 Kirollos, Sandra 293 Koechner, Donna 189 Kovalchuk, Anastasiia 47 Krištofiaková, Lucia 467 Kuˇcerka, Daniel 467 Küttim, Merle 270 L Lacerda, Beatriz 278 Landes, Dieter 239 Lavarde, Marc 293 Leichsenring, Anna 169 Leoste, Janika 157 Li, Guoyuan 128

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 M. E. Auer et al. (Eds.): ICL 2023, LNNS 900, pp. 501–502, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52667-1

31, 39

502

M Mabanza, Ntima 491 Mambetova, Roza Baltabaevna 23 Maresch, Lisa 3 Marian, Romeo Marin 213 Marmor, Kristel 157 Martín, Sergio 95 Martinez-de-Pison-Ascacibar, F. Javier Matrisciano, Apollonia 181 Mayorga-Gaona, Carlos 31 Michler, Albrecht 373 Michler, Oliver 373 Mitrakas, Nikolaos 104 Monika, Valentová 421 Morocho-Lara, Daniel 31 N Naskar, Sukanta Kumar 86 Navaridas-Nalda, Fermin 331 Nechuiviter, Olesia 47 Nel, Johanna Marietjie 262 Niine, Tarvo 270 Novais, Paulo 278 Nutt, Nele 355 Nuus, Rasmus 270 O Oksavik, Arnfinn 128 Osen, Ottar 128 Ouhbi, Sofia 455 P Papadakis, Stamatios 320 Pasichnyk, Maryna 55 Pernia-Espinoza, Alpha 331 Petry, Marcelo R. 116 Pöial, Jaanus 157 Poliaková, Adriana 479 Pombo, Nuno 455 Probst, Andreas 3 R Raamets, Jane 355 Rebane, Martin 157 Rehatschek, Herwig 11 Rus, Cristian Mihail 387

Author Index

331

S Sanz-Garcia, Andres 331 Sazhko, Halyna 47 Schrangl, Tanja 11 Schwarzbach, Paul 373 Sedelmaier, Yvonne 239 Semushina, Elena Yurievna 23 Silva, Manuel F. 116 Silva-Arcos, Pamela 39 Sofianopoulou, Chryssa 226 Sophocleous, T. L. 366 Steinert, Jan 149 Surubaru, Teodora 62, 213 Sz˝oköl, István 398, 467 T Talaghir, Laurentiu-Gabriel 387 Tammemäe, Kalle 157 Tempone, Roberta 181 Tolba, A. S. 200 Tomory, Ibolya 250 Trokhymchuk, Sergii 55 Tsihouridis, Charilaos 104 Tuisk, Tarmo 270 Tzagkaraki, Effransia 320 U Urbano, Santiago R. 95 Ursache, Mihai 181 V Vanˇecˇ ek, David 410 Vargas, Karen Silva 293 Vavougios, Dennis 104 W Wu, Baiheng

128

Y Yousuf, Mohammad

189

Z Záhorec, Ján 479 Zatkalík, Dominik 432 Zatkalík, Martin 432 Zellou, Ahmed 442 Zemanˇcíková, Vladimíra Zhang, Houxiang 128

479