Mandarin Chinese : a practical reference grammar for students and teachers Volume 1
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Mandarin Chinese: A Practical Reference Grammar for Students and Teachers (Vol.I)
Y.C.Li, Robert L. Cheng, Larry Foster, Shang H. Ho, John Y. Hou, Moira Yip
The Crane Publishing Co. Chinese Materials Center Publications
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Mandarin Chinese: A Practical Reference Grammar for Students and Teachers (Vol. I)
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PREFACE This
book
was
compiled
to m e e t
the g r o w i n g
reference grammar of spoken Mandarin usable
need for a
in the classroom by
beginners and experts alike. It is broad enough in scope to deal comprehensively with most major grammatical problems encountered in learning the language,
and at the same time rich enough in
detail to be effective as an on-the-spot problem-solving tool. We have tried to avoid highly abstract analyses and the unnecessary use of technical terminology in our explanations of grammar, and to further
as si s t
sentences
wherever
cross-referencing
the
lea rner,
have
appropriate.
not. only
to
the
provided
Ex-tensive existing
illustrative
and major
up-to-date series
of
textbooks but- to linguistics treatments of' special problems will enable readers to refer to and benefit from these other materials as well. This a general
is the first of two volumes of the Grammar. It provides introduction
to the language and discusses
basic sentence patterns,
the verb
phrase,
the more
and m o r p h o l o g i c a l
patterns. Volume II, to be published airter revision in 1984 , will deal with more complex constructions, and furthermore will beyond the immediate sentence to discpss utterances
in d i s c o u r s e ,
as
in
the
reach
the interrelation af
chapter
on C o n t e x t and
Antecedent. Following Grammar:
is
a. g e n e r a l
outline
of. t h e , c o n t e n t s
of
th,e
If
HiBta l
ii VOLUME I: CHAPTERS I-IV
T-------------------- ------ -
Chapter I:
introduction
Chapter II:
Types of Sentences, Order of Elements, Function Words
Chapter III: The Verb Phrase: Its Related Structures and Elements Chapter IV:
Word Formation, Particles, Compounds
VOLUME II: CHAPTERS V-VIII Chapter V:
The Noun Phrase: Its Related Structures and Elements
Chapter VI:
The Adverb Phrase: Its Related Structures and Elements
Chapter VII:
Coordination and Subordination
Chapter VIII: Context and Antecedent: Meaning and Use of the Language Work on this volume was made possible by two generous grants, from the-International Education Office of the US Department of Education,
for which we express our sincere gratitude. Special
thanks are also extended to the Head of the Division of Advanced Training & Research for his guidance and support. Furthermore, that the following
we would
like to acknowledge the contributions
individuals have made to the compilation of
this volume. James Dew, K. Y. Hsu, Timothy Light, C. P. Sobelman, Jam es
Tai,
and
R o nal d
Walton
served
as
field
readers
and
subsequently gave us useful suggestions. Catherine Barale, C. C. Cheng, Jing-heng Ma, Hilda Tao,
and Ronald Walton examined an
iii
early draft and took the time to return extensive comments and valuable criticism to us, much of which has been incorporated into the present edition. We are also grateful
to James Chow,
Robert Sanders, Lynne
Sandsberry, Patricia Wang and Alice Yu, participants in a Graduate Seminar project,
in Chinese L i n g u i s t i c s
who,
for
a collective
class
tested and evaluated the first draft of Volume I and
provided constructive criticism. Thanks are also due to the many students and teachers at the University of Hawaii, especially James Landers, who have read and added to our drafts. j •' Lynne Sandsberry edited the original drafts of this volume; revisions
were
collated
and edited by Cynthia Ning and Jean
Sibley. Shui-hsin Lai finalized
the index,
then James Huang and
Shuan-fan Huang checked over the entire volume again. To all of these individuals we are much beholden, and take this Opportunity to thank them sincerely. Finally,
we also express our gratitude to all the-student
helpers who typed,
photocopied
nitty-gritty clerical minutiae.
and
otherwise
Without
them,
assisted
with;
this work could
never have come to light. In
the
process
of
compiling
the G r a m m a r , we have become
increasingly aware of the difficulties
involved
in compiling a
reference tool which is useful and comprehensible to students and teachers, yet detailed and comprehensive enough to encompass all the e s s e n t i a l s
of C h i n e s e 'grammar
in linguistically accurate
fashion. We would appreciate comments and suggestions from our readers for future editions.
INTRODUCTION
The authors intended this book as a reference tool for both teachers and students of Chinese language courses at any level. Its contents were to be so arranged as to maximize accessibility to the key items and structures o f Chinese, each explained and clarified by an accompanying set o f illustrative sentences. To this end, we first isolated all the patterns and elements that the student is apt to encounter in approximately 4-5 years o f language study. These we delineated, evaluated, and ordered by degree o f complexity and frequency o f use, so that the simpler and more frequently encountered structures are discussed earlier on. Finally, we categorized the elements, grouping, for instance, verb-related structures into one unit and thus arrived at our scheme o f chapters. It is recommended that at the start, the user take time to familiarize her/himself in gross with Qur table o f contents; this will facilitate referral in the future. As an aid to this initiation process, we will give here a brief summary o f each chapter in this volume. Chapter one is a general interest, “ appetite-whetting” introduction to the nature o f the Chinese language. It sets the tone for the rest o f the work, and provides clues to the approach and attitude the student should adopt in tackling a tongue so radically different from her/his own as this one is. In chapter two the reader will find essentially all of the fundamental
structures o f Chinese, corresponding to material normally
covered, in two years o f classroom instruction. Most basic forms o f statements, ques tions, imperatives and interjections are explained here pattern by pattern. Chapter three focuses on the most crucial part o f any sentence: the Verb Phrase. It discusses the various types o f verbs and their usage, and lists sample verbs in each category. It also analyzes the time-related functions o f verbal constructions, notably those that mark tense and
aspect.
Chapter four deals with the components o f a Chinese word; it
describes the special characteristics o f word-forming units (called morphemes), o f elements that affect the meaning o f words (particles) and o f compound words that are made up o f two or more independent words or morphemes. A chapter is broken down into several sections. Each section usually contains the following parts in this sequence: we generally begin with an overview o f the section. Often this will consist o f a general definition or description o f the concept or construe-
ticwf iq be. covered. Next we provide a listing o f one or more sentence patterns, followed immediately by illustrative sentences demonstrating the application of, each sentence pattern. As it is usually the case that the same thought may be expressed in several different
ways,
patterns most often occur with several alternate forms. If slightly
different nuances or contexts ot usage exist for these varying forms, such differences will be explained in a discussion o f the patterns and their application. Finally, the reader will be provided a brief bibliography o f other texts that deal with the pattern just dicussed, complete with the relevant page numbers, and perhaps a summary o f the section, especially if it is a particularly complex one. For the further convenience of the user, we have appended an Index at the rear o f the volume. This general Index contains within it a Cross-Index o f terms drawn from the three major textbook series: that by John DeFrancis (Beginning, Intermediate and Advanced Chinese), (BC), by Yale University (Speak Mandarin) (SM) and by the Beijing Language Institute (Elementary Chinese) (EM). Thus although the name o f an item may vary from textbook to textbook, (a “ functive verb” in the Yale series is a “ (non-stative) verb” in DeFrancis’ and an “ action verb” in ours), the user will always be able to find our discussion of it via the Index. To give an example o f how the user may locate a particular item, let us suppose that a student using the DeFrancis series desires explication o f the uses o f the particle “ le” , beyond that which is available to him or her in the textbook. If the student realizes that le indicates the tense (aspect) o f a verb, a glance at the table o f contents will show that chapter three deals with verbs, and that section 3.6 is devoted entirely to Tense, Aspect and Time Relations. Persual o f the forty-odd pages there should provide all the information on le that is necessary in most cases. Alternatively, the user could look up le in the Index and be advised o f every page on which a discussion o f that particle occurs. Entries for le also occur under the head ings Marker, Aspect; Particle, Change-of-State; and Tense, Past. It is hoped that this combination of Table o f Contents and Index will thus provide the easy access we aimed to afford the user o f this Grammar.
Contents P R E F A C E .................... : ............................................................................................................. i IN T R O D U C T IO N ...................................
v
CHAPTER
IN T R O D U C T IO N ........................................................................
1
1.0.
General Remarks...........................................................................................
1
1.1.
Characteristics o f Mandarin Chinese G ram m ar.................................... 2
1.2.
Logic and Chinese Gram m ar............. ................................
I.
CHAPTER II.
TYPES
OF
SENTENCES,
ORDER
OF
27
ELEMENTS
A N D FUNCTION W O R D S ..............................................................36 2.1 .
Simple Sentences (Declarative Sentences)...........................................36
2 .1 .0 .
General Remarks................................................
36
2 .1 .1 .
Sentences with State (Non-Action) V erb s.........................
36
2 .1 .2 .
Sentences with Action Verbs..................................................................... 61
2.2 .
Questions (Interrogative Sentences) ...................................................
2 .2 .0 .
General Remarks............................................................................................ 72
2 .2 .1 .
Question Particles (ma, ne, ba, a /y a ) ......................................................72
2 .2 .2 .
Choice-Type (Disjunctive) Questions................................................... 82
2 .2 .3 .
Tag Questions (duibudui, haobuhao, xingbuxing, etc.) . . . . . . . .99
2 .2 .4 .
Negative Q uestions............................
2 .2 .5 .
Question Words (’ what,’ ‘w ho,’ ‘w hy,’ etc.)....................................... 104
2 .2 .6 .
Extended Uses o f Question Words (Indefin ites)............................. 116
2 .2 .7 .
Intonation Questions...................................................................................120
2.3 .
Command/Request (Imperative Sentences)...................................... 122
2 .3 .0 .
General Remarks.............................................
2 .3 .1 .
Auxiliary Verbs in Command/Request: Regular............................. 122
2 .3 .2 .
Auxiliary Verbs in Command/Request: Prohibitive............... .. . .1 2 8
2 .3 .3 .
Adverbs (Quality Verbs) in Command/Request Sentences . . : . 133
2 .3 .4 .
Verbs in Command/Request Sentences............................................. .1 3 9
2 .3 .5 .
Command/Request Particles................................................................... 142
2 .3 .6 .
Intonation in C om m and/R equest......................................................... 144
72
101
122
2 .3 .7 .
Command/Request Pronouns . . . . : ................................................... 145
2.4 .
Comparative P atterns.......................................................................... . .1 4 8
2 .4 .0 .
General Remarks....................
148
2.4 .1 .
Similarity with gen, you, xian g.............................
150
2.4 .2 .
Dissimilarity with bi, bu r u .........................................
157
2.5.
The ba Sentence ................................................................
163
2 .5 .0 .
General Remarks...............................' .........................................................163
2 .5 .1 .
Discussion................................................................................................... . . 1 6 3
2 .5 .2 .
R em arks.........................................................................................................
2 .5 .3 .
Other Discussions....................
170
2.6.
Passive Sentences..............................
171
2 .6 .0 .
General Remarks........................................................................................... 171
2 .6 .1 .
Discussion........................................................
2 .6 .2 .
R em arks............................................................................. .. . .....................179
2 .6 .3 .
Other Discussions..............................................
2 .7 .
Double N om inatives................................................................................... 181
2 .7 .0 .
General Remarks......................................................................................... .1 8 1
2 .7 .1 .
Discussion............................................................................
181
2 .7 .2 .
Other Discussions.............■..............................................................
184
2.8.
Minor Sentences...................................
185
2 .8 .0 .
General Remarks...........................................................................................185
2 .8 .1 .
Vocative Phrases.................
2 .8 .2 .
Exclamatory Phrases................................................................................... 186
2 .8 .3 .
Declarative Phrases ......................................................................................186
2 .8 .4 .
Command Phrases.......................................................................
187
2 .8 .5 .
Interjections........................................
188
2 .8 .6 .
Elliptical Sentences..............................
188
2 .8 .7 .
Other Discussions.......................................................................... .. • • •• 190
171
180
185
CHAPTER III. THE VER B PH RASp: ITS RELATED STRUCTURES AN D E L E M E N T S .............................................................................. 191 3.1
General Remarks..........................................................................................191
3 .1 .2 .
V + O .........................................................................................................- 1 9 2
3 .1 .3 .
Adverbial Phrase + V ........................................................ .............. .. • ■ • 192
3 .1 .4 .
V + Complement. ....................................................................................... 193
3 .1 .5 .
A U X + V .......................................................................................................... 193
3 .1 .6 .
V + S u f f ix + ( 0 ) ............................
194
3 .1 .7 .
V +{(Object)/(Complement)}+ P article........................................
194
3.2 .
Types o f Simple Verbs (Including Adjectives)................................... 196
3 .2 .0 .
General Remarks....................
3 :2 .1 .
196
Action Verbs................................................................................................. 196
3 .2 .2 .
State (Non-Action) Verbs ....................................
3.3 .
Auxiliary Verbs and Related Modal Verbs andA d v e rb s................ 2 2 2
3 .3 .1 .
General Patterns............................
3 .3 .2 .
Permission (Keyi) and Obligation (Bidei, Yinggai)........................... 2 2 4
3 .3 .3 .
Possibility, Probability, and Logical Necessity...................................23 4
3 .3 .4 .
Ability............................................................................................................... 23 7
3 .3 .5 .
Volition....................
3 .3 .6 .
Other Auxiliary Verbs.................................................................................245
3 .3 .7 .
Ziji Auxiliary vs. Ziji Verb......................................................................... 246
3 .3 .8 .
Negation o f Aux vs. Negation o f the Main V e r b ..............................247
3.4 .
Mental Activity and its Content: Verbs That Take a Sentence as Object or C om p lem en t..................................................................
212
222
239
250
3 .4 .0 .
General Remarks...........................................................................................2 5 0
3 .4 .1 .
Statement as O b je c t ................................................
3 .4 .2 .
Question (Q ) as O b je c t .............................................................................. 2 7 0
3 .4 .3 .
Verb Phrase (VP) as O b ject....................
285
3 .4 .4 .
Verb Phrase (VP) as Object C o m p lem e n t.........................
290
3.5 .
Tense, Aspect, Phase, and Time Relation .........................................2 9 4
3 .5 .0 .
General Remarks............... .. . .................................................................. 2 9 4
3 .5 .1 .
Points or Spans o f Time Explicit or Implicit inthe Sentence . . 2 9 4
3 .5 .2 .
Types o f Time Relation.............................................................................. 299
3 .5 .3 .
Retrospective Aspect (Before Narrative Time). . . ........................... 304
3 .5 .4 .
Synchrospective Aspect (During Narrative T i m e ) ............. . . . . 3 2 2
251
3.5 .5 .
Prospective Aspect (After Narrative T i m e ) ....................................... 331
3.6.
N egation......................... , ..................................... ............ ........................ 3 3 4
3.6 .0 .
General Remarks............................................................................................3 3 .
3.6 .1 .
General Negation.........................
335
3.6 .2 .
Aspectual Negation....................................................................
338
CHAPTER IV. W ORD
FO R M A TIO N ,
PARTICLES,
AN D
COM
POUNDS........................................ 4.0.
344
General Remarks...........................................
344
4 .0 . 1. Morphemes, Words, and Phrases...........................................................3 4 4 4 .0 .
2. Bound vs. Free Morphemes..................................................................... 360
4 .0 .
3. Derivation vs. Inflection and Affixation vs. Compounding . . . . 363
4 .0 .
4. Productivity o f Word Formation Processes.......................
4 .0 .
5.
367
Parts o f Speech................................................................................ .. • •367
4 .1 .
Morphemes and Words: Productive Derivation.............................373
4 .1 .0 .
General Remarks....................................................................................... 373
4 .1 .1 .
Reduplication...............................................................................
4 .1 .2 .
S uffixation............................................................................
4 .1 .3 .
P refixation................................................................................................. 4 1 6
4 .1 .4 .
In fixation ....................................................................... . . ....................... 4 2 0
4 .1 .5 .
Non-Productive Phonological C han ge.............................................. 4 2 2
4.2 .
Particles and Interjections..........................................
4 .2 .0 .
General Remarks....................................................................................... 425
4 .2 .1 .
Sentence Particles......................
4 .2 .2 .
Phrase Particles......................................................................................... 4 3 8
373 .3 7 9
425
.4 2 6
4 .2 .3 . . Interjections........................................... ............................................ .. • -4 4 2
A
4 .3 .
Compounds.............................................................
445
4 .3 .0 .
General Remarks..............................
445
4 .3 .1 .
N o u n s....................................................................................................... . 4 4 9
4 .3 .2 .
Verbs............................ ........................... : ..................................................... 453
4 .3 .3 .
Quality V e r b s .......... ........................................................................... .. . .459
4 .3 .4 .
Bu C om pounds................................................
SELECTED,
CLASSIFIED
BIBLIOGRAPHY
OF
463 CHINESE
SYN
T A X A N D S E M A N TIC S............................................................. ......................... 4 6 4 I N D E X ..........................................................................................................................
499
1.0
- 1, -
CHAPTER I.
1.0.
INTRODUCTION
General Remarks Everyone one of us learns to speak at least one language.
We begin uttering its sounds in infancy and grow fluent as we mature. and
We assimilate all aspects of our language naturally
intuitively:
Most of us are unaware of the process by
which we acquire its sounds,vocabulary and grammar, nor do we particularly care
to find out.
our
can
daily
speech
be
We do not even realize that
classified
into
discrete
units
of
sound, and that rules of -grammar govern its every use. As native speakers of any language, including Chinese, we may speak our language well and yet' may not be well-informed about
it.
A Cantonese
speaker once commented,
"Mandarin is
hard because you have to learn those four tones.
We Cantonese
use no tones."
Little did he know that, on the contrary, the
number of tones he utilizes number which
the Mandarin
everywhere,
at
one
in his own speech" is double the
speaker masters.
time
or, another,
Native speakers
are apt, to express
similarly incorrect ideas about thtir own language. While difficulty. is
so
learning English,
A frequently heard comment is, "English grammar
difficult.
grammar."
many Chinese, complain about its
Chinese
is
Simple
because
it
They are surprised when they hear stud
Chinese complain of the problems Chinese grammar.
instance,
ba is
for objects
that
are generally long with arms or handles to be grasped, such as brushes, chairs, knives, scissors, umbrellas, brooms, keys and fans, while ban is for petal-like objects,
such as petals of
flowers and sections of oranges. A third special element in Mandarin is the group of nouns called
localizers:
'bottom') 'book')
indicates
A localizer
shang
'top,'
xia
the position of an object
(e.g.
shu
relative to the noun
precedes that localizer.
(e.g.
(e.g.
zhuo
'table')
which
(In an English prepositional phrase,
the same kind of location is normally indicated by the prepo sition in relation to the noun which
follows
it.)
So,
for
example, in the phrase zai zhuo shang 'at the table top' in sentence 9, shang 'top' after zhuo 'table' indicates that the position of 'a few books'
is on 'top' of the 'table.'
In the
English equivalent 'on the table,' the positional information is in the preposition 'on,' which comes before the noun rather than after it as in Mandarin. Fortunately,
there
are
only
a limited number of locali
zers (fewer than twenty), and in the contexts where physical locations
are
indicated,
a correspondence with English posi
tional prepositions can be worked out. 'top' corresponds with 'on.' >
For
instance,
There are, however, a few
shang
1.1.4 -
18 -
problem areas in the use of localizers.
One involves figura
tive speech, where the localizer refers to conceptual situa tions and non-physical "locations." localizers.
We
shall
discuss
A second concerns special
these
two
types very briefly
here. Phrases such as trouble,'
'on
the
circumstances,' abstractly
'in politics,' 'on the basis mind,'
'over
indicate
'within
one's
a
head,'
a "location."
context,' etc.
(of) ,' 'in 'under
the
figuratively
and
A correspondence between
Mandarin localizers and English prepositions
in actual
tional indication does not always work here.
In Mandarin, zai
zhengzhi- -shang
'in
normally corresponds
politics' to
'on'
utilizes
in English.
shang
'top'
loca which
On the other hand,
zai...jichu shang corresponds to 'on the basis (of)' which are equivalent
phrases.
In many
cases , such phrases
Mandarin and English tend to be idiomatic usages, "over one's head"
anyway
and
.^
usually
need
to
in both
so they are be
learned
individually. Two special localizers need
to be mentioned here:
and nar correspond to the English adverbs They are location nouns place.'
In Mandarin,
that refer
to
'here' and
'this place'
I am,
'there.' or
'that
they often combine with personal nouns
and pronouns to indicate position or location: where
Zher
to me here,'
ta nar
wo zher
'there where he
'here
is,- to him
there,' nanhar nar 'there where the boy is, to the boy there,' and
Zhang xiansheng zher
Zhang (here).' 25.
'here
where
Mr.
Examples follow:
Tade maozi feidao wo zher lai. she-'s-hat-fly-to-I-here-come Her hat came flying to m e .
Zhang
is,
to
Mr.
1.1.4. -
26.
19 -
Ta chang qu Wang jiaoshou nar tingting yijian. he-often-go-Wang-professor-there-listen listen-opinion He often goes over to Professor Wang to hear his opinion.
The English equivalents of 25 and 26 use
'me'
and
fessor Wang' without any explicit place information.
'Pro
The noun
and the pronoun in English tend to be taken simply as indica ting people without any reference to their location.
However,
in Mandarin,
'go'
when verbs' such
used, it usually means is involved.
as
fei
'fly'
and £u
are
that motion from one place to another
Under these circumstances, the nouns or pronouns
following these verbs generally indicate their positions visa-vis the speaker by the use of the two special l o c a l i z e r s , zher .'here' or nar 'there' pronouns.
Therefore,
expresses
the
(which is
'here'
26, the
after
the
the Mandarin
equivalent
of
'Her
respective
sentence hat
and relatively close
Mandarin
states
that
'He
flew
nouns
or
in
25
actually
to
my location
to the speaker).'
often
goes
to
In
Professor
Wang's place (which is 'there' and away from the speaker).' Due to the absence of anything such as 'here,' 'place'
in
similar
easily forget
that
Mandarin to overtly
sentences zher
English,
or nar are
the students
generally
may
necessary
in
indicate the destination of the subject,
'her hatt, ' 'he,' etc. tion verbs
in
'there' or
A good rule of thumb is that if locomo
(such as mentioned
in 25
and
26)
are followed by
nouns which do not by themselves indicate location or destina tion explicitly
(i.e.,
they
are not
considered place
words
such as j ia 'home,' luguan 'hotel' and xuexiao 'school'), then either zher or nar hiust be used with them. ---------------
|
On the other h a n d , zher or nar becomes optional if the nouns are clearly place words, as. seen in 27.
27.
Tamen you dao shrzhengfu (nar) qu*shrweile. they-again-to-city government-(there)-go-demonstrate-le They went to City Hall to demonstrate again.
Notice that nar is placed in parentheses to show that we may or may not use it.
Once again,
equivalent English loca
tional nouns do not use similar indicators, but Mandarin can. (See 4.1.2.2.2-v for further discussion of localizers.) The
last
but
not least
Mandarin are coverbs.
of
the
special
elements
They have a number of uses,
in
the most
common being in prepositional-type phrases indicating time or place
(i-.e.
derived
zai
in
zai xuexiao
from verbs
and
similar
'at to
school').
Historically
prepositions
coverbs are probably one of the last things
in
English,
that students of
Mandarin will feel at home with in the new language.
However,
good
things often come
that you
have
finally
become
last,
a
and one of
fluent
speaker
the of
signs
Mandarin
is
the
ability to juggle ba- and bei-constructions at will. The Mandarin
grammar
of
language,
throughout
coverbs and
will
this book.
is
a significant
be
discussed
In Chapter
aspect
of
at various
the
points
2, there are two separate
sections (2.5 and 2.6) dealing with coverbs.
Most coverbs are
also discussed in detail again in 3.5 as an aspect of the verb phrase and in Chapter 6 asa subclass of the adverbial phrase.)
We shall only touch on some general areas concerning
coverbs here: Mandarin?
(1) What is the general function of coverbs in
(2)
How are they like English prepositions?
How are they like verbs?
(3)
(4) How are some of the coverbs used
in Mandarin sentences'? There are about sixty coverbs in the present-day Mandarin language.
.They
are
referred
to
as
prepositions
by
Chinese grammarians and as covetbs or verbs by others.
some They
can be grouped into a dozen subclasses, each having a specific
1.1.4. -
21
-
semantic function in the sentence. tional
phrase,
pronoun. notorious
As in an English preposi
each coverb occurs with a certain noun or
B a , bei and their affiliates make up two of the most groups
of
coverbs in
Mandarin;
the
following
examples will illustrate their functions in the sentence. 28.
Wo bei ta dashangle. I-by-he-hit injure-le I was injured by him.
29.
Wo ba ta dashangle. I-take hold of-he-hit injure-le I injured him.
Coverbs
in
the
bei
group indicate
that
the
nouns
they
precede function mostly as agents (or actors) of the verb, so that in 28, bei t a , like the English 'by him,' indicates that the agent
'him'
dpzen other uses
did
the hitting.
in Mandarin
various applications
of
that
However, do not
the English
bei has
correspond
'by.'
half
a
to
the
In contrast,
the
nouns of coverbs in the ba group function as specific objects of the action verb,
and In 29.,ba ta indicates
that
'he'
is
the recipient of the action rather than the perpetrator. ' The use of ba is much more involved than indicated here, as will be seen later (see 2.5 and 3.5.1.2.8). These' examples
illustrate the
functions
of
two
out
of
about a dozen classes of Mandarin coverbs,
all of which are
much like English prepositions, in function'.
In the following
example, the coverb na. 'take, with,
by'
is used with a noun
which acts as the instrument- in the sentence. 30.
Bu yao na shitou diu ren. not-want-take-rock-throw-person Don't throw rocks at people.
In 30, na before shitou indicates that the rock is the instru ment used to carry out the (verb) action of throwing: sense, take,
it is like a preposition. with,
by'
At
the same
In this
time,
na
'to
is one .of those ambiguous coverbs which may
also be analyzed as a verb because it is also used as the verb 'to take' in contemporary speech. Even within one subclass of coverbs, all example, phrase
may
be
'by means
usage.
defined of,'
by
the
same
of
English
which,
prepositional
students must learn differences
In the following example,
the same subgroup of instrumental
the coverb shi belongs coverbs
for
as na
in to
in sentence
28. 31.
Ni shi li ba zhe ge yezi diu gei ta. you-use-strength-take-this-M-coconut-throw-to-he Throw this coconut to him with all your strength.
Although shi 'to use, make, with, by' in 'with strength' seems to be used in the same way as na in
'with a rock,'
the two coverbs are not interchangeable: certain
abstract nouns,
which
shitou
in fact,
Shi is restricted to
'rock'
is not,
only takes concrete instruments, which _li 'strength'
and na is not.
On the other hand, the Mandarin coverb yong 'to use, with, by' may be substituted for na and shi in either sentence, as yong may accompany either concrete or abstract objects.. Besides differences
in the semantic types of nouns cer
tain coverbs may take, ttfe verb in the sentence may also place restrictions on the kinds of coverbs which may be used with it. These problems, along with that of coverbs for which there are no clear English prepositional equivalents,
are all'
hurdles which the language student must eventually clear, if he
finds
them difficult,
and
at least he can console himself
with the fact that probably nothing else in the language will
1.1.4.
be much harder.
1.1.5.
After knowing the dozen general functions of
Mandarin coverbs,
the remaining task is to study the indivi-
' dual usages for sixty of them.
f 1.1.5.
Special Verb Phrase Constructions
Having predicates, speech,
we
already special have
grammatical
discussed' special
yet
topic to
consider
constructions
phrases -- namely,
tendency --
word and
a very
most
of
order,
special
special
parts
of
important
group
of
them
concerning
verb
such things as resultative verb compounds,
verb-object c o m p o u n d s ,
directional verb and complement-,
verb-in-se^ries and A-not-A constructions.
Since this section
is meant to be only a general sort of introduction to the more prominent features of Mandarin grammar, we will discuss only a few of these special constructions. » The first of these,
the resultative verb compound,
very important syntactic unit in Mandarin.
is a
When we describe a
happening, we often report the event or action that took place and
the result
or consequence,
of that event,
In Mandarin,
this is normally expressed as two verbs in sequence, the first depicting the nature of the action and the second its result, ■
and this two-verb sequence is the resultative verb compound. As
an
L
sentence:
'
open,
example 'The
cleaned
of
this,
burglar
out
the
consider
broke drawers
the and
the
following
window, got
forced
away
English the
with
door
all' the
valuables.' In this sentence, the consequences of a series of events are expressed by (1) the single verb 'broke, ' the past [
tense indicating that, is 'broken';
as a result of the action,
(2) the verb and adjective combination,
open,' the door consequently 'forced'; where
the window
'open' as a result of the action
(3) the verb and adverb combination
'out1' or
'cleaning'; and
'all gone'
'forced
expreisses
the
'cleaned out,'
consequent
of
(4) another verb and adverb combination,
the 'got
away, ' indicating that the burglar has escaped without being caught and is now 'away' somewhere else.
~
.v--
■ i"■
pp
1 .1 .5 . 24 -
In
contrast
to
this variety
of ways
to
express
conse
quences of events in English, Mandarin consistently indicates actions and their consequences with a series of two-verb com-' binations, as shown below: 32.
Xiaotou dapole chuangzi, cong limian qiaokaile men, - qingchule chouti, nazoule suoyou zhiqiande dongxi. burglar-hit break-le-window-from-inside-pry open-ledoor-clean out-le-3rawer-take go-le-all worth moneyde-thing The burglar broke the window, forced the door open from inside, cleaned out the drawer and got away with all the valuables.
The series of two-verb
compounds
in
the
sentence
above
were: (1) dapo 'hit and broke,' (2) qiaokai 'pried and opened,' (3) qingchu 'cleaned and cleared out' and (4) nazou 'took and left.' Each of the two verbs is an independent verb, and the second verb denotes a natural result of the first.
For
example,
that a window was
da as the first verb relates
'hit'
and
the second verb
the fact
tells
that
the
window was 'broken.' Resultative compounds also have a special construction to indicate whether the action 'can' or 'cannot' bring about the result.
This
is
expressed
de
(for
'can')
elements, first
verb
and
compounds.
the
For
inserting
or bu
second
instance,
by
(for
verb the
in
one of
'cannot')., these
compounds
two
regular
between
resultatiive
nadezou
or
In
resultative verbs present a unique construction
in Mandarin: de
de V,
verb
nabuzou
mean- one 'can take away' or 'cannot take away' something. this manner,
the
[
]
v2
e.g., da
bu ACTION-can/canno t-RESULT
[
] bu
po
Al A^
i w IX
1.1 .5.
-
25 -
The first verb indicates action:
Following this verb is one
of two elements indicating either 'can* or 'cannot1; at the end is a second verb indicating ttle result of the action. In an example such
as da de/bu p o , we are literally
saying 'hit
and can/cannot break.' _
>
We might mention here that this usage of de and bu as and
'cannot'
can
occur
only
in
Elsewhere, the two elements do not all.
(Dq
is
'cannot.') hui and
a
phrase
Normally,
'cannot'
resultative mean
particle and
'can, be able'
'can' bu
'can'
compounds.
or'cannot'
means
at
'not,' not
is indicated by neng or
by buneng or buhui.
These expressions are
used in front of the verb phrase, not in the middle as with resultative compounds. As students gain more exposure to resultative compounds, they will
find
that
some of these second verbs are used much
more frequently than others. verbs depicts manner.
result
or
This small group of resultative
consequence
in a semantically broad
They all indicate that the action is now
'finished,
completed, accomplished, successful, done with, over, etc.' These resultative verbs may be further divided into two classes.
The first class may be called the "go-getter"
resultative verbs, since they inform us that after completing the action of the first verb, some manner.
the goal has been attained in
The second class may be termed the "all done"
resultative v e r b s .
These verbs state that the matter or
object at hand has been
'disposed of' of is
'over and done
with' through the action of the fir-st. v e r b .
The
main
difference between the "go-getter" and the "all done" verbs;is that the former tells us that the goal or target is reached or accomplished
only
whereas the latter
through states
undergoes a transformation.
the that
action
of
the
first
verb,
the' source object or problem
After carrying out the action of
the first verb, for example, the object may disappear.
1.1.5. 26
-
-
Examples of compounds with the "go-getter" second (resu'ltative)
verbs are zuhao
in renting.' accomplish' of
H a o , as
1finish renting' the
second verb here,
and zhao indicates
compounds
with
'throw away, lost
the
"all
'achieve,
done"
1succeed
means
'finish,'
succeed.'
second
verbs
(and gone) ' and diuguang
thing, lost everything.' at hand having
and zuzhao
Examples
are
diudiao
'throw away every
Diao expresses the idea of something
'gone or disappeared'
from the scene, whereas
guang,indicates that everything is '.completely gone.' There are a total of about
twenty of these verbs which
are frequently used as either "go-getter" or "all done" second verbs. In general, most of the other second verbs, not among the
two
types
mentioned
above,
individual dictionary meanings tive
compounds
as
xiganjing
are used
according
to ‘their
so that we have such resulta-
'wash clean' and
dieshang
'fall
and get hurt. ' The
last
grammatical
feature
we
shall
section is the verb-object (V-0) compound.
mention
in
This is a special
.verb phrase (VP) construction characteristic of Mandarin. the
course
many
of
verbs,
orginally
its
historical
adjectives,
a verb
plus
development,
adverbs its
and
object.
this
nouns
Mandarin from
In
created
what
was
These V-0 compounds can
frequently be used as single units just like other s i m p le VS
verbs or nouns. 'have'
and
an
A comition V-0 compound is made of the verb you object
noun.
For
instance,
in
Sentence
31,
youxingqu 'have interest, be interested (in)' is a verb-object compound used as a single verb unit: 33.
Ta dui xiezi hen youxingqu. he-toward-write character-very-have interest He is very much interested in calligraphy.
1.1.5.
-
Incidentally,
another
V-0
- 1.2.0.
27 -
unit,
xiezi
'write
character
calligraphy,' is-used as a single noun unit in this sentence. There
are
many
kinds
of
V-0
compounds
in
Mandarin
students will encounter in the course of their study. grammatical feature, they are indeed unique to Mandarin.
1.2.
Is
a
General Remarks - A Philosophical Question there
any
rhyme
or
reason
in
the
way. grammatical
)
structures are formed in a particular language?
l
logic does Chinese grammar follow, complex well.
As
Logic and Chinese Grammar
1.2.0.
l
that
philosophical
question
There may be no
if any?
and
definitive
a
What type of
This is indeed a
controversial
answer,
and
one
a’s
the question
itself may not really be a pertinent one in determining how
\
Chinese grammar works. However, for the purpose of trying to "make sense" out of the seemingly \arbitrary set of speech structures for Mandarin which we call its grammar, it may be useful to come up with an "explanation"
.
for
the
various
complex
linguistic
phenomena
that we pbserve. In our approach to the discussion of this topic then; we are going
to make
the
assumption
our brand of sense-making)
that
there is logic-(i.e.,
in Chinese g r a m m a r .
With
this
hypothesis, we will look at some grammatical phenomena and ask these questions: some other order?
Why should words be in this order and not in What would be a reasonable guess?
If the
"reasonable guess" seems at all plausible, it tnay be useful to hang on to it as a "practical crutch" to lead u& out of the >
maze of Chinese isentence structures.
1.2.0
-
We
would
like
to
28 -
suggest,
initially,
that
there is* a
principle that "you say what comes to mind first" operating in the use of the Chinese language.
It was
mentioned
in
1.1.3
that Chinese may be characterized as a topic-oriented language and that, object, first
therefore-,
place,
in
any subject matter
momfent
of
conversation
sentence.
We
think
time,
etc.)
and written
this
of
concern
can
as
the
"topic-first"
be
(person,
brought
first
forth
words
principle
of
a
in Chinese
grammatical structure is due to the meaning-oriented tendency of the Chinese lan g u a g e . constrained agreement,
by the
such
Since
things
freedom
as
from
it
is
a
inflection
language and
these constraints
to
be
expressed).
In
other
words,
first
grammatical
enables
pattern itself more closely to thought content
less it to
(i.e. the idea
we
think
of
the
"topic" we want to talk about, and then we comment on it.
At
least, this is our commonsensical speculation. In a language
such as English,
one can topicalize many
things, but the topic is not normally presented first as it is in
Chinese.
For
example,
in
a
I went
constraint
of
the
place'
to be brought forth in another way,
language
yesterday'
sentence
'That p l a c e , has
there
English,
is
such
that
is a
such
unusual. topic
as, The
as
'that
such as,
'It
was that place that I went to yesterday.' Normally, the unit at the beginning of an English sentence is the subject (not the topic), and only certain noun phrases denoting 'people' or 'things'
tend to be the subject..
For noun phrases referring
to 'place' or 'time' as well as various coverb phrases, English provides special topicalizing constructions such as 'Ic is (topic N P ) that...' In suggesting that the topic-oriented tendency in Chinese is basically describing
"saying what
a more
obvious
comes aspect
to mind first," we are only of
the
functioning
of
our
1.2.0.
-
principle.
1.2.1,
29 -
If we examine the sequence in which various
sen
tence units are ordered and look into what kinds of semantic elements they are, we can see further "confirmation" of this principle. 1.2.1.
Sequence of Object and Location
English garage'
and
sentences 'He washed
similar in grammatical
such
as,
'He
the
car
in
'He
the
the
parked
the
In Chinese, car
(and)
in
the garage'
follows
in
the
which
are
are ordered
the first sentence parked
garage,' an order which is similar to English. washed the car
car
garage,'
structure on the surface,
quite differently in Chinese. would be:
parked
(it)
in
the
However,
'He
a different
order
in
Chinese, as can be seen below: 34.
Ta ting chezi ting zai chekuli. he-park-car-park-at-garage-inside He parked the car (and) parked (it) in the garage.
35.
Ta zai chekuli xi chezi. he-be at-garage-inside-wash-car He washed the car in the garage.
Presumably
the order of the Chinese words follows closely the
actual order in which semantic units come into play in real time; specifically,
the sequence of the units in the two
sentences depends on whether or not the object was in the location at the time the event took place. 34, the first thing to happen was and then it was
'in the garage';
that
For
instance,
'he parked
in
the car,'
the car (object) was only in
the garage (location) after the parking (event) o c c u r r e d , and here, the object in the sentence comes prior to the location (where the object ends u p ) .
In 35, however, first he went 'in
1 .2 .1 . -
the garage' car
and then he
1 .2 .2 .1 .
30 -
'washed the car.'
In this case,
the
(object) was already in the garage (location) before the
washing
(event) occurred,
and apparently,
this is w h y _ the
location in the sentence occurs before the object.* I In the next two sections, we shall provide further evi dence
for
seems
to
some play
typ’e of
conceptual
a
part
major
in
reasoning the
or
ordering
logic of
which
sentence
elements . 1.2.2.
Arrangement of Noun Phrases (NP)
In
the
last
section,
sentence
sometimes
relation
of
an
appear
object
to
we to
saw be
its
how
semantic
arranged
location
units
according
in
a
time
to
in. a the
sequence.
Here, we will suggest other types of logic that appear to be operating in some sentences, logic based upon the functioning of noun phrases, which causes the sentences to be ordered the way they are. 1.2.2.1. 36.
Existence of NP Before/After Event Wo zhongle yi ke mugua zai hou yuanzili. I-plant-le-one-M-papaya-at-back-yard-inside I planted a papaya tree in the backyard.
37.
Hou yuanzili de yi ke mugua, wo kandiao le. back-yard-inside-'s-one-M-papaya-I-chop down-le I chopped down a papaya tree in the backyard.
In tree' In 36,
the
above
examples,
the position
of
the NP
'papaya
is different in relation to the verb in each sentence: it comes after
'planted'
and,
in 37,
it comes before
'chopped down.'
If we think about it, this ordering seems to
be very logical:
Since there cannot be a papaya tree until it
is planted,
'planted' precedes 'papaya tree' in 3 6 ;
whereas,
1 .2.2 .1 . -
-
1 . 2 . 2.2
3t
there must be a papaya tree in existence before it ca n- be chopped down,_a n d s-o , 'pa p a y a t r ee' 'chopped down. ' the existence
Sentences
36 and
(or non-existence)
37,
in 3 7 c omes before then,are examples
of the NP
of
at the time an
event takes place determining its position in relation to the verb. It can also be noted that bther types of logic may come into play in the very same examples.
For instance, just as in
34 and 35, there was the time factor with regard to object and location; the same factor can be regarded as operative in 36, where
the
papaya
actually in
the
tree
(object)
backyard,
and
is plantedbefore
in
37,
it
is
where the topicalized
unit 'a backyard papaya tree' is justified because the papaya tree
(object)
must
already
be
in
the
backyard
(location)
1.2.2.2. 38.
4
before we can speak of chopping it down. Indefinite/Definite NP Wo maile yl ben shu. I-buy-le-a-M-book I bought a book. —
39.
u
Nei ben shu wo maile. that-M-book-I-buy-le I bought that book.
In
these
two
sentences,
results from the fact whereas 38 does topicalized. The
not.
the
difference
word
that 39 has a topicalized NP, Furthermore,'
the
NP
in
38
of
definite
order 'book,'
cannot
be
Why?
answer
indefinite nouns.
lies
in
the
concept
versus
In 39, the listener (or reader) understands
that a particular book is referred t o , i.e. the spe a k er
in
(or w r i t e r)
'that'
book;
so
c a n call attention to it at the
beginning of a sentence, and use the rest of the sentence to
1.2.2.2 .
1 . 2.2
32 -
make a comment about it.
This idea also ties into the topic/
comment concept of the ctopic presenting old or known informa tion.
The book,in 38 is indefinite -- it's just 'a book,' and j
because the speaker has not mentioned any particular book yet, he does not put the NP 'a book1 at the beginning of the s e n tence .
Once he has mentioned the book,
sentence
could well, topicalize
(Nei ben) tehu-hen gui! 1.2.2.3. Yet
of course,
the now definite
his next
book,
e.g.,
'It was very expensive!'
Antecedent NP/No Antecedent NP another
type
of
logic which
is
involved
in deter
mining whether or not an NP can be topicalized is illustrated in the following examples. u
40.
V
\
M
VJ
u
Wo maile yi zhi laohu. I-buy-le-a-M-tiger I bought a tiger.
41.
Wo ba yi zhi laohu maile. I-ba-a-tiger-se,ll-le I sold a tiger.
At first glance, about
the
there appears to be some mistake.
logic of the definite versus
What
the indefinite NP in
determining whether topicalization can occur in Chinese, which was discussed above?
Indeed, a "higher" logic appears to take
precedence. Word order aside, it can be seen that the only,difference between thp two sentences are the verbs This hefe'.
difference We
is
the
clue
to
the
principle
are gt>ing to hypothesize that,
have a tiger before one can sell it, can be assumed by the speaker,
'bought' and in
'sold.'
operation
because one has to
'tiger* is something that'
and so he can put it first in
1 .2 .2 .3 . - 1 .2 .2 .4 . -
the sentence.
33 -
In other words, with a verb like 'sell,' there
is a presupposition that an NP exists before the action of the verb is carried out.
Thus, we
say
that
Sentence 39 has
ah
antecedent N P , or an NP that exists within the agent's sphere of influence, for him to dispose of at will. In the
case
of
40,
'I bought
a
tiger,'
there
doesn't
r
appear to be the same sort of antecedent NP logic operating. Although admittedly there must be a tiger
to buy before o^e
can buy it, the verb 'buy' doesn't appear to operate under the assumption that
'sell'
does.
accounted for in this way:
Perhaps
the difference can be
It is impossible to even consider
selling a tiger unless we own one; however', we might consider buying a tiger,
though we haven't a particular tiger in mind
yet. Thus, sentences in which the NP can be presupposed due to the nature of the ve r b , i.e. sentences with an antecedent NP, allow for topicalization of the NP (positioning it before the ■f / verb) . The circumstance of the antecedent NP appears to supercede some other types of logic which may be operating, such as whether the NP is definite or indefinite. the antecedent NP
is
like
the definite
NP
In
a way,
in that\ it
is a
specific entity and not toally indefinite. 1.2.2.4.
V Analogous to NP
A fourth type of logic which operates in the ordering of certain N P 's in a Chinese sentence concerns a class of verbs and objects which are so wedded to each pther that the objects can only occur in a sentence with a verb-object structure. While the verb and object might be separated by aspect markers following the verb, or by adjectives preceding the object, the object is normally not topicalized or moved to the front of the verb in a ba-construction.
1.2.2 .34
-
The verbs usually
and object's making up
learned
this
special
as verb-object combinations
considered as idioms
class
a?re
and might
be
in that in each cabe it is the combina
tion (rather than the individual words) meaning the speaker wants to convey.
that expresses the
What is special about these verb-object combinations that results
in their restricted order in a Chinese sentence?
might be said that,
in these combinations,
It
the object must be
understood to be a part of the function of the verb, specifi cally, the realization of the action of the ver b .
On
a more
abstract level, we could say that the objects are actually the same thing as the verbs, but in another form. This phenomenon is universal among languages.
Here is a
familiar English sentence, for example: 42.
The bird sings a song.
It might be 'sing,'
said
that
that
'song'
is
'song' the
is
a part
of
the
function
realization
of
'sing,'
or
of
that
'sing' and 'song' are actually two faces of the same reality, except that one is in the form of a verb, noun.
The fact remains
have
a special
that,
relationship,
the other that of a
in English, whether
'sing'
or not we
and
'song'
can put our
finger on it. Unlike
English,
however,
the special
combinations where
the verb is analogous to the noun phrase in Chinese create the grammatical restrictions discussed above.
One common example
is zuo meng which literally means 'to do/make a dream.'
These
two words in combination carry the meaning of the English have a dream,' 'dream' 'to
but each is necessary to the o t h e r :
is an intangible object apart from its verb;
do/make/have' is
conveyed meng.
equally
in zuo me n g , when
it
devoid is
of
the
separated
special from
the
'to meng
and zuo meaning object
1 .2 . 2 .4 . - 35 -
The student of Chinese will learn to develop an intuition about the verb-object combinations tions.
A
'wash-bath
few
of
- take
sleep,' da keshui. get married
the a
most
bath,'
common
y
examples
shui jiao
'take a nap,'
and kai wanxiao
that carry these restric-
j iehun
'sleep-a
are: sleep'
'tie-a marriage
'to play a joke.'
u
xi zao -
to
- to
. .
2 1
2.1.1.1.1.
- 36 -
CHAPTER II.
TYPES OF SENTENCES, ORDER OF ELEMENTS AND FUNCTION WORDS
2.1.
Simple Sentences
2.1.0.
(Declarative Sentences)
General Remarks
In this
first
section,
we will be discussing
sentence structure of spoken Mandarin. following
this
structures
and
will go
assume
on
to
an
Most of the sections
understanding
show how
the basic
they
of
these
basic
can be modified
and
expanded into more complex structures.
2.1.1.
Sentences with State (Non-action) Verbs
There are six major
types
of
state
(non-action)
verbs.
Their characteristics and functions are discussed at length in Chapter
3 which
concentrates
on
the verb
phrase.
Here,
we
will look at the types of declarative sentences in which they occur. 2.. 1.1.1. 2.1.1.1.1.
Existence and Location (zai,‘ you, shi as V or COV) zai ***************************** PT 1
S
zai
(PL)
PT 2
S
zai
PL
VP
PT 3
S
VP
zai
PL
*****************************
2.1.1.1.1 •
37 -
Examples PT 1 a.
Ta 2ai zher. he-be at-here He's here.
b.
Ta zai xuexiao. he-be at-school He's at school.
c.
Nei ge ren bu zai jia. that-M-person-not-be at-home That person is not at home.
PT 2 a.
Tamen zai waitou dengzhe wo. thev-at-outside-wait-zhe-I They're waiting for me outside.
b.
Ta zai Meiguo xue Yingwen. he-at-America-study-English He is studying English in America.
PT 3 a.
Ta zhu zai zher. he-live-at-here He lives here.
b.
Ta q£ zai mashang. he-ride-at-hoise-top He is riding on a. horse.
2 .1 . 1 .1 .1 . - 38 -
2.
Remarks A literal translation of the verb zai would be something
like 'to be located in/at/on.'
Pattern 1 is the most commonly
used pattern for indicating the location of a noun. simplest
form the location
is understood
and omitted,
In its as
in
the following exchange: a.
Q:
Ta zai jia ma? he-be at-home-ma Is he home?
A:
Ta zai. he-be at He is .
In Pattern 2, zai functions' as a coverb.
Here, zai indicates
the location where the action'of the main verb takes place: b.
Ta ziti nar nianshu? he-at-where-study Where does he study?
When negatives
and auxiliary verbs
are used,
zai rather than before the main v e r b : c.
Ta bu zai bangongshili chifan. he-not-at-office-inside-eat He doesn't eat in the office.
d.
Wo xihuan zai jia chifan. I-like-at-home-eat I like to eat at home.
they go before
2 .1 .1 .1 .1 .
- 39 -
If, however,
the main verb
rather
than
zai
is negated, .the
sentence has a different scope: e.
Ta zai bangongshili bu chifan. 'he-at-office-inside-not-eat He doesn't eat when at the office.
Sentence (c) indicates eats (i.e., does not
he
eats
that it is not at the office
elsewhere),
eat his meals
when
whereas
he
is
in
(e)
states
the office
that he that he
(i.e.,
he
works) . Pattern limited to 3.3.1.4.
3
is
only
an
alternative
a small
class
form
of
of "‘2.
Its
use
location-based yerbs
for discussion and lists) such as zhu
is (see
'to live,'
'to ride (straddling)' and liu 'to stdy behind.' In Pattern
3,
negatives
and
auxiliaries
go
before
the
main verb as usual, rather than before zai: f.
Ta bu zhu zai loushang. she-not-live-at-upstairs She doesn't live upstairs.
g.
Ta xiwang liu zai susheli. he-hope-stay on-at-dormit.ory-inside ' He hopes to stay on in the dormitory.
In these patterns,
the nbun being located is normally a
definite one
(this
book,
that
pen,
the man,
they, etc.).
In other words, the sentences refer to specific
objects or persons at certain locations: V
h.
x
W
>
—
x
Bijiben zai zhuozishang. notebook-be at-table-top The notebook is on the table.
his house,
he,
2.1.1.1.1. -
This
is in contrast
40
-
to Patterns 4 and 5 below,
in which the
object is normally indefinite or unspecified' (a person,
some
books, etc.). The sentences given so far normally form questions by (1) using a question word such as nar or shenme P L , (2) by adding the question particle ma at the end of the sentence or (3) by using zaibuzai. i.
Ta zai nar? she-be a^-where Where is she?
j.
Tamen zai shenme difang gongzuo? they-at-what-place-work Where do they work?
k.
Ta zai xuexiao ma? she-be at-school-ma Is she at school?
l.
Ta zaibuzai xuexiao? she-be at-not-be at-school Is she at school?
3.
Other Discussions BC 17, p. 75.
2.
EC 24, p. 243; 27,
3.
ECC > P . 74. SM, PY. C. Li (1 972).
4. 5.
• C\1
1.
2 .1 .1 .1 .2.
-
.1.1.2,
41
-
You
*******************************'******* PT 4
(zai)
PT 5
you
PL N
you
(zai
N
(VP)
PL)
(VP)
**************************************
Examples PT 4 a.
(Zai) Meiguo youmeiyou hen duo Zhongguo fanguar? (at)-U.S.-there be-not-there be-many-China-restaurant Are there many Chinese restaurants in America? w + \j y Waitou you san ge ren dengzhe ni.
b.
outside-there be-three-M-person-wait-zhe-you There are three people waiting for you outside. s _ + + \j u (Zai) Zhongguo meiyou huoshan.
c.
(at)-China-not-there be-volcano There are no volcanoes in China. d.
Tushuguanli you ren shulzhaole. library-inside-there be-person-fall asleep-le In the library there is someone who has fallen asleep.
PT 5 /
a.
You san jian wofang zai loushang. there be-three-M-bedroom^at-upstairs There are three bedrooms upstairs.
2.1.1.1.2. 42
-
b.
-
You ren zai waitou zhao ni. there be-person-at-outside-look for-you There is someone outside looking for you.
c.
Jintian meiyou ren zai xuexiao daqiu. today-not-there be-person-at-school-hit ball There is nobody playing ball at school today.
d.
U U ^ • >■ _ ^ You laoshu xihuan gen mao war ma? o
there be-rat-like-with-cat-play-ma
3
Are there rats that like to play with cats?
P 2.
VO
Remarks You
sense of have'
in
literally
means
'there is/are.' English,
as
'to
can
also
in
the
question,
'Do
you
inanimate
have have
You is normally existential
to the existence of something or someone)
subject is animate: a.
but
This is similar to the usage of
students in your school?' relating
have,.'
and
possessive
F£ngzili you san ge haizi.
when
its
the 'to many
(i.e.,
when
its
subject
is
(inanimate subjectexistential use of you)
house-inside-there be-three-M-child
q o z
There ate three children in the house. b.
Wo you si ge haizi.
o
(animate subject - w possessive use of you)
I-have-four-M-child I have four children. You can be used instead of (or in conjunction with) an indefinite subject is used.
zai when I k q
2 .1 . 1 . 1 . 2 . -
c.
43
-
Zhuozishang you hen duo dongxi. table top-there be-very-many-thing There are many, things on the table.
d.
Zai zhuozishang you hen duo dongxi. at-table top-there be-very-many-thing There are many things on the table.
Patterns 4 and 5 are used in contexts where locations of objects or persons are specified, similar to Patterns 1, 2 and 3.
The major difference between Patterns 4 and 5 is that, in
Pattern
4,, the
location
is
stressed
by
-being
put
first,
whereas in Pattern 5, the noun is stressed by being put first: e.
(Zai) shuzhuoshang you san ben shu.
(Pattern 4;
(at)-book table top-there be-three-M-book On the desk there are three books. f.
You san ben shu zai shuzhuoshang.
(Pattern 5)
there be-three-M-book-at-book table top There are three books on the desk. Questions are formed with Patterns 4 and 5 in .a variety of ways.
In
Pattern
4,
since
the
location
is
stressed,
a
question may be formed by using a question phrase such as nar or shenme PL at the front of the sentence, generally omitting zai.
Such questions tend to be rhetorical in nature. g.
Nar you ren gan piping wo?
(Pattern 4)
where-there be-person-dare-criticize-I Who would dare to criticize me? In Pattern 4, a question about the existence of objects at a known
location
may
question particle ma.
be
formed
by
using
youmeiyou
or
the
2 .1 . 1 .1 . 2 . 44
h.
Z.•1 •_L•1
-
Loushang youmeiyou ren?
(Pattern 4)
upstairs-there be-not-there be-person Is there anyone upstairs? i.
Loushang you ren meiyou? , upstairs-there be-person-not-there be Is there anyone upstairs?
j.
Loushang you ren ma? upstairs-there be-person-ma Is there anyone upstairs?
w +9 \j For Pattern 5, a question may be formed by using youmeiyou or ma.
With
both
Patterns
4 and
5,
the response
to questions
using youmeiyou or ma could simply be "you" or "meiyou," or a repetition or negation of the statement (see also 2.2.4). 3.
Other Discussions 1.
_BC 7, p . 76.
2.
EC 27, p. 7.
3.
ECC, p. 74-75.
4.
SM, p. 73.
5.
Y. C. Li (1 972).
2.1.1.1.3.
Shi ******************************** PT 6
(zai)
PL
shi
N
********************************
2 .1 .1 .1 . 3 . - 45 -
1.
Examples a.
Wo jia pangbian shi xuexiao. my-house-side-be-school Next to my house is a school.
b.
(Zai) yinhang duimian j iu shi shudian. (at) -bank-opposit§'-just be-bookstore Right across frodi the bank is,, a bookstore.
c.
Beizili shi cha, bu shi jiu. cup inside-be-tea-not be-wine There is tea not wine in the cup.
2.
Remarks The sentences above are normally used in situations when
the identity asserted.
of
the
entity
at
a
certain
location
is
being
Pattern 6 may be used in place of Pattern 5 when
the object being' described
is more or less a permanent one. ]
Compare the following two examples: a.
Men waitou you liang ge ren.
(temporary situation)
door-outside-there be-two-M-person There are two people outside. b.
Cheng waitou shi shan.
(permanent situation)
city-outside-be-mountain There are mountains outside the city. Sentences in Pattern 5 may end in a VP (c), (d) ]
but
since
permanent
structures
bookstores) do not engage in activity, not end in a VP.
[as in Examples 5(b) v (e.g.
mountains,
those in Pattern § do
2.1.1 =1 3 ,- 2.1.1
- 46 -
3.
4.
Other Discussions 1.
ECC, p. 75.
2.
SM, p. 85-86.
3:
Y. C. Li (1972).
Concluding Remarks There are only three verbs used in Chinese to mark exist
ence and location: that
zai, shi and y ou.
these may be variant
(1972)].
For a fuller
forms
It has been suggested
of the same verb
theoretical
discussion of all
see Y. C.- Li (1 972). 2.1.1 .2.
Uses of the Verb
2.1.1*2.1.
'to be':
Shi
Equative Sentences (shi) **************************** PT 7
NP1
shi
NP2
****************************
Examples a.
Wo shi 2hongguo ren. I-be-China-p^rson I am Chinese.
b.
Nei suo fangzi shi wo jia. that-M-house-be-I-home That house is my home.
c.
[Y.
Ta bu shi zei, shi wo pengyou. he-not-be-thief-be-I-friend He's not a thief, he's my friend.
C.
Li
three,
2.1 .1 .2.1 .
2 . 1.
-
x
d.
•
w
47
v-»
-
u
Zhei zhi bi shi wode (bi). tzhis-M-pen-be-I-'s- (pen) This pen is mine.
e.
Ta shi yaofande. he-be-want food-de He's a beggar.
f.
Tade nei liang qiche shi hongde. h e - 1s-that-M-car-be-red-de That car of his is red.
2.
Remarks This pattern is one of the simplest in Chinese.
Shi is
> approximately equivalent to the English verb 'to be'; however, l it is used only to express the idea that Noun A is equivalent to or identified with "This is good"
and
Noun
(2)
B.
"This
In English, is my book."
) would only be used in sentences such as l noun is the ) Examples
equivalent
(a)-(c)
above
(or
complement)
illustrate
this
one can say
(1)
In Chinese,
shi
(2) where the second of
the
first
principle.
At
noun. first
[ glance, Examples (d)-(f) are not such clear cases since they l involve noun phrases with deleted objects. That is to say, kj ' v y the phrase wode in (d) is like an abbreviation of wode bi 'my ) pen,' while the phrases yaofande and hongde in (e) and (f) suggest the objects ren (person - yaofande ren 'begging person') and qiche (car - hongde qiche 'red car'). Shi can thus be seen as a marker of equivalence or identification: zhei zhi bi
-
wode (bi)
ta - yaofande (ren) tade nei liang qiche - hongde (qiche)
2 . 1 . 1 . 2.1 48
-
When
used
together
with
a
-
deleted
object,
the
functions as a nominalizer, generally rendered
particle
d£
in English as
'that which...' or 'one who...'
Thus, hongde is 'one which is
red'; yaofande is 'one who begs
(a beggar)' and wode is
'that
which is mine' pr simply 'mine.' In general use, the
fourth
tone
shi
plus
frequently has
a
stress
is
a neutral
used
when
tone,
emphasis
but is
intended, as in (b): a.
Wo shi Zhongguo ren. I-be-China-person •I am Chinese.
b.
Wo shi Zhongguo ren. I-be-(emphasis)-China-person I am Chinese.
Questions may be formed with this pattern by using either shibushi
or
ma
(see
2.1.1
and
2.2.3
for
Typical replies to such a question would be: c.
Shi. be Yes (I am).
d.
Wo shi. I-be I am.
e.
Wo shi Zhongguo ren. I-be-China-person I am Chinese.
f.
Wo bu shi Riben ren. I-not-be-Japan-person I'm not Japanese.
more
on
this).* I
2 .1 .1 .2.1 .
2.1.1 .2 .2.
- 49 -
Other Discussions BC
2.
EC 11, p. ECC .» P • ^ •
3.
*
5.
, p . 15; BC 16, p. 268.
• CM CO
4.
2
•
1.
00 o
3.
SM 4, p. Marney, p
Focus on Circumstances (shl...de)
2.1.1.2. 2.
*************************************************** PT 8
(S)
(bu)
^shl)
Adjunct
V
de
FT 9
(S)
(bu)
(shi)
Adjunct
V
de
PT 10
(S)
(bu)
(shi)
Adjunct
VO
PT 11
(S)
(bu)
(shi)
Adjunct
V
de
***************************************************
Examples PT 8 a.
Ta shi zuotian lai de. she-shl-yesterday-come-de
(when)
It.was yesterday that she came. (She came yesterday.) .i
b.
_
^
^
1
vj
^
Wo shi gai Meiguo zhangda de.
(where)
I-shl-at-U.S.-grow up-de 1 grew up in the U .S . (It was in the U.S. that I grew up.)
c.
Zhei jian maoyi shi ta mai de. 'this-M-sweater-shr-he-buy-de It was he who bought this sweater. (This sweater was bought by him.)
(by whom)
2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 2. - 50 -
d.
Wo shi zhao ni lai de.
(for what purpose;
I-shi-look for-you-come-de It was to visit you that I came. (I came to visit y o u .) o
e.
s
^
\J
\J
Wo shi lai zhao ni de. I-shi-come-look for-you-de It was to visit you that I came. (I came to visit y o u .)
PT 9 a.
.Xiao Feng shi gen wo yikuar chi de fan.
(with whom)
Xiao Feng-shi-with-I-together-eat-de-food It was with me that Xiao Feng ate. (Xiao Feng ate with m e .) b.
Tamen shi j intian zhongwu kan de dianyingr.
(when''
they-shi-today-noon-see-de-movie It was today at noon that they saw the movie. (They saw the movie today at noon.) PT 10 a.
Women shi j iuyue likai Shanghai de.
(when)
we-shi-S,ept ember-leave-Shanghai-de It was /in September that we left Shanghai. (We left Shanghai in September.) b.
Wo shi gangcai yujian ta de. I-shi-just now-encounter-he-de It was just now that I encountered him. (I ran into him just a moment ag o .)
(when;
2.1.1.2.2.
-
51 -
PT 11 a.
Keren shi mingtian dao.
(when)
guest-shi-tomorrow-arrive It's tomorrow that the guests are arriving. (The guests will arrive tomorrow.) b.
Ta shf zoulu lai.
(by what means)
he-shi-walk-come It's on foot that he'll come. (He'll be walking here.) 2.
Remarks In these patterns, shi..♦de is used to focus attention on
the
circumstances under which a given action is completed.
Shi...de is generally not used to report the occurrence of the event itself. a.
Ta lai le. she-come-le She has come..
This is a simple SV sentence that reports a completed action. Pattern 8, Example further about
(a) above uses shi. . .de to tell something
the circumstances
time that she came.
of
that
action;
namely,
the
Other sentences can be used to give other
types of circumstantial detail,
i.e. the means, manner,
loca
tion or purpose of the action. b.
Ta shi qi zixingche lai de.
(b^ what means)
she-shi-ride-bicycle-come-de She came by bicycle. c.
Ta shi cong ,jiali lai de. she-shi-from-house inside-co,me-de She came from home.
(location)
2 . 1 . 1 . 2.2 - 52 -
d.
Ta shl yige r^n lai de.
(manner)
she-shi-one-M-person-come-de She came alone. With completed actions, the shi may be omitted in affir mative sentences, but not with negative sentences: e.
Ta zuotian lai de.
(affirmative)
he-yesterday-come-de He came yesterday. f.
Ta bu shi zuotian lai de. he-not-be-yesterday-come-de
(negative)
He didn't come yesterday. In
cases
where
there
is
a verb-object
cans truetion
(Patterns 9 and 10), the de may either go between the verb and the object,
as
in
9,
or after .the object,
as in 10.
Some
general rules apply here: 1.
When the object is a person or a place,
the de
normally comes after it. 2.
With
concrete
objects
especially,
the
de
normally comes between the verb and the object. 3.
In
other
situations,
£here
is
no
preferred
position for the d e . Note
that when
the adjunct
is one of purpose
[Examples
8(d) and (e)], that adjunct may either be placed in its normal position before the verb,
or it may come after
the verb but
before the de, with no effect on the meaning (except that the former may sound slightly more casual).
2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 . - 2.1.1.2.3. > - 53 -
While (Patterns
shi..♦de 8-10),
is normally used with
it
aspects of current
may
also
be
used
completed
lotions
describe
certain
to
or anticipated actions
(Pattern
11).
In
the latter situation, the che is generally omitted (see 8.3.3). 3.
Other Discussions (
1.
BC 11, p. 145; BC 16, p. 261 .
2.
EC 44, p p . 26-27; EC 63, p p . 63-64.
3.
ECC, p. 196.
4.,
SM 12, p . 1 12.
2.1.1.2.3. 1.
Shi Used for Emphasis
Examples a.
Wo shi hen mang. I-emphasis-very-busy I am very busy.
b.
Wang Jian shi bu hui lai de. Wang Jian-emphasis-not-will-come-de Wang Jian w o n 11 be coming.
c.
- u > # > Ta mai de shi feizao. he-buy-de-be-soap It was soap he bought.
d.
Shi ta rang ni qu (bushi wo), be-she-make-you-go-(not-be-I) S h e 's the one who's making you go (not I).
Shi may serve to add stress to a sentence. elements
directly
follow
subject, object, verb, etc.
shi, and
may
take
The stressed the
form
of
a
..
2 1 1.3 -
54
'
-
2.1 .1 .3. . Quality and Status Verbs (Adjectives)
******************************** PT 12
N
Adv. QV
PT 13
N
(Adv)
(le) SV
le
********************************
1~.
Examples PT 12 a.
Ta hen gao. he-very-be tall He is tall.
b.
Ta muqin hen youqian. he-mother-very-be rich His mother is rich.
c.
Ni.de pengyou zhen piaoliang. you-'s-friend-really-be beautiful Your friend is really beautiful.
PT 13 a.
Wo ele. I-be hungry-le I'm hungry (now).
b.
Ta hen lei le. she-very-be tired-le■ She's very tired (now).
. . . .
2 1 1 3 55
-
c.
-
Bie huixin l e ! don't-be discouraged-le Don't be discouraged (anymore)!
2.
Discussion Quality and status verbs in Chinese have much in common.
They both tell something about the state of being of a person or thing;
they
are
descriptive
equivalent to English
verbs
adjectives.
and
in
that
For this
sense
reason,
are
we will
periodically put "adjective" in^parentheses in this book when we make reference
to quality and status verbs. • However,, one
must keep in mind that they function as verbs. sentence,
In the English
'He is tall,' the adjective 'tali' is the complement
of the verb
'to
be':
Chinese equivalent Chinese verb shi
'is.'
of
this
situation.
sentence.
12(a) Note
(see
above that
'to be' is not used, as gao
main verb of the sentence. added stress
Example
is
the
there
the
'be tali'
is the
The addition of shi would indicate
2 .1 .1 .2 .3)
which
is uncalled
for
in
this
It might help to think of quality and status verbs
as equivalent to the phrases
'to be (such 'and such),' so that
gao is 'to be tali' and £ is 'to be hungry,' for instance. The characteristics of quality and status verbs are dis cussed in Chapter 3.
At this point, we may note the following
differences between them: 1. a person
Quality verbs refer to lasting, intrinsic aspects of or
thing;
[Example 12(a)],
beauty
youqian 'be rich' the Chinese.
to
stable [Example
qualities 12(c)],
such etc.
as
tallness
Notice
that
in 1 2 (b) is considered a stable quality by
Status
verbs,
on
the
other
hand,
deal
with
temporary conditions that people or things find themselves in, such as hunger [13(c)].
[13(a)]>
fatigue
[13(b)]
and
discouragement
..
2 1 1.3
- 56 -
2.
When the aspect marker la ends a sentence in which
the main verb
is a state
(non-action)
verb,
it
indicates
a
change of status, as illustrated in the following: a.
Wo benlai bu lei, xianzai wo leile. I-originally-not-be tired-now-I-be tired-le I wasn't tired before, but now I am.
As
status
verbs
have
to
do
with
constantly
changing
situations, the change-of-status la is generally used together with them: w
b.
^
Lao Li zuile. Lao Li-be drunk-le Lao Li is drunk (now). Ta bu zuile. he-not-be drunk-le He's not dtunk (anymore).
Le does not occur in most quality verb exception is when there
sentences.
is a change in intrinsic quality,
The as
in the following: c.
Ta da le. she-be big-le She has grown u p .
3. with
Quality verbs, on the other hand, do generally occur
a modifying
adverb hen 'very.'
adverb;
the
one' most
commonly used
is the
This hen is very weak, however, and seldom
carries the same force as its English equivalent 'very' ”nless stressed. is
[Note that in Example 12(a) above,
'He is tall,' not
'He is very tallr.]
the translation
In the choice-type
question form (SV bu SV) , the hen is omitted-.-
It can also be
....
2 1 1 3
57
-
-
left out when
the quality verb
is modified by
particle bu —
unless, of course, one wants
When there is no adverb present,
the negative
'very' for stress.
there is usually an implied
comparison. w
d.
%
Wo da. I-be big I am older.
e.
Ta bu hao. she-not-be good She's not good.
f.
Ta bu hen hao. he-not-very-be good. He's not too good.
g.
Ta hen bu hao. he-very-not-be good He's terrible.
When
adverbs
other
than
hen
precede
the
quality
verb,
they retain their full force [Example 12(c)]. Any adverb may optionally precede a status verb, in which case, it also retains its full force. 3.
Remarks The
first
distinction
delineated
followed his
by
between Y.
R.
Chao
classification
here.
status and quality verbs names:
descriptive
[Zhu Dexi DeFrancis
(1 956)]; (1963)].
Dexi (1956).
quality
and- status
[Chao
verbs
was
We
have •
(1968)].
Other
grammarians
group
together and call them a variety of
verbs stative
[A.
Ha-shimoto
verbs
For a detailed
[Fenn
(1971)];
adjectives
& Tewksbury
discussion,
(1974);
see also flhu
. . . .
2 1 1 3 - 58 i-
4.
Other Discussions 1.
EC 15, p. 125.
2.
SM 1, p. 6 ; SM 2, p. 14; SM 5, p.47; SM 7, p. 6 8 .
3.
EC 18, p. 164.
4.
ECC, pp. 1, 18, 104.
2.1.1.4.
Naming (Classificato-ry) Sentences kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk
PT 14
S
xing
Surname
PT 15
S
(mingzi)
(zuo)
-iiao
\J PT 1 6
S
guan
0
Name
Name
jj-gg
kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk
1.
Examples a.
Wo xing Fu. I-be surnamed-Fu My surname is Fu.
b.
Tade mingzi jiao shenme? h e - 's-name-call-what What's his name?
c.
Zheige jiaozuo guozhi. this-M-be called-fruit juice This is called fruit Juice. y j
d.
u
",
%
v
"
,
Women guan ta jiao Xiao Bazi. we-guan-he-call-little-Eighth Boy We call him the little Eighth Boy.
2 . 1.1
2 . 1 . 1.4 -
59 'l
2.
Discussion Naming
(Pattern 5)
sentences
are
similar
to
equative
in that two nouns are being related.
difference is that, usually a name.
in naming
sentences,
sentences The major
the second noun is
The equative sentence can use a name for the
second noun (as well as the first noun) as in: a.
Wo shi Wang Guohua. I-be-Wang Guohua I am Wang Guohua.
Such an equative sentence, without any stress, would be equi valent to the warning sentence:' b.
Wo jiao Wang Guohua. I-call-Wang Guohua I am (called) Wang Guohua.
The two most
common verbs used
xing 'to be surnamed' and j iao
in naming sentences
'to be called.'
are
Xing is only
used for the surname: c.
Ta xxng shenme? he-surnamed-what What is his surname?
d.
Ni jiao shenme mingzi? you-be called-what-name What is your name?
The verb j iao 'to be called,' when used with people, may refer to a person's full name or to just his given name.
It
frequently is used together with the word mirigzi 'name,' as an answer to (d) in:
2.1.
- ,6 a -
e.
Wode mingzi jiao Wang Han. I - 's-name-called-Wang Han. My name is Wang Han.
Whereas xing is limited to people (since only people have surnames),
j iao may
be used
to name
any
object,
animate or
inanimate: f.
Zhei ge dongxi jiao shenme? this-M-thing-be called-what What is this thing called?
g.
Nei ge jiaozuo. maobi. that-M-be called-brush pen That is called a Chinese brush pen.
Jiao
is
also
used
in
Pattern
16,
a
variant
form
of
Pattern 15: h.
Women guan ta jiao "Laohu." we-guan-he-called-"Tiger" We call him Tiger.
When this pattern is used for people, the name is usually some sort of nickname, rather than a real given name. When j iao is used in Pattern 15, the name given may be a simple noun [as in (h) above] or it may be a noun phrase: ^
i.
^
^
^
KJ
Zhei .ge jiaozuo "Yi ju liarig de." this'-M-be called-one-swoop-two-get This is called ,•."Killing two birds with one stone."
2 .1 .1 .4.
2 .1 .2 .1 .
61
3.
Remarks There are other verbs used in this pattern such as dang
'to act as,' chenghu 'to be called' and hao 'to be nicknamed.' However, [See Chao
these are not used (1 968),
p.
1 i3o.
71 Iff for more on these .naming verbs.]
According to some sources equational verbs.
as frequently as xirng and
(BC, p. 13), naming verbs are also
Chao, who used to feel the same way, later
separated the two.
2.1.2. 2.1.2.1.
Sentences with Action Verbs Intransitive Action Verbs 1
****************************************** PT 17
S
AV
(Asp)
(Complement)
******************************************
Examples .a.
Shei qu? who-go Who is going?
b.
Ta zoule. she-leave-le She has left.
c.
Ta quguo le. she-go-guo-le She has been there (before).
*4
d.
Ta kule bantian. he-cry-J^e-half day He cried for a long time.
e.
Ta zhan zai menkou. he-stand-at-doorway He's standing at the door.
f.
Ni mingnian qu Beijing ma? You-next year-go-Peking-ma Ate you going to Peking next year?
2.
Discuss ion This
pattern
is
considered
so
simple
that
none
of
the
first-year language texts even discuss it. In Chinese, as in English, there is a class of intransitive action verbs which is distinct from transitive action verbs because they take no objects
and are also distinct
take no degree adverbs
from state verbs
because
(such as geng and hen) .
they
Some of the
verbs in this group are: lai
1 come'
zhan
'stand'
xing
'wake'
zou
'go' 'leave'
ku
'cry'
zuo
'sit'
zhu
'live, dwe 1 1 '
Although followed
by
these
verbs
complements
do not of
take
time
objects,
[Example
they
(d)]
and
may
be
place
[Examples (e) and (f)]. 3.
Remarks Y. R. Chao
(1 968) has delineated ten types of intransi
tive action verbs intransitive
(pp. 670-672).
action
verbs
do,
He has also suggested that in
fact,
have
objects
or
. . . .
2 1 2 1 -
2 . 1 . 2 . 2 .1 .
63 -
"cognarte objects" as he refers to them (p. 672).
An example
of a cognate object would be quantity words specifying number of time, distance, etc.: a.
Ta bangle yi chang. he-sick-le-one-session He had a bout of illness.
A recent
treatment
of
verb
classification
by
Teng
(1974)
suggests a whole new classification system which would remove many of the discrepancies of the present System. 2.1.2.2.
Transitive Action Verbs
2.1.2.2.1.
With Direct Objects
■k-k-kJck-k-kick-k-kick-k-k-k-k-kjrk-k-k-k-k-k PT 18
S
PT 19
DO
PT 2 0
S
AV
DO
S
AV
DO
AV
**************************
1.
Examples PT 18 a.
Wo mai qiche. I-sell-car I sell, cars (for a living).
b.
Ta jianguo nei ge ren. she-saw-before-that-M-person She saw that person before.
....
2 1 2 2 - 64 -
c.
Wo jiujiu shuo ta bu neng lai. I-uncle-say-he-not-can-come My uncle says he cannot come.
d.
Shei xiexie ni le? who-thanlc-you-le Who thanked you?
PT 19 a.
Chuang wo mei you, danshi wo you chuangdan. bed-I-not-have-but-I-hav.e-bed sheets I don't have a bed, but I do have sheets. / Qiu wo da, pai wo bu da. •
b.
ball-I-play-cards-I-not-play I play ball but I don't play cards. c.
- V — Ji wo. chi. chicken-I-eat I do eat chicken.
PT 20 a.
sj — y *. w Wo gangbi mei you. I-pen-not-have I don't have a pen.
b.
Ta qishui you, pijiu mei you. he-pop-have-beer-not-have He has pop but not beer.
c.
Xiao Ren qingcai bu c h i , guang chi rou. Xiao Ren-vegetable-not-eat-only-eat-meat Xiao Ren only eats meat,-not vegetables. V
. . .
2 1 2 2.1
- 65 -
2.
Remarks Patterns 18 and 19 are simple patterns for most English
speakers since they are similar to English. a little more time to get used to.
Pattern 20 takes
The object can be a simple
noun as in Examples 18(a)yand 18(b), or it can be a clause, as in Example
18(c).
[See
Chao
(1 968),
p.
126
verbs which tend to take clauses as objects.] t6
for the
object
clearly
understood
physical
contexts.
be
omitted
either An
from
through
example
of
the
for a list
of
It is possible it
is
immediate .. linguistic
or
an
sentence immediate
if
linguistic
context would be: a.
Ni youmeiyou xingli?. you-have not have-luggage Do you have any luggage?
b.
Wo me i y o u . I-not-have I don't have any.
An example of a physical context would be if you saw" someone drop a package and you went over and said: c.
Wo lai na. I-come-pick up I'll pick it up.
In Chinese, the object may be moved to a position in front of the subject
or
the verb
Patterns 19 and 20. usually occurs
for stress,
as
in the examples
This movement of the object
for
for stress
in a specific linguistic context in which the
object is the topic of the conversation.
For example,
if you
went intp a store and asked for beer, the. clerk might answer:
2.1; 2.2
-
d.
66 -
Women mei you pijiu. we-not-have-beer We don't have any beer.
or > Pijiu women mei you, keshi women you putaojiu.
e.
beer-we-not-have-but-we-have-grape wine We don't have any beer, but we have wine. Note that in Examples 19(a) and 19(b), the 0
S
V pattern may
trigger another contrastive response. When
the
object
is
moved
in
front
commonly, it is placed before the subject.
of
the
verb,
most
Such sentences may
be seen as examples of the Topic-Comment sentence (see 1.1.3). In these sentences,
the object becomes the topic and the rest
of the sentence is the comment upon that topic. There
are
at
least
four
other
instances
in
which
the
object is moved to a position in front of the verb:. f.
Wo ba zhen fang zai nar.
(See 2.5 on ba sentences.)
I-ba-needle-put-at-there I put the needle there. g.
'Wo lian yi kuai qian ye mei you. I-even-one-doliar-money-also-not-have I don't even have a dollar.
h.
vs
+
\j
+
XJ
\J
Wo shei ye mei you qing. I-who-als o'-not-have-invite I didn't invite anyone at all.
. . . . .
2 1 2 2 1 -
i.
. . . . .
2 1 2 2 2
67 -
Nx Zhongguo hua shuode hen hao. you-China-speech-say-de-very-good You speak Chinese very well.
3.
Other Discussions 1.
BC 1, p. 6 ; BC 10, p. 136; BC 14, p. 218; BC 16, p. 267.
2. 3.
SM 1, p. 3; SM 3, p. 20; SM 9, p. 83. Chao (1968), p p . 76, 127, 312, 701.
'2.1.2.2.2.
With Indirect Objects
*********************************** PT 21
S
AV
PT 22
S
AV
PT 23
S
gei
(gei) 0
gei 10
AV
10
0
10 0
*********************************** 1.
Examples a.
Wo geile ta yx kuai ga o . I-give-le-he-one-M-cake I gave him a piece of cake.
b.
Wo mai gei ta yx kuai gao. I-s^ll-to-he-one-M-cake I sold him a piece of cake.
c.
Wo maile yi kuai gao gei ta. I-sell-le-one-M-cake-to-he I sold him a piece of cake.
. . . ..
2 1 2 2 2 -
68
-
U U V> - U X ' ' Wo xiang gei ta da dianhua.
d.
I-think-to-he-make-phone call I think I'll give him a (phone) call. U \J \J - ,w > Qing ni ger ta xie x m .
e.
please-you-give-she-write-letter Please write her a letter. 2.
Discussion In a normal indirect object sentence, the indirect object
comes between the verb and the direct object. Also, in an indirect object sentence, it is most common to find the prepo sition gei
'to'
coming
There are basically
directly before
three kinds
the indirect object.
of verbs which
are used
in
indirect object sentences: (1 ) those which do not use g e i , (2) those which require gei and (3) those which may or may not use gei. w In the first category, verbs which do not use gei to mark the indirect object, we find such verbs as baogao 'to report,' gaosu
'to
tell,'
gei
'to
give,'
wen
answer ,' etc 4 ..
Wo yao gaosu nr yr j ian shi. I-want-tell-you-one-M-thing I want to tell you something.
b.
Wo geile ta wu kuai qian. I-give-le-he-five-M-money I gave him five dollars.
c.
Wo wenle ta hen duo wenti. I-ask-le-he-very-many-question I'asked him a lot of questions.
'to
ask,'
huida. 'to
. .. .,
2 1 2 2 2 - 69 -
In the category
of verbs which
require
gei, there
are
such
verbs as chuan 'to pass on, down , 1 j iao 'to hand over,' ji 'to mail,' mai
'to buy
for,'
mai
'to
sell,'
zu
'to
rent
out,'
etc.: d.
Ta xiang ba tade jishu chuan gei ta erntl. she-want-ba-she-'s-skill-transmit-gei-she-children She wants to pass on her skills to her children.
e.
Qing ni ba dongxi jiao gei wo. please-you-ba-thing-hand over-gei-I Please hand the things over to me.-
f.
Wo ba liang feng xin ji gei tamen le. I-take-two-M-letter-mail-gei-they-le I've mailed them the two letters.
In ,the category of verbs which may or may not use gei, there are such verbs as song
'to send, ' j ie
'to lend, ' 1 iao
'to teach,' shu 'to lose,' etc.: g.
Wo songle ta yi zhang huar. I-send-le-he-one-M-painting I sent him a painting.
h.
Wo song gei ta san ben shu. I-send-gei-she-three-M-book I sent her three books. ■
S 23.
AV
gei
10
0 is the most common form of Patterns 21-
One comment needs
the ba pattern
I object and
to be made here.
It is common to see
(see 2 .5 ) used in many cases where an indirect
object
occur
together
in
the
same
sentence;
in
fact, it-may be said that the ba pattern would be preferable ) wherever possible.
. . .
2 1 2 2.2 -
Note that in Examples
70 -
(d) and
(e) above,
xie xrn and da
dianhua consist of a verb-object compound (not all verb-object verbs can be used in this pattern, however), thus it may still be
said
that such sentences
and a direct object.
contain both an indirect object
There is' a certain amount of ambiguity
in this form of Patterns 21-23 in that gei could also be seen as the coverb gei 'for, as a favor to,' in which case, Example (d) could also be translated as for him.'
This
diate context. also
be
ambiguity
'I think I'll make
the call
is usually clarified by the imme
While sentences with verb-object compounds can
changed
into
the form of Pattern 22,
Pattern 23 is
more commonplace: i.
Wo xiang da dianhua gei ta. I-think-make-phone call-gei-he I think I'll phone him.
j.
Qing ni xie xin gei ta-. please-you-write letter-gei-he Please write him a letter.
Note that gei is always present in this pattern regard less of the verb used. In addition way
to
involves
form
an
the use
to the above indirect of
such
forms,
obj'ect coverbs
there
sentence as
dui
'with' and gei 'for, as a favor to : k.
Ta dur/gen wo shuole hen duo shi. she-to/with-I-say-_le-many-thing She spoke of many things to me.l .
l.
Ta gei women shuole bushao gushi. he-gei-we-say-le-not-few-story He told us quite a few stories-
is still
in 'to,
another
Chinese. towards,'
This geri
71
Of these coverbs, gen and dui are usually only used with the verb shuo 'to tell' to make an indirect object sentence, while gei is
used
with
Patterns 21-23.
a
variety
of
verbs
functioning
as
the
Other Discussions r.
BC 14, p. 200; BC 22 , -p.■398
2.
ECC, p. 143.
3! 4.
However,
indirect
verb in indirect object sentences. 3.
those
for
Technically, what comes directly after g e i ,
gen, and dui are objects of coverbs. be seen as
including
2 , p. 11.
Chao (1 968), pp •’ 311, 316.
objects
they Can also of
the main
2 .2 .1 .1 .
2.2 -
CHAPTER II.
72 -
TYPES OF SENTENCES, ORDER OF ELEMENTS AND FUNCTION WORDS
2.2.
Questions (Interrogative Sentences)
2.2.0.
General Remarks
In
Chinese,
question tag
there
particle
questions,
are
six
questions,
(4)
negative
(2)
types
of
questions:
choice-type
questions,
questions and (6 ) intonation questions.
(1 )
questions,
(5)
question
(3) word
With the exception of
question particle questions, all of these major question types have their counterparts however,
there
may
be
in English. a
few
Within each major type,
subtypes
which
have
no
direct
English equivalent. As we shall soon see,
the$e major types seldom overlap,
as the Use of each is governed by both semantic and syntactic limits.
2.2.1.
Question Particles
Question
particle
question particle statement.
All
(ma, ne, ba, a/ya)
questions
such as ma,
n£,
are ba,
formed a/ya
these question particles
by
adding
to the end of a
except a receive
relatively higher pitch than the rest of the question. 2 .2 .1 . 1
.
ma ******************************* PT 1
Statement
ma
a
?
*******************************
a
2 .2 .1 .1 .
• - 73 -
1.
Examples a.
Ni hao ma? you-be well-ma How are you?
b.
(Are you well?)
Ta hen gao ma? he-very-be tall-ma Is he (yery) tall?
c.
Ni chi Zhongguo fan ma? you-eat-China-food-ma Do you eat Chinese food?
d.
Ni jlntian bu qu ma? you-today-not-go-ma Aren't you going today?
2.
Discussion Pattern 1 is one of the two most common ways of forming a
question in Mandarin (the other is Pattern 9, V-bu-V) .
Ques
tions in this pattern are formed by adding the question parti cle ma to the end of a statement and using a relatively high intonation in the latter part of the sentence. question
is
what
is
referred
to
as
a
The resulting
"yes-no
question,"
meaning that it may be answered by simply saying, 'yes'- (shi, shlde, shi a or dulle) , 'fine, good' verb:
(h a o , xing, keyi)- or the
2 . 2 . 1 .1. 74
-
^
a.
Q:
^
N
-
X
w
Nin shi Wang Fuxiaozhang ma? you-be-Wang-vice principal-ma Are you Vice Principal Wang?
A:
b.
Q:
Shi.
Bu shl.
or
be
not-be
Yes (I am) .
No (I'm not).
Ni ai chi yuebing ma? you-love-eat-mooncake-ma Do you like to eat mooncakes?
A:
Ai chi.
Bu ai chi.
or
love-eat
not-love-eat
Yes (I do) .
No (I don't).
Pattern 1 is normally preferred over Pattern 9, V-bu-V, when the verb of the sentence, is' preceded by an adverb: c.
Nimen dou hao ma? you-all-be good-ma Are all of you well?
The implications of ma (expectations of a positive or negative response) wiTl be discussed in 2.2.1.3 below, where ma and ba are contrasted. 3.
Remarks In those instances when the question particle ma carries
no
expectation
of
either
a negative
or
an
affirmative res
ponse , it is felt by some [A. Hashimoto (1971), p. 110] to be a contraction of bu and a and, as such,'Stands as a contracted form of the choice-type question (tee 2.2). 67,
feels
that
all
questions
-Rand (1 969), p.
formed with question particles
2 . 2 .1 .1 . -
represent a subtype 2.7).
of
75 -
the intonation question pattern
(see
This is because they all share one constant feature --
a rising intonation towards the end of the sentence. 4.
. . . .
2 2 1 2
Other Discussions 1.
BC 1 , p. 13.
2.
EC 11, p. 81. E C C , p . 1.
3. 4. 5.
Chao (1968), p. 800.
6. 7.
A. Hashimoto (1971), p. 16. Rand (1969), p . 65.
8
.
2 .2 .1 .2 .
SM 1 1 , p . 2.
Elliot (1965), p. 89. ne ■k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-kk-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k
PT 2
NP
ne
PT 3
Question
? (ne)
?
kkk kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk
Examples PT 2 a.
Nr he? you-ne And you?
b.
(What about you?)
Wode shu ne? I - 's-book-ne And my book?
(How about my book?)
. . . .
2 2 1 2
-
76
-
PT 3 a.
Shei jieshao ta ne? who-introduce-she-ne And who will introduce her?
b.
Ni weishenme bu qu ne? you-why-not go-ne Well, why aren't you going?
c.
Ni zenme haishi bu dong ne? •you-how-still-not-understand-ne Why is it you still do not understand?
d.
Zhang San qu n e , haishi Li Si lai ne? Zhang San-go-ne-or-Li Si-come-ne Should Zhang San go, or should Li Si come?
2.
Discussion The
question particle
ne
question
particle (ma being
commonly
used
questions
or with portions of
full
in what
sentence.
are
For example,
is
the
the most called
second most common).
abbreviated
speech which one would
are
common
It or
is
response
less
than a
find ne used
in the
following way: V;
a.
^
W
>
x
y
Wo ziji bu xiang qu.
Ni ne?
I-self-not-want-go
you-ne
I don't want to go myself. u
b.
\
v
x
x
What about you?
U
v
Wo bidei shang ke le. Wode shu ne? I-must-attend-class-lei I- 's-book-ne I have to be getting to class.
most
Where's my book?
. . . .
2 2 1 2
- 'll -
This kind of
abbreviated
question normally
follows
directly
after a statement. In addition to being able to form a question in itself, ne may also be added to the end of a sentence which is already a question.
It is frequently added to the end of questions
which are formed with such question words as weishenme 'why,' shei ' 1who , 1 shenme questions
formed
'what,' etc. with
question
(See 2.2.5 below for more on words.)
Ne
here
serves x to
express a mild dissatisfaction, as seen in Examples 3(b), (c) and (d) above. The effect is somewhat like introducing a question in English with 'and,'
'but' or 'well.'
In addition to being used with question word questions, ne is also used with choice-type questions (see Patterns 5, 6 and 7 below).
Its use here is optional.
The meaning of the
question is not affected. 3.
Remarks As mentioned under Pattern 1, Rand
that all question, particles
(1 969),
p. 67, feels
form a subtype of the intonation
question (see 2.7). Other■ Discussions 1.
BC 1, p. 11.
2.
EC 29-, p. 44.
3.
ECC, pp. 117, 211.
4.
SM 1, p. 2; SM 14, p. 137.
5.
Chao (1 968), p. 811.
6.
Hashimoto (1971), p. 16ff.
7.
Rand (1 969), p. 65.
2.2.1.3.
- 78 -
2 .2 .1.3.
ba k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k -kit-kick -kick
PT 4
S
VP
ba
?
kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk
1.
Examples a.
Ni xianzai hen mang ba? you-now-very-busy-ba I suppose you are pretty busy now, aren't you?
b.
Zhang San shangxue qule ba? Zhang San-attend-school-go-le-ba I suppose Zhang San has gone to school, hasn't he?
c.
Xiao Wang bu laile ba? Xiao Wang-not-come-le-ba I suppose.Xiao Wang isn't coming (after all), is he?
2.
Discussion Ba as a question particle
is somewhat
similar
to ma
in
that it makes a yes-no question out of any statement, but ma and ba differ from each other in implication.
The use of ma
generally implies that the speaker is not sure of the state ment preceding the question particle ma either an affirmative or negative answer. the
other
about
the
hand,
statement
The use of ma With ba, expects
indicates
the
and
and ba speaker
that
the
is merely
also
speaker asking
contrasts
presupposes
and thus expects The use of ba, on is
for
fairly
confirmation.
in negative
the negative
a confirmative negative answer,
while,
sure
questions.
statement and with ma,
the
2. 2.1. 3. -
79 -
speaker's presupposition is just
the opposite.
For example,
in (b), the speaker's presupposition is that he is not going, while in (a), the presupposition is that he is going: a.
Ta bu qu ma? he-not-go-ma Isn't he going?
b.
(I think he is.)
Ta bu qu ba? he-not-go-ba He isn't going, I suppose?
The differences between ma and ba are summarized in the table below: TABLE 2.2.1.
3.
Differences Between Ma and Ba
In Affirmative QP Questions
In Negative QP Questions
ma
Expressing doubt and asking for clarifi cation
Presupposing the affirmative statement and expecting verification
ba
Presupposing the affirmative state ment and expecting agreement
Presupposing the negative statement and expecting agreement
Remarks Chao
(1 968),
identical to ma.
p.
808
However,
says
that
ba
may
form
questions
this is so seldom the case that it
was not mentioned above under
the Discussion.
Chao,
also suggests that ba represents a fusion of bu and a.
p.
81,
2.2.1.3.
-
4.
80 -
Other Discussions 1,
BC 2 , p . 21 .
2.
EC 37, p . 159 • E C C , p . 199.
3. 5.
SM 7., p. 6 6 . Chao (1 968) , p p . 81, 808.
6.
A. Hashimoto (1971) , p. 16 ff
7.
E. Rand (1969), p. 65.
4.
2.2.1.4.
a/ya
PT 5
S
VP
a/ja
?
*****************************
1.
Examples u
a.
u
Ni hao a? you-be good-a How are you?
b.
(Are you well?)
Shei a? who-a
.
Who is it? c
Nr bu qu a? you-not-go-a You're not going?
d.
Wo ya? I-ya Who, me?
2.2.1.4.
2.2.1.4. 81
-
2.
-
Discussion
The question particle
a/ya,
like ne,
can be used
in a
variety of ways. In Example (a) above, it functions like the question particle ba in that there is a strong expectation on the speaker's part of an affirmative reply. This particular use of a is restricted to greetings, however, and there is no real overlap with
the
question particle ba,
as ba is never
used in greetings. A/ya may also be used Example
(b)
above.
Shei
to soften a question, 'who is it'
as seen in
is already a question,
but the addition of a tones down its brusqueness and makes it less harsh
to the ear.
In such cases,
it is normally used
with short abrupt questions, as in: a.
Shenme ren a? what-person-a Who is it?
b.
Jikuai qian a? how much-M-money-a How much is it?
The question particle a/ya may also be used- in what have been called
confirmation
or
echo
questions.
These
are normally
also shorter questions and just serve to clarify or confirm an earlier statement,-as in: —
c.
Q:
—
>, 0
,Ta shuo shi ni. he-say'-be-you He said it was you.
A:
Wo ya? I-ya Who, me?
2. 2. 1. 4 . -
Such
questions
tend
to
be
. . ..
2 2 2 1
82 -
somewhat
exclamatory
Notice the use of ya in this example.
in
Ya is identical with a
and tends to be used in its place after open vowels "a," "e" and "o" (as in wo).
nature. such as
One further sound characteristic
of a/ya is that it. links freely with the preceding consonant or vowel, without the normal separation between words. 3.
Other Discussions 1. 2.
BC 1, p. 11. ECC
3., 4.
SM 1, p. 2. Chao (1 968), p. 803.
5. 6.
Rand (1969), pp. 68, Elliot (1965), p. 91
2.2.2.
Choice-Type (Disjunctive) Questions
While
question
disagreement
particle
between
questions
speaker
and
involve
addressee,
agreement
or
disjunctive
questions require choosing between two or more given alterna tives.
There are four basic types of disjunctive questions.
2.2.2.1.
haishi
■k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k'k-kicklck-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-kickickick-kick-k-kickic-kickic•k-k*-k-k-k-k*-k1ckick'k'k-fc-kic-k-k-k-kii PT 6
S
V
0-|
haishi
PT 7
S
(hai)shi
PT 8
(hai)shi Sent-j (ne) haishi Sent0 (ne) [ haishi Sent0 (ne) ]
VP^
Oq
?
(hai)shi
VPn
[ haishi
VP-, ]
(ne)
?
•^■^ii^ick-k-k-k-k-kick-k-Jrkirk-k-k-kirk-k-k-k-kick-kirk-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-kick-k-k-k-k-k-k-kick-Jck-k'k'kirk^'k-k-kirk-kirk'kb
2 .2 .2.1 .
- 83 -
Examples PT 6 a.
Ta xue Zhongguo shi haishi Meiguo shi? he-study-China-history-or-America-history Is he studying Chinese history or American history?
b.
Nr chi prngguo haishi xiangjiao? you-eat-apple-or-banana Will you have an apple or a banana?
PT 7 a.
Ta qu haishi bu'qu? she-go-or-not-go Is she going or not?
b.
Ta shi kan bao haishi kan shu, haishi kan zazhi ne? ’he-or-read-newspaper-or-read-book-or-read-magazine-ne Is he reading a newspaper, a book or a magazine?
PT 8 a.
Shi gangbi hao haishi maobi hao? or-pen-be good-or-brushpen-be good Which is better, a pen or a Chinese brush?
b.
Zuo feiji kuai haishi zuo huoche kuai? ride-plane-fast-or-ride-train-fast Is it faster to go by plane or by train?
c.
Ni gao, wo gao? you-be tall-I-be tall Am I .caller or are you taller?
2.
Discussion
While question particle questions choice-type
questions
require
are yes-no questions,
choosing
between
(but seldom more than three) given alternatives. choice-type
question would
consist
of
two
or more
A reply to a
repeating
one
of
the
choices offered in the question: a.
Nr xihuan chi Zhongcan haishi xihuan chi Xican?
Q:
you-like-eat-China-food-or-like-eat-West-food Which do you like to eat, Chinese or Western food (Wo xihuan chi) Zhongcan.
A:
(I-like-eat)-China-food (I like to eat) Chinese food. b.
Q:
Shi ni gao haishi wo gao? or-you-be tall-or-I-be tall Are you taller-or am I? Wo gao.
A: *
I-be tall I am taller. c.
Shi ni gao haishi ta gao?
Q:
or-you-be tall-or-he-be tall Are you taller or is he? A:
Haishi wo gao. still-I-be tall I'm still taller (I am the tallest of the three).
Choice-type means
that
questions the
speaker
are
neutral
is not
in
presupposition,
expecting
answer, either affirmative or negative.
any
one
which
particular
2 . 2 . 2 . 1 .’ -
. . . .
2 2 2 2
85 -
In actual use, the optional ne is commonly omitted, as is the hai- in
the
first
occurrence
(see Example (b)Q above).
of haishi
in the sentence
In its most abbreviated form, as in
Example 8(c) above, both ne and, haishi may be omitted. last
form
is
used
infrequently,
and
then only with
sentences. 3.
Other Discussions 1.
BC 7, p. 78; BC 8, p. 96.
2.
EC 19, p. 183.
3. 4.
ECC, p. 269. SM 2, p. 13; SM 4, p. 36; SM 14, p. 136.
5.
Chao (1 968), p. 266.
6.
A. Hashimoto (1971), pp. 109ff.
7.
Rand (1969), pp. 33ff.
8.
Elliot (1965), p. 84ff.
2.2.2.2 . A-not-A ■kkk k k k k k k k k k k k k -k k k k k k k k k -k k k k k k k k k jc k k k
(A-not-A)
V
PT 9
V
bu
PT 10
S
V
bu
PT 1 1
S
V
0
PT 12
S
V
bu
PT 13
,S
0
V
PT 14
A
Aux
(V) bu
(V)
V
0
bu
V
bu
Aux
0
VP
*************************************
This
shorter
2.2.2.2.
-
87 -
PT 14 a.
U
W
— \ u
—
-V
—
Ni xihuanbuxihuan changge? you-like not like-sing-song Do you like to sing?
2.
Discussion Questions
formed
with
Patterns
9-14
listed
above
are
normally limited to sentences about the present or future. These patterns are not used to form questions about the past or completed completed
events.
event
(See
2.2.2.3
questions.)
and
Patterns
2.2.2.4 9-14
below
form
for
neutral
questions, which means there is no expectation on the part of the speaker of either an affirmative or negative reply. V bu V questions
are still considered to be choice-type
questions, but the choice here is limited to something and its negative.
The
haishi
choice-type
questions
seen
above
Patterns 6-8 include a variety of things to choose from: referent
of
the
subject,
the
only
verb,
the
the
etc.
In
its negative
form
Patterns 9-14,
however,
are involved:
the subject, verb, object, etc. do not change.
Thus, while with Patterns 'who,' 'what,'
the verb and
object,
in
6-8 one can ask such questions
as
'where' and 'when', with the V bu V pattern one
can only ask whether the action
(or state) does or will take
place. When there is no object in. the sentence,
the pattern is
very simple and can be used with either action verbs or state verbs: a.
Ta gaoxingbugaoxing? she-be happy-not be happy Is she happy?
2 . 2 . 2 . 2,
b.
88
-
Lx Si laibulai? w
' S
Li Si-come not come Is Li Si coming? c.
Tamen maibumai? they'-sell not sell Do they sell (it)?
When
there
Will they sell?
is an object .present,
there are two ways of
forming a question using Patterns 9-14: d.
Ni pabupa gou? you-fear not fear-dog Are you afraid of dogs?
e.
Ni pagou bu pa? you-fear dog-not-fear Are you afraid of dogs?
There is no difference
in meaning here between the two
of the question and neither is preferred over the other, an object is present in a sentence, it may be moved to a tion in front of the verb for emphasis: f.
Ni Zhongguo.fan chibuchi? you-China food-eat not eat Do you eat Chinese food? mm
g.
^
^
W
“
+
•
Zhongguo fan ni chibuchi? China food-you-eat not eat Do you eat Chinese food?
main verb:
2 . 2 . 2 .% .
89
h.
Ni yaobuyao qu? you-want not want-go Do you want to go?
i.
Nr genbugen ta jie qian? you-from not from-he-borrow-money Do you want to borrow money from him?
If the
auxiliary
verb
is
disyllabic
(two
syllables) , the
second syllable may or may not be repeated in the question: j.
Nr yinggaibuyinggai gaosu ta? you-should not should-tell-he Should you tell him? v-*
k.
Ni yingbuyinggai gaosu ta? you-should not should-tell-he Should you tell him?
While the V bu V question form cannot refer to the past with verbs, it can with auxiliary verbs: \J
l.
\J
+
W
s
W
—
—
+
SJ
Ni yiqian xibuxihuan chi huotui? you-before-like not like-'eat-ham Did you like to eat ham before?
In many cases, the time-reference of the question is dependent solely upon context
since
it may be phrased
in exactly
same way for past, present or future: m.
Nr kenbuken zuo? you-willing not will’ing-do Were you willing to do it? Are you willing to do it^ Would you be willing to do it (in future)?
the
2 . 2 . 2.2
- 90 -
When adverbs appear in a sentence, the V bu V pattern is still used with just the verb alone: n.
Ni hai qubuqu? you-still-go not go Are you still going?
As previously mentioned
(see 2.2.1.1), when an adverb appears
before
of
the
main
verb
preferred to V'bu V.
the
-question,
Nimen dou hen mang ma? you-all-very-be1busy-ma Are you all. (very) busy?
p.
Wo shuode tai kuaile ma? I-speak-de-too-fast-le-ma Am I speaking too fast?
3.
1
ma
is
This is especially true of the adverbs
hen, tai and dou: o.
Pattern
Other Discussions 1.
BC 2, p. 17.
2. 3.
EC 15, p,. 126. ECC, p. 22.
4. 5.
SM 1 , p . 4.. Chao (1 968), p p . 68, 269, 734
6. 7.
A. Hashimoto (1971), p p . 71 ,
8.
Elliot (1965), p. 84ff.
Rand (1969), p. 55ff •
2.2.
-
2.2.3.
91
-
shibushi
****************************************** PT 15
N1
shibushi • N2
PT 16
N1
shi
PT 17
S
shibushi
PT 18
S
shi
PT 19
shibushi
PT 20
shi
S
N2
bushi VP bushi
VP S VP
(n 2)
(VP)
VP bushi
(S
VP)
****************************************** Examples PT 15 a.
Ta shibushi Feizhou ren? he-be not be-Africa-person Is he African?
b.
Nr s“hibushi Ma Jiaolian? you-be not be-Ma-coach Are you Coach Ma?
PT 16 a.
Zhei tiao kuzi shl nide bu shl? this-M-pants-be you - 's-not-be Are these pants yours?
b.
x . W N W ^ N Neizhi xiao huamao shi nide bu shi? that-M-littie-calico cat-you-'s-not-be Is that calico kitten yours?
2.2.2.3.
-
92 -
PT 17 \
\J
a.
\
u
«
\
Ni shibushi hen gaoxing? you-be not be-very-be happy Are you happy?
(Is it the case that you are happy?)
PT 18 a.
Ni shi m m g t i a n qu youyong bu shi? you-be-tomorrow-go-swim-not-be Are you going swimming tomorrow?
PT 19 a.
Shibushi Faguo ren dou hen gao? be not be-France-person-all-very-be tall Is it true that all French people are tall?
PT 20 a.
Shi Zhongguo ren dou yong kuaizi chi fan bu shi? be-China-person-all-use-chops tick-eat-food-not-be Is it (the case) that all Chinese eat with chopsticks?
2.
Discussion The equative verb shi (see 2.1.2 above for more on equa-
tive verb sentences) is also used in the V bu V question form, as seen in Patterns 15 and 16. In some cases, however, shi functions as a state verb with the meaning 'to be true, to be th case' as in Patterns 17-20 (see 2.2.3 below for another instance of shi used as a state verb). There is a difference between questions formed with sh\ as a state verb and most other V bu V type questions. As we saw above, V bti. V ques tions
are
normally
neutral
in
nature,
i.e.,
carrying
no'
expectation of either an affirmative or a negative response. In
Patterns
17-20,
however,
there
is
normally
a
expectation that the response will affirm the statement.
strong
2.2*2.3.
-
93
- 2.2.2.4.
-
The shlbushi construction functions almost identically to other V bu V constructions. to 16; in addition,
Pattern 15 is normally preferred
Pattern 15 can also be used for past or
completed events: a.
Ta shlbushr zuotian daole? he-be not be-vesterday-arrive-le Did he arrive yesterday?
3.
Other Discussions 1.
BC 2, p. 17.
2.
EC 67, p. 137.
3.
ECC, p. 22, 39, 282.1 SM 4, P- 36 •
4. 2.2.2.4.
youmeiyou ******************************************* PT 21
S
PT 22
S
U > V youmeiyou 0 W #, V you 0 meryou
PT 23
S
youmeiyou
PT 24
S
VP
PT 25
youmeiyou
PT 26
you
Asp
S
VP
V
(Asp)
(0)
meiyou S
VP
Asp
meiyou
******************************************* 1.
Examples PT 21 a.
V
u
#
v
\J
Ni youmeiyou zhi? you-have npt have-paper Do you have any paper?
>. . .
2 2 2 4
-
SJ
b.
—
x
V
94
# ’ w
#
Ni shenshang youmeiyou qian? you-body on-have not have-money Do you have any money on you?
PT 22 a.
Ni you shijian mei you? you 7 have-time-not-have Do you have some time?
PT 23 a.
Ta youmeiyou qu? he-have not have-go Did he go?
b.
Ni iyoumeiyou kanguo nei zhang youhuar? you-have not have-see-guo-that-M-oil painting Have you s,een that oil painting (before)?
PT 24 a.
Ta quguole Yindu mei you? she-go-guo-le-India-not-have Has she ever been to India?
b.
Ni maile qiche mei you? you-buy-le-car-not-have Have you bought a car?
PT 25 a.
Youmeiyou ren yao qu? there be not there be-person-want-go Is there anyone who wants to go?
2 . 2.. 2 .4 . - 95 -
PT 26 a.
You ren qule mei you? there be-man-go-le-not there be Did anyone go?
2.
Discussion The verb you ('to
verb in
the V
bu
22(b) and 23(c)
have') can function like anyother main
V construction,
in Examples
21 (a) and
above;
however, you is unique among Chinese
verbs in that it alone present. Other verbs
takes the negative particle mei in the take the negative particle bu in the
present. Mei is also the negative marker for completed action (mei/ pao 'have not run, did not run'). If mei ‘is followed by a verb other than the possessive verb y o u , it puts that verb in a past marker).
or
completed
context
(see
3.6.3
on
mei
as
aspect
As mentioned above, the V bu V question construction
normally is used
for present or future events.
If the con
struction youm£iyou is used in place of V bu V, however, question
then normally
refers
to
past
or
completed
Observe the following examples a.
«
N -*
>
Ni qubuqu? you-go not go Are you going?
b.
U
N
#
W
Ni qule mei you? you-go-le-not-have Did you go?
c.
Ni maibumai nei srraang xiezi? you-buy not buy-that-M (pair)-shoe Are you going to buy that pair of shoes?
the
events.
«Ni
2 .2 .2 .4 . d.
96
-
Ni maile n M s h u a n g xlezi meiyou? You-buy-le-that-M-shoe-not have? Did you buy that pair of shoes?
There are basically two different forms of the youmeiyou question form.
These are seen in (23) a and b; (2^) a and b;
and the Discussion examples b and d above.
Neither form is
preferred over the other (see Remarks below) and there is no difference in meaning between the two.
In Pattern (23)» the
aspect marker le is not used, but the aspect marker guo ( 'to have done something before') is used if appropriate. e.
Ta you'meiyou qu?
(not appropriate)
She-have no.t have-go? Did she go? f.
Ni youmeiyou k&nguo wode shu?
(appropriate)
You-have not have-see-guo-I-'s-book? Have you read my book before? At least one aspect marker must be used with Pattern (2^)s g.
Tamen zoule meiyou? They-leave-le-not have? Did they leave?
h.
Ni quguole meiyou? You-go-guo-le-not have? Did you go?
The responses to a youmeiyou question are varied.
With Pattern
(2 3 ), a common negative reply would be meiyou ('did not'). In the affirmative, one can say you ('did'), but usually one should use all or part of the original sentences
2.2.2.4.
-
i.
Q:
97
-
Ta youmeiyou qu? he-have not have-go
A:
Meiyou.
(negative)
Ta mei(you) qu. not have he-not (have)-go No. He didn't go. A:
Qule.
(affirmative)
go-le (He) went. With Pattern 24 (S VP Asp mei you) , the most common negative reply would again be mei you 'did not,' while the usual affir mative reply would use part or all of the original sentence:v
j.
Q:
Ta zdule mei you? she-leave-le-not-have Has she left yet?
A:
Mei you.
(negative)
not-have N o , (she hasn't). A:
(Ta) zoule. (she)-leave-le
(affirmative)
Yes, she left. The youmeiyou question form can only be used with state verbs if
the aspect marker
le is
there
to indicate changed
status (see 2.1.1.3 above and 3.6.3.1.1 on le).
..
2 2 2.4 98
k.
-
Ta pangle mei you? he-fat^le-not-have Did he get fat?
The youmeiyou question form is not used with auxiliary verbs because, as noted above under Patterns 8 - 1 3 ,
auxiliary verbs
cannot take ajpast tense. As also, discussed above (see 2.1.1.1.2), the verb you can v.
also function as an existential verb sentences,
the
youmeiyou
'there is/are.'
construction
can
In such
indicate
past,
present or future tense, depending oh the context: l.
Zuotian youmeiyou ren lai kan wo? yesterday-there be not there be-person-come-see-I Did anyone come to see me yesterday?
m.
Xianzai youmeiyou ren deng wo? not-there be not there be-person-wait for-I Is anyone waiting for me (now)?
n.
Mingtian youmeiyou shiqing yao zuo? tomorrow-there be not there be-business-must-do Will there be anything that has to be done tomorrow?
3.
Remarks Y.
R.
youmeiyou
Chao VP
(1 968),
question
Southern dialects.
p.
form
This
669, has
has
pointed
entered
out
that
the
Mandarin
from
the
form is still unacceptable
to many
Mandarin speakers and the form VP le mei you is preferred.
2.2.2.4.
-
4.
- 2.2.3.
99
Other Discussions 1.
BC 13, p. 188.
2. 3.
EC 15, p. 126. E C G , p. 124ff.
4. 5.
SM 2, p. 14; SM 11, p. 102. Chao (1968), p. 669, 726.
6.
Rand (1971), p . 58ff.
2.2.3.
Tag Questions (dulbudui, haobuhao, xingbuxing, etc.)
************************************** PT 27
Sentence
Tag-Question
*********************■*"*•***■*"*■**********
1.
Examples \J
a.
j g t
mm
^
V
X
W
Women mingtian qu, haobuhao? we-tomorrow-go-good not good We'll go tomorrow, okay?
b.
Ni ,shi Deguo n e n , duibudul? you-be-Germany-person-right not right You are German, right?
2.
Discussion Tag questions are formed by placing one of .a number of V
bu V or V ma expressions at the end of a statement. common of these expressions are:
The most
2.2.3.
-
100
-
duibudui
'right;
shibushi
'true?'
(EC 53 »' P . 81; ECC, p. 282)
haobuhao
'okay?-'
haoma
'okay?'
(SM 3, P- 19; BC 5, p. 56) (BC 5, P- 56)
xingbuxing
'okay?'
(SM 7, P- 63)
chengbucheng
'okay?'
keyibukeyi
'alright?'
keyima
'alright?'
Questions
(BC 5, P- 56) (BC 5, P- 56)
formed with duibudui and shibushi have a very
strong expectation of an affirmative reply and are frequently rhetorical.
Questions formed with the other expressions tend
to be neutral and carry no expectation of either a negative or an
affirmative
state verbs.
reply.
Note
that
they
are
all
formed
with
Be careful not to confuse a tag question with a
regular V bu V question: a.
Ta gen women yikuar qu, xingbuxing?
(tag question)
she-with-we-together-go-alright not alright Is is alright if she goes with us?
b‘ .
Tade jihua xingbuxing?
(V bu V question)
h e - 's-plan-alright not alright Is his plan alright? 3.
Remarks This pattern is not really treated in any of the language
textbooks as a question pattern. . The expressions used in this pattern are usually .introduced with no explanation. 4.
Other Discussions 1.
Rand (1971), p. 56ff.
2 . 2.4
101
-
2.4.
-
Negative Questions ****************************************** PT 28
S
PT 29
bu/mei
bush!
PT 30
S
V
QP
Sent
ma
bu/mei
V
Tag-Question
****************************************** Examples PT 28 a.
Ni bu qu ma? you-not-go-ma You're not going?
b.
Ni bu qu ba? you-not-go-ba You're not going, are you?
c.
Ni bu gei wo ya? you-not-give-I-ya Oh, aren't you going to give it to me?
PT 29 ^
a.
^
^
^
^
^
^
Bu shi xiaohaizi \ dou. hen ke ai ma? o not-be-small child-all-very-cute-ma Isn't it true that all children are cute?
b.
Bu shi Hunan ren dou xihuan chi la de ma? not-be-Hunan-person-all-like-eat-hote-de-ma Isn't it true that Hunan people like to eat hot food?
2 . 2 .4 . -
102
PT 30 a.
Ni bu qu, durbudui? you-not-go-right not right You aren't going, right?
2.
Discussion Negative
questions
in
Chinese
certain question particles tion.
(ma,
can
only
be
ba and a/ya)
formed
with
or a tag ques
In Pattern 27 above, we see the most common form of the
negative
question,
in
which
the
verb
of
the
sentence
is
negated by either bu .or mei (see 3.7) and a question particle is added to the end of the sentence. The use of question particles with negative questions was discussed above (2.2.1) under each question particle, but for convenience, we will review the pertinent parts of the' earlier discussion here. Negative questions with the-question particle ma normally, show a strong expectation on the part of the speaker that the reply will confirm the negative proposition, as in (a) below: Ni bu qu ma? you-not-go-ma You're not going? \
w
^
X
Dui, wo bu qu. correct-I-not-go Right, I'm not going.
2 . 2 .4 . -
b.
0:
103 -
Ni bu shi xiaotou ba? you-not-be-burglar-ba I take it you're not a burglar?
A:
Wo dangran bu shl. I-of course-not-be Of course I'm not.
With the question particle ba, there is a similar expectation, but even stronger, as in Example (b) . The question particle a/ya, when used with a negative question, forms what we referred to above as a confirmation or echo question,' a
question
meant
to' clarify
or
confirm
an
earlier statement: c.
Q:
Wo bu gei ni qian. I-not-give-you-money I w o n ’t give you any money.
A:
Ni bu gei wo ya? you-not-give-I-ya So you won't give me any?
The use of a/ya is optional for the purpose of asking a ques tion, since this is already indicated by rising intonation in the latter part of the sentence (see 2.2,7 below on intonation questions). Negative
Such questions are usually exclamatory in nature. questions
are
also
formed
using
Here bush!. ♦ .ma forms a rhetorical question: d.
Bu shi n L z i j i shuo de ma? not-be-you self-say-de-ma: Didn't you say so yourself?
Pattern
28.
2 . 2 .4 . 104
-
2 . 2.5
-
A similar rhetorical question may also be formed by placing shibushi
at
the
front
of
to
form
the
sentence
(see
2.2.3
above
on
shibushi) . A
third
way
negative
questions
is
by
simply
adding a tag question to a negative sentence: e.
Ni bu qu, duibudui? you-not-go-right not right You're not going, right?
3.
Other Discussions1 2 1.
EC 48, p. 81; EC 61, p. 35
2.
ECC, p. 202.
2.2.5. 1.
Question Words ('what,' 'who,' 'why,' etc.)
General Remarns One
of
the
most
common
ways
to
form
a
question
in
Chinese, and the one way most familiar to English speakers, is by using a question word. Question words ask such things as 'who,' word
'why,'
is meant
what was
'when,* and 'what.' to ^be replaced
being asked.
As in English, the question
in the reply by
However,
whereas
the answer
to
in English the word
order of a question is different from its reply
(cf.
"Where
are you going?"/"I am going to the beach."), word order for Chinese questions and replies generally remains the same:
2 . 2 .5 . -
a.
Q:
105 -
Ni dao nar qu? you-to-where-go Where are you going?
A:
Wo dao ta jia qq. I-to-he-house-go I'm going to his house.
b.
Q:
Ni xuexi shenme? you-study-what What are you studying?
i
A:
Wo xuexi gongke. I-study-engineering I'm studying engineering.
c.
Q:
Shei shi women de tuanzhang? who-be-we-'s-group leader Who is our group leader?
A:
Zhang Dawei shi women tuauvzhang. Zhang Dawei-be-we-group leader Zhang Dawei is our group" leader.
The exception to this order is when the Chinese question word asked the
'why'
normal
statement
(he b i , ganma, weishenme1, etcl). pattern
(minus
the
for
a
reply
question
would
word)
beginning with yinwei 'because':
and
In such cases,
be then
to
repeat
add
a
the
clause
2 . 2 .5 . 106
-
d.
Q:
-
w \ ^ > x Women weishenme yao qu ne? we-why-must-go-ne Why do we have to go?
A:
(Nimen yao qu) yinwei ta hen xiang kan nimen. (you-must-go)-because-he-very-want-see-you (You must go) because he wants to see you very much
Grammatically,
a question
word
can
replace
and
function
as
nearly any part of speech in a sentence, with the exception of verbs.
For
example,
subject, 'direct object, time,
place,
cause,
a
question
word
indirect object
etc.,
and
occur
could and
in
replace
even
the
adverbs
same
the of
sentence
position as the part of speech which is replaced. e.
Shei yao qu?
(Subject)
who-want-go Who wants to go? f.
Ta gei ni shenme?
(Direct Object)
he-give-you-what What did he give you? g.
Ni ba nei zhi ji gei-shei?
(Indirect Object)
you-ba-that-M-chicken-give-who To whom are you giving that chicken? h.
Ni shenme shihour qu?
(Adverb of Time)
you-what-time-go When are you going? Sfnce question words simply replace already existing sentence pafts, one cannot really speak of question word patterns, but only of how question words adapt to other patterns.
. . .
2 2 5
2.
107
-
Discussion There are a number
most
commonly
used
ones
of question words are
listed
in
In Chinese.
the reference
The chart
below: Table 2.2.5:
QW
English
duo (me)
how SV
duoshao
how many
ganma
why/do what
hebi
why must
w ji '
how many
nar/nali
Common Question Words
BC 8 ,p .101
3 ,p.33
—
EC
ECC
—
—
1 7 ,p.89
—
—
p .21
SM 12,p.108; 15,p.141 4,p .28
—
---
—
—
3 ,p .33
17,p.89
p .21
3 ,p. 17
where
5.P.47
25,p.151
p .58
8 ,p .71
which
3,p.24
25,p.151
p .56
3.P-17
( nei/nayi shei/shui
who/whom
5 ,p.48
25,p.151
p .57
1 ,P*2
shenme (N)
what
3,p.33
21 ,p.120
p .26 p .54
1% P •2
_x + weishenme
why
17,p.274
4 0 ,p.36
p .195
8,p.71
9,p .105
44,p.79
p .195
10 ,p.89
17,p.275
25,p.151
p .59
18 ,p.171
zenme (le)
^ X zenmeyang
how/how come how about it/how
2.2.5.1.
-
2.2.5.1.
108
2.2.5.2.
-
du o (m e)
Duo(me)
is
an adverbial
only with status verbs.
question
word
which
functions
It is used to ask questions involving
degree: a.
Nx duo(me) gao? you-how-be tall How tall are you?
b.
Nx jia lx wo jia you duome yuan? you-house-from-I-house-have-how-far How far is your house from mine?
The me is frequently omitted.
2.2.5.2.
duoshao (jx)
Duoshao 'how much, many' is % quantitative question word which is used.to ask questions involving numbersa.
Nx yao duoshao qian? you-want-how much-money How much money do you want?
b.
Waimian you duoshao ren? outside-have-how many-person How many people are there outside?
There is another question word, jjx 'how much, many,' which has the same meaning as duoshao, but the two are used differently. First of all, ten, while
duoshao
suggests
a large number,
suggests less than ten:
usually over
2.2.5.2 .
-
c.
109
-
Ni you jr ge haizi? you-have-how many-M-chiId How many children do you have?
d.
Nei ge xiyuan neng zuo duoshao ren? that-M-theater-can-sit-how many-person How many people can that theater seat?
Secondly,
duoshao
never
stands
before
a measure
word
(see
1.1.4 and 4.0.5 on measure words), while j_i normally does: e.
Ni you duoshao qian? you-have-how much-money How much money do.you have?
f.
Nr you ji kuai qian? you-have-how many-M-money How much money do you have?
Note that Example
(e)
assumes
a large amount of money while
Example 9(f) assumes less than ten dollars. Thirdly,
ordinal sense of 'which day --u month,' 'which month/hour,' etc., only j_i is used: g.
in
the
Jintian j i hao? today-how many-number What day of the month is today?
h.
Xianzai ji dian zhong le? now-how many-M-o'clock-le What time is it now?
of
the
. ...
2 . 2 .5 . 3 . 110
-
2.2.5.3. The
meanings
-
ganm a question
ganma
'why'/'do
some speakers substandard.
nowadays, although therefore
2 2 5 4
somewhat
'in
such, a s :
order
what'
consider It has
to
is
widely
used
it •dialectal and several extended
do what,'
'what
for'
and
'why': a.
Ni ganma? you-do what What are you up to?
b.
Ni ganma lao ku? ♦ you-do what-always-cry Why are you always crying?
Ganma is generally very brusque and thus potentially impolite. It often carries a tone of annoyance.
It is therefore usually
restricted to use between familiars. 2.2.5.4. H£bi which
hebi 'why must'
services
to
is often used
express
a
together with a final ne
slight
dissatisfaction
given proposition or situation (see 2.2.1.2 above): a.
W
# X
>
Women hebi qu ne? we-why must-go-ne Why do we have to go? y
b.
^
X
X
X
v
X
Ni hebi zhei yang xiaoqi? you-why must-this-fashion-stingy Why must you be so stingy?
with
a
2. 2. 5 . 5 .
2 -2 . 5 . 6 .
Ill
..
2 2 5.5
.
Ji
j_i
'how
much, —
many'
was
discussed
in
detail
above,
\ j
together with duoshao (see 2.2.5.2). 2.2.5.6.
nar/nali
Nar/nali 'where' is a question word used to ask questions of location: a.
Ta zai nar? he-be at-where Where is he?
b.
Ni shi zai nali zhangda de? you-be-at-where-grow up-de Where was it that you grew up?
Nar is
more
Beijing
area,
frequently while
nali
used is
by used
Chinese by
difference in meaning between the two. question
'where'
is
to use
speakers
others.
from
There
the
is no
Another way-to ask the
the question word
shenme
'what'
(see 2.2.5.9 below) together with the noun difang 'place': c.
Ta zai shenme difang? she-be at-what-place Where is she?
There is no difference in meaning between nar/nali and shenme difang. o
^
V
4
N^r/nali may also be used as an adverbial question word in the extended sense of 'how' d.
(literally,
'from where'):
Nar you ren neng xuede name kuai? where-there be-person-can-learn-de-that-fast How could anyone learn so fast?
2 . 2 . 5 .8 .
2 . 2. 5 . 6.
-
e.
—
x
yj
w
112
-
x
Ta nar hui dong zhei ge? he-where-be able-understand-this-M How could he understand this?
Such %questions
are
normally
rhetorical
with
an
anticipated
negative 'reply. Nar/nali, in this extended sense of O
in the two polite expressions
'how,' "V
is also used ^
"Nar de hua" and "N a l i ."
Both
expressions are used in polite reply to compliments and mean approximately
"How
can
you
say
that?",
in
the
English
idiomatic sense of "Oh, not at all." 2.2.5.7.
nei/na(yi)
Nei/na(yi)
'which' is a question word used to ask demon
strative questionsr a.
Ni yao kan nei yi bpn shu? • you-want-see-which-one-M-book Which book do you want to see? -x
\j
b.
w
x
w
Nei ge fanguar zui hao? which-M-restaurant-most good Which restaurant is the best?
2.2.5.8.
shei/shui
Shei/shui
is
questions 'who,' a.
an
interrogative
'whom,' and 'whose':
Ni shi shui a? you-be-who-a Who are you?
pronoun
used
to
ask
the
2.2.5.8 . - 2.2.5.10. - 113 -
Shei yao gen wo yikuar qu?
b.
who-want-with-I-together-go Who wants to go with me? \ \ % V ^ Zhei ge yao songgei shei?
c.
this-M-must-send to-who To whom should this be sent? Shui has been referred to as the more formal variant of shei [Chao
(1968),
p.
651];
however,
it
seems
to
be
gaining
currency in daily usage in the People's Republic of China and appears in the textbooks published there shenme
2.2.5.9.
question word
The
shenme
is
used
to
ask
the
question
It can be used by itself or together with a noun:
'what.' a,.
Ni kan shenme? , you-look-what What are you looking at?
b.
Ni yao shenmeyang de shu? you-want-what-kind-de-book What kind of book do you want?
c.
Ta shi shenme ren? he-be-what-person Who is he? '
2.2.5.10.
weishenme
Weishenme is an adverbial'question word which asks 'why.' Wei
means
'for
the
sake
of'
and
literal -translation of the term is seen
above,
there
are
two
other
shenme
means
'for what question
'what.'
(reason).'
words
(ganma
A As and
dppj H
2.2.5.10.
114
-
hebl) which
may
be
used
used in with
'why'
it any
.the
is the question word
questions. special
-
in ■ approximately
weishenme, but weishenme
2.2.5.11.
same most
way
as
commonly
Normally, weishenme does not carry
denotation,
as
do
hebi
and
Ranma.
As
mentioned in the opening remarks to the question word section, the word order of a
'why'
question in Chinese
is changed
in
the reply: a.
Q:
Nr weishenme ai ta? you-why-love-she Why do you love her? W X
A:
—
—
-
w
w
. ^
Wo ai ta yinwei ta hen youqian, I-love-she-because-she-very-rich I love her because she is rich.
Weishenme
questions
may
also
(see 2.2.1.2 above on ne) .
take
the
question
particle
ne
,Thi's final ne may either express
a slight dissatisfaction or signal a rhetorical question: b.
Ni weishenme bu qu ne?
(dissatisfaction)
you-why-not-go-ne Why aren't you going? c.
Wo weishenme bu qu ne?
(rhetorical)
I-why-no t-go-ne And why am I not going? 2.2.5.11.
zenme(le)
Zenme(le) is an adverbial question word used in questions asking 'how (to)' or 'how come (why)': a.
\,
>
w
tv
Zhei ge zi zenme xie? this-M-character-how-write How do you write this character?
2.2.5.11. - 2.2.5.12.
b.
Yingwen zenme shuo "Srrenbang"? English-how-say-"Four-person-gang"
I
How do you say "Sirenbang" ('Gang of Four') in English? -
c.
u
-
#
n
U
Ta zenme huran jiu zoule? she-how-suddenly-;] us t- leave-le Why did she leave so suddenly?
u When zenme is used in the sense of 'why,' it carries with it a tone of surprise, as if the speaker had not expected something to happen. The question word zenmele is an expression meaning is the matter?'
'What
It can be used by itself or with a simple '' i
subject: d.
w Zenmele? how-le What's the matter?
If e.
—
u
Ta zenmele? he-how-le What's the matter with him?
2.2.5.12.
zenmeyang
'\J
'N Zenmeyang can function in three ways.
First of all,
it
can function as an adverbial question word in trhd' same manner as zenme 'how' : a.
Ni zeiimeyang zhidao? you-how fashion-know How do you know?
Secondly, it can be used to ask the question,
'how is it?':
- 2 . 2. 6.
2.2.5.12.
116
-
b.
-
Nei ben zazhi zenmeyang? that-M-magazine-how fashion How is that magazine?
c.
Ta shuode zenmeyang? he-speak-de-how fashion How did he speak?
Thirdly,
(How does he speak?)
it is used as an expression meaning
'how about it?'
or 'what do you think about it?'• d.
Such
Ta yao mingtian dai ni qu kan dianying.
Zenmeyang?
he-want-tomorrow-take-you-go-watch-movie
how-fashion
He wants to take you to a movie tomorrow.
How about i
questions
are
similar
to
the
tag
questions
discussed
above in 2.2.3. 3.
Other Discussions 1.
Chao (1 968), pp.-651ff, 580.
2.
Rand (1971), p. 70ff.
3.
Elliott (1965), p. 60.
2.2.6. 1.
Extended Uses of Question Words (Indefinites)
Discussion Question
question. they
can
are:
do
not
always
make
a
sentence
into a
For, in addition to functioning as a question word, also
'anything,' Some
words
function
as
indefinite
pronouns
('someone,;
'somewhere,' etc.).
examples
of question words
as
indefinite
pronouns
. . .
2 2 6
-
a.
117
-
Wo bu zhidao shei shl shei. I-not know-who-be-who. I do not know who is w h o .
b.
Wo yao mai ji ben shu. I-want-buy-several-M-book I want to buy a few books.
c.
—
v
+
-
w
^ #
Ta mei you duojiu jiu huilaile. she-not have-how long-just-come back-le She returned before too long.
Note that when used in this way, question words take•a neutral tone. Some
question
words
functioning
as
indefinites, (shei,
nar, shenme) are often used together with dou/ye in the sense of 'none',
'all,' -'nowhere' and 'anywhere.' ■k-k-k-k-k-kirkick-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-kidrk-k'k-kick-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-kirk-k-k
PT 31
S
QW-dou/ye
(bu/mei)
VP
•k-k-k-k-k-k-k-kick-k-k'k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k'k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k
1.
Examples a.
Nar dou key!. where-all-permissible Anywhere is fine.
b.
v
^
—
x
v
Wo shei dou bu qing. I-who-all-not-invite I'm not inviting anyone at all.
c.
Wo shenme ye mei zuo. I-what-also-not-do I didn't do anything at all.
2.2.6.
-
2.
118 "
Discussion When used with dou/ye, the question words normally retain
their original tone.
Dou is preferred in present/future tense
sentences, while either dou or ye can be used
in past
tense
-
(completed action)
sentences.
u
Note also that when dou/ye is
used, the object is always moved to a position in front of the verb. When strong
questions
emphasis
exclusiveness: Without
words
placed
are
on
the
'’all' or 'none'
dou/ye, 'there
is
used
no
with
sense
of
dou/ye,
there
is
inclusiy#ness
or
(each and everyone/not a one). such
emphasis.
Compare
the
following pairs: V
a.
^
—
V• V
Wo shei.. dou bu qingv I-who-all-not-invite I'm n,ot inviting anyone at all. u
b.
\
V
#
/
Wo bu qing shei. I-not-invite-who I'm not inviting anyone (in particular).
c.
Wo shenme dou bu yao chi. I-what-all-not-want-eat I don't want to eat anything at all.
d.
Wo bu yao chi shenme.. I-not-want-eat-what I don't want anything (much) to eat.
Pattern
32
is related
to Pattern 31
in that
it uses
either
question words or choice-type questions (see 2 .2 . 2 above).
2.2.6.
119 ********************************************************************** VP^
S
dou/ye
VP ^
PT 32
bu guan/bu lun/wu lun
QW
PT 33
bu guan/bu lun/wu lun
Choice-type Question-S
dou/ye
V
**********************************************************************.
1.
Examples PT 32 a.
Bu guan shei qing wo, wo dou bu qu. not-care-who-ask-I-I-all-not-go No matter who asks me, I won't go. ^
b.
\
™
\
v »
“
\
W
Bu lun duome da, wo dou bu mai. not-discuss-how-big-I-all-not-buy
c.
it
No matter how big it is, I'won't buy it. Wu lun ruhe, ni dou dei nian daxue. not-diseuss-like how-you-al 1 -must-study-university No matter what, you have to go to the university. PT 33 a.
Bu> lun guibugul, wo' dou yao. not-discuss-expensive not expensive-I-all-want I want it, no matter what the price.
b.
Bu guan ni qubuqu, wo dou qu. not-care-you-go not go-I-all-go I'm going no- matter whether you go or not. —
Notice that in these two patterns, Bu guan is more commonly used or wu lun.
dou is preferable
u
to y e .
in everyday speech than bu lun
When wu lun appears in everyday speech, it is most
< 2. 2. 6.
-
likely to co-occur with ruhe It occurs more
frequently
2 . 2. 7,
-
120 -
'no matter what,'
as
in 32(c).
in writing and formal speech.
Bu
lun is the colloquial counterpart of wu lun. Other Discussions 1.
BC 16, p. 267.
2.
EC 63, p .• 62.
3.
ECC, p. 362ff.
4. 5.
SM 9, p. 82ff. Chao (1 968), pp. 131, 651ff
6.
Rand (1971), p. 82ff. Elliott (1965), p. 71f f .
7.
2.2.7. 1.
Intonation Questions
Discussion There are two kinds
distinct particles
intonation
question indicator. of
question
considered
above)
(2 )
and
question
distinctive
being
at
those
with
question
those
with
no
particle
other
questions
may be
a sub-type of intonation questions
because
they share a common intonation pattern This
in Chinese which have
As mentioned above under our discussion
particles,
to be
(1 )
patterns:
2 .2 . 1
(see
of questions
intonation pattern
a higher-than-normal
[Rand
(1 969),
is usually
pitch.
This
p. 67].
described as
relatively high
pitch can either remain, level throughout the sentence or fall rather
sharply
strongly
with
stressed
a
later
syllable
rise
beginning
[Rand
(1 968),
examples of intonation questions would be: a.
Ta bu qu? he-not-go He's not going?
with p.
the
65].
last Some
b.
Ni fuqin? you-father Your father?
2.
Remarks The small amount of instrumental phonetic data available
on intonation here.
questions
is
too
technical
for
our -purposes
Therefore, a true understanding of the phonetic nature
of the intonation question will have to come from exposure to spoken intonation questions. 3.
Other Discussions 1.
Rand (1968), p. 65ff.
2.3.
2 . 3 . 1 . 1. '
-
CHAPTER II.
122 -
TYPES OF SENTENCES, ORDER OF ELEMENTS AND FUNCTION WORDS
2.3.
Command/Request (Imperative Sentences)
2.3.0.
General Remarks
The
command/reqeust
sentence
covers
a wide
variety of
utterances:
commands, requests, pleas, warnings, etc.
purest form,
it is limited to command/request sentences which
take
an
explicit
(stated)
person subject (you) .
or
implicit
In its
(understood)
second
In our treatment, however, some of the
auxiliary verbs
discussed below may also be used with
person subjects
(he,
she,
it,, they).
third
Those auxiliary verbs
listed below as "regular" tend to require an explicit subject, while those listed "prohibitive" do not. Command/request sentences may be formed with: tain' auxiliary verbs,
(2) certain verbs,
and
There
(4)
intonation.
among these four types.
(1) cer
(3) certain particles
is also a great
deal of overlap
The most obvious is that all command/
request sentences share a common intonation pattern.
2.3.1.
Auxiliary Verbs in Command/Request:
2 .3.1 . 1 v
.
Regular
bidei
W
X
Bidei
'must'
8
■■
is a close synonym to bixu 'must' and xnyao
'must.'
It is similar in meaning to dei
is more
formal
and
less
frequently
negative form is bu bi 'need not.'
'must, have to7-' but
used.
Its
most
common
2.3.1.1
123
-
a.
V
\ u
—
—
”
2.3.1.3,
-
u
Ni bidei xian tongzhi womefl. you-must-first-notify-us You must first notify us.
b.
V
^
^
™
—
w
Ni bu bi tongzhi women. you-not-need-notify-us You needn't notify us.
C.
— VS U X X y t w 7" Ta bidei da dianhua gei ta muqin.
he-must-make-phone call-to-he-mother He, must call up his mother. 2.3.1.2.
iv — bixu
x u Bixu 'must' is a close synonym to bidei 'must.'
It is more formal .than bidei.
v 'must' and xuyao
Its most common nega
tive form is bu bi 'need ijot.' a.
Women bixu yonggong nianshu. we-must-be diligent-study We must be diligent in our studies.
b.
Ni bu bi name yonggong. you-no t-mus t-tha t-diligent You need not be so diligent.
c.
w s — — >. .\J X * u > Ni bixu duochi yi diar fan cai you liqi. you-must-more eat-little-food-only then-have-strength You must eat more in order to be strong.
2.3.1.3.
dei
D,ei 'have to, must' as a command auxiliary verb is widely used in Northern colloquial speech. both the sense of
'have to'
and
In the affirmative it has
'must,' but
forms (bu bi and bu yong) it only means
in its negative
'need not.'
2 .3 .1 , 3 . -
a.
124
- 2 . 3 . 1.4
-
Wo dei gaosu ta. I-must-tell-she I must tell herv
b.
Wo dei zou. I-must-leave. I must leave.
c.
Ni bu yong zou. you-not need-leave You needn't leave.
2.3.1.4. The indicate
S fei VP bu ke fei. ..bu ke pattern
'must'
is a very strong way
'must' and is also rather formal.
Its negative form
would be bu bl or bu yong 'need not.' a.
Ni fei lianxi bu k e . you-not-practice-not permissible You must practice.
b.
Women fei qu bu ke. we-not go-not-permissible We must go.
c.
y # x n Ni bu yong qu. you-not need-go You don't have to go. W
d.
"
mm
mm
mm
x
to
\J
Wo fei chi Xican bu ke. I-not-eat-Western food-not permissible I insist on eating Western food.
- 2.3.1.6.
2.3.1.5.
125 -
2.3.1.5 . Gai
gai 'ought
to,
should'
is
generally
synonymous
with
yinggai 'ought to, should' and yingdang 'ought to, should,' although yinggai is the more frequently used term. These terms use 'should' in a sense of what is proper or reasonable. a.
Ni yinggai haoharde nian shu. you -shotil d -we 1 1 -de -s tudy You should study hard.
b.
Ni yingdang ting wode hua. you-should lis'ten-l-'s-speech You should listen to me (and do what I say).
Its usual negative forms are bu bl and bu yong 'need not.' Gai,
when
used
alone,
also
has
two
other
extended
meanings,: a.
b.
Gai shei?
Gai ta.
ought-who
ought-he
Whose turn is it?
It's his
turn.
Gai si. ought-die Drop dead!
2.3.1.6. Yao
yao 'must'
is not used
the most common form of gai (2 .3 .1 .5 )', yinggai all mean
as
'must.'
frequently as dei
(2.3.1 .3) ,
It_ is similar in meaning to
(2 .3 .1.9) and yingdang ( 2 .3 .1 .8 > which
’should’ in ..the =sense-of what is reasonable,
or slightly obligatory.
prope
The most commqnly used negative form
for yao is bu yong 'need, not.'
mm
2 . 3 . 1 .9.
2.3.1.6. -
a.
126
-
Ni yao xiaoxin yidian, nei zhi gou changchang yao ren. you-must-careful-a bit-that-M-dog-often-bite-person You must be more careful, that dog is always biting people.
b.
Nian shengci yao zhuyl shengyin. study-new word-must-pay attention-pronunciation You should pay close attention to pronunciation when learning new vocabulary,.
2 .3.1.7.
yingdang
See 2.3.1.5 above. yinggai
2.3.1 . 8 i
See 2.3.1.5 above. ■!» xuyao
2.3.1.9. Xuyao bldei
'must'
(2.3.1.1
'need to.' n o t .' a.
is ■somewhat similar
above).
However,
it
to bixu also
h^s
(2'.3.1.2) the
and
sense of
Its most common negative form is bu xu(yao)
'need
Ta xuyao kan yisheng. she-need-see-doctor She needs to see a doctor.
b.
Xin xuesheng dou xuyao dengjl. new-student-all-need must-register All new students must register.
Table
2.3.1
lists
these
nine
with the degree of formality,
regular
auxiliary verbs
along
frequency of use and forceful
ness for each, as well as further references.
Hints Aux
Verb
English
Formality
Frequency
bldSi
must
*
bixu
must
**
del
f 61 • • • buke
h a v e to, must
BC
Force
1
1 5 1 p. 211-2
***
*
—
ought have
yac
must
yingdang
o u g h t to, should
yinggai
o u g h t to, should
must
'*
■***
**
*
***
*
**
15 .
—
—
p
.243
—
3^ip.226
**
15 .
**
1 5 i p.2^3
■JHi
***
—
(-01 p . 3 6
—
to, to
References
EC
p .2 k 2
15!
must
gai
xuyao
Other
on Usage
p . 2^3
—
—
3^ip.226
—
Degree of formality/frequency/forcefulness: *
low
** average *** high
EC C
SM
Chao
—
--
7^3
—
--
7^3
—
^3
7^2
—
--
--
—
p.122
—
7^1
—
737 81
—
P . 1.23
. . .
7^1
—
7* U
—
--
. .
2 3 2.2
2.3.2. 128
2.3.2.
Auxiliary Verbs in Command/Request;
2 .3.2 .1 .
'do not'
and
bu yao
auxiliary verbs
in
ldo
not'
colloquial
that they are limited to direct address an
Pronibitive
bie
Bie command
-
explicit
(stated)
or
implicit
are
the
Chinese
only --
"pure"
"pure"
in
sentences which have
(understood)
second
person
subj ect: a.
Bie zoul do not-leave Don't leave. 0
KJ
b.
mm
>
mm
X
Ni bie gen wo kai wanxiao! you-do not-with-I-make-joke Don't joke with me!
cT
Ni bie shengqi, ta bu shi nei ge yrsi. you-do not-angry-she-not-be-that-M-meaning Don't be angry, that's not what she meant.
Bie is prevalent in northern China.
A common synonym for it
is b'u yao (2.3.2.7-)-. According to some experts [Chao (1 968), p. 747], bie is a fusion of bu ya o . Others [Hashimoto (1968), p.
8 ] say bie
alternate"
is not derived from bu yao and is a "semantic
rather
than a
synonym.
Bie
used by
itself
fatherbrusque, but it can be toned down by using particles (see 2.3.5 below) ots special verbs (see
is
certain 2.3.4.1
below). 2.3.2.2.
bu de
BO. d£ 'may not, must not' has the sense of ted.' writings.
It is
somewhat formal
andis- often
found
'not permit in
legal
2.3.2.2. -
a.
129
2. 3
. 2 .4 .
-
Daibiao bu de chaoguo sanshl ren. 'representative-not-can-exceed-thirty-person There can be no more than thirty representatives.
b.
Xianren bu de jinru. loiter person-not-can-enter Non-staff may not enter.
c.
Nimen bu de wugu quexi. you (plural)-not-can-no reason-absent You may not be absent without cause.
2 .3.2 .3.
budebu
v ^ N Budebu
'cannot
(2 .3 .2 .4 ) and
but'
bunengbu
has
two
close
(2 .3.2 .6 ), with
synonyms
in
% V N bukebu
the latter being the
most commonly used of the three in spoken Mandarin. a.
Ni budebu fucong mingling, you-not can not-obey-order You must obey orders.
b.
Women bunengbu hen ta. we-not can not-hate he We cannot but hate him.
c.
Ta budebu xue chi sherou, yinwei meiyou biede dongxi kechi. he-not can not-learh-eat-snake meat-because-not. haveother-thing-can eat. There's nothing else to eat so he'll have to learn to eat snake meat.
2 .3.2 .4.
bukebu
See 2.3.2.3 on budebu above.
ca
2.3.2.5 .
-
•2 .3.2 .5.
130
2 .3 . 2 .7.
-
bukeyi
s v u
Bukeyi 'may not'
is the most common form of 'may not'
in
spoken Mandarin. It is must less formal than bu de (2.3.2.2), ^ u s v bu xu (2 .3.2 .7) and bu zhun (2 .3.2 .9), and carries less sense of authoritv. w
a.
\ u v
—
w
-v
Ni bukeyi gen wo qu. you-not may-with-I-go You may not go with me. U
b.
X u w
x
\
— —
Ni bukeyi zai zher chouyan. you-not may-at-here-smoke You may not smoke here.
c.
Bukeyi yong shou na dongxi chi. not may-use-hand-take-thing-eat You may not eat with your hands.
2 .3.2 .6 .
bunengbu
See 2.3.2.3 on budebu above. 2 .3.2 .7.
\
bu xu w
Bu xu x
U
x
#
may n o t 1 has the same meaning as bu de (2.3.2.2),
u
bukeyi (2.3.2.5) but is slightly more prohibitive. X X X/ commonly used than bu d e , but less so than bukeyi. +
a
Nimen bu xu zai zher wan. you-not^may^at-here-play You may not play here.
, d
"
.
x
W
# —
Ta bu xu likai. she-not-may-leave She is not allowed to leave.
It is more
. . . .
2 3 2 7 131
-
c.
2 . 3 . 2 . 10 .
-
Shangke de shihour bu xu shuohua. in class-'s-time-not-may-speak There is to be no talking while class is in session.
2 .3.2 .8 .
bu yao
See bie (2.3.2.1) above. 2.3.2.9.
bu zhun
Bu zhun 'may not' has the same sense as- bu de ,(2.3.2.2), bukeyi
(2 .3 .2 .5 ) and bu xu
(2 .3.2 .7) above, but is primarily
used on signs and notices, and not in speech. a.
Bu zhun chouyan. not-allow-smoke No smoking.
b.
Cichu bu zhun youyong. this-place-not-allow-swim No swimming here.
c.
Siren yongdi, bu zhun jrnru. private person-area-not-allow-enter Private property, no admittance.
I d.
Bu zhun tingche. not-allow-park car No parking.
2 .3 .2 .1 0 .
When 92.3.1.8), not.'
bu yinggai yjnggai
'ought
to,
its negative was
should'
was
discussed
given as bu yong or bu bi
above 'need
Its prohibitive form, bu yinggai, means 'should not.
Table 2 .3 .2i =»»■-
■
-
Auxiliary Verbs in Command/Request 1 Prohibitive
■■■ ---Other References
Hints on Usage English Formality
ble
do not
bu de
may not/ must not
bud£bu
cannot but
bdnengbu
cannot but
bu xu
may not
**
***
bu yao
do not
#
bu zhun
may not
***
bu (yirfg) gai
should not/ ** must not
bukeyi
may not
bukebd
uannot but
*
**
Frequency *■**
»*
*
**
**
**
EG
BG
Force
l6«p.248
747
---
—
---
—
—
741
---
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
740
##
—
— »
—
-- -
***
—
—
—
—
741
—
— “n
*•*
*
2 1p .10
Chao
—
—
15«p.243
**
SM
—
#*
**
ECC
***
5 . p
—
p.123
—
47 34i226 p.120 1_
—
741
—
3 'P •19 —
1 132
Aux Verb
?47
___
740
UJ Degree of formality/frequency/*forcefulness« *
low average
K) H O •
... .
2 3 2 10 133
-
a.
....
2 3 3 1
-
Ni bu yinggai zhei yang ma wo. you-not-should-this-way-curse-I You shouldn't scold me this way.
■b.
Wo bu yjnggai rang ni shengqi. 1-not-Should-let-you-angry 1 Shouldn't make you angry.
c.
Ta gangcai bu yinggai zheme shuo. he-just now-not-should-this way-speak He shouldn't have spekon like that just now.
See Table 2.3.2 for a list of these prohibitive auxiliary verbs, hints on usage and other references. TiiM'ijl 1.
Other Discussions 1.
See chart under 3.0.
2.
Hashimoto (1968).
2.3.3.
Adverbs (Quality Verbs) in Command/Request Sentences
Adverbs used to convey a sense of command/request are all taken from a class of verbs called quality verbs
(see 3 .2 .2 ).
A limited number of these quality verbs function as adverbs in specific
combinations
with
specific, implications.
We
will
present several pattern structures below which are meant to be descriptive rather than prescriptive. acceptable
for
That is, the format is
these particular examples but npt necessarily
fbr new sentences which the student might make up. 2.3.3.?'.
Adv-V 1
Kuai is the only adverb (quality verb) that may freely be placed before an action verb to express an urgent command:
2.3-3.1 -
a.
134
-
Kuai zou! fast-walk/leave Walk quickly!
b.
/ Leave quickly!
Kuai lai! fast-come Come quick!
c.
Kuai shuo y a ! fast-speak-ya Hurry up and speak!
Man this
'slow',
context;
others
in
a
man
duo
'more'
only
limited
in
number
and the of
shao
'less'
sentence
also
appear
in
given below and the
combinations
with
disyllabic
verbs:. d.
Man zou! slow-walk/leave Slow down! Don't leave yet! Take it easy! (said to guests upon their departure)
e.
Shao luosuo! little-small talk Quit your belly-aching! Don't be so fussy! Stop beating around the bush!
f.
Shao chumenr! little-exit door Don't go out (so much)!
g.
Duo yonggong! more-be diligent Work harder!
(as in doctor's orders)
2.3-3- 1 - 2.3-3-3-
h.
135
Duo zuoshi! more-do work Do more work!
2.3.3.2.
Adv!
In the pattern above, kuai is the most often used adverb (quality verb). In cases where the action described by the verb is clear by context, the verb may be left unstated, and the adverb may occur by itself: a.
Kuai! fast Hurry u p !
|0 11
Adverbs other than kuai are not used in this manner. 2.3.3.3.
Adv-Adv-V!
Frequently in command/request sentences, 'slow'
and
hao
'well'
are
imperative mood somewhat.
reduplicated.
the adverbs man
This
softens
the
Note that in Examples
(a) and
(c)
below, the neutral tone of the second reduplicated adverb does not affect the tone of the first, and that the retroflex "r" is added; and
(d)
this
is typical
reflect
Mandarin
of Northern speech.
Examples
spoken
There
elsewhere.
optional adverbal de^ before the verb [Example (d) ] . a.
Haohaor xuexi! good good-study Study properly!
b.
Haohao gongzuo. good good-work Work diligently.
is
(b). an
2 .3 0 -3 . -
c.
136
-
20-3
-
Manmanr chi. slow slow-eat Eat slowly.
d.
Manman de lai. slow, slow-de-come Do it slowly/gradually. Don't worry (it'll come eventually).
20.3.4.
Adv-V-V!
This structure, in which the verb rather than the adverb is redupl'icated, occurs in combinations of the adverb (quality verb)
duo
'more'
and a few select verbs,
such
as xiang
'to
think,' zou 'to walk,' kan 'to see,' and ting 'to listen.'
Yi_
'one' is optional between the reduplicated verbs: a.
Duo xiang(yi)xiang. much-think (yi)xiang Think it over.
2.30.5.
A-Adv-le 1
When parents issue commands to children they sometimes do so using select resultative compounds plus
the aspect iparker le.
(see 1.1.5 and 40.2 . 4 )
These imperatives
are extremely
brusque in nature and should be used by the s.tudent with care. a.
Wen qinchu le! ask-clear-le Find out about it!
b.
Nong zhengqi le! make-orderly-le Tidy up!
2 . 3 •3 •5• - 2 . 3 -3 *6 , 137
-
c.
-
Fang hao le! place-well-le Put it away!
d.
Xi ganj ing l e ! wash-clean-le Wash it clean!
2.3.3.6 .
V-Adv-(yi) diar!
I
This
is by far
the most
sentences with adverbs.
common form of command/request
The addition of (yi) diar
'a little'
implies a .change of state; i.e., the addressee is to act or do something differently
than he/she
(yi) diar originally means measure of amount here, some more' more:
has been
'a little,'
it
doing.
is not used
in the same way that
does not necessarily
Although
'some'
restrict one
in
to only
as
a
'Have 'some'
The addressee may help himself to 'a lot' more. This
type
of
sentence
may
represent
anything
stringent request to well-intentioned coaxing, the context and the speaker's intonation. a.
Shuo man yi diar! speak-slow-some Speak more slowly!
b.
Chi duo diar! eat-more-a little Eat some more!
c.
Chi kuai diar! eat-fast-more Eat (a little) faster!
from
a
depending upon
O * 'wn
i
2 .3 .3 -6 . - 2 .3 .3 -8. -
d.
138
-
Xie da diar! write-big-more Write (a little) larger!
e.
Xi ganjing yi diar! wash.-clean-a little Wash (it) (a little) cleaner!
2.3.3.7.
c
Adv-(yi) diar-V!
1 The adverbs kuai 'fast' and man 'slow' may also appear in 2
this command/request structure: a.
Kuai (yi) diar chi! t
fast-some-eat
t Eat (a little) faster! b.
t
Man diar shuo! slow-some-speak Don't speak yet!
Notice that while these sentences are in one respect identical in meaning to Examples 5(d) and 6 (a) above, i.e,
'do an action
in progress faster or slower,' they have an added sense of !'hurry up and begin an action' or 'wait a while before begin ning an action' and may thus be used to hasten on or delay the onset of an action.
T s
2.3.3. 8 .
Adv-V-(yi) diar!
This is a form that duo 'much' and shao 'little' sometime take.
t t T
There is no difference in meaning between the form here
and that of Example 6 (b) above; the two are used interchange
c
ably and with equal frequency.
a: ('
2.3*3*8. - 2.3*4139
a.
Duo chi diar! much-eat-some Eat some more!
2.3.4.
Verbs in Command/Request Sentences
There
is
a very
limited
number
considered as command/request verbs.
of verbs
which may
be
These are gins 'please,'
rang 'let, allow' and j iao 'have, make.' 2.3.4.1 .
gins
Qing
'please' may be seen as a "polite" command verb in
that it is used in command sentences to tone down the command , to its most
polite
level.
Compare
the
following
two
sen-
! tences: a.
Zuo! sit Sit!
b.
Qing zuo! request-sit Please be seated!
There are, of course,
intonation differences between the two
sentences as well, but the general difference in tone between 1 the two is obvious
even in the written'form.
Qing, when used
I this way, always comes at the very beginning of the sentence. The subject, when not omitted, must come directly after qing. Qing
is
only
used
with
two
of
the
auxiliary verbs
! command/request listed above in 2.3.1 and 2.3.2: , and bu yao
'do not.'
of
bie 'do not'
It may be used with „any of the adverb
(quality verb) command/request sentences.
. - . . - 2 .3-41
2 3 4 1 -
c.
140
*
-
Qing ni bie kai wanxiao. request-you-do not-make-joke Please don't kid around.
d.
Qing ni zaoxie lai. request-you-early some-come Please come a little earlier.
e.
Qing gei wo wu kuai qian. request-give-I-five-M-money Please give me five dollars.
1.
Other Discussions 1.
BC 2, p. 13.
2,
EC 40, p. 205.
3.
ECC, p. 184.
4.
SM 4, p. 29. Thompson (no date), p . 3.
5. .2 .
rang
Rang
'let,
below)
differ
allow'
from
and
jiao
'tell,
in
that
they
qing
person (you) object. a.
Rang wo ti ni zuo. let-I-for-you-do Let me do it for you.
b.
Qing ni rang ta qu. reque s.t-you - 1 e t -h e -go Please let him go.
c*
Rang ta shuo! let-he-speak Let him speak-1
make'
cannot
2 .3.4.3
(see take
a
second
. - . .- 2 .3 -4 .3 -
2 3 4 2 -
141 -
All rang and j iao sentences may be preceded by gins (2.3.4.I) which serves to soften any possible harsh tone. Other Discussions 1.
BC 23, p. 420.
2.
EC 40, p. 205.
3. 4.
ECC, p. 200. SM 20, p. 195.
2.3.4.3.
,iiao
Of the .three command/request verbs, j iao the most blunt. (see 2.3.4.1).
I
This
bluntness
'tell, make'
may modified
is
by using qing
II
1.
The use of .jiao is normally limited to third
person objects (him, her, them). O a.
Jiao ta gei ni zuo. tell-he-give-you-do Have him do it for you.
b,
Qing jiao ta zao yi diar lai. please-tell-she-early-some-come Please have her come a little earlier.
c.
Ta laoshi jiao wo zuo zhe ge zuo na ge. she-always-tell-I-do-this-M-do-’that-M She's always making me do this or that.
d.
Jiao bieren zuo bu ru ziji zuo. tell-other person-do-not-as good as-self-do You are better off doing something yourself than having someone else do it.
'
. - . . - 2 .3 -5.1
2 3 4 3 142
1.
-
Other Discussions1 1.
2.3.5.
ECC, p. 200.
Command/Requ’ est Particles
Many sentences may be made into command/request sentences by simply adding a command/requesfc particle at the end of the sentence. a/ya
and
The two most commonly used particles ba,
which
may
be
used
together
for this are
with most
of
the
command/request auxiliary verbs, quality verbs and verbs. 2 .3.5.1.
ba
The most used the
common command/request particle
is ba.
to give a sentence a mild sense of command, tone
of a request
or
suggestion.
With
a
It is
often with
first
person
plural subject (we), ba has the suggestive sense of 'let's.' a.
Zou ba! go-ba Let's go.
b.
Zanmen chifan ba! we-eat-ha Let's eat!
When ba is used with a second person subject, it has the force of a mild command and may be used to" soften more abrupt commands. C.
Gei wo! give-I Give it to me!
2 3 5 1 -
-
-
-
-
2 3 5 2
143
I
d.
Gei wo ba! give-I-ba
Give to to me (please). e.
Nimen ziji lianxi ba! you-self-practice-ba (Please) practice on your own.
f. Bie isgaosu ba. verbs or auxiliary verbs of command/ When ba used ta with don't-tell-she-ba it also softens the tone, (Please) don't tell her. qing does (see 2 .3.4.1). request,
i
g.
although not
as much as
Kuai shuo ba. quick-say-ba (Please) speak quickly.
I.
Other Discussions 1.
BC 2, p. 21 .
2.
EC 37, p. 159.
3.
ECC, pp. 116, 163.
4.
SM 7, p. 65
5.
Chao (1 968) p. 807.
6.
Hashimoto (1971), p. 80.
I ^
2.3.5.2 .
a/ya
The command/request particle a/ya can give a sentence a sense of petulance and/or insistence: a.
Zou a! go-a Get going, will you!
.
.
*
.
. * * . - 2.3
2 3 5 2 144
-
-
When used together with verbs and auxiliary verbs of command/ request, it has this same sense of petulance and insistence: b.
Kuai shuo ya! fast-speak-ya Hurry up and say it!
c.
Bie pa ya! don't-fear-ya Don't be afraid (don't be a sissy)!
d.
Bu neng da ya! not can-hit-ya Hey, no hitting!
As with all of the command/request sentences, of
such
sentences
their special
must
be
heard
intonation features.
to
be
the true flavor
appreciated,
due
to
A and ya are identical,
but ya tends to be.used after open vowels such as a, e and o. 1.
Other Discussions 1.
Chao (1 968), p. 804.
2.
Hashimoto (1 968), P* 14. Hashimoto (1971), P- 80.
3.
2.3.6.
Intonation in Command/Request
As mentioned above, intonation plays an important role in all command/request sentences.
However, due in part to a lack
of precise data in this area and in part to the scope of this book, we will have to limit ourselves ments on this topic.
to a few brief
state
. *. - 2 .3 -7 *
2 3 6 -
Command/request alone.
145
sentences
Such sentences
tend
-
can
be made
by
to be very brusque
intonation and
are
the
most impolite form of command/request sentences. a.
Ni guo lai! you-over-come Get over here!
b.
Zhan qilai! stand-up-come You stand up!
If required,
such
sentences
may
be
softened
by
using
qing
(2.3.4.1) or ba (2.3.5.1) as seen above. The intonation pattern of command/request two general characteristics. falling intonation,
with
sentences has
First of all, it tends to have a
the
last
few
sentences being accelerated in tempo.
syllables Second,
in
longer
the intensity
is normally much greater than normal throughout the sentence. 1.
Other Discussions1 2 1.
Chao (1 968), p. 41.
2.
Hashimoto (1 968), p. 13.
2.3.7. As
Command/Request Pronouns mentioned
command/request
above,
sentence
a is
characteristic that
it
person, either implied or explicit,
only
of
takes
as subject.
there are four pronouns which may be used:
m.
the
"pure"
the
second
In Chinese, 'you , 1 nimen
'you (plural),' women 'we, us' and zanmen 'we, us.'
The first
three should be familiar to you, but the last one, zanmen, may be less familiar since it is less frequently used. best explained
by
distinguishing
it
Zanmen is
from women, which
also
2 . 3 - 7.
-
means
'we, us'
in English.
146 -
Women carries the normal English
sense of 'us' or 'we,' while zanmen implies a closer relation ship among those included. For example, one would say Women Zhongguo ren. ., 'We Chinese...', but zanmen liangge ren... 'the two of u s ... ' number
'us.'
Also,
Thus,
zanmen
zanmen
implies a much smaller-in-
includes
the
person
addressed,
while women may or may not do so. Thus, women may replace zanmen at any time with no great shift in meaning, but zanmen may only replace women in very specific situations. These jects
four pronouns
with
any
are not,
command/request
however,
sentence.
all used as sub There are certain
restrictions as shown in this co-occurrence table: Table 2.3.7(a): Co-occurrence Restrictions for Pronouns as Subjects with Command/Request Verbs X = combination possible VERB
ni(men)
women
zanmen
most aux. verbs
X
X
X
X
X
lai bie
X
SV
X
X
X
qing
X
X
X
rang
X
X
X
j iao
X
X
X
ba, a/ya
X
X
X
intonation
X
X
X
tamen
2 .3 .7 . -
147
There are also restrictions
-
to what kinds of pronouns may
be used as objects of command/request verbs: Table 2.3.7(b): Co-occurrence Restrictions for Pronouns as Objects with Command/Request Verbs X = combination possible VERB
ni(men)
qing
X
wo(men)
zanmen
ta(men)
X
X
X
rang
0* j iao
X
Pronouns the sentences
are used more
mild
in command/request in
tone.
For
sentence of each pair below is milder: a.
b.
1.
Qu.
Ni qu.
go Go •
you-go Go •
Bie qu.
Ni bie qu.
don 1 t-go
you-don't-go
Don't go.
D o n 't go.
Other Discussions 1.
Thompson (no date), p. 4.
sentences
example,
the
to make second
m il '•;
. .-2 .4 .0 .
2 4 148
CHAPTER II.
TYPES OF SENTENCES, ORDER OF ELEMENTS AND FUNCTION WORDS
2.4.
Comparative Patterns
2.4.0.
General Remarks
There Chinese:
are basically two kinds of comparative sentences in (1) Sentences in which
both the obiects which are
being compared are mentioned, and
(2 ) sentences in which only
one of-the
objects which are being compared is mentioned.
first pattern is this type:
-k-k-k'k-klcklck-k'k'klckiclck-k-k'k-klck-kick-k-klck-k-k-k-k-k-kjck-kic-k-k-k-k-k-k-kit'k'k-kirk PT 1
S
(Comparative Adv)
SV
(Degree Adv)
■k-k-k'k-k-k-k-k-kirk-kirkirk-k-k-k-k-k-k-kirk'k-k-k-k-kick-k-k-kicjck-k-k-k-k-k-kjcklck-k-kicjck
Examples a.
Wode da. I-'s-be big Mine is big/bigger (compared to yours).
b.
Wode ye hen da. I - 's-also-very-be big Mine 4-S also very big.
c.
Wode geng da. I-'s-even more-be big Mine is even bigger.
The
2 4 0 .
.
.
149
d.
Wode hai da. I - 's-still-be big Mine is bigger still.
e.
Wode zui da. I - 's-mos t-be big Mine is the biggest.
f.
Wode bu name da. I-'s-not that-be big Mine is not that big.
g.
Wode yiyang da. I-'s-same-be big Mine is just as big.
h.
Tade bu zheme da. h e - 's-not-this-be big His is not this big.
i.
Wode da yidiar. I-'s-be big-some Mine is a little bigger.
2.
Remarks In this pattern,
only one of the objects being compared
is mentioned.
The other object is understood, usually having
been mentioned
in a preceding
sentence,
sequence: a.
(i)
Tade fangzi hen da. h e - 's-house-very-be big His house is very big.
as in the following
. . .-2 .4 .1 .1.
2 4 0 150
(ii)
Wode geng da. I-'s-even more-be big Mine is even bigger.
Most
frequently,
'even
more,'
an
adverb
name/zheme
of
'that
comparison (much)/this
such
as
geng/hai
(much)'
or
zui
'most' is used.
2.4.1.
Similarity with gen, you, xiang
In this section, g e n , you and xiang are coverbs which are placed between two compared objects: 2.4.1 .1.
gen
*** ****************** ******************* ****** ************id PT 2
A
(shi)
gen
B
(shi)
zi Zan£
(SV)
PT 3
A
(shi)
gen
B
(shi)
zi yang
(de)
Aux
V
****************************** ****************************k-k1t
1.
Examples PT 2 a.
Wo gen Lao Bai yi yang gao. I-with-laol Bai-same-be tall Lao Bai and I are the same height.
b.
Ta gen ni shi yi yang congming. he-with-you-be-same-be intelligent He and you are of the same intelligence.
2 .4 .1 .1 . -
c.
151
-
Wo bu shi gen ni yi yang congming. I-not-be-with-you-same-be intelligent You and I are, not equally intelligent.
d.
Wo nuer gen ni yi yang taoqi. I-daughter-with-you-same-be naughty M y daughter is as naughty as you.
e.
Tamen yi yang haokan. they-same-be good-looking They are equally good-looking.
PT 3 a.
Wo gen ta yi yang ai kan dianyingr. I-with-she-same-love-see-movie She and I both love to watch movies (equally much;.
b.
Ta gen wo yi yang de xihuan chi Zhongguo fan. he-with-I-same-de-like-eat-China-food He and I both like to eat Chinese food (equally well).
c.
Women yi yang taoyan zuogong. we-same-hate-work We both hate working (equally much).
2.
Remarks In this pattern,
equal when no listed first.
the objects
being
compared
are always
bu appears. It makes no difference which is Bu before yi yang only indicates that A and B
differ; it cannot tell us-which of1the two is taller, larger, etc. The initial part, A gen B, may be replaced by a plural subject as in Example 2(e) above.
2 4 1 1 .
-
152
.
.
.
-
The negative particle bu can go before the coverb gen or before yi yang.
In the former case,
stress [Example 2(e) implies
there
is slightly more
'I am not as intelligent as you.'
This will be elaborated upon-later]: a.
Wo gen ni bu yi yang. I-with-you-not-same We are different (you and I).
b.
Wo bu gen ni yi yang. I-not-with-you-same I am not like you. I am different from you.
or
Bu seldom occurs before a SV in this pattern (c) below]
since
[as in Example
[as
in Example
the antonym of the SV is usually preferred
(d) ] unless
the bu SV is a compound
such as
bu cuo 'not bad' or bu shu 'unfamiliar': c.
Wo gen ni yi yang buhao.
(possible)
I-with-you-same-not-be good You and I are equally bad. d.
Wo gen ni yi yang huai.
(preferred)
I-with-you-same-be bad You and I are equally bad. However, bu is often found preceding a VP as in this sentence: e.
Wo gen ni yi yang bu xihuan tiaowu. I-with-you-same-not-like-dance You and I equally dislike dancing.
2 4 1 1 .
.
.
.
153
Note,
however,
that
in
Examples
(c)
and
(e) , bu
does
negate the comparison but only the respective SV or VP. other words,
the sentence
does not
say
not (In
'do not equally like
dancing' but rather 'equally dislike dancing'). In all of the above examples, nouns.
A and B have been simple
If we are to compare the manner in which an action is
performed, the following pattern is used: f.
Ta zuo cai zuode gen wo (zuo cai zuode) yi yang hao. he-make-food-make-d£-with-I-(make-food-make-d£)-same -be.good He cooks (equaMy) as well as I do.
The second verb phrase
is most always omitted or abbreviated
(Gen wo zuode yi yang hao) . To
make
a
question
question particle
in
this
pattern,
you
can
-ma to the end of the sentence,
add
the
or repeat
the yi yang with b u : g.
Ta gen wo yi yang da ma? he-with-I-same-be old-ma Is he the same age as I am?
h.
Ta gen wo yi yang bu yi yang da? he-with-I-same-not-same-be old Is he the same age as I am? (cf.
i.
Ta shi bushi gen wo yi yang da?) he-be-not-be-with-I-same-be old
Ta gen wo yi yang (da) bu yi yang da? he-with-I-same-(be old)-not-same-be old Is he the same age as I am?
(For more
on
question
patterns,
see
2.2.)
Ip
answering
a
question which uses this pattern, one need only say, " (Bu) yi Z S 2S >
. . . .-2 .4.1
2 4 1 1 154
3.
-
Other Discussions 1.
BC 17, p. 280.
2. $ 3.
EC 52, p. 144.
4.
SM 18, p. 175.
5.
Chao
6.
Teng
.2.
E C C , p . 333.
you
•k'k-k-k-k-kirk'k-k-ki^irk-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-kirk-k-k-k-k-kic-kirk-k-k-k-kirk-k-k-kirk-k
PT 4
A
(mei)you
B
(name/zheme)
SV/VP
•k-k-k-k-k-k-k'k-k'k-k-k-k-k-ick-k-k-k-k-k-k-klck-k-k-k-k-klck-k-k-k-kic-k-klcklck-klck-k-k-k-k
1.
Examples a.
Wode fangzi you tade name da. I - 's-house-have-he-'s-that-be big My house is just as big as his.
b.
Wode qian mei you tade name duo. I-'s-money-not-have-he-'s-that-be much My money is not as much as h i s .
c.
Shei you ta name xihuan chifan? who-have-he-that-like-eat-food Who likes to eat as much as he does?
d.
Ta mei(you) ni youqian. she-not-have-you-be rich She is not as rich as you are.
2 -
e.
155
. 1 .2 .
-
Zuo chuan mei you zuo feiji name kuai. ride-boat-not have-ride-plane-that-be fast Going by boat is not as fast as going by plane.
2.
Remarks In this pattern,
compared
(remember
equal).
Pattern
B is the standard to which A
that
4
in Pattern
is most
form, as in Examples
(b) and
to
question
inferior
B.
A
2, A
is toeing
and B were usually
frequently .used
in the negative
(d), in which case A is seen as in
Pattern
2
above
is
often
answered in the negatively a sentence in Pattern 3: a.
(i)
Ta gen ni yiyang gao ma? he-with-you-same-be tall-ma Are you and he the same height?
(ii)
Ta mei you wo gao, he-npt-have-l-be tali’ He is not as tall as I am.
In the positive form, as in Examples 4(a) and 4(c), Pattern 4 is essentially
the
same
as Pattern 2_ (A gen B yi yang) , in
which either A or B may be seen as inferior. The same rules for adding bu before the SV/VP apply here as with Pattern 2.
The rrame/zheme element may be omitted, but
usually it is not, especially with a longer VP.
A question is
formed with this pattern by either using youmeiyou or -ma: b.
Ta youmeiyou wo zheme gao? he-have not have-I-this-be tall Is he as tall as I am?
c.
Ta you wo ?heme gao ma? he-have-I-this-be tall-ma Is he as tall as I am?
. . . .-2 .‘4.1
2 4 1 2 -
156
-
In reply to these questions, a simple (mei)you is sufficient d.
Q:
Ni youmeiyou ta name congming? •you-have not have-he-that-be smart Are you as smat’t as he is?
A:
You. have I am.
3.
Other Discussions 1.
BC 17, p. 280.
2.
EC 5) , p p . 121-
3.
ECC^ p . 333,
4.
SM 18, p.' 175.
5.
Chao
.3.
xiang
****************************************************** PT 5
A
xiang
B
(name/zheme/yiyang)
SV/VP
******************************************************
1.
Examples a.
Wo xiede zi xiang ni xiede ma? I-write-'s-word-like-you-write-'s-ma. Are the characters which I write like yours?
b.
Ta bu xiang wo zheme hui changge. he-not-like-1-this-able-sing-song He cannot sing as well as I can.
2 .4 .1 .3 . - 2 . 4 .2.1. 157
c.
Ta bu xiang wo yiyang gao. he-not-like-T-same-be tall He is not as tall as I am.
2.
Remarks This pattern is
less popular a variation of Patterns
2
and 3 above, in which xiang replaces thie coverbs gen (Patterns 2 and 3) and you (Patterns 4 and 6). In response to a question usqng this pattern,
(bu)xiang
is sufficient. 3.
Other Discussions 1.
BC 17, p. 280.
2.
Chao, p. 763.
o
2.4.2. . Dissimilarity with bi, bu ru 2.4.2.1.
bi
■k-k-k'k-k'k-k-k-k'k-k'k'k-k'k'k-k'k-k-k-k-k'k-k'k'k-k-k'k'k-k-k-k-k-k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'kit'k'k'te'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k^'k'k'k'k
PT 6
A
bi
B
(Adv)
SV/Adv
IV/Adv
TV
(Quantifier)
XXIt-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k'k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k-kit-k-kiz-k-klt'k'k-k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'^'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'X'k'''
1.
Examples a.
Wo bi ni gao. I-compare-you-be tall I am taller than you.
b.
Wo bi ni hai gao. I-compare-you-still-be tall I am still (even) taller than yoii>.
2 4 2 1 .
-
c.
158
.
.
.
-
Wo bi ni gao san cun. I-compare-you-be tall-three-inch I am three inches taller than you.
d.
Ta mei bi ni gao duoshao. she-not-compare-you-be tail-how much She is not much taller than you.
e.
Ta bi wo gao hen duo. he-compare-I-be tall-very-much He is much taller than I.
f.
Wo bi ni zao laile yidiar. I-compare-you-early-come-le-some I cam a little earlier than you.
g.
Wo bi ni duo hele san bei jiu. I-compare-you-more-drink-le-three-cup-wine I drank three more glasses of wine than you.
2.
Remarks This pattern mostly occurs
the second mentioned object
in the positive
form,
where
(B) is the standard to which the
first object (A) is compared and found to be superior.
While
this pattern is negated by inserting bu before bi^, it is more common to find Pattern 3 (A mei you B name SV) being used as the negative form, even though the meaning is slightly differ ent : a.
Wo bi ni gao ma I-compare-you-be tall-ma Am I taller than you are?
2 4 2 1 .
.
.
.
159
b.
Ni bu bi wo g a o .
(possible)
you-not-compare-I-be tall You are not taller than I am. c.
Ni meiyou wo zheme gao.
(preferred)
you-not have-I-this-tall You are not as tall as I am. Note that in Example (a), B (ni) is the standard and A (wo) is superior, while in Examples
(b) and (c) , B (wo) is the stan^
dard and A (ni) is inferior. In bi_ sentences with IV and TV, adverbs
are
duo
'more,'
'late'
[Pattern 6,
with
SV,
a
shao
Examples
the most
'less,'
(f)
commonly
the most
and
used
zao
(g) ] . adverbs
commonly used
'eafly' In bi
and
wan
sentences
are had.,
haiyao
'both, still, even' and yao which has no significant effect on the meaning,
as well as geng which adds emphasis (as in 'even
bigger'). It is important to remember that if a quantifier is used in this pattern, tence.
it must be positioned at the end of the sen
Examples of such quantifiers are:
hen duo de duo
'much'
yidiar
'a little'
NU + M + (N)
'specific amount'
duoshao
'how much' in a positive sentence 'not much' in a negative sentence [see Example 6(d)]
A question
[see Example 6(e)] [see Remarks, Example 6(f)] [Examples 6(c) and (g)]
is usually formed in this pattern by adding
the question particle
-ma at the end ofr the sentence.
answer would usually take the following form:
The
. . . .-2 .4 .2.2
2 4 2 1 -
d.
160
-
Ni bi wo gao ma? you-compare-I-be tall-ma Are you teller than I am?
e.
f.
Dui , wo bi ni gao. ■Shi correct , I-compare-you-be tall yes Yes, I am taller.than you.
Bushi Budui
, wo njei you ni name gao.
incorrect no
, I-not-have-you-that-be tall
No, I am not as tall as you. 3.
Other Discussions 1.
BC 10, p. 127.
2. 3.
EC 51, p. 128; ECC, p. 334.
4. 5.
Marney, p. 57., SM 18, p. 176.
6.
Chao, p. 682ff.
2.4.2.2.
bu ru
**************************************1 PT 7
A' bu ru
B
PT 8
S
VP
bu ru
**************************************
....
2 4 2 2 -
1.
161
-
Examples PT 7 a.
Zhei ge fanguar bu ru nei ge. this-M-restaurant-not-as^(gOod as) -that-M This restaurant is not as good as that one.
b.
Zhei ge fanguar bu ru nei ge 'de ganjing. this-M-restaurant-not-as-that-M-de-be clean This restaurant is not as clean as that one.
c.
Ta bu ru ni yonggong. he-not as-you-be diligent He is not as diligent as you.
PT 8 a.
Women bu ru dao lingwai yi ge fanguar qu chifan. we-not-as-(good as)-to-another-one-M-restaurant-go-eat It would be-better if we went-to another restaurant to eat.
b.
Ni bu ru xian chifan zai qu kan xi. you-not-as-(good as)-first-eat-then-go-see-play You had better eat first and then go to the theatre.
2.
Remarks This pattern is not used as frequently in spoken Mandarin
as are the ones above.
It is similar to Pattern 4 (A meiyou B
name SV) in that B is taken as the standard and A is. inferior. In forming a question with this pattern, one, Visually adds the question particle -ma at the end of the sentences
M fc a t t fN
3.
Other Discussions 1.
EC 60, p . 23.
2.
E C C , p . 333.
3.
SM 18, p. 174
2 .3 •- 2 .5
•
- [163 -
CHAPTER II.
TYPES OF SENTENCES, ORDER OF ELEMENTS, AND FUNCTION WORDS
2.5.
The ba Sentence
2.5.0.
General Remarks
The ba sentence is one of the most studied constructions in
spoken
Mandarin.
This
is
perhaps
due
to the
fact
that
there is no difficulty iti determining which sentences are ba sentences, as any sentence with ba is a ba sentence.
However,
while it is simple enough to recognize a ba sentence,
it is
somewhat more difficult to see why it is a ba sentence (apart from the use of ba) , or more
specifically,
what
the chara/jf
teristics
of
functions.
the
It
ba
sentence
is hoped
that
are the
and
how
following
the
ba
sentel/ce
discussion will
shed some light on these questions. 2.5.1.
Discussion
The-first question one might ask sabotlt ba is, what is it? Is it a word?
A preposition?
A coverb?
Something else?
It
has been called all of the above, but perhaps the best way for us to approach it is as a coverb.
It is different from other
coverbs, however, in that its object is also the object of the main
verb.
A
literal
English
translation
of
ba would
be
'take,' although it is generally best left,, untraslated as seen in the following sentences: a.
Q-ing ni ba zhege fangzai nar. request-you-ba-this-M-put-at-there Please put this over there.
a|
2 5 1 .
-
b.
164
.
.
-
Ta ba tade qiche maile. he-ba-he-'s-car-sell-le He sold his car.
A ba sentence is similar to the topic-comment sentence struc ture which sentence, verb,
is
so
common
in
Chinese
the object is transposed
thus
putting
stress
on
(see
1.1.3).
In
a ba
to the front of the main
the main verb.
Take
the two
following sentences, for example: c.
Ta maile tade qiche. she-sell-le-she-'s-car She sold her ear.
d.
Ta ba tade qiche maile. she-ba-she-'s-car-sell-le She sold her car.
The first sentence, which is in the normal word order, answers the general question,
"What did she do?", whereas the second
sentence answers the more specific question, "What,did she do with her car?"
Note,
however,
that the English translations
of both sentences are identical. There are two types of ba sentences, both of which share the same general characteristics: 1.
Most ba sentences have non-ba variants.
As will be
seen below, ba is not always required in a sentence.
However,
there is a general preference for using ba. 2.
The object of a ba sentence
is
specific; that is,
the speaker has a specific object in mind which he is focusing upon by using ba. explicitly
or
In all ba sentences,
implicitly
that a marker such as nei
specific. 'that
ba object and shows specificity.
By
or zhei
the object^-is either "explicit," we mean 'this'
precedes .the
By "implicit," we mean the
2 .5 .1 . -
absence of any such marker.
165 -
The
specific nature
of
the ba
object is best shown in sentences such as Example (b) below, where the specific nature of the object is implicit: a.
Ta maile qiche. she-sell-le-car She sold a car.
b.
Ta ba qiche maile. she-ba-car-sell-le She sold the car.
3. tence.
The verb
phrase, is normally' complex
in
a ba
sen
By "complex," we mean that the verb in these phrases
is followed by one or more of a variety of things, such as the following:
I
_le
(aspect marker:
See 3.6.3.1 and 3.6.4.2)r
(2)
Certain post verbs (-g e i , -lai, -qu, -dai, -hui, -Izou, -cheng, -z a i , -q ilai, -zu o ,) a.
Ta ba shu na huiqu. he-ba-book-take-go-back He took the book back.
b.
Qing ni ba zhei ge fancheng Yingwenreques t-you-ba-.this-M-transiate-into-English Please translate this into English.
c.
Ba shu fangzai nar. ba-book-put-at-there Put the books there.
M
(1 )
2 5 1 .
-
d.
166
.
.
-
Wo ba ta dangzuo pengyou. I-ba-he-take as-friend I took him for my friend.
(3)
Verbs which normally take indirect objects (g e i , gaosu) a.
Wo ba nei jian shi gaosu ta. I-ba-that-M-matter-tell-he I told him about that matter.
(4)
Adjunct element of manner, duration or extent a.
Wo ba men kail-e hao ji ci, keshi dou mei you ren. I-ba-door-open-le-good-many-times-bu.t-all-no t-have-person I opened the door many times, but no one was ever there.
b.
Ta ba nei ge gushi shuode hen man. he-ba-that-M-story-say-de-very-slow He told the story very slowly.,
c.
Ta ba duzi kude dou tengle. he-ba-s tomach-cry-de-all-hurt-le He cried until his stomach ached.
(5)
V yi V / V le V a.
Ba ta kaiyikai! ba-it-open one open Open it up!
b.
Ba xiaoshuo kanlekan. ba-novel-look le look (Someone) took a look at the novel.
2 5 1 .
.
.
167
Only certain verbs can be used in a ba sentence. used in ba. sentences are all of the same type, following
characteristics:
3.2.1.2);
(2)
they are
they are anaphoric. is that
They
action verbs
are
(see
and have the
transitive
3.3.2.1);
and
(see (3)
An anaphoric verb has a special relation
ship with its object. tionship
(1)
Verbs
One requisite of this verb/object rela
the object be
existent and specific in the
mind of the speaker at the time he utters the ba sentence: a.
Ta ba che kaiguolai le. he-ba-car-operate-over-come-le He drove the car over here.
In this example, the speaker obviously has a particular car in mind when he makes the statement.
Kai in this case is an ana
phoric verb that is closely bound to its object che. On the other hand,
a parent hoping to divert a child by
telling him to "Go draw!" could not do so by using ba; huahuar 'to draw a picture' here would not be anaphoric, as there is no existent, specific object (picture) in the parent's mind yet. Given other circumstances, however, huahuar could become anaphoric: b.
Ba nei zhang huar hua h a o ! ba-that-M-picture-paint-finish Finish painting that picture!
As in Example 3, it is clear that the speaker has a specific object already in mind,
'that picture,' although at this time
it is not finished yet.
[For further discussion on anaphoric
verbs, see Y. C. Li (1974), pp. 208-210.] As with any coverb, negative particles or auxiliary verbs come before the ba rather than the main verb of the sentence,.
2 . 5 .1 . -
c.
168 -
Wo mei ba shu fangzai n a r . I-not-ba-book-put-at-there I did not put the books there.
d.
Wo. henxiang ba huar guazai qlangshang. I-very-1ike-ba-painting-hang-at-wall-surface I really want to hang the painting on the wall.
e.
Ni bie ba tang dou chidiao. you-do not-ba-candy-all-eat-up Don't eat all the candy up.
Adverbs’, with the exception of dou 'all' , also go before ba. f.
Wo shichang ba shu fangzai nar. I-usually-ba-book-put-at-there I usually put the books there.
g.
Wo ba shu dou fahgzai zher. I-ba-book-all-put-at-here I put all the books here.
h.
Ta mei tian zaoshang ba ta meimei songdao youzhiyuanli qu. he-everyday-morning-ba-he-sister-send-tokindergarten-in-go He takes his (little) sister to kindergarten every morning.
There are
two
types
of ba
sentences:
(1)
Those which
have a "retained object"’ and (2) the simple ba sentence.
The
simple, ba sentence is by far the most common type and is the type represented by all of the above examples. The "retained object" ba sentence has what amounts to two separate,
but
sentences are:
closely
related,
objects.
Examples
of ’such
2 5 1 .
-
i.
169
.
.
-
Ta ba juzi bao le pi. he-ba-orange-peel-le-skin He peeled the orange.
j.
Ta ba huaping chale yi ba hua. he-ba-vase-insert-le-one-bunch-flower He put a bunch of flowers into the vase.
In
these
two
examples,
respectively)
the
first
object
the
example, object,
and huaping,
is the regular object, while the second object
(pi and hua) is the "retained object." between
(juzi
two
the
objects
retained
juzi.
In
in
each
object,
the
second
Note the relationship
sentence.
£i,
is
example,
a
part
the
In
the
first
of
the
first
first
object
is
actually the place where the retained object is disposed of. In fact,
there is an optional li
'in'
in this example which
could have come after huaping, thus clearly indicating it is a place word.
These two examples show the most common forms of
the retained object sentence -- whole/part and place/object. While
there
is
retained object ba the following tence,
three
no
corresponding
sentence,
sentences.
The
Ta.diule yi ben shu. He lost a book. Ta ba shu diule. he-ba-book-lose-le He lost the book.
c.
first
of
a
to compare
is a nori-ba sen
the second is a simple ba sentence and the third is .a
he-lose-le-a-M-book
b.
version
it might be helpful
retained object ba sentence. a.
non-ba
Ta ba shu diule yi bhn. he-ba-book-lose-le-one-M He lost one of the books.
2 5 2 .
170
2.5.2.
.
. -
2 5 3 .
-
.
-
»
Remarks
In spite of the large volome of material on ba/ there are still areas which have not yet been fully studied. be
expected,
there
is
also
the
usual
scholars on the merits of past studies.
disagreement
which is a survey of past works on the subject. i
1
1
she-take-self-go-negotiate-'s-matter-pian-f inishle She has formulated a plan about going to negotiate in person.
ob pai
PT 15 Ta'qu tanpan de shi (bei(ren))
the
(gei) jihua hao le.
he-go-negotiate-'s-matter-(by(someone)) - (gei)hai
plan-finish-le That he is going to negotiate has been planned
(by
is the
someone else already).
3.4.3.2. Discussion i) PT 13.1 S V VP differs
from PT 13.2 S V C 1 in that the
object is a verb phrase instead of a clause.
That a verb phrase
functions very similarly to a clause can be seen from Patterns 14 and 15 in which the verb phrase is moved
forward
in a ba or b£i
construction like a noun clause or like a common noun. ii)
The m i s s i n g
subject
of
the ve r b
phrase
is
alw ays
understood to be identical with the subject of the main verb.
It
cannot appear redundantly unless it is replaced or followed by tl)e reflexive, z 1 j 1 'self.' Z 1 j 1 + VP-can be considered, in fact, as a full clause.
(e. are the
3 .4 .3 -2 . -
iii)
287
-
Verbs of thinking-feeling
and verbs of hope-fear can
also take Patterns 13.1, 13.2 and 13.3. When they do, the subject of the verb phrase is always understood to be identical with that •of the verb. Compare: a.
Ta xlwang q u . he-hope-go He hopes to go.
b.
Ta xiwang wo qu. he-hope-I-go He hopes that I'll go.
iv) Verbs that can take a verb phrase but not a clause as object
ar e
those
that
express
an
intention
to p e r s o n a l l y
participate in the activity denoted by the verb phrase. They are, therefore, called verbs of intention. v) The major difference between verbs of intention on the one land and verbs of thinking-feel ing or hope-fear on the other hand ;s that when the former require participation of a person other than the subject itself, rang 'let', or shi 'make' is used. a.
Ta dasudn rdng ta de didi qu. he-plan-let-he-'s-younger brother-go He plans to let his younger brother go.
b. *Ta dasudn ta de didi qu. he-plan-he-'s-younger brother-go He plans on his brother's going. vi)
Verbs
of
co gn i t i o n
ie.g., xiangxin 'believe')
(e.g.,
'know'),
judgement
and approval (e.g., zancheng 'approve')
Ire concerned with the external world the self) . They,
zh idao
therefore,
(i.e., matters other than
generally take a full clause,
the
-m
3 .4 .3 . •. .
288
-
•
subject of which is not identical with that in the main clause. Even if there is an identical subject, a change to z 1 j 1
'self'
is
not required. a.
Wo zhidao wo /ziji buneng q u . 1
2
I-know—I-self-not-can-go I know I can't go myself. b.
Ta xiwang ta /ziji q u . 1
2
he-hope-he-self-go He wants him to go (if.jta is chosen)
or
««■
It
He wants to go himself (if ziji is chosen).
£
I V
In Example a, the two subjects, wo
'I,' can be understood to be
identical without using zij 1 'self.' In Example b, the subject of the embedded clause may be understood to be different from that in the main clause unless zij 1 'self' is used.
Verb Phrase as Object
A-not-A as Object
Dislocated Di Interrogative
V-
Higher-Sentence Oriented Interrogative
Statement as Object
Unmarked Direct Ob j .
Summary- of Different Types of Verbs
Direct Quote
Table 3.^’.3.2.
Verbs of Locution Say-type shuo '-say'
+
Tell-type gaosu 'tell'
+
+
+
+
+■
+
+
-
+
+
+
_
—
Verbs of Cognition zhidao yknow' Verbs of Imagination Judgement rdnwdi 'regard' Approval zanchehg 'approve'
+
+ -
- -
Thinking-Feeling xiang 'think' juede 'feel'
+
+■ -
-
+
+
Ask-type wen 'ask' Test-type_ xian zhidao 'want to know'
+
+
>
Hope-Fear xiwang 'hope' haipa! 'fear' Verbs of Inquiry'
+
+
+ +
+
+
-
(+■)'
i (+ )
+
-
+ +
-
+ +
-
*
3A A .
- 290 3.4,. 4 .
Verb Phrase (VP) as Object Complement
******* ************************** **************************** * * * * * * * * * * *
PT 16 PT 17
S
V
N
bei
PT 18
yinwei N
pT 19
N
*
VP S
V VP 1
*
VP S
V
N 1
yinwei N VP S ba N V (C) 1 1
Thank for-type Verbs
A-----
PT "20
N yinwei VP bei S
V
(C)
* * * * * * *
* * PT 21 S V N VP Cause-Verbs * * Help-Verbs * * * * (N is the subject of VP- and object of V) * ******* ************************************************** * * * * 3.4.4.1 .
Examples
PT 16 a.
Wo ma ta bu huan qian. I-scoId-he-not-return-money I scolded him for not returning the money.
PT 17 a.
Wo bei ta ma bu hua'n qian. I-by-he-scold-not-return-money I was scolded by him for not returning the money.
PT 18 a.
Yfnwe'i ti bii hua'n qia'n wo ma ta. because-he-not-return-money-1- scold-he I scolded him for not returning the money.
PT 19 a.
Yfnwei ta bu huan qian wo ba ta ma de hen xiong. because-he-not-return-money-I-take-he-scold-de-very fierce I scolded him severely for not returning the money.
3A A.
3.4.4.1. -
-
291
PT 20 a.
Ta yinwei bu haa"n qia'n bei wov ma le. he-because- no t-return-money'-by-I- scold- le Because he didn't want to return the money, I scolded him.
PT 21 a.
Wov jiao ta zuo shi*. I-ask-he-do-work I asked him to take a job.
b.
Wov bang le ta ban zhuozi. I-help-le-he-move-desk - helped him move desks. ■a* tSBm
3.4.4.2. Discussion !■ i) Semantically,
N (or N) is the subject of the verb phrase
and the direct object of the verb in the main clause. ii) The verb phrase talks about the object of the verb (i.e.,, N) apd can be deleted. iii) The complement (VP) with a thank for-type verb denotes the reason for the action denoted by the main verb (V) . iv)
The
complement
(VP)
wit h
a cause-verb
denotes the.
intended action instigated by the action of the main verb (V) . v)
Since the verb phrase is a complement and not an object,
jit cann ot
take ba or occur at sentence-initial position as a
topic. For example: a.
*Bu huan qian wo ma ta. not-return-money-I-scold-he
b.
*Zuo shl wo jiao ta. do-work-I-tel1-he
3 . Jj-,4.3* -
202
3.4.^.3.
-
3.4.4.3. List of Thank for-type Verbs, Cause-Verbs and Help-Verbs
3.4 .4.3.1. List of Thank for--type Verbs 1) ganxie 2) guai
'thank for'
ID
'blame for'
12) pei fu
'admire'
3) pa
'fear for'
13) zanmei
'adore'
4) xihuan y > 5) xiai
'like for'
14) xianrau
'envy'
'like'
15) taoyan
'dislike
6) maiyuan 'complain'
16) ai
'like'
7) huaiy 1
'suspect'
17) hen
'hate'
8) caiyi
'guess'
18) yuanhen
'hate'
'be jealous'
19) yanwu
'hate'
9) lPldu 10) xinkao
xiangxin
'believe
'believe and
Ill
trust in' The above verbs are also emotive verbs
(see
Section
3. 2 . 2 . 4
Emotive V e r b s ) . A feature of the emotive verb is the ability to take degree adverbs like hen
'very,'
feichang
'very,'
s h i fen
'extremely,' etc. 20) gao
'accuse'
25) konggao
'accuse'
21) gongj i
'attack'
26) ma
'scold'
22) zeb.e i
'reprimand 1
27) wugao —
'wrongly accuse
V
23) zhize
'repr imand'
28) wuru
'insult'
24) xian •
'dislike'
29) piping
'criticize'
30) pipan
'criticize, repudiate'
31) j ixiao
'ridicule'
32) biaoyang
'praise'
3>>.3.2» - 293 3.4.4.3.2. List of Cause-Verbs 'induce'
1) jiao
'cause, tell'
10) y jvn
2) shi
'cause'
ID
3) rang
'let'
12) sdngyong
'incite'
4) zhun, xu,
'allow'
13) mingling
'order'
5) yao
'want'
14) zhfhui
'command'
6) qing'
'request'
15) pai
'dispatch'
7) quan
'persuade'
16) song
'send'
8) cui
'urge'
*17) yue
'make an agree
gudong
zhvfnxu
'incite'
/
ment with 9) bf
'compel'
18) jiao
'get (someone) to'
3.4.4.3.3. List of Help-Verbs 'lead'
'keep company'
4) 1ing(zhe) 5) fu’(zhe)
'support'
'take along'
6) zhichi
'support'
1) bang(zhe)
'help'
2) pei (zhe) 3) dai (zhe)
- 3A
A
.3 . 3 .
3* 5.
3 - 5.1
- 294 -
CHAPTER III.
THE VERB PHRASE:
ITS RELATED STRUCTURES AND
ELEMENTS
Tense, Aspect, Phase and Time Relation
3.5.
3.5.0.
General Remarks
Time
relation
means
the relation between
two points
spans) of time. Tense and aspect are two special
types of time
»»»
relations.
3.5.1.
Points or Spans of Time Explicit or Implicit in the Sentence
3.5.1.1. Explicitly Expressed Points of TimeI * Time noun = xi^nzai jIntian a.
'now' 'today'
Xihnzai w5 b Markers, that denote various types of aspect are given in the table below:
*
3.5.:
-
302
PAST
TENSE ASPECT
-
( S —5
)
PRESENT
RETRO SPECTIVE
+
changed by
N continuation at N N