Learn photography in 10 lessons 8822840070

Citation preview

L UI GI CAL ABRE S ECANI OCOL ANGE L O

L E ARNPHOT OGRAPHY I N10L E S S ONS

WWW. P HOT OT UT OR I AL . NE T

INTRODUCTION

For the past several years, Phototutorial.net has been helping photography enthusiast cultivate their passion. Trying to understand the needs of our followers, we found we were missing something: some sort of tool which could provide a step-bystep guidance to beginners, that is people who have just bought their first camera and would like to take up this interesting hobby, people who need to learn (better said, to acquire, to become familiar with) the basic principles of photography. Of course, we know today there are plenty of manuals available, but we feel like none of them has actually been created having beginners in mind, with the sole purpose of taking them along the journey into photography as a good travel buddy. With this e-book, we try to bridge the gap. Our professional knowledge and Luigi's year-long experience as a photography teacher have come in handy. We have created 10 practical lessons aimed at explaining the basic concepts and some easy exercises that will help you get familiar with the topics covered. We are very proud of the result: what we have created is probably the shortest possible way to become a good photographer.

E-BOOK STRUCTURE AND HOW TO USE This e-book consists of 10 lessons, which you are required to read in order of appearance. If you are already familiar with some of the information given, please make sure to proceed only if you actually master the topic. And when we say proceed, we mean to the following paragraph, not to the following chapter. We are pretty sure that if you follow every single step, even the ones you may consider useless because they cover notions you are already familiar with, at the end of this course you will be able to master your camera and see your photography skills improved. As you can notice, some sections are highlighted in orange. They contain some exercises we invite you to do. Please make sure you have your camera ready at hand.

Only read this e-book when you have some free time and your camera with you. Also, if you feel like you need it, please be ready to refer to the camera user's manual. If you are tempted to skip some of the exercises, be aware that the course will be much less effective. We would like to thank you for your confidence in us and for purchasing this e-book. We are sure we'll have a great journey together! Are you ready?

A QUICK GUIDE TO CAMERA CONTROLS

INDEX INTRODUCTION

• SUM UP EXERCISE 2 • SUM UP EXERCISE 3

LESSON 1 - GETTING FAMILIAR WITH THE CAMERA • THE STANDARD LENS • FOCUSING

• SUM UP EXERCISE 4

LESSON 3 - LIGHT METER AND EXPOSURE MODES

• EXERCISE 1

• THE LIGHT METER

• EXERCISE 2

• EXPOSURE MODES

• EXERCISE 3

• EXERCISE 1

• THE REFLEX MIRROR

• EXERCISE 2

• THE SHUTTER

• APERTURE PRIORITY

• EXERCISE 4

• EXERCISE 3

• WHAT IF YOU HAVE A MIRRORLESS

• SHUTTER PRIORITY

CAMERA?

• EXERCISE 4 • MANUAL EXPOSURE

LESSON 2 - DIAPHRAGM AND EXPOSURE TIME • THE DIAPHRAGM • EXERCISE 1 • EXERCISE 2 • EXERCISE 3 • THE EXPOSURE TIME • EXERCISE 4 • EXERCISE 5 • SUM UP EXERCISE 1

• EXERCISE 5 • EXERCISE 6 • EXERCISE 7 • EXERCISE 8

LESSON 4 - CHECKING THE DEPTH OF FIELD • FOCAL LENGTH • SHOOTING DISTANCE • EXERCISE 1

• EXERCISE 2 • DIAPHRAGM APERTURE • EXERCISE 3

LESSON 9 - HOW TO READ HISTOGRAM • EXPOSURE HISTOGRAM • HOW TO READ THE HISTOGRAM

LESSON 5 - CHOOSING THE RIGHT EXPOSURE TIME • EXERCISE 1

LESSON 6 - CHOOSING THE RIGHT SENSITIVITY

• EXERCISE 1

LESSON 10 - COMPOSITION ELEMENTS • CLEANLINESS • GUIDELINES AND FRAMES

• EXERCISE 1

• OFF-CENTER COMPOSITION

• EXERCISE 2

• EXPLORE DIFFERENT VIEWPOINTS

LESSON 7 - THE EXPOSURE TRIANGLE • EXERCISE 1 • EXERCISE 2

LESSON 8 - EXPOSURE COMPENSATION, BRACKETING AND AE-L KEY • EXPOSURE COMPENSATION • EXERCISE 1 • EXERCISE 2 • THE BRACKETING FUNCTION • EXERCISE 3 • THE AE-L BUTTON • EXERCISE 4

CONCLUSION APPENDIX

LESSON 1

GETTING FAMILIAR WITH THE CAMERA

If you want to learn how to capture images, the first thing you have to do is to acquire a thorough understanding of how your tool - i.e. your camera - works. Hold your camera and get familiar with it. Turn it over. Get a closer look at the rings and buttons.

Each control and key has its own function and they all can be pretty useful. No worries, you will learn how to use them in due time. First of all, let's examine the basic elements. When you purchased your camera and the relevant lens, they came in two different boxes, didn't they? That is because they actually are two separate elements. At least, this goes for reflex and mirrorless cameras, where you have a camera body and a lens that can be replaced with more suitable lens types as the case may be.

THE STANDARD LENS The standard lens your camera is equipped with is probably a 18-55 mm lens. This is an all-around lens that covers a range from moderate wide angle to moderate telephoto.

Reflex camera with an 18-55 mm lens.

7

What does this mean? If you want to understand what we are talking about, mount the lens on the camera body and look through the viewfinder. Rotate the zoom ring and select number 18 with the indicator on the lens barrel. The lens has now reached the maximum wide angle position. This means the lens is now capturing the scene in the "widest" possible way. Still looking through the lens, slowly rotate the ring and select number 55 on the barrel. As you rotate the ring, can you see the scene shrinking? You are now capturing a smaller part of the scene.

8

Up: scene captured with a focal length of 18 mm. Down: scene captured with a focal length of 55mm.

9

FOCUSING The lens is also equipped with a second ring called the focusing ring. We use it for manual focusing. First of all, what does "focusing" mean? It means to sharpen the image or at least - since we just cannot sharpen everything - sharpen the desired element of the scene. When we rotate this ring, we move a group of lens elements inside the lens itself. As a result, the focal plane changes. To understand how focusing works, do the following exercise.

EXERCISE 1 • Set your camera on MF, that is manual focusing. Depending on the camera model, you can do this using a selector on the camera body or from the menu. (If you don't know how to do this, please refer to the camera user's manual). • Set the zoom in the tele position, that is 55 mm (the variations on the focal plane are better observed on long focal distances). • Frame something and slowly rotate the focusing ring completely in both directions. Observe how, as you rotate the ring, the framed subjects gradually become sharp or blurry.

EXERCISE 2 • Put 4 or 5 objects (for example, 4 or 5 glasses) on a long table at a distance of 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 mm from each other (this distances are just for reference, you don't need to be very precise here). Now, rotate the manual focusing ring. As you rotate the ring in both directions, see how the objects become sharp or blurry.

10

Even if nowadays we don't use manual focusing so often, remember in the past this was the only existing focusing method. Inside the lens or the camera, we now have a small electronic drive that moves the group of lens elements until a system of sensors, also located inside the camera, detects the framed subject is in focus, that means completely sharp. Quick and easy, isn't it? This automatic focusing method is activated when we press the shutter release half-way. The shutter release has two different positions, as shown in the following image.

Pressing to position 1 activates the focusing system. When the subject is in focus, a green circle appears on the viewfinder. Now, without releasing, press the shutter release again and reach position 2: you have just shot a picture.

A green circle (or hexagon, as shown in the picture) appears in the viewfinder to signal that the subject is in focus.

11

EXERCISE 3 • Set your camera on AF-s, that is "single frame autofocus" (again, if you don't know how to do this, please refer to the user's manual). • Make sure the zoom is still set on the tele position, that is 55 mm (the variations on the focal plane are better observed on long focal distances). • Put your eye on the viewfinder, frame something in front of you and gently press the shutter release half-way. • Observe how the framed subject is focused by the camera. The lens elements move inside the camera just as they did when you rotated the ring. Now, the electronic drive does all the job. In certain cases, you can even feel the slight vibration caused by this movement. Once the operation has finished, you can press the release in position 2. A "click" sound tells you the picture has been taken. • Direct the camera towards different objects and repeat the operation as many times as you want, until you feel pretty confident.

Right, now it's time for some theory. This part is very important, so don't give up just yet! If you feel tired, take a break and resume from here later. Are you ready? Great! When you press the shutter release in position 2, that is when you actually want to take a picture, you hear a "ta-taac" sound, right? Where does it come from? It comes from the movement of some elements inside the camera. Which ones? Basically two: the reflex mirror (the main responsible for the "ta-taac" sound) and the shutter. What are they and why do we need them? We'll answer this question in a while.

THE REFLEX MIRROR This is the mechanism thanks to which we can see the framed scene directly inside the viewfinder. 12

As you can see from the following diagram, the image captured by the lens is sent from the mirror to the viewfinder, and this is why we can see it.

Indeed, we say "reflex camera" because the mirror reflects the image and sends it to the viewfinder. In today's "mirrorless cameras" the reflex mirror has been replaced, because nowadays technology electronically sends the image directly to a monitor.

13

Mirrorless cameras allow you to change the lens (just like reflex cameras do) but are not equipped with a mirror. Right, let's get back to the mirror. It is pretty obvious that, if we lower the mirror, light can't possibly reach the sensor. Therefore, to take a picture the mirror has to be lifted to let light reach the sensor. This is what happens when you hear the "ta-taac" sound. The mirror is lifted and the light reaches the sensor, as you can see from the image shown in the previous page. To be honest, things are not exactly how we put them. Before reaching the sensor, light is blocked by another element. Can you see that small red panel in the above diagram? That's called the shutter.

THE SHUTTER On the left, you can see a shutter. What is that for? A shutter controls the time during which light can reach the sensor. The shutter remains open for the exposure time set, be it a very short time such as 1/4000 of a second or a very long time such as 2 seconds. We (or the camera automatic system) set the time, the shutter operates accordingly. As a result of its movement, you can hear the "ta-taac" sound. So, when you press the shutter release in position 2, here's what happens: the reflex mirror lifts, the shutter opens, the shutter closes, the reflex mirror lowers. The scene has been captured and is now stored on the card. If you are eager to have a look at it, you simply recall it on the monitor.

14

Now, let's try to get familiar with the concepts we have explained doing the following exercise.

EXERCISE 4 • Look through the viewfinder and take a photo. You will notice that the viewfinder turns black for a moment. Why? Because the reflex mirror lifts to let light in, so the image cannot be seen in the viewfinder anymore. • In an indoor place, sheltered from dust, detach the lens and look inside it. You will see the reflex mirror. Switch the camera on and shoot. You will see the reflex mirror lift and the sensor behind it. Note: don't touch anything inside the lens with your fingers or in any other way. The reflex mirror is extremely delicate. Note 2: avoid repeating this exercise too many times. A couple of times is enough to understand how everything works. When you detach the lens, dust can easily go through. Great! You are now starting to understand how your reflex camera works, right? The first lesson is over. Next time, we will cover some concepts related to photographic shooting.

WHAT IF YOU HAVE A MIRRORLESS CAMERA? As we have mentioned earlier, mirrorless cameras have no reflex mirror, but they work exactly like reflex cameras. Therefore, apart from the notions on the reflex mirror we have just explained to you, whatever we say in this e-book also applies to mirrorless cameras. Controls are the same, the information you can view on the monitor is exactly like the one you can view on the viewfinder of a reflex camera, etc. If you own a mirrorless camera, this e-book course perfectly suit your needs, too, don't worry about that. Even when we say "reflex" because we don't want to specify "reflex and mirrorless" every time, all the lessons contained in this e-book apply to both camera types. 15

LESSON 2

DIAPHRAGM AND EXPOSURE TIME

In the second lesson we continue explaining the photographic equipment and we give you some practical examples.

THE DIAPHRAGM TFirst of all, let's quickly go back to the lens. Do you remember? Inside it hosts some lens elements and the diaphragm, that is an adjustable opening that controls the quantity of light to the sensor. The aperture (that is, opening) value is expressed in relative terms using an f/ fraction, where f is the focal length. The scale of apertures is as follows: f/1 – f/1,4 – f/2 – f/2,8 – f/4 – f/5,6 – f/8 – f/11 – f/16 – f/22 – f/32 – f/45 – f/64 The image below shows what happens to the diaphragm for each value.

The diaphragm sequence of a lens with maximum aperture of f/2.

Let's try to make things as simple as possible. Every stop-down (for example, from f/ 4 to f/5,6 or from f/11 to f/16) lets in half as much light, while every aperture or stopup (for example, from f/5,6 to f/4 or from f/16 to f/11) lets is twice as much light.

17

Technically speaking, when the quantity of light is doubled or halved, we talk about one "stop". One stop up means to pass from f/5,6 to f/4, or from f/4 to f/2,8, or from f/ 22 to f/16. One stop down obviously means the opposite. You can also have intermediate apertures, such as half-stops or 1/3 stops. Irrespective of the focal length, always remember that setting the same diaphragm means to let in the same quantity of light. Therefore, both with 18 mm or 300 mm, if you set an aperture of f/5,6, the quantity of light to sensor is exactly the same. Let's now do the following exercises.

EXERCISE 1 • Set the camera in "Manual" mode (you can do this rotating the dial in the M position or, for some models, directly from the menu. Please refer to the user's manual). • In the user's manual of the camera, find the paragraph "How to use the Manual mode Adjusting the diaphragm" and learn how to set the diaphragm to this mode (obviously, the terms used in the manual can differ a bit from the ones we use, but we are pretty sure you can sort things out). • Now, rotate the control dial in both directions and see how the aperture changes: f/5,6 – f/8 – f/11 –... • Observe the value changing inside the viewfinder. • Try to get familiar with this operation repeating it as many times as you need.

18

EXERCISE 2 • Leaving the camera in "Manual" mode, set an exposure time of 1/125 of a second (refer to the user's manual, see the paragraph "How to use the Manual mode - Setting the shutter speed").

• Change the diaphragm aperture from the minimum value to the maximum value, one stop at a time, and capture an image for every stop (that means, take a picture at f/5,6, one at f/8, one at f/11 and so on). • Look at the pictures. The more you close the diaphragm, the darker the image. Why is that? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ SEE THE ANSWER

EXERCISE 3 • If your camera allows you to adjust the diaphragm one stop at a time, that means if you can only pass from f/5,6 to f/8 and then to f/11, without intermediate values, please refer to the user's manual to learn how to change this setting from "one stop" to "1/2 stop" or "1/3 stop", if available. This will allow you to obtain a more accurate exposure adjustment.

19

Let the diaphragm aside for a few minutes and focus on the exposure time.

THE EXPOSURE TIME We have mentioned this concept in the first lesson, do you remember? The exposure time is the time during which the sensor comes in contact with the light. This is controlled by the shutter. The standard exposure time scale is as follows:

As you may have noticed, the progression is such that for every step the exposure time is twice as much or half as much (deviations are negligible). Therefore, also for the adjustment of the exposure time we can use the term "stop". Again, one stop up means to let in twice as much light, for example passing from 1/ 1000 of a second to 1/500 of a second. On the contrary, one stop down means to pass from 1/1000 of a second to 1/2000 of a second, letting in half as much light. Do you still have doubts? Don't worry, everything will be clear to you after the following exercise.

20

ESERCIZIO 4 • With the camera in "Manual" mode, set an intermediate diaphragm (for example, f/8) and a focal length of 55 mm. • Read on the camera user's manual how to set the exposure time. • Adjust the exposure time. Rotate the adjustment dial and observe in the viewfinder how times change (remember that 4000 means 1/4000 of a second, 2000 means 1/2000 of a second, and so on, while 1 second is indicated as 1”, 2 seconds as 2”, and so on). • Starting from 1/4000 of a second and going one stop up at a time (that is, setting 1/2000, then 1/1000, then 1/500, then 1/250, then 1/125, then 1/60... until you reach 1 second), capture an image for every exposure time. • What happens? Why, do you think? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________

SEE THE ANSWER

Diaphragm aperture and exposure time are strictly connected. Why? Because if we increase one of them, we have to decrease the other one and vice versa. Imagine you want to fill a glass with water from a faucet. If you increase the opening of the faucet, you will need less time to fill up the glass. If you decrease the opening, you will need more time.

21

When we have to find the right exposure for a picture, the same thing happens: if we increase the aperture, we have to decrease the exposure time, whereas if we close the diaphragm, we have to increase the exposure time. The following exercise will help you understand.

EXERCISE 5 • Set the exposure mode "Aperture priority" (if your camera has a mode dial, the position is either A or Av, depending on the model. If you have to set it from the menu, please refer to the user's manual). • Direct the camera towards an object of your choice not too far away. • Rotate the dial to change the aperture. In the viewfinder, observe how the exposure time chosen by the camera changes consequently.

Now, pay attention. Suppose that to achieve a correct exposure with an aperture of f/5,6 you need an exposure time of 1/250 of a second. If you close the diaphragm at f/8 (that is, one stop), you will need a one-stop shorter time, that is 1/125 of a second. If you add another stop (that means f/11), the correct exposure time will be 1/ 60 of a second. Obviously, if you open the diaphragm from f/5,4 to f/4, the exposure time needed will be one stop shorter, that is 1/550 of a second. If the hole that lets light in gets smaller, you will have to increase the exposure time accordingly, and vice versa. Do you remember the faucet? Great! The second lesson is over. This is probably the hardest part in the whole ebook. For this reason, we ask you not to go ahead until you are familiar with the concepts expressed. If you need to, please repeat the exercises as many times as you want. It is extremely important that you get familiar with the exposure time and aperture adjustments.

22

If you want to evaluate your knowledge, try to do the following exercises. If you answer all the questions correctly, go ahead to the following lesson. Otherwise, go back and do some revision. If you have understood the concepts explained in this lesson, the worst is over: you have laid the foundations to become a good photographer.

SUM UP EXERCISE 1 For an aperture of f/5,6 which value do we have to set if we want: 1. one stop up ______ 2. two stops down ______ 3. four stops down ______ 4. two stops up ______ SEE THE ANSWER

SUM UP EXERCISE 2 1. How many stops are there between apertures f/2 and f/5,6? ______ 2. How many stops are there between apertures f/4 and f/16? ______ 3. How many stops are there between apertures f/11 and f/8? ______ 4. How many stops are there between apertures f/22 and f/11?______ 5. How many stops are there between apertures f/4 and f/5,6? ______ SEE THE ANSWER

23

SUM UP EXERCISE 3 1. How many stops are there between times 1/250 sec and 1/60 sec? ______ 2. How many stops are there between times 1/500 sec and 1/15 sec? ______ 3. How many stops are there between times 1/250 sec and 1/500 sec? ______ 4. How many stops are there between times 2 seconds and 1/60 sec? ______ 5. How many stops are there between times 2 seconds and 16 seconds? ______ SEE THE ANSWER

SUM UP EXERCISE 4 We have a time/aperture value pair of 1/250 sec. - f/5,6. Which of the following value pairs are equivalent? a) 1/125 – f/4 __ b) 1/125 – f/8 __ c) 1/15 – f/22 __ d) 1/1000 sec. – f/2 __ SEE THE ANSWER

24

LESSON 3

LIGHT METER AND EXPOSURE MODES In the previous lesson we started getting familiar with exposure times and apertures. These two parameters are extremely important, because on them depends the image exposure. This means that we have to choose the correct amount of light to the sensor, so that it can reproduce the maximum possible number of details, both in dark and in bright areas. If the amount of light to the sensor is not enough, the image will be way too dark. If the amount of light to the sensor is too much, the image will be too clear. To understand this concept, look at the three following images. The first one is correctly exposed, the second one is underexposed, the third one is overexposed.

26

27

28

How can we calculate exposure and set the right values for time and aperture?

THE LIGHT METER Let's be honest, to evaluate light by eye it's not at all easy. Luckily, inside your camera there's an electronic device that, thanks to a number of sensors, can detect the intensity of light and help you choose apertures and times or select them automatically. This device is called internal light meter, and comes in very handy. Let's see it in detail. The light meter is equipped with several sensors located on the whole viewfinder area. They read the light reflected by the subject.

Usually, you can chose from three different reading modes: the "Matrix" reading, that uses all the available sensors, detects the intensity of the light recorded by each sensor and compares the results with a series of previous situations saved in the camera processor. Based on the results obtained, the processor selects or suggests the most suitable time/ aperture pair; the "Center weighted" reading, that uses all the sensors but gives more relevance to the ones located in the central area of the viewfinder; the "Spot" reading, that measures light over a small part of the viewfinder central area.

29

Which one is better? We have to say they are all reliable, especially the "Matrix" reading, except for the most difficult light situations, such as backlight. The most expert photographers often prefer the "Spot" reading, because they like to measure exposure only on the most important element of the image. When you feel confident enough, take the good habit of working in "Spot" mode. For now, it is a good idea to select the "Matrix" reading. The light meter does not only read light, but can also select the most suitable time/aperture pair, or adjust one of the two parameters when you chose the other one. Now it's time for us to face another very important aspect that could result quite tricky to understand. We are talking about exposure modes. Are you ready? Let's start.

EXPOSURE MODES Earlier we said that the light meter can automatically chose the time/aperture values. To do this, we have to select the P (Program) mode on the camera. How can we do that? Usually, cameras are equipped with an "exposure mode dial" similar to the one shown on the right. If your reflex hasn't got one, you can select the same options from the menu or function keys (please refer to the user's manual). When we select the P mode, the light meter measures the amount of light and selects the suitable time/aperture pair. Let's try.

30

EXERCISE 1 • To do this exercise, you have to select a fixed ISO value, for example 100 ISO, disabling the camera automatic selection function (to do this, pleas refer to the user's manual). • Select the P mode. • Set the reading on the "Matrix" mode. • Look through the viewfinder. • Direct the camera towards illuminated and dark areas: observe how the time/aperture values change according to the light conditions of the place.

As we have said, the light meter can automatically select the time/aperture values, but we have to remember this tool is not in charge of everything: you can make your adjustments, too. How? If you want to change the time/aperture values, you can use the adjustment dial. Let's try.

EXERCISE 2 • Set the ISO speed on a default value, for example 100 ISO. • Set the exposure mode on P. • Set the exposure reading mode on "Matrix". • Look through the viewfinder. • Choose a subject: read inside the viewfinder the time/aperture values automatically selected by the camera. • Now, while you are looking through the viewfinder, move the adjustment dial clockwise and anticlockwise: can you see the time/aperture values change? • Repeat this exercise as many times as you want, until you feel familiar with the operation. 31

This exercise has shown you how to change the time/aperture values chosen by the light meter in the Program mode. There is something else you can do: you can decide the diaphragm aperture and allow the light meter to choose the most suitable exposure time, or you can decide the exposure time and let the light meter decide the correct aperture. How can you do that? Using the "Aperture priority" (usually indicated as A or Av) and the "Shutter priority" (usually indicated as T or S) modes.

APERTURE PRIORITY Things are pretty easy here. When you set this mode with the control dial, you can adjust the aperture and choose the value you consider the most suitable. The camera will set the time that can provide the best exposure. This exposure mode is the most widely used by professional photographers, because it allows them to adjust the aperture and the depth of field (we'll explain this concept in the next lesson).

EXERCISE 3 • Set the ISO speed on a default value, for example 100 ISO. • Set the mode to "Aperture priority". • Look through the viewfinder and choose a subject. • Change the aperture rotating the control dial and in the viewfinder observe how the exposure time changes according to the chosen aperture. • NOTICE: if you go "out of scale" because the camera doesn't provide a suitable time (for example, with a wide aperture and a very bright subject, the shortest exposure time available could still be too long), the exposure time in the viewfinder will flash to indicate you need to close or open the diaphragm. • Repeat this exercise until you become familiar with this exposure mode.

32

SHUTTER PRIORITY This mode allows us to choose the exposure time through the control dial, while the camera selects the aperture accordingly to achieve a correct exposure.

EXERCISE 4 • Set the ISO speed on a default value, for example 100 ISO. • Set the mode to "Shutter priority". • Look through the viewfinder and choose a subject. • Change the exposure time rotating the control dial and observe in the viewfinder how the aperture changes accordingly. • NOTICE: if you go "out of scale" because the camera doesn't provide a suitable aperture (for example, with a very short time the widest aperture available could still be not enough to guarantee a correct exposure), the aperture will flash in the viewfinder, to indicate you should change the time. • Repeat this exercise until you become familiar with this exposure mode.

33

MANUAL EXPOSURE Let's now concentrate on the "Manual exposure" mode, indicated on the camera as M. Let's be honest, nowadays only a few photographers use the manual mode on a daily basis, because the "Aperture priority" mode is much more convenient. If we can give you a piece of advice, at the beginning it is very important for you to use the "Manual exposure" mode as much as you can, because it is extremely educational, and will allow you to get familiar with the exposure technique. When we use the Manual mode, the light meter simply gives advice, indicating if the time-aperture values are suitable or if we have to make some changes. How does this happen? Thanks to a scale inside the viewfinder that indicates if the exposure is right and if the image is overexposed or underexposed.

La scala dell’esposizione che appare nel mirino delle reflex.

When we adjust the exposure time and the aperture in the Manual mode, a moving indicator informs us of possible over-underexposures. If we want to obtain the right exposure starting from the reading taken by the light meter, we have to align the moving indicator to the central notch of the scale. Let's do some exercises on how to use the Manual mode. Repeat the following as many times as you want. If you have thoroughly understood the concept of exposure and the relationship between exposure time and aperture, then you are ready to move to the following lesson, where we finally start to have fun! No worries: the worst is over, now it's time to reap the benefits of your work.

34

EXERCISE 5 • Set the ISO speed on a default value, for example 100 ISO. • Set the "Manual" mode. • Refer to the user's manual to see how to set apertures and times: usually, in entry-level cameras apertures can be adjusted using the control dial and times can be adjusted pressing a function key while rotating the control dial itself. • Looking through the viewfinder, set the aperture at f/5,6 and adjust the time until you reach the right exposure (aligning the moving indicator to the central notch of the scale). • Now set an aperture value of f/8: the scale should indicate a one-stop underexposure. • Adjust the exposure time to obtain the right exposure again.

EXERCISE 6 • Set the ISO speed on a default value, for example 100 ISO. • Set the "Manual" mode. • Set aperture at f/5,6. • Adjusting times, find the right exposure and capture the image. • Leaving the aperture unchanged at f/5,6 and working on the exposure times, reach a two-stop underexposure and capture the image. • Leaving the aperture unchanged at f/5,6 and working on the exposure times, reach a two-stop overexposure and capture the image. • On the monitor, examine the three pictures obtained at the end of this exercise.

35

EXERCISE 7 • Set the ISO speed on a default value, for example 100 ISO. • Set the "Manual" mode. • Set the time at 1/125 of a second. • Adjusting the aperture, find the right exposure. • Now set the time at 1/30 of a second and observe the movement along the exposure scale. • Adjusting the aperture, find the right exposure. • Keep increasing and decreasing the exposure time and regulate the aperture accordingly.

EXERCISE 8 • Set the ISO speed on a default value, for example 100 ISO. • Set the "Manual" mode. • Set the time at 1/125 of a second. • Adjusting the aperture, find the right exposure. Capture the image. • Now, only adjusting the aperture, reach a two-stop overexposure. Capture the image. • Now, only adjusting the aperture, reach a two-stop underexposure. Capture the image. • On the monitor, examine the three images obtained at the end of this exercise.

36

LESSON 4

CHECKING THE DEPTH OF FIELD

You are now able to check the exposure of your image adjusting the diaphragm aperture and the exposure time. This is great, but the most important concept you have to understand is that, when we choose a certain aperture and exposure time, we considerably affect how the image appears. In this lesson we will focus on diaphragm aperture, because it controls one of the most important aspects of the image, that is the depth of field. What does this mean? When we focus the camera on a certain point, also the points before and behind our focal plane will appear acceptably sharp. There is a sort of "focus area" that includes all the elements that appear clear in the image. This area is called "depth of field". Why is it important? The extent of the sharp field considerably affects the image. In some cases, you may want to have a sharp subject and a blurry background (for example, in portraits); in some other cases you may want to have the highest possible sharpness (for example, for landscapes); sometimes, the gradual shift from in-focus and out-of-focus areas enhances the beauty of the image.

In portraits it is preferable to have an outof-focus background to concentrate the attention on the subject. To achieve this, use a medium tele focal distance and a wide aperture.

38

For landscapes, everything has to be sharp, from the foreground to the background. Using a wide angle focal and setting the aperture to intermediate values you can increase the depth of field.

Adjusting the aperture and the focal distance, we have been able to obtain a depth of field where only the second orange is in focus, setting it apart from the other fruits.

Basically, the depth of field is influenced by three factors: focal length, distance of the subject from the camera and diaphragm aperture. Let's examine them one by one.

39

FOCAL LENGTH The "shorter" the lens (that is, wide angle) the wider the depth of field. For this reason, if you want to reduce the depth of field, you need to use a longer lens. Exercise 1 will help you clarify this concept.

40

SHOOTING DISTANCE The second factor affecting the depth of field is the shooting distance: with the same focal length and aperture, the depth of field will be larger if the subject is at a greater distance from the camera. Therefore, if you want a smaller depth of field, you have to be closer to the subject.

41

EXERCISE 1 • Do this exercise outdoors and choose a subject at a distance of about 2 meters (for example, a tree or a bench). For better results, please choose a subject with other elements behind. Use an 18-55 lens. Set aperture at f/5,6. • Use the minimum focal distance, 18 mm, focus on the subject and capture the image. • Now use the maximum focal distance, 55 mm, focus on the subject and capture the image. • Examine the two images: in the first one, the subject and the elements behind it are fairly sharp, while in the second one the elements behind the subject are out of focus, right? • Repeat this exercise as many times as you want.

ESERCIZIO 2 • Do this exercise outdoors, with a fixed subject at a distance of about 2 meters (for example, a tree or a bench). Use an 18-55 lens. Set the focal length at 55 mm and the aperture at f/5,6. • Shoot a photo of your subject and then of some other element behind it, at a distance of a few meters from it. • Examine the two images: the second one (the one where the subject was farther from you) shows a wider sharp zone.

42

DIAPHRAGM APERTURE The third important factor, indeed the one we adjust more freq u e n t l y, i s diaphragm aperture. The smaller the aperture, the larger the depth of field. If you want to have a smaller depth of field, you have to widen the aperture. Let's do Exercise 3.

43

ESERCIZIO 3 • On a long table or on the floor, arrange a number of different objects one after the other, at a distance of about 20-30 cm, as you can see from the image on page 39. • Put the camera on the table or on the floor, setting the focal length to 55 mm. • Set the mode to "Aperture priority". • Set the wider possible aperture, for example f/5,6. Focus on an element at an intermediate distance, for example the second or the third one. • Capture the image. • Now, focusing every time on the same element or working with the manual focus to prevent changes to the focus point, close the aperture at f/8, then at f/ 11, f/16, f/22, and every time capture the image. Putting the camera on the table or on the floor will prevent you from getting blurry images. • Now look at the images obtained. Can you see that, closing the diaphragm, the objects before and behind the focus point look sharper? This is an example of how we can change the extent of the focus area opening and closing the diaphragm.

44

When is it preferable to have a smaller depth of field, and when is it preferable to have a larger depth of field? It goes without saying, all generalizations are generalizations and we can always find exceptions, but in general terms, for portraits we usually prefer a smaller depth of field to give good prominence to the subject of the image and minimize the background. This is one of the reasons why in this case photographers prefer to use a tele focal and lenses with a wider aperture (at least f/2,8), because they create a very small depth of field. For landscapes, it is usually preferable to have as many sharp elements as possible, therefore it is better to have smaller apertures and wide angle lenses, for a larger focus area. Apart from this general indications, in most of the cases we have to adjust the depth of field to obtain the desired image. Here are some tips: • To be able to quickly check the aperture (and the depth of field), shoot in "Aperture priority" mode. • Even when you work with small apertures, always focus on the key element of the image. • Even if you need a larger depth of field, use apertures smaller than f/11 only if it is necessary: with smaller apertures sharpness decreases due to diffraction, that is an optical aberration produced when light has to go through a very small hole, such as a very small diaphragm.

45

LESSON 5

CHOOSING THE RIGHT EXPOSURE TIME

Choosing the right exposure time is vital, because it allows us to "freeze" or "stop" a subject or an action or to give the idea of movement. For example, here is what happens if you photograph some windmill blades with different exposure times.

Exposure time 1/4000 of a second, the windmill blades seem static.

Exposure time 1/13 of a second. With a longer time, the windmill blades look slightly blurred.

47

Exposure time 1/6 of a second. The blurry effect is even more evident.

It is pretty clear that, if we have a moving subject and we want to make it look sharp, we have to use short exposure times. However, we have to take exposure times into account even when we have a completely stationary subject. If we use the camera without a tripod, our shaking hands can produce slightly blurry images unless we use quick exposure times.

Example of slightly blurry image: even if it appears sharp, details aren't, as you can see from the crop on the right.

48

The exposure time varies according to the focal length: with wide angles we can risk using longer times, but with tele focal lengths we have to use shorter times. A rule of thumb that works quite well in most cases says that the "safety" time equals the opposite of the focal length used. However, if you use an APS-c focal, you have to consider the so-called "equivalent" focal length, that means you have to take into account the crop factor, so you have to multiply the focal value by 1,5*. For example, if you use a focal length of 50 mm, the equivalent focal length is 50 mm x 1,5 = 75 mm, while the "safety" time is 1/75 of a second (the opposite of the focal length): with times quicker than 1/75 of a second you should be able to avoid micro motion blurs. With a focal length of 18 mm, the equivalent focal length is 27 mm, therefore the "safety" time is 1/27 of a second (1/30 or 1/25 are also suitable). But if your lens or camera are steady, you can risk longer times. You see, the data we have mentioned are not fixed rules but merely serve as indications. * If you use a Canon camera, you should multiply by 1,6, but you don't always need to be this accurate. If you use a Four Thirds camera, you need to multiply the focal length by 2.

To understand how the micro motion blur can affect your photographs, do the following exercise.

EXERCISE 1 • Set the lens on 55 mm focal length. • Set the mode to "Shutter priority". • Choose a completely steady subject at a distance of a couple of meters. • Set a shutter speed of 1/250 of a second and shoot, then set 1/125 of a second, 1/60, 1/30, 1/15, 1/8, capturing the scene every time you do so. • Now observe the images obtained on your computer. You will notice that a slower speed negatively affects the sharpness of the image.

49

We have to pay great attention to the shutter speed indicated in the viewfinder due to motion blur. If we choose a value smaller than the "safety" time, we have to widen the aperture a little or slightly increase the ISO speed (as indicated in the following lesson). You can use shutter speeds to add creative effects to your images. For example, if we capture a moving watercourse (such as a river or the sea) with a slower shooting speed and using the tripod to guarantee the steadiness of the camera, we obtain the so-called "silk effect", as shown in the following image.

In this case, remember to always use a tripod, so that your camera is completely steady. The tripod is one of the vital accessories for a photographer. You should consider the possibility of buying one before any other accessory or lens, especially if you like to capture landscapes.

50

LESSON 6

CHOOSING THE RIGHT SENSITIVITY

We call "sensitivity" the ability of the sensor to capture light. With the same light conditions, the higher the sensitivity, the faster the shutter speed we need to capture the image. Every sensor has got its own native sensitivity, for example 100 ISO or 200 ISO (ISO is the acronym for International Organization for Standardization, that is responsible for the international standards of many different industrial sectors, including photography. The Organization also sets the standards for measuring the sensitivity of photosensitive materials). Electronics allows us to increase the native sensitivity of a sensor amplifying the signal. We can therefore increase the sensitivity of our camera up to 51200 ISO and beyond. This means that today we are able to capture images in dark areas hand-holding our camera. But there is a problem, and not a small one. When we amplify the signal to obtain higher ISO values, image noise also increases. The result is shown in the following 100% crops of the same image captured with different ISO values.

Left: image captured at ISO 100. Right: image captured at ISO 800.

Left: image captured at ISO 3200. Right: image captured at ISO 51200.

52

As you can see, the image quality is better for lower ISO values. This is something you can understand yourself doing the following exercise.

EXERCISE 1 Do this exercise outdoors but with moderate light conditions (if there is too much light, please choose a subject in the shades). Set the camera on "Aperture priority". • Set aperture at f/5,6. • Set sensitivity at 100 ISO (please refer to the user's manual), frame the object and capture the image. • Increase sensitivity to 200 ISO and capture the image again. • Carry on increasing sensitivity, one stop at a time, until you reach the highest value available on your camera. • Can you see how, increasing sensitivity, the shutter speed automatically chosen by the camera becomes faster? • If, when you increase sensitivity, the shutter speed required is faster than the ones available on your camera, reduce the aperture. • Observe the images obtained on your computer, 100% zooming, and see how the image noise increases with sensitivity.

As you can understand from the examples shown and from the results of the exercise, if you want to obtain the highest image quality you have to keep the ISO value as low as possible. • For lower ISO values, from 100 to 400 ISO, the image noise on modern reflex cameras is absolutely negligible. • For intermediate ISO values, up to 1600 or 3200 ISO (in the past, these were considered high values, but technology develops incredibly fast), image noise can be observed but is quite limited and not very annoying. • For higher ISO values, higher than 3200 ISO, image noise becomes very evident. 53

Does this mean we have to avoid higher ISO values in any case? No, it doesn't. If light is insufficient and exposure times are long as to give a motion blurry image, it's better for you to increase sensitivity than to get a motion blurry image. While a motion blurry image is a mistake (unless motion blur is a wanted creative effect and perfectly calibrated), a slightly noisy image can always be acceptable, especially if the subjects portrayed are interesting. Consider this: image noise coincides with the "grain" of the old photographic films, and some photographers try to obtain this effect on purpose for creative reasons (but in this case, they go for black and white images because image noise looks much better in this case, since it resembles the effect you would have using an old film).

EXERCISE 2 • Capture images with very high ISO values (6400, 12800, 25600) in semi-dark environments. Try to understand which is the acceptable threshold of your camera. • Use the same subjects to capture black and white images and compare them to the colour versions: where do you think image noise is more acceptable? 54

LESSON 7

THE EXPOSURE TRIANGLE

As you have seen in the previous lessons, if you want to obtain a correctly exposed image you have to consider three parameters: diaphragm aperture, shutter speed and ISO speed. These three parameters represent the so-called "exposure triangle".

Each parameter is essential to determine the right amount of light to the sensor, and they are all strictly interconnected: if we change one of them, we also have to adjust at least one of the remaining two to obtain a correct exposure.

56

Obviously, each one of these factors doesn't only affect exposure, it also affects other important features of the image, namely: The aperture affects the depth of field;

The shutter speed affects the "steadiness" and sharpness of the image and subjects;

57

Sensitivity, as we saw in the previous lesson, affects the amount of image noise.

So, how can we adjust these parameters? Here are some guidelines. Sensitivity has to be kept as low as possible (unless you are happy with the "grain" effect for creative or expressive reasons). Adjust the ISO value at the lowest possible level according to the light and the aperture chosen. To avoid mistakes, if you are in doubt, leave the ISO value set on AUTO. In this case, the camera will choose the lowest possible value according to the light and the aperture chosen.

58

EXERCISE 1 • Set the ISO value on AUTO. • Set the mode to "Aperture priority". • Choose a subject, frame it, close the diaphragm one stop at a time and observe the shutter speed and ISO value chosen by the camera. • Observe how, with the camera set on "Aperture priority", as the aperture becomes smaller, the camera increases the exposure time, but when the latter becomes too large to prevent the motion blur in a hand-held camera, the ISO value is also increased.

Repeat this exercise as many times as you want, because it helps you understand what you have to do to capture an image: if you want more depth of field, reduce the diaphragm and adjust the exposure time accordingly, but if you are afraid of getting motion blurry images, feel free to increase the ISO value. The camera settings indicated for this exercise are the best ones in case you want to work quickly and you are hand holding your camera, if you tend to be distracted and forget to adjust sensitivity (as we sometimes do), and in many more different occasions. Setting your camera on "Aperture priority" and setting the ISO speed to AUTO is almost always a good choice. To thoroughly understand how these parameters are interconnected, we recommend that you do the following exercise, where you will be required to set apertures, shutter speeds and ISO values in a completely manual mode.

59

EXERCISE 2 • Set the camera on the "Manual" mode. • Set aperture at f/5,6. • Set sensitivity at 400 ISO. • Adjust the shutter speed observing the moving indicator until you reach the correct exposure (that is, when the moving indicator is aligned to the central notch of the light meter).

• Now, set sensitivity at 800 ISO. • Find the correct exposure again (that is, when the moving indicator is aligned to the central notch of the light meter) only adjusting the aperture. If the light conditions haven't changed during the operation, your new aperture should be f/8. Is that right? • Now, set sensitivity at 1600 ISO and find the correct exposure again (again, when the moving indicator is aligned to the central notch of the light meter) only adjusting the shutter speed. • Again, think about the change you had to apply to the shutter speed: did you increase or decrease it? How many stops did you apply?

Keep doing this exercise as long as you can and repeat it a thousand times changing sensitivity, aperture and shutter speed and adjusting the other two parameters accordingly. Doing so, you will get a clearer idea of how the exposure triangle works. When you are familiar with the concepts explained, you will be able to manage the exposure of your images.

60

LESSON 8

EXPOSURE COMPENSATION, BRACKETING AND AE-L BUTTON

EXPOSURE COMPENSATION Reflex cameras have a control key that is extremely useful to quickly correct the exposure value indicated by the light meter. This is the exposure compensation function key. Let's try to understand how this key works and why it is useful. Let's suppose we have to capture a white subject, such as a snowy landscape. Since the light meter of cameras is calibrated on a so-called middle grey reference, when it focuses on a white subject, it tends to make a wrong reading, it's misled, so it detects a larger amount of light than the actual one. As a consequence, it will tend to underexpose the image, that is the scene appears darker than it really is. Let's take a typical example, a wedding: the groom wears a dark suit while the bride wears a white dress. What could happen? If we read the light on the bride's dress, the light meter could be misled and produce an underexposed image.

An image captured reading the exposure on a white subject, such as a wedding dress, without adjusting any of the parameters suggested by the light meter, could appear a little too dark.

62

If we read the exposure on the groom's black suit, the light meter could be conversely misled, that is it could see the scene as darker that it really is and produce an overexposed image.

In this case, let's suppose the light meter read the light on the black suit. If we don't make adjustments, the image could appear overexposed.

EXERCISE 1 • Take a black cloth and a white cloth (a tissue, a shirt, a piece of paper). Put them one next to the other so that the light that reaches them is the same. • Set the light meter on "Spot" reading. • Frame the black cloth and capture the image, so that the white cloth is pictured, too. • Now frame the white cloth and capture the image, so that the black cloth is pictured, too. • Can you see the differences? Since the light on the two subjects is exactly the same, why does this happen? The exposure difference is due to the fact that the light meter was first misled by the black cloth, and then misled by the white cloth.

63

What we have learned so far makes us understand the light meter cannot be always trusted. If our subject is either very dark or very clear, it could produce a wrong exposure. In some other cases, we could decide to underexpose or overexpose the scene on purpose for creative reasons. What can we do in these cases? The most simple thing to do is use the compensation key. This key can be found on every reflex or mirrorless camera, but also on compact cameras and even on smartphones (as a "virtual" version on the touchscreen). Using this key we can quickly adjust the exposure suggested by the light meter. This key allows us to overexpose (lighten) or underexpose (darken) the image compared to the reading of the light meter. To do so, you can press the [+/-] key, that is the compensation key. In the viewfinder you will see the symbol +/- and the exposure scale, identical to the one you can see when you work in the manual mode. Using the control dial and the moving indicator on the scale you can overexpose or underexpose the scene. This procedure can slightly vary according to the camera model owned (please refer to the user's manual).

64

Also remember that: • Many camera models allow you to choose different adjustment steps from the menu: 1/3 EV; ½ EV; or 1 EV (please refer to the user's manual). • When you work in the "Manual" mode, the exposure compensation function is disabled because you have to manually adjust the exposure on the scale. • If you work in the "Aperture priority" mode, the camera carries out the compensation adjusting the shutter speed. If you work in the "Shutter priority" mode, the camera carries out the compensation adjusting the aperture. If you work in the "Program" mode, the camera carries out the compensation adjusting both the shutter speed and the aperture.

EXERCISE 2 • Set the camera on the "Aperture priority" mode. • Choose a subject, frame it, focus and capture the image. • Now compensate the exposure with a one-stop overexposure, focus on the same point as before and capture the image again. • Compensate the exposure with a one-stop underexposure, focus on the same point as before and capture the image. • Observe the images obtained and try to spot the differences. • Repeat this exercise setting a two-stop compensation both for overexposure and for underexposure. • Repeat the exercise setting different values until you become familiar with this function.

65

THE BRACKETING FUNCTION Another useful function of reflex and mirrorless cameras is bracketing, that is the possibility to have multiple shots (3, 5 or 7) with different exposure values, one suggested by the light meter and the other ones under- and overexposed by a predefined value. The bracketing function can be found in the camera menu (please refer to the user's manual). Modern reflex cameras have a very useful automatic bracketing function: you can set exposure compensation values between +2 e -2 EV (some models reach ± 3EV) with intervals of 1/3 or ½ EV. When do we need the bracketing function? When exposure is difficult to control and you prefer to have more that one shot to choose from. You can also use this function to capture three or more images of a landscape with different light levels. In this way, what you get is the right exposure for the sky, an intermediate image and the right exposure for the ground. If you use a tripod to guarantee that everytime the captured scene is exactly the same, you can use the images to simulate the graduated ND grey filter or to obtain a proper HDR.

EXERCISE 3 • Activate the bracketing function on the camera. • Set a 3 shot bracketing in ±1 EV steps. • Capture the scene three times and observe the result: you should have one image with the exposure suggested by the light meter, a 1-stop underexposed image and a 1-stop overexposed image. • Repeat the exercise many times changing the number of shots and the EV value. At the end of each shooting, observe the result obtained.

66

Right exposure.

+2EV exposure.

-2EV exposure.

67

THE AE-L BUTTON The AE-L (Automatic Exposure Lock) button is seldom used but extremely useful. Its function is to store the data read by the light meter in a defined instant and keep them until you actually capture the image. In this way, you can read the exposure value in a certain point and focus on something else, keeping the values measured in the first place. What do you need this function for? The camera light meter repeatedly calculates the exposure value based on the light and the subject. Quite often, the scene you want to capture has different light levels: if you slightly change the direction of the camera, the light meter gives you a new reading. This happens especially when the light meter works in "Spot" or "Center weighted" modes. If the central area of the viewfinder is on a shaded area, the image captured could be overexposed; if the viewfinder points to a very bright area, the image captured could be underexposed. Experienced professional photographers know they have to direct the viewfinder and read the exposure values on the point of the scene where they have the most suitable exposure. The problem is that if you want to re-frame the same area for creative purposes, the light meter will detect the change and calculate the exposure values again. The AE-L key helps you solve this problem locking and storing the exposure data. But you have to remember some important aspects. 1. The exposure lock is connected to focus by default. If you have your subject in focus and then you re-frame pressing the shutter release half-way, you don't necessarily have to use the AE-L key, because the exposure is locked along with the focus, unless you have disabled this function from the menu. The AE-L key is only useful when you want to measure the exposure on one point of the scene and then focus on another point. In this case, you have to lock the exposure first with the AE-L key and then focus. You just can't do the opposite. 2. The exposure locking function can be a great advantage if you use the light meter in the "Spot" reading mode. 68

3. If you want to obtain the correct exposure for one particular element of the scene, it could be very useful to set the zoom in "Tele" mode, focus on the object or a part of it, lock the exposure with the AE-L key, then widen the scene passing to a more wide-angular position. In this case, the exposure reading of the subject chosen will be more accurate. 4. The AE-L key is very useful in backlight images or when you have consistent light differences in the framed scene. 5. To obtain better results we have to make up our mind and decide which part of the image or which element we want to expose correctly and which part we want to sacrifice. Please read on the user's manual how the AE-L key of your camera works: in some models, to maintain the lock you have to keep the key pressed, while on some other models, once you press the key, the exposure values are stored until you press again or you capture the image. In any case, when this function is activated, the * symbol is shown on the display-

69

EXERCISE 4 • With your camera, frame a scene with consistent light differences (for example, one part of the scene is bright and the other one is in the shades). • Point the camera to the bright area, lock the exposure, frame and focus on the shaded area, then capture the image. • Now, point the camera to the shaded area, lock the exposure, frame and focus on the bright area, then capture the image. • Observe the difference between the two images. • Repeat this exercise many times. The AE-L key can be very useful in a variety of situations.

70

LESSON 9

HOW TO READ HISTOGRAM

EXPOSURE HISTOGRAM The camera display is extremely useful: not only it allows us to look at the pictures we have taken, it also provides us with a number of image exposure related data. They are not very easy to read, because they are shown on what we call a levels histogram. What is a levels histogram? This is a diagram representing the amount of pixels for every level of grey in the image. The horizontal axis represents the levels of grey (from 0 to 255), while the vertical axis represents the amount of pixels for each level. The histogram gives a graphical representation of the image brightness. Simply put, looking at the histogram we can understand if the image is correctly exposed.

First of all, let's learn how to retrieve the histogram. This function can be activated from the "View" menu. In this menu we can decide if we want to view the image captured, the image captured and the relevant data, the image captured and the relevant histogram or (in most of the cameras) the histograms for the three different image colours (RGB, that is red, green and blue).

72

In the menu options of the camera we can decide whether we want to view the image alone or the levels histogram.

We can also view a levels histogram for every colour of the RGB image.

73

HOW TO READ THE HISTOGRAM How can we read the histogram? It is actually pretty easy, as you will see in the following example. The above image shows a correctly exposed photograph and the relevant histogram. The majority of the pixels are located in the central part of the graphic. There are no pixels in the right and left sides, indicating that we have no overexposure or underexposure. The second photograph shows the same scene, but this time the image is overexposed. Observe how many pixels are there in the right side of the histogram. This means those 74

pixels are burned, the image is overexposed and we have no information whatsoever about burned areas. They appear white and cannot be retrieved. T h e t h i r d p h o t ograph shows the same scene, but this time the image is underexposed. It appears ver y dark. Look at the histogram: pixels are concentrated on the left side. The pixels on the left side represent the dark areas. Again, we have no information on those areas. Histograms give us a faithful graphical representation of the image exposure. In some cases, we could have a correctly exposed image with some burned areas, as in the example below: here the photographer had to sacrifice the sky to have a good exposure of the branches and leaves. The sky looks burned (that is, it appears white), as we can read on the histogram (look at how many pixels are there in the right area: they refer to the sky).

75

The pixel peak on the right end of the histogram indicates some burned areas. This is absolutely normal: to have a good exposure of the branches and leaves, the photographer had to overexpose the sky.

EXERCISE 1 For the following exercise, please use a tripod so that every time you can capture the exact same scene. • Set the exposure mode on "Matrix". • Frame the scene and shoot. • Using the exposure compensation key, set a 3-stop overexposure (+ 3) and capture the image. • Now, using the exposure compensation key, set a 3-stop underexposure (- 3) and capture the image. • Examine the histograms of the two images and try to understand which are the overexposed and underexposed areas. Repeat this exercise as many times as you want until you learn how to read and interpret the levels histogram.

76

LESSON 10

COMPOSITION ELEMENTS

Finally, this is the last lesson of the course. Now you have become an advanced camera user, and with a little practice you will improve your skills. You have managed to conquer the hardest part, that is exposure. In other words, you are familiar with how your tool works, right? All you have to do now is to learn how to use it to get beautiful images. So, now it's your turn. You have to develop your "photographer's eye", that is your ability to look at a scene, see a good shot and capture it as you would like to. First of all, you have to know some basic rules of what we call "photographic composition". To be honest, the study of composition rules in photography is very demanding, but the few simple concept we are going to teach you in the following pages will help you a lot.

CLEANLINESS The subject of your images needs to be immediately detectable: try to choose only a few elements neatly arranged. The most common error beginners do is to capture messy images where it is quite difficult to understand what the subject is, preventing viewers from getting the meaning of the image. Please make sure there is nothing in the picture interfering with your subject. For example, always check the background. For portraits, make sure the background does not disturb the subject: for example, avoid branches or poles when they seem to go through your subject's head.

78

GUIDELINES AND FRAMES Try to see if there are guidelines that can help you direct the viewer's eyes towards your subject.

79

Also "frames" or elements that encircle the subject can be pretty useful.

Always remember that the best images are often those whit only a few, clearly detectable and well-arranged elements.

80

OFF-CENTER COMPOSITION When it comes to arrange the elements of an image, many beginners tend to put the subject at the centre of the scene. Most of the times, this choice looks static and "boring". Try to use off-center composition placing your subject in one of the strong points of the image. To understand where the strong points are, please use the Rule of Thirds. Divide your image in nine equal-sized parts by "drawing" two horizontal and two vertical lines equally distant from the border, as shown in the following image.

If you have a mirrorless camera and you use the electronic viewfinder, or if you use a reflex camera in the liveview mode, you can view the guidelines directly on the viewfinder or display. Please refer to the user's manual to learn how to activate this function.

81

The strong points of the image fall at or along the divisions created by such imaginary lines. If you want to give good prominence to your subject, you may want to locate it around one of such points (you don't have to be very accurate). This will also make your image composition more dynamic.

82

EXPLORE DIFFERENT VIEWPOINTS Many photographers like to use the same viewpoint over and over again, that is the height of their eyes. Please try to avoid this and explore different viewpoints: kneel down, lie down, climb on a chair or a wall (and be careful). Then, explore the subject: turn it round, walk around it, try to find an unusual element that is rarely captured. In other words, try not to make boring photographs, try not to capture the exact same image a thousand people around you would capture.

If you want to improve your skills, now that you are familiar with the technical aspects of your tool, always try to imagine how you could capture an image even when you don't have your camera ready at hand. Try to make this a non-stop exercise. Last but not least, the obvious: observe tons of pictures. By the masters of photography, but also by today's popular photographers, such as the ones you may find on the Internet. We are not asking you to imitate them, especially when it comes to modern gurus (let's be honest, sometimes they go for questionable and "in-fashion" solutions). What we are trying to say here is that every expert has something good to teach us, and they can help us find our own style.

83

CONCLUSION

This is the final part of our e-book. It has been pretty useful, hasn't it, especially if you did all the exercises as we required you to do. Maybe it's not been fun and easy all the time, but let's face it: you can't simply learn in a few hours what other people take many years to learn. It's as simple as that. We would like to thank you for your confidence in us, we really hope this e-book has been a useful companion along this journey into photography. See you soon on Phototutorial.net! Luigi Calabrese Canio Colangelo

84

APPENDIX EXERCISE SOLUTIONS EXERCISE 2 PAGE 19

4. + 2 stop

Answer: Because as you close the aperture, the amount of light to the sensor decreases.

5. - 1 stop

EXERCISE 4 PAGE 21 Answer: As the exposure time increases, the image becomes brighter. This happens because the amount of light to the sensor also increases. SUM-UP EXERCISE 1 PAGE 23 Answer: 1. f/4 2. f/11 3. f/22 4. f/2,8

SUM-UP EXERCISE 3 PAGE 24 Answer: 1. + 2 stop 2. + 5 stop 3. - 1 stop 4. - 7 stop 5. + 3 stops (remember cameras usually allow you to select 15-second steps and not 16-second steps. The difference here is negligible). SUM-UP EXERCISE 4 PAGE 24 Right answers: b and c.

SUM-UP EXERCISE 2 PAGE 23 Answer: 1. - 3 stop 2. - 4 stop 3. + 1 stop 85

THE AUTHORS LUIGI CALABRESE Teacher and photography enthusiast, he is one of the brains behind the on-line photography course Phototutorial.net. He is particularly fond of naturalistic photography. His photographs have been awarded in several international events and have been published in a number of specialized books and magazines.

CANIO COLANGELO Due to an education in the field of electronics, Canio is fond of everything technology-related. He works in several fields: photography, IT, graphics, website creation, SEO. He, too, is one of the brains behind Phototutorial.net.

Copyright disclaimer: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior written permission of the authors. To inform us of its illegal distribution on websites or sharing programs, please write to [email protected]. LEARN PHOTOGRAPHY IN 10 LESSONS Luigi Calabrese - Canio Colangelo Illustations and graphics: Canio Colangelo Layout: Daniele Colangelo 2016 [email protected] ebooks.phototutorial.net

86