Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts (Second Language Learning and Teaching) 3030960943, 9783030960940

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Second Language Learning and Teaching

Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk Marcin Trojszczak   Editors

Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts

Second Language Learning and Teaching Series Editor Mirosław Pawlak, Faculty of Pedagogy and Fine Arts, Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz, Poland

The series brings together volumes dealing with different aspects of learning and teaching second and foreign languages. The titles included are both monographs and edited collections focusing on a variety of topics ranging from the processes underlying second language acquisition, through various aspects of language learning in instructed and non-instructed settings, to different facets of the teaching process, including syllabus choice, materials design, classroom practices and evaluation. The publications reflect state-of-the-art developments in those areas, they adopt a wide range of theoretical perspectives and follow diverse research paradigms. The intended audience are all those who are interested in naturalistic and classroom second language acquisition, including researchers, methodologists, curriculum and materials designers, teachers and undergraduate and graduate students undertaking empirical investigations of how second languages are learnt and taught.

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/10129

Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk · Marcin Trojszczak Editors

Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts

Editors Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk Department of Language and Communication State University of Applied Sciences in Konin Konin, Poland

Marcin Trojszczak University of Białystok Białystok, Poland Department of Language and Communication State University of Applied Sciences in Konin Konin, Poland

ISSN 2193-7648 ISSN 2193-7656 (electronic) Second Language Learning and Teaching ISBN 978-3-030-96094-0 ISBN 978-3-030-96095-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Introducing Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts

The present volume addresses language and its use in an array of various professional and educational and bilingual contexts. It discusses specialized settings and terminologies such as legal, technical or corporate, bilingual contexts of use, as well as the role of education in relation to professional contexts. The contributions presented in this volume are an outcome of the conference Contacts and Contrasts 2020 (C&C2020), which was organized on 19–20 October 2020 in Konin, Poland, by the Department of Research in Language and Communication of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at the State University of Applied Sciences in Konin. Selected papers from this event are included in two edited volumes. The present book focuses on language use in its diversity from every day, through educational, to professional. The second book includes the contributions related to concepts, discourses, and translations in various cultures. The present volume includes 13 chapters divided into three parts: Part I— Professional Contexts, Part II—Bilingual Contexts, and Part III—Educational Contexts. Part I Professional Contexts includes five chapters. It starts with the Chapter “Evaluative Language in Legal Professional Practice: The Case of Justification of Judicial Decisions” by Stanisław Go´zd´z-Roszkowski (University of Lodz, Poland). The author provides a detailed analysis of the role of evaluative language in the construction of argument in the justification of judicial decisions. His research is based on two landmark civil rights cases adjudicated before the Supreme Court in Poland and the Supreme Court of the United States. The chapter by Viviana Gaballo (University of Macerata, Italy) focuses on specialized terminology in the context of corporate culture. By combing the frameworks of terminology, lexicography, and cognitive linguistics, the author explores a culturespecific character of selected specialized terms which prima facie only seem to be unrelated to the relevant source culture. The author also demonstrates that such cross-cultural constraints impact the creative performance of specialized translators. Chapter “Polish and Russian Geological Names in the Context of Linguistic Transfer” authored by Olga Iakovleva (Maria Curie–Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland) discusses another specialized domain, i.e. earth sciences. The author v

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Introducing Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts

focuses on selected examples of Polish and Russian specialist terms used in geology. The author discusses their diversity by tracing the origins, which indicate a number of historical influences including Latin, Greek, German, French, and English. An interplay of specialized technical terminology, business, and translation is discussed in the Chapter “The Implementation of Professional Language Terminology in Polish Production Companies” by Grzegorz Pawłowski (State University of Applied Sciences in Konin, Poland). The author describes the creation of new electrotechnical terminology in the context of German-Polish manufacturing cooperation by indicating challenges related to the existence of various specialist terms applied to different contexts of use. In her chapter, Anna B˛aczkowska (University of Gda´nsk, Poland) addresses the issue of non-professional audiovisual translation. The author focuses on the translation of the English form of address you into Polish by comparing the versions produced by amateur subtitlers, sophomore students, and professionals. The research shows that amateurs tend to foreignize and stay close to the original film dialogue, while sophomores resemble professionals in making the original dialogue more familiar and polite. The next part of the volume Bilingual Contexts comprises two contributions that discuss the bilingual language use in non-professional, everyday situations. In her Chapter “Language as a Source of Problems in Bilingual Couples”, Agnieszka St˛epkowska (University of Szczecin, Poland) analyses the extent to which the use of a foreign language in bilingual couples can be burdensome. By using the data from interviews, the author not only shows a scale of language problems present in intercultural relationships, but also indicates the reactions and attitudes towards them. Another facet of bilingual communication is presented by Jacek I. Mianowski (Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, Poland), who discusses code switching in tabletop wargaming. The author outlines a sociolinguistic context of this pastime, everyday activity and demonstrates the peculiarities of the discourse created by participants. His analysis shows the importance of code switching which serves various communicative goals of players. Part III, Educational Contexts, offers, similarly to Part II, an outlook at two languages, however, they are situated in educational foreign language teaching contexts. This last part of the present volume consists of six chapters and starts with the Chapter “Making University-Level Foreign Language Education More Responsive to Professional Needs”, authored by Mirosław Pawlak (State University of Applied Sciences in Konin, Poland; Adam Mickiewicz University in Kalisz, Poland). The author discusses a range of challenges facing foreign language education at the university level and suggests modifications that could make it more compatible with contemporary professional needs. The chapter co-authored by Elisabet Arnó-Macià and Marta Aguilar-Pérez (both from Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain) touches upon yet another issue that intersects educational and professional domains, i.e. internationalization. The authors discuss the integration of English for Specific Purposes in university policies

Introducing Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts

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by arguing that it should be aligned with institutional strategies with the aim to develop skills that increase graduates’ international employability. Dorota Jabło´nska (Independent Researcher from Poland) focuses on the professional growth of EFL teachers by analysing their language competencies. Based on the interviews with Polish teachers, the author demonstrates that there may exist a gap between the success at the expected foreign language level at particular educational institutions, as envisaged by relevant Ministries of Education, and the actual reality. The author argues for the implementation of Continuing Professional Development programmes in order to improve teachers’ skills and their effectiveness. Chapter “Translator Training Meets Machine Translation—Selected Challenges” authored by Marcin Trojszczak (University of Białystok, Poland; State University of Applied Sciences in Konin, Poland) addresses an interplay between the educational and professional in the context of translator training. The author discusses selected educational challenges connected with the advent of machine translation, and surveys the effects of technology in terms of enhancement, and teaching autonomy, emphasizing the added value of human responsibility. In their chapter, Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (State University of Applied Sciences in Konin, Poland) and Saveena Chakrika Veeramoothoo (University of Houston-Downtown, USA) discuss analogies and differences between cultural and study contexts between native US and Polish students as well as their linguistic and professional competences during stages of their cooperation within the TAPP project. The authors observe that the development of communicative skills positively influences students’ intercultural awareness and professionalization. The present volume concludes with the chapter by Katarzyna Papaja (University of Silesia, Poland) entitled “Challenges Faced by the University Students During COVID-19 Pandemic in Poland”. Based on the questionnaire study, the author presents a timely discussion about the advantages and disadvantages of online learning from the perspective of university students. Moreover, potential improvements suggested by students are discussed. By presenting a range of studies which shed light on different facets of language use in everyday, professional and educational contexts, the present volume attempts to contribute to the ongoing discussions in the fields of specialized languages, terminology, translation, bilingualism, and education as well as to encourage further scientific inquiry into these areas. Konin, Poland Białystok, Poland

Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk Marcin Trojszczak

Contents

Introducing Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts . . . . . .

v

Professional Contexts Evaluative Language in Legal Professional Practice: The Case of Justification of Judicial Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stanisław Go´zd´z-Roszkowski

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Cross-Linguistic and Cross-Cultural Conceptualization of Specialized Terms in Corporate Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Viviana Gaballo

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Polish and Russian Geological Names in the Context of Linguistic Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olga Iakovleva

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The Implementation of Professional Language Terminology in Polish Production Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grzegorz Pawłowski

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Forms of Address in Polish Nonprofessional Subtitles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anna B˛aczkowska

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Bilingual Contexts Language as a Source of Problems in Bilingual Couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agnieszka St˛epkowska

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Code Switching in Tabletop Wargaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Jacek I. Mianowski

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Contents

Educational Contexts Making University-Level Foreign Language Education More Responsive to Professional Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Mirosław Pawlak Engineering Students’ Views on ESP Courses as a Pathway for the Development of Graduates’ International Mindsets . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Elisabet Arnó-Macià and Marta Aguilar-Pérez Professional Growth of EFL Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Dorota Jabło´nska Translator Training Meets Machine Translation—Selected Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Marcin Trojszczak Cross-Cultural Identity and Reflective Memos in American and Polish Student Online TAPP Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and Saveena Chakrika Veeramoothoo Challenges Faced by the University Students During COVID-19 Pandemic in Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Katarzyna Papaja

Professional Contexts

Evaluative Language in Legal Professional Practice: The Case of Justification of Judicial Decisions Stanisław Go´zd´z-Roszkowski

Abstract This chapter examines the overlooked role of evaluative language in the construction of argument in the justification of judicial decisions. Based on two landmark civil rights cases adjudicated before the Supreme Court of the United States and the Supreme Court in Poland, the study explores value-laden language identified in four ‘sites of evaluation’ corresponding with critical points of judicial argumentation. The presence of such sites of evaluation suggests that evaluative language contributes to the generic integrity of justifications, or more broadly, judicial decisions. It emerges that despite complex variations, judges, as expert writers, manage to exploit such generic resources to respond to familiar and often not so familiar professional contexts. It is argued that apart from contributing to the justificatory force of argumentation, skillful use of evaluative language should be regarded as one of the hallmarks of professional judicial writing. Keywords Evaluative language · Evaluation · Legal argumentation · Legal justification · Supreme Court of the United States · Supreme Court in Poland

1 Introduction On June 3rd 2018 the US Supreme Court ruled in favour of a Colorado baker who had refused to create a wedding cake for a gay couple.1 Less than two weeks later, on June 14th 2018 the Supreme Court in Poland upheld criminal charges against a print shop employee who refused to print banners for an LGBT business foundation because he did not want to “promote” the gay rights movement.2 Two very similar cases in which the Supreme Court judges in their decisions had to distinguish between conflicting legal principles and values. In the former, the values concerned the rights and dignity 1

Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd., et al. v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission et al. Case no. II KK 333/17 Refusal to Provide Services on the Grounds of Freedom of Conscience and Religion.

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S. Go´zd´z-Roszkowski (B) University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_1

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of gay persons and the right of all persons to exercise fundamental freedoms under the First Amendment (freedom of speech and the free exercise of religion) of the American constitution. In the latter, the Polish court considered the collision of a few constitutionally protected rights: freedom of religion, non-discrimination on the grounds of sexuality and the principle of equality before the law. It is not only the axiological aspect underpinning the conflict between norms and values that is shared by the two cases, but it is also the central role of evaluative language used in various assessments made by judges in the context of justifying their decisions. For example, Justice Kennedy, who drafted the majority opinion, concluded that “the reason and motive for the baker’s refusal were based on his sincere religious beliefs and convictions”3 and in showing [by the Colorado Civil Rights Commission] selective hostility to the baker’s sincerely-held beliefs as a basis for his objection to creating a cake for a same-sex couple, the baker’s right to exercise his religion was violated. As a result, the explicitly negative evaluation of how the case had been handled earlier seems to lie at the heart of the Supreme Court’s decision to reverse the lower courts’ ruling against Masterpiece Cakeshop. In a similar vein, the Polish court’s appraisal of the nature of the printer’s work and his religious convictions greatly contributed to its final decision that religious beliefs did not constitute a “justified cause” for his failure to provide the service. In both cases, evaluative language and judicial argumentation are woven together in the justifications of the courts’ decisions. In fact, it could be argued that judicial argumentation is an institutionalized form of discourse communication where evaluation is the core information communicated. The judge who takes a decision is expected to support it with arguments. This decision must be justified adequately to make it acceptable not only to the parties involved, but also to other judges and other legal and non-legal audiences (see Feteris, 2017, p. xv).4 In the context of Supreme Court opinions, judges need to refer to arguments advanced by lower court judges and other legal actors taking into account a multiple audience. It is further argued here that the acceptability of the decision, to a large extent, depends on the quality of the justification. The skillful use of evaluative language, which contributes to the justificatory force of argumentation, should be regarded as one of the hallmarks of professional judicial writing. Accordingly, this chapter aims to illustrate how detailed and manual linguistic analysis comparing equivalent genres (legal justification) created in two different contexts of legal culture (US common law and Polish civil law) may be used to explore how judges employ evaluative language to construct their argument. This contribution builds upon and extends two previous studies in which each of the cases is discussed separately and partially (Go´zd´z-Roszkowski, 2021; Go´zd´zRoszkowski, 2022). In this chapter, the two cases are directly compared and the role of evaluative language is foregrounded and discussed in the context of argumentation used in justifying the courts’ decisions. 3

The entire text of the opinion can be found at https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/584/16111/#tab-opinion-3910082 (last viewed September 8, 2021). 4 See also Perelman (1973) for the explanation of the concept of ‘composite audience’ and its impact on the standards of soundness in legal argumentation.

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2 Evaluative Language and Legal Argumentation In the popular and stereotypical perception, legal argumentation should be devoid of any linguistic expression of evaluation. This perception could result from two factors. First, legal argumentation is traditionally viewed from a logical perspective as a form of reasoning consisting of self-evident premises and leading to an inevitable conclusion (cf. Kloosterhuis, 2013). In some cases, this could even lead to a somewhat mechanistic view of a judge’s role in reaching a decision. According to it, the legal outcome is already there waiting to be discovered by a judge who only needs to apply an argument “that reconstructs the operation of legal rules” (Hage, 2013, p. 126). In fact, in many cases, referred to as ‘hard cases’ (Dworkin, 1986), the outcome could go anywhere. The two cases discussed in this chapter offer some illustration how two similar cases have been decided in very different ways. Hage (2013, p. 126) argues that it is legal arguments that construct the legal consequences of a case and the outcome of the decision-making process depends on the arguments “adduced in the legal debate”. In the dialogical approach (e.g., Arnio, 1987; Peczenik, 1989), legal argumentation is viewed as a critical discussion (Kloosterhuis, 2013) and the justification of a judicial decision consists in defending a standpoint against the anticipated or actual responses of an antagonist. This aspect of legal argumentation is brought to the fore in the pragma-dialectical approach (Feteris, 2017) in which argumentation is analyzed as an exchange of arguments and counter-arguments. Crucially, argumentation can be seen as being socialized (van Eemeren & Grootendorst, 2004), i.e., it is embedded in the social context of a problem-solving process, an interactional process between two or more language users. In the context of legal justification, this means that attention should be paid to claims and counter-claims of the interactants participating in the case. Clearly, special emphasis needs to be placed on the judge, who uses argumentation to solve a legal problem and convince “implicit or explicit antagonists of the correctness of his [sic] decision” (Kloosterhuis, 2013, p. 74). In sum, legal argumentation should not be seen as an abstraction from the communicative and interactional context in which it is embedded. Nor should it be perceived as an abstract argumentative product of a single user, i.e., the judge. Second, evaluation, or more accurately evaluative language,5 is often associated with subjectivity and affect, qualities which seem hardly compatible with the perceived logical and formal nature of legal argumentation. This brings us to the necessity of explaining how evaluative language can be understood and manifested in judicial argumentation. One difficulty with exploring the linguistic phenomenon of evaluation in general is the plethora of overlapping terms used to refer to its various aspects and signaling different research perspectives (e.g., evaluation, appraisal, stance, stance-taking, etc.). Indeed, research into evaluative language in judicial 5

Compare the term ‘evaluation’ as used in Argumentation Theory in the sense of evaluating arguments (e.g., Dahlman & Feteris, 2013).

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discourse has been carried out drawing upon a range of scholarly labels such as evaluation (e.g., Mazzi, 2010; Pontrandolfo & Go´zd´z-Roszkowski, 2014), stance (e.g., Finegan, 2010; Hafner, 2014), stance-taking (e.g., Szczyrbak, 2016) or appraisal (Heffer, 2007), to mention only those most commonly used.6 In these studies, evaluative language is explored in terms of specific lexical items, i.e., words and phrases which express evaluative meaning in a corpus of texts (cf. Hunston, 2010).7 In addition, anyone undertaking research into the linguistic expression of evaluation will recall the difficulties inherent in distinguishing between evaluative and non-evaluative expression. As argued in Go´zd´z-Roszkowski and Hunston (2016), as well as being ‘inscribed’, evaluative meaning might also be ‘evoked’ or implied. Its effect is often cumulative and dependent on context. Implicit evaluation in particular presupposes a shared value system and, in the context of judicial discourse, analyzing evaluative language involves taking into account the institutional environment in which the language is used. In the present analysis, the focus is on evaluative meanings encoded through lexical items which form an integral part of a legal argument. The underlying premise of this study is that evaluation is a meaning or a type of meaning rather than a form (cf. Hunston, 2007). This means that the analysis is qualitative and it focuses on identifying evaluative forms followed by interpreting the role of evaluative meaning in selected arguments in order to arrive at a deeper understanding of argumentative discourse. Unlike in most research into evaluative language, the analysis shifts from evaluators, i.e., individuals or entities that evaluate and subjectivity towards the role of evaluative items in the argument.8 Evaluative language can be found inherent in different types of argument. The most obvious example is probably argumentum ad absurdum, which can be generally understood as a pragmatic argument or an argument about the desirability or undesirability of a certain proposition (cf. Bustamante, 2013, p. 23). This type of arguing can be used by a judge to refer to unacceptable or absurd consequences of applying a legal rule. In the contexts of the two cases considered in this chapter, both courts pointed out the unfavourable consequences which could occur if businesses were given the constitutional right to discriminate based on their owners’ beliefs. This is illustrated in two excerpts provided below and sampled from the justifications of the decisions reported in this chapter (the auhor’s emphasis)9 :

6

Related concepts could include interpersonality (e.g., Breeze et al., 2014), voice (e.g., Breeze, 2018) and modality (e.g., Cheng, 2014). 7 See also Go´ zd´z-Roszkowski (2021) for an up-to-date overiew of studies related to evaluative language in legal discourse. 8 This does not mean that individual attitudes are not important and they do not affect judicial decision-making process. As Segal and Spaeth (2002) claim, the Court’s decision might hinge upon the personal preferences of the judges. However, they may not be manifested in writing except for dissenting or concurring opinions. 9 The examples used in this chapter come from the US opinion Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd., et al. v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission et al. available at https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/ us/584/16-111/#tab-opinion-3910082 (last viewed September 8, 2021).

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(1)

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And any decision in favor of the baker would have to be sufficiently constrained, lest all purveyors of goods and services who object to gay marriages for moral and religious reasons in effect be allowed to put up signs saying “no goods or services will be sold if they will be used for gay marriages,” something that would impose a serious stigma on gay persons.

In Example 1, Justice Kennedy is at pains to signal the limited application of the ruling in favour of the business provider. The negative consequences of denying services or goods to people on the basis of their sexual orientation are provided in the clause after the conjunction lest, which is actually used in the English grammar to signal that one wants to avoid something unpleasant. The negative assessment of the effect of such decision is strengthened by the use of the value-laden noun stigma to underscore adverse consequences for gay people not only in the economic but also in the social context. (2)

This standpoint was accepted by the Appeals Court which was of the opinion that religious beliefs of an individual cannot form a justified basis for refusing to provide service because this could lead to complete chaos in economic relations.10 [Pol. Stanowisko to zaakceptował S˛ad odwoławczy, który uznał, z˙ e przekonania religijne danej osoby nie mog˛a stanowi´c uzasadnionej podstawy odmowy wykonania usługi, poniewa˙z mogłoby to doprowadzi´c do kompletnego chaosu w stosunkach gospodarczych].

In Example (2), the Polish judge refers to the arguments adduced by the lower courts. As we will see in the next section, the cassation procedure before the Supreme Court in Poland specifies that the judge must check whether the lower courts applied the legal rules and principles correctly. To do so, the Supreme Court usually uses reporting language to reconstruct the argumentation of a lower court (cf. Go´zd´zRoszkowski, 2022) and to assess its merits. In this case, the Supreme Court agreed with the Appeals Court reasoning which painted a highly undesirable picture of what could happen if businesses were allowed to turn customers away citing their (business owners) religious beliefs. Most linguistically-oriented studies mentioned in this section, especially those corpus-based, are concerned with pre-defined lexical items with more or less obvious evaluative potential. They usually begin with a pre-defined language form, already associated with evaluative meanings, which is then identified and investigated in relevant datasets using corpus tools. Such studies tend to provide more or less exhaustive inventories of lexical units or lexico-grammatical patterns categorized according to their evaluative potential and based on the pragmatic analysis of their immediate co-texts. The idea behind them is that the language used by judges is somehow constrained and the writer operates within certain generic or institutional norms. 10

All the examples from the Polish justification were translated by the author. Their translation is literal and it may cover only parts deemed relevant for the analysis.The excerpts come from the justification of the Supreme Court decision available in Polish at www.sn.pl/sites/orzecznictwo/Orz eczenia3/II%20KK%20333-17.pdf.

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Table 1 The macrostructure of the Polish SC judgment (based on Ko´zbiał, 2020, p. 106) and the macrostructure of the US Supreme Court (Go´zd´z-Roszkowski, 2011) The macrostructure of Polish judgment

The macrostructure of US opinion

Move 1

Identifying the case

Headnote

Move 2

Pronouncing the judgment

Procedural history

Move 3

Providing justification

Holding

Step 1

Reporting procedural history and background of the case

Step 2

Findings of the court

Move 4

Restating the judgment

Opinion

While full of linguistic detail, such studies have relatively little explanatory power, i.e., they do not clarify why such evaluative items are used within the argumentative reality of legal justification and how they contribute to the realization of argumentative goals. Accordingly, in this contribution, an attempt is made to shed more light on the role evaluative expressions play in the construction of legal argument moving beyond the micro-level of lexical item.

3 The Institutional and Professional Contexts of the Two Cases. The Legal Justification in US and Polish Supreme Court Decisions Legal justification, understood as the reasons and rationale given by courts in rendering their decisions (DiMatteo, 2015; Gudowski, 2015), reflects the disciplinary and organizational culture of a given justice system. The institutional framework and the corresponding legal form in which legal justifications are created may vary depending on the legal system, jurisdiction, type of court (e.g., appellate). At the same time, this instance of judicial discourse is ubiquitous in professional court practice due to the virtually universal requirement that judges provide their reasons for their decisions. The legal justifications analyzed here are the product of two different judicial institutions, each placed within their own unique institutional contexts. Justifications of judicial decisions are usually presented as an integral part of a particular type of judicial decision. Table 1 shows how justifications fit in within the overall macrostructures of the Polish judgment and the US opinion.11

11

The term ‘opinion’ in the case of US Supreme Court is used in two senses. First, it denotes “the statement by a judge or court of the decision reached in regard to a cause tried or argued before them, expounding the law as applied to the case, and detailing the reasons upon which the judgment is based.” Second, it can be used to refer to an expression of the reasons why a certain decision (the judgment) was reached in a case. In this second sense, there are different types of opinion (majority opinion, plurality opinion, dissenting opinion, etc.). This means that the term ‘opinion’ can refer

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Table 1 reveals a basic similarity between the Polish and American organizational formats. There is a considerable overlap in terms of the specific moves. Both include sections which identify the court, the names of the parties, etc. Both recount what decisions were taken by lower courts and both announce the final ruling (or holding in US judicial discourse). Characteristically, justifications take up most of the textual space. According to Ko´zbiał (2020, p. 106), justifications given in Polish Supreme Court rulings account for as much as 96% of the text, while the figure for US opinions stands at 68% (Cheng Le & King Kui Sin, 2007, p. 350). Structurally, justifications appear fully integrated within the text of judgment or opinion. It should be borne in mind that justifications show some characteristics which point towards their unique nature, somehow distinct from the rest of the judgment. Unlike the other parts of a judgment or opinion, justifications do not have a standard form, their functions and form depending on the type of judicial decision (Gudowski, 2015). Additionally, while judgments, as a whole tend to have a fixed textual structure, where certain sections (e.g., headnote, procedural history, ruling or holding) are usually prepared by a court clerk (Lee et al., 1999), justifications reflect judicial reasoning and their language is inevitably less formulaic and more likely to show idiosyncratic variation. Thus, it appears that judgments and their justifications tend to differ in terms of conventionality and standardization, with legal justification being somewhat amorphous and elusive in form (Go´zd´z-Roszkowski, 2020a).12 Whether legal justification could be regarded as a separate genre is somewhat debatable and we are not concerned here with determining its generic status. It seems sufficient to point towards its linguistic and legal character distinct from the remainder of judgments or opinions. The aim of cassation procedure before the Supreme Court in Poland is to ensure the consistency, uniformity and legality of decisions given by courts in Poland. There are two measures routinely undertaken to that effect: cassation (for criminal cases) and cassation complaint (for civil cases). These are treated as extraordinary legal remedies. In order to meet the formal eligibility criteria, the application for cassation must demonstrate that the decision of a lower court is in violation of a specific legal provision by failing to respond to the charges and arguments raised by one of the parties. In the present case, the Court of Appeals (Pol. S˛ad Apelacyjny) upheld the decision of the District Court (Pol. S˛ad Rejonowy) in which the defendant, in his capacity as a printing shop employee, was found guilty of a deliberate and unjustified refusal to perform a service under article 138 of the Code of Misdemeanors. The cassation appeal was filed by the Attorney General (Pol. Prokurator Generalny) for the defendant and against the decision of the Appeals Court. The Appeals Court decision was attacked on the grounds that it violated certain provisions of

to several types of writing by the judges (cf. www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/opinions.aspx last viewed 14 April, 2021). 12 The linguistic differences between the judgment and its justification seem to be even more conspicuous in the case of separate opinion, where the judge’s individual style tends to prevail (Go´zd´z-Roszkowski, 2020b).

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the Polish law of procedure in misdemeanor cases by failing to duly consider arguments brought up in the appeal by the defense counsel. First, the Attorney General challenged the Court of Appeal’s ruling on the grounds that there was an obligation on the part of the defendant to provide a service while valid contract had been made. Second, the Attorney General challenged the Court Appeal’s ruling that the defendant’s refusal to provide a service based on his religious convictions was not justified under the relevant legal provision (Article 138 of the Code of Misdemeanour) (Go´zd´z-Roszkowski, 2022). The argumentative space of the Supreme Court is thus constrained in that it must focus on whether and how the Court of Appeal responded to the charges and arguments advanced by the plaintiff and whether the rules of law applied by the Court of Appeals had been applied correctly. This means that the way justification in the Polish case is constructed corresponds to the institutional requirements of the specific procedure. The court needed to structure its justification around the complaints filed by the plaintiff (Go´zd´z-Roszkowski, 2022). In the case of procedures before the US Supreme Court, parties not satisfied with the decision of a lower court can petition the U.S. Supreme Court to hear their case. The primary means to petition the court for review is to ask it to grant a writ of certiorari.13 It is worth pointing out that the Court is usually under no obligation to hear these cases, and it usually only does so if the case could have national significance, might harmonize conflicting decisions in the federal Circuit courts, and could have precedential value. The case Masterpiece Cakeshop Ltd. v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission attracted a great deal of attention because it raised the question related to antidiscrimination laws posing a tension between equality and liberty. The appeal to the US Supreme Court was filed by the Petitioner, Jack C. Phillips, owner of the Masterpiece Cakeshop, who lost on appeal before the Colorado Court of Appeals.14 The question addressed by the US Supreme Court concerned the following: whether the application of Colorado’s public accommodations law to compel a cake maker to design and make a cake that violates his sincerely held religious beliefs about same-sex marriage violates the Free Speech or Free Exercise Clauses of the First Amendment. The Court chose to decide the case on narrower grounds by arguing that members of the Colorado Civil Rights Commission expressed impermissible hostility to religion.15 In other words, the Court’s explicitly negative evaluation of the Commission handling of the case became the pivotal part of its argumentation. 13

The term writ of certiorari refers to a request made by the Supreme Court through its order for a lower court to send up the record of the case for review. More detailed information about the procedures can be found at the US Supreme Court website https://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-cou rts/educational-resources/about-educational-outreach/activity-resources/supreme-1 (last viewed 20.04.2021). 14 Full details of the case can be found at https://www.oyez.org/cases/2017/16-111 (last viewed 20.04.2021). 15 See the critique of the court’s argumentation in “Not a Masterpiece: The Supreme Court’s Decision in Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission” -online article by Erwin Chemerinsky available on https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human_rig hts_magazine_home/the-ongoing-challenge-to-define-free-speech/not-a-masterpiece/ [last viewed 20 January 2021].

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4 The Analysis: Comparing Sites of Evaluation To illustrate the role of evaluative language in professional legal argumentation across two different legal institutions and legal discourses, this section starts by identifying ‘sites of evaluation’, i.e., these portions of the judicial justifications that contain explicit assessment of a particular entity, process or argument showing discursive and thematic consistency. An analogy could be drawn here to ‘sites of engagement’ (Scollon, 1998) in the sense of critical moments of interaction performed according to assigned role in a specific professional context (cf. Bhatia, 2017). In line with the perception of legal justification as argumentative activity type, the professional role of a judge is to resolve the difference of opinion in a legal context (cf. Feteris, 2017). The judge does that by checking whether the protagonist’s claim (the Petitioner in court proceedings) is acceptable in the context of critical reactions of the other party. In other words, the essence of the judicial role is to assess the arguments and counterarguments within the constraints imposed by the institutional conventions of legal proceedings. This is achieved during the argumentation stage of legal justification. The analysis consists in identifying critical spaces in the text of justification where the judge expresses evaluation related to previously determined starting points and testing methods. Such textual sites can only be identified by means of a close reading of the entire texts (the so-called philological method). The analysis that follows presents two evaluation sites which are shared by the two justifications and two which are unique to a given case. Those shared sites involve evaluating religious beliefs and the nature of the Petitioners’ service which they refused to provide. Two other sites appear unique to a given case offering a plausible explanation why the courts reached completely different decisions despite the basic similarity of a legal problem. The description begins with an evaluation site that has been identified only in the justification of the US case.

4.1 Evaluating the Solution to Conflict Principles It is only in the American justification that we find overtly expressed evaluation of the difficulty inherent in solving a conflict between two legal principles.16 In the opening, relatively short part of the court’s majority opinion drafted by Justice Kennedy, the word ‘difficult’ or ‘difficulty’ appears as many as four times (the author’s emphasis). (3)

16

The case presents difficult questions as to the proper reconciliation of at least two principles. The first is the authority of a State and its governmental entities to protect the rights and dignity of gay persons who are, or wish to be, married but who face discrimination when they seek goods or services. The second

I follow Feteris (2017, p. 6) in using the term ‘legal principle’ in the sense of “fundamental starting points that underlie the law or a particular field of law such as the principle of equality, the principle of reasonableness and fairness, etc.

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is the right of all persons to exercise fundamental freedoms under the First Amendment, as applied to the States through the Fourteenth Amendment. In case of the conflicts of rules within a single legal system, each of the rule points in the opposite direction leading to incompatible conclusions (cf. Feteris, 2017, p. 7). As can be seen, Example (3) not only specifies what two principles are in conflict but it also signals that resolving the conflict will not be easy. The Court then moves on to provide more specific explanation for the difficulty in the next excerpt which acknowledges that there is no obvious link between a cake as the unique manifestation of the Petitioner’s creativity and the freedom of expression: (4)

The free speech aspect of this case is difficult, for few persons who have seen a beautiful wedding cake might have thought of its creation as an exercise of protected speech.

By repeatedly assessing other aspects of the case as difficult (shown in the next two examples below) the court seems to prepare the ground for restricting the scope of its adjudication. (5) (6)

One of the difficulties in this case is that the parties disagree as to the extent of the baker’s refusal to provide service. The same difficulties arise in determining whether a baker has a valid free exercise claim.

In Go´zd´z-Roszkowski (2021), it is argued that framing the case as ‘difficult’ is a strategy adopted by the Court to avoid giving a broad ruling that could attempt to reconcile the conflicting principles. Instead, the Court opted for deciding the case on narrower grounds by concluding that members of the Colorado Civil Rights Commission expressed impermissible hostility to religion. Two other examples taken from Justice Kennedy’s justification point towards the Court’s reluctance to establish a precedent that would be binding in future, sufficiently similar cases. This is signaled by the use of whatever and the modal verb might signaling a remote possibility, as well as the spatial deictic here. (7)

(8)

Given all these considerations, it is proper to hold that whatever the outcome of some future controversy involving facts similar to these, the Commission’s actions here violated the Free Exercise Clause; and its order must be set aside. Whatever the confluence of speech and free exercise principles might be in some cases, the Colorado Civil Rights Commission’s consideration of this case was inconsistent with the State’s obligation of religious neutrality.

In contrast, the Polish court merely recognizes the need to resolve the conflict between two principles by resorting to the principle of proportionality: (9)

In case of a collision of a few constitutionally-protected rights or when the legislator’s intervention carried out in order to protect one constitutional values leads to the limitation of another value belonging to the same category, this collision can be resolved by means of the principle of proportionality. [Pol. W sytuacji, gdy pojawia si˛e kolizja kilku praw chronionych konstytucyjnie

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albo gdy ingerencja ustawodawcy dokonana w celu ochrony jednej warto´sci konstytucyjnej powoduje nadmierne ograniczenie innej warto´sci nale˙za˛ cej do tej kategorii, rozstrzygni˛ecie tej kolizji umo˙zliwia zasada proporcjonalno´sci]. If we assume that the framing of the case as ‘difficult’ by the US court was strategic to justify its decision as unlikely to be applicable beyond the originating context, the Polish court did not need to emphasize that, given the limited precedential value of court decisions under the European civil law system. One point of similarity between the Polish and American justification is the emphasis on the importance of the specific context in which the dispute arose. The Polish court is aware of the limited application of its ruling to the specific and unique context of this case. Some evidence for this comes from the several instances when the Court emphasizes the originating context of the case: (10)

Regarding the context of this case, it should be stated that the defendant did not have any reason for refusing to print the poster project provided by the L. foundation. [Pol. Odnosz˛ac si˛e znów do realiów niniejszej sprawy, nale˙zy stwierdzi´c, z˙ e obwiniony nie miał uzasadnionego powodu do odmowy dokonania wydruku według dostarczonego przez fundacj˛e L. projektu roll – up’u.]

4.2 Evaluating the Institutional Treatment of the Petitioner Another evaluative site, unique to the justification of the US Supreme Court, is concerned with the negative assessment of how the Petitioner’s case was handled by the Colorado Civil Rights Commission. This is the logical consequence of the court’s decision to focus on the negative evaluation of the Colorado Civil Rights Commission’s conduct in order to reverse the judgment of the Colorado Court of Appeals. The court insisted that the Petitioner’s right to neutral and respectful consideration of his claim was violated. As observed in Go´zd´z-Roszkowski (2021), the Court’s evaluation does not only target the Colorado Civil Rights Commission’s argumentation, but it is directed more broadly at other, extra-textual objects such as the ‘treatment’ or ‘public hearing’ as evidenced in Example (11) below: (11)

The Civil Rights Commission’s treatment of his case has some elements of a clear and impermissible hostility toward the sincere religious beliefs that motivated his objection.

There are two interesting points to be made about this text excerpt. First, the key word used in the justification is hostility (in other examples, not provided here, it is hostile) which is in stark contrast to sincere. The co-occurrence of sincere and religious is well-documented by data from the Corpus of US Supreme Court Opinions17 pointing towards the existence of a fixed collocation sincere religious beliefs. 17

The corpus can be accessed freely at https://www.english-corpora.org/scotus/.

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Second, evaluation is difficult to challenge if it is not the main point of the clause (Thompson & Hunston, 2000). This occurs when evaluation is presented in a clause as ‘given’. What seems very interesting from the argumentative or rhetorical perspective is that the phrase sincerely held religious beliefs is treated as ‘given’, not ‘new’ information. In effect, the reader’s acceptance of this evaluation is assumed rather than sought. The juxtaposition of hostility and sincere could be explained by the court’s strategy to steer the discussion towards recognizing the principle of ‘neutrality’ as the desirable solution to the dispute in this case. This brings us to the next site of evaluation, i.e., the evaluation of religious beliefs, which has been identified in both justifications.

4.3 Evaluating Religious Beliefs A discursive strategy which projects evaluation as ‘given’ information can be found in other references the US court’s justification makes regarding the Petitioner’s faith: (12)

The reason and motive for the baker’s refusal were based on his sincere religious beliefs and convictions.

The reader is not positioned to decide whether or not he or she agrees with these evaluations. The reader’s acceptance is assumed and the subsequent argument is built upon it. The judge never questions the sincerity of the Petitioner’s faith. The repeated references (as attested by the corpus evidence shown in Fig. 1) to Jack Philips’

Fig. 1 The most frequent collocates of sincere in the Corpus of Supreme Court Opinions

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‘sincerely held’ religious belief in the Court’s justification could reflect the tendency for the US Supreme Court to focus in religious freedom cases on whether a particular person does actually have a sincerely held religious belief, rather than on what the religion teaches. Regarding the baker’s case, the neutral-to-positive evaluation of his faith is used to contrast it with the negative assessment of the Colorado Civil Rights Commission’s attitude towards the Petitioner’s faith as evidenced in the following example: (13)

To describe a man’s faith as “one of the most despicable pieces of rhetoric that people can use” is to disparage his religion in at least two distinct ways: by describing it as despicable, and also by characterizing it as merely rhetorical— something insubstantial and even insincere.

The assessment here is both attributed (citing verbatim one of the commissioner’s opinion) and averred by Justice Kennedy to add force to the court’s argument that there is sufficient evidence of the Commission’s hostility to religion. In the Polish Supreme Court’s justification, the nature of the Petitioner’s religious beliefs plays an equally important, if not even more central role. First of all, the Supreme Court affirmed the position adopted by the Appellate Court that an individual outlook on life or a subjective understanding of one’s religion cannot form a justified reason for refusing to provide service. The Court demonstrates the subjective and possibly distorted (even though this is rather implied than explicitly stated) nature of the printer’s professed Roman Catholicism by referring to the Catechism of the Catholic Church (Section 2358) which the Courts quotes: “They [gay people] must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided”. The reference to the Roman Catholic official doctrine on faith and morals is used as evidence to rebut the Petitioner’s argument that his refusal was motivated by his religious convictions, specifically the Roman Catholic religion, which, as he maintained, influenced his values and outlook and ultimately led to the conflict of conscience protected under art. 53 sec. 1 of Poland’s Constitution. The Court argues that it was the Petitioner’s subjective and negative perception of the LGBT movement that had led to his decision to turn away the client. The Court insists that, while religious convictions may constitute legitimate grounds for refusal to provide a service, so long as they are in stark contradiction with the nature and features of such service,18 the refusal to provide a service cannot be justified on the basis of a client’s personal attributes such as religion, ideology, sexual preference, etc. As can be seen, there is a clear link between the evaluation of the Petitioners’ religious beliefs and the nature of their work, which will be explored in the next section.

18

The Court argued that the concept of reasonable reason could be invoked in the case of the print shop employee if, as a Catholic, he was asked to print an ad promoting matters clearly in conflict with his faith.

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4.4 Evaluating the Nature of Service In both cases, the courts found the description of the Petitioners’ work central to the adopted line of argumentation. As can be recalled in Example (4), one of the difficulties signaled in the justification drafted by Justice Kennedy is treating the Petitioner’s work in terms of an exercise of protected speech. The judge seemed aware of the potential definitional problems and the need to broaden the scope of what freedom of speech could refer to, when he noted: “the application of constitutional freedoms in new contexts can deepen our understanding of their meaning”. And yet, the Court refrained from holding that wedding cakes are speech or expression entitled to First Amendment protection. Example (14) shows how divisive the question of the Petitioner’s work was during the earlier stages of the case: (14)

Phillips raised two constitutional claims before the ALJ. He first asserted that applying CADA in a way that would require him to create a cake for a same-sex wedding would violate his First Amendment right to free speech by compelling him to exercise his artistic talents to express a message with which he disagreed. The ALJ rejected the contention that preparing a wedding cake is a form of protected speech and did not agree that creating Craig and Mullins’ cake would force Phillips to adhere to “an ideological point of view.” Id., at

In the words of the Petitioner, his work should be afforded the status of artistic, unique and creative enterprise. This should make it worthy of protection as free speech. In contrast, the assessment offered by the ALJ is devoid of any evaluative connotation as it refers to simply ‘preparing a wedding cake’. The Court sided with the Petitioner when it eventually asserted: “[i]f a baker refused to design a special cake with words or images celebrating the marriage—for instance, a cake showing words with religious meaning—that might be different from a refusal to sell any cake at all.” This argument from description was adopted in the justification drafted by the Polish Court, which echoes the reasoning of its US counterpart: (15)

It is possible to imagine a situation when a service provider, who makes paintings or sculptures, and who openly belongs to a specific religious community living in accordance with its standards and having a direct impact on its artistic output, may refuse to perform service. His religious convictions and his dignity as an artist in a specific case are a higher value than the other values that might be violated, e.g., non-discrimination. [Pol. Nie jest zatem wykluczona sytuacja, w której osoba zobowi˛azana do s´wiadczenia usługi wykonuj˛aca prace artystyczne, np. malarz czy rze´zbiarz, manifestuj˛aca swoj˛a przynale˙zno´sc´ do okre´slonej wspólnoty religijnej i z˙ yj˛aca według jej kanonów, maj˛ac bezpo´sredni wpływ na ostateczny kształt usługi poprzez zaanga˙zowanie swojej wra˙zliwo´sci oraz norm moralnych czy obyczajowych, które respektuje, mo˙ze odmówi´c wykonania tej pracy, gdy jej przekonania

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religijne i godno´sc´ twórcy w konkretnym przypadku s˛a warto´sci˛a wy˙zsz˛a od innych, które zostałyby naruszone, np. od zakazu dyskryminacji. Example (15) shows that the Court admits of alternative solutions to the conflict of values and ties the decision to the specific context of the case. The Court then proceeds to draw a direct analogy with the US case: (16)

A similar line of argumentation was adopted in the justification of the US Supreme Court decision of June 4th 2018, case no. 16–111 in Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd., et al. v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission et al. concerning a baker from Colorado who was regarded by the Court as a creator manifesting Christian beliefs in his work. [Pol. Podobna argumentacja była jedn˛a z przyczyn rozstrzygni˛ecia w wyroku S˛adu Najwy˙zszego Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki z dnia 4 czerwca 2018 r. Nr 16–111 w sprawie Masterpiece Cakeshop, LTD., ET AL. v. Komisja Praw Obywatelskich Colorado ET AL. dotycz˛acego cukiernika z Kolorado, który to S˛ad uznał go za twórc˛e manifestuj˛acego w swojej pracy pogl˛ady chrze´scija´nskie.]

In light of this argument, the Polish Court assesses the Petitioner’s work as mechanical arguing that the print shop employee did not need to use his creativity to complete the job. Accordingly, the work was not deemed creative and worthy of protection: (17)

Regarding the context of this case, it should be stated that the Petitioner did not have a valid (justified) reason for refusing to the printout commissioned by the client. His [the printer’s] work was imitative and it involved carrying out technical activities. [Pol. Odnosz˛ac si˛e znów do realiów niniejszej sprawy, nale˙zy stwierdzi´c, z˙ e obwiniony nie miał uzasadnionego powodu do odmowy dokonania wydruku według dostarczonego przez fundacj˛e L. projektu rollup’u. Jego działanie było odtwórcze i wi˛azało si˛e z wykonywaniem czynno´sci technicznych.]

5 Discussion and Conclusions This chapter set out to characterize judicial professional practice in light of decisions that judges have to make, and more importantly, in terms of justification they have to provide at the end of their decision-making process. Given the enormous consequences of judicial decisions in people’s lives, it seems only natural to look at justification as the pinnacle of a judge’s professional work, no less important than the decision itself. This seems particularly true in hard cases, “with two sides to the conflict that the judge has to resolve, with legitimate reasons for either side to win” (Solan, 1993, p. 1). Such are exactly the two cases selected for the exploration in this contribution. They both concern competing rights and principles, which may appear irreconcilable. My point of departure was observation that argumentation in both of these cases hinges upon evaluative language. Evaluative items are not used to embellish the

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argumentation but they are used to construct the argument. The results of scrutinizing their role are presented by means of ‘sites of evaluation’, i.e., focal points in the texts of the justifications. Four such key sites have been identified. Two (evaluating the solution to conflict principles and evaluating the institutional treatment of the Petitioner) were selected to account for two radically different outcomes, despite the apparent similarity of the legal question involved in the two cases. In the case of Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd., et al. v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission et al., the Supreme Court frames the dispute as ‘difficult’, an assessment which paved the way for limiting the applicability of the holding and shunning an unequivocal answer to the question whether a business’s freedom to choose its customers is more important than preventing discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation. In contrast, we do not find any reflection on the difficulty of the case in the Polish justification. The judicial voice is decisive affirming the decisions of the lower courts and brushing aside any arguments to the contrary. Solan (1993, p. 2) comments that “rarely do judges, in their written opinions, discuss the degree of difficulty of the decision”. This is what makes the American justification truly unique and demonstrates how evaluative language can be used strategically. The US Supreme Court Court’s evaluation of the Commission’s conduct as hostile underpins much of its argumentation. The Court provides evidence as demonstrating impermissible hostility to religion by the Colorado Civil Rights Commission. This is another site of evaluation that sets this justification apart from its Polish counterpart. The Polish cassation procedure imposes strict rules constraining the argumentative space of the Supreme Court, which must focus on whether and how the Court of Appeal responded to the complaints and arguments advanced by the plaintiff. The other two sites of evaluation are shared by both justifications in terms of the same evaluated objects (religious beliefs and work performed by the Petitioners) and they seem to signal considerable common ground for cases revolving around the responsibility for refusing to provide certain business services on the grounds of freedom of conscience, religion and speech. The occurrence of such shared sites of evaluation suggests that evaluative language should be regarded as contributing to the generic integrity of justifications, or more broadly, judicial decisions. It emerges that despite complex variations, judges, as expert writers, do manage to exploit such generic resources to respond to familiar and often not so familiar professional contexts. Acknowledgements Research reported in this paper was supported by National Science Centre Poland under award number UMO-2018/31/B/HS2/03093.

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Hunston, S. (2010). Corpus approaches to evaluation. Routledge. Kloosterhuis, H. (2013). The rule of law and the ideal of a critical discussion. In C. Dahlman & E. T. Feteris (Eds.), Legal argumentation: Cross-disciplinary perspectives (pp. 71–84). Springer. Ko´zbiał, D. (2020). The language of the EU and polish judges. Peter Lang. Lee, D., Hall, C., & Hurley, M. (1999). American legal English. Using language in legal contexts. The University of Michigan Press. Mazzi, D. (2010). This argument fails for two reasons… A linguistic analysis of judicial evaluation strategies in US Supreme Court judgements. International Journal for the Semiotics of Law, 23(4), 373–385. Peczenik, A. (1989). On law and reason. Reidel. Perelman, C., & Olbrechts-Tyteca, L. (1973). The new rhetoric. The University of Notre Dame Press. Pontrandolfo, G., & Go´zd´z-Roszkowski, S. (2014). Exploring the local grammar of evaluation: The case of adjectival patterns in American and Italian judicial discourse. Research in Language, 12(1), 71–92. Scollon, R. (1998). Mediated discourse as social interaction—A study of news discourse. Longman. Segal, J., & Spaeth, H. (2002). The Supreme Court and the attitudinal model revisited. Cambridge University Press. Solan, L. (1993). The language of judges. The University of Chicago Press. Szczyrbak, M. (2016). Say and stancetaking in courtroom talk: A corpus-assisted study. Corpora, 11(2), 143–168. Thompson, G., & Hunston, S. (2000). Evaluation. An introduction. In S. Hunston & G. Thompson (Eds.), Evaluation in text. Authorial stance and the construction of discourse (pp. 1–27). Oxford University Press. Van Eemeren, F. H., & Grootendorst, R. (2004). A systematic theory of argumentation. Cambridge University Press.

Stanisław Go´zd´z-Roszkowski is Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Specialised Languages and Intercultural Communication, University of Lodz (Poland), where he has been teaching various seminars in specialised communication and legal discourse analysis. His research focuses on functional and corpus-based approaches to the study of judicial discourse in US and Polish courts. He has published widely in the area of variation in legal language, legal phraseology and communicating evaluative meanings in judicial opinions. He is now involved in researching legal argumentation in the justification of judicial decisions.

Cross-Linguistic and Cross-Cultural Conceptualization of Specialized Terms in Corporate Culture Viviana Gaballo

Abstract This study is at the crossroads of cognitive linguistics, lexicography and terminology, and explores the cross-linguistic and cross-cultural boundaries of their approaches to perception and categorization in order to expose any cultural constraints superimposed on the creativity of specialized translators. Objects of analysis in this study are conceptualization and designation as emerging from specialized text types that are not typically associated with creativity or culture specificity, texts that are more descriptive or prescriptive rather than expressive or persuasive. By investigating specialized terms that only apparently seem to be unrelated to the relevant source culture (SC) or target culture (TC), the study proves that not only are they actually culture-specific items themselves, but also that they refer to archetypal categories (e.g., form, size, color, etc.) that defy conceptual universals. Starting from the concepts themselves, as represented in pictures, graphs, charts, or similar visual aids, the association between signifier and signified is reconstructed in multiple languages, giving priority to none of them, so as to expose the cultural differences of each in denoting (and connoting) the referent, and the difficulties the translator would meet in providing acceptable solutions for the target culture. Based on the outcome of this study, the cross-cultural constraints acting upon and limiting the creative performance of specialized translators appear to be unsurmountable within the same specific domain if the SL/SC terms have already been lexicalized in the Target Language (TL)/Target Culture (TC), but less so when the translation crosses domains to achieve other goals, in which case the translator is left free to even transcreate. Keywords Cognition · Conceptualization · Construal · Terminology · Lexicography · Metaphors · Lexicalization · Semantics · Specialized translation · Creativity · Culture · Transcreation

V. Gaballo (B) University of Macerata, Macerata, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_2

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1 Introduction This study draws from the theoretical underpinning of cognitive science, and cognitive linguistics in particular (Geeraerts & Cuyckens, 2008; Goldberg, 2003; Nuyts, 2007; Rojo & Ibarretxe-Antuñano, 2013; Rosch, 1975; Sharifian, 2011; Ungerer & Schmid, 2006; Van der Auwera & Nuyts, 2007; Wierzbicka, 1996, 1997), and the methods of lexicology and terminology, in an interdisciplinary study of conceptualization and designation of culture-bound, domain-specific terms. The objective of the study is to investigate whether and to what extent culture affects the conceptualization and designation of terms derived from specialized text types, i.e., from texts that are not typically associated with culture specificity, texts that are more descriptive or prescriptive than expressive or persuasive. Literature about the latter (e.g., advertising, marketing or tourist texts) and their rhetorical devices abounds (Cook, 1992; Dann, 1996; Goddard, 1998; Leech, 1966; McQuarrie & Phillips, 2008; Myers, 1994), and so does literature on the translation of culture-bound terms in such text types (Agorni, 2012; Hatim, 2004; Katan, 2008; Katan & Taibi, 2021; Kelly, 1998; Newmark, 1988). Conversely, when it comes to descriptive or prescriptive texts (e.g., technical documentation, operating manuals, instruction booklets or product sheets), not much academic literature has been produced as to their general features (Byrne, 2006; Scarpa, 2008; Wright, 1993), and few scholars have put some effort into writing about the challenge of translating culture-bound terms in specialized text types (Harvey, 2000; Olohan, 2016). In line with the methods of lexicology/(meta)lexicography and terminology, the concepts observed are examined in terms of their processes and representations, within the analytical framework of cognitive linguistics and translation studies. The investigation starts with the concept (the referent) to be analyzed, and re-constructs both the meaning (the signified)—usually shared among the languages and cultures under investigation (i.e., Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Russian, and Spanish) and the designation of the concept (the signifier in Saussurrean terms) (de Saussure, 1916). The results of this analysis provide a useful description of the most relevant cross-linguistic and cross-cultural modifications that the concept undergoes as it is affected by the different Weltanschauung of the culture and language involved, and how they relate to corporate culture/s. The findings of the study demonstrate to what extent this imposes limitations and constraints upon the development of translators’ creativity in the relevant specialized language, which in turn has implications for the development of trainee-translators’ competence and relevant translation teaching materials.

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2 Theoretical Background The most relevant theories underpinning this study are briefly described below in selected details which serve the purpose of supporting the analysis of the case study that follows.

2.1 Visual Perception and Culture Perception is an active process in which different levels of analysis interact to determine what we perceive and understand (Medin et al., 2005, p. 71). The visual system forms internal representations of the visual world, and extracts useful information that allows people to interact with their three-dimensional environment (Medin et al., 2005, p. 72). According to Marr (1982), low-level vision involves extracting preliminary information such as edges, motion and depth, while high-level vision is concerned with the perception of large-scale elements of the world like whole objects or faces. Gibson (1950) remarked that, since the perceptual systems are designed to serve a person’s goals, the visual system will seek out information to help individuals achieve their own goals. However, the sensitivity to goals may help constrain the way information about the visual world is interpreted (Medin et al., 2005, p. 72). This remark is fundamental in the discussion of the case study that follows. So, how do we identify objects in the world based on visual properties like their shape? According to feature detection theories, recognizing an object involves decomposing a complex stimulus into its features (i.e., separate, distinct parts of the object) and then matching the features against the features in the representations of objects in the long-term memory (Medin et al., 2005, p. 85). The popularity of feature-based models also lies in their productivity, i.e., the fact that features provide a vocabulary for constructing objects, just like the letters of the alphabet can be used to compose hundreds of thousands of words. However, featural models can address only part of the problem of object recognition as they do not take spatial relationships into account, while structural description theories include both features describing parts of objects and spatial relations describing how the parts connect (Palmer, 1977). A third theory of object recognition (template matching) assumes that the representations of images are actually two-dimensional arrays of picture elements, and template matching consists in finding corresponding elements between the current visual image and the template, and determining how well they match up (Medin et al., 2005, p. 91). A fundamental question concerns the influence of culture on visual perception. A number of culturally oriented psychologists have recently investigated how cultural practices might influence relatively low-level perception and attention, and hypothesized that “in Western cultures people tend to focus attention toward a distinct object

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and its attributes in lieu of the broader context in which the object is embedded. In contrast, in East Asian cultures people tend to attend more holistically to both an object and its context” (Ishii et al., 2009, p. 104). The cultural differences observed in object recognition substantiate the assumption that in East Asian cultures people are socialized in such a way that they can “see the forest”, while in Western cultures people are accustomed to “scrutinizing the trees” (Ishii et al., 2009, p. 108). Of course, these (hyper)generalizations are directly proportional to the cohesiveness of the group, i.e., the more cohesive the group, the more coherently distributed the visual perception.

2.2 Conceptualization and Construal How we conceptualize the same scene in different ways is fundamental to the individual’s cognition and is reflected in the lexis (and grammar) of the language used. Langacker (1987) called the different ways of conceptualizing a scene construal, and observed that languages systematically provide means for different kinds of construal. One type of construal involves frames of knowledge with respect to which the conceived situation is characterized. Another type focuses on the compositionality of the conceptualization, e.g., by combining several elements into a whole in some particular way. Several are the types and configurations of construal that have been identified by scholars (Bowerman, 1996; Croft & Cruse, 2004; Croft & Wood, 2000; Langacker, 1987, 1990, 2019; Levinson, 2003; Pederson, 2007; Slobin, 1996; Talmy, 2000a, 2000b), also in a crosslinguistic perspective (Jarvis, 2011); however, organizing them in an all-encompassing classification system seems to be a daunting task (Verhagen, 2007). Construal operations are the natural conclusion of a conceptual, enactive approach to meaning rather than a perceptual, passive approach to meaning—“they show the observer not as simply representing their world but as shaping an image of it, locating themselves in different vantage points and taking different perspectives” (Holme, 2009, p. 112).

2.3 Cultural Cognition and Conceptualization Conceptualizations refer to fundamental cognitive processes such as schematization, involving the systematic selection of certain aspects of the referent over others (Talmy, 2000a, 2000b) and categorization, involving the association of distinct entities by similarity (Rosch, 1978). At the cultural level of cognition, they are generally distributed across the members of a cultural group as a result of their interaction, and are referred to as cultural conceptualizations, conceptualizations that embody group-level cognitive systems

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such as worldviews. In fact, different cultural groups may produce unique instantiations of their own cultural conceptualizations, which can be reflected in such cultural artefacts as painting and language, and are constantly (re)negotiated across generations (Sharifian, 2011). Language embodies cultural schemas and categories that characterize the cultural cognition of a particular speech community, and acts as a carrier and repository for their cultural conceptualizations. Therefore, “the cultural grounding of language can facilitate communication between those who share certain cultural conceptualisations while it can complicate or even impede fluid communication between those who do not.” (Sharifian, 2011, p. 92), which translates into even greater complexity when dealing with cultural conceptualizations at a cross-linguistic, cross-cultural level. It is worth noting that cross-cultural differences in conceptualizations do not always lead to differences in language use, as well as cross-cultural similarities in language use do not always stem from similar conceptualizations shared by different cultures. According to Wierzbicka’s Natural Semantic Metalanguage (1996), all languages share about 60 semantic primitives, i.e., elementary units of meaning that are building blocks of complex and culturally specific meanings. Wierzbicka’s approach thus offers a way to explore the cultural underpinning of speech acts (‘cultural scripts’) in terms of a set of fundamental meanings (‘semantic primes’), which are assumed to be universal. These primitives include activities such as see, move, and get; qualities such as color, intensity, shape, and size; and relations such as is, part, in, before, cause, and intend. Wierzbicka postulated that the meaning of a word does not depend on the meaning of other words in the lexicon, but rather is to be seen as a configuration of semantic primitives, and added: […] although the meaning of a word does not depend on the meanings of other words, to establish what the meaning of a word is one has to compare it with the meanings of other, intuitively related words. By comparing a word to other words that intuitively are felt to be related to it, we can establish what each of these words really means; having done this, we can compare them again, this time more precisely, being able to identify the elements that are different. Proceeding in this way, we can often discover remarkable symmetries and regularities in the semantic structure of many words—as well as unexpected asymmetries and irregularities. We can discover self-contained fields of semantically related words with analogous semantic patterning. We can also discover irregular and open-ended networks of interlacing networks (Wierzbicka, 1996, pp. 170).

Both ‘relativists’ and ‘universalists’ find some appeal in this approach, due to the consistency and stability of its notation over three decades. Chaffin (1992, p. 259) also agrees upon the idea of primitives (“relations, like other concepts, are composed of more primitive constituents”), and Lehrer, Kittay and Lehrer (1992, p. 14) support the concept of an organized lexicon providing “a way of looking at the possibility of lexical universals by grouping together conceptually related words that may not have an exact translation (or at least an exact lexicalized counterpart) in another language”, and suggest cross-linguistic comparisons within a common conceptual space, where “word-for-word translations may not be available”. The outcome of such comparisons may shed light on transcultural primitives (Wierzbicka, 1992).

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2.4 Lexicology/Lexicography, Terminology/Terminography and Linguistic Typology The ongoing debate on the increasingly blurred boundaries between lexicography, lexicology, terminology, and terminography (Bergenholz, 1995; Cabré & Sager, 1999) is only of some relevance to this study insofar as it concerns domain-specific lexical items. For instance, Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (2008, p. 305) sees “no real ground to postulate a mutually exclusive division between lexicology and terminology, even though reasons to identify terminology as a special subdomain of lexicology are methodologically and functionally valid. From the point of view of their lexical status however – the category of terms is as fuzzy and as dynamic as classes of natural types and artefacts.” On a more conventional note, Riggs (1989, p. 89) considers lexicology/lexicography and terminology/terminography as complementary fields at both structural and functional level. While the former adopts a semasiological model (from word to meaning), the latter basically follows the opposite direction, adopting an onomasiological model (from concept to term). To make the situation even more complex, another sub-field of linguistics comes to the foreground: linguistic typology. Typologists describe differences and similarities in languages, with reference to one or more parameters. Van der Auwera and Nuyts’s definition of linguistic typology is particularly interesting for the current research; they see it as “a cross-linguistic, descriptive as well as explanatory enterprise devoted to the unity and diversity of language with respect to linguistic form or the relation between linguistic form and meaning or function” (2007, p. 1074). This study takes a lexicological/terminological approach in that it starts with the concept and the related terms in various languages/cultures (onomasiological process), and then turns to a metalexicographical/lexicological approach (semasiological process) in order to reconstruct the meaning of the words identified. Finally, from the typological perspective, it provides “a cross-linguistic (a) description (b) and explanation (c) of the unity and diversity of languages (d) with respect to linguistic form (e) or the relation between linguistic form and meaning/function (f)” (Van der Auwera & Nuyts, 2007, p. 1075).

3 A Case Study In his “Word Grammar” (1984), Richard Hudson defines language as a conceptual network of (a) forms, (b) meanings, and (c) lexemes. His theory of language views concepts as prototypes rather than classical categories defined by necessary and sufficient conditions. All the links in the network have equal status, and the network itself has no clear boundaries between areas of knowledge. There is also no clear boundary between ‘internal’ and ‘external’ facts about words, which means that grammar also incorporates sociolinguistic facts.

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Fig. 1 Common buckets used in industry (the focus is on the second type) (Source Own sketches)

We will elaborate on this idea of language starting from the conceptualization of a referent, as represented in a picture, graph, chart, or similar visual aid, and reconstructing the association between signifier and signified in multiple languages, giving priority to none of them (which means treating each as a source language), so as to expose the cultural differences of each in denoting (and connoting) the referent, and the difficulties translators would meet in providing acceptable solutions for the target culture. It is generally assumed that culture gives specific meaning to words and concepts. By using the following example, we have the chance to prove that not only does it provide the meaning but it also determines the form. To what extent it does so (and so differently across several languages) will be apparent in this example. The objects in Fig. 1 will allow us to show how culture-specific items in specialized languages—the language of engineering in this case—are perceived (differently) across cultures. The mechanical devices in Fig. 1 represent the most common buckets used in industry (namely, a clamshell grab, on the left, and an orange peel grab, on the right). These devices are generally attached to a crane or excavator and used to lift objects (metal scraps, stones, wood chips, etc.). The terms in Fig. 2, which designate the device on the right in Fig. 1, focus on its shape—the device has six or eight segments (of ‘peel’) independently hinged around a central core. These terms are indicative of how a language impacts the speakers’ worldview. Of the six languages represented in Fig. 2, three (Chinese, German and French) opt for a propositional meaning, while the remaining three (English, Spanish and Italian) prefer to use a term which expresses its evocative meaning (Cruse, 2000).

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Fig. 2 Terms designating the device on the right in Fig. 1 in multiple languages, drawn from the captions under the pictures of ‘orange peel grabs’ available on the web search pages in the relevant languages

3.1 The Case with English From a cursory look at the terms in Fig. 2, one thing stands out: the English designation is the only one using the ‘orange peel’ (see Fig. 3) metaphor, which is quite stunning as English (both British English and American English) has historically Fig. 3 Orange peel

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influenced the language of technology globally, with some notable nationalistic exceptions, including French (e.g., compare ‘computer’ and ‘ordinateur’). Both the propositional meaning and the evocative meaning have sifted through the domain-specific vocabulary of several languages (e.g., the ‘butterfly’ metaphor in ‘butterfly valve’ is regularly reproduced in quite a number of languages, including French: ‘papillon (mécanique)’, Italian: ‘valvola a farfalla’, Portuguese: ‘válvula borboleta’, Spanish: ‘válvula de mariposa’, and even Chinese: ‘蝶阀 (diéfá)’ and (samam farashatan)’, but not German and Russian, which prioriArabic: ‘ tize the propositional meaning: the German ‘Absperrklappe’ focuses on the function of the device, while the Russian ‘dickovy zatvop (diskovyy zatvor)’ basically describes its components. It is therefore peculiar that the ‘orange peel’ metaphor in ‘orange peel grab’ has not made it through ANY of the other languages considered. What makes the ‘orange peel’ metaphor so unacceptable (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)? Although we might think of it as a cultureme, i.e., a formalized, socially embedded phenomenon that exists in a particular form or function in only one of the two (or multiple) cultures being compared (Katan, 2009), it is difficult to find any real reason why other cultures should not accept the analogy; after all, there are not many ways in which an orange can be peeled other than in segments (e.g., in spirals, in quarters, in strips). Yet, variants could be a clue. The fundamental difference between a word (Language for General Purposes/Lexicology) and a term (Language for Specific Purposes/Terminology) lies in the specificity of the latter, which in most cases removes any ambiguity that the word might have had in the general language or provides it with a new meaning. An example is the word ‘consideration’ in everyday English, meaning ‘thoughtfulness, concern, respect, kindness’ (Collins Cobuild dictionary online), and the term ‘consideration’ in legal English, meaning ‘the cause, motive, price or impelling influence which induces a contracting party to enter into a contract’ (West’s Law and Commercial Dictionary, 1988). Consequently, if a metaphor in one LSP culture does not evoke a specific image—and that only—in another LSP culture, it is very unlikely that the metaphor will be selected to produce the term in that culture. As far as the ‘orange peel’ metaphor is concerned, the reason for the lack of assimilation of the metaphor in other languages/cultures may lie in (a) the lack of a corresponding, unambiguous cultureme that may match the image of the concept to be expressed; (b) the polysemous quality of the expression ‘orange peel’, which means: (1) the thick pitted rind of an orange; and (2) anything resembling this in surface texture, such as skin or porcelain (Collins Cobuild Dictionary online). As a matter of fact, even if ‘orange peel’ were not polysemous and could be defined in terms of (1) only, it would still lack a feature necessary to depict the orange peel grab function: motion. When we think of this grab, we imagine it in all its power as it is grasping some bulky materials with its jaws, like a mighty sea creature, which is not the way we conceive of it when associating ‘grab’ to ‘orange peel’. The effectiveness of the metaphor to depict the concept is therefore paramount in designating, denoting and connoting a culture-bound, domain-specific term.

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Katan (2009) noted that no word is entirely denotative and that even words that only apparently seem to be domain-specific can have embedded cultural references. In order to discover if this applies to languages and cultures other than English, and to what extent this occurs in the particular case at issue, a lexicological/terminological/typological analysis was conducted on each of the languages mentioned in Fig. 2, and is reported in the next paragraphs. Some additional languages (Dutch/Flemish and Russian) will be used, too. To this purpose, it is worth mentioning that the terms in Fig. 2 were drawn from the captions under the pictures of ‘orange peel grabs’ available on the web search pages in the relevant languages. They therefore represent the shared designations agreed upon by the relevant cultures. Remarkable differences were noted between those terms and the terms available in either specialized dictionaries or term bases such as IATE.

3.2 The Case with Chinese A quick search among images of Chinese grabs and buckets reveals that the term 抓 斗 (zhu¯a dòu) is used to denote both types of grabs, which suggests that it should be considered a superordinate. It is worth noting that the Chinese term 抓斗 (zhu¯a dòu) is made up by a character with a propositional meaning—抓 (zhu¯a), meaning ‘to grab’—and a character with an evocative meaning—斗 [dòu], recalling the shape of a ‘shovel’—which altogether would better fit the image of a clamshell grab (the picture on the left in Fig. 1) rather than that of an orange peel grab. Compared to the latter, the former consists of two sides that open and close like the shell of a clam. It is technically two buckets held together with a hinge, and is typically used to pick up small items. The entry for 抓 斗 (zhu¯a dòu) ‘grab’ from a monolingual Chinese Mandarin Dictionary1 provides a description of the device that actually fits both types of grabs as it does not specify the composition of the jaws. 抓 斗 [zhu¯a dˇou], grab [詞語, cíyˇu, words]: 抓斗 [zhu¯a dˇou], grab [拼音, pinyin, pinyin]: zhu¯a dˇou [解釋, jiˇeshì, explanation]: 自動抓取和卸出散料的一種吊具。由專用絞車驅 動的兩根鋼絲繩和顎板組成。一根鋼絲繩控制抓斗的升降, 另一根控制顎板的 開合。廣泛用于機械化作業。[A spreader that automatically grabs and unloads bulk materials. It is composed of two steel wire ropes driven by a special winch and a jaw plate. One wire rope controls the lifting of the grab, and the other controls the opening and closing of the jaws. Widely used in mechanized operations.] After searching Chinese web sites for a more detailed description of 抓 斗 (zhu¯a dòu) ‘grab’, a micro-corpus was compiled out of the first 10 pages of hits returned by the search engine (100 industrial websites), and it was found out that:

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https://word.aies.cn/ci/9433.htm.

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1. 2. 3.

4.

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抓 斗 (zhu¯a dòu) ‘grab’ is the institutionalized designation of the generic idea of ‘grab’. 抓 斗 (zhu¯a dòu) ‘grab’ does not collocate very often with pre-modifiers (adjectives or nouns in adjectival position). Most pre-modifiers relate to the grab operating mode: e.g., 机械抓斗 (j¯ıxiè zhu¯a dòu) ‘mechanical grab’, 液压抓斗 (yèy¯a zhu¯a dòu) ‘hydraulic grab’, 电动液 压多瓣抓斗 (diàndòng yèy¯a du¯o bàn zhu¯a dòu) ‘electro-hydraulic multi-jaw grab’. The last example in (3) contains the closest equivalent to the term ‘orange-peel grab’, namely 多瓣抓斗 (du¯o bàn zhu¯a dòu) ‘multi-jaw grab’.

Confirmation of this came also in the form of a more detailed description of the grab, which reads: 抓斗, 是指起重機抓取干散貨物的專用工具。由兩塊或多塊 可啟閉的斗狀顎板合在一起組成容物空間 (zhu¯a dòu, shì zhˇı qˇızhòngj¯ı zhu¯a qˇu gàn sàn huòwù de zhu¯anyòng g¯ongjù. Yóu liˇang kuài huò du¯o kuài kˇe qˇı bì de dòu zhuàng è bˇan hé zài y¯ıqˇı zˇuchéng róng wù k¯ongji¯an) ‘A grab is a special tool for cranes to grab dry bulk cargo. Two or more openable and closable bucket-shaped jaws are combined to form a container space.’ [bold type added].2 The linguistic material collected was enough to confirm the findings as long as Standard Mandarin (Simplified characters) was concerned: an orange-peel grab is generally addressed with the hypernym 抓斗 (zhu¯a dòu) ‘grab’ and, if need be, with the more specific 多瓣抓斗 (du¯o bàn zhu¯a dòu) ‘multi-jaw grab’. This English version of the Chinese term should not mislead the reader into thinking that the Chinese term has opened up to a different kind of metaphor than the orange peel, i.e., an animal metaphor (because of the jaws). As a matter of fact, 多 瓣 (du¯o bàn) actually means ‘multi-part’, which does not collocate with grab, while ‘multi-jaw’ does, even though not very often and only in British English. However, the findings are confirmed: Standard Mandarin does not require or accept any metaphorical designation of the referent, along with German and Russian (see below). Findings differ completely in the case of other Mandarin dialects that use traditional characters, such as Taiwanese Mandarin, a variant of the Standard Mandarin. In Taiwan, the standard dialect is called 國語 (Guóyˇu, Kuo-yü), while the Standard Mandarin widely used in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) is called 普通话 (Pˇut¯onghuà). Taiwanese Mandarin makes use of the traditional Chinese characters as opposed to the simplified Chinese characters used in the PRC. The pronunciation, the grammar and some vocabulary may differ. Some technological words or idioms are only specific to Taiwan and are not used in Mainland China. The so strongly resisted metaphor of the orange peel seems to appear profusely in Taiwanese Mandarin. The term 橘皮型抓鬥 (jú pí xíng zhu¯a dòu) [lit. ‘orange peel type grab’] contains the immediate equivalent of ‘orange peel’ followed by the character meaning ‘type, model’, and the Taiwanese traditional version of the character 鬥 (dòu) which is pronounced in the same way as the mainland simplified version: 斗 (dòu). The Taiwanese term, however, raises a couple of cultural issues. 2

The very same description appears in thirty-two Chinese websites.

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Palmies (2017, p. 103) observed that culturemes are not necessarily ethno-specific: “In spite of their dependence on local culture, nothing prevents culturemes from being shared by several languages, since the limits of linguistic communities do not necessarily match the cultural ones”; however, once culturemes are acquired by a different language community, they should remain and be recognized as cultural symbols. If the metaphorical relations are not recognized, there is no shared knowledge, thus there is no cultureme. In the case of the Chinese term 橘皮 (jú pí ) ‘orange peel’, there is no metaphorical (in)tension in that it only provides its propositional meaning, i.e., “1) the thick pitted rind of an orange”, and “2) anything resembling this in surface texture, such as skin or porcelain” (Collins English Dictionary, 2014). The more so, as it collocates with other nouns to form compounds such as ‘cellulite’: 橘皮组织 or 橘皮組織 (both júpízˇuzh¯ı). Again, the problem lies in the stativity of the image produced: a still picture of the skin of an orange. What if a more dynamic term is used, e.g., 剥皮 (b¯aopí ) ‘peeling’, which means ‘to skin, to peel, to escoriate’? Would the metaphorical level be at least partially restored? If it is culturally accepted and shared that an orange is peeled like the one shown in Fig. 3, that is possible; however, we should consider why, if that is true, the choice has not been made before. Apparently, as the recipe for preparing Chenpi shows (https://www.douguo.com/cookbook/1635010.html), the procedure seems to follow the same pattern, even if the skin is removed from the fruit in quarters instead of multiple sections. The result is perfectly comparable to Fig. 3 and can establish a metaphorical relationship with the orange peel grab; however, the potential of the metaphor has remained unexplored. As a matter of fact, this seems to be a case of partial borrowing: what has been borrowed is the signifier only, while the signified has been zeroed, or at least made unproductive, as it does not generate any relevant image in spite of the figurative language used or, if it does, it is not functional. One last question that concerns Chinese should now be asked: If the orange peel metaphor has been made inoperable, is there any chance that the second metaphor found in two other languages (Italian and Spanish) in Fig. 2, i.e., the ‘octopus’ metaphor, may be successfully transferred to Chinese? The octopus has a long history in the Chinese collective imagery. To start with the latest realization, we should note that the largest airport in the world, the new Beijing Daxing airport (Big Star airport), viewed from the air, looks like a giant octopus, although, in the eyes of its architects, the airport has nothing to do with an octopus or a starfish, but it should rather recall a phoenix, rising from the ashes. However, the image of the octopus does not enjoy the best reputation in the West, and this reflects on the East in many ways. For instance, the yellow octopus is one of the most iconic and recurring images of yellow perilism (anti-Asian racism) in the West (http://www.mul ticulturalaustralia.edu.au/library/media/Image/id/623). Even though this particular meaning of the octopus has varied across time and space, the image of the yellow octopus has resurfaced in connection with periods of anti-Asian racism. Therefore, the ‘octopus’ metaphor used in Italian and Spanish to designate the orange peel grab might not be the most appropriate choice for a transferable metaphor applicable to Chinese as well.

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3.3 The Case with Italian and Spanish As anticipated, the designations in Italian and Spanish—benna a polipo (IT) and pulpo (ES)—both refer to the ‘octopus’ metaphor. However, while the former consists of a head noun (expressing the propositional meaning, i.e., the name of the device) followed by its modifier (expressing the evocative meaning, i.e., the pictorial metaphor associated to the referent), in the latter the modifier has taken over the head noun, thus conveying a doubly metaphorical meaning, at both propositional and evocative level. In both cases, the powerful image of a giant octopus evokes the glorious past of the two countries as sea powers (positive symbolism), although the same image, in other contexts, has taken on a negative connotation, as in the case of Mafia with its tentacles entwined around Italy (and, in this globalized world, many other countries). The octopus has the same symbolism and meaning in many cultures: it is a symbol of strength. In some other cultures, it is shown in a negative light, as the beast of the Underworld. The Western symbolism of the octopus as an all-enveloping communist state, strangling dissent and individuality, is counterbalanced by the link existing between the Swastika symbol and the octopus in many parts of the world. It is most likely that, because of the latter connection, the ‘octopus’ metaphor is struggling to replicate itself in such a domain-specific context as engineering. Conceptualization and designation of the type of grab at issue in other languages will reflect the same cultural dilemma as the two cases briefly discussed above. While the idea of the orange peel would deliver a rather weak image of the grab in most cultures, since the stative representation of the orange peel does not exceed the pictorial analogy, the dynamic representation of the octopus seems to deliver a much more transferable metaphor of power (both pictorial and multimodal) that can be usefully associated to the grab function. However, the latter metaphor has found multiple, unsurmountable culture-bound obstacles on its way to success.

3.4 The Case with French, German, and Other Languages The French term grappin is a polysemous word meaning both ‘anchor’ and ‘grab’, which have similar shape, but reverse function. When denoting a grab, grappin is generally used alone to include all types of grabs and, occasionally, it is integrated by its functional goal (e.g., grappin à ferraille ‘scrap grab’) and/or compositional details (e.g., grappin a 6 brins ‘six-jaw grab’). However, even with such specifications, the grab may still describe both types in Fig. 2. What derives from these basic considerations is that the French designation is the most generic designation among those included in Fig. 2: it privileges the propositional meaning while rejecting any figurative transfer (with the exception of the original similitude between ‘anchor’ and ‘grab’).

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Likewise, the German term Mehrschalengreifer discloses its propositional meaning denoting shape: it literally means ‘multi-shell grab’. German, though, also offers two evocative variants: Apfelsinenschalengreifer, derived from the original American term orange peel grab, and Polypgreifer, used by the German company Demag GmbH, Duisburg, and also in the Flemish and Dutch compound noun poliepgrijper. Both variants appeared in a Springer Verlag publication dated 1937, probably the most comprehensive and detailed manual of mechanical engineering in construction industry (“Handbuch des Maschinenwesens bei Baubetrieb”) of all times: it consists of 3 volumes edited by Georg Garbotz, professor at the Technical University of Berlin, the third of which (650 pages) is devoted to all equipment for moving earth and other heavy loads, and is packed with pictures, tables, graphs and examples. From the propositional variant of the German term, the Russian calque mnogoqelstno grefer ‘mnogochelyustnoy greyfer’ (lit. multi-part grab) is derived, while the more general grefernoe oborudovanie ‘greyfernoye oborudovaniye’ relates more to the French term grappin. Both, however, keep away from any figurative designation of the equipment described, as is apparent from the somewhat hilarious comment in the description of grabs in an article of Osnovnye sredstva ‘Osnovnyye sredstva’, Basic means (of earth moving and transportation) (https://os1.ru/article/5554-rakushka-apelsin-kaktus-greyfery): “Qast ih potiqno sravnivat s apelsinom: orange peel grab ili dae s kaktusom cactus grab. V oteqestvenno tehniqesko literature takogo razdeleni net, lboe ustrostvo takogo tipa nazyvaets «grefer».” [translated as “Some of them are poetically compared with an orange: orange peel grab, or even with a cactus: cactus grab. There is no such division in the domestic technical literature; any device of this type is called a “grab”.”3 ].

4 Discussion and Further Prospects As discussed earlier, cultural conceptualizations are the ways in which people across different cultural groups construe various aspects of the world and their experiences (Sharifian, 2011). These include people’s view of the world, including conceptualization of the corporate culture, organization and reputation. The advent of globalization has resulted in a plethora of product choice, and promotional activity, which may determine the success of a company. In such a market situation, corporate reputation has become even more important, as companies with a good reputation are likely to attract more customers and investors. Companies that are able to improve their perceived reputation will be in a better position to increase stakeholder satisfaction and build loyalty to the brand. Multinational corporations in particular need to monitor the global consistency of their stakeholder perceptions, and make sure that the company brand and product names contribute to improving it. 3

Author’s translation and emphasis.

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The examples below will illustrate both fallacious and successful reasoning behind brand product names of grabs, other than those examined in Sect. 3.

4.1 Example 1 In the English translation of their web sites, quite a number of Italian manufacturers of orange peel grabs have stubbornly kept the figurative language of their source texts, thus translating benna a polipo as Polyp grab without checking for possible cross-cultural misunderstandings. As a matter of fact, the English term polyp is a polysemous word meaning: 1) [zoology]—one of the two forms of individual that occur in coelenterates. It usually has a hollow cylindrical body with a ring of tentacles around the mouth.—2) Also called polypus—[pathology]—a small vascularized growth arising from the surface of a mucous membrane, having a rounded base or a stalk-like projection (Collins Dictionary). As regards (1), for many years both polyp and octopus have commonly been used to refer to the same animals; however, the English preference for octopus has made polyp redundant. For this reason, when the word polyp is used in English, it is the 2nd meaning in the dictionary that is more likely to be associated with it, which makes it a bad choice for marketing ANY product. The Italian companies Marchesi (https://www.marchesigru.com/en/crane-manufa cturers/), Rozzi (https://www.rozzi.it/en/azienda.php), and Toro Loco (http://www. torolocoitaly.com/en/) use polyp grabs (or polyp grapples) instead of orange peel grabs in the English version of their websites. Gusella, now Gusella- Bakker, used to do the same, but recently, after merging with the Dutch company Bakker Hydraulic Products, turned to the correct translation, as in the case with Negrini (http://www. negrini.org/index.php/en/). Unexpectedly, one of the Italian grab manufacturers, Minelli (https://www.min ellisrl.it/en/products), has come up with an idiosyncratic solution: polygrab, which reduces the recourse to the figurative language of the source term (polyp is turned into poly), while retaining the morphological ‘likeness’, and the meaning of ‘multiple’. However, a second problem surfaces: the term conflicts with the same name given to various products in totally different industries (see https://www.medica lexpo.com/prod/olympus-america/product-78904-651494.html, http://geminiadhesi vesgroup.com/product-polygrab.php, and the Keychains POLYGRAB ZERO Anti Corona Touch Aid available in Asian markets).

4.2 Example 2 The Dutch company Nemag has used (and possibly coined) another term for the same device: cactus grab; since there is no apparent connection between the actual form of the crane attachment and the idea or image of a cactus, we must conclude that

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the coinage is the result of the creative use of language, and very likely a marketing operation itself, meant to differentiate and identify the product uniquely on the global market. Global marketers would tend to use a term that can be pronounced similarly in different languages without giving rise to unwanted cross-cultural ambiguities. The word cactus seems to work fine in this regard. From a linguistic viewpoint, the question arises as to whether a translator should localize the term in the target culture and, if so, in which way. A quick web search in national domains (e.g., .it and .fr) showed that the term cactus grab is not translated, but as such it tends to be interpreted as a brand name, capitalized and preceded by the localized version, namely benna a polipo Cactus Grab (on Italian websites), and grappin Cactus Grab (on French websites), which means that the aim of Nemag marketers has actually been achieved. Some final words of caution need to be presented as to the use of specialized dictionaries and data banks such as IATE. Although this study mainly relies on a lexicological approach, and adopts an onomasiological model (from concept to term), which means that the designations in the various languages analyzed have been drawn from the specialized knowledge base shared by the relevant domain-specific communities of practice (specialized literature, technical encyclopedias, webpages of images in national domains, and relevant captions and descriptions), during the investigation conducted, specialized dictionaries and IATE data bank were checked to confirm whether they provided aligned information for each term. From the lexicographic point of view, many were the entries that should have been amended or even deleted (e.g., ‘cactus-type bucket’ and ‘shaft-sinking grab’ in English, ‘benne preneuse de fonçage’ and ‘benne preneuse multi-bras’ in French, ‘benna a spicchi multipli’ in Italian, to name a few), while from the pedagogical point of view, a translator trainee should better be taught how to consult primary sources in the target language, how to design, compile and use comparable corpora, and how to apply conceptual models such as the translation equivalence model (Gaballo, 2010, 2022) in order to achieve fully functional terms that are recognized by the relevant domain-specific communities of practice.

5 Conclusions This study is located at the interface of language, cognition and culture. From the theoretical point of view, it refers to a growing body of research indicating that cultural or experiential differences cause disparities in the way we see or interpret the world. For instance, people from East Asian cultures are socialized in such a way that they acquire the cognitive tools of “seeing the forest”, so they are more likely to spot changes in the background of a scene, whereas Westerners seem to acquire the cognitive tools of “scrutinizing the trees”, as they tend to French, Italian, Spanish, and Russiannotice changes in central objects. These different habits are likely to reflect the different socialization goals of culture, which may vary across

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different cultures (Keller, 2003) as well as across different individuals within any given culture (Ishii et al., 2009, p. 108). Therefore, the role of socio-cultural experiences in shaping different styles of processing is undeniable (Ishii et al., 2009, p. 109). Cultural conceptualizations emerge from the interactions between the members of a cultural group, and are constantly (re)negotiated across generations (Sharifian, 2011, p. 17). This study reflects the assumption (Evans, 2007) that language users generally construe a conceptual representation as encoded in language, which in turn affects the conceptual representation that the utterance evokes in the hearer’s/reader’s mind. These conceptualizations also have language-specific effects in the relationship between language and cognition that emerge in the form of cross-linguistic influence. For example, the choice of words for referring to objects and actions often reflects ways of conveying meaning and intentions that are specific to particular language backgrounds (Jarvis, 2011). From the methodological point of view, this study has taken a lexicological/terminological approach to the concept and the related terms in various languages/cultures (onomasiological process), and then reversed the process (semasiological process) applying a metalexicographical/lexicological approach in order to reconstruct the meaning of the terms identified. Finally, from the typological perspective, it provided a cross-linguistic description and explanation of the unity and diversity of languages with respect to the relation between linguistic form and meaning/function (Van der Auwera & Nuyts, 2007, p. 1075). The terms analyzed are indicative of how a language impacts the speakers’ worldview, and the analysis conducted showed how culture-specific items in specialized languages—the language of engineering in this case—are perceived (differently) across cultures. Unexpected asymmetries and irregularities have been discovered in the semantic structures of the terms examined: ‘orange peel grab’ in Chinese, English, French, Italian, Spanish, and Russian (Fig. 4). In a hypothetical, cross-linguistic distribution of culturemes, the ‘orange peel’ metaphor has revealed to be the least productive cultureme, in that it only shows in English, and partially in Taiwanese Mandarin (Traditional Chinese characters), where the semantic level has been neutralized, while it shows complete divergence with any other of the languages observed. Conversely, the ‘octopus’ metaphor seems to have succeeded as an accepted cultureme in both Spanish and Italian, but also in Flemish and Dutch, in spite of the cultural limitations imposed by its figurative content. Based on the findings of this study, specialized translators seem to be affected by cross-cultural limitations that act upon their creative performance. The constraints seem to be unsurmountable within the same specific domain if the SL/SC terms have already been lexicalized in the TL/TC, while they seem to be less stringent when the translation crosses domains to achieve additional goals (such as marketing goals as in the examples above), in which case the translator is left free to even transcreate (Gaballo, 2012).

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Fig. 4 Distribution of culturemes in ‘orange peel grab’ designations

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Viviana Gaballo is Assistant Professor in English Linguistics and Translation Studies at the University of Macerata, Italy. She has been teaching ESP and specialized translation at the tertiary and secondary levels since 1992, and has served as a teacher trainer. She has published and presented papers at international conferences in areas related to Linguistics (Critical Discourse Analysis; Corpus Linguistics; linguistic variation; lexicography), Applied Linguistics (Content and Language Integrated Learning; Technology- Enhanced Language Teaching and Learning) and Translation Studies (translation competence; collaborative translation; specialized translation). She is the author of the Systemic-Functional Translation Competence model (in “English in Translation Studies: Methodological Perspectives”, 2009).

Polish and Russian Geological Names in the Context of Linguistic Transfer Olga Iakovleva

Abstract The Polish and Russian specialist language in broadly understood geology, as in other sciences, shows etymological differentiation. This is due to the influence of foreign languages on the sources in the profiled terminology of Earth sciences, which often results in replacing native names. Originally, the loanwords were based on Latin and Greek. Along with the development of these sciences in Western countries, through the migration of written texts and international contacts, these names also took root in the discussed Polish and Russian languages. The nomenclature of terms in geology shows the influence of German and French, and, to a lesser extent, of other languages. Especially at the turn of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the influence of the English language on this terminology increased, which is also due to the unification of the nomenclature in scientific texts. The aim of this study is to examine the diversity of a few selected examples of specialist terms used in geology, with an indication of their origin, in Polish and Russian. The variety of terms in Earth sciences is an important aspect in understanding the evolution of the languages in question in the context of their susceptibility to foreign cultural influences. Knowing the differences in the terminology of these languages is also necessary in professional and scientific communication, information exchange and translation work. Keywords Geological terminology · Specialist language · Language transfer · Polish · Russian · Similarities and contrasts

1 Introduction The formation of terminology related to Earth sciences went hand in hand with the growth of knowledge on the subject, especially in modern times. Geographical discoveries and technological advances also had a major impact during this period. In Russian, the development of geological vocabulary took place from the eighteenth O. Iakovleva (B) Department of Applied Linguistics, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_3

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to the end of the nineteenth centuries. The process of creating terms in the field of geology and mining was connected with the intensification of contacts with scientists and specialists from other countries, especially Germany. The direct participation of German specialists in the development of the mining industry in Russia and the creation of significant studies on geology in the German language were reflected in the penetration of borrowings from German into the Russian geological terminological system. The formation of specialised nomenclature in the field of Earth sciences in the Polish language occurred in the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth century, as a result of the loss of independence, geology in Poland developed mainly under the influence of the partitioning states. In this period many borrowed terms came from German and French (at that time it was an international language). Attempts to polonize specialist vocabulary were made as early as at the end of the nineteenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth century. However, the influence of German and French terminology of that period is still visible in Polish specialist nomenclature. In the twentieth century geology, like other branches of Earth sciences, developed rapidly, different directions and trends emerged and with them also specialised vocabulary. This vocabulary is expanded by the resources of its own language and by the interference of languages. As a result of the influence of a foreign language, borrowings, semantic and structural calques are formed in the lexical system. In the process of assimilation by the borrowing language the foreign words are adapted in terms of graphics, phonetics, inflection, morphology. By comparing the peculiarities of Polish and Russian it is possible to show some significant differences in the assimilation of new terminological units by these languages. Moreover, apart from new terminology, there is also a relatively large proportion of words which were created in earlier periods, documenting the development of knowledge about the inanimate environment over many centuries. The scope of the geological nomenclature includes the terms of the main branches of geology—basic and applied. Basic geology includes stratigraphy, tectonics, sedimentology, paleontology, mineralogy, petrography. Basic geology deals with issues related to establishing the geological structure of particular areas of the Earth and reconstructing its geological history. Applied geology uses the results of basic geology for practical purposes, directly related to economic activities; its main disciplines are: deposit geology, hydrogeology and engineering geology. In recent years, particular importance has been attached to research carried out in many countries on the identification of deposits of alternative energy resources. Technological progress makes it possible to study other objects in space (at present it is Mars and the Moon), which influences the development of planetary geology. International teams of scientists, specialists are being formed with increasing frequency. They usually communicate with each other using the English language. An organized nomenclature of individual national languages, eliminating inaccurate, redundant terms, facilitates communication between specialists as well as translation and lexicographic work (development of specialized bilingual and multilingual dictionaries).

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The terms occurring in contemporary Polish and Russian show similar features and differentiate the two languages in the assimilation of new lexical units of foreign origin. While this theme is relatively popular in the case of concepts in economics, IT, medicine, when it comes to Earth sciences, there is a great shortage of such studies (Kykacova & Cylemanova, 2018; Ciwyk, 2016). The purpose of the article is to make a comparative analysis of geological terms using the examples of borrowed terms in Polish and Russian, in particular, to define differences in the process of formal assimilation of the borrowed terms in Polish and Russian. The selection of geological terms also has been conditioned upon the fact that geological terms, on the one hand, represent an ordered, long-present terminology in both languages, on the other hand, geology is a continuously evolving science that creates and borrows new terms.

2 Literature Review Terms are lexical units (a word, a word combination), which are used to verbalize concepts in a specific field of specialised knowledge. There are two approaches in linguistic science related to the place of terms in the language structure. Representatives of the normative approach (Lotte, 1961; Mazur, 1961; Pefopmatcki, 1961; Cypepancka, 1983; Tatapinov, 1994) remove terms from the national language. According to this approach, terms are put in contrast with lexical units in literary language. Followers of this approach specify different criteria, which the term must meet (limitation of its use to a specific field of professional life, having a definition, accuracy, lack of emotional and expressive character, systematicity, tendency to unambiguity, consistency, contextual independence, conciseness). According to Lotte, “a term, unlike general word, must express restricted and fixed notion independent of the context and be monosemantic within the limits of this and the related subjects” (Lotte, 1961, p. 4). The representatives of the descriptive approach (Danilenko, 1977; Golovin & Kobpin, 1987) consider that terms are a part of general language. They pay special attention to the functioning of terminological units. Special attention is paid to the blurring of borderlines between common and terminological lexis as long as common words participate in terminologization process and terms are subject to determinilogization. Vinokur, a researcher noted, “Any word can take on the role of a term. The term is not a special word, it just has a special function to denominate special concepts, names of special subjects or phenomena” (Binokyp, 1939, p. 4). In the literature there is no single fixed definition of a term. Let’s provide several examples of the definitions for a concept of “a term”: – “a lexical unit of a language meant for special purposes, denoting general - specific or abstract - concepts of the theory within a special area of expertise or activity” (Leqik, 2009, pp. 31–32);

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– “a language sign (a word or a word combination), which is a part of subjectoriented lexis and which is put in contrast with words and word combinations of the general language” (Lukszyn, 2002, p. 137); – “an invariant (a word or a word combination) denoting a specific subject or a scientific concept limited with a definition and place in the corresponding term system” (Komapova, 1991, p. 17). Many researchers (Alekceeva, 1998; Gepd, 1991; Golovin, 1980; Gpinv, 1993; Cypepancka et al., 1989) emphasize a close relationship between a term and a concept it denotes. According to Kvitko, “a term is a word or word complex, associated with a concept of specific organized area of expertise (science, engineering), entering into systemic relations with other words and word complexes and making together with them in any single case and at a given time a looped system, notable for high informational value, monosemy, accuracy and expressive neutrality” (Kvitko, 1976, p. 21). The absence of the unified definition of the “term” results from its multidimensionality, different approaches to its interpretation. Researchers, defining the concept of “term” emphasize such characteristic features and aspects, which are essential from their perspective. Views on the subject matter of the concept of “a term” transformed alongside with the appearance of new branches in terminology science. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, there was formed Cognitive Terminology, which studies the role of terms in cognition and thought. According to Volodina, “terms as a classified information-carrying medium are a very important means of recording, storing and transformation of special knowledge. Terminological information represents generalization, expressed in the language form, which accumulates special knowledge and is used in professional and scientific activity” (Bolodina, 2011, p. 136). In our paper, we use the term to mean the lexical unit, created to denote concepts, phenomena and objects, belonging to a specified term system. The process of adaptation of borrowed units has a long-lasting and gradual nature. At different stages, borrowed terminology shows a varying degree of assimilation. As indicated by Rutkowski, the degree of assimilation depends on the fulfilment of certain conditions, such as: “development of inflectional forms (declension in the full or partial paradigm), derivational abilities, syntactic activity, pronunciation and orthography (original or adapted to the articulatory conditions and orthographic norms of the borrowing language) and, finally, in the case of Russian, which uses the Cyrillic alphabet, graphic transposition (transcription or transliteration)” (Rutkowski, 2011, p. 179). In different historical periods borrowed units may be perceived by users of the borrowing language as foreign (due to different spelling, pronunciation) or as native forms. The borrowed terminological units, depending on the degree of their assimilation, may have signs of foreignness, which include: uncharacteristic consonant or vowel combinations, lack of declension, deviation from the rules of pronunciation, spelling of the borrowing language, unusual phonemes, etc.

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3 Materials and Methods ˙ Data from specialist geological dictionaries (Kpixtofoviq, 1955; Zyłka, 1970), multilingual dictionaries (Polish–Russian, English, French–German) and specialist ˙ texts were used in this study as the sources of material. Zyłka has compiled an English–Polish–Russian–French–German dictionary, making it much easier to search for Earth science terminology in these languages. This dictionary uses 25,000 initial entries, which, together with equivalents and synonyms in the other four languages, make up over 160,000 terms. A certain shortcoming, however, is the fact that this dictionary was published 50 years ago, which translates into conceptual shortcomings concerning the vocabulary of modern literature. Another source was a geological dictionary written by Krishtofovich (1955), and although its date of publication is even older, this dictionary is very meticulous in providing definitions and origins of many geological terms in Russian. The dictionary has about 12,000 terms, covering various areas of geology and related sciences. A very useful resource was the Russian Dictionary of Words of Foreign Origin written by Krysin (2006). The dictionary contains over 25,000 words and word combinations that entered the Russian language between the eighteenth and early twenty-first centuries. It also includes words formed with morphemes of foreign origin. This dictionary covers expressions of foreign origin from various thematic fields. The texts of the scripts published by AGH University of Science and Technology for the study of technical Russian (Stachniewicz, 1990) and Russian language for students of the Faculty of Geology and Prospecting were also used as auxiliary materials (Małek, 1985). These scripts have texts with numerous idioms and a small glossary at the end of the book. In the course of collecting the material, an analysis of specialised geological scientific articles was also used to search for interesting terminological units. The following methods were used in this study: linguistic observation, analysis of dictionary definitions and comparative analysis.

4 Results and Discussion Among the terminological units analyzed in the present study there are numerous borrowings of Latin and Greek origin: magnesite—magnezit (rus.)—magnezyt (pol.) [lat. magnesia] (mineral name), chrysocolla—xpizokolla (rus.)—chryzokola (pol.) [greek ckrysos, kolla] (mineral name), asbestos—acbect (rus.)— azbest (pol.) [greek asbestos] (mineral name), vermiculite—vepmikylit (rus.)— wermikulit (pol.) [lat. vermiculus] (mineral name), laterite—latepit (rus.)— lateryt (pol.) [lat. later] (name of rock), erratic—ppatiqecki (rus.)—eratyczny (pol.) [lat. erraticus] (‘carried over long distances by the glacier’), amphibole—amfiboly (rus.)—amfibole (pol.) [greek amphibolos] (name of the mineral group), hematite—gematit (rus.)—hematyt (pol.) [greek haima] (mineral name),

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abrasion—abpazi (rus.)—abrazja (pol.) [lat. abrasio] (geomorphology), seismic— cecmiqecki (rus.)—sejsmiczny (pol.) [greek seimos] (‘earthquake—related’), subduction—cybdykci (rus.)—subdukcja (pol.) [lat. sub, ductio] (plate tectonics). The borrowings include not only lexical units but also productive Latin–Greek type term elements: -ab/ab, -ad/ad, -pe/re, -paleo/paleo, -de/de, -in/in, -geo/geo etc.: adsorption—adcoppci (rus.)—adsorpcja (pol.), geotechnics—geotexnika (rus.)—geotechnika (pol.), recrystallization—pekpictallizaci (rus.)—rekrystalizacja (pol.), Paleozoic era—paleozo (rus.)—paleozoik (pol.), dedolomitisation—dedolomitizaci (rus.)—dedolomityzacja (pol.). The advantage of neoclassical terms is that they have a rich set of morphemes, thanks to which it is possible to create new terms usually having a fixed meaning. This is because they are based on dead classical Greek, which does not undergo the evolutionary changes characteristic of modern languages (Narecki, 2011). The terms created with the help of roots, morphemes of Greek and Latin origin, do not evoke wrong associations in the recipient because they serve as a kind of key to decode the named concepts with the help of meanings of particular term elements (Efimov, 2018). However, it must be recognised that as knowledge evolves, the meanings of terms created with these morphemes may change (Górnicz, 2019). The borrowing of lexical units and term elements of Greek and Latin origin has been known and used for centuries in many European languages, in scientific and specialised circles. The creation of terminological units using words and morphemes with a Latin–Greek root is still very productive. The use of borrowed terms of this kind (especially in the case of terminological internationalisms) undoubtedly facilitates international communication. Some languages are more influential in the process of terminological vocabulary formation, especially at certain historical stages. In relation to terminological borrowings in Russian, German had a significant influence. Tight cooperation with German specialists during the period of establishment and intensive development of the mining industry in Russia (seventeenth–eighteenth centuries) resulted in a significant increase in the borrowing of terminological units from German, functioning in specialist discourse to this day. The founder of the sciences of mining, metallurgy and mineralogy in Russia is considered to be Lomonosov (1763, 1952), who studied in Germany for some time. Later in his publications on mining and metallurgy, Lomonosov used German names for metals and minerals. The process of linguistic nomination had both intralinguistic (lack of names for new concepts, objects in the mother tongue favoured the borrowing of elements of foreign origin) and extralinguistic (direct contacts, the use of foreign technology) determinants. In Poland, this process was influenced to a large extent by nonlinguistic factors: during the partition period Poland was under the direct influence of German—speaking countries (Germany, Austria), which contributed to Germanization. Moreover, the nineteenth century brought an intensive development of the mining industry, which was accompanied by a rapid development of the geological nomenclature, and new terms penetrated from German into Polish. Borrowed terms from German in the field of geology and mining still function in Polish and Russian. In the field of Earth sciences these are the names

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of rocks and minerals: gneiss—gnejs (pol.)—gnec (rus.), felsite—felzyt (pol.)— felzit (rus.), spat—szpat (pol.)—xpat (rus.). These names also commemorate the names of German, Austrian scientists who discovered minerals: carnallite—karnalit (pol.)—kapnallit (rus.) (R. Von Carnall), wulfenite—wulfenit (pol.)—vylfenit (rus.) (F. Wulfen), braunite—braunit (pol.)—bpaynit (rus.) (M. Braun), kieserite—kizeryt (pol.)—kizepit (rus.) (D. Kieser), bornite—bornit (pol.)—bopnit (rus.) (I. Von Born) etc. The names of minerals are also derived from the names of the places where they were found: spessartine—cpeccaptin (rus.)— spessartyn (pol.) (germ. Spessart), teschenite—texenit (rus.)—cieszynit (pol.) (germ. Teschen). In geological terminology, apart from the names of minerals and chemical elements, there are borrowings from German for various types of underground workings (crosscut—kvepxlag (rus.)—kwerszlag (pol.), adit—xtoln (rus.)—sztolnia (pol.)), mining (stockwork—xtokvepk (rus.)—sztokwerk (pol.)), processes (feldspathisation—feldxpatizaci (rus.)—feldspatyzacja (pol.)), relief features (bergschrund—bepgxpynd (rus.)—bergschrund (pol.)) and metallurgy (schlich—xlix (rus.)—szlich (pol.)). Borrowings of French origin penetrated into Polish and Russian as a result of the international popularity of this language in a certain historical period. In the nineteenth century, this language was a form of lingua franca and many scientists used it when writing works which were addressed to the international community. Hence, terms from French appeared in the Earth sciences during this period. Many examples have survived to the present day, such as: in dynamic geology it is cleavage—kliwa˙z (pol.)—kliva (rus.), boudinage—budina˙z (pol.)—bydina (rus.) (process), geosyncline—geosynklina (pol.)—geocinklinal (rus.) (tectonic form), in mineralogy jadeite—˙zadeit (pol.)—adeit (rus.), laumontite—laumontyt (pol.)— lomontit (rus.) (minerals), in stratigraphy Turonian—turon (pol.)—typon (rus.), Givetian—˙zywet (pol.)—ivetcki (rus.), in petrography dolomite—dolomit (pol.)—dolomit (rus.). In both cases, these borrowings are mostly well rooted. It is worth noting that terms of foreign origin having a common root may differ semantically. For example, the terms kapta in Russian and respectively kapta˙z in Polish are borrowings from the French language and differ in meaning: kapta—‘engineering – technical work on the discovery and bringing to the surface of underground water, oil, natural gas for their further use’. The term is also used to denote the equipment used for this purpose (a well, a borehole) (Kpycin, 2006, p. 335) and kapta˙z— ‘the capture of the upper section of a poorly eroding river by a more active river’ (Jaroszewski, 1985, p. 108). This is important not only in communication among specialists but also in translation of specialist literature. Especially nowadays there are numerous borrowings of terms of English origin: rift—ryft (pol.)—pift (rus.) (tectonic form), dike—dajka (pol.)—daka (rus.) (tectonic form), devonian—dewon (pol.)—devon (rus.) (stratigraphy), upwelling— upwelling (pol.)—apvelling (rus.) (dynamic geology), impactite—impaktyt (pol.)—impaktit (rus.) (petrography), spreading—spreading (pol.)—cppeding (rus.) (plate tectonics). In the case of Russian, borrowed terms are often transferred into the graphic system by means of transcription, and there is a tendency for borrowings to preserve the pronunciation of the original form. Borrowed units introduced

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into Polish have a manner of transcription identical to the original English-language source form (spreading, upwelling), especially in the initial phase of phonetic— graphic assimilation, or similar to the graphic form of the word. The indicators of the foreignness of terminological borrowings among the examples mentioned above are doubled vowels (apvelling, upwelling), for example, the affix -ing, which is unusual for the systems of both languages (Polish and Russian): spreading, cppeding. The omnipresence of English in various areas of social activity, including international scientific contacts, is obvious. Against the background of globalisation processes, a special role of English becomes evident; it dominates in scientific nomenclature and in scientific publications of worldwide range. In the literature on the subject, apart from the analysis of borrowed units from English (in comparative, thematic, semantic, lexicographical aspects, in terms of adaptation in a new linguistic environment and so on) some problems, connected with the intensification of English borrowing, are pointed out. According to Łuczy´nski Polish terms are gradually being replaced by their English equivalents, many branches of science (including geology) give up their attempts to create independent scientific terminology, which results in “impoverishment of the language on the one hand, and on the other hand in the functioning of the notions which in the Polish lexical environment are deprived of their semantic and etymological dimensions” (Łuczy´nski, 2011, p. 131). The researcher draws particular attention to the fact that usually in Polish translations, which function for some time, care was taken to create an appropriate semantic association, which is lost when these terms are replaced by words of English origin (Łuczy´nski, 2011). Nowadays, there is a tendency towards a certain unification and standardisation of scientific nomenclature on a global level. It is also possible to discuss the specialization of some vocabulary formants of an international character. For example, in English, a productive suffix -ite is used in the formation of terms naming minerals: fluorite, kyanite, pyrite, calcite etc. For this purpose in Russian and Polish the suffixes -it (flopit, kianit, pipit, kalcit) and -yt (fluoryt, kyanit, piryt, kalcyt) are used respectively. The processes of borrowing are natural and inevitable, but in the absence of critical, reflexive acceptance of terminological units of foreign origin, superfluous terms may appear, which name words already existing in the recipient language in a different way, or inaccurate terms which do not adequately convey the content of the concept. To a lesser extent, borrowings from other languages are observed in Polish and Russian: cuesta—kycta (rus.)—kuesta (pol.) (Spanish), lapilli—lapilli (rus.)—lapilli (pol.) (Italian), glint—glint (rus.)—glint (pol.) (Estonian), serir— cepip (rus.)—serir (pol.) (Arabian), kaolinite—kaolin (rus.)—kaolin (pol.) (Chinese), trap rock—tpapp (rus.)—trap (pol.) (Swedish) etc. Among the borrowed terminological units analyzed, it is possible to separate terms that have an advanced level of assimilation (on graphic, phonological, morphological and semantic levels) and terms that are partially assimilated. The first group includes, for example, type units: halite—rus. galit (rock salt), adit—rus. xtoln (an entrance to an underground mine); dolomite—pol. dolomit (mineral), granulite— pol. granulit (metamorphic rock). When examining borrowed terminological units from the first group, on the basis of materials from lexicographical studies, we are

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dealing with terms with an established status, accepted and regularly used by specialists in the field. Consequently, these borrowed terms (both in Russian and Polish) show a fairly high level of assimilation. The indicator of a high level of assimilation of borrowings is, for example, the possibility of creating paradigms of declension in accordance with the rules functioning in the borrowing language (polished section—rus. anxlif, anxlifa, anxlify, anxlifom, o anxlife, anxlify; hornblende—pol. hornblenda, hornblendy, hornblendzie, hornblend˛e, hornblend˛a, o hornblendzie) and derivatives (drift—rus. xtpek—xtpekovy; gneiss—pol. gnejs—gnejsowy, zgnejsowany). In the case of terms from the second group, their adaptation is related to one or more levels of assimilation. An example is the uncharacteristic way of pronouncing the phoneme [e] in Russian. After soft consonants the phoneme [e] is pronounced softly. On the other hand, in borrowed words after hard consonants the phoneme [e] is pronounced strongly: magnesite—magnezit [n], laterite—latepit [t], drift—xtpek [p] etc. The formal indicators of foreignness in Russian are doubled consonants in the word stem (laccolith—rus. lakkolit, erratic—rus. ppatiqecki), phoneme [a] at the beginning of a word (alluvium—rus. allvi), consonant and vowel combinations like [l] (fluidal—rus. flidalny), [ia] (diabase—rus. diabaz) etc. For Polish such indicators are, for example, vowel fusions, doubled consonants in the word stem: [ia] (diapir—pol. diapir), [io] (interior—pol. interior), [eu] (eudialyte—pol. eudialit), ferrite—pol. ferryt. Due to the different alphabet, terminological borrowings in Russian have a wide variability in spelling. As a result of the assimilation of borrowings in some cases doublets or synonymia may arise: desilication—rus. decilikaci— decilifikaci, magnesite—rus. magnezitovy—magnezialny, lithogenesis—rus. litogenez—litogenezic. Over time, some doublets begin to be replaced by more commonly used forms, for example, instead of the term xedpymit (hedrumite) in modern specialist texts a synonym is used gedpymit (the unusual phoneme at the beginning of the word [x] has replaced the more characteristic phoneme [g]). Besides, there is a simultaneous functioning of borrowed and native doublets in the specialist discourse: glacial—rus. glcialny—lednikovy, intrusive rock—rus. intpyzivna popoda—glybinna popoda, ozokerite—rus. ozokepit—gopny vock, coal balls—rus. kolbolly—ygolnye poqki. The coexistence of borrowed and native forms in the borrowing language may be caused by stylistic differences between these units. In Polish, due to the use of the Latin alphabet, the penetration of foreign terminological units seems to be easier. The different alphabetic system constitutes a certain barrier in the process of assimilation of borrowings, which is smaller in the case of the Polish language compared to the Russian one. This feature contributed to visible differences in the assimilation of terms of foreign origin. Kwiatkowska, studying the process of phonetic—graphic assimilation of words of foreign origin in Polish and Russian, rightly proves that Russian is characterised by the tendency to orientate towards the pronunciation of the borrowed word, while in Polish—towards the graphic form of the word (Kwiatkowska, 2015, p. 117). A significant number of borrowed terms in

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Polish adopt a graphic form similar to the original one: xenolith—ksenolit [greek xénos, líthos], fulgurite—fulguryt [lat. fulguritus], alluvial—aluwialny [fr. Alluvion + – al < łac. alluvium], gneiss—gnejs [germ. gneis], sediment—sedyment [lat. sedimentum]. On the other hand, a characteristic feature of Polish is a strong tendency to polonise borrowed terminological units (especially in certain historical periods), which manifests itself in the parallel use of native equivalents alongside the borrowed terms: subsidence—subsydencja—osiadanie; glacial—glacjalny— lodowcowy; bifurcation—bifurkacja—rozdwojenie; ablation—ablacja—topnienie; exploration—eksploracja—poszukiwanie; erratic—eratyczny—narzutowy; sediments—sedymenty—osady; relief —relief —powierzchnia. There are also many more of these names and they testify to a lively desire to polonise borrowed terminology and to create new terms to replace the borrowed ones. Sometimes among specialists there is a preference for using foreign-language terms in place of their native equivalents. Usually this phenomenon occurs during conversation or in specialist literature. For example, terms such as deforestacja (deforestation) instead of wylesienie, utwory limniczne (lacustrine deposits) instead jeziorne, osady pluwialne (fluvial processes) instead rzeczne. Sometimes, however, it may happen that with the adaptation of a family of terms based on borrowing, their assimilation does not proceed evenly, especially when they refer to different scientific fields. As an example we can use such terms as okrzemka (diatom)—the name of an organism used also in biology but in geology the rock formed from diatoms is called diatomit (diatomite); promienica (radiolaria) is a one-celled organism and the rock is radiolaryt (radiolarite); in chemistry there is the term w˛egiel (carbon), w˛eglan (carbonate) and in geology there is the rock karbonatyt (carbonatite). In Polish and Russian there is a variability in the spelling of borrowed terminological units: charnockite—pol. czarnockit—czarnokit, shonkinite—pol. shonkinit— szonkinit, syenite—pol. syenit—sjenit, greenockite—pol. greenockit—grenokit etc. In the process of assimilation of new words from the international literature they are assimilated initially on the basis of ‘imersion’. In Polish, an example can be the names of minerals, rocks, processes such as: goethite—pol. goethyt, moncheite—pol. moncheit, heulandite—pol. heulandyt, caliche—pol. caliche. In some cases foreign lexical units have a similar formal and graphic character to already known borrowings. This makes it easier at this stage for users of the borrowing language to embed the terms in the language, through analogies to already known cases: for example biotite ⇒ biotyt, telluropalladynite ⇒ telluropalladynit. The strong influence of English visible especially in the twenty-first century is marked in the process of transcription of various names according to English spelling. In the Polish language this concerns, for instance, geographic and geological names, also non-English ones, which are nowadays more often spelled this way in Polish scientific studies. An example can be Monchepluton—instead of Monczepluton (Russian name Monqeplyton), Vurechuaivench—instead of Wuruczuajwencz (Russian name Bypyqyavenq), Bushveld—instead of Buszweld. In Russian, however, the Latin alphabet is used in place of the Cyrillic alphabet, most

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often for acronyms such as EDS (Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy), SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy), EBSD (Electron Backscatter Diffraction), CL (Cathodoluminescence), ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Specrometry) etc. Then a mechanical transfer of a terminological unit takes place without changing the graphic system from the donor language to the recipient language. There is also a group of terms associated with traces of cultural influence and tradition in nomenclature. These analogies are clear in terms from Polish and Russian. An example of such expressions is pol. kryształ górski (quartz). The Russian analogy of rock—rus. gopna popoda, which does not appear in Polish, is interesting. However, the terms pol. kryształ górski and rus. gopny xpyctal exist in both Polish and Russian. This indicates a certain perception of mineral exploration in the past. In Polish similar analogies remain in such expressions as mining—pol. górnictwo, miner—pol. górnik. Even more interesting is the name denoting a deposit—rus. mectopodenie, and in literal translation a place of ‘birth’ (minerals). In a similar manner, probably a calque of the expression aqua regia—pol. woda królewska was used, which is a calque from Latin. In Russian, the term was originally used as kopolevcka vodka, but later the term capcka vodka was coined. This reference indicates the attribute of exercising power.

5 Conclusions The process of assimilation of borrowed terminological units is a long, multi-stage one. A relatively numerous group of borrowings in geology in Polish and Russian are terms of Greek and Latin origin, as well as terms formed by Greek–Latin morphemes. In addition to the classicised terms, both Polish and Russian contain terms of German and French origins (and from other languages to a much lesser extent), and since the end of the nineteenth century there has been an increasing number of borrowings from English. The borrowings have different degrees of adaptation in the recipient language. In Russian, due to the difference in alphabets, the borrowed terminological units have to undergo a graphic adaptation. The difference in the process of formal adaptation of foreign terms in Russian and Polish is manifested in the fact that for Russian it is characteristic to mimic the pronunciation of the borrowed word, while for Polish—to mimic the spelling. During assimilation there is a stage in which additional variants of notation (doublets) of the borrowed lexical unit appear. Along with the assimilation of borrowed terms, there is a reverse tendency, which manifests itself in the creation and parallel functioning of native equivalents of these borrowings. The native forms are more often used outside the specialist discourse. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Dr. Eng. Miłosz Huber from the Faculty of Earth Sciences and Spatial Management of Maria Curie–Skłodowska University for specialist consultation.

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Lomonocov, M. B. (1952). Clovo o podenii metallov ot tpceni zemli. PCC, Izdatelctvo AH CCCP, 5, 295–347. Lotte, D. C. (1961). Ocnovy poctpoeni nayqno – texniqecko tepminologii. Izdatelctvo AH CCCP. Pefopmatcki, A. A. (1961). Qto takoe tepmin i tepminologi. B: Boppocy tepminologii (Matepialy Bcecoznogo tepminologiqeckogo covewani), Izdatelctvo AH CCCP, 24–54. Ciwyk, . M. (2016). Zaimctvovani iz nemeckogo zyka v pyccko gopno-geologiqecko tepminologii. Zapicki Gopnogo inctityta, 219, 504–507. Cypepancka, A. B. (1983). Litepatypny zyk i tepminologiqecka lekcika. B: Ppoblemy pazpabotki i ypopdoqeni tepminologii v akademix nayk coznyx pecpyblik, Hayka, 81–90. Cypepancka, A. B., Podolcka, H. B., & Bacileva, H. B. (1989). Obwa tepminologi: voppocy teopii. Hayka. Tatapinov, B. A. (1994). Ictopi tepminovedeni kak otpacl nayki o tepmine. Tepminovedenie, 1, 19–20.

Olga Iakovleva is Assistant Professor at the Department of Applied Linguistics of Maria CurieSkłodowska University in Lublin, Poland. Her research interests include the semantics, terminology and phraseology of contemporary Russian as well as media studies.

The Implementation of Professional Language Terminology in Polish Production Companies Grzegorz Pawłowski

Abstract The ongoing economic globalisation, Poland’s accession to the European Union and intensive economic and technological development of Polish companies are making them increasingly willing to cooperate with companies from Western Europe. A frequently encountered model is the cooperation in which a Polish entrepreneur takes over a foreign client’s technology and manufactures products distributed on European markets on an exclusive basis. A mutual benefit is undeniable despite the need to overcome communication and intercultural problems. While implementing a new production process, the Polish partner is forced to abandon routine habits in favour of new solutions as well as to implement new communication schemes and new terms so that the cooperation can proceed efficiently and effectively. The process of implementing a new technical terminology usually takes place within a team of translators and technologists, who first familiarise themselves with the foreign language source documentation and then adapt technological processes and create their own nomenclature. The aim of this article is to present these implementation processes in the field of communication and technical terminology as well as to show the complexity of these operations. More specifically, the study focuses on the translator’s work involved in the development of a new technical terminology, its comparison with existing concepts in a given industry, and practical communication in a specialist language. Keywords Professional language · Languages for specific purposes · Professional terms · Technical language · Specialist language · Translating of specialist texts

1 Introduction The ongoing globalisation, Poland’s accession to the European Union, and the rapid technological development of Polish companies have led to intensive collaboration with companies from Western Europe. Apart from traditional trade, one of the models G. Pawłowski (B) Department of Language and Communication, State University of Applied Sciences, Konin, Poland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_4

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of collaboration is the cooperation in which one company takes over the technology of the partner and manufactures its products which are then distributed by the principal on the market. This type of cooperation hinges upon a number of conditions including, among others, economic, technical and social. Economic conditions are usually the prerequisite for any business cooperation as it is the economic calculation, that is, the profitability of the cooperative venture, that triggers all processes from establishing contact to launching production. In practice, the cooperation of this types should enable the recipient to introduce a product to the market at a competitive price, while the service provider should count on a higher income from the service provided. The geographical closeness and economic advantages mean that business contacts between Polish and German companies are developing intensively. This cooperation is developing in various sectors and market segments from small to medium-sized and large companies. While entrepreneurs from Germany focus mainly on economic profits, for Polish businessmen the goal is also to develop their companies, make technological progress or increase the value of their businesses. These factors explain why long-term cooperative ventures involving a permanent provision of services or regular supply of goods are particularly valued by both parties. Technical prerequisites are fulfilled if technical requirements of the contracting partner correspond to technical capacities of the service provider. If the service provider has the necessary technical resources at his disposal, i.e., machinery, knowhow, well-qualified and prepared management and production staff, it is assumed that he is prepared to enter into cooperation. In the case of deficiencies in this technical area, it is not uncommon to observe the transfer of production or technological means combined with the necessary training of the service provider’s staff. Social conditions may seem to be the easiest to cope with, but in reality it is often the case that intercultural differences are the reason why the cooperation fails to take place. These reasons depend mainly on the human factor and, although they can be included in rules and procedures, they remain unquantifiable. Social factors that need to be taken into account in such projects include, among others, (1) the understanding of the needs of business partners, their situation and cultural differences; (2) the acceptance and trust; (3) the readiness for change and the understanding that it will mean the departure from routine behaviours and habits; (4) care for quality and reliability. In order for economic, technical and, above all, social conditions to be met, communication must be ensured between the parties both on the level of general language as well as specialist languages. The article attempts to illustrate the complexity of the translation and implementation processes in the field of specialist technical terminology by focusing on the language of electrical engineering. More specifically, it discusses the translator’s work required in the creation of a new technical terminology and the issues of practical communication in a specialist language among employees.

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2 Business Communication Successful communication is one of essential foundations of good cooperation. In the context of business, its inseparable component is the use of specialist languages. We may encounter different types of languages depending on the specific areas of business communication ranging from the implementation of new technical solutions to the observance of necessary procedures. Apart from general language, which is used on a regular basis, at least several additional specialist languages are used in every company. Among these are economic language and legal language. The use of these specialist languages is required by the very nature of all business enterprises which include areas such as accounting and finance, human resources and payroll as well as the conclusion of all kinds of contracts. The presence of other specialist languages and their idiolects is usually determined by the fact that a company operates in a given industry. For companies in the medical industry, medical language and its idiolects are required. On the other, companies in the wood industry will be using a specialized language related to woodworking, etc. A different issue pertaining to language is the choice of language used as a communication tool between partners from different countries. The English language is undoubtedly the lingua franca of today’s business world. With few exceptions, large corporations operating throughout Europe communicate in this language. It can be noticed that English is becoming the language of communication even in German corporations such as Bertelsmann, Beiersdorf, DaimlerChrysler, Deutsche Bank and Zurich Insurance, etc. Also in many French global companies such as Alcatel, Axa and L’Oréal, English has become the language of official communication. Contracts and technical documentation are drawn up exclusively in English, and company conferences are held in English too (Boldea et al., 2010, p. 175). English is also preferred as the language of communication in large Polish companies, especially in those where managers from younger generations are working. When it comes to medium and small enterprises (less than 250 employees) from Germany the situation seems to function slightly differently. According to Gester (2011, p. 86), medium-sized enterprises are more likely to place a high value on good German language skills and communication. Gestor’s survey of “small and medium-sized enterprises with German or Austrian participation” operating in the Czech Republic showed that German was ranked higher than English. A good knowledge of German was highly valued and expected as an important qualification for all respondents, while English was considered important by only about 40% of respondents. The research into Polish market practices shows that large German companies vary with regard to their language policies. My interviews with employees of VW, Tchibo or other leading large German companies have shown that these corporations have not established any guidelines or regulations regarding the use of German or English. All major documents, rules and regulations may be drafted in German within the corporate group, but when the same companies address letters to their business partners abroad, they usually address them in English. The decisive factor

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here is the belief that the English language is more widespread and therefore an enquiry written in English can be answered more quickly. If, however, the business partner replies in German, further correspondence is willingly conducted in this language. In conclusion, it could be claimed that in large corporate groups, German is regarded more as an administrative language, while English is preferred as the language of contact with the outside world. The decisive factor here seems to be the pragmatic attitude of German managers, who are relatively indifferent to the language in which business matters are discussed. For them, the most important thing is that the communication goes smoothly and that you can achieve your business goal quickly and efficiently. It is also worth to add that, as explained by Vollstedt (2002, p. 51) who surveyed leading German companies, there is no requirement to use German or English as a contact language when dealing with foreign partners. The only company with “Group languages in the guidelines” was Beyer AG, where both German and English were officially established as contact languages. There may be various reasons for this. On the one hand, state authorities and public institutions strive to cultivate German as an international language; on the other hand, it is often overlooked by those who could implement such a policy because, as already mentioned, the choice of language is mainly determined by pragmatic factors aimed at effective communication. Finally, costs are another relevant issue (Bungarten, 2001, pp. 24 ff.) as language training is not a small and cheap feat. In result, it is often easier and cheaper to hire employees with already existing English language skills than to offer German language courses. German and Polish entrepreneurs, especially those of the younger generation who trade with each other, communicate most often in English, less often in German but almost never in Polish. If a Polish company sends an e-mail to or makes a phone call to a potential customer in Germany, it usually does so in English. The German company behaves similarly when addressing requests for offers to Poland, as both consider English to be a neutral language that the foreign partner should know (Ammon, 2015, p. 425). Although business communication in a neutral lingua franca, that is, English, has its undisputed advantages, communicating in the native language of the business partner brings a number of benefits which may positively influence the relationship between the parties. While the choice of English for non-English speaking partners is considered to be neutral, communicating in the national language of one of the partners could indicate that we are going to great lengths by offering comfort and reassurance to the other party. If a trader offering his goods to a German partner speaks better English than the latter, his German customer will be reluctant to lose the role of a privileged customer and feel insecure in such a relationship. Brown and Levinson (1987, p. 65) speak in this context of the risk of losing one’s territory and freedom of action. A good command of the German language often enables one to establish a good personal contact with the client because he feels more confident in his native language. If you communicate with a foreign partner in his native language, you appear culturally closer, more “familiar” to him or her, which also translates into a better relationship. From a purely pragmatic point of view, choosing German for contacts with German customers could give you a considerable edge.

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3 Specialist Language and Translation of Specialist Texts Communication with a foreign partner for professional purposes is largely carried out using specialist languages, which in this study are understood as subsystems of national languages used in a systematic manner and for a specific purpose, for instance, medical, legal, telecommunication, engineering. The emergence of such variants of language probably took place during the formation of regularly repeated purposeful activities with a relatively narrow application. Over time, the subdivision of work in society led to the creation of special tools and, in consequence, special professional subdomains. This, in turn, has been accompanied by the creation of new concepts and groups of concepts together with a special nomenclature for naming and referring to them—the latter process could be called the creation of specialist languages. In this context, the question of the boundary between general and specialist languages arises (Pie´nkos, 1993, p. 262). Although at present the opinion that specialist languages are subsystems of the national language prevails, in the past there were also voices claiming that there were no specialized languages, but only specialized vocabularies (Rey, 1976, p. 7). Today, a similar point of view is presented by Wilko´n (2000, p. 99) and Grabias (2003, p. 125). Hoffmann (1976, p. 170) proposes the following definition of specialist language (Ger. Fachsprache): Gesamtheit aller sprachlichen Mittel, die in einem fachlich begrenzbaren Kommunikationsbereich verwendet werden, um die Verständigung zwischen den in diesem Bereich tätigen Menschen.

For Szulc (1984, p. 106), a specialist language is “a particular form of a national language, adapted to the most precise description of a specific branch of knowledge or technology”. Specialist language understood in this way is distinguished above all by professional vocabulary, specific syntax and specific use of certain grammatical forms (Szulc, 1984, p. 107). Contemporary definitions of specialized languages emphasize primarily their functionality (Lukszyn, 1998, p. 143) and a unique pragmatic dimension (Adamzik, 2018, p. 12) in relation to general language, which is achieved by using certain resources including specialized terminology, specific grammatical forms and specific syntax. In line with such assumptions, Bußmann (2002, p. 211) defines a specialist language as: “Linguistic variety with the function of precise, effective communication about mostly job-specific subject areas and fields of activity”. When compared to general language, specialist/specialized languages are characterised by a number of distinctive features. First of all, specialized language is characterized by a relatively limited range of concepts functioning within a given field. These concepts are precisely defined which allows for a precise description of phenomena, things or processes at hand. Another feature of specialist languages regards morphological and syntactic levels. Here, we can observe a range of differences pertaining to word formation, different forms of some concepts, and a tendency to prefer selected grammatical structures. This difference can be illustrated with the

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declension of the German noun Herz in the German medical language or a relatively frequent use of the passive voice in descriptions of technological processes. Specialized languages also differ from general language in terms of the competences of users. In the context of specialist languages, in order to communicate efficiently both the sender and the recipient must demonstrate specific knowledge and skills required by a given professional or technical field. Finally, the difference between a specialized language and general language becomes noticeable as the professional discussion begins. It can be easily observed that general language does not allow us to communicate in a more precise way and at a higher level of abstraction. Only the means of specialized language allow this goal to be achieved. This is demonstrated by the vertical analysis, which distinguishes three levels of specialist language: 1. 2. 3.

The specialist scientific level with the highest level of abstraction. The language used by specialists. The workshop language with the lowest level of abstraction (Ischreyt, 1965, p. 38).

General language is located below the workshop language, and therefore at a level that allows for professional communication at a low level or even prevents it. Later models oscillate between two and five dimensions, taking into account various aspects of communication (Hahn, 1983, p. 72). Another way of classifying specialist/specialized languages is called the horizontal analysis. Here, they are defined as subsystems of general language. We can distinguish at least several hundred different specialized languages corresponding to various fields of science, technology or the so-called institutional areas including engineering, medicine, aviation, consumer service, etc. (Fluck, 1996, p. 16). The distinctive character of specialized languages in relation to general language also affects the process of translating texts written in such languages. First of all, the translator’s approach to translating requires a deeper understanding of the text and an above-average knowledge, the so-called background knowledge (Kozłowska, 2007, p. 44). A translator who translates specialist texts should, apart from knowing the terminology and features of a given type of text, also demonstrate at least general knowledge of a given field (Pisarska & Tomaszkiewicz, 1996, p. 186). When speaking of the knowledge of terminology, it should be noted that it is not enough to know the equivalents themselves. The translator also needs to know and understand their definitions and fields of application. This aspect can be exemplified by differences in meaning of the Polish term zarz˛ad spółki and its German equivalents Vorstand and Geschäftsführung. In the process of translating a specialist text, the translator may be perceived as a mediator who transfers knowledge and acts as sort of intermediary between the sender in A and the recipient in B. The translation performed by the translator should allow for a faithful reconstruction of the factual knowledge emitted by the author in the mind of the recipient. The term faithful reconstruction of knowledge should be understood as a final effect that will enable the application of knowledge in accordance with the intentions of the sender of the message. Certainly, apart from a

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good command of language and at least general substantive knowledge, a contextual approach to specialist translation is necessary. This is due to the fact that the source text, the conditions in which it was created and the author himself or herself are embedded in a specific reality all contribute to a better understanding of the text and reflect its meaning in the target language (Osiejewicz, 2013, p. 366). In order to achieve the above-outlined goals, the work of a specialist translator is inevitably associated with the use of specific translation strategies and techniques. While strategies regard a general approach to the translation process, techniques are related to choosing a specific method and its implementation. On the one hand, we can talk about striving for formal equivalence, when the translator’s attention focuses on the search for exact equivalents of each concept or phrase from the source text. On the other hand, it can be seen as a search for dynamic equivalence, when the translator aims to achieve, above all, identity of meaning (Pie´nkos, 1993, p. 272). Regardless of the choice of one of the above techniques, a specialist translation is in general characterized by a very high degree of semantic fidelity to the text compared to literary translation, with no omissions or additions allowed. Overall, it should be stated that the text written in a specialized language is distinguished from the text written in general language not only by its specific vocabulary, but also by a specific syntax, word formation, a tendency to use nominal or verbal constructions, and depersonification (i.e., the use of passive voice). Another key feature is its very specific reference to extra-linguistic reality which is usually absent in texts written in general language. As for differences between particular types of specialist texts, they are visible not only with regard to terminology (e.g., medical versus technical) but also in terms of the style used in a given field (Baumann, 1992, p. 150). In result, a translator who renders specialist texts needs to take a unique approach to his work. In addition to the need for continuous linguistic training and exploring the areas in which the translation takes place, the translator should also have a sense of responsibility for his work, because mistakes in specialist/specialized translation may lead to tangible material losses or even cost human health or life.

4 Electrotechnical Industry and Its Language The electrical engineering industry, which can be very broadly understood as “a modern branch of engineering that uses physics, electronics and electromagnetism to design and develop products using or generating electricity” (https://www.indeed. com/career-advice/finding-a-job/what-is-electrical-engineering), has seen a particularly intensive development in the twentieth century. In the last 20 years, in connection with accelerating globalisation processes and the pursuit of cost optimisation, a process of locating production in countries with lower production costs could be observed. The highly industrialised countries of Western Europe are therefore looking for production opportunities in Asia or in the former Eastern Bloc countries, where the level of production costs is much lower than in Western Europe. As far as the production of finished products is concerned, the process of manufacturing has been

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dominated by Chinese and Korean companies. However, when it comes to cooperation, i.e., the cooperation based on regular deliveries of parts and sub-assemblies which are refined and/or assembled into finished products by one of the partners and then returned, short transport routes and fast delivery times are decisive. This is why it is often more economical to cooperate locally, i.e., within Europe. A good example of this is the cooperation between Polish and German companies. Poland’s favourable geographical location in relation to Germany means that the cooperation between Polish and German entrepreneurs in the electrotechnical sector has been developing intensively for many years, which also has a significant impact on the state of the electrotechnical specialist language in Poland. This is possible because the development of a specialised language as one of the idiolects of general language takes place together with the development of a given industry in a given country. This process of specialisation can be compared to linguistic peculiarities of various language groups as in the case of the Inuit communities who have at least a few terms for snow because in their environment they are familiar with various weather phenomena that do not occur, for example, in Africa and in the languages of African countries. Of course, it should not be forgotten that specialised knowledge as well as scientific and technological achievements are also subject to globalisation. This means that certain specialised terms will certainly sooner or later appear in national languages as knowledge in a given field spreads. However, this will be usually a type of knowledge reserved for a very narrow group of specialists and known in a more limited way than if the branch in question is more widely represented and developed in a given locality or region. Starting from the above mentioned definition of a specialised language understood as a functional variant of general language whose use requires a set of specialised terminology (Lukszyn, 1998, p. 143), it can be easily stated that the specialised language of electrical engineering has all the hallmarks of a specialised idiolect or technolect. This language is part of general language that constitutes a subset of the subgroup that goes under the name of technical language. It is believed that it is best to see the language of electrical engineering not as an independent and complete code, but as a complementary subsystem and the correlate of general language (Grucza, 2008, p. 12). In fact, no specialised language exists without a link to a national language as concepts from general language are employed in specialist language with more precise or different meanings. Moreover, the specialist language of electrical engineering can be seen as a kind of polytechnolect (Grucza, 2002, p. 16)—it shows a certain limited range and is characteristic for the group of users dealing with electrical engineering. In terms of terminology, electricity and mechanics dominate in the language of electrical engineering. At the same time, however, terms from other technolects also appear (e.g., Pressteile = wypraski—plastics processing industry) as there is a strong link to other technical industries. As with other specialist languages, a high level of monoreferentiality can be observed, i.e., a close link between the phenomenon and its name (e.g., Thermoschalter = wył˛acznik termiczny). Similarly to other specialized languages, the occurrence of synonyms and homonyms is limited, which allows for precise descriptions of assembly processes. Another distinctive feature is the use of a

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number of abbreviations (e.g., HS = Hochspannung, SZ = Schauzeichen, Bi-Scheibe = Bimetallscheibe) and a tendency to use borrowings from English (Pie´nkos, 2003, p. 264). Impersonal constructions and infinitive sentence equivalents are used in descriptions of assembly processes and all kinds of production instructions. The above description concerns a narrow sector of production and assembly of electromechanical relays and thermal switches, which are manufactured in Poland and distributed in Europe, North America and Africa by a German company. The start of the co-operation and the commencement of production by the Polish partner was preceded by a long preparatory process which included decisions concerning technology, organisation of production and communication. Preparatory activities in the field of communication consisted mainly of translation work that resulted in the development of a particular style of communication.

5 Translating and Implementing Electrotechnical Terminology: The Case of Polish-German Cooperation Communication in business takes place through both general language and specialised languages specific for a given industry. Within the accepted standards and algorithms for dealing with specific situations, specialist terminology is used to optimise communication, improve its quality and prevent misunderstandings. The Polish partner, when taking over and implementing a new production, is therefore forced to implement new communication schemes and specialist terminology so that the cooperation can proceed smoothly and effectively. This process involves translating into the target language (L2) and implementing documentation, instructions and other supplementary materials. In this situation, the translation work was carried out by a team of specialists, including technicians and electrical engineering experts as well as translators or specialists with a good knowledge of the foreign language. They first familiarised themselves with the foreign-language source documentation in order to adapt the technological processes to the local conditions. At the same time, the documentation in the target language was created, including specialist terminology and process descriptions in the L2. The type and function of the text, the purpose of the translation and cultural norms of the target language played a key role in the translation process. In the analysed case, technical and production documentation for manufacturing and assembling of electromechanical relays and thermal switches as well as the individual documents (as in Fig. 1) were assigned to the following documentation groups: – – – – – –

Materialaufstellungen—Material lists; Fertigungsvorschriften—Technological descriptions of the production processes; Richtlinien für QS-Kontrolle—Quality control guidelines; Lagerungs- und Versandvorschriften—Procedures for Storage and Dispatch; Reklamationssverfahren—Complaints Procedures; Auditberichte—Inspection Reports.

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Fig. 1 Source document sample written in German

As mentioned in Sect. 3, the process of translating specialised texts relies not only on the knowledge of a foreign language and specialised terminology, but also on the knowledge of the field and the subject matter of the translated text. Hence, the process of documentation translation was preceded by study visits to the German partner. During these visits the representatives of the Polish company could familiarise themselves with the specifics of production and documentation in the original language (L1) and clarify issues of concern. Following the adoption of a detailed

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production implementation plan, a team of three translators got down to work first, with the task of translating the components of the above technical documentation. Before starting the translation work, the procedural rules for the translation of the documentation were defined. The need for such a procedure is highlighted by Kozłowska (2007, pp. 55–56). For the translation to be carried out clearly, responsibly and effectively, it was necessary to take into account, among other things, the recipient entity, the culture of the target language and, above all, the purpose of the translation. The following criteria were therefore adopted for the above technical documentation: – Awareness of a clearly stated purpose—pragmatics and functionality (e.g., production instructions). – Understanding of the specifics, conditions and dependencies of the processes. – Principle of using consistent terminology (avoiding synonyms). – Syntax typical of technical language (simple, no complex sentences, sentence equivalents). – Lack of literary stylistic devices. – Unambiguously formulated sentences. The main principle guiding the translators was the criterion of functionality, as there was a specific, highly specialised field of application of parts and subassemblies whose names had to be translated from German into Polish. The team of translators was equipped with available means of technical support in the form of computer hardware and CAT-type specialised software in order to ensure uniformity of translation. In addition, translators made use of all available bilingual dictionaries and Internet sources as well as consulted specialists in the field of electrical engineering. The main dictionary was the WNT (scientific and technical), the DeepL translator and the Linguee dictionary were also used. The final decision on the selection of the terms to be included in the Polish documentation was made by the translator with the approval of the technologist responsible for production processes. The final product of the translators’ and technologists’ work was a complete documentation in Polish (as in Fig. 2), which was then used in production processes. Translating specialised texts involves intense decision-making and requires an extremely analytical approach to texts. The problems faced by translators resulted from a variety of reasons. The most common were: 1. 2. 3.

no equivalents in Polish; equivalents with a shifted semantic field; terms that did not accurately convey the meaning of the German concept.

In obvious cases direct equivalents were used (Hydraulikpresse = hydraulic press). However, in doubtful situations the criterion of functionality was decisive (Kontaktträger = base contact). The result of the translation of selected terms and the associated problems is illustrated in Table 1. Another aspect that had to be taken into account in the translation process was the syntax typical of technical specialist language. The inherent features of all kinds of manuals and technical documentation are:

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Fig. 2 Example of a translated document

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Table 1 Summary of selected terms and their translation into Polish German name

Polish term in the WNT dictionary

Polish term in the Linguee Dictionary

Polish term suggested by the translator

Term used by production workers

Thermoschalter

el. przeł˛acznik cieplny

brak

wył˛acznik termiczny

termowył˛acznik

Kontaktträger

el. podstawa styków

brak

styk bazowy

spr˛ez˙ yna gruba

Kontaktfeder

el. spr˛ez˙ yna stykowa

brak

styk elastyczny spr˛ez˙ yna cienka

Systemträger

brak

brak

podstawa przeka´znika

podstawa

Kappe

masz. pokrywa, kaptur

kaptur

obudowa przeka´znika

obudowa, kapa

Stößel

masz. popychacz

popychacz

nastawiacz powrotny

kołeczek

Anschlusstechnik

brak

brak

podzespół styków

komplet styków

popychacz

drabinka

Rechen

masz. grabie

grabie

Thermosockel

arch.: cokół

trzon, podstawa obudowa wył˛acznika termicznego

cokół

Zwischenlage

masz. podkładka

warstwa po´srednia

podkładka

podkładka

Bi-Scheibe, Bimetallscheibe

brak

brak

podkładka bimetalu

bimetal

Schweissanschluss

brak

brak

przył˛acze zgrzewane

pasek stykowy

Anker

el. kotwica, zwora

kotwica

zwora

zwora

Oberfläche

powierzchnia

powierzchnia

pokrycie (galwaniczne)

pokrycie

Phrases with an adjective / participle at the end: – Sockel gealtert = wy˙zarzana obudowa wył˛acznika; – Hülse, Hohlniet gratfrei und versilbert = tuleja ogratowana i posrebrzana; Verb phrases: – Anschlusstechnik abbiegen = nale˙zy przegi˛ac´ styki przył˛aczeniowe; – Bi-Scheiben bei 300 °C altern = wy˙zarzy´c podkładk˛e bimetalu w 300 °C. Structures: sein + Infinitiv: – Bei KB-Typen ist der Rücksteller in den Sockel zu fügen (10-mal); – Gefüllte Greifbehälter und Folienbeutel sind mit Artikel- bzw. Zeichnungsnummer zu kennzeichnen.

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Passive Voice: – Bei SO-Ausführung wird zusätzlich die Blechkappe gestrichen; – Kontaktfedern werden doppelt geschweißt = spr˛ez˙yny stykowe zgrzewa´c podwójnie.

6 Conclusions Translation and implementation of specialist vocabulary in a Polish manufacturing company is a complex process which usually involves both translators and a team of specialists. Were it not for such a specialist support, it would be difficult for translators to make a professional translation without avoiding mistakes, mainly of terminological nature. The larger the group of people involved in the translation process, the more necessary it is to adopt precise rules and criteria to ensure high quality and terminological uniformity. The process of verifying the final text is particularly important. It is becoming increasingly evident that technical support resources dedicated to translators alone are not enough. In addition to the knowledge of CAT software, the translator of professional/technical texts should also possess a more-than-average knowledge of text processing and editing technologies as the demands of clients in this area are increasing. For example, a technical documentation delivered in a non-editable version must first be converted into an editable one, and all diagrams and drawings must be graphically processed in such a way that the target document in the L2 language does not differ visually from the document in the L1 language. Such skills become an essential requirement for a present-day specialist translator. Translation process is not automatic and does not boil down to searching for direct equivalents as one-to-one equivalence is extremely rare to find. Some specialised terms are missing from dictionaries as they are published every ten years or so, while ongoing scientific and technical developments mean that new technical terms emerge every single year. Given this ever-changing environment, it is argued that the criterion of functionality in the search for a name/term is the one to be recommended. After all, when faced with a lack of established terms, it is the purpose that should determine the process of naming of a given technical part or operation. The translator should also bear in mind that even after the translation work is completed, corrections may be necessary in the target documentation, as language usage together with employees themselves often decide on the acceptance and use of given terms. In the context discussed here, it can be noticed that there is a partial discrepancy between official terminology and terms used by production workers. This can be explained by various factors including simplification, comfort of use, or even more effective mnemonics (e.g., Kontaktafeder—elastic contact—thin spring). In some situations, the phenomenon of departing from Polish terminology and using the original German term with a polonised pronunciation (e.g., Kappe—kapa) can be also noticed.

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In conclusion, the process of translating and implementing terminology in production companies should be seen as a highly individualised one. It involves a range of domain experts from translators and technologists to other industry specialists. As far as translators are concerned, this process requires a long and thorough preparation as well as skills and knowledge that go beyond basic language transfer competences.

References Adamzik, K. (2018). Fachsprachen. Die Konstruktion von Welten. Franke Verlag. Ammon, U. (2015). Die Stellung der deutschen Sprache in der Welt. De Gruyter. Baumann, K.-D. (1992). Die Fachlichkeit von Texten als eine komplexe Vergleichsgröße. In K.-D. Baumann & H. Kalverkämper (Eds.), Kontrastive Fachsprachenforschung (pp. 29–48). Gunter Narr Verlag. Boldea, M., Dragoi, I., & Lavrits, P. (2010). Der Einfluss der Anglizismen auf die deutsche Wirtschaftssprache. European Integration—New Challenge, 1(2), 174–180. https://EconPapers. repec.org/RePEc:ora:journl:v:1:y:2010:i:2:p:174-180 Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge University Press. Bußmann, H. (2002). Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft. Kröner. Bungarten, T. (2001). Motive der Sprachenwahl und des Sprachgebrauchs in der europäischen Wirtschaft. In C. de Bot, S. Kroon, P. de Nelde, & H. van de Velde (Eds.), Institutional status and use of national languages in Europe (= Plurilingua, 23) (pp. 19–40). Asgard. Fluck, H. R. (1996). Fachsprachen, Einführung und Biographie. Franke. Gester, S. (2011). Quo vadis, DaF?: Betrachtungen zu Deutsch als Fremdsprache in der Tschechischen Republik. VeRBuM. Grabias, S. (2003). J˛ezyk w zachowaniach społecznych. Wydawnictwo UMCS. Grucza, F. (2002). J˛ezyki specjalistyczne – indykatory i/lub determinanty rozwoju cywilizacyjnego. In J. Lewandowski (Ed.), J˛ezyki Specjalistyczne 2. Problemy technolingwistyki (pp. 9–26). Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Grucza, S. (2008). Lingwistyka j˛ezyków specjalistycznych. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu Kulturologii i Lingwistyki Antropocentrycznej Uniwersytet Warszawski. Hahn, W. (1983). Fachkommunikation. Entwicklung. Linguistische Konzepte. Betriebliche Beispiele. Walter de Gruyter. Hoffmann, L. (1976). Kommunikationsmittel Fachsprache. Eine Einführung. Akademie Verlag. Ischreyt, H. (1965). Studien zum Verhältnis von Sprache und Technik. Schwann. Kozłowska, Z. (2007). O przekładzie tekstu naukowego (na materiale tekstów j˛ezykoznawczych). Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Lukszyn, J. (Ed.). (1998). Tezaurus terminologii translatorycznej. PWN. Osiejewicz, J. (2013). W kwestii tłumaczenia tekstów technicznych. In S. Grucza, A. Marchwi´nski, & M. Płu˙zyczka (Eds.), Translatoryka. Koncepcje – Modele – Analizy (pp. 360– 368). Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu Kulturologii i Lingwistyki Antropocentrycznej Uniwersytet Warszawski. Pie´nkos, J. (1993). Przekład i tłumacz we wsp´ołczesnym s´wiecie: Aspekty lingwistyczne i pozalingwistyczne. Wydawnictwo PWN. Pie´nkos, J. (2003). Podstawy przekładoznawstwa. Od teorii do praktyki. Zakamycze. Pisarska, A., & Tomaszkiewicz, T. (1996). Współczesne tendencje przekładoznawcze. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM. Rey, A. (1976). Langue francaise. Presentation. Szulc, A. (1984). Podr˛eczny słownik j˛ezykoznawstwa stosowanego. PWN

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Vollstedt, M. (2002). Sprachenplanung in der internen Kommunikation internationaler Unternehmen. In Studien zur Umstellung der Unternehmenssprache auf das Englisch. Georg Olms Verlag. Wilko´n, A. (2000). Typologia odmian współczesnej polszczyzny. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu ´ askiego. Sl˛

Website https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/finding-a-job/what-is-electrical-engineering

Grzegorz Pawłowski is Head of the Department of Language and Communication at the State University of Applied Sciences in Konin, Poland. His research interests include translation studies, especially technical translation, and terminology. He is also a German-Polish translator and interpreter.

Forms of Address in Polish Nonprofessional Subtitles Anna B˛aczkowska

Abstract The aim of the study is to find out how the English form of address (FA) you is translated into Polish in professional and nonprofessional subtitles written for a romantic comedy What Women Want, directed by Nancy Meyers, and aired in 2000. The professional translation is compared with two types of nonprofessional translations—amateur subtitles (fansubbing) and subtitles written by sophomore students of English Philology. Three versions of fansubbing and three versions of students’ translations constitute a corpus of ca. 48,000 words. Only contexts with you directed to the addressee (Goffman in Forms of Talk. University of Pennsylvania, 1981) i.e., ratified participant of a communicative act, were analysed. The study shows that, in terms of text length and the use of Polish informal forms of address, fansubbers’ translations resemble the original film dialogue, whereas students’ renditions are closer to the professional translation. Moreover, fansubbers’ renderings show a tendency to foreignize translation by ignoring the Polish socio-cultural norms of terms of address, while students’ translations tend to make the original dialogue more polite and more familiar to the target (secondary) audience. Keywords Polish forms of address · Subtitles · Corpus · Professional translation · Nonprofessional translation

1 Introduction The aim of the study is to find out how the English form of address (FA) you is translated into Polish in professional and nonprofessional subtitles written for a romantic comedy What Women Want, directed by Nancy Meyers, and aired in 2000. The professional translation is compared with two types of nonprofessional translations—amateur subtitles (fansubbing) and subtitles written by sophomore students of English Philology. Three versions of fansubbing and three versions of students’ translations constitute a corpus of ca. 48,000 words. The structure of the paper is as A. B˛aczkowska (B) University of Gda´nsk, Gda´nsk, Poland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_5

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follows. It starts with literature overview (Sect. 2) of the general concept of terms of address in English (Sect. 2.1) as well as forms of address used in the Polish language (Sect. 2.2). As the study deals with film translation, a separate section is devoted to discourse typical of films, most important features of subtitles, in particular non-professional subtitles, and to a brief overview of literature dealing with forms of address occurring in subtitles (Sect. 2.3). Two theoretical assumptions the paper adheres to, the Descriptive Translation Studies (Toury, 1995) and audience design (Goffman, 1981), are elaborated in Sect. 3, while the corpus structure and the methods of analysis employed in this research are described in Sect. 4. The results of the investigation are presented in Sect. 5, which is followed by a general discussion (Sect. 6) and conclusions (Sect. 7).

2 Literature Review 2.1 Forms of Address—General Considerations Terms of address are words or linguistic expressions that speakers use to appeal directly to their addressees (Jucker & Taavitsainen, 2003, p. 1). They are optional elements of a sentence with the function of denoting the addressee (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 773), which are treated by Levinson (1983, p. 71) as separate speech acts. Unlike exclamations, which have a fall or rise-fall intonation, terms of address tend to form a separate tone unit and have a fall-rise intonation when in initial position or rise when in mid-sentential position as well as when they form the tail of a tone unit (Quirk et al., 1985, pp. 773, 829). Incidentally, addresses may be also distinguished from exclamations on the grounds that the latter may be uttered in or without the presence of the target recipient; in fact, they may not identify the addressee whatsoever, nor elaborate any details about the addressee (Hill, 2014, p. 5; Schaden, 2005). Forms of address may be non-integrated with a clause (free) if separated from the main utterance, Biber et al. (1999, p. 1111) label them stand-alone, and they may also be integrated with a clause (bound), namely with the arguments of the predicate (Levinson, 1983, p. 71), and then they take one of the three positions: utterance-initial, utterance-middle, and utterance-final. They are usually encoded by nominals (first names, last names, titles, etc.) and pronominal forms. Interestingly, not all nominals may become vocatives; for example, the noun doctor is used vocatively (address form) as well as referentially, but, physician is used only referentially (Zwicky, 1974, p. 790). Forms of address are usually described in grammars under the rubric of vocatives (e.g., in Biber et al., 1999; Quirk et al., 1985). Vocatives “express attitude, politeness, formality, status, intimacy or a role relationship, and most of them mark

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the speaker characterising him or her to the addressee” (Zwicky, 1974). Quirk et al. (1985, p. 773), as well as Levinson (1983, p. 71) and Zwicky (1974), divide vocatives into calls and addresses. While the former is used to draw “attention of the person or persons addressed, signalling them out from others in hearing” (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 773), and are, more often than not, sentence-initial (Levinson, 1983, p. 71), addresses express “the speaker’s relationship or attitude to the person or persons addressed”, and are typically parenthetical (Levinson, 1983, p. 71). Apart from that, they are also markers of power or solidarity (Brown & Gilman, 1960), initiations of a conversation or closing-up signals, topic change cues, as well as face-threatening acts (Hill, 2014, p. 2), and expressions of politeness (Brown & Levinson, 1987). Greetings and partings may also have a vocative function (Levinson, 1983, p. 71). Using the term vocatives, however, is an unfortunate categorization, as in some languages, such as Polish, addresses may be expressed not only by the vocative case. In fact, as shown in more detail below, it is also encoded by the nominative case as well as other grammatical forms (B˛aczkowska, 2019; Braun, 1988; Łazi´nski, 2006, p. 137; Pisarkowa, 1979; Rusiecki, 1988; Szarkowska, 2013; WróblewskaPawlak & Kostro, 2012, p. 52). To avoid mixing the vocative case with the function of vocatives, the name appellatives will be used (following Szarkowska’s proposal) to designate instances which can be expressed not only by the vocative case but also the nominative case. Thus, appellatives will comprise here stand-alone forms of address (FA), utterance-initial (U-I), utterance-medial (U-M) and utterance-final (U-F) that are either in the nominative or the vocative case. Traditionally, in line with Brown and Gilman (1960, pp. 252–282), the pronominal address may be divided into T, stemming from Latin tu, and V, standing for Latin vos, and they govern either solidarity or power between interlocutors. Whilst this typology was generally believed to be suitable for languages with binary pronominal address system, essentially, the inadequacy of the T/V address system is now a bromide. The proposal, however, has a universalistic bias. Furthermore, there are a number of limitations of the research conducted by Brown and Gilman (1960), mainly the fact that it involved primarily male students, native speakers of French, German and Italian (as cited by Clyne et al., 2009, p. 15). Moreover, the T/V system as such does not do full justice to the wide array of options of forms of address available in a number of languages (Braun, 1988; Hill, 2014; Slobin, 1963), including Polish (B˛aczkowska, 2019). It also tends to focus solely on pronominal forms of address (Lubecka, 1993, p. 11). In Polish, the choice between the formal versus informal form of address does not boil down to a sheer decision between second person singular ty (“you”, informal), or third person singular pan (“Sir”, formal), as there are other options at the speaker’s disposal, such as verbal inflections, dropping ty altogether or using it for emphatic purposes, as well as pronominized nouns in third person singular integrated with a clause (which can be used in the nominative or vocative), attributive forms, titles etc.

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2.2 Forms of Address in Polish Polish is the so-called pro-drop language, which means that pronouns used as subjects can be omitted since person marking is taken over by morphological endings of the verb. Thus, unless marked, the pronominal subjects are skipped. (1)

Where do you want to go on holiday? “Dok˛ad [ø] chcesz pojecha´c na wakacje?”)

The use of unnecessary ty (“you”) in a pro-drop language may imply irritation and criticism (with the sentence stress on the verb following ty) or may be used for emphasis (and then it is stressed), whereas when ty is left out, a neutral question is asked (and then the question pronoun is stressed), as in: (2) (3) (4)

Co robisz? (“What are you doing?”) Co ty robisz? (“What are you doing?”, irritation/criticism) Ty znasz j˛a? (“Do you know her”, emphasis)

However, the English you may be rendered not only as the informal second person singular, whether signalled by the use of the pronoun ty (“you”) or encoded only morphosyntactically, but also as its distant equivalent pan (singular, masculine), pani (singular, feminine) or pa´nstwo (plural, both genders), panowie (plural, masculine), and panie (plural, feminine). Incidentally, the Polish pan (and its variants stemming from gender and number mentioned above), appeared in Polish no later than in the thirteenth century (Łazi´nski, 2006, p. 23), and originally it meant a landlord, an owner, somebody superior (Klemensiewicz, 1946, pp. 34–35). Only later was it grammaticalized into a pronoun and used as an address term. The word pan has, in fact, two functions: as a pronoun (pronominized noun) or as a noun used in the function of address term (Łazi´nski, 2006, p. 15; Stone, 1981; Wróblewska-Pawlak & Kostro, 2012). The nominative pan cannot occur on its own, and thus a surname must be added (Wierzbicka, 2016, p. 38). The distant form pan/pani is disallowed in Polish in the vocative without negative consequences unless it is accompanied by a title (see examples 5, 7). Thus, the appellative consists of two parts in Polish, as in panie Marku (appellative in the vocative case plus first name; pan + FN) or Panie Doktorze (appellative in the vocative plus title). If pan is not combined with a title, or is not deployed with the first name, using pure pan is considered impolite, disrespectful, and even depreciative (Łazi´nski, 2006), and it means whoever, an unimportant person who, for the sake of subtlety, is not addressed ty (“you”) (Klemensiewicz, 1946, p. 36). Interestingly, the form pan + last name (LN) is more popular in the old Prussian areas of Poland, which stems from the German address terms (Miodek, 1980, p. 178). In the eastern part of Poland and in rural areas the form pan + LN is considered relatively neutral (Miodek, 1980, p. 178). In general Polish, however, pan + LN is seen as an impolite term of address (Huszcza, 2006, p. 107; Miodek, 1980, p. 178; 1991, p. 34). The address pan combined with the last name is also less polite than a more neutral form prosz˛e pana (lit. “I ask Sir [+gen.]”). According to Miodek (1991, p. 34), prosz˛e pana/pani is the most typical address form expressing distance in Polish.

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Panie, co pan robisz? (“Hey Mister, what are you doing?”) *Do widzenia, panie. (“Good bye, sir”) Panie Kowalski, prosz˛e zadzwoni´c do mnie jutro. (“Mr Kowalski, please call me tomorrow”) Prosz˛e pana, prosz˛e si˛e ze mn˛a nie kłóci´c. (“Sir [lit. please, Sir], please do not quarrel with me”).

Example (5) illustrates an impolite form of address, with the informal address of the second person singular inflection (-isz, -esz). This form is often used in conflict contexts. It is typically combined with the formal pan (“Mr/Sir”) in the utteranceinitial position and repeated in the sentence-middle position. Interestingly, it typically occurs in the masculine. The use of pan in this way may be also restricted to clause level (examples 9–11), as forms of address may be both syntactically integrated and syntactically non-integrated (Łazi´nski, 2006, p. 17). In accord with Huszcza (2006), the forms of address below exemplify what he calls a negative honorification. The concordance between the appellative and the verbal form of address is violated here as the formal pan patterns with the informal second person singular ending (in lieu of the third person singular): (9) (10) (11)

Uwa˙zaj pan co mówisz. (“You watch out man what you are saying”) Patrz pan jak idziesz. (“You watch out man how you are walking”). Słuchaj pan. (“You listen man”).

Interestingly enough, the situation can be reversed to achieve a completely different effect. If the verbs take the form of the third person singular, inherent in the formal variant pan/pani, and are combined with familiar nominal appellative in the vocative case (e.g., Kasiu), then the sentence sounds polite, although not formal through and through; rather, somewhere midway between the polite informal and polite formal form, constituting half familiarity and weakening formality, yet it may sound condescending (example 12). The same sentence sounds much more formal with the term pani in the initial position preceding the first name, even though it is in the diminutive form (example 13). The most formal form is when the first name address is not in the form of diminutive, and it is combined with pani (example 14): (12) (13) (14)

Kasiu [+voc. +dim.], przyniesie [+3rd sing.] mi pani te dokumenty? (“Kate, will you bring me the documents?”) Pani Kasiu [+voc. +dim.], przyniesie [+3rd sing.] mi pani dokumenty? (Mrs Kate, will you bring me the documents?”) Pani Katarzyno [+voc. –dim.], przyniesie [+3rd sing.] mi pani dokumenty? (Mrs Catherine, will you bring me the documents?”)

Apart from pan/pani/pa´nstwo (3rd person singular masculine, 3rd person singular feminine; 3rd person plural), it is also possible to use nouns in the vocative to signal kinship and attributive address terms, such as: mamo (“mum” + voc.), babciu (“grandmother” + voc.), wujku (“uncle” + voc.), z˙ono (“wife” + voc.), dyrektorze (“director” + voc.), profesorze (“professor” + voc.), etc. (examples 15–16). Interestingly, such nominal (third person) addresses can be also syntactically integrated with

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a clause and used (pronominally) in the sentence-middle position when in the nominal case; however, they sound formal and old-fashioned (Tomiczek, 1983, p. 183): (15) (16)

Mamo [+voc.], kup mi ciastko. (“Mum, buy me a cake”) Czego si˛e wujek [+nom.] napije? (“What would uncle like to drink?)

The last example may be also preceded by appellative call wujku [+voc.], the nonintegrated appellative, to use Tomiczek’s terminology. Surprisingly, even though almost forty years ago Pisarkowa (1979) claimed that the mid-sentential familiar address term (e.g., wujek in example 16) was dying, it is still used nowadays; it does sound, however, slightly archaic. When the vocative term is substituted by its nominative form, then it creates a strong impolite and low-class effect. If left in the vocative, a strong polite effect is achieved: (17) (18)

Ojciec [+nom.], kiedy pojedziemy do miasta? (“Father, when will we go to town?”) Ojcze [+voc.], kiedy pojedziemy do miasta? (“Father, when will we go to town?”)

Likewise, the English nominal addresses with the first name may be, essentially, translated in two ways into Polish, where they are morphologically marked. One option is to use the vocative case (with the Polish -u ending), which is more formal (Bralczyk, 2001, p. 203), and is conducive to greater social distance and politeness. The other option is a more informal form, the nominative (with the -a ending), which is also widely used. The stability of these forms is not fixed. The -u form is claimed by Tomiczek (1983) to be increasingly less popular, yet Jaworski (1992, p. 98) disagrees with this opinion and suspects that it is the vocative that gains the upper hand. Be that as it may, today both forms are acceptable and popular, especially when used in the affectionate diminutive (+dim.), or, more precisely, in the hypocoristic form. (19) (20)

Kasia [+dim. +nom.], prze´slij mi t˛e ksi˛az˙ k˛e. (“Kate, send me this book.”) Kasiu [+dim. +voc.], prze´slij mi t˛e ksi˛az˙ k˛e. (“Kate, send me this book.”)

In sum, in Polish, forms of address may be both pronominal and nominal, and they can be either non-integrated with a clause or integrated with a clause; the former also known as free and the latter as bound forms of address (Betsch, 2002, p. 125).

2.3 Film Discourse and Film Translation—Subtitles Although telecinematic discourse1 intends to imitate naturally occurring language, it is not natural at all but fictional. Film dialogues are written-to-be-spoken (and acted),

1

The language of films is most often dubbed telecinematic discourse (Bublitz, 2017; Messerli, 2017; Piazza et al., 2011), but if one wants to be more specific then the terms television dialogue (Quaglio, 2009) or cinematic dialogue (Kozloff, 2000) are deployed.

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so they are scripted, pre-planned, rehearsed and controlled, thus never are they spontaneous instances of speech. In striving to reflect the authenticity and realism of naturally occurring discourse, they contain a plethora of the requisite elements of spoken discourse, such as interjections, informal lexis, preference of simple over subordinate sentences, ellipsis, contractions, expletives, hesitations, etc., geared towards adding naturalness and verisimilitude to the scripted text. However, there is no backchannelling, false starts, filled pauses, disfluencies, vagueness, etc. The reduction of these features of orality inherent in natural face-to-face interaction is inevitable (Bublitz, 2017, p. 243; Kozloff, 2000, p. 18). Thus, film discourse is characterised by reduced orality (Bublitz, 2017), i.e., less spontaneous and more cohesive language, with few interruptions, no overlapping utterances, fewer interjections and discourse markers, fewer expletives, higher lexical density, reduction of premodifying adjectives to one, and shorter sentences and turns, as well as rare passives, with the aim to re-present and mimic the spontaneity of naturally occurring speech (for more details see Bublitz, 2017; Piazza et al., 2011). As noticed by Formentelli (2014), however, there may be more vocatives in film dialogue than in natural speech. Even so, film dialogues often strike viewers with their realism and authenticity (Bublitz, 2017, p. 244; Kozloff, 2000). Along with scripted dialogues acted out by actors, this replication of realism is also owed to “an accurate representation of a cultural milieu” and “what [it] accepts as plausible, everyday, authentic” (Kozloff, 2000, pp. 47–48). In audiovisual translation, film discourse is premised on the orality of the scripted dialogues yet it has to consider some translation constraints, notably of time (exposure of each subtitle up to 6 s) and space (the number of signs per line and per subtitle up to ca. 40), which are peculiar to subtitling, as well as the fact that subtitles represent written discourse, while film dialogues reflect oral communication. In general terms, subtitles thus stand mid-way between the features of oral language (spoken discourse) and the nature of the written word. Nonprofessional subtitling may be divided into two subtypes: amateur (fansubbing) and students’ subtitling (by would-be subtitlers). While both are indicative of unprofessional competences and skills, students of modern languages with the specialisation path in translation are equipped with some theoretical knowledge and practical competencies acquired in the course of formal education. Amateurs, on the other hand, by definition, lack such competences and knowledge as students do; however, some of them may be educated in subtitling/translation studies and, more importantly, have substantial experience in subtitling. Amateur subtitlers form anonymous groups, who provide fans of audiovisual media with unauthorised subtitles they write themselves, working voluntarily and often with tasks distributed among team members. Fansubbers offer their subtitles free, sharing them with online communities of fansubbers and allowing internet users to download their works (in .srt files, which are separate from the films) as soon as possible, trying to follow closely the date of the original (usually American) premier. The communities of fansubbers have not been well explored and described, as they work underground and on the verge of authorship law; hence not much is known about who they actually are. Massidda (2015) speculates that the Italian fansubbers are aged between 18 and 35 years. Even

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though they are amateurs, their level of English is usually surprisingly high, sufficiently advanced to understand the dialogues and, oftentimes, to write the subtitles by ear (and not seldom overnight). Massidda (2015, p. 44) ventured a statement that, at least in the case of Italian groups of fansubbers whom she analysed, the skills of amateur translators are rapidly improving insomuch as they may be seen as a challenge to mainstream subtitling practices. Antonini and Chiaro (2009, p. 100), on the other hand, claim that fansubbers strive with cultural aspects in translation, who opt for foreignization (Venuti, 1995), which excessively exoticises translation, making it sound foreign, if not strange, to the viewer. Moreover, their translations tend to be very close to the original dialogues (Bruti & Zanotti, 2015, p. 235). The tendency of excessive fidelity to the original was also noticed in the case of students’ subtitles, in which the students often resort to literal translation, which induces verbosisty and similarity to the stylistic features of spoken discourse (B˛aczkowska, 2015a, 2015b). As fansubbers are not committed by any company, and work without any pecuniary remuneration, they have complete freedom of subtitling norms, so they establish their own internal guidelines for subtitling, which may differ from officially rulegoverned professional subtitling requirements. The norms and expectations from (a professional) subtitling notwithstanding, fansubbing may, and it is often the case, substantially drift away from the official version of TV or DVD subtitles. Fansubbing as such originally started with Japanese anime fans who wanted to make anime more accessible to other fans. This activity soon spread to other media productions, in particular to American films, and thus groups of anonymous subbers were formed in many countries. Two Italian groups of amateur subbers, ItaSa and Subsfactory, were described by Massidda (2015). A group of fansubbers from Argentina called aRGENTeaM received some interest in publications by OrregoCarmona (2015). In Poland, there are several groups dealing with amateur subtitling. Mostly known, yet rather unexplored by scholars, include the ProjectHaven community (launched in 2011), RebelSubTeam (active as of 2014), and the HATAK group, which is probably the oldest fansubbing group. As the members of the HATAK group write on their website (http://grupahatak.pl), they constituted around the year 2000 and their aim is to subtitle keeping the highest standard in order to provide viewers with a product that does not omit and destroy anything important, which, in their opinion, is often the case of voice-over translations. This declaration is somewhat contradictory to the general rules for professional translation, where one of the golden rules is to omit some text (usually about 30–40%, Tomaszkiewicz, 2006, p. 113) that a viewer can deduce from other semiotic signals (such as pictures, tones of voice) as well as to leave untranslated the so-called ‘all-purpose’ phrases, such as sort of . These obligatory practices in the professional world are seen by some amateurs as “violent reduction” (Nornes, 1999, p. 18). Instead of reducing the original text Nornes (1999) promotes leaving as much of the original texts in the subtitles as possible, in particular the culture-specific concepts, even if such translation abuses the sociocultural norms of the target language and introduces foreign concepts and words that may be incomprehensible for the target viewer. Echoes of promoted “abusive subtitling” and the critique of “violent reduction” practised by professional translators to smooth over otherness, expressed by Nornes (1999, p. 18), can be also noticed in

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the manifesto of this amateur group; an approach which is radical and absent from mainstream scholarship on subtitling. Members of the HATAK group, including the translators, were sued for infringement of copyright in 2007, and next, acquitted after five years (grupahatak.pl). In Sweden, on the other hand, a Swedish fansubbing group publishing subtitles at the website undertexter.se was arrested and prosecuted, and the website was shut down (Pedersen, 2019). Legal problems with copyright constantly accompany and haunt fansubbers in many countries. Research into forms of address conducted so far has explored diverse aspects of the problem (Clyne et al., 2009), for example, FA occurring in institutional encounters (Formentelli & Hajek, 2015; Isovävi & Lappalainen, 2015; Kitayama, 2013; Manole, 2012; Warren, 2006), in political discourse (Fetzer & Bull, 2008; S˘aftoiu, 2013), as well as in Internet discourse, specifically in forums (Kretzenbacher & Schüpbach, 2015), and Dutch emails (Vismans, 2019). They have been explored in everyday discourse of the Scandinavian countries (Fremer, 2015; Haugen, 1975; Norrby et al., 2015), in the Spanish-speaking countries (Moyna & Rivera-Mills, 2016; Moyna, 2019), and in the German-speaking countries (Kretzenbacher, 2011; Kretzenbacher et al., 2006). Forms of address have also been analysed from a historical perspective (Benavides, 2016; Busse, 2006; Mazzon, 2010; Nevala, 2007; Taavitsainen & Jucker, 2003), and from a stylistic angle (Serrano, 2017), as well as from a sociolinguistic perspective, including problems of community identity (Juciˇci´c & Kress, 1978; Kluge, 2016; Liebscher et al., 2010). However, the issue of how to translate forms of address has not been touched upon by many scholars, let alone empirical accounts of address translation in vocatives/forms of address in subtitling. FA received some attention, inter alia, in literature translation (Assis Rosa, 2000; Ndlovu & Kruger, 1998) and in court interpreting (Angermeyer, 2005). As for film translation, there are several scholars dealing primarily with the notion of vocatives, such as Bruti and Perego (2008), Szarkowska (2010), Bruti and Zanotti (2012), Pavesi (2012), Formentelli (2014), and Kluge (2019). Forms of address in subtitles have been touched upon by Tomaszkiewicz (2006, pp. 141–142), Szarkowska (2013), Meister (2016), and B˛aczkowska (2019). Tomaszkiewicz (2006) claims that FA were more often not omitted at the beginning of a film, when characters are first presented, but after this presentation stage translators tend to skip them. Bruti and Perego (2008) noticed in their study of vocatives in Italian that repetition of names used as appellatives signalled importance of the character in the plot. In keeping with Szarkowska (2010, 2013), FA were retained in the subtitles for three Polish soap operas whenever they were used to address the auditor (using Bell’s parlance; see Sect. 3) or addressees over the phone. Pavesi (2012, p. 335) claims that there is a transfer from formal to informal vocatives in Italian dubbing (from English) which consists in pronoun shifts used in order to “anticipate or amplify the emotional intensity of key narrative moments”. In her study of nonprofessional subtitles of fansubberes and students of English, B˛aczkowska (2019) noticed that in multi-party encounters students of translation studies tended to use first names more often than fansubbers, and that the first names were used primarily to denote supporting characters rather than the leading character.

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3 Theoretical Assumptions There are several theoretical assumptions this paper adheres to. Firstly, the present analysis is embedded in the Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS; Toury, 1995), which, unlike the prescriptive approach (that prescribes, judges and criticises), focuses on the observation and description of the state of the art of the text under investigation. It is evaluation-free and formal assessment of the quality of translation is not the (only) aim of the research. Therefore, there will be no assessment of the contexts analysed in what follows, as being examples of good or bad translation. Instead, the focus will be placed on sheer observation and making comparisons of the actual translations, i.e., on what is rather than what should or could be, stressing the dissimilarities in subtitles, seeking explanation underpinning the subtitlers’ choices, and embedding the texts in social and cultural aspects (see B˛aczkowska, 2020a for details about this approach). This small-scale study is meant to contribute to the general aim of DTS, which is to provide “factual knowledge accumulated in actual studies” as only in this way can any law for translation emerge, based on “cumulative findings of descriptive studies” (Toury, 1995, p. 9). This analysis is empirical in nature, and thus it is also in line with the corpus-assisted methodology, which, in essence, relies on empirical data. On a more general note, the study also inscribes in the concept of translation-driven corpora and corpus-based translation research (Kruger et al., 2011; Zanettin, 2014), as the empirical data are collected in an electronic, machine-retrievable format, and the methods of analysis incorporate a methodology typically used in corpus linguistics. The taxonomy of audience design adopted in the present chapter draws on Goffman’s (1981) proposal of participation framework. Goffman (1981) distinguished five types of participants of a communicative act, apart from the sender, or in his parlance the animator. Thus, on the reception end, he discriminated among the addressee, the hearer (addressed and unaddressed), the eavesdropper, the overhearer and the by-stander, depending on the status of participants of the communicative act and whether or not a message the animator utters is purposefully listened to. Sometimes in literature the hearer is also referred to as the auditor (Bell, 1984), which labels only the unaddressed hearer (also known as the third party). The eavesdropper is in a shared context, who intentionally and surreptitiously listens to a message not directed to him/her, so s/he is obviously unentitled and unsanctioned (unratified), as well as unnoticed. Along with the eavesdropper, another type of diegetic listening by the third party is the overhearer, who is also an unaddressed, unratified and unnoticed receiver yet s/he listens to inadvertently and may occasionally listen to interaction and spontaneously switch off. Finally, the by-stander is present in the communicative act and may be noticed yet is inactive. In the present analysis, only the cases with the addressee being addressed straightforwardly were taken into account, i.e., dialogue setups wherein the person who is not sanctioned by the sender as the addressee are ignored (mainly auditors).

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4 Material and Methods The corpus used in the study is roughly 26,660 words in size and it was carved out from a larger project of film discourse the RoCo (romantic comedies) corpus project. The RoCo project contains scripts for 18 films produced in Great Britain and the USA, as well as their professional translations (subtitles) and nonprofessional subtitles produced by sophomore students of English philology on the one hand, and amateur subtitles retrieved from the web, on the other. The students’ subtitles used in this study constitute 9% of the whole corpus of nonprofessional subtitles, and they are a part of the LeCoS project (Learner Corpus of Subtitles), which was conducted between 2010 and 2015 (see B˛aczkowska, 2015a, 2015b; B˛aczkowska, 2016, 2019). The LeCoS (Le) subcorpus used in this study corresponds to three independent translations of the film What Women Want conducted by sophomore students of Modern English with the translation studies route. The students had a set of lectures on translation studies, including a series of lectures devoted to audiovisual translation, and a training session during tutorials on how to subtitle in line with the generally accepted subtitling rules (e.g., considering the time and space constraints). The free online Subtitle Workshop software (v. 6.0; http://subworkshop.sourceforge. net/) was used during the subtitling classes, which I had installed prior to the subtitling sessions. For the present analysis, three full versions of the subtitles for What Women Want were selected, translated by females aged 22–23 (for more details about the project see B˛aczkowska, 2015a, 2015b; B˛aczkowska, 2016). The amateur’s subtitles were retrieved from a website devoted to fansubbing, which at the time of retrieval was available at the address napisy.info; most probably it was administered by the HATAK group (they admit on their current website to keep the domain napisy.org, which is one of the other versions of napisy.info, when it was shut down due to legal problems). Legal issues make fansubbers repeatedly change the website addresses with their subtitles. Three versions were downloaded for the present study, which were the only copies available at the time of downloading. The professional version was gleaned from the DVD “What Women Want”, a romantic comedy originally aired in 2000, directed by Nancy Meyers, starring Mel Gibson and Helen Hunt, issued on DVD in 2001. All corpora, both fansubbing and students’ subtitles, were stored in an electronic format on the Sketch Engine corpus management system (www.sketchengine.co.uk), available for subscribed users. For comparative analysis, parallel corpora were developed. The retrieval of query lemmas was conducted with the aid of the regex-based Corpus Query Language (CQL) compatible with the Sketch Engine system, which allowed me to glean categories of contexts impossible to be garnered with a simple query (similar studies were conducted by Hoffmann and Evert (2006), and by Hardie (2012), who used CQP; and B˛aczkowska (2020b), who used CQL). For example, using CQL based on the Polish morphosyntactic tagsets, it is possible to extract Polish verbs solely in the second person singular, such as lubisz (“you like”), pachniesz (“you smell”), or jeste´s gotowy (“you are ready”), and the formal form of you in Polish in varying cases, for example only in the vocative (panie) or the nominative (pan)

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in singular. To cull the Polish noun chłopiec (“boy”), for example, the following CQL formula must be employed: subst:sg:nom:m1. The CQL-based data retrieval substantially speeded up the analysis and made it at all possible to examine such large data efficiently and with ease. The use of CQL for the Polish data, however, is limited by the number of tagsets available for the Polish language, which entailed some manual analysis for cases that could not be automatically extracted from the pool of data. For example, there is no tagset for the appellative as such and so they had to be retrieved by resorting to either long strings of CQL formula or to multiple retrievals. In other words, while CQL enormously speeded up text retrieval and the analysis, it did not manage to cover all queries. The structure of the corpus is as follows: the original soundtrack contains ca. 28 thousand tokens (ca. 6.1 thousand words), the fansubbing version consists of nearly 26,000 words, the students’ renditions (a part of the LeCoS data) amounts to ca. 21,000 words, while the professional version is about 6,000 words in size (Fig. 1). With regard to the technical aspect of film translation assuming text reduction in subtitles, which is a prescribed rule, a cursory glance at the data reveals that, on average, the students’ translations are shorter than the amateurs’ renditions and they are more similar to the professional version. The students also reduced the overall number of words by the prescribed 30–40% relative to the original version (Pisarska & Tomaszkiewicz, 1996, p. 207). Interestingly, a more extreme reduction was reported by Gottlieb (2001, p. 200) who claimed the omission of 50% of the original texts, and by Pedersen (2007) who mentioned as much as up to 70% of dialogue reduction in Sweden in the 1970s. As can be seen in Fig. 2, while both the students and the professional translator managed to follow the prescribed rule of 30– 40% of script reduction, the amateur subtitlers omitted very little. In line with what the HATAK group declares on their website, it may be a conscious procedure to retain as much text as possible in order to provide the viewer with the maximum quantity of the original dialogue. However, it must be noticed that there are substantial differences among the three versions, with version 2 being excessively verbose, and version 3 being close to the professional version. Thus, the tendency in text reduction among fansubbers is not unified. The students, on the other hand, having been informed about the principle of reducing the original text by approximately one third (and what is allowed to be omitted), evidently applied the rule to their translations. Fig. 1 Corpus structure

Professional 11% Fansubbing 50% LeCoS 39% Fansubbing

LeCoS

Professional

83

14.23

30.23

Fig. 2 Percentage of omitted text

39.5

Forms of Address in Polish Nonprofessional Subtitles

The aim of the study is to find out how the English FA you was rendered into the Polish FA by nonprofessional translators in subtitles for the American romantic comedy What Women Want, starring Mel Gibson (Nick Marshall) and Helen Hunt (Darcy McGuire). Similar research was conducted by Bruti and Zanotti (2012), who investigated how the English you was subtitled into Italian both by a professional translator and fansubbers. In the ensuing analysis, two types of nonprofessional translations from English into Polish will be compared, with three versions for each of them: amateur subtitles, written by anonymous translators (fansubbers), and students’ subtitles, written by sophomore students of English Philology in Poland. Thus, altogether, six versions of the translated texts will be analysed. Moreover, they will be examined against the backdrop of one professional subtitled translation in Polish and the original film dialogues. Another study based on the LeCoS data with reference to FA has been conducted by B˛aczkowska (2019) yet the analysis there focused on the differences in translations (subtitles) between address terms of first names only, and the aim was to discover whether there were any differences in translation of FA referring to the leading character vis-à-vis FA designating supporting characters.

5 Research Results The research presented in this section describes the following aspects of the translation of the English you into Polish by both professional and non-professional subtitlers: i.

the incidence of ty, versus pan and versus grammatical ending of the second person singular (2nd per. sg) are analysed quantitatively and compared across three subcorpora: fansubbing, students’ translations (LeCoS data) and the professional subtitles (Sect. 5.1);

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ii.

the distribution of ty and pan across each subtitling subcorpus are visualized (through distribution plot) and interpreted (Sect. 5.1); the occurrences of the last name (only (Nick) Marshall, the protagonist) and first names are examined quantitatively across the subcorpora of non-professional and professional subtitles and compared to the original (Sect. 5.2); the position of forms of address in a sentence in two non-professional translations relative to the original dialogue and the professional tranlation (Sect. 5.3); the most frequent functions forms of address play relative to the original dialogue and the professional tranlation (Sect. 5.4); the use of forms of address in face to face vs. multi party contexts relative to the original dialogue and the professional tranlation (Sect. 5.5).

iii.

iv.

v. vi.

Several exclusion criteria were applied here: (1) only cases of using FA towards addressees, understood in the Goffmanian sense, were considered; thus auditors, eavesdroppers, etc. were ignored; (2) the formal FAs in the plural (pa´nstwo) were not counted as they did not occur frequently in the corpus, (3) instances of selfpresentation (for example over the phone or while meeting new people) were omitted, (4) only the names in the appellative were taken into consideration, (5) the minimum number of occurrences of FN was set at 5. Therefore, the names Alex, Cameron, Dr Perkins, Ted, Annie and others were disregarded in the analysis due to the insufficient number of contexts. Even though the main function of addresses is to mark and maintain the social relationship between interlocutors, in the analysis below, following B˛aczkowska (2019), I introduced more specific cases thereof, such as greeting, emphasis and irritation. While they all may be spanned by the general category of marking or maintaining social distance or closeness, they point to the type of relationship at a fine-grained level. The category of maintaining contact, on the other hand, is reserved for cases where the use of first name was relatively neutral and did not carry any additional emotional charge like angst or emphasis.

5.1 Ty vs Pan vs 2nd Person Singular The fansubbers’ translations do not differ much from each other in terms of the proportion of the informal ty versus the distant pan/pani. The percentages are also similar to the results achieved by the professional translator. In the students’ translation, the scenes wherein the two addresses were deployed concerned power asymmetry (Nick addressing inferior employees; Nick being addressed by a psychotherapist). A coarse-grained distribution of formal, informal (in all cases) and verbal forms of address across different subtitling versions are tabulated below. The Chi square result indicates that the differences between the use of ty and pan/i between the two

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33.30%

59% 24.70% 16.52%

29.70% 10.80% FANSUBS

2nd pers sg 59%

pan/i

59.40%

ty

11.20%

Fig. 3 Incidence of ty, pan/i and 2nd person singular in percentages

LECOS PROFESSIONAL

nonprofessional subtitles are significant at p < 0.10 (x2 (1, N = 204) = 3.12). When compared with the professional translation and with the inclusion of 2nd pers. sg., the difference is highly significant (x2 (2, N = 948) = 33.15, p < 0.01). From the data it transpires that fansubbers’ translations roughly correspond with the professional version and that the students have recourse to the formal address pan/i. All versions are replete to the same extent with the verbal address forms in the 2nd person singular (Fig. 3). Dispersion plots illustrate the distribution of the formal pan in the two nonprofessional versions. In the students’ translations, the bars illustrating incidence of the query word form clusters, while in the fansubbing version they are more spread and often have stand-alone bars. This difference shows that in the students’ interpretations there is a higher consistency of the choice of addresses across a unified scene, whereas in fansubbing versions it happens that the subbers switch from formal to informal terms within one scene (Figs. 4 and 5).

Fig. 4 Frequency distribution of pan in LeCoS

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Fig. 5 Frequency distribution of pan in Fansubbing

5.2 Last Name of the Protagonist and First Names

14

17

18

Fig. 6 Corrected occurrence of ‘Marshall’ across subcorpora

25

The last name that will receive attention in this section is ‘Marshall’. As discussed above, in Polish the form of address consisting in the equivalent of ‘Mr Marshall’, that would be pan [+nom.] Marshall, is not a term widely accepted in Poland as a polite form of address. The number of occurrences of panie [+voc.] Marshall in the professional version is 44% lower than in the original dialogues, and ca. 15% lower than in the nonprofessional versions. The professional translator resorted to the strategy of omission, i.e., the term of address was more likely to be left out by the professional subtitler rather than rendered as panie Marshall. The nonprofessional translators evidently tended to align their translations with the original version, disregarding the socio-cultural code of the Polish address terms behaviour. Figure 6 reveals the corrected (divided by three groups in the case of nonprofessional translations) number of occurrences of all forms of the lemma.

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5.3 Position in a Sentence As mentioned in the introductory part, forms of address may occur in the initial (standalone, utterance-initial), utterance-medial or utterance-final position, and if address is not used in the appellative (whether nominative or vocative in Polish), it may be used in the pronominal forms (as well as in verbless construction or encoded grammatically). As can be seen in Fig. 7, the original dialogue abounds with appellatives, with only 30% of addresses illustrating pronominals. Nonprofessional translations conform to the original version very closely, while a slight drop is noticeable in the professional version. The position of appellatives in a sentence is illustrated by Fig. 8. A clear tendency of using them as stand-alone items and those in utterance-final position (which are 80

69.76

69.70

68.94

70

63.56

60 50 40

34.92

31.06

30.30

30.25

30 20 10 0 original

Fansubbing

LeCoS

appellaƟves

pronominal

professional

Fig. 7 The incidence of appellatives vs. pronominal addresses across four corpora in percentages

Fansubbing

LeCoS

professional

STANDALONE

U-I

34.70 26.92 33.46 29.25 13.97 4.58 6.51 1.52

9.85

17.54 19.43

23.22

36.81

49.07

59.38

original

31.73

Fig. 8 Position of four types of forms of address across corpora in percentages

U-M

U-F

88

Fansubbing

LeCoS

professional

13.97 4.58 6.51 1.52

34.70 26.92 33.46 29.25

68.50 60.03 69.23

original

49.27

Fig. 9 Position of three types of forms of address across corpora in percentages

A. B˛aczkowska

CALLS

U-M

U-F

spanned by the label ‘calls’ in Fig. 9), are noticeable in all four corpora. The lowest occurrence, on the other hand, is registered for the utterance-middle position. This is not surprising as, in line with corpora-based observations (Biber et al., 1999, pp. 1100–1113), the position of a vocative at the end of an utterance is typical of English, especially of American English, and it reaches 70% of cases, leaving little for the initial, medial, and stand-alone positions (10% for each). What surprises is the high incidence of utterance-initial appellatives, which prevails over the other positions in the case of fansubs and professional subtitles. If both utterance-initial and stand-alone items are collapsed into one category of turn-taking items then the tendency to use names at the beginning prevails across all texts. Students’ subtitles seem to be closer to the original soundtrack, while subbers’ renderings resemble the professional translation in terms of the category of utterance position of FA.

5.4 Functions of Terms of Address As far as functions are concerned, emphasis is the predominant function in all four subcorpora, yet subbers tend to use it most often. Interestingly, the neutral function of maintaining contact often occurs in the original version (29%), but not in the other versions, where it is halved in the amateur translation (16%), three times less frequent in the students’ renderings (11%), and four times less often used by the professional subtitler (7%). In this respect, as well as in the proportion of irritation and greetings, the amateur versions resemble the original dialogues, that imitate naturally occurring speech. The students’ renderings, on the other hand, are more similar to the professional translator’s proportions. Irritation encoded by an FA is a good example

Forms of Address in Polish Nonprofessional Subtitles 80.00

68.47

70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00

89

56.33

55.12 47.90 29.01 13.83 9.23

16.26 10.53 4.81

21.98

17.05 14.14 6.93

11.78 11.14

0.00 original emphasis

Fansubbing irritaƟon

LeCoS greeƟng

professional

maintaining

Fig. 10 Functions of forms of address across all corpora in percentages

of attitudinal function of vocatives (discussed by Biber et al., 1999, pp. 1110–1113). First names are thus more often used by the students and the professional translator to encode impoliteness. First names are avoided by subbers in contexts with greetings and those expressing irritation, while students (as well as the professional translator), tend to use them even more often than in the original dialogue, primarily at the expense of the function of maintaining contact. The use of FA in greetings is somewhat surprising as it contradicts what Pisarska and Tomaszkiewicz (1996, pp. 206–207) and Tomaszkiewicz (2006, pp. 128–134) suggest about omitting names in contexts that reflect phatic expressions and routine dialogue structure due to the high predictability of ritualised phrases occurrence, and the ability of the viewer to re-construct them in their absence in subtitles. This regards not only standard greetings and leave-takings (such as “Good morning” and “Bye”), but also thanking, requesting and apologising (“Thank you”, “please”, “sorry”). It seems that students (as well as the professional translator) resorted to name address primarily to stress some aspects, such as to mark emphasis, greet, or express irritation, while the relatively neutral use of forms of address to encode maintaining contact was left out (Fig. 10).

5.5 Forms of Address in Face-to-Face vs. Multi-Party Contexts In terms of the type of interaction occurring in the film, rather surprisingly, the students’ renderings contain a bulk of contexts where first names appear in a multiparty situation, even though in all the translated versions the number of first names in multi-party interactions is higher than in the original. The value reaches almost 44% for multi-party interaction in the LeCoS corpus, with only ca. 26% in the original soundtrack. This can be accounted for by the fact that it is more burdensome for

90 Fig. 11 Type of interaction across all corpora in percentages

A. B˛aczkowska 80.00

73.42

56.28 43.72

60.00 40.00

71.43

69.00

26.58

31.00

28.58

20.00 0.00 original

Fansubbing face to face

LeCoS

professional

mulƟ-party

the secondary viewer (the viewer of the subtitled version) to distinguish between the addressee and potential hearers or eavesdroppers and, perhaps intuitively, all translators resorted to an explicit indication of the addressee (Fig. 11).

6 Discussion The students’ translations show a tendency to adhere to more formal and, by the same token, polite forms of address (formal pan/i). In terms of functions of addresses, the students’ renderings resemble the professional version. The fansubbers’ version, on the other hand, is more similar to the original film dialogues, and in this respect the study corroborates what was already observed by Bruti and Zanotti (2012, p. 171), Bruti and Zanotti (2015), and B˛aczkowska (2019). The study also resonates with another observation voiced by Bruti and Zanotti (2012, pp. 170–171) and Guillot (2017, pp. 402–403) that amateur practices tend to revel in forceful and ‘abusive’ subtitling, which promotes source-text norms and stresses discrepancies between the source and the target texts, adhering thus to Venuti’s (1995) foreignization approach to translation. As regards quality homogeneity, similar observations were voiced by Pedersen (2019) in the case of fansubbers in Sweden, who also presented varying levels of translation competence. Students, to a greater extent, aligned their subtitles with the requirements set for professional film translators. This observation is in contrast with what Massidda (2015) avers about Italian fansubbers, who, according to her, create a challenge to professional translators. The amateurs’ subtitles display similarities to the professional translation in terms of the incidence of stand-alone and utterance-final address forms. Relative to the original dialogues, both nonprofessional versions tend to avoid the use of terms of address in the utterance-middle position and to use them more often in multi-party encounters. Likewise, the professional translation displayed more instances of address forms in multi-party encounters. This measure may be dictated by the fact that when relying on subtitles it is easier to misguide the viewer who utters which words, thus a clear indication of the sender should facilitate viewing. However, this conjecture would require a confirmation from the translators themselves. Interestingly, whilst Formentelli (2014)

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observed that there were more vocatives deployed in film dialogue than in naturally occurring speech (which he calls “vocatives galore in audiovisual dialogue”), for the sake of providing some guidance who is speaking to whom (both in diegetic and extradiegetic sense), in the data analysed in this paper, there are even more forms of address in both the nonprofessional and professional subtitles relative to the film dialogue. Forms of address were found in greetings in all translated versions, contrary to expectations and guidelines voiced by Tomaszkiewicz (2006), who recommended omitting names in ritualised conversation structures (regarding greetings, parting, apologising, requesting and thanking). Finally, inconsistency in the choice between formal and informal addresses by amateurs suggests their obliviousness to the socio-cultural expectations, rather than a purposeful meta-analysis of politeness aspects of addresses, and led to exoticizing the translated text. Overall, the two nonprofessional translations differ substantially, even though they are both written by non-professional subtitlers. There are several limitations to the study. First, the conclusions refer to cases when the forms of address denoted Goffmanian addresses only (with the exclusion of other hearers, participants of a conversation). Second, the study involved the renderings of one film, and in total six nonprofessional translations; however, more translations were not to be found at the time of data collection. Third, the point of reference for the analysis was only one professional version of subtitles (the DVD version), which was due to the fact that more versions were not available. Given the limitations, the obtained results, thus, cannot be taken as representative of Polish nonprofessional subtitles as such. Further research is needed to extend the analyses to other participants of the audience, to consider more film genres, and to include more films and the subtitles thereof. All these limitations notwithstanding, in the face of modest scholarship of FA in subtitles, the study may be treated, in line with the DTS, as a valuable empirical and descriptive micro-study which contributes to future, data-driven generalizations.

7 Conclusion The aim of the study was to compare the translation of address forms in professional subtitles and in two types of nonprofessional subtitles vis-à-vis the original dialogue in terms of the degree of formality addresses display, their position in an utterance, the functions forms of address perform and the type of interaction in which they typically occur. The analysis shows that there are noticeable differences between the amateurs’ subtitles (fansubbing) and students’ subtitles, with more similarities of amateur renderings to the original film dialogues, and of the students’ subtitles to the professional version. More inconsistencies and informal addresses were also observed in amateurs’ renderings compared with the students’ translations, which are marked with more formal and polite subtitles.

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Anna B˛aczkowska has graduated in English Philology at Adam Mickiewicz University in Pozna´n, she has also finished postgraduate studies in Project Management in WSB University in Toru´n, Poland. She has received her PhD and habilitation in English Linguistics from the University of Łód´z. She specialises in corpus linguistics, discourse analysis, language teaching and audiovisual translation. She is currently affiliated with the University of Gda´nsk (Institute of English and American Studies), Poland, where she teaches corpus linguistics, Natural Language Processing tools in text analysis, data visualization, and research methods in linguistics. She has guest lectured in Italy, UK, Spain, Portugal, Kazakhstan, Ireland, Slovakia, Iceland and Norway, and has conducted research in Norway, Ireland, Kazakhstan and Iceland. She has edited volumes on media discourse and translation (Peter Lang, Cambridge Scholars), she’s editor of two book series for Peter Lang and Cambridge Scholars, associate editor of two journals (on Cognitive Linguistics - LaMiCus, and general linguistics - Beyond Philology), and member of Advisory Boards/Boards of Reviewers in several journals in Poland and abroad. She is currently involved

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in two EU projects, one on crowdsourcing for education (CA 16105) and one on computational linguistics and impolite media discourse (CA 18209), as well as in a project on educational platform for language learning funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation.

Bilingual Contexts

Language as a Source of Problems in Bilingual Couples Agnieszka St˛epkowska

Abstract The paper reports on language as a source of problems among bilingual couples. The focus of the study concerns bilingual partners who feel that the change of language has an impact on their sense of “self”, and thereby revealing bilingual perspectives of the couples. I use qualitative methodology to analyse the data obtained from in-depth interviews with bilingual couples. I report on their accounts of language problems and their consequences for close relationships. I analyse excerpts from interviews shared by the participants regarding their subjective evaluations of the individual problems concerning bilinguality in the couple. The data demonstrate that mutual understanding in the couple depends on language attitudes and individual L2 skills. The data also suggest that linguistic competence informs the communication quality among intercultural couples. I found evidence for dissatisfaction and the inability to overcome barriers of both linguistic and cultural types. My data show a scale of language problems faced by intercultural relationships. The participants describe their linguistic failures in terms of exclusion, alienation, isolation and frustration. Thus, the presented study brings to light the less studied aspect of bilingual couplehood, namely language seen as a burden rather than as an enrichment and attractive alteration. The findings contribute to the studies of language attitude and language identity. Problems with language in bilingual couples affect not only their dyadic communication, but also the sense of ethnicity of the partners. Keywords Bilingual couples · Intercultural couples · Language problems · Exclusion · Alienation · Isolation · Frustration · Poland

1 Introduction In bilingual couples, language is not a neutral tool as it tends to symbolise emotions (Pavlenko, 2002, 2005). Languages create different, sometimes incommensurate, worlds in bilinguals who feel that that the change of language directly influences A. St˛epkowska (B) University of Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_6

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their identity (Besemeres, 2004). Several studies that include some aspects from psychology and linguistic anthropology (cf. Pavlenko, 2006; Pavlenko & Blackledge, 2004; Wierzbicka, 2004) show that persons, who are bilingual and bicultural, may demonstrate dissimilar verbal behaviour in their two languages. Interlocutors tend to perceive languages differently depending on the language they use in a given context. These findings are particularly relevant for those bilinguals whose languages are connected with relatively monolingual settings, which is worth mentioning in the context of the presented study conducted in Poland. In turn, those who live in bior multilingual settings are less likely to discern stark discrepancies between their linguistic “selves”. Therefore, in this study, participants formulated statements which outlined the two discrete worlds based on different languages. For an effective communication in the bilingual couple, either of the partners must have the ability to interact, namely they must attain a degree of bilingualism that will permit interaction (Grosjean, 1985). They need to be motivated to interact, which will involve some desire to achieve a degree of fluency in the L2. In fact, the stories of success in the context of bilingual couple’s communication outnumber the stories of failures. As a result, research into the linguistic problems in relation to bilingual couples remains relatively under-researched. This paper aims to bring out the consequences of problems informed by one’s own deficient L2 knowledge, reluctance to learn the partner’s language, ignorance of, or even aversion to the partner’s culture. In other words, the main interest of the study falls on the experiences of individuals who are in bilingual relationships and who are aware of their linguistic deficiencies and the ensuing consequences for life in the couple. Since participants of the study represented different levels of language proficiency, they reported on diverse problems informed by language issues in their everyday communication practices. Apparently, different languages of the partners in bilingual couples lead to several problems that bear consequences not only for the communication within the couple, but also for their functioning in the wider community.

2 Theoretical Framework Depending on the social context (mono- or multilingual), bilingual couples live between two or more cultures to a smaller or larger degree (cf. Grosjean, 1982, 2010). As biculturals they adapt to these cultures by choosing some aspects of life that correspond to their attitudes and language skills. Since they blend different aspects of the cultures at hand, their language attitudes lack unequivocal cultural reference. When referring to a bilingual person, it is often hard not to mention “cultural dominance”, when one culture plays a bigger role than the other. Grosjean (2008, p. 235) mentions two “aspects” in biculturals. One aspect is adaptable, while the other aspect is static, thereby preventing a bicultural individual from adapting to specific cultural situations. It seems that it is easier to deactivate languages than to deactivate some traits of the other culture when in a monolingual context.

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Communication difficulties in close relationships lead to unhappiness and failure of the marriage (e.g., Fitzpatrick, 1990; Sternberg, 1988). In the case of bilingual couples, language choice is primarily determined by the language skills of either of the partners. The decision on the language of communication in the target couples may be strengthened by certain facts, such as the language of the monolingual area where couples reside, or the choice of the minority language that is native to the foreigner in the couple, or a lingua franca for both partners (Siguan, 1980). The conceptual basis for this study refers to the “acculturation model” proposed by John Schumann (1986). This model features language learners who adapt to a new culture. The acquisition process of a second language is connected with the process of acculturation. The success of learners is directly proportional to their openness and attitude towards the culture of the majority language. Thus, the acquisition of a second language accelerates if the language learner intends to stay longer in the host country and shows a positive attitude towards the language. Schumann (1978, p. 34) argues that “second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree to which a learner acculturates to the target-language group will control the degree to which he acquires the second language”. As a socio-psychological model, acculturation emphasises both social distance (becoming a member of the target language group) and psychological distance (the conditions of L2 acquisition). This interrelation brings out the significance of social factors in L2 acquisition, such as social dominance, attitudes, the intended length of residence, and integration patterns. In light of the subsequent discussion of language as the source of problems among bilingual couples, the basic concept of language attitude requires a special mention (cf. Garrett, 2010; Oppenheim, 1982). In general, attitude is viewed as a sum of the feedback derived from three components which are the respective responses of three types, i.e., cognitive, affective and behavioural (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960). The cognitive component refers to the beliefs and perception of an object in question. The affective component includes the positive or negative feelings and emotions towards a given object. The behavioural component is about the way someone responds and acts towards the attitude object. Positive attitudes build on favourable beliefs, feelings or behaviour towards an object, whereas negative attitudes appear when the beliefs, feelings, and behaviour are unfavourable towards an object (cf. Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Thus, attitude does not equal any one sole component, but the sum of its components (Olson & Maio, 2003). Attitudes dictate choices and reactions, and thereby have consequences for the social context in which the attitudes are manifested. In this way, attitudes organise people’s experiences (Eiser, 2004). Attitudes towards languages not only permeate the daily life, but they also have an impact on emotions and communication patterns within the couple (St˛epkowska, 2020). Language transmits not only the intended message, but it also communicates identity and social meanings (Garrett, 2001). An attitude to language, which is a powerful social marker (Cargile et al., 1994), has an impact on interpersonal levels in terms of perception and decision-making (Giles & Billings, 2004). Garrett (2001, 2010) argues that the way we communicate allows others to form opinions about characteristics, such as our competence, intelligence, social status or group membership. In their seminal study, Lambert et al. (1960) tested language attitudes by means

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of the “matched guise technique”. They elicited from the respondents their evaluations of the presented speakers according to mental and emotional attributes as well as physical traits. The respondents were actually listening to the same speaker in different guises without being aware of this fact. This study showed hidden prejudices to English and French as well as to their speakers in Canada. Many studies on the attitudes of L1 English speakers towards different varieties of English indicated that standard accents were evaluated more highly than non-standard accents (cf. Coupland & Bishop, 2007; Giles & Sassoon, 1983; Levin et al., 1994; Luhman, 1990). According to Milroy (2007, p. 133), “language attitudes are dominated by powerful ideological positions that are largely based on the supposed existence of this standard form, and these, taken together can be said to constitute the standard language ideology or ideology of the standard language”. Following this opinion, my analysis focuses on the beliefs, emotions and behaviour of couples in terms of language problems that were reported to me during the in-depth interviews with bilingual couples.

3 Design of the Study The method that generated the data was a semi-structured interview, sometimes referred to as “a conversation with a purpose” that has an established yet flexible framework (Kvale, 2007). I interviewed 24 couples bilingual with Poles, including eight women and sixteen men who were of non-Polish descent. In sum, the foreign participants in the study represented 22 nationalities (Italian, Spanish, Kazakh, French, American, Japanese, Romanian, Australian, Indonesian or Ethiopian, to name but a few) and came from six continents. Apart from Polish, all the couples used five different languages in everyday communication. As to the relationship duration at the time of the data collection, nine couples were together for less than ten years, seven couples were together for a period between ten and nineteen years, and five couples lived in Poland over twenty years. Finally, a group of three bilingual couples spent at least thirty years together. I created a judgement sampling by contacting the couples that were available to me. Some participants were eager to share their contacts with new couples for my study, which is typical of a “snowball technique” (Milroy, 1980). The conversations were recorded which took nearly 25 h, with one interview lasting approximately an hour. The language of interviews was Polish, but there were also couples who spoke English. All the interviews were transcribed and analysed semantically, i.e., in terms of the content. I specifically looked at the fragments that featured problems generated through language by presenting the views of different couples and their ways of coping with the consequences. The transcribed text was coded and categorised. Bilinguality in the relationship presents a unique context for such an analysis. It has shown that partners of different cultural backgrounds share similar experiences related to their private language issues within the couple.

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4 Results This study focuses on individuals who became bi- or multilingual as adults. In most cases their bilinguality resulted from meeting a partner speaking a different language. The individual language learning trajectories and the actual language use in the bilingual couple during the past years had an impact on the language command. Thus, the aim of the study was to reveal the perspectives of bilingual couples on their communication. The main question referred to the impact on the sense of “self” caused by the language change resulting from the life in a bilingual relationship. Reports about biographical facts were collected as narratives that emphasised the participants’ experiences related to learning or using more languages. In some bilingual couples the partner who was a newcomer to a new place in a host society needed to cope with the language barrier and adapt to the other partner’s cultural patterns. This experience is complex and thereby by many felt as a burden (Treichel, 2004). I was interested to learn how these people deal with their different languages in close relationships. In particular, what attitudes they had towards their partner’s language, and to what extent they managed to master it. I was curious about their feelings and reactions to linguistic problems stemming naturally from the everyday communication of bilingual couples. In this section, I specifically address some problems related to the private language policies of bilingual couples with Poles in the Polish context. I am interested in the way the participants interviewed describe their language skills that inform the quality of communication in the couple and their social networking. The aim of the study was to understand the significance of language attitudes that become a source of problems as described by the participants. Obviously, linguistic choices made by the bilingual and intercultural couples, including their motivations for these choices, were taken into account. The following sections include the presentation of the interview excerpts that illustrate the narratives, concentrating by turns on exclusion, alienation, isolation and frustration—all resulting from the language use and language attitudes developed in the bilingual relationship.

4.1 Exclusion Exclusion was signalled in two couples by two foreign partners, i.e., Simone who is German, and Yury who is Russian. Both are distinguished by a fluent command of Polish, with hardly a discernible accent of their native tongues. The attitudes demonstrated by these two foreigners reveal a strong behavioural component which fuels the desire to sound like a native speaker of Polish. In the first couple, Simone and Piotr talk about her Polish pronunciation (Ex. 1). Simone describes her continuous efforts to get rid of her German accent in Polish (l. 1–3). She tries hard in order to avoid the feeling of exclusion once her accent gives her away. However, Piotr appears to be a critic of her pronunciation of Polish by making a general remark about the

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impossibility to acquire a native-like pronunciation by learners of Polish (l. 4–5). Simone subscribes to his point of view (l. 6). Extract 1: “I know I have a foreign accent” 1 Simone

For me it is important to try at least. I know I have a foreign accent, but I

2

try to eliminate it as much as possible. I do not want everyone to know

3

straight away that I am not a Pole.

4 Piotr

In Polish it is so that due to its syntax and pronunciation many foreigners

5

are not able to master the Polish accent completely.

6 Simone

I know I will never do that.

7 Piotr

For many foreigners…

Similarly, in the other couple, Yury has no delusion about his speaking ever “like a Pole” (Ex. 2, l. 1–2). He talks about “stretching and modifying vowels” (l. 2–3) like he naturally does it when speaking Russian. Finally, he admits that he will “always make mistakes” (l. 3–4). Extract 2: “I will always make mistakes” 1 Yury

I think that there exists some kind of an upper limit as regards the accent.

2

In my personal opinion I will never learn to speak like a Pole. I will always

3

be stretching and modifying vowels as it is done in my native tongue. I

4

mean I will always make mistakes.

4.2 Alienation Not all the couples using lingua francas would agree with Jolanta’s feelings, yet her case seems to validate the impassability of some language barriers. Jolanta talks explicitly about discomfort with regard to the private aspects of her relationship with Oskar, her German husband (Ex. 3). When Jolanta and Oskar first met, they communicated in English. With time, he has become fluent in Polish. She does not know German and refuses to learn it. Though the couple could already use Polish, Jolanta wants them both to stick to English, the language of their first meeting. This solution is far from satisfactory for her. As a non-native speaker of English, she admits to have difficulties in expressing herself in this language (l. 2). Consequently, she reports to have experienced “an emotional hole” (l. 3) with her emotions “hung in a void” (l. 5).

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Extract 3: “This is an emotional hole” 1 Researcher

You communicate in English…

2 Jolanta

But it is harder for me especially as regards the describing of these

3

emotions. They do not satisfy me. I think I would call it an emotional hole.

4 Researcher

I see.

5 Jolanta

Emotions hung in a void.

Another example of alienation is represented by Mio, a Japanese married to a Pole (Ex. 4). Her words reflect an amalgam of sadness and disappointment that result from the lack of understanding with her husband (l. 3–5). In Mio’s opinion, this situation is conditioned by cultural differences. She talks about her husband’s “Polish way of thinking” as opposed to her “Japanese way of thinking”. With this couple, language is not an obstacle in communication. Although Mio’s husband has not learnt Japanese, she is proficient in Polish. This is the reason why she probably does not raise the issue of language, but rather attributes the blame to different mentalities between them. Extract 4: “I feel that we do not understand each other completely” 1 Mio

Sometimes we do not understand each other. We don’t. And when I talk to

2

my Japanese female friends. Sometimes we do not understand each other.

3

And when I talk to my Japanese female friends, it seems to me that there is

4

a difference… The basis, the way of thinking. I do not know what it

5

consists in, but I feel that we do not understand each other completely. I

6

don’t know whether it happens in every marriage, or is it so because we

7

are a bilingual couple.

4.3 Isolation Gabriela who is a Romanian feels alienated not so much from her Polish husband as from her immediate surroundings (Ex. 5). The lack of full proficiency in Polish that would be satisfactory for herself is the wellspring of her complaint. She gives vent to her frustration by wording explicit opinions of language problems in the couple. Gabriela is conscious of the language barrier, which—as she claims—effectively diminishes her self-evaluation (l. 4–5). Extract 5: “My self-esteem immediately drops because of this barrier” 1 Researcher

Do you have the sense of some isolation due to the language barrier?

2 Gabriela

Definitely, yes. This is exactly what cannot be…

3 Researcher

Mental barrier…

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4 Gabriela

Yes, yes. My self-esteem immediately drops because of this barrier… And

5

obviously, isolation. Sure!

For Teresa, the issue of alienation is rather complex. Although this problem primarily refers to her Italian husband who cannot speak Polish, Teresa speaks about their joint isolation as a couple (Ex. 6, 3–4). She observes that this problem is growing (l. 6–9), which is signalled by her describing their state as an “exclusion” (l. 13) and perceiving her husband as “an outsider” (l. 15–16). Extract 6: “He is always an outsider” 1 Researcher

Can you say about some sense of isolation in your case or perhaps

2

regarding Matteo?

3 Teresa

Maybe it is more about him. And now, already about us as a couple…

4

Isolation in this sense, yes… Isolation, some linguistic exclusion, for sure.

5 Researcher

Did he tell you about it?

6 Teresa

Yes. He noticed that, too. His contacts with people here in Poland… As

7

you said, only acquaintances… Why do we meet only the couples who are

8

mostly bilingual? Because the couples who function in one language

9

[Polish]… Matteo cannot communicate with them directly…

10 Researcher

He does not get to know them. Nothing happens?

11 Teresa

No, no, no.

12 Researcher

With such contacts?

13 Teresa

So, there is some kind of exclusion.

14 Researcher

Does he feel this?

15 Teresa

Yes, yes. It is not very strong, but it is there, right? He is always an

16

outsider.

Furthermore, Teresa communicates with her husband in Italian and in this language she builds the relationship with her husband. She argues that only through Italian can she get through to her husband and better understand him. She also raises the issue of her personal attitude to this form of communication, namely that she perceives herself differently when speaking Italian (Ex. 7, l. 3–4), which becomes clear when Teresa concludes that she was “completely someone else” (l. 11–12). By stating that she never had “an Italian nature” (l. 11), she noticed changes vital for her bilinguality. Extract 7: “When I speak Italian, I sometimes see myself as a different person” 1 Researcher

Do you have the feeling that you are a different person when you speak a

2

different language?

3 Teresa

Well, perhaps sometimes. I think yes, because…When I speak Italian, I

4

sometimes see myself as a different person, you know?

Language as a Source of Problems in Bilingual Couples 5 Researcher

You mean you even speak and think the way Italians do?

6 Teresa

Yes, it is so interesting. It is through this language… Especially when I

7

talk about something, and I see myself different in this language, his

8

language.

9 Researcher

It means you are aware of that?

10 Teresa

Yes, sure. I notice that, you know? Sometimes it makes me laugh,

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11

because… as I say, I never had an Italian nature, that was so much theirs. I

12

was completely someone else.

4.4 Frustration Laura’s limited knowledge of Polish leads to her smaller involvement in the current political affairs in Poland. Laura wants to know more, but the main source of information about Poland for her is the English-speaking press (Ex. 8, l. 1–3). It shows that Laura is well aware of the fact that if it had not been for her poor language skills in Polish, her sense of participation in the wider social context in Poland would be fuller (l. 5–7). Extract 8: “It is a pity that I know so little what is going on in Poland” 1 Laura

Unfortunately, I should be more into the politics in Poland. But I… It is a

2

pity that I know so little what is going on in Poland. I really know very

3

little, because I read the English press, The Economist, New York Times. I

4

am very interested about the situation in the United States. Even when we

5

travel, we listen to the American radio, so sadly I know very little. I read

6

articles about Poland in the States instead of reading Polish articles about

7

what is going on in Poland. So, it is a pity.

The lack of possibility of unrestricted communication with the relatives of one’s partner presents a problem for the partner who requires linguistic assistance. An example here is David, an Australian, who describes his own perspective of someone relying on his wife, Kasia, for interpreting (Ex. 9, l. 3–7). David stresses the sense of alienation which frustrates him (l. 11–13). Extract 9: “It’s quite frustrating for me” 1 Researcher

How do you communicate with the family, with friends, acquaintances?

2

Could you describe it somehow.

3 David

Most of them speak English to a certain degree, apart from Kasia’s parents

4

and some of the aunties and uncles, so with aunties and uncles it is quite

5

difficult. If Kasia would translate some of the time what is being said, but

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6

if I know what they are talking about I can understand... It’s quite

7

frustrating for me.

8 Researcher

And all your friends speak English.

9 David

English, yes.

10 Monika

They are coming here, then it is English.

11 David

This is quite frustrating for myself while not knowing exactly what the

12

parents are saying. You have to put a lot of faith, a lot of trust in telling me

13

the story of what is happening.

5 Discussion In the analysis, I have presented excerpts from interviews concerning the problems informed by the language experience of partners in bilingual relationships who live permanently in Poland. I employed the qualitative methodology to bring out the sociolinguistic significance of bilinguality in the couple, as yet sparsely investigated in the Polish context. In this study I adopted the emic perspective shared by the target participants, who offered an invaluable source of information about the role of language knowledge of one’s partner. The presented cases indicated that the target couples resolved their language problems on their own. They adopted solutions which were not satisfactory for them, but they tended to accept them for the lack of better ones. In terms of language, I focused on the participants’ attitudes towards the problems resulting from the level of bilinguality in the couple. My respondents reported on difficulties related to their insufficient knowledge of the language and culture of their partners. They stressed the role of an in-depth communication within the relationship, by demonstrating different levels of language anxiety and skills. Indeed, the studies conducted by Piller (2002, 2013) confirmed that most conflicts over language choice were mild, which she related to the fact that couples in long-term stable relationships have become good intercultural communicators. Language attitudes played a role in the study of the language problems experienced by bilingual couples. Here, following Fishbein and Ajzen (1974), it was purposeful to differentiate between attitudes towards a target (which is an attitude to a particular language) and attitudes towards behaviours (which is an attitude towards learning a language). This distinction was essential since attitudes towards targets and towards behaviours are not identical and do not have to coincide (Crano et al., 2010). Fasold (1984) argued that it was their object that distinguished language attitudes from other attitudes, because language as an object may be seen as favourable or unfavourable (Baker, 1992). Consequently, language attitudes revealed the tendency to evaluate languages as liked or disliked. The overview of the presented data allowed to draw more implications that refer to the main focus of this paper. In employing Schumann’s acculturation model, it was possible to see how much variation existed between bilingual couples in terms of language problems and the

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range of language attitudes adopted in order to cope with these problems. Second language acquisition viewed as the key element of the acculturation model permitted the interpretation of success or failure in the adaptation process to the target group in language contact situations. Within this model two types of distance had to be taken into account, namely social and psychological. In linguistically mixed relationships, foreign partners gained necessary assurance in order to overcome social distance and eventually become members of the target language group. Partners who were native to the host country (Poland) tended to assume the natural role of guides for their non-Polish spouses. In turn the psychological distance was conditioned by the circumstances of L2 acquisition in which the foreign partners found themselves. Here more differences were discovered. The acquisition of a language is a complex process consisting in the motivation to learn the language, consistency in planning and realization, as well as language awareness. Insufficient involvement in acculturation on the part of both partners generated consequences in the form of unsatisfactory involvement in family life and, further, in the life of community. The partner who had the status of a foreigner in the couple experienced the problems related to language communication as a mental burden and linguistic failure of different intensity and shades. As the result, the analysis of interview excerpts featuring language problems in bilingual couples was divided into four groups in order to include exclusion, alienation, isolation and frustration. Referring to exclusion (point 4.1), the target partners who are proficient in Polish tend to focus on linguistic nuances, such as pronunciation and intonation. The presented examples include two foreigners, Simone and Yury. Both set very high standards for themselves regarding their Polish and would like to sound like native speakers of this language. Simone (Ex. 1) concentrates on eliminating her German accent in Polish and Yury (Ex. 2) seems to have resigned himself to his “Russian-sounding” vowels when speaking the language. Both are well aware of the fact that people take different attitudes to different features of speech, and that listeners make judgments on speakers based on the way they sound (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Simone and Yury do not want to stand out linguistically in the Polish-speaking community where they live with their Polish partners. The two target foreigners realize that people make sense of them as persons. For example, on hearing someone speak, it is possible to gain information about the speaker’s gender, ethnicity, emotional state, and even personality traits (cf. Giles & Raki´c, 2014). A similar problem of linguistic alienation (point 4.2) brings out the feeling of isolation caused by the loss of support from one of the partners. Two couples were presented to signal this problem, namely Jolanta and Oskar (German), and Mio (Japanese) and Andrzej. Communication on a deeper level with one’s partner, or even with the people from the immediate surroundings, depends largely on the mastery of the language of communication, i.e., on the degree of precision to express oneself. This demand cannot be met satisfactorily if the language of communication has not been mastered well enough. A special case is the communication of the couple by means of a lingua franca which is, in spite of all, a non-native language to both partners. This is the case of Jolanta and Oskar who use English, a foreign language

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to both of them (Ex. 3). Jolanta feels alienated by English being used by the couple, yet she refuses to speak Polish with her husband. In turn, the words of Mio (Ex. 4) border on the sense of alienation blended with sadness and disappointment due to the lack of understanding with her husband. Mio argues that this situation has a cultural background and she differentiates between the Polish and Japanese “way of thinking”. In this couple the language of communication is not an obstacle. Although Mio’s husband is not learning Japanese, she is proficient in Polish. Perhaps due to this fact she does not see the problem in the couple’s use of language, but is looking for the cause in a different mentality. Referring to isolation (point 4.3), the participants stress the state of being alone and cut off. Gabriela (Ex. 5) talks about a diminished self-esteem and isolation due to the language barrier. It is striking in her case, because she could hardly be qualified as a Romanian judging by her impeccable Polish accent. However, similarly to Simone and Yury (in point 4.1), she is demanding of herself in terms of her language command. If, following Giles and Raki´c (2014, p. 21), we assume that “language attitudes can be a discursive ongoing event in social life”, then she has not achieved a sense of fulfillment in this respect. Interestingly, she emphasised this point several times during the interview. In turn, for Teresa (Ex. 6) the problem of isolation is more complex. Although she lives with Matteo in Poland, she notices that isolation has affected not only him, but them both as a couple. Their acquaintances are mostly other bilingual couples, because Matteo cannot communicate directly with Polish monolingual couples. The couple’s limited social contact also proves that Teresa does not fit in well with the role of Matteo’s interpreter. Instead, she has focused on her mastery of Italian with the aim to solve possible communication problems in their existence as a couple (Ex. 7). Lastly, the insufficient language knowledge of one’s partner leads to frustration (point 4.4). Frustration is manifested by annoyance and being less confident, because one cannot achieve the desired goal. The lack of language skills in Polish prevents the target foreigners from a satisfied and fulfilled participation in the lives of their families. Giles and Raki´c (2014, p. 22) point out rightly that “language attitudes are not only evaluative reactions people have about others’ speech styles (…) but are integral elements in how individuals make sense of and manage information about the situations in which they find themselves”. These attitudes are distinguished by a cognitive component realised in the belief that learning the partner’s language will give one a deeper understanding of his or her culture. Thus, Laura (Ex. 8) explicitly bemoans her basic skills in Polish, which leaves her with the feeling of dissatisfaction and limited access to her husband’s culture. She tries to make up for this deficiency by reading English-speaking sources about Poland in order to be better informed. In turn, David (Ex. 9) is frustrated by his total reliance on his wife for communication with her Polish family members. His frustration is deepened by no specified plan how to counteract this situation. He did not make any declaration of learning the language of his Polish wife.

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6 Conclusion In this study I have looked at language as a potential source of problems among bilingual couples. The analysis was based on nine excerpts of recorded interviews revealing the target couples’ opinions that illustrate the efforts to mitigate their linguistic deficiencies. In accounting for the main focus of this paper, I wanted to find out how the target couples describe linguistic problems and what qualities and emotions they ascribe to particular languages. I outlined the profiles of individuals who experienced two cultures by a life shared in a relationship. Unlike language, one’s cultural background is less flexible to rapid changes, such as the new linguistic context and new family members speaking a different language. In this sense, each linguistic biography is a unique one that may be regarded as a special composition, yet made of similar characteristics. At the same time, languages are emotion-charged objects connoting more or less affective account and associations. The presented data consist of evaluations of languages, speakers and cultures. Following the results, a few theoretical implications may be formulated. This study contributes to research on bilingual couplehood in international contexts by exploring specific problems that inform the negotiation of languages among intercultural couples. My findings reveal that these experiences have an impact on their language attitudes which imply evaluations of the communication quality in the couple. While research on bilinguality in close relationships has so far mostly focused on positive aspects, my study accentuates the need to consider the undesirable consequences of language knowledge and language attitudes in cross-lingual and intercultural relationships. This study shows that the insufficient command of the partner’s language may result in exclusion, alienation, isolation or frustration. More generally, the findings emphasise the influence of language repertoires that underpin the private intercultural contact.

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Agnieszka St˛epkowska is Professor at the University of Szczecin. She is a graduate of English studies at Adam Mickiewicz University in Pozna´n. Her research interests focus on sociolinguistics and multilingualism, including the complex linguistic situation in Switzerland. She is a member of Helvetic Initiative research group set up at the Faculty of Political Science and Journalism (AMU). She published monographs entitled English loanwords in Polish naval vocabulary (2011) and Multilingualism and English: The Canton of Zurich as a linguistic paradigm (2013). Her latest book Pary dwuj˛ezyczne w Polsce (2019) was issued by Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM.

Code Switching in Tabletop Wargaming Jacek I. Mianowski

Abstract Tabletop wargaming is seeing a period of increased popularity as a pastime. The appeal of engaging in wargames derives not only from unique mechanics, historical or sci-fi setting, or hobbyist focus, but most importantly, from community building capabilities, as well as the inherent competitive potential. The game becomes more than play, framing both the situation, timescale, rules, winning or losing into a discourse. The uniqueness of this study derives from previous research, concerned with video-games in multiplayer setting or other kinds of live-action tabletop games, that focused heavily on researching player narratives, whereas in tabletop wargaming the accent is put on tactical and strategic aspects of the game. The following research is embedded within the emic perspective and takes a closer look at data gathered using ethnographic methodology. It aims at constructing a linguistic framework for further research, placing the presented data within a sociolinguistic context. The second objective is to demonstrate that by participating in tabletop wargames, players collectively formulate a unique, heterogenous discourse, with several forms of code switching as its foundation. Keywords Tabletop wargaming · Tag-switching · Organised play · Code switching

1 Introduction The reasoning behind choosing Flames of War (FoW) over other miniature wargames derives from the Author’s personal interest in the history of World War II, as well as past experience in scale modelling. To that extent, FoW combines two aspects usually associated with miniature wargaming, the gameplay and miniature painting. As far as the gameplay part is concerned, the scale of the game (15 mm or 1:100 scale miniatures) allows representing the tabletop conflict on the company level, as opposed to popular 28 mm (1:56) skirmish games, with Bolt Action (Cavatore &

J. I. Mianowski (B) Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_7

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Priestley, 2016) representing individual squads or platoons and being seen by some players as an alternative to FoW. The scale modelling aspect was also taken into consideration, both because of the appeal and aesthetics of smaller miniatures, and the vast difference in modelling and painting techniques applied in the aforementioned scales. It should also be noted that not all players enjoy the modelling aspect to an equal degree, with some trying to avoid the assembling and painting process by choosing wargames that come with ready-to-go models. This includes Tanks: The World War II Skirmish Game (Haught et al., 2016) which offers a small selection of models with fast assembly features, or its more recent reiteration, World of Tanks Miniatures Game (Townley et al., 2020), a skirmish game based on a licence to a popular multiplayer online title, that supplies assembled and painted models. Combining tabletop wargames with the hobby of collecting is an idea that was proposed in the recent years, most notably by Axis & Allies Miniatures (Baker et al., 2005), but did not gain much traction in Poland. Finally, What a Tanker! (Clarke & Skinner, 2018) is proposed by some Polish players as an alternative, combining small-scale skirmish rules with no publisher supplied models, thus allowing third party miniatures to be employed in the course of the gameplay. Flames of War is a World War II tabletop miniature wargame produced by Battlefront Miniatures Ltd., based in New Zealand (Yates & Turner, 2017). In terms of gameplay, FoW employs a variety of classical, Kriegsspiel-inspired techniques and mechanisms in order to recreate a military conflict in a believable way (i.e., through the use of maps and terrain, varied unit characteristics, employing dice rolls to determine decision outcome, using scale miniatures). At the same time, game authors gave players the possibility to both recreate historical battles (through dedicated book supplements) and to play competitively, usually by means of tournaments. Players can choose from virtually any nation historically involved in military operations of the Second World War, assemble and command a company- or battalionlevel army. Although the European war theatre is by far the most popular, players may choose from the North African, and the Pacific theatres as well. In the course of the game players make decisions in turns, while every turn involves a phase of movement, shooting and storming. The turns are taken until one of the players reaches a predetermined goal of the scenario. The novelty of FoW, compared to other tabletop wargames, derives from its scale of representation of a large army force, while retaining the intention of reproducing historical realities accurately. There are several reasons that explain why Flames of War is becoming more and more popular among Polish players, making it their preferred system. The first one is arguably the gamers’ community focused around a league system. There are between thirty and fifty players actively participating in organised play. The second reason behind the game’s popularity, as declared by the players themselves, derives from its mechanics, the appeal of the historical setting, a large potential for modelling pastime (i.e., assembling, painting and preparing miniatures), the possibility of engaging in a community and, most importantly, the game’s competitive potential. Tournaments are organised regularly, while the key places considered to be the FoW centres include

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Warsaw, Zielona Góra, Katowice, Szczecin, Pozna´n, Łód´z, Bydgoszcz, Gdynia and Wrocław, each with a history of organising several tournaments in the past.1 It may seem relevant to discuss who plays tabletop wargames and what is their motivation. By participating in organised play, Polish FoW players seek to achieve different goals, with a special focus on socialising and competition. What is more, the allure of tournaments organised by Polish communities appeals to foreign players, especially from Germany, Belarus, and Portugal. Even though these players are not numerous, their presence lends itself to a unique communicative and competitive situation, in which tournament pairings include a Polish and a foreign player. Hence, the language used throughout the tournament is denoted on the basis of individual encounters, but also on the level of tournament organisation, where official announcements are provided in two languages, or in English alone. Tournament play intertwines Polish and English, yet it does not require a nativegrade fluency of the latter in order to participate. Additionally, players’ linguistic choices of code switching can be framed within the Markedness Model (MyersScotton, 1995), as well as intra-sentential tag switching (Winford, 2003). It is worth mentioning that the theoretical outline for code switching among game players was documented before (Kärnä, 2015; Piirainen-Marsh, 2008, 2010; Vuorinen, 2008), yet all these studies concentrated on video-games, with heavy accent put on multiplayer games, where players are able to communicate on the Internet in real time. Although this framework is highly significant, it concentrates on Internet-based games, which do not involve face-to-face contact between players. It is also worth noting that within the scope of tabletop games, past research concentrated on role-playing games, where heavy accent is put on the narrative aspect of the game (Kleemann, 2013), whereas tabletop wargaming sees player narration as subordinate to tactical and strategic aspects of gameplay. Therefore, the aim of the following study is twofold. Firstly, I try to provide a linguistic framework for the gathered data and present it within a sociolinguistic context. And secondly, to that extent, I try to show that in the course of tabletop wargame, players engage in establishing a unique, heterogenous discourse, with various forms of code switching.

2 Tabletop Wargaming The history of modern wargaming, seen as a pastime, begins with a training programme, dedicated to military officers. The first edition of Kriegsspiel was published in 1812 and titled “Instructions for representing tactical manoeuvres under the guise of a war game.” Its authors, Georg Leopold von Reiswitz and his son Georg Heinrich Rudolf, both Prussian Army officers, further expanded an original concept, whose ingenuity rested within the idea that the nuances of tactical expertise, taught in military schools, can be reinforced through play in informal situations (von Hilgers, 1

For a more detailed discussion of the structure, key features and the chronotope of changes in a tabletop wargaming community, see Mianowski (2020).

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2000). Kriegsspiel was used not only as a stepping stone in military knowledge, but also as a form of pastime, celebrated in the evenings among colleagues and friends. The relevance of Kriegsspiel, as Pias (1993) argues, comes from gaming concepts it introduced. One of these concepts, still in use today, is basing the gameplay on a detailed map to represent the battlefield and to realistically simulate the environment. Their purpose was to “recall the memorable war theatres in your own room”, again an inclination that wargames combined entertainment with educational and social elements. The second concept was the introduction of a special table, originally intended as a gift for Emperor Frederick William III, divided on a grid plan with 15 × 18 fields. The fields were filled with painted tiles, denoting individual terrain types, and this allowed to configure the table in a modular way. Moreover, the table was equipped with drawers for storing all the game pieces, pawns, and gauges necessary to conduct the game. Thirdly, the game introduced the concept of fog of war, which made it possible to interrupt communication between the troops. In such a situation it was not possible to pass on orders. Finally, Kriegsspiel introduced an institution that was kept until today in an almost unchanged role, namely, the position of a referee (or a game master), called confidante, while his main role was to evaluate the progress of the game and to provide feedback to the playing parties. Confidante’s role reflected the chain of command, where one officer had several others under his command (MacNab, 2012). The present-day understanding of wargaming can be divided into three main paradigms that focus on training. The first paradigm, retains its military origins and describes the wholeness of training and simulation conduced within the military sphere. One of the most fundamental literary works that describe the mechanisms used in this context is Peter Perla’s The Art of Wargaming (1990). The second paradigm refers to non-military conflict situations, where the ways and methods of problem- and conflict-solving, as well as team-building are the most necessary skills. This branch of wargaming is a powerful tool used within companies or government institutions that seek to expand the awareness of their employees not only in times of critical situations, but also to develop a sense of community cooperative skills. One of the books that best illustrate this approach is Herman and Frost’s Wargaming for Leaders: Strategic Decision Making from the Battlefield to the Boardroom (2009). The third paradigm revolves around hobbies, mostly tabletop miniatures, but also digital strategy and simulation games. The tabletop aspect was developed directly from Kriegsspiel, while a direct milestone to its development was delivered by Herbert George Wells with his Little Wars game (1913). The contemporary shape of historical wargames was developed in the 1960s by Donald Featherstone (1988), an enthusiast and an avid advocate of hobby in a demilitarized, hobbyist context. Finally, the fantasy styled games began in 1970s with Warhammer, developed by Games Workshop. The in-a-nutshell study that presents this paradigm is Rick Priestley and Richard Lambshead’s Tabletop Wargames: A Designers’ and Writers’ Handbook. Perla and McGrady (2011, pp. 1–3) suggest that one of the biggest advantages of wargaming is its ability to internalize the experiences of participants to a larger degree. That is, the lessons that one derives from playing are deepened because the decisions are made not only on the basis of data and knowledge available to

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the players, but also on the basis of intuition. They argue that within wargaming, making mistakes is the best motivation for further playing. Depending on the game that is being considered, there is always a set of gaming rules that one has to learn and understand, but there is also the intangible element of the gameplay, the socalled meta (Mauger, 2016) of the game, where players have to adapt to the ongoing situation, and, figuratively speaking, crack the code of the game in order to succeed. Yet, as Perla and McGrady (2011, p. 2) underline, basing decisions on statistics or calculable data may not be enough. Dörner (1997) called this “the logic of failure” and suggested that among the most fundamental life skills are those responsible for handling difficult situations. Dörner (1997) clearly states that “[o]ne can learn to handle difficult situations, reassess what has happened and draw conclusions. Everyday life crisis would not allow that, but games would!” It may therefore seem that, contrary to everyday life, games provide us with the ability to reflect upon the decisions being made and to discuss their consequences. It is also worth noting that studies relating to the efficiency of tabletop wargames have been tested before in the scope of teaching history (cf. Brown, 2015; Carter et al., 2014a, 2014b; Reynaud & Northcote, 2015), while the participantresearcher perspective has been attested in researching role-playing communities (Fine, 1983/2002), with which my research bears several correspondences, especially in the area of player initiation stages.

3 Data Collecting Methodology The focus of the present research is on wargaming communities that are capable of organising tournaments, are located within larger cities in order to attract an adequate number of players, are able to provide access to the necessary logistics, that is hobby and model shops, or gaming clubs with enough space, and possessing the wargaming infrastructure in form of gaming tables and terrain pieces. Beyond tournament participation and other forms of structured play, wargamers employ Internet communication to exchange ideas. This takes place through social media, mainly on various Facebook groups, devoted to different aspects of the game (i.e., general discussion, modelling techniques, groups devoted to individual game fractions). Facebook groups remain the most prolific means of communication, as they allow players from different cities to mitigate the distance gap. Moreover, they are a key factor in perpetuating and keeping alive wargaming communities in the ongoing pandemic, where hobby shops and centres remain closed or introduce various limitations on gameplay, rendering large tournaments virtually impossible. High level of engagement requires the researcher to participate in various activities beyond the regular forms of structured, tournament play. This involves socialising and communicating by means of social media (Facebook groups), conversations on messenger apps, or on the phone. Facebook seems to be the primary medium of transmitting information and opinions, and this is concluded mostly in Polish. I would argue that even though these may be substantial sources of gathering research

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data, exchanging ideas online leaves an open gate to thinking through what one wants to argue about. In other words, conversations carried out during tournament play are more spontaneous, as players act quickly and do not overthink their means of communication. The data being gathered included semi-structured interviews, field notes, participant observation and socialising, while many examples originate from oral communication. The novelty of my research is based on the idea of audio recording the games as they take place. The total time of recordings is slightly over 4 h 45 min, spread across three individual games, where five people were engaged. This amounts to three paired games, taking place during a one-day tournament. As the project is ongoing, the recordings are currently in the process of transcription. Therefore, I aim to present initial results based on selected extracts gathered both from the recordings and by using the aforementioned methods. For the purpose of the research I adopted the emic perspective (cf. Morris et al., 1999) combined with an ethnographic approach, where one is the researcher and a member of a wargaming community simultaneously. The reason behind such an approach was explained by Hine (2000, p. 21), who underlined that it is crucial to see through participants’ eyes, as it facilitates a broadened insight into cultural foundations of the group. Another applicable view is the one of Block (2009), where the researcher, by becoming a community citizen, has to go through all the stages of initiation. Finally, there arises a concern about the observer’s paradox, as explained by Labov (1972, p. 209), that “[t]he aim of linguistic research in the community must be to find out how people talk when they are not being systematically observed; yet we can only obtain this data by systematic observation.” The task of gathering data can be distorted by the presence of the researcher alone. To counter that a researcher may adopt the register of the group in question, which leads to producing not representative data. Therefore, I relied on technology, in the sense that audio recording of games, as they take place, relieves the researcher from the necessity of simultaneously focusing on the game and being mindful of the research objective at hand. The former issue is connected with time constraints, set during tournament play, where each match ends in a specific amount of time, usually three and a half hours. The latter, on the other hand, is handled in a post-production fashion, where field notes and raw recording can be analysed. Finally, one can also record games in which two other players are engaged.

4 Different Layers of Code Switching in Tabletop Wargames The presented extracts can be framed within several concepts. Firstly, it can be argued that the distinctive discourse that tabletop wargamers use follow Auer’s (2007) linguistic heterogeneity concept, where resources from multiple languages are used

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to construct utterances. This derives from the idea that a code is seen as “an unambiguous, one-to-one system of transduction between sets of signals” (Auer, 1998, p. 34), or as “systematic sets of linguistic signals which co-occur in defining settings” (Ervin-Tripp, 1973, 1964, p. 90). The transmission is therefore possible by means of a system of exchanging information, known to all the parties involved. Another view is that due to the nature of languages involved, code switching is best seen on the level of the sentence (Myers-Scotton & Jake, 1995). It is therefore seen as means of providing quick explanations. What follows is that this specific system has to be learned beforehand or in due course of the transmission so that it proceeds smoothly. If one considers that code switching takes place between Polish and English, there are two kinds of code that are involved in the process. The first one is the language (or languages) themselves, while the second one is based on unique discourse, involving game terminology, the knowledge of rules, procedures and the ability to foresee the consequences of the decisions one makes during the course of the game. The former issue is also relevant in the scope of foreign language fluency. It can be expected that players possess some fluency in English, yet its level and related intricacies ought to be discussed in a separate study. However, it can also be argued that the matter of fluency, as seen by Lehiste (1988, p. 2), where “a perfect bilingual may switch from language to language during a conversation,” is unlikely to be replicated within the scope of current study. Additionally, the code switching model, especially if used in the scope of game players, follows a more general framework. As suggested by Grosjean (2020), the choice of code depends on domains in which it is used, be it at home, at work, or at school, whereas English is present to some extent, in all domains involved in tabletop wargaming. In the course of gameplay, code switching is fluent and seems to proceed unhindered and without much hesitation on behalf of players. In other words, it can be suggested that their choice of English as the language of a particular match is natural and does not affect their stance towards the language. There are two main types of switching that are involved in the communicative process of wargamers participating in a game. When both players are of different nationality, usually English is being established as the language used for communication throughout the game. When, however, both players are Polish, the degree of switching (and mixing) varies, but may be framed within the following concepts. Firstly, as Auer (1998) suggests, code switching can be used on occasion to indicate group membership or to demonstrate one’s multilingualism to an outsider. It is therefore employed as means of establishing boundaries, or indicating membership to a group. In the discussed scenario, this is achieved through the knowledge of the gaming terminology rather than through the display of fluency in English. The latter is seen more as a necessary means for the game to proceed. Secondly, in terms of code mixing, Gumperz (1982) defines it as “using two languages for ad hoc, interpretive purposes,” whereas Maschler (1998, cited in Auer, 1998, p. 125) sees code mixing as “using two languages so that a third, new code emerges, in which elements of the two languages are incorporated into a structurally definable pattern.” From that it can be gathered that the major difference between the two entities is based on persistence, with code switching reflecting the situation

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taking place at a specific moment. In other words, the difference between these two terms is temporal, with code switching taking place in a moment of urgency, whereas code mixing is continual. In the context of the following study, it would also seem justified to mention Winford’s (2003) concept of tag-switching, in which a word or a phrase (i.e., a tag) is moved from one language into another, a practice common in intra-sentential switching. In this view, languages do not share an equal amount of input in the code switching situation, while the matrix language dominates over the embedded language in terms of grammar. The latter is responsible for providing distinct elements to be embedded into the framework. MLF makes very specific indications towards the morphemes that are to be taken into consideration, while pinpointing the importance of their lexical-conceptual, predicate-argument and morphological layers in the process. A certain degree of mastery of two languages is a necessity in tabletop wargaming. The majority of rulebooks are published primarily in English, while their contents vary from anything between thirty to five hundred pages. This makes some of the rulebooks cumbersome in terms of translation viability, and therefore it is easier and quicker to secure a copy of a rulebook in English, rather than waiting for a localised version. Rulebooks are the source of numerous lexical and grammatical elements translated into code switching.

5 Research Results and Discussion Players implement a variety of linguistic resources while taking turns, both on communicative and gameplay levels. In the following extract, the more-experienced Player 2 intends to explain a game rule to a newcomer by using a word-play, based on an English-to-Polish translation of the rule’s name. In short, the rule states that a vehicle entering difficult terrain has to roll for a skill check (i.e., Bog Check), which results in either crossing or becoming bogged-down. As the name of the rule in English is phonetically similar to a Polish name, Bogdan, it is employed in a humours manner. It is also worth noting that within the following section, extracts are provided in Polish, with an English translation. Important terms adopted into Polish are italicised, while additional information or clarification is provided in brackets. Extract 1. „Bogdan” Player 1

Mog˛e wjecha´c do lasu?

Can I drive into the forest?

Player 2

Mo˙zesz, ale musisz bog-checka rzuci´c.

You can, but you have to roll for Bog Check.

Player 1

Po co?

What for?

Player 2

Jak oblejesz, złapiesz Bogdana.

If you fail, you’ll catch Bogdan.

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By means of participation, the newcomer player becomes a part of established and understandable form of discourse which unfolds gradually. The situation at hand not only presents the opportunity of learning a specific part of the game system and understand the underlying mechanics of gameplay, but it also allows for a quick and efficient acquisition of terminology. The catch-phrase that lies at the core of the explanation (and the intended pun) provided by Player 2, is introduced ad-hoc, without thinking it through prior to its deployment. The situation is linguistically moderated by the more-experienced Player 2, who introduces tag-switched terminology as the game progresses. What is more, regular gameplay establishes a system of practices in terms of participation and interaction. The semiotic resources, available to Player 2 are introduced in a humorous way in order to establish the gameplay activity. Extract 2. „Gone-to-ground” Player 1

Namierzam si˛e art˛a na twoj˛a piechot˛e.

I’m ranging in with my arty on your infantry.

Player 2

Kulaj!

Roll!

Player 1

Trafiłem, masz pina.

I’ve hit, you’ve a pin (you’re pinned-down).

Player 2

Ale si˛e nimi nie ruszałem, jestem gie-te-gie.

But I haven’t moved them, I’m gee-to-gee (gone-to ground).

In Extract 2, the gameplay situation becomes tense, as the result of a single dice roll may determine the outcome of the game. When an artillery barrage is being deployed against infantry units, it usually ends in pinning down the unit fired upon, or killing it. This step requires a higher dice roll result, if the infantry unit fired upon remains gone-to-ground (i.e., it did not move in its movement step). The repertoire of resources that are readily available to use is also correlated to language proficiency of players. Even though tabletop wargamers often represent varied attitudes towards their self-awareness in terms of language proficiency, they rarely discriminate against players with a lower degree of English proficiency. In other words, it is assumed that each player possesses a communicative degree of foreign language. This can be correlated to Weinreich’s (1953/1968, p. 81) concept of a clear distinction between the level of interference of languages among bilinguals. When speaking to a unilingual, the bilingual would limit the amount of borrowings, yet if he or she conducts a conversation with another bilingual, there is virtually no limitation in terms of interference and forms can be freely transferred from one language to another. Extract 3. „I have concealment!” Player 1

Strzelam w twoje panzery, trafiam Ci˛e na I’m shooting at your panzers, I hit on trójkach. threes.

Player 2

Trafiasz na pi˛atkach.

You hit on fives.

Player 1

Czemu?

Why? (continued)

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(continued) Player 2

Mam conceala od lasu i od budynków.

I’ve conceal(ment) because of the forest and the buildings.

Player 1

No, ale conceale si˛e nie sumuj˛a. Trafiam na czwórkach.

Yes, but conceal(ment) doesn’t sum up. I hit on fours.

In Extract 3, the discussion stems from Player 1’s lack of understanding of the ongoing game situation, as well as their lack of knowledge in terms of system rules. A unit placed within terrain cover, be it inside a house, forest, or a field, is harder to hit, and requires the shooting Player 1 to add + 1 to their dice score. In result, players combine not only their knowledge of game rules and associated terminology, but also employ code switching to negotiate communicative and social hierarchy. The above mentioned extracts can be analysed from multiple perspectives. From the hobbyist point of view, the social life of a wargaming community is organised around recurring events: tournaments, campaigns, introductory games, workshops. While some game systems lend themselves more easily to competitive play than others, in the case of FoW a popular belief that players share is that this particular game encompasses a variety of features that favour competitive rather than casual play. This includes elements such as the ruleset design or the manner in which new supplements are published (i.e., expanding the scope of possible army list choices rather than adhering to a popular publishing tendency, where each new supplement brings in more powerful units, making it a must-buy for competing players). The Polish FoW community, of which the participants of the study are a part of, is therefore oriented towards organising and participating in competitive events. To that extent, tabletop wargaming remains unique in its ability to build up and encourage social activity, initiative and cultural-oriented ventures. Any form of participation, including model building, enrolling in organised play, attending tournaments or even informal socialising, allows establishing a relevant discourse for interaction and stimulates the development of speech communities focused around a particular game setting. It ought to be underlined that it is the active participation that plays a fundamental part in this process, and allows facilitating a common system of practices. In this context Goodwin’s (2000, p. 1491) view of what constitutes gameplay becomes essential in understanding how tabletop wargamers deploy their elaborate language resources. The presented extracts were chosen on the merit of (1) their ability to depict the ongoing game situation, discerned from a high-intensity involvement of players in a tournament paired match, (2) the limitation of extracts to Polish-vs-Polish game pairs in order to illustrate the tag-switching of game-related terminology, (3) the character of the communicative situation, in which decisions on both the game-related issues and linguistic choices have to be made ad-hoc and in a limited span of time. In regard to these ideas, I would argue that during gameplay, players gradually develop the structure of the communicative event, and this process takes place on different levels of player interaction. The first level consists of player-vs-game relations, where the undertaken actions are associated with semiotic and material

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structure of the game, which is divulged through the pre-set gaming table and its structuring, as well as game rules and their application, devising strategies, and finally, undertaking actions in player turns. The second level comprises the interaction between players during gameplay, where both material and linguistic resources (verbal means) are employed in collectively formulated social actions. Therefore, in the course of gameplay, players employ: (1) their native language, (2) the game terminology, which is transmitted in either its original English form, or absorbed into Polish as tags, and (3) their second language, including game terminology in English. The end result is that the construction of communicative endeavours becomes heterogeneous. The choice of what is being brought into the repertoire depends on the intricacies of a particular gaming situation. As games are carried out with subsequent involvement of two players, the result of a particular pairing may become a factor in this regard. Within organised play (tournaments) a pairing may include Polish and non-Polish speakers. This is when English is usually established as the code for the duration of the game. Bilingual resources (i.e., game terminology that is common to both codes) allow for a structured collaboration (or, more precisely, avid competition). At this point it seems justified to refer back to Winford’s (2003) concept of tag-switching, in which a tag is moved from A language into language B, especially when Polish vs Polish player games are taken into consideration. This remains consistent with Myers-Scotton and Jake’s (2000) theoretical model of code switching, the Matrix Language Frame. Code switching allows for a quicker, more fluent communication, which is essential due to time constraints in individual games. Switching from one code to another is a decision easily made, as it is based on a simple rule: the tournament pairing decides on the code selected. This way, it is both easier and quicker for players to establish relations and carry on with the game. English is seen as a neutral linguafranca, which also eases potential difficulties. On the sentential level, tag-switching is handled either by a direct loan from English, or it is adapted and becomes a grammatically-compatible tag. The lack of Polish translations of wargaming rulebooks presents both a danger and an opportunity. The former is a halting factor in facilitating new players, while the latter lays the groundwork for code switching. Linguistic resources of the game create a certain prerequisite for a wargamer-to-be. One must be able to understand the rules, turn sequences and terminology associated with the hobby regardless of their fluency in English. From my observations this does not constitute a problem among Polish players. Once the necessary rules, terminology and patterns of thinking are attained, playing becomes easier and less time consuming. Wargaming terminology, on the level of basic concepts, remains universal across multiple game systems. Gaming experience from game A becomes therefore useful when entering the world of game B, or C, and others to follow. It can be stated that there is no prerequisite in terms of a specific level of language proficiency, but this issue constitutes a case for separate study.

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6 Conclusions Tabletop wargaming gameplay embodies complex, technologically mediated social activity (Piirainen-Marsh, 2010). Its material structure and resources are provided by the game itself, and this allows the players to interact and make choices on the basis of assets available to them (Goodwin, 2000, p. 1491). In the course of gameplay player interactions emerge on several levels, that is the player-game relation, unfolded through the table and its structuring, rules and their application, or devising strategies. The second, player-to-player relation, allows manifesting linguistic and semiotic resources through cooperatively formulated social actions. The bilingual order of communication is also devised gradually, with players employing both their native language, including unmodified game terminology and terminology absorbed into Polish as tag-switches. Bilingual wargamers are accustomed to using one particular language when conversing with a particular person. Yet, the repertoire of terminology makes translation easier, whereas increased interference is not perceived as a negative factor. As wargaming rulebooks are usually elaborate and complex, it is rare to see them translated for the purposes of local markets. There is a multitude of factors that are considered before this takes place, but the financial aspect seems to be the decisive one. The process of learning does not necessarily require reading a 200-page long manual per se, as game introductions are made available to newcomer players, but it is seen as a good practice to own, and occasionally skim through the rulebook. There are two types of code switching involved, intra-sentential and tag-based. The former incorporates individual phrases or exposition of whole rules, incorporated into speech. The latter, on the other hand, operates on tags that are easily lexified and included in the structure of a sentence in Polish. Code switching allows for a quicker, more fluent communication, which is essential due to time constraints in organised play. Switching from one code to another is a decision easily made, as it is based on the rule that game pairing decides on the code being selected. This makes it easier and quicker to establish relations and carry on with the game. English is seen as a neutral lingua-franca, and a natural choice when paired with a foreigner. Although it could be assumed that foreign players do possess a certain level of proficiency in Polish, they may consider it to be not good enough to carry out a complex endeavour of both actively participating in the course of the game, and communicating with the opposing player. The decision which medium is to be used is based primarily on what players consider as a social norm. The complexity of code choice when non-Polish players are involved would require pursuing a separate study in the future. Further research should assess communication practices from the perspective of English native vs. non-native speakers. A different direction of study would encompass the reasoning and argumentation strategies employed by players in regard to choosing a particular tabletop wargame (or choosing not to play one).

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Mianowski, J. (2020). Leadership, circuition, and shift in tabletop wargaming community. Homo Ludens, 1(13), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.14746/HL.2020.13.8 Morris, M. W., Leung, K., Ames, D., & Lickel, B. (1999). Views from inside and outside: Integrating emic and etic insights about culture and justice judgment. The Academy of Management Review, 24(4), 781–796. Myers-Scotton, C., & Jake, J. L. (1995). Matching lemmas in a bilingual language competence and production model: Evidence from intrasentential code-switching. Linguistics, 33(5), 981–1024. Myers-Scotton, C., & Jake, J. L. (2000). Matching lemmas in a bilingual language competence and production model: Evidence from intrasentential code-switching. In L. Wei (Ed.), The bilingualism reader (pp. 265–302). Routledge. Perla, P. (1990). The art of wargaming: A guide for professionals and hobbyists. Naval Institute Press. Perla, P., & McGrady, E. (2011). Why wargaming works. Naval War College Review, 64(3)(Summer), 111–130. Pias, C. (1993). Computer Spiel Welten. Bauhaus-Universität Weimar. Piirainen-Marsh, A. (2008). Koodinvaihto kontekstivihjeenä videopelitilanteissa. In S. Leppänen, T. Nikula, & L. Kääntä (Eds.), Kolmas kotimainen: lähikuvia englannin käytöstä Suomessa. Hakapaino Oy. Piirainen-Marsh, A. (2010). Bilingual practices and the social organisation of video gaming activities. Journal of Pragmatics, 42, 3012–3030. Priestley, R., & Lambshead, J. (2016). Tabletop wargames: A designers’ and writers’ handbook. Yorkshire, Pen & Sword Military. Reynaud, D., & Northcote, M. (2015). The world wars through tabletop wargaming: An innovative approach to university history teaching. Arts & Humanities in Higher Education 2015, 14(4), 349–367. Townley, C., Davies, C., Pesch, V., Haught, A., & Yates, P. (2020). World of tanks miniatures game. GaleForce Nine & Wargaming.net. von Hilgers, P. (2000). Eine Anleitung zur Anleitung. Das Takstische Kriegsspiel 1812–1824. Board Games Studies: International Journal for the Study of Board Games, 3, 59–78. Vuorinen, P. (2008). English elements in the spoken discourse of Finnish teenagers playing an English video game. Pro-graduate thesis, Department of Languages, University of Jyväskylä. Yates, P., & Turner W. (2017). Flames of war: The World War II miniatures game. 1939–41 and 1944–45. Battlefront Miniatures Ltd. Winford, D. (2003). An introduction to contact linguistics. Blackwell Publishers. Weinreich, U. (1953/1968). Languages in contact. Findings and problems. Mouton Publishers. Wells, H. G. (1913). Little wars. Frank Palmer.

Jacek I. Mianowski is Assistant Professor in Department of English Linguistics at Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, Poland. His areas of academic research include anthropological linguistics, ethnography of communication, emergence and evolution of writing systems, and game studies. He has conducted research at such academic centres as National University of Ireland (Galway), The British Library, Cardiff University, University of Nottingham. His recent publications include Ethnolinguistics, Cultural Change and Early Scripts from England and Wales (2016) and Memory, Identity and Cognition: Explorations in Culture and Communication (2019).

Educational Contexts

Making University-Level Foreign Language Education More Responsive to Professional Needs Mirosław Pawlak

Abstract Foreign language education has always been an integral part of programs offered at universities in different countries, whether taught at the BA, MA or PhD level. The form that such education takes, however, depends upon the nature of a specific program. A crucial distinction can be made between programs intended for students to obtain qualifications in different fields of study other than language as such (e.g., engineering, nursing, management), and those in which they are expected to become professionals in a given foreign language, such as teachers, translators or interpreters. When it comes to general programs, teaching foreign languages is frequently limited in scope, many students opt for lower levels for fear that they might not cope, and the focus on major-specific language is often quite limited. Language-focused programs offer extensive instruction in the target language as well as a wide variety of courses in linguistics, applied linguistics, history, literature or foreign language methodology, mostly taught in that language. However, in many cases, what is taught in these courses is far removed from everyday demands of the labor market, with the result that graduates may sometimes be at a loss with respect to the choice of their future careers. The chapter provides an overview of challenges facing foreign language education at the university level and suggests modifications that could make it more compatible with professional needs. Keywords Foreign language education · Languages for specific purposes · General university programs · Foreign languages university programs

1 Introduction Commenting on the situation in different parts of Europe, Lauder and Mayhew (2020) point out: “(…) in all countries a significant proportion of graduates fail to gain much advantage from going to university. As HE [higher education] has expanded M. Pawlak (B) Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz, Poland e-mail: [email protected] State University of Applied Sciences, Konin, Poland © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_8

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faster than the jobs on offer have improved in quality, they find themselves in a game of positional competition, needing to have degrees simply to get the sorts of jobs that their non-graduate parents had” (p. 1). This evaluation applies in equal measure to teaching foreign languages (FLs) at the university level. On the one hand, it is commonly recognized that the ability to communicate in one but preferably several FLs opens the door to success in different walks of life, as evident in the fact that multilingualism is included among key competences for lifelong learning recommended by the Council of the European Union (Council Recommendation, 2018). On the other hand, a key question arises as to whether FL instruction in higher education is indeed conducted in the most optimal way so that it adequately prepares the graduates of different programs for the current challenges of the labor market. When we examine the situation in the Polish educational context, sadly, the answer to this question can hardly be affirmative. Surely, the situation is bound to vary from one institution and program to another but it would seem that major changes are needed in the ways in which FLs are taught in higher education. The present chapter offers a brief overview of FL education in this context, presents the challenges that it has to confront and provides some tentative suggestions for modifications which could make it responsive to professional needs. Two important caveats are in order at this juncture. First, the chapter is to a large extent based on the experience of the author not only as a university lecturer teaching both content and languagerelated courses to English majors but also as a former university president who was responsible for making crucial decisions about how FL instruction was organized in different types of programs. For this reason, references to academic publications are kept to the minimum unless they are deemed to be highly relevant to the focus of the discussion. Second, not surprisingly, given the author’s academic background, the contents of the chapter might be seen as somewhat biased towards teaching foreign languages to students majoring in them in which case a very high level of proficiency in the target language (TL) is naturally at a premium.

2 Teaching Foreign Languages in Polish Higher Education: How the System Works Before examining the nature of FL instruction in Polish higher education, two important issues need to be addressed. For one thing, foreign language education in this context is externally regulated to a very limited extent, mainly because universities are accorded considerable autonomy with respect to what and how they teach. More specifically, even though there exist some requirements with respect to the minimum number of classes and ECTS points, each university has the power to decide on its own how FL education will be organized and implemented, let alone specific choices regarding methodology, materials, etc. Another important issue is that we need to make a crucial distinction between two quite disparate situations. The first is by far

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the most widespread and concerns teaching one or more FLs to students enrolled in content-related BA and MA programs which are intended to provide them with qualifications in specific areas, such as agriculture, architecture, economics, law, nursing, engineering, history, pedagogy and so on. The second is quite distinctive and pertains to teaching a particular FL to students majoring in this language in firstand second-cycle studies, even though they might also be required to learn other FLs. This distinction is important because the discussion in the entire chapter, both in the present section and the following ones revolves around it. When it comes to general university programs, not surprisingly, by far the most popular FL is English, although other additional languages are also taught (e.g. German, Russian or Spanish). Graduates are required to reach the B2 level in the case of BA programs and the B2+ level on completion of MA programs, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). In addition, they should also get to know subject-specific vocabulary related to a particular field of study. In other words, apart from the usual focus on the development of general TL skills and subsystems, these programs are also expected to include content-specific language, such as English for specific purposes (e.g., Laurence, 2018), where the emphasis is placed on the teaching of vocabulary and grammar that may be needed for a particular field (e.g., medicine, engineering, physics). However, the way in which FL instruction of this kind is organized hinges upon the regulations in place in different institutions of higher education. For one thing, the choice of the FLs on offer may vary considerably and some programs may require qualifications in more than one foreign language. In some institutions of higher education, particularly universities of technology, there exist specialized language teaching centers which are responsible for coordinating FL education in all contentbased programs. This results in reliance on common curricula which are, at least in theory, geared to a given field of study, the use of similar instructional materials, and employment of identical assessment procedures, such as the same final examinations for students enrolled in programs that are akin in many respects. In addition, university authorities may decide to dedicate more contact hours to the teaching of FLs than is required by law or just customary (one 90-min class per week in most cases). This said, because courses, even those in the same program, are inevitably taught by different lecturers, a certain degree of variation is unavoidable, which may have far-reaching ramifications for the overall quality of instruction or the outcomes of ongoing, formative assessment (Brown, 2019). In many other institutions, though, perhaps for the most part in smaller ones, such as state universities of applied sciences or regional universities, such coordination is seldom a fact of life and a high degree of uniformity is much less often enforced. In such situations, while there might still exist entities which are responsible for the planning, supervision and perhaps even ultimate assessment of learning outcomes, most of the choices are left in the hands of lecturers. In effect, what exactly is taught and how may differ from one group to another and the results of evaluation may not be really comparable among programs or groups of students with different teachers. Things look very different in the case of BA and MA programs designed for students majoring in a given FL or perhaps even two or more such languages. As

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mentioned above, in this case, the primary goal is to ensure that students attain a superior level of TL proficiency, approximating that of native speakers, which will allow them to function as professionals in this respect in different walks of life in the capacity of teachers, translators, interpreters, business consultants, editors, etc. In fact, according to existing regulations, the graduates of such programs are expected to achieve the C1 level on completion of a BA program and the C2 level at the end of an MA program. Although this point will also be touched upon later in this chapter, it should be stressed at this juncture that such goals are clearly unrealistic. Given such demanding requirements, it is not surprising that the main emphasis is laid on an intensive course in the TL. Yet again, since universities have a lot of freedom with respect to how different programs are structured, this course can vary in the number of contact classes and be organized in disparate ways. Perhaps the most frequent solution is dividing it into classes dedicated to different TL subsystems and skills, such as grammar, pronunciation, speaking, writing, integrated skills, etc., with the balance between these components changing as the program progresses. Much less frequent are cases where such a division is virtually abandoned and all classes are focused on different aspects of the TL in order to stress that it is a tool for communication. The contents of the classes comprising the intensive FL course are decided by a particular institution and there are usually individuals or bodies that are responsible for determining what and how should be taught. This applies in equal measure to assessment procedures which can vary widely from place to place. In most cases, students are required to take a high-stakes end-of-the-year examination in the TL which is composed of a test focusing on grammar and vocabulary, a written component and an oral interview. Passing such an examination poses a major challenge even if continuous evaluation throughout the year is taken into account when establishing the final grade. There are also institutions that have decided to give more weight to the ongoing assessment, relying on the grade point average in different classes and retaining only the final oral interview. Obviously, a crucial question arises in this case as to whether evaluation conducted by different teachers is comparable and therefore whether the overall assessment can be viewed as valid and reliable (i.e., whether it focuses on what should be assessed in a consistent manner; e.g., Brown, 2019; Brown & Lee, 2014; Hughes, 2002). In addition to the TL course, all programs leading to a qualification in a specific FL also include courses dedicated, among others, to linguistics, applied linguistics, English and American culture, history and literature, language teaching methodology, some specialized courses (e.g., in translation, pragmatics, computer technology in L2 education), and a number of electives (e.g., BA or MA seminars). There are bound to be huge differences in relation to the contents, scope and evaluation of such courses and although most of them are taught in the L2, this is by no means a rule that is followed in all institutions. One reason for this is undoubtedly the fact that, due to declining interest in programs in less popular foreign languages, some universities have started offering such programs for beginners. In such cases, teaching phonology, syntax, literature or history, for example, in the TL is clearly out of the question and one can only wonder how on earth the ambitious goal of reaching the C1 level on completion of a BA program can ever be achieved.

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3 Challenges of Foreign Language Instruction in Higher Education in Poland Each of the situations characterized in the previous section is beset with its own set of challenges which on the whole make it difficult, if at all possible, to teach foreign languages in such a way that students will gain competences and skills that they are most likely to need in their future professional lives, thus becoming more competitive on the labor market. There are numerous reasons for this state of affairs, some of which are inextricably linked with the scope, foci and nature of FL instruction that is offered as part of different BA and MA programs. Others are closely related to the characteristics of the student population as well as individuals’ self-perceived needs and expectations. The present section provides a brief overview of such challenges, first, in the case of teaching foreign languages in general university programs and, second, in the case of programs where the mastery of such languages constitutes the primary goal of university education. When we look at FL instruction in cases where students are expected to become specialists in different content subjects, one cannot escape the impression that it is more often than not seen as a necessary evil that surely cannot be avoided but can be marginalized as much as possible. Moreover, sentiments of this kind appear to be pervasive not only among students, many of whom would rather concentrate on courses that will be instrumental in their future careers (e.g., those related to various aspects of medical sciences or professional training classes for students of medicine), but also among decision-makers responsible for designing programs of study, drawing up learning outcomes and developing assessment criteria and procedures, as well as numerous lecturers themselves. In the first place, in many cases, FL education is confined to just one 90-min class per week, although there are of course institutions or specific programs within those institutions where a premium is placed on the knowledge of one or more FLs, with much more time being dedicated to such courses. When we consider the concept of communicative competence, defined several decades ago by Canale and Swain (1980) and Canale (1983) as a composite construct consisting of grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic and strategic competences, there is simply no way for students to make progress even in the first of these areas which is concerned with the knowledge of the TL as a system (e.g., grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation). Unless students come to the conclusion that it is worthwhile to learn the FL in their own time, thus exercising a certain degree of autonomy (cf. Pawlak et al., 2017), it is also difficult to envisage how explicit, conscious knowledge of different elements of the TL can serve as a basis for the development of implicit knowledge or be automatized to such an extent that it will be available for use in spontaneous interactions (cf. DeKeyser, 2017; Ellis, 2009; Pawlak, 2019a). If this goal cannot be achieved at least to some extent, however, students will clearly not be able to successfully function in the professional contexts required by their jobs, whatever they might be. Another problem, which is in fact the corollary of the previous point, is that a focus on field-specific language can only be very limited, and relevant words and

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phrases cannot effectively be practiced, not to mention attempts to use them in realtime interactions. Truth be told, this situation hardly comes as a surprise in settings where time is an extremely scarce commodity. Moreover, many students are reluctant to admit how long they have been learning a particular FL and what proficiency level they genuinely represent (although it might indeed be lower than could be expected in many cases) for fear that they might not be able to cope with the requirements of relevant courses. In addition, as was signaled above, in many institutions of higher education, it is lecturers who have the ultimate power to make decisions about how FL instruction proceeds, what materials are utilized and, at least to some extent, the way in which students’ progress is evaluated. Importantly, this is true for both the general component of the course focusing on the use of TL resources in different contexts, and its specialized component which is reflective of a particular field of study. The ramifications of this situation are far-reaching for the simple reason that the effects of instructional procedures can no longer be considered comparable, which casts serious doubt on qualifications that students are ultimately equipped with. Even more disconcertingly, there are instances in which final grades have little to do with the real level of TL proficiency because, wanting to avoid all the hassle of make-up exams and being fully cognizant of the low status of FL education, many lecturers conduct evaluation in such a way that getting a high score poses little challenge. It can reasonably be assumed that online education brought about by the pandemic only exacerbated this problem because whatever measures teachers take in order to ensure objectivity in such contexts, they will for the most part prove to be insufficient. Taking all of this into account, it is difficult to see how FL education can ever prepare the graduates for effective use of the TL for professional purposes. A necessary proviso at this point is that while problems of this kind may indeed be the reality of the vast majority of instructional contexts, there are surely cases in which FL instruction, including teaching FLs for specific purposes, is better organized and thus more effective. Moving on to the programs in which students specialize in an FL and are expected to become experts in this language, it would seem at first blush that they are perfectly suited to preparing them for the demands of the labor market. After all, such programs are designed in the first place to ensure that students reach a very high level of TL proficiency that will allow them to succeed in professions in which such superior mastery of FLs is likely to be required, such as teachers at different educational levels, translators, interpreters, specialists involved in business negotiations, editors of publications in the TL, etc. It is for this very reason that the core of these programs is an intensive course in the TL which aims to equip graduates with the competences and skills that would allow them to meet the requirements of such jobs. However, it is warranted to say that many programs of this kind rarely achieve their goals, not only by failing to produce students who would indeed develop superior TL skills but also by doing little to ensure that what they learn will give them an edge in competing for jobs in different walks of life. First, the overall proficiency levels of students who choose to major in an FL are on the decline and the format of the final examinations at the end of secondary school does not really allow the selection of individuals who are best qualified for

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such programs. This is because these exams tend to prioritize the ability to achieve communicative goals, setting much less store by the accuracy and precision of TL use. The effect is that quite a few students deciding to enroll in FL programs might experience difficulty in the use of basic grammar structures (e.g. irregular verbs in English or determiners in German) and thus a fair amount of time has to be devoted to rectifying such problems from the get-go, which naturally limits opportunities to deal with other important things and notably a wide range of pragmatic aspects. The long-term consequence of this situation is that many students, not only those who are expected to learn the TL from scratch, are never able to attain the C1 and C2 levels projected for graduates of first- and second-cycle studies, respectively. Logically, this also has a bearing on the mastery of domain-specific language, whatever this domain might turn out to be (cf. Pawlak, 2019b). Second, many FL programs seem to have lost a sense of direction because they are no longer reserved for the elite, as was the case in the past, and it is not entirely clear what exactly they wish to achieve. When we take into account the speaking and writing classes embedded in such programs, for example, they all too often focus on topics that may be of little relevance to students and may do little to bring the required TL use any closer to everyday realities, not to mention professional contexts. To give an example, it is not entirely clear how being forced to talk about superstitions, art or a sense of humor can ever be expected to prepare students for translating specialist texts, exceling in teaching foreign languages at different educational levels, interpreting for business partners or facilitating negotiations between them. Yet another problem is acute lack of coordination between different components of the intensive FL course, with the effect that students typically have very few chances to use grammar structures that they learn in dedicated grammar classes in their speaking or writing classes. What is far worse, this makes opportunities to use such TL forms in spontaneous communication extremely scarce, with obvious consequences for effective functioning in real-life situations. Third, many lecturers do not appear to fully grasp how much the times have changed and insist on teaching content courses in exactly the same way as they did ten or twenty years ago. For instance, nowadays it is much less important to be able to describe the historical processes accounting for how a particular language has changed over the centuries than to understand how changes of this kind may be relevant for current-day uses of this language in a range of situations. Even less useful of course is having students translate texts written several centuries ago (e.g., in old English) into the current-day version of the TL, which still happens in some institutions and can aptly be described as art for art’s sake. In much the same vein, it is puzzling why students should need to chronologically go over works of literature in the FL instead of just familiarizing themselves with crucial trends as well as examples of representative texts. Fourth, and in all likelihood most importantly, it would appear that students who elect to enroll in such programs often do not realize what they are signing up for in the first place as well as what programs of this kind require and what qualifications they are supposed to eventually lead to. More precisely, many candidates seem to mistake the study of an FL in such programs for an intensive language course that can help

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them develop language skills quickly, which can give them an edge in the future. It is thus predictable that they are frequently in for a very unpleasant surprise when, after a month or two, they eventually come to understand that the level they need to achieve is much higher than they could have ever imagined and moving on to the next year depends as well on their at least passable command of content-related subjects, such as descriptive grammar, culture, history, literature or language teaching methodology. All things considered, it is hard to see how university programs intended for students majoring in foreign languages can ever be expected to meet the constantly increasing demands of the labor market.

4 Possible Solutions In light of the problems presented in the previous sections, a question arises as to what can possibly done to make FL instruction in institutions of higher education in Poland more compatible with the requirements of the present-day labor market so that the students can capitalize upon their knowledge of additional languages in their future careers. On the face of it, the most straightforward answer to this conundrum could be a suggestion that the intensity of FL instruction should be increased, which would in practice boil down to increasing the number of contact hours. While this solution is likely to be applauded by members of the faculty, both academics and lecturers, fearing to lose their jobs, it would at the same time surely be criticized by university authorities always conscious of the need to judiciously distribute the available, usually quite limited, funds. Truth be told, as is usually the case, it is not so much the quantity of FL instruction but its scope and quality that can be expected to make a real difference. The present section considers how this goal can beneficially be attained, yet again, first with respect to domain-general university programs where FLs are required to be taught and then in cases when those FLs become the primary focus. Although this runs somewhat contrary to what was said above, the first necessary step in the case of general programs is extending the number of FL classes that students have to attend. This applies in particular to situations where FL instruction is confined to just one 90-min class a week because in general it is obvious that lecturers can only pretend to teach a foreign language in such circumstances and students can only pretend to learn it. More contact hours would not only make the attainment of overall instructional goals more realistic, especially in relation to engendering the use of the language in spontaneous interaction, but would also allow inclusion of field-specific vocabulary and grammar, as well as more abundant practice opportunities in this respect. It also seems warranted to make FL instruction more uniform, at the very least within the same programs or groups of programs. In other words, crucial decisions about what and how to teach or how to evaluate learning outcomes should be made collectively, approved by relevant bodies, and then consistently implemented. Although what actually happens in FL classes will always be subject to considerable variation, such steps would enable a much greater

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degree of comparability between students and classes. In addition, it would be much easier to decide on field-specific language to be introduced, the materials that can be employed for this purpose, and the most effective ways of practicing such language in different contexts. Yet another issue pertains to the need for close cooperation between FL specialists and experts in a given field of study, because this would considerably enhance the likelihood that the language for specific purposes that is taught will actually be useful “on the job”. Importantly, these experts should not only be recruited from academics teaching in pertinent programs at the university but also from businesses, companies and institutions actually functioning in real-life environments. This said, we always have to be careful not to “overdo it” for the simple reason that, being inundated with specalized terminology in content classes, some students may rebel against having to cover the same topics in their FL courses and would rather focus more on general communicative skills in the TL. After all, the fact that someone graduates from a law department does not mean that he or she cannot find a job with a company that specializes in manufacturing agricultural equipment. In this case, law-related English, French or Spanish would need to be augmented by specialized language that reflects the focus of its business operations. Arguably, changes are even more urgently needed in the case of programs for students majoring in a particular FL. On the one hand, it is true that attempts have been undertaken in many institutions to modify such programs to bring them closer to current-day realities and to make them more responsive to the demands of the job market by, for example, facilitating access for students with lower TL ability, introducing business- and media-related components, or overhauling the intensive TL course. On the other hand, in view of the problems mentioned in the previous section, even more radical steps are indispensable to make such programs relevant in the long run and allow them to reinvent themselves to be able to provide their graduates with the L2 skills they might need in their future jobs. First, it is necessary to realize that programs for language majors have to a large extent lost their elite status as they accept students that would not have had the slightest chance of being admitted even a decade ago. This means that major changes are needed in the way in which the classes comprising the TL course are designed and implemented. For example, the time has surely come to reconsider whether different variants of pronunciation should be taught, which is still the norm in many programs for English majors, whether the focus of grammar classes should be on structures that are rarely used at the expense of ensuring that those more common are employed in communicative interaction, or whether teaching writing should mainly be productdriven with a focus on various types of paragraphs, genres, or essays. Second, the time has come to rethink the contents of FL-related programs so that they no longer focus predominantly on things that are so far removed from real lives. Surely, students should become familiarized with key issues in linguistics, applied linguistics, culture, history literature, translation, and, if they choose to specialize in L2 education, also FL teaching methodology. However, in each case, relevant courses can be taught in a much more practical way to gain traction with what transpires outside the academia. For example, there is no reason why the somewhat mundane classes in morphology or syntax should not give more attention to how the knowledge of language can help

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solve everyday problems, as is the case with forensic linguistics, speech recognition, language-related disorders, etc. (cf. e.g., Schmitt & Rodgers, 2020). The courses for prospective teachers, translators and interpreters should also become more practical by shifting the focus to what happens “in the field” rather than considering what could hypothetically happen. In much the same vein, part of the intensive TL course could be dedicated to introducing specific language related to different fields (e.g., medicine, law, technology, etc.) as well as practicing it in various spoken or written texts. While it is not feasible to cover all types of the TL or situations in which this language can be used in professional contexts, it surely makes much sense at least to try to do so rather than just routinely including “traditional” topics that English majors may rarely get to talk about in real lives, such as art, humor, discrimination, and the like. In fact, these changes could even benefit future FL teachers who would thus be more prepared to deliver FL instruction drawing upon the content and language integrated learning (CLIL; cf. Dalton-Puffer, 2011) model. Third, many graduates of FL-focused university programs might ultimately choose careers that have little or nothing to do with the main foci of these programs (i.e., linguistics, literature, etc.) opting instead for positions in diverse companies or setting up their own businesses. This indicates that in order to keep abreast of the times, such programs can be improved upon by including subjects that prepare students for such future endeavors (e.g., courses in economics or business negotiations taught in an FL). In addition, more emphasis should be placed on developing an autonomous approach to FL learning and the use of strategies that could make this process more effective as this might prove instrumental when students have to master large amounts of fieldspecific lexis required by their jobs. One way or another, such additional skills would for sure come in handy in very different walks of life.

5 Conclusion The knowledge of foreign languages plays a crucial role in today’s world mainly because interactions with foreigners are becoming more and more of a necessity in individuals’ professional lives and such languages also constitute crucial tools for life-long learning and self-development. It is thus now taken for granted that FL instruction should be an inherent component of national curricula and should thus be implemented at successive educational levels. This is also certainly the case with higher education, where additional languages are taught as yet another course in general content-related programs but also in programs which focus on specific FLs as such. It has been argued in this chapter that in both of these contexts the instruction that students receive more often than not fails to adequately prepare them for effective use of additional languages in their future professional lives. Among other things, this unsatisfactory state of affairs stems from an insufficient number of contact classes, the scope, nature and implementation of FL instruction, the assessment procedures used, inadequate inclusion of field-specific language, lack of coordination, or unclear focus of some of the language courses. An attempt has also been made to offer several

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concrete recommendations that could ameliorate these problems to at least some extent, thereby making FL instruction in institutions of higher education in Poland more responsive to potential professional demands. There are certainly universities or specific BA and MA programs where the bleak picture painted in this chapter may not really apply. However, there is reason to believe that, on the whole, the aims and nature of FL education at the university level should be seriously reconsidered and modified in such a way that the things students are taught will help them become more successful in their future careers. Although one of the undeniable values of higher education is the very fact that it should go beyond what is evidently practical or immediately relevant to everyday life, universities also have the responsibility to do their utmost to make sure that the graduates of the programs they offer will be well prepared to cope with the challenges they are bound to encounter in their professional lives. Making FL instruction more compatible with the realities of the labor market is certainly one of the ways in which this pivotal goal can be accomplished.

References Brown, H. D., & Lee, H. (2014). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. Pearson Education. Brown, H. D. (2019). Language assessment: Principles and classroom practices. Pearson Education. Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy. In J. C. Richard & R. W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication (pp. 2–14). Longman. Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1–74. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, Assessment. Cambridge University Press. Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning. ST/9009/2018/INIT. Dalton-Puffer, C. (2011). Content-and-language integrated learning: from practice to principles? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 182–204. DeKeyser, R. (2017). Knowledge and skill in SLA. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition (pp. 15–32). Routledge. Ellis, R. (2009). Implicit and explicit learning, knowledge and instruction. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reinders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 3–25). Multilingual Matters. Hughes, A. (2002). Testing for language teachers. Oxford University Press. Lauder, H., & Mayhew, K. (2020). Higher education and the labor market: An introduction. Oxford Review of Education, 46, 1–9. Laurence, A. (2018). Introducing English for specific purposes. Routledge. Pawlak, M. (2019a). Tapping the distinction between explicit and implicit knowledge: Methodological issues. In B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (Ed.), Contacts & contrasts in educational contexts and translation (pp. 45–60). Springer Nature. Pawlak, M. (2019b). Kształcenie na studiach filologicznych: Diagnoza i propozycje zmian. In M. Wo´znicka, A. Stolarczyk-Gembiak, & M. Trojszczak (Eds.), Zbli˙zenia 5: J˛ezykoznawstwo, literaturoznawstwo, translatologia (pp. 171–186). Wydawnictwo PWSZ w Koninie. Pawlak, M., Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A., & Bielak, J. (Eds.). (2017). Autonomy in second language learning: Managing the resources. Springer. Schmitt, N., & Rodgers, M. P. H. (2020). An introduction to applied linguistics. Taylor & Francis.

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Mirosław Pawlak is Professor of English at the Department of English Studies, Faculty of Pedagogy and Fine Arts in Kalisz, Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz, Poland, and the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, State University of Applied Sciences, Konin, Poland. His main areas of interest are SLA theory and research, form-focused instruction, corrective feedback, classroom discourse, learner autonomy, learning strategies, motivation, willingness to communicate, emotions in L2 learning and teaching, study abroad and pronunciation teaching. Mirosław Pawlak is Editor-in-Chief of the journals Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching and Konin Language Studies, as well as the book series Second Language Learning and Teaching (Springer). He currently serves as President of the International Federation of Teacher Associations (FIPLV).

Engineering Students’ Views on ESP Courses as a Pathway for the Development of Graduates’ International Mindsets Elisabet Arnó-Macià and Marta Aguilar-Pérez

Abstract The growing internationalization of study and work settings has led to increased university internationalization, making it necessary to explore the language and communication skills that higher education students need, and more importantly, how their confidence can be boosted to effectively participate in international academic and professional communication. As universities tend to favor EMI (English-Medium Instruction) as a way of developing students’ disciplinary communication skills and rarely incorporate ESP (English for Specific Purposes) as part of their policies, a question arises about the role of ESP courses and their potential for developing intercultural communication and internationalization skills. This chapter inquires into whether and how ESP courses can be integrated into university internationalization policies with the aim to help students towards the development of disciplinary English. In order to find out what skills students perceive as necessary for international academic and professional communication, this study investigates how these courses are implemented in a technical university, from the perspective of students’ views. Data come from a survey on ESP students’ self-reported preparation (and level of confidence), their EMI/international experience and their use of English for academic and professional purposes. Complementarily, this study also examines the position of ESP in the curriculum and in broader institutional language and internationalization policies. From the results obtained, a proposal is made for aligning ESP with broader institutional internationalization strategies, so that ESP courses can contribute to developing transferable skills that impact on graduates’ international employability, which makes ESP even more relevant in current internationalized scenarios. Keywords English for specific purposes · Students’ needs · Students’ beliefs · Internationalization · Integrated internationalization

E. Arnó-Macià (B) · M. Aguilar-Pérez Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain e-mail: [email protected] M. Aguilar-Pérez e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_9

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1 Introduction This chapter explores the role of ESP as a gateway to university internationalization by examining the views of students enrolled in different ESP courses. Set in the context of a technical university in Catalonia, Spain, (Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya), this study analyses eight courses across different schools and campuses (in three cities in the Barcelona area: Barcelona, Terrassa and Vilanova i la Geltrú) within a technical university that is representative of Southern European universities in terms of internationalization. This study focuses on Science and Technology, the area with the strongest ESP tradition (Swales, 1985). As English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs increase, together with the decline of ESP staff and courses on offer in the institution, the ‘fragility’ of ESP (Swales et al., 2001) merits attention, particularly if one considers the potential of ESP to enhance interculturality, foreign language development and specialized disciplinary communication. In order to gain insights into this reality and delve into the reasons for this decline, we seek to find out if and how engineering students taking ESP courses perceive them as a pathway for internationalization, i.e., as courses that provide the language and communication skills necessary to pursue further courses taught in English or the kind of ‘international and global skills’ (Soria & Troisi, 2014) necessary to operate in a globalized working environment.

2 Background The internationalization drive engulfing higher institutions is not new and has received much attention from different strands of research. Internationalization has been observed from the effects of study abroad (Cots et al., 2016) to the need to go beyond mobility with internationalization at home (IaH) (Beelen & Jones, 2015; Crowther et al., 2000) and the perspective of the internationalization of the curriculum (IoC) (Leask, 2015). Probably because most university policies tend to promote EMI (Wächter & Maiworm, 2014), research on English-medium instruction is yielding a plethora of findings about the costs and benefits of EMI and its policies (Macaro, 2018; Murata, 2019). Paradoxically, despite going beyond mere exposure to a foreign language and despite their potentiality for agency (Jiang et al., 2019; Thompson et al., 2019; Yang, 2016), ESP courses have to strive for survival in many higher institutions and are not always specifically considered as part of internationalization policies. Relatively fewer findings, when compared with those on EMI, have been obtained regarding ESP as a major internationalization driver. Some studies point to the role of ESP in preparing students toward a successful performance in EMI (Arnó-Macià et al., 2020), mostly from a disciplinary communication skills standpoint. In this expanding EMI context, Dearden (2018) proposes a reappraisal of the roles of ESP teachers, as language mediators with EMI lecturers and students, and of ESP courses, to provide

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discipline-specific language support to EMI students. On the other hand, and from a broader internationalization perspective, a few voices have suggested the possibility of integrating intercultural competence and technical communication within an ESPEAP course (Arnó-Macià & Aguilar-Pérez, 2018; Bocanegra-Valle, 2016; Yu, 2012), given that language specialists seem to be more willing and qualified to work toward language and intercultural development than EMI lecturers (Aguilar-Pérez, 2021). This study is set in the context of Catalan universities, which have recently engaged in internationalization, often involving a move towards multilingualism and the addition of English as a working language to the two languages of the community—see Cots et al. (2012) and Cots et al. (2014) for a detailed sociolinguistic account of the higher education landscape in Catalonia. This study draws on a number of previous studies set in the same context, focusing on the internationalization of the curriculum and the interplay between EMI and ESP. From the perspective of the internationalization of the curriculum (IoC), ArnóMacià and Aguilar-Pérez (2018) analysed the presence of IoC courses in Catalan universities across a broad range of disciplines. Specifically, and following Leask (2015), they identified three types of internationalized courses, EMI, ESP and internationalised content courses (regardless of the language of instruction). Regarding ESP and EMI, Arnó-Macià and Aguilar-Pérez (2018) found that ESP was being overshadowed by EMI, which led to the conclusion that the interplay EMI-ESP, if collaborative, could become a vital stepping stone toward international curricula with quality assurance. This finding echoes an earlier qualitative study by Arnó-Macià and Mancho-Barés (2015) in which university students (not specifically involved in EMI and/or ESP) expressed their interest in EMI with the aim of improving disciplinespecific communication and seemed to have a “stereotypical” view of ESP as general “language courses”. Another finding from the mapping in Arnó-Macià and AguilarPérez (2018) study is the imbalanced presence of ESP courses in different curricula, with greater presence in areas like engineering than in others like social sciences, in which there is less tradition of ESP courses. The apparent contradiction between a greater need for international communication and the development of graduates’ skills for globalized scenarios, together with the progressive demise of ESP, motivated this study,1 which investigates engineering students’ views on the usefulness of ESP courses for developing international academic and professional communication. The design of the study presented in this chapter was developed from an earlier pilot study (Arnó-Macià et al., 2020) which explored the views of engineering students on ESP. Findings revealed satisfaction with ESP courses as an introduction to academic and professional communication. Drawing on this previous research (Arnó-Macià et al., 2020), and acknowledging the link between needs analysis and quality assurance (Bocanegra-Valle, 2016), this study further analyses engineering students’ views, involving a larger population 1

In the context of a broader research project on the interplay between EMI and ESP: Towards an empirical assessment of the impact of English-medium instruction at university: Language learning, disciplinary knowledge and academic identities (ASSEMID). Granted by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, FFI2016-76383-P.

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from different schools from Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC). In comparison with the 2020 pilot study, this research also analyzes a wider range of survey questions, contrasting students’ self-perceived English level with that yielded by a placement text, both at the start and at the end of the course. Also considering the potential of ESP courses to integrate interculturality (Bocanegra-Valle, 2015), this study analyzes the role played by ESP in enhancing interculturality and developing disciplinary English. Although the ESP courses offered do not usually include an explicit intercultural component, in this study, interculturality is addressed both from students’ mention in the surveys and, especially, by relating the university’s offer of ESP courses to the institutional internationalization policies. With the aim of contextualizing survey results and laying the ground for making proposals to further integrate ESP and internationalization, this study explores the role of ESP in the curricula through the analysis of institutional documentation and ESP course syllabi. Therefore, the research questions posed for this study are the following: RQ1: What linguistic and communicative skills are perceived by students as necessary for effective performance in international academic and work settings? RQ2: What level of confidence do students perceive to have gained through ESP courses? And in what areas? The complementary data collection of policy documentation and syllabi was approached with the following guiding questions in mind: How many ESP courses are offered at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia and of what sort? and what role does ESP play in university policy? From the answers to the two research questions on students’ perceptions, complemented with the analysis of university documents, this chapter will identify key areas for greater and more effective alignment of ESP with institutional internationalization strategies and engineering graduates’ needs.

3 Method In order to investigate ESP students’ views on the preparation needed for effective participation in international settings, a survey was passed to 231 undergraduate students from six different schools in five campuses from UPC university during the two semesters of the academic year 2017–2018. In order to contextualize and interpret survey data, university documentation was also analyzed–general internationalization policy planning (IPP) and the syllabi for the ESP courses involved. This study thus involved mainly quantitative methods (the survey), in combination with a qualitative approach to the analysis of documentation (policies and course syllabi). The surveys were adapted from those developed in the abovementioned pilot study (Arnó-Macià et al., 2020), and consisted of a pre-course survey inquiring about students’ self-perceived level and course expectations, and a post-course survey assessing their perceived learning outcomes. A short placement test (Oxford Quick Placement Test, OPT) was used to contrast students’ self-perceived level with that

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yielded by the test score, and the questions were refined to place greater emphasis on preparation for EMI (and other work and study contexts). The survey consisted mainly of closed questions with some open-ended questions requiring short answers. The structure of the surveys is summarized in Table 1. Table 1 Scope of survey questions Pre-course survey

Post-course survey

General demographic information, linguistic and intercultural background

Self-perception of fulfilled learning goals

Self-perceived level of proficiency according to Placement test (Quick OPT) the general CEFR skills (based on the CEFR self-assessment grid, Council of Europe, 2001) Placement test (Quick OPT)

Academic and professional use of English View of ESP course(s) as preparation for EMI (and whether or not students intend to take EMI in the future)

Expected learning goals

Confidence & future plans

A general overview of the surveys and their administration can be found in Table 2. Table 2 Surveys and students School

Semester 2017–2018

No. of students (pre-survey)

No. of students (post-survey)

Telecommunications (Barcelona)

Autumn

9

8

Polytechnic School of Autumn Engineering (Vilanova i la Spring Geltrú)

63

50

47

21

Optics and Optometry (Terrassa)

Autumn

37

17

General, Audiovisual and Aeronautics Engineering (Terrassa)

Autumn

11

11

Nautical studies (Barcelona)

Autumn

42

40

General Engineering (Barcelona)

Spring

22

19

The university in which this study is set consists of 182 schools and has a total population of 28,208 students. The schools with ESP teaching in 2017–2018 (when 2

https://www.upc.edu/en/the-upc/schools.

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data were collected) amounted to nine (including the seven schools where the survey was administered). The total number of students taking ESP at the time of data collection was 934, so our 231 respondents represented almost 25% of the total population of ESP students. As can be seen from Table 2, the distribution of ESP courses across schools is not homogeneous, as they are mostly elective and schools design their own curricula, especially in terms of elective courses on offer. This is why the number of courses and students may vary across schools. The profile of ESP lecturers is that of language experts with experience in languages for academic and professional communication. At the time of data collection (2017–2018), staff comprised six full-time lecturers (with teaching, research, and materials/course design and development duties) and five part-time lecturers (with teaching duties). Since then, and confirming the dismal picture for ESP as opposed to EMI shown earlier in this chapter, in the academic year 2020–2021 the number of schools offering ESP has been reduced from nine to eight, and the number of full-time ESP lecturers from six to five (while the number of part-time lecturers has grown from five to nine). The number of ESP students, on the other hand, has grown from 934 in 2017–2018 to 1051 in 2019–2020.3 According to global university figures, a total of 4.6% of the student population (around 28,000 students) was doing ESP courses in 2019–2020. To contextualize the presence of English as a teaching language (EMI or ESP) in Catalan universities, it should be noted that students must demonstrate a CEFR B2 level (independent user) either by providing a certificate or by demonstrating the use of English at university (i.e., taking courses in English, participating in a mobility program, or presenting their final thesis in English). The figures of ESP courses stand in contrast with the presence of EMI at the same university, with a growing trend in the number of students who have taken at least one EMI course, from 2.7%, in 2010–2011, to 50.70%, in 2019–2020. During 2017–2018, a total of 37.20% of UPC students were taking EMI.

4 Analysis The surveys were analyzed quantitatively and the questions chosen were the following. In the pre-course survey: perceived level (compared with OPT score) with the breakdown for the different skills and learning goals. In the post-course survey: placement test score (compared with the pre-course score), learning goals attained and level of attainment (compared with pre-course survey), applying skills from ESP course to academic/professional situation, preparation for EMI/intention to do EMI, confidence gained from ESP course self-assessment of gains, and future learning objectives in academic/professional English. Closed questions were quantified, and

3 The figures about ESP and EMI have been obtained from the following report: https://www. upc.edu/slt/ca/politica-linguistica/pla-llengues-upc/documents/presentacio-idiomes_consell-soc ial_21122020_v3.pdf.

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open-ended questions were analyzed for keywords, which were grouped thematically for subsequent quantification. Answers were calculated for the total of pre- and post-course surveys, as different questions were asked at the start and the end of the term. Only in the case of the OPT were answers matched for both surveys. As the surveys were administered during regular class sessions, not all students completed both of them. After filtering out those students who had only completed one of the surveys, the comparison was carried out with 128 students (106 in the autumn term and 22 in the spring term), and the means and standard deviation for the pre- and post-course surveys were analyzed and compared for any significant differences. Institutional documents were analyzed qualitatively, following a top-down approach: (1) the internationalization policy planning (IPP), which spans from 2017 to 2021,4 and the language policy plan;5 (2) the syllabi for all the ESP courses in the study, obtained from each of the schools’ websites in the academic year 2020–2021. These descriptions do not usually change much over short periods of time and they are virtually the same as those from 2017–2018. Two of the courses analyzed in this study were taught or coordinated by the two researchers. Policy documents were analyzed to identify whether ESP had a role in general internationalization policies. Additionally, the curricula of the different schools were analyzed to identify what ESP courses were offered and the course syllabi were examined in the following terms: – – – – – –

Course weight: number of credits. Status: Elective/mandatory. Cycle: Bachelor/master. Focus: Academic, professional. Discipline-orientation: Specific/ common core. Type of syllabus: Skills-based/ Task-based/ Project-based.

Course syllabi were analyzed qualitatively, using content analysis. The texts were scrutinized to identify and categorize (through thematic relations) those explicit references to the focus of this paper and its research questions: references to academic/professional communication, language level or skills, interculturality and disciplinary language activities.

5 Results 5.1 Survey Before delving into specific answers to survey questions, below is a brief demographic description. The pre-test was answered by 231 students in total. In the autumn 4

https://www.upc.edu/sri/en/strategy/international-policy/international-policy-planning-20172021/12-pla-dinternacionalitzacio-de-la-upc_2017_2021.pdf. 5 https://www.upc.edu/slt/en/upc-language-policy/upc-language-plan.

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semester, 162 students participated (average age: 22.6), mostly Spanish (83.9%), and male (61.1% vs. 38.2% female students). In the spring semester, 69 students answered (average age 23.1), mostly Spanish (97.1%) and male (75.3% vs. 24.6% female). When asked about their multilingual background, 70.5% of the students responded that English was their only foreign language. The scores for the placement test results were matched to the CEFR level they correspond to (A1 beginner to C2 expert) and compared with the self-assessed levels expressed in the survey. The results were then converted into numerical form on a scale from 1 to 6 (with half-points when students expressed their level as falling between two bands (e.g., 3.5 for B1/B2). As students expressed their perceived level for each of the skills, the overall level was calculated by averaging the scores for the different skills. The results are given in Table 3. These results show that students’ overall self-perceived level is slightly higher than the level yielded by the placement test (these are, however, approximate measures, given that the placement test is mainly based on grammar and vocabulary and students’ self-assessment was based on skills). The breakdown for the different skills yielded listening and reading as the strongest skills. The rest of the skills received similar scores, so really no skills could be identified as the weakest, except for spoken production among students in the autumn semester (with a slightly lower mean score, 3.21). Learning objectives set at the start of the course were elicited through an openended question, in which students had to list their three main objectives. The main answers are summarized in Table 4. As can be seen, students attach much importance to speaking, consistent with their self-perceived lowest skill. They show awareness of the need to improve their general English, with an emphasis on vocabulary (both technical and general). On a second level, students show interest in writing, fluency, technical/professional English and listening. Additional objectives include both language areas and skills, like grammar, pronunciation, reading skills and dialects, as well as utilitarian objectives such as preparation for a prospective mobility and complying with the abovementioned language requirement for graduation. The pre-course survey yielded a broad range Table 3 Students’ proficiency level (pre-course survey) Skills

Autumn semester

Spring semester

Listening

Mean 3.60 (B1/B2) SD 1.16

Mean 4.06 (B2) SD 1.15

Reading

Mean 3.73 (B1/B2) SD 1.09

Mean 3.93 (B2) SD 0.97

Spoken interaction

Mean 3.29 (B1) SD 1.17

Mean 3.74 (B1/B2) SD 1.14

Spoken production

Mean 3.21 (B1) SD 1.12

Mean 3.65 (B1/B2) SD 1.09

Writing

Mean 3.41 (B1/B2) SD 1.17

Mean 3.69 (B1/B2) SD 1.03

Students’ perceived average level (all skills)

Mean 3.45 (B1/B2) SD 1.05

Mean 3.81 (B1/B2) SD 1.02

Average level according to placement test

Mean 2.86 (B1) SD 0.99

Mean 3.38 (B1/B2) SD 1.09

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Table 4 Learning objectives in the pre-course survey Main learning objectives

Number of mentions

Total

Autumn semester Spring semester Speaking skills

61

29

90

Improving English

46

20

66

Vocabulary (including technical/specialized)

44

22

66

Writing skills

39

19

58

Listening skills

23

8

31

General communication skills/fluency

17

20

37

Professional/technical English

16

16

32

Grammar

9

3

Prepare for an exam

9

Pronunciation

5

3

Reading

2

4

Prepare for a master’s abroad

1

Familiarize with different dialects

1

Other, unspecified goals (learn, pass the course, get 54 credits)

12 9 8 6 1 1

12

66

of learning objectives to be attained, considering that ESP courses consist of 30–60 contact hours running over a 15-week semester, and that some of those objectives were fairly specific. Almost all of them were oriented towards language improvement and, except for the two mentions of study abroad and dialects of English, which could be taken as implicit references to interculturality, there is no mention of intercultural communication. Compared with the pilot study (Arnó-Macià et al., 2020), we see an increased awareness of the technical register and of the specificity of courses like maritime English or optics and optometry, which is not surprising considering the larger sample of students in this study and especially that, unlike the previous study in which students came from ESP courses covering different engineering disciplines, in the present study, there are students from schools that involve a single discipline, which leads to more specialized ESP courses. In the post-course survey (item 4), students were asked to assess their attainment of learning goals, with reference to the objectives set at the beginning of their ESP courses. They gave each of their answers a score from 1 to 5. Results are presented in Table 5. The perceived gains with the highest number of mentions include (specialized/technical) vocabulary, with attainment scores slightly above average (3.19 and 3.7). Within categories that derive from students’ own expression of the learning goals attained, we can find a combination of general statements (learning English, writing) and specific references to technical and scientific English, the latter reflecting different levels of specificity and sometimes in close connection with the disciplines,

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Table 5 Students’ perceived attained goals at the end of the course Learning objectives attained

Autumn semester

Spring semester

No. of Mean No of Mean mentions score mentions score Writing

32

3.2

10

3.5

English

9

3.8

5

3.8

Listening (also formal, specialized)

27

3.2

6

3.3

Grammar (also including the grammar of technical English)

11

2.6

4

3.25

Speaking

30

2.6

13

3.2

Technical English

9

4

Formal English

1

4

2

3.5

Pronunciation

10

3

5

3.6

Reading

10

2.9

2

3.5

Professional/disciplinary communication/contexts/contents

10

3.9

No mention

No mention

Writing technical, academic and professional documents (also specific functions, e.g., describing products)

6

4.1

5

4

Formal aspects of writing (connectors, grammar, organization, coherence)

18

3.8

1

4

Oral skills

4

3.2

2.75

5

Practice/Fluency/Confidence/Communication/Understanding 20

3.45

9

4.1

(Technical) Vocabulary

36

3.19

21

3.7

Oral presentations

6

3.5

8

3.3

such as maritime communications (in the case of Nautical studies), or communication with patients and reading scientific materials (in optics and optometry). Although with fewer mentions than broader skills, the highest attainment scores are found in technical and professional English (e.g., writing specialized documents like reports, CVs and specifications), which indicates the value that students assign to ESP courses. Unsurprisingly, compared to their initial learning goals, students expressed much more nuanced goals, distinguishing ESP from General Purpose English. The scores may be higher than for general skills because the contents are new, so they perceive greater gains (it is their first contact with specialized communication) than for broader speaking or writing skills. Thus, it can be seen that apart from specialized language learning, students report gains in communication and confidence. Considering that this is the type of international specialized communication that is promoted in ESP courses and that operating in international environments entails some kind of intercultural competence, it can be expected that the more confident students feel, the more prepared they will be to address, implicitly or explicitly, the intercultural aspects involved in international professional communication. For item 5 (Have you applied any of the skills learnt to academic/professional situations? Try to be specific), over half of the students (n = 74, 54%) reported

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Table 6 Students’ reported academic and professional uses of English Professional writing (emails, reports, CV, formal letters)

13

Academic writing (projects at university)

12

At work (unspecified)

10

Professional speaking (customers, negotiations, job interviews)

9

Academic speaking (study buddies for foreign students, class presentations, etc.)

8

Reading technical texts

3

Using technical vocabulary at work

3

Listening

2

Total

60 (44.12% of surveyed students)

no use of English for work or study (many of them were not yet working). Those who reported experience (n = 60, 44.12%) referred mainly to professional (emails, reports, CVs) and academic writing (university projects), followed by academic and professional oral communication and reading (Table 6). Regarding the relatively small number of students that have experience using English in real contexts, they can be expected to have acquired intercultural experience, either incidentally through exposure (e.g., in the case of students who have reported experience in professional writing) or as an explicit intercultural component embedded in an ESP course (i.e., those students who have acted as study buddies for international students, cf. Arnó-Macià & Aguilar-Pérez, 2019). About their preparation for EMI (item 6.1), students responded positively (Mean 3.71; SD 1.02). Students’ suggestions for improving ESP courses (item 6.2) also revealed a general positive perspective, as around 36% of them would not change anything or would like to add more hours/classes. Another considerable percentage of students showed an interest in more grammar and (discipline-specific) vocabulary (22.76%) and speaking activities (20.33%), as shown in Table 7. On the other hand, the answers to item 6.3 (Table 8) suggest that students do not make an explicit connection between ESP and EMI (or internationalization). Only 29.2% of the students intend to take EMI courses, despite the general student picture presented above (50% of students with EMI experience vs. only 4.6% with ESP). This leads to a perception of ESP and EMI as two separate paths, both being “classes in English”. However, the fact that some students (17.6%) consider embarking on EMI after having done ESP (and taking into account that ESP has increased their confidence for EMI) suggests that ESP courses may act as eye-openers, boosting students’ linguistic and communicative skills for internationalization. Nonetheless, these relatively low numbers can also indicate that ESP courses are regarded as a means for learning English, and that their potential for internationalization should be stressed to make it more apparent to students.

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Table 7 Students’ suggestions for improving ESP courses Suggestions for improvement

No. of mentions

Percentage (%)

More grammar and more vocabulary (specific vocabulary) 28

22.76

More speaking activities and debates

25

20.33

Wouldn’t change anything

22

17.89

More classes, more hours, more practice and activities

22

17.89

More listening

6

4.88

More writing exercises

5

4.07

More reading

3

2.44

More basic English

3

2.44

More practical, realistic activities to practise what we’ve learnt

2

1.63

Other

7

5.69

Table 8 Students’ expressed intention to take an EMI course in the future

Yes

29.2% (48)

Maybe, why not

17.6% (29)

No

40.8% (67)

N/A

12.1% (20)

Item 7.1 enquired into whether ESP has contributed to enhancing students’ confidence in academic or professional communication. In line with previous items, results are also overwhelmingly positive (76.22%), as seen below (Table 9). Delving into the ways in which this confidence was developed, students’ responses reflect the combination of language improvement with specialized technical registers. Thus, apart from broad language skills (especially speaking), students mentioned vocabulary (often meaning jargon) and to a lesser extent, they mentioned a broadranging number of aspects of technical and professional communication, like writing technical documents, text organization and oral presentations (Table 10). It is important to highlight that students’ increased confidence in using English in international settings entails a heightened intercultural awareness, which forms part of intercultural competence–understood as behaving and communicating effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations (Deardoff, 2009). When asked to self-assess their perceived language gains (item 8), students reported average results in almost all areas (the five broad CEFR skills plus two items related to written and spoken technical English, measured on a 1–5 scale). Table 9 Students’ view of ESP courses as confidence boosters

Blank

1.83% (3)

No

21.95% (36)

Yes

76.22% (125)

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Table 10 Ways in which students’ confidence increased Communication, confidence, practice, use of English

28

Speaking

25

(Specialized) vocabulary

21

Writing: general skill, types of documents, organization, formal aspects

18

Oral presentations, formal speech

16

Professional communication

10

Technical English, formal register

5

Pronunciation

3

Grammar

3

Listening

2

Reading

1

Other

4

Results are given in Table 11, where the results of the placement test are given on a 1–6 scale, corresponding to CEFR levels. As can be seen, the overall perceived level is only average (3.02), while the highest perceived gains are in written technical English (autumn: 3.46, spring: 4.20), spoken technical English (spring term: 3.85) and vocabulary (autumn: 3.36, spring: 3.83), which is not surprising in engineering. On the other hand, the lowest scores are for speaking (autumn: 2.66) and grammar (spring: 3.13). Explanation for these reported gains can be found by examining the course syllabi and finding out about the orientation of the courses, some of which focus on written skills and others on Table 11 Self-reported language gains Skills

Autumn semester

Spring semester

Mean gain SD

Mean gain

SD

1. Listening

3.03

1.21

3.20

0.99

2. Spoken interaction (dialogue)

2.79

1.13

3.53

0.88

3. Spoken production (monologue)

2.66

1.09

3.60

0.67

4. Reading

3.09

1.10

3.35

0.92

5. Writing

3.19

1.10

3.65

1.05

6. Grammar

2.79

1.11

3.13

1.07

7. Vocabulary

3.36

1.13

3.83

0.98

8. Pronunciation

2.79

1.11

3.48

0.91

9. Familiarity with technical English (written)

3.46

1.11

4.20

0.94

10. Familiarity with technical English (spoken)

3.01

1.12

3.85

0.98

Overall language gains as perceived by students

3.02

0.74

3.58

0.55

1.1

2.82 (near B1) 0.59

Overall level of proficiency according to placement 3.22 (B1) test

156 Table 12 Students’ expressed intention to continue learning academic and professional English

Table 13 Students’ future learning objectives

E. Arnó-Macià and M. Aguilar-Pérez Yes

59.7% (98)

No

37.1% (61)

N/A

3% (5)

Obtain a certificate on B.2 or C1 level (CEFRL)

39

Improve speaking

34

Improve reading/grammar/vocabulary

29

Improve English in general

20

Improve English for work or work abroad

10

Improve English for study (EMI, project, master abroad)

11

Improve to travel or live abroad

8

Study other languages

4

Improve technical or academic English

2

Others

6

speaking (with others combining both). It should also be taken into account that speaking was perceived as one of the main weaknesses in the pre-course survey. Additionally, the overall result of the placement test was similar to the pre-test, around B1. This is not surprising, as students can unlikely improve their overall level through short courses that do not focus on general language improvement, but rather on the specificities of technical English. Regarding item 9.1, intention to continue learning academic or professional English after the ESP course, almost 60% of the students answered positively, which indicates the potential of ESP for awareness-raising (Table 12). Students further specified the learning objectives they would like to pursue in the future (item 9.2), providing a comprehensive list that matches the general language learning objectives set in the pre-course survey (speaking and general fluency). This result may be linked to students’ relatively low level of proficiency (around B1) and their perception about the urgency to improve their general language skills. In contrast, judging from their scant mention of specialized English, it seems that students feel that they have learnt about the technical register via ESP (Table 13). In addition, students’ intention to use English for study/work abroad or to learn other foreign languages can somehow be related to intercultural communication.

5.2 Policy Documentation In order to fully understand students’ perspectives on ESP, we contextualize such courses within university policies. The analysis of institutional IPP reveals a focus on certain types of international curricula, mainly mobility and internationalization

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at home, which involve internationalization of the curriculum, student and lecturer exchanges, and ensuring EMI quality. No mention is made of ESP courses, and the plan only includes the official foreign language requirement described above (and for many students, ESP is a way of obtaining credits in English). In practice, this institutional stance reflects a view of English as a generic language competence, whose acquisition can be outsourced, rather than specialized communication skills that should be included in the curriculum and that form part of the competences specified by accreditation criteria (ABET [2012] for ABET descriptors in the U.S and Joint Quality Initiative Informal Group [2004] for “Dublin” descriptors in Europe). The analysis of ESP course syllabi (Table 14) shows the following characterization of each course: cycle (bachelor’s/master’s), length and status (optional/compulsory); focus; disciplinary contents; and syllabus (indicating main objectives). All ESP course syllabi for undergraduates mention B1 or B2 as the recommended entry level. The fact that most ESP courses are elective may give students the impression that they are not central to their studies. Additionally, being offered to students with varied levels of proficiency and from different disciplines, ESP courses tend to be based on common core rather than discipline-specific contents. However, as such courses are offered on a school by school basis, they may vary in their contents (as seen above, a few of the schools offer discipline-specific ESP courses). Regarding intercultural communication, course syllabi do not generally list explicit IC contents or objectives, although IC is subsumed under international communication objectives, such as helping students participate in effective international professional communication and producing appropriate messages. With effective and appropriate communication as keywords in course syllabi, it is made clear to students that ESP courses go beyond linguistic skills. In keeping with this aim, some of the courses incorporate interaction between local and international students in many different ways (incoming mobility students in the same class, ESP students as study buddies or virtual exchange).

6 Discussion and Implications To answer RQ1, what linguistic and communicative skills are perceived as necessary in international academic and work settings, the pre-course survey reveals that students seem motivated towards ESP, which they view as an opportunity for general language improvement. Probably because of the heterogeneity of students, ESP courses are not highly specialized and it is difficult to address the nuances of academic and professional communication, especially as lower proficiency students’ priorities are basic language skills (Çelik et al., 2018). This variety of levels is reflected in OPT scores across the whole CEFR range, with an average level that is below that of independent user (B2), the level at which students can go beyond familiar, everyday topics and engage in discipline-related activities (Council of Europe, 2001, 2020). Besides, the fact that ESP is rarely connected with institutional internationalization activities (like mobility or EMI) may lead students to view ESP as a way of improving their general language skills, reflected in the vague learning objectives in the pre-course

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Table 14 Analysis of the ESP syllabi School

Cycle, Focus number of ESP courses, status, length*

General Engineering Bachelor: (Barcelona) 3 optional courses (3 or 4.5 ECTS)

Disciplinespecific vs common core

Bachelor: Bachelor: mixed common core (academic + professional)

Syllabus

Course(s) surveyed

Bachelor: skills-based (writing & oral)

1 bachelor optional course (3 ECTS)

Master: 2 Master: optional professional courses (3 + academic ECTS each)

Master: discipline- Master: taskspecific and project-based

(Optics & Optometry), Terrassa campus

Bachelor: Mixed 1 mandatory course (3 ECTS) & 1 optional course (6 ECTS)

Common core

Skills-based (mixed skills & writing skills)

1 mandatory course (3 ECTS) + 1 optional course (6 ECTS)

General, Audiovisual and Aeronautics Engineering, Terrassa campus

Bachelor: 1 optional course (3 ECTS)

Bachelor: mixed

Bachelor: common core

Bachelor: skills- based (writing)

1 bachelor optional course (3 ECTS)

Master: 1 optional (3 ECTS)

Master: professional (business English)

Master: common core

Master: task-based

Nautical and Maritime School (Barcelona)

Bachelor: Professional 1 mandatory (6 ECTS) &1 mandatory (9 ECTS)

Discipline-specific Bachelor: skills-based

Master: 1 optional course (5 ECTS)

Professional

Disciplinespecific

Bachelor: 4 optional courses (6 and 3 ECTS)

Mixed Common core (professional and academic)

Polytechnic School of Engineering (Vilanova i la Geltrú)

1 bachelor mandatory course (9 ECTS)

Master: skills (focus on writing + reading) Skills-based

3 optional courses (6 ECTS each) (continued)

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Table 14 (continued) School

Cycle, Focus number of ESP courses, status, length*

Telecommunications Bachelor: Engineering 1 optional (Barcelona) course (6 ECTS)

Mixed

Disciplinespecific vs common core

Syllabus

Course(s) surveyed

Common core

Skills-based: writing

1 optional course (6 ECTS)

* 1 ECTS amounts to 10 contact hours

survey as well as by the fact that only less than a third of the students intend to do EMI courses or a stay abroad. Consequently, ESP appears as an eye-opener towards international communication (confirming the results in Arnó-Macià et al., 2020). This is perceived, for example, in the answers to question 4, where students are able to specify the learning objectives achieved and situate them within the specialized register. In turn, students’ reflections on learning goals and outcomes show a determination to overcome their (perceived) low English proficiency together with a strong instrumental motivation, predominant among engineering students (Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Arnó-Macià et al., 2020). Key survey items to answer RQ1 are 5 and 6.2, on how students apply the skills developed in ESP courses to academic and professional situations as well as what changes they would make to ESP courses to better serve those needs. First, those students with prior experience (less than half) report oral and written university activities, professional documents and, to a lesser degree, spoken interaction with customers and job interviews. Probably because they have had less exposure to spoken than to written English or because they identified it as their main weakness, students perceive speaking as one of their most prominent needs. Similar to the findings in the previous study (Arnó-Macià et al., 2020), and probably because respondents are undergraduate students, English is not perceived as an immediate academic or professional need, except for job-seeking. Future longitudinal research could involve surveying graduates in the job market. Students’ answers reflect a dual view of ESP courses as general language improvement and specificity of register, which resonates with previous research (Cheng, 2016; Kuteeva, 2019). Overall, students expressed their satisfaction with ESP courses. Their suggestions for improvement, mostly grammar, specialized vocabulary and speaking, match students’ profiles as needing general language improvement, especially spoken interaction skills, and at the same time, an introduction to specialized registers. Regarding RQ2, the level of confidence achieved by students through ESP appears to be quite high, aligning with previous research (Jiang et al., 2019; Lei & Hu, 2014; Thompson et al., 2019; Yang, 2016). They view ESP both as useful preparation for EMI and as a confidence booster for general academic and professional communication, although this confidence is not homogeneous across all areas. For example,

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they have gained confidence in speaking, while they acknowledge that it is not their strongest skill in terms of learning outcomes (i.e., that there is still room for improvement). In contrast, their greatest perception of progress is technical English (spoken and written), including (specialized) vocabulary, which is not surprising, given that ESP courses are students’ first contact with international professional communication and with some of the intercultural skills involved in it. On the other hand, the low proficiency level expressed by many of the students suggests that while they have become familiar with the basics of technical communication, they need language development. Furthermore, ESP courses oriented towards international professional communication may foster a shift from a language learner to a language user role– from an English as a lingua franca (ELF) perspective–especially relevant in multilingual European contexts (Seidlhofer et al., 2006). This shift from an English language course to a professional communication course needs to be made more explicit both in curricula and by ESP lecturers. Students’ views on the development of their confidence and intention to engage in future academic and professional communication in English are indicators of the potential catalyst role of ESP courses to empower students to operate effectively in international communication. Finally, to answer the two complementary research questions based on the analysis of policy documentation and course syllabi, the varying numbers of ESP courses across schools indicate that the presence of ESP courses depends on how the different curricula are configured and how many credits (usually optional) are allowed for ESP, usually competing with other elective technical courses. Such courses strike a balance between language improvement and familiarizing students with international professional communication. Because such courses are part of the common offer of each school, they tend to be quite transversal, focusing on the needs of final-year engineering students (e.g., job-seeking documents, reports, essays). From this picture, the answer to the second complementary question is that ESP does not play any explicit role in university policy and that ESP courses are offered indistinguishably from other elective (technical) courses. From this study, some implications can be derived for ESP course design. First, ESP courses should be integrated in university policies so that they can have a greater impact on graduate employability. Making explicit links between ESP and broader internationalization initiatives would facilitate the attainment of learning outcomes related to intercultural and internationalization perspectives. On the other hand, taking an English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) perspective would not only help combat students’ alignment with normative views (Kuteeva, 2019) but also take advantage of students’ multilingual backgrounds and repertoires to boost their language learning (Llanes & Cots, 2020) and multilingual awareness (Arnó-Macià et al., 2019). Aligning with an all-encompassing view of IaH, aimed at an ultimate “integrated internationalization” goal (Jones, 2013), our study has examined the position of ESP in the curriculum and in broader institutional language and internationalization policies. We conclude that ESP and EMI courses can co-exist, with strategic policies that include ESP as a catalyst for internationalization, given its potential to develop students’ academic and professional communication skills. Our study

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has also revealed that ESP courses and practitioners may be missing the opportunity to bring to the fore the connection between ESP and internationalization both externally, with policymaking interlocutors, and internally within their courses, for example, by explicitly integrating intercultural competence in course syllabi and materials (Aguilar-Pérez, 2018; Bocanegra-Valle, 2015). A better integration of ESP courses within university policies and curricula should involve making ESP as discipline-specific as possible (Hyland, 2016; Swales, 2019) to enhance students’ disciplinary literacies (Wingate & Tribble, 2012; Zhang & Chan, 2017) and abandon the one-size-fits-all approach. While current generic ESP courses can be cost-effective for the university and, to a certain extent, may satisfy students’ short-term learning goals, discipline-specific materials would allow for targeted and tailored outcomes. Further integration could involve the coordination with content courses with a view to providing instruction along the lines of CID (Communication in the Disciplines) and enhancing the engineering curriculum (Paretti et al., 2019) by aligning technical communication with disciplinary practices and the development of students’ global mindset (Kedrowicz & Taylor, 2013). Despite the challenges involved in such a proposal, taking advantage of ESP as a threefold hinge that bridges transferable skills with institutional internationalization objectives and a globalized professional world can lead to students’ increased internationalized profile and, ultimately, to a more internationalized university.

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Elisabet Arnó-Macià is an associate professor at the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (Barcelona, Spain), where she teaches English for Specific Purposes in engineering degrees. Her research interests include English for Specific Purposes, and specifically technical and professional communication, the role of technology in learning specialised languages and communication, with special emphasis on virtual exchange, and the interplay between English for Specific Purposes and English-Medium Instruction. Her work has appeared in journals such as The Modern Language Journal, English for Specific Purposes, Journal of English for Academic Purposes, and Ibérica. She is the co-editor of Information Technology in Languages for Specific Purposes: Issues and Prospects (Springer, 2006) and of Multilingual Writing and Pedagogical Cooperation in Virtual Learning Environments (IGI Global, 2018). She has been a member of the TransAtlantic and Pacific Project (TAPP) virtual exchange network, which connects classes to develop professional communication projects. Marta Aguilar-Pérez is an associate professor at the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (Spain). Her research interests include technical and academic communication and internationalisation in Higher Education. She has recently published on academic and professional genres, English-medium instruction as well as on intercultural communicative competence in higher

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education. The last three research projects she has participated in, granted by the Spanish Ministry, revolve around internationalisation and the impact of internationalisation on employability as an outcome of linguistic, disciplinary and intercultural gains. She also has some experience in the international telecollaboration network Trans-Atlantic and Pacific Project (TAPP), which links university instructors and students from over twelve countries on four continents.

Professional Growth of EFL Teachers Dorota Jabłonska ´

Abstract The paper focuses on the analysis of development of EFL teachers’ language competencies in order to determine the need for implementation of Continuing Professional Development (CPD) programmes, which translates into teachers’ effectiveness. The study was conducted among Polish EFL teachers and indicates the linguistic skills professional growth of EFL teachers are expected to present. The responses enabled measuring such fields requiring improvements as vocabulary, fluency, grammar and pronunciation. Undoubtedly, nowadays a good command of English exerts an influence on the way people live and create the reality, which requires from EFL teachers conscientiousness and the ability to convey language knowledge thoroughly. What enables teachers to achieve such skills is constant learning and developing with open-mindedness and willingness to face new opportunities offered by modern technology. To conceptualize the notion of professionalism in language teaching, language competencies and lifelong learning, such aspects as classroom observations, appropriate feedback and application of regular language exams for EFL teachers may call for profound reconsideration. Unremitting refinement of language competencies and systematic feedback on the performance of EFL teachers may contribute to effectiveness and professionalism in teaching. The intricate relationship between these facets and the indispensability of implementation of standards for teachers’ growth seem to be crucial elements in the process of developing EFL teachers’ language competencies. Delivering purpose-built professional development programmes and relevant feedback is said to be an urgent need to improve teaching skills since expertise solely does not need to mean effectiveness and professionalism in the whole complex process of language teaching. Keywords Effectiveness · EFL teachers · Feedback · Language competencies · Lifelong learning · Professionalism

D. Jabło´nska (B) Independent Researcher, Warsaw, Poland © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_10

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1 Introduction In EFL education, a comprehensive analysis and implementation of the refinement of teaching skills and language competencies among teachers has been generally agreed as crucial elements of teaching in a professional context. The question concerns the importance of mastering existing language skills, especially considering such elements as an appropriate range of vocabulary, correct grammar and pronunciation, and fluency. Additionally, the study aims at presenting how significant it is for individual EFL teachers to learn and expand their abilities in order to convey effectively language knowledge as well as possess indispensable skills to use English in a wide array of areas. The comprehension of these aspects should be taken into account if one wants to fully understand the role they play in EFL teaching.

2 Literature Review A considerable amount of literature has been published on professional development of EFL teachers indicating that constant learning and mastering skills is of great importance in the field of teaching. Interestingly, Stronge et al. (2004, p. 29) focusing on teaching and an EFL teacher as a person, raise a question whether people can develop into effective teachers and put it as follows: “Teaching is a vocation for which some people have a natural talent while others may have the inclination but need to develop some of the necessary skills, and others simply may not be suited to the demands of the role. We do know that the most effective teachers are passionate about their chosen profession”. Additionally, with regard to professionalism, Ur (2002, p. 388) argues that “a professional is, broadly speaking, someone whose work involves performing a certain function with some degree of expertise and whose accreditation necessitates extensive study, often university-based, as well as practical experience”. Moreover, professional teachers are self-critical and self-reflective, which leads to the self-analysis of their skills and possibilities so as to master them, that is to constantly develop their knowledge and methods of conveying it. According to Goodwyn (1997, p. 124) “pursing one’s goals which determines professional identity means that the highly accomplished teacher has a strong background in the field of English; an active involvement in English teaching; a demonstrated interest in professional development; the potential to be a role model”. The list of personal characteristics is much longer and consists of far more aspects concerning a professional EFL teacher and gives the image of an extraordinarily sophisticated person. However, despite all these numerous hallmarks of professional EFL teachers, those being aware of their role know that in order to near the status of professionals, they must be continually both teachers and learners. An EFL teacher stands out with regard to subject in-depth knowledge which is indispensable to incorporate professional skills and understanding in practice. Since English is a complex language, previously gained expertise is required to acquire the ability to explain its

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intricacy. Putting an emphasis on ongoing learning and developing is a prerequisite in creating the high quality of education in Polish schools. Professional learning and development is believed to help teachers to increase their confidence and significantly improve their language skills, which makes “a real difference for learners in the classroom” (Cambridge University Press, 2021). English language teaching is a profession in a field of education requiring specialised knowledge gained not only through academic study but also experience, analysis, setting goals, life-long learning and participation in professional development programmes. The programmes in question, known as CPD, are “natural learning experiences and those conscious and planned activities which contribute to the quality of education in the classroom. It is the process, by which teachers acquire and develop critically the knowledge, skills and emotional intelligence essential to good professional thinking, planning and practice” (Day, 1999, p. 4). Galaczi et al. (2018) add that “a further aspect of professional development of English teachers is the need for to have the knowledge and skills to understand and implement the curriculum, related learning materials and assessments, without which improving English language competence is unlikely to succeed” (Galaczi et al., 2018, p. 9). Clearly, although CPD means lifelong learning, unquestionably, the whole process facilitates one’s professional development since it helps to make a review, analyse and think through what has already been learnt and achieved. Not only is it listing the training courses one has completed and documents such as certificates and diplomas that have been received, but it is a much broader process leading to expertise. Also, the whole project of constant development plays an essential role for teachers since it influences quality and effectiveness of English teaching. There is the concept of independent professionalism posited by Leung, who argues that “one of the keys to long-term professional development is to reflect consciously and systematically on one’s teaching experiences through analysing such questions as: How have I developed as a teacher since I started teaching? What are the gaps in my knowledge? Which areas should I improve?” (Leung, 2009, pp. 49–58). The quotation proves that teachers should be willing to develop professionally and they do it by engaging in critical and reflective thinking with regards to their linguistic skills. This process requires open-mindedness and responsibility as it allows one to make an objective evaluation of one’s teaching practice, and consequently make a systematic and substantial change. EFL teachers who give a serious thought to their profession are aware that continuing professional development needs to be permanently inscribed in their career. The analysis of some of the requirements of language competencies in EFL teaching may incline teachers towards reflections on how the theory may be changed into practice to meet the educational expectations both locally and internationally (Werbi´nska, 2017). There is no doubt that EFL teachers’ language competencies influence professional teaching since English is a medium of global communication among people from all over the world. This means that since English as a lingua franca exists in such various contexts as communication, education, professional and business situations, the role of EFL teachers is to be aware of this fact and to raise their students’ awareness in this respect. As Ciepiela (2013, p. 164) asserts,

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they should be “aware of the fact that the crucial point of learning and teaching a language is to develop the learner’s mastery of it, i.e., build up language competence not in Chomsky’s sense of knowledge of abstract principles of language but in the wider sense of communicative competence as used by Hymes” (Chomsky, 1965; Hymes, 1972). One of the manners in which they are expected to do it is mastering their own language competencies and refining their skills by means of interactive and independent learning. Developing fluency and a wide range of vocabulary, that is fluent use of collocations, phrases and idioms as well as synonyms are the principal elements behind language competencies of EFL teachers. Richards (2015) stresses that “good teaching from a training perspective is viewed as the mastery of a set of skills or competencies,” which in turn leads to them being performed routinely, “fluently, automatically, and with less conscious thought and attention, enabling the teacher’s attention to focus on other dimensions of the lesson” (Richards, 2015, para 4). It is true that teaching in a professional manner is an intricate issue, however, the role teachers play in education needs to be taken more seriously, which is highlighted by Caena (2011) who claims that “teaching and learning to teach can be defined as complex, multifaceted, value-ladenenterprises against the global backdrop of the knowledge society”. Constant learning among teachers appears to be an underlying and lifelong aspect in education, and “implies the need for an extended teacher professionalism considering the whole range of formal, informal and nonformal learning opportunities” (Caena, 2011, p. 2).

3 Methodology The study aims to examine the role of EFL teachers’ language competencies in the quality of their teaching practice. This study makes use of qualitative methodology and its instrument is a semi-structured interview conducted in Poland in October and November 2019 (Wengraf, 2001, p. 56). Two EFL teachers participated in the study. One was a novice who teaches primary school learners (Teacher 1), and the other was an experienced teacher who works with adult learners (Teacher 2). The interviews were conducted in the form of a discussion between the teacher and the interviewer to gather accurate information about language competencies of EFL teachers. The conversations were recorded and transcribed and then sorted and prepared for a profound analysis according to four areas: a range of vocabulary, fluency, grammar and pronunciation. The description of the interview data in terms of the development of language competencies and integral teaching skills was based on Cambridge Life Competencies Framework (2020, paras 4, 5). The teachers were asked five questions regarding the relationship between the participation in CPD programmes and its impact on professional development. The teachers were asked the following questions: 1.

Why do you take part in CPD programmes?

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2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

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What form of CPD would you recommend to Polish EFL teachers so that they could develop their language competencies? What would motivate you to participate regularly in CPD programmes to develop your language competencies? What form of CPD did you participate in within the last 12 months? Please describe if your participation in it helped you to grow as a professional EFL teacher. Do you think that participation in CPD influences language competencies? Why?/Why not? Do you think that regular classroom observations and compulsory exams for EFL teachers in Poland, for example Cambridge exams, would contribute to professionalism and higher level of education in Polish schools? Why?/Why not?

With respect to the analysis of the interviews, the emphasis was put on examining teachers’ range of vocabulary, fluency, grammar resource, pronunciation, and discourse management. The analysis especially aimed at revealing the practical value of language development, which can influence teacher language skills. Additionally, the results of the research were taken into account in terms of global requirements that teachers and learners need to meet in the constantly developing world of communication. It seems that aspects of assessment and feedback as indispensable factors leading to professionalism in EFL language competencies translate into a high level of education and students’ achievement. While studying language, access to the audio and video data in the transcript proves to be an important source of information for researchers. The analysis of single words or utterances facilitates a profound description of language complexity. The Conversation Analysis (CA) method and analysis of transcripts are crucial in examining language competencies depending on the examined area. According to Kasper and Wagner (2011, p. 122), CA “focuses mainly on the analysis of talk-ininteraction and records interactions”. In the study, CA delivers a robust description of language competencies since transcripts provide details of the conversations. The analysis of the interview is divided into sections with the aim of discussing language production in terms of a range of vocabulary, fluency, grammar structures and correct pronunciation. Considering communicative skills and conversation analysis, oral proficiency measurement is vital since by virtue of examining the data of the recorded interviews, it evaluates all the elements in question.

4 Results This section is devoted to a linguistic analysis of the interviews with two EFL teachers, characterized in the second part of this article, with the aim of discussing their language production in terms of a range of vocabulary, fluency, grammar structures and correct pronunciation.

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4.1 Range of Vocabulary According to Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) level C1/C2, speakers are expected to “handle communication on all topics, including unfamiliar and abstract ones, with very little hesitation, to use accurate and appropriate linguistic resources with flexibility to express complex ideas and concepts and produce extended and coherent discourse” (CEFR, 2015, p. 58). A professional EFL teacher “takes part effortlessly in any conversation or discussion and has a good familiarity with idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms” (CEFR, 2020, p. 29). Extract 1 (Teacher 1) 1.

Interviewer: So, the first question is: Why do you take part in CPD programmes?

2.

Respondent: Mhm, so mainly I do that just to be a better teacher, just in general; to

3.

get some more fresh ideas for my lessons. And also to get some inspiration from

4.

maybe other teachers of other nationalities, or somebody who is maybe more

5.

experienced or less experienced, (xx) just more inspiration. And also I take part in

6.

training programmes also just to keep my brain active, or just keep learning things

7.

that I like.

Concerning a range of vocabulary, Extract 1 clearly shows a number of repetitions, such as just, to get, and also, maybe, and or. As it will be presented in the subsequent extracts, all responses commence with the phrase mhm, so (line 2) expressing, the respondent’s agreement and willingness to start the response, which can be inferred from the intonation contour. There are a number of synonyms of discourse markers that might be used, for example, also could be substituted with in addition, besides, or moreover, while the synonyms of the verb get may be replaced by: acquire, obtain, gain or attain. Additionally, in this extract, there is a limited range of vocabulary since the respondent uses basic words and structures. A good case in point is the phrase I like, and I enjoy (lines 6,7), which, for example, may be paraphrased by which makes my work more interesting or creative, and the word thing (line) that is too general and does not pinpoint the meaning. The word just could be omitted in most cases, yet it can be considered a feature of the respondent’s idiolect since someone else could apply the phrase you know, for example. Despite the fact that there is some less common lexis used appropriately, for instance, keep my brain active (line 6), the word active does not express specifically the intention of the interlocutor. All in all, Extract 1 does not contain any advanced or complex vocabulary. Extract 2 (Teacher 2) 12.

R: So, as I said, definitely online forms of teaching because we’ve got opportunity to

13.

attend very interesting lectures, for example, from, I don’t know, from Spain, from

14.

London, when we are in Warsaw, for instance. So, I think online forms are the best

15.

and I would recommend definitely British Council’s trainings, for example. I suppose

16.

that they are the best as, as, when it comes to trainings for teachers.

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The second interview was conducted with a novice teacher who used a range of vocabulary similar to the experienced one, whose utterances were presented above. Extract 2 shows that regardless of teaching experience, a range of vocabulary does not differ significantly if teachers do not put a substantial effort into developing their language competencies. So and I think (line 14) appear regularly in both interviews, which recurs in this extract as well. However, despite the repetition of the adverb definitely (line 12, 15) and the superlative the best (line 14, 16) that has multiple meanings and might be easily substituted, the teacher tried to present a varied lexical resource using the synonyms of such discourse markers as for example and for instance (line 12, 15).

4.2 Fluency Fluency means expressing oneself “at length with a natural, effortless, unhesitating flow. One pauses only to reflect on precisely the right words to express his/her thoughts or to find an appropriate example or explanation” (CEFR, 2020, p. 31). An EFL teacher should “express themselves fluently and convey finer shades of meaning precisely, (…) can backtrack and restructure around the difficulty so smoothly that other people are hardly aware of it” (CEFR, 2020, p. 31). Extract 3 (Teacher 2) 10.

R: Mhm (0.2), so, I think (0.3) that (0.6) one of (0.2) the good maybe the best ways

11.

(0.2) to (0.3) improve your language (0.2), or English language is just to (0.3) take

12.

(0.2) language lessons and (0.3) regular exams, (0.2) maybe (.), I don’t know, once or,

13.

once a year or once every couple of years. (.) And, another way would be to (0.2) read

14.

a lot of authentic texts, or watch or listen to (0.2) authentic (0.7) recordings or films

15.

(0.2) from different (.) accents. I think that is also (0.3) very important. And also (0.2)

16.

one more thing, I think it is also good to :: (.) take part in training programmes or

17.

training sessions run by (.) native speakers of English, so teachers from other

18.

countries.

In this extract, practically each line contains pauses, while in line 14 and 15 the respondent evidently faces difficulties in formulating a fluent utterance without hesitation, especially considering a longer pause after the word authentic. Numerous pauses are indicative of the lack of fluency and of the necessity of advancing this aspect of language competence. In line 11, there is the respondent’s repair, which does not clarify whether language refers to L1 or L2. Extract 4 (Teacher 2) 9.

R: I, I don’t have much time to take part in real face-to-face (.) trainings. (0.2) As, and

10.

as we know a situation (0.3) in the world shows (0.2) that (.) online classes are (.), are

11.

the best ☺ ☺. (0.5) So (0.4), when it comes to :: what type of it it was I think that’s a

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12.

(.) very curious issue (0.3) is online teaching nowadays; so, definitely (0.4) issue of

13.

online courses and (.) motivation I suppose (0.4) are (xx) important (0.5); and it was

14.

(0.2) what, what I did during last twelve months.

Extract 4 provides the evidence that although the teacher speaks in a confident manner, there are distracting repetitions (lines 9, 13) and hesitations in order to select appropriate words. So, the utterance does not flow smoothly enough. The unintelligible speech in line 13 leads to difficulty in comprehending the intention of the speaker.

4.3 Grammar As stated by CEFR, a C1/C2 user of language “maintains consistent grammatical control of complex language, even while attention is otherwise engaged (e.g. in forward planning, in monitoring others’ reactions); formulates thoughts precisely, differentiates and eliminates ambiguity” (2020, pp. 27–28). A proficient level requires communication with accuracy in respect of grammatical structures and sentence patterns. Extract 5 (Teacher 1) 18.

I: What would motivate you to participate regularly in CPD programmes to develop

19.

your language competencies?

20.

R: Mhm, (0.5) so, for me, I (0.4) think the best way to take part, (0.5) to motivate,

21.

(0.3) the best maybe thing that would motivate me to take part (.) in regular (0.9)

22.

development is (0.2) an exam or regular lessons so I would have to have (0.5) some

23.

kind of a structure, so I attend regular lessons and then have take an exam (0.5) at the

24.

end. And another way would be if I took on (0.8) students (0.5) or a group of students

25.

which, (0.5) this group which would be :: (0.3) on a much higher level, so maybe like

26.

a CPE group (0.4) or (0.3) a specialised (0.2) language group.

27.

I.: Yes. [And]

28.

R: [so] (xx) motivate me

In this extract, apart from fluency analysis, there are also some aspects of grammar which should be taken into account. Considering line 24 and 25, the respondent does not maintain control of a wide range of grammatical forms to use them with flexibility. A case in point could be the sentence if I took on students or a group of students which, this group which would be on a much higher level, so maybe like a CPE group. The speaker changes the subject of the sentence from students to a group and for both of them uses the same pronoun ‘which’. Also the phrase so maybe like impedes conveying the message accurately. The sentence might be more comprehensible if the speaker used shorter sentences with a wider range of vocabulary. Repairs and repetitions, such as in lines 20 and 21 distract the listener

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and make the sentence unintelligible. Also, the sentence in lines 22 and 23 gives the impression that grammatical structures are out of control. For instance, the excerpt I would have to have some kind of a structure, so I attend regular lessons and then have take an exam includes a confusing combination of words which the interlocutor finds difficult to comprehend. The word structure does not state explicitly the meaning. Also, the last part of the sentence with two infinitives have take seems to be obscure. Extract 6 (Teacher 2) 12.

R: So, as I said, definitely online forms of teaching because we’ve got opportunity to

13.

attend very interesting lectures, for example, from, I don’t know, from Spain, from

14.

London, when we are in Warsaw, for instance. So, I think online forms are the best

15.

and I would recommend definitely British Council’s trainings, for example. I suppose

16.

that they are the best as, as, when it comes to trainings for teachers.

Extract 7 (Teacher 2) 25.

R: (…) I like attending it because of the fact that I can hear very fluent English

26.

because as beginning teacher I have no opportunity to hear it every day.

Extracts 6 and 7 show that even though the teacher presents a good degree of control of grammatical forms and appropriate vocabulary to give and exchange views, occasionally there are grammatical mistakes. For instance, omitting definite and indefinite articles occurs, which is tangible in line 12 before the word opportunity and before beginning teacher in line 26. Besides, in Extract 3, some words, especially discourse markers, are arranged in an incorrect use of word order, such as definitely in line 15 which could be used at the beginning of the sentence or between would and recommend (line 15). There is also an attempt at lengthened self-repair in line 16, which indicates that the structures are not used with sufficient flexibility.

4.4 Pronunciation When it comes to pronunciation, CEFR scale refers level C1/C2 to a speaker who “can vary intonation and place sentence stress correctly in order to express finer shades of meaning” (2020, p. 28). Pronunciation of a C1/C2 level user is clearly intelligible with correct inflections and number of syllables. Extract 8 (Teacher 1) 14.

year or once every couple of years. (.) And, another way would be to (0.2) read a lot

15.

Of authentic texts, or watch or listen to (0.2) authentic (0.7) recordings or films (0.2)

16.

from different (.) accents. I think that is also (0.3) very important. And also (0.2) one

17.

more thing, I think it is also good to :: (.) take part in training programmes or training

18.

sessions run by (.) native speakers of English, so teachers from other countries.

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In terms of pronunciation, the utterances of the teacher from the first interview are satisfactory. Pronunciation is intelligible even if a foreign accent is sometimes evident. Generally, the speaker can vary intonation and place sentence stress correctly in order to express the meaning. Nevertheless, in line 17 the word thing /θIŋ/ is articulated with the consonant /g/. Similarly, all words with ‘-ing’ /Iŋ/ ending are pronounced with a clear /g/, for instance training / treI.nIŋ/ in line 17. Also, the speaker articulates the consonant /r/, which is audible in such word as recordings /rI kO .dIŋz/, important /Im pO .tђnt/, other / 2ð.ђr/, or teachers / ti .tЀђz/.  

 

 

Extract 2 (Teacher 2) 12.

R: So, as I said, definitely online forms of teaching because we’ve got opportunity to

13.

attend very interesting lectures, for example, from, I don’t know, from Spain, from

14.

London, when we are in Warsaw, for instance. So, I think online forms are the best

15.

and I would recommend definitely British Council’s trainings, for example. I suppose

16.

that they are the best as, as, when it comes to trainings for teachers.

Regarding pronunciation in Extract 2, individual sounds are articulated clearly, and sentence and word stress are generally accurately placed. The respondent maintains proper control of phonological features; however, in line 14 such a simple and commonly used word as London / l2n.dђn/ is pronounced incorrectly since instead of the sound /2/, the teacher used the sound /o/. Also, in the same line the word Warsaw / wO .sO / sounds like / wo(r)so* /. At the end of line 14, the word support /sђ pO t/ is pronounced with the sound /u/ instead of /ђ/.  

 

 

5 Discussion The results of the research seem to be compatible with the claim that awareness of the issue of mastering language competencies and giving an insight into it play a crucial role in perceiving the need for constant developing language skills in question. Collaboration and positive attitude to changes and keeping up to date with innovations are the elements that help teachers promote relevant approaches to teaching so that it can be effective and inspirational for learners. Nowadays, with the abundance of opportunities EFL teachers have at their disposal, those who wish to become professionals can explore the subject and think critically to make their lessons as practical and tailored for learners as possible. They are not afraid of being observed while teaching by their colleagues or experts in EFL teaching. It is quite the opposite as they see it as the very way of CPD programme and the path leading to professionalism in their field. The analysis of the interviews indicates that the problem may require more research in terms of approach to professionalism in the world of EFL teaching. The interviews seem to confirm that general reluctance to change habits and routine means lack of progress and development. Considering the interviews, there was not a remarkably noticeable difference between the two teachers. For instance, regarding a range of vocabulary, there was a

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repetition of words and phrases as well as the use of simple language structures used by both teachers. There were some grammatical mistakes such as omitting definite and indefinite articles and mispronunciation, which was escalated by the absence of reflection, error correction or self-repair. The research findings indicate that constant work on language knowledge and how to use it seems to be essential, regardless of the experience in teaching. Also, the results of the research reveal that if teachers do not examine or develop their skills, and consequently if they do not promote the same activity among their students, learners may not be prepared properly for higher education and lifelong success. Developing language competencies is claimed to be a critical element of being a teacher who flexibly and skilfully moderates the lesson as well as stimulates learners. Understanding how viable it is to promote working on the quality of the language leading to lifelong learning should provoke thought among teachers to set a good example in this area. It is widely acknowledged that students acquire correct patterns of language and their motivation increases as long as their teachers are masters in their field and foster these factors thanks to correct communication and frequent collaboration. Given the fact that communication and collaboration are global skills, effective teaching practices and constant work on language are an important premise to learners’ progress in respect of language competencies. Pronunciation is another factor that may require improvement, and it is not an easy part of English learning both for students and teachers; however, there is no doubt that it is a skill which determines whether they understand and are understood in real conversations. The research supports the view of Robin Walker, a pronunciation expert, who concludes that “the most prevalent attitude to pronunciation at teachers’ conferences today is lack of interest”. He adds that “there are very few talks on pronunciation and similarly, if you browse through teacher’s magazines, you don’t find too many articles or regular features on pronunciation” (Oxford University Press, 2012, para 3). All EFL teachers need to consider the fact that poor pronunciation equals poor fluency, leading to the avoidance of vocabulary and structures which they find difficult to pronounce. It obviously triggers further complications connected with understanding listening. Simply put, pronunciation matters and every EFL teacher is obliged to practice this skill on their own and then in the classroom. Walker claims that “speaking, listening, writing, reading – competence in all four skills is closely related to competence in pronunciation” (Oxford University Press, 2012, para 7). Considering pronunciation as a language competence, the research gives the image of the situation in terms of the level of pronunciation knowledge and abilities necessary to be an effective teacher helping students make progress in this area. Since English pronunciation is distinctively different from Polish, teachers are supposed to do as much as possible to master this skill and use the language precisely in front of the students. The interview results show a great deal of effort that should be put into learning and teaching pronunciation as the key element of language competencies. Although clear and correct pronunciation is essential in the world in which English is a lingua franca, it appears that working on their own pronunciation and

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drawing students’ attention to pronunciation activities is a challenge for EFL teachers in Poland. Such activities require a lot of preparation of communication tasks with the aim to motivate students and encourage them to strengthen their English in this context. Closer examination may be recommended to examine whether EFL teachers are afraid of speaking, partly due to the fact that they have fear of being assessed when they mispronounce the word or make mistakes. It also leads to the question if speaking in public and teaching pronunciation is uncomfortable and stressful for them, which can result in stagnation of the pronunciation skill instead of constant efforts to develop it. As Walkers advises: “I’d tell non-native speaker teachers, who are the huge majority of teachers around the world, that they bring something very special to pronunciation teaching – they bring their own personal experience of learning the pronunciation of English” (Oxford University Press, 2012, para 11). Teachers are those who can significantly influence students’ attitude to pronunciation and persuade them that it matters. If they work on it and regularly explore the topic, they can become excellent instructors for pronunciation stimulating learners to acquire a realistic target to speak in a fluent and accurate manner. Thus, the concept of language proficiency level should provoke thought among EFL teachers and influence effective teaching in a dramatic fashion. Richards (2012) posits that a proficient EFL teacher needs to: comprehend texts accurately, present good language models, maintain fluent use of the target language in the classroom, give accurate explanations, provide examples of words and grammatical structures, give constructive and relevant feedback on learners’ language, be able to monitor one’s language use in order to provide suitable learning input, provide colloquialism and idiomatic phrases at an appropriate level and a model of spoken English as an international language. Hence, the role of language competence and teacher’s language proficiency is indispensable in all these areas so as to convey appropriate knowledge, it contributes to gradual progress of learners which should result in their abilities to use the language fluently. Also, complexity of language proficiency means that different contexts and purposes require various types of expertise in language competencies and, therefore, the question of language level leading to EFL teacher’s proficiency is still a complicated issue. However, not only does language proficiency make an unquestionable contribution to teaching, but it has also a significant impact on teacher’s confidence. Richards claims that “a teacher who perceives themselves to be weak in the target language will have reduced confidence in their teaching ability and an inadequate sense of professional legitimacy” (Richards & Burns, 2012, p. 47).

6 Conclusions Interviews with EFL teachers prove that there may be the gap between the language level that Ministries of Education expect teachers to present and the existing reality. The analysis of the study leads to the conclusion that language competencies and constant development in the profession of teaching English are indispensable. The findings show that, firstly, the unbridged gap between the theory and practice should

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be taken into account. Then, what might be advisable is the reflection on the paradigm of traditional teaching with its mostly unchanged approaches and opening the door of new opportunities in language education (Farrell, 2019). It may require openmindedness, creativity, cooperation with teachers and experts, and implementation of innovative solutions such as standardized exams for EFL teachers. The elements of the language analysed in the study indicate that without systematic feedback it seems to be hard to expect teachers to be experts constantly developing teaching competencies that have a substantial impact on next English-speaking generations. A professional teacher considers a wide range of possibilities, explores the best aspects of teaching English, develops an appropriate attitude to new and practical approaches of their implementations. It is essential since successful 21-st century learners can use English to discuss subject topics provided by their teachers who use appropriate and effective methods while developing such skills as reading, writing, listening, and speaking. The more comprehensible and straightforward way of presenting the topic, the better and more conspicuous outcome of students’ language competence in the future. Hence, continuing professional development in terms of teaching and language competencies appears to play a significant role in the process of teaching and learning. Lifelong learning, creativity and implementing innovations, overcoming barriers and obstacles, fostering motivation, being open to cooperation and new solutions can make a difference in education. Consequently, the awareness of the younger generation is raised, which leads to changes in education that are necessary for making progress and achieving global standards in language teaching. A professional EFL teacher, therefore, is a teacher who thinks globally, which means critically, and makes constant progress thanks to in-depth reflection on the need for development of teaching skills and language competencies. Professionalism in EFL teaching means effective teaching which springs from self-evaluation and ongoing training.

References Caena, F. (2011, April). Literature review teachers’ core competences: Requirements and development (p. 2). https://languageresearch.cambridge.org/clc Cambridge Life Competencies Framework. (2020). https://languageresearch.cambridge.org/clc Cambridge University Press. (2021). Professional learning and development. https://www.cambri dge.org/gb/cambridgeenglish/professional-learning-development CEFR. (2015). Cambridge English: Proficiency handbook for teachers. https://www.lang.com.pl/ images/egzaminy-cambridge-english/egzaminy-logo/cambridge-english-proficiency-teachershandbook.pdf CEFR. (2020). A common European framework of reference for languages. https://www.coe.int/ web/common-europeanframework-referencelanguages/table-1-cefr-3.3-common-reference-lev els-global-scale Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. The MIT Press. Ciepiela, K. (2013). EFL teacher identity: From mental representation to situated performance. Lodz University Press.

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Day, C. (1999). Developing Teachers: The Challenges of Lifelong Learning. Educational Change and Development Series. Falmer Press. Farrell, T. S. C. (2019). Reflective practice in ELT. Equinox. Galaczi, E., Nye, A., Poulter, M., & Allen, H. (2018). The Cambridge assessment English approach to teacher professional development. UCLES. Goodwyn, A. (1997). Developing English teachers: The role of mentorship in a reflective profession. Open University Press. Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics (pp. 269–285). Penguin. Kasper, G., & Wagner, J. (2011). A conversation-analytic approaches to second language acquisition. In A. Dwight (Ed.), Alternative approaches to second language acquisition (pp. 117–142). Routledge. Leung, C. (2009). Second language teacher professionalism. In A. Burns & J. C. Richards (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to second language teacher education (pp. 49–58). Cambridge University Press. Oxford University Press. (2012). Pronunciation Matters Part 1 by Oxford University Press ELT. https://oupeltglobalblog.com/2012/01/05/pronunciation-matters-part-1/ Richards, J. C., & Burns, A. (2012). The Cambridge guide to pedagogy and practice in second language teaching. Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C. (2015). Pedagogy. Competence and performance #5—Teaching skills. https://www. cambridge.org/elt/blog/2015/12/02/competenceperformance-5teachingskills/ Stronge, J. H., Tucker, P. D., & Hindman, J. L. (2004). Handbook for qualities of effective teachers. ASCD. Ur, P. (2002). The English teacher as professional. In J. C. Richards & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice. Cambridge University Press. Wengraf, T. (2001). Qualitative research interviewing: Biographic narrative and semi-structured methods. Sage. Werbi´nska, D. (2017). Skuteczny nauczyciel j˛ezyka obcego. Fraszka Edukacyjna.

Dorota Jabłonska ´ is an English teacher currently working at the XIV High School of Stanislaw Staszic in Warsaw, Poland. She has been teaching for over 15 years and preparing students for various English language exams. She obtained her MA degree with distinction from the University of Lodz, Poland. Her publication and research areas include Continuing Professional Development (CPD), EFL teaching and online education. At present, she is conducting some research on contact linguistics and code-switching.

Translator Training Meets Machine Translation—Selected Challenges Marcin Trojszczak

Abstract In recent years, technology, in particular machine translation, has changed the translation industry and translation pedagogy. Translator trainers and translation curricula have been adapting to the new reality by introducing novel in-class activities, skill-sets and modules, such as machine translation post-editing. The integration of machine translation technology in translation curricula has enabled a number of practical and theoretical advancements. At the same time, however, it has brought about various previously unseen challenges. The present study discusses some of these dilemmas, that is, the importance of detecting the effects of machine translationenhancement in trainee translators, teaching autonomy vis-à-vis machine translation systems, and helping students to understand and take advantage of the added value of human responsibility in post-editing contexts. By focusing on these selected challenges in translator training the study attempts not only to describe their intricate natures in detail but it also aims to propose practical ways of accommodating them in translation curricula. Keywords Translator training · Translation pedagogy · Translation education · Translation and technology · Machine translation · Post-editing

1 Introduction As the role of technology in language industry is growing, translator training has been following suit by increasingly incorporating machine translation and computeraided translation into teaching curricula (see Kenny, 2020; Sawyer et al., 2019). This includes stand-alone courses focused on familiarizing students with the use of selected technological tools as well as curriculum-wide implementation of translation tools (Mellinger, 2017). These attempts at intensifying technology teaching and technology use are motivated by various concerns amongst which are the employability of students (Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2017) and the changing nature of M. Trojszczak (B) University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland State University of Applied Sciences in Konin, Konin, Poland © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_11

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translation profession due to automation (Pym & Torres-Simón, 2020). The more pronounced role of technology in translation in general and in translator training in particular has attracted the critical attention of a number of scholars who point out its ambiguous and multi-dimensional character (see, for instance, Kenny, 2017; Massey & Ehrensberger-Dow, 2017; Pym, 2011a; Trojszczak, 2019; Vieira, 2020a). The present study attempts to contribute to this ongoing critical debate by describing some novel dilemmas induced by the incorporation of machine translation in translation classrooms and courses as well as by proposing some practical ways of dealing with them. More specifically, the study focuses on three areas where these machine translation-related challenges emerge, that is (1) the importance of detecting the effects of machine translation-enhancement in translator trainees; (2) teaching autonomy vis-à-vis machine translation systems; and (3) teaching the added value of human translator in post-editing contexts by focusing on the role of his or her responsibility.

2 Translation and Technology In last 40 years, translation has become a highly technologized profession (see O’Hagan, 2020; van der Meer, 2020). This is connected with a range of technological breakthroughs starting with mass production of personal computers in 1983 (Kornacki, 2017). “The use of computer software to assist a human translator in the translation process” (Bowker & Fisher, 2010, p. 60), technically known as computer-aided translation (CAT), has become a standard modus operandi for professional translators since the mid-1990s. A pillar of this sea change has been a commercially-available CAT software,1 e.g., SDL Trados, including translation memories, which enable the retrieval and reuse of translations for already encountered sentences (Kenny, 2011), as well as terminology management systems, which allow for rapid search and storage of terminological data (Bowker, 2020a). Besides these two, other technologies which have transformed the translation process and translation industry include, among others, termbanks, electronic and online dictionaries, corpora, and corpus-processing tools (see Kenny, 2011). Although CAT tools are still part and parcel of translation profession (see, for instance, ELIA et al., 2021), it is machine translation that has been gaining ground in recent years and in result has been increasingly integrated in CAT software (Way, 2020). As explained by Melby (2020, p. 419), machine translation is: a fully automatic process that starts with a text in one language and produces a corresponding text in another language, using a machine of some kind. The MT output can be used ‘as is’, repaired by a post-editor, or made available to a human who translates from the source text.

Machine translation has a long history reaching back to 1940s (see Poibeau, 2017). The first systems, which dominated until the end of 1980s, were rule-based, i.e., they 1

Translation environment tools (TEnTs) is another term used in the translation industry.

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consisted of human-made rules for syntactic transfer and analysis as well as for searching words and dividing sentences (Melby, 2020). The 1990s saw a paradigm shift in thinking about machine translation (Poibeau, 2017). Statistical machine translation (SMT) based on “applying the results of automatically analysing training data, which consist of many source texts and their human translations” (Melby, 2020, p. 419) has started to gradually replace less efficient rule-based architectures. Nowadays, the state-of-the-art in machine translation is neural machine translation (NMT), which builds on the statistical architecture by extending it with the encoder-decoder frameworks and source-language attention models (see Way, 2020 for more details). The above-described technological breakthroughs would not have changed the profession and industry the way they did (see O’Hagan, 2020, for the collection of recent contributions) if not for a number of economic and social reasons, in particular a higher demand for translation driven by economic globalization (Cronin, 2010). Another key factor is the changing nature of goods, which in our post-industrial times are increasingly informational, hence a growing importance of audiovisual translation, media accessibility, software and game localization (see Bogucki & Deckert, 2020). The role of technology in translation has been also greatly influenced by the advent of online/Internet communication, which is associated with phenomena such as crowdsourcing, collaborative translation and non-professional uses of translation technology (see Bowker, 2020b; Jiménez-Crespo, 2017). These wider socioeconomic factors go along with numerous practical advantages for various stakeholders including higher speed and productivity, cost-benefits as well as liberating translators from some highly routine tasks, just to name a few (see Bowker & Fisher, 2010; Forcada, 2010; see also Kenny, 2017, for the discussions about some negative sides of translation technologies). In result, as of now using technology, be it CAT software, machine translation engines or CAT/MT integrated systems, to process and translate smaller or larger volumes of technical and specialized texts has become a standard practice for language service providers operating on multinational, small and medium-size markets as well as for freelancers (see ELIA et al., 2021; O’Hagan, 2020).

3 Teaching and Training Translators The special role of translation in the globalized economy where it assures the linguistic linkage of distant localities (Cronin, 2010) is evidenced by a growing number of academic courses and programmes devoted to teaching and training translators (Pym, 2011b; Salamah, 2021). The shape and the extent of translation education offered at the academic level depends on a number of factors such as its length— varying from non-obligatory stand-alone courses to specialized MA programmes, for example, European Master’s in Translation—and structure, i.e., what kinds of skills are targeted the most in the translation curricula, what types of in-class activities are used, what teaching methodologies are followed (see Sawyer et al., 2019 for more details). Another issue which plays a role in translation education is of

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socio-economic nature as it pertains to economic resources at the disposal of various countries and academic institutions as well as their specific local circumstances such as the information flows between languages and their distributions (Pym, 2020a). Despite numerous structural and socio-economic differences most institutionalized attempts at teaching and training translators are united by a general concern about equipping students/trainees with necessary competences and skills for performing successfully on the market. Competences to be acquired in translator training and education are described in detail in various translation competence models such as PACTE or EMT (see Salamah, 2021). According to PACTE model (Hurtado Albir, 2017), would-be translators should acquire bilingual (linguistic skills), extralinguistic (cultural, encyclopaedic, and subject-field knowledge), and instrumental (using technologies and resources) sub-competences. Moreover, they are expected to possess psycho-psychological (e.g., memory, attitude, reasoning) and strategic (e.g., planning and carrying out the process) sub-competences as well as knowledge about the functions and professional practice of translation. In turn, the European Master’s in Translation (EMT) board (2017) distinguishes five areas of competence such as (1) language and culture; (2) translation, including strategic, transfer, thematic, and specialization knowledge and skills; (3) technology, which includes the use of a variety of translation technologies; (4) personal and interpersonal, i.e., skills indispensable for increasing the employability; and (5) service provision, which covers the awareness of market demands, professional standards, etc. As seen above, designing translation education and translator training requires taking into consideration a plethora of factors.2 Undoubtedly, one of the key amongst them is technology. Historically speaking, its integration into translator training usually lagged behind its adoption in other contexts. This trend is best illustrated by the fact that first MT systems operated already in the 1960s but became part of a very small number of programmes only 20 years later (see Kenny, 2020, p. 500). Similar, though not that pronounced, tendencies could be observed with the advent of translation memories and CAT software in the 1990s. According to Kenny (2020, p. 501), it is not until the early 2000s that the systematic thinking about the teaching of translation technology including discussions about class exercises, teaching methodologies, and syllabus design began. Nowadays, as can be seen in PACTE and EMT translation competence models as well as in numerous programmes and curricula, technology training covering not only CAT and machine translation but also audiovisual translation and localization software, features as one of basic competences and goals of translator training (Kenny, 2020).

4 Machine Translation as Part of Translator Training As explained by Vieira (2020b, p. 319), “in most professional contexts, the output of MT systems needs to be post-edited to reach the desired standards of quality”. This 2

For other aspects not discussed here see Kelly (2010) and Pym (2011b).

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activity, known under the name of machine translation post-editing (MTPE), has been present in the translation industry since the mid-2000s and now is part of the standard workflow in most enterprises which provide language services (Guerberof Arenas & Moorkens, 2019). Post-editing of machine translated texts is about revising and correcting a raw version provided by machine translation system (Forcada, 2010), which is done by skilled professional translators. Due to the specific nature of different MT systems and their outputs, MTPE in most cases requires some kind of special training in order be able to provide fast and cost-efficient services (see Vieira, 2020b, for details). A growing role of MTPE services on the market, as shown by consecutive editions of European Language Industry Survey, has been a clear sign for scholars and universities that this skill requires explicit treatment in translation curricula (Mellinger, 2017). Despite being a seemingly straightforward activity, the integration of MTPE in translation curricula requires making some critical decisions. One of them is whether to teach it as part of independent post-editing modules or in a cross-modular manner (Mellinger, 2017). As discussed by Kenny (2020, p. 507), although most scholars prefer the second option, since it favours a less compartmentalized acquisition, stand-alone modules are still much more widespread. Another issue concerns the pedagogical approach to MTPE training with different proposals ranging from learner-centred, task/project-based to socio-constructive (Kelly, 2010), with the last one focusing on simulating translation bureaus (Kiraly, 2013). Moreover, MTPE teaching requires making a decision about the balance between theoretical and practical knowledge. Here, however, the consensus has been apparently reached and most scholars emphasize that it should be eminently practical (Guerberof Arenas & Moorkens, 2019, p. 221). As far as the content of MTPE teaching is concerned, Guerberof Arenas and Moorkens (2019) report that besides an extensive practice with several types of MT engines the inclusion of the following components is recommended: (1) special focus on SMT and NMT; (2) pre-editing and controlled language; (3) output evaluation and error identification; (4) understanding levels of post-editing; and (5) basic theoretical information on MT history. Issues related to curriculum structure and content are only some of the challenges associated with the integration of MTPE in translation curriculum. As claimed by Pym (2013), a widespread practice of post-editing in the classroom also requires focusing on different skills and rethinking the very translation competence the instructors want to develop in students. For Pym (2013, p. 491), one of the key new skills trainees need to learn is when to trust and mistrust data, which includes sub-competences such as not relying too much on what is given in a MT database, quickly deciding when it is better to work on matches or from scratch, and being able to adjust cognitive effort in terms of costs and benefits. The issue of trust (and risk) is also brought up by Massey and Ehrensberger-Dow (2017, p. 309), who point out that students need to learn to “decide in each case whether the risks of mistranslations and other errors are ethically acceptable”. In addition, Pym (2013) points out a need to learn how to quickly and efficiently use new tools, including reducing learning curves and evaluating critically the work process with a given tool, as well as the ability to correct and stylistically revise MT-translated texts. The latter skill is

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directly linked to the fact that post-editing shifts the focus from source language to target language and that, in result, “exacting skills in the target language become all the more important” (Pym, 2013, p. 496). Unsurprisingly, the uptake of MPTE university courses in response to the new realities of the market has been followed by some critical scholarly voices (see Kenny, 2020). In general, these critical approaches to translation technology emphasize that teaching curricula are not “purely in the service of industry stakeholders” (Mellinger, 2017, p. 281). In other words their content, structure, and teaching methodologies cannot aspire to mimicking what happens in translation agencies at a given time. Instead, academic institutions should strive to cooperate with the industry as equal partners and emphasize the specificities of their learning environments (see Kenny, 2020). Contra the increased importance of machine translation and post-editing is also the emphasis on the added value of human translation in translator training whose proponents, for instance, Katan (2016) and Massey and Ehrensberger-Dow (2017), show that translators (and trainee translators) have a vested interest in not being dependent on machines and in knowing when and why to use them (Bowker, 2015).

5 Selected Challenges 5.1 The Effects of MT-Enhancement As pointed out by Pym (2013), in a traditional, pre-MT translator training mode where students have to translate texts on their own with the help of dictionaries, source language skills and transfer skills are in the limelight. The situation changes dramatically in the context of MTPE where different problems are encountered (see Vieira, 2020b) and different skills are required (Pym, 2013), for instance, selecting between available solutions over generating them. Also, with the shift to more MTPE modules and tasks as well as a cross-modular integration of MT in translation curricula, a new set of pedagogical challenges arises, for example, facing the fact that students tend to minimise their attention to less-demanding technical aspects of post-editing (see Kenny & Doherty, 2014; Mellinger, 2017) or introducing tailored post-editing guidelines (see Flanagan & Christensen, 2014). This, in turn, brings us to the first challenge lying at the intersection of evolving competences and skills. In a traditional translation course where students use limited resources such as dictionaries or parallel corpora to generate their own solutions it is relatively easy for the translation instructor to spot any deficiencies in their linguistic and transfer competences. Problems with understanding some fragments of the source texts (reading, grammar, etc.) or infelicitous translation solutions could be detected on the fly, which, in turn, serves as the source of information whether a given student is more of a language learner, i.e., someone who still struggles with basic linguistic skills, or a would-be translator, i.e., someone who already possesses sufficient linguistic and

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transfer competences and could focus on developing or perfecting translation skills per se. This fairly straightforward situation becomes much more complicated in the case of MTPE courses. Here, the fact that the start text is generated by MT system and its quality is usually more than acceptable (see Pym, 2020b; Way, 2020 on the more than good enough quality of modern MT systems in pragmatic and technical text-types) means that the translation instructor has a much harder task of assessing this aspect. The combination of a high-quality MT generated text and the focus on target language skills centred around stylistic revisions (see Pym, 2013) results in a situation where “poor translators benefit the most” (Pym, 2020b, p. 447) and some students could pass under the radar by not only hiding their language deficiencies but also their limited human translation skills. As seen above, the challenge faced by the translation instructor as well as university stakeholders comes down to the detection of MT-enhancement in students/trainee translators and devising ways of checking this in practice. However, it begs a question why this detection should be seen as so pressing and valuable, especially that we live in the era of non-professional translation (see Jiménez-Crespo, 2020)? The answer is twofold. First, universities have a vested interest in educating translators who are capable of delivering quality human translation because the jobs in the translation industry still include more than just post-editing. In result, being able to quickly detect who can deliver quality human translation and who cannot is in the interest of students’ employability. Second, telling apart those who can translate on their own from those who are good only when MT-enhanced seems to be a key ability if we want to treat seriously the postulates of the added value of human translation (see Massey & Ehrensberger-Dow, 2017), especially that better MT systems seem to threaten the profession (see Katan, 2016). Paradoxically, if we do not pay enough attention to the detection of MT-enhancement in trainee translators, we will struggle with recognizing the very added value of human touch and explaining it to students themselves. Knowing that we could think of possible ways of taking up this challenge. From the perspective of academic stakeholders and curriculum design, the task seems to be fairly easy. One of the possibilities is to introduce special “old-fashioned” modules with no MT or CAT. In this way, translation instructors can check students’ linguistic and transfer skills very quickly and apply the findings in the context of MPTE courses or tasks, i.e., those students who struggle mightily with exclusively human translation (closer to language learners) should spend more time on these tasks before moving to MTPE courses. Another option is to include various no MT or no CAT tasks across different modules, which could be either specified in the curriculum or initiated by translation instructors. This type of transversal delivery is recommended in the literature (see, for instance, Austermühl, 2013) as it not only helps to develop skills in a non-compartmentalized manner, but also nicely simulates different modes of work in the translation industry. Overall, these rather straightforward and familiar solutions show that the detection of the effects of MT-enhancement is demanding not as much as a matter of means (know-how is already there), but rather of emphasis. It is believed that academic stakeholders should invest their efforts in this area particularly in the interest of the quality of academic translator training. It is, after all, the university

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training that is meant to give their students the edge on translators who do not have academic background. In the case of the recommended detection of the effects of MT, the advantage lies in targeting students with deficiencies in order to help them to improve as well as in drawing a clear line between what the student knows and can do on his or her own (along the lines of the Latin dictum omnia mea mecum porto) and what he or she owes to MT technology.

5.2 Autonomy Vis-À-Vis Machine Translation Since concerns of employability of trainee translators are increasingly important for academic stakeholders (see Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2017; Schnell & Rodríguez, 2017) translation curricula attempt to include not only more technology, but they also try to introduce more experiential methodologies in order to simulate what happens in the workplace (see Kiraly, 2013). Motivated by the need to best prepare students for real-life working environment, translation instructors face the fact that translation work is highly machine-dependent. This is especially the case in the context of machine translation, in particular in post-editing,3 where with the rise of neural machine translation the agency of human translator becomes less and less essential. In fact, we could argue that the state-of-the art technology moves the profession even further from human–machine cooperation, as in CAT, toward an increasingly limited human assistance (see Jiménez-Crespo, 2020). As shown by Katan (2016), professional translators are aware of this change as there is a growing perception among them that they begin to pursue a low autonomy profession. The above-painted picture of the industry reality allows us to introduce the next challenge, i.e., teaching autonomy vis-à-vis machine translation in the times when translating becomes an increasingly low autonomy profession. It is argued that translation curricula and instructors need to recognize that being autonomous is in the best interest of trainee translators both with regard to their future employability and job satisfaction. But what is meant by “autonomy” in this particular context? Obviously, teaching autonomy is not about teaching how to question the quality of MT-generated texts at all costs or to unnecessarily revise them just to show that human translator is indispensable and “knows better”. Of course, the attempts to perfect correction and revision skills for post-editing are key but it is believed that they are part and parcel of modern translation curricula anyway. Treating this aspect as a matter of exerting autonomy seems counterproductive as it would simply question the very nature of technological advances. In this respect, as indicated by Pym (2020b, p. 448), it is better to accept that in the long run translation will become post-editing or pre-editing and act accordingly by looking for autonomy elsewhere. Given that, it is proposed that teaching autonomy should be perceived as consciously emphasizing that the agency lost to MT in one place, in this case transfer 3

Other MT-related activities such as pre-editing, controlled language, and engine tuning are not discussed here.

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agency or source language agency, can be regained in other domains. These new areas of agency are less concerned with what has been traditionally at the centre of translation competence, i.e., language, translation, or culture, and more with additional competences such as skills increasing the employability or skills related to service provision. Practical consequences of this emphasis could be both module-specific and transversal. In the first case, as described by Rodríguez de Céspedes (2017), special modules and tasks devoted to developing entrepreneurial and business skills should be introduced. Such modules not only equip students with necessary knowledge about marketing or business practices but also help them to make first steps on the market, including writing a CV, looking for job opportunities online, etc. On the other hand, this type of knowledge could be implemented transversally as part of specialized courses, for instance, when covering legal or medical translation students could learn what it takes to find this type of job in the future. Skills related to employability are only one of the areas where would-be translators could exert their autonomy in lieu of language transfer autonomy. Learning to be autonomous is also about learning about one’s preferred position on the market with regard to the role of machine translation there. This involves knowing whether we want to work in niches where technology is omnipresent (e.g., technical translation, localization) or where its role is more limited (e.g., literary translation). Making students aware of MT-related consequences of choosing various niches could result in faster specializations, for instance, more focus on post-editing for those who embrace this technology, or opting for different paths (e.g., audiovisual or literary translation) for those who don’t feel well in MT-based modus operandi. Moreover, learning to be autonomous involves gaining knowledge about different modes of employment with freelance options that offer more variety and where the use of MT technology is dependent to a large extent on the decisions of human translator (see Zetzsche, 2020) and multinational companies where post-editing is widespread. Another aspect of autonomy discussed here concerns the nature of the market trainee translators want to join. This knowledge revolves around sociological and geographical aspects, such as local circumstances related to intensities of information flows (Pym, 2020a). In other words, what kinds of texts get translated the most in a given country or region over time and whether these texts are MT intense, etc. Moreover, students could learn how to exert autonomy in terms of the size of enterprise targeted with SMEs (small and medium-size enterprises) often using less MT technology than multinationals. Overall, it is argued that the search for autonomy visà-vis machine translation in translation curriculum should be conceived of as putting a constant emphasis, for example, module-based, discussion-based or project-based, on the fact that it is a would-be translator who in the end decides to what extent he or she desires to cooperate with MT systems. This, by no means, amounts to denying the reality of the industry but rather opens a path for various negotiations, explorations, and discoveries, which would not be possible for trainee translators without proper autonomy-based approach to translator training and changing markets.

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5.3 The Added Value of Human Responsibility The uptake of machine translation technology in the industry has given rise to a number of issues such as the quality of MT-generated texts (see Pym, 2020b) or human automation anxiety (Vieira, 2020a), which have direct consequences for designing translation curricula and translator training. One of key concerns related to a growing role of MT in the translation industry pertains to the identity of the 21st-century human translator. According to Katan (2016), this identity is threatened by machine translation technology and in order to survive on technology-dependent markets human translators need to become transcreators whose added value lies in human-specific skills such as creative writing, mediating, and editing. Looking for the added value of human translation is recognized as a challenge not only in the context of the translation profession (see Pym & Torres-Simón, 2020) but also in translator training (see Massey & Ehrensberger-Dow, 2017), which is the third dilemma discussed here. The need for explaining to trainee translators whether humans bring anything valuable to the translation table seems at first glance paradoxical. This paradox holds, however, only when we take a traditional perspective where humans translate and machines only help them, which, as shown by various scholars (see, for instance, Pym, 2020b; Way, 2020) is no longer justified given staggering advances in modern MT technology. In the new MT-based professional ecosystem which awaits trainee translators, technology reduces human translators to post-editors and their role becomes ancillary at best (see Vieira, 2020b). In result, the question of teaching students about their added value as human translators becomes all the more important. Of course, equipping trainee translators with the knowledge about their added value vis-à-vis MT systems has to start from defining the concept of “added value” itself. In the literature, this issue is approached, similarly to wider artificial intelligence debates, as various divergences between human and machine competences, which include, among others, (1) human-exceptionality insights—some translationrelated or language-related skills are only human and beyond MT, being a translator is more than language transfer (see Katan, 2016); (2) text quality-centred discussions—MT-generated texts require human correction otherwise they are not fit for publication on the market (see Pym, 2011b); (3) language-related aporias—some linguistic constraints cannot be overcome by MT, ergo humans need to lend it a hand (see Forcada, 2010); (4) technology-related limitations—even the best MT architectures have their performance limits and without human feedback they cannot progress (see Melby, 2020). Although these areas of divergence clearly indicate the places where human translators are (and will be) still indispensable to machine translation technology, it is believed that they should not be seen as the only targets of the added value focus in translator training (see Massey & Ehrensberger-Dow, 2017). On the other hand, it is suggested that the added value in translator training should be treated more as the question of human responsibility for machine translated texts. In this account, what makes a human translator (and trainee translator) valuable in post-editing contexts is not only polishing or refining skills, but also the agency,

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which, enables him or her to make decisions, take risks and bear the responsibility (see also Bowker, 2015; Pym, 2020b). Such a perspective on human agency in MT post-editing opens up venues for both specific module and cross-modular implementations, which include two aspects: (1) theoretical—explaining to students the nature of human responsibility in postediting contexts; (2) practical—showing them how they could take advantage of this specifically human ability in the interest of their future translator career. As far as the first aspect is concerned, besides teaching legal and ethical dimensions of human responsibility in translation (see, for instance, Chesterman, 2018), translation instructors should also explain that the added value of being an editor or authorizer of MT-generated texts ultimately lies in the ability to take the responsibility for the quality of the final text. In other words, although editing skills are still important, it is the act of taking the responsibility that separates human translator from MT system with the latter being simply unable to do this. It is believed that by taking this perspective on the added value, translation instructors could take a break from the race against newest versions of MT systems, which might in the long run turn out futile (see Vieira, 2020b for automatic post-editing), and, instead, put more emphasis on the fact that humans cannot be replaced if only for the fact that their authorizing stamp is necessary. As for the practical aspect of teaching the added value of human responsibility, it could be implemented in translation curricula in the form of cross-modular inclass activities or special post-editing modules. In both cases, trainee translators would learn how to strategically adjust their post-editing actions in terms of purpose (high-risk or low-risk texts), price, cognitive effort required, and time limitations (see Bowker, 2020b; Pym, 2011b). Moreover, in this way they would acquire knowledge and skills necessary for negotiating the value and price of their human responsibility with market stakeholders by taking into account various external circumstances and factors indicated in translation briefs. Overall, it is argued that such an approach to the added value of human responsibility could help trainee translators to develop two qualities necessary in the modern translation industry: (1) more positive attitude to their role with regard to technology (contra the anxiety described by Vieira, 2020a) and (2) know-how useful in negotiating their position on the market, working conditions as well as job satisfaction.

6 Conclusions Given technological changes in the translation industry, there is no doubt that machine translation and post-editing are here to stay as part and parcel of modern translator training. Their place in translation curricula might be even more pronounced (see Kenny, 2020) with future technological advancements such as new neural MT architectures or translation tools integrating several technologies. It is argued that the

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reaction to these transformations on the part of academic stakeholders and translation instructors should not oscillate between excessive tech-optimism and automation anxiety, but instead it should focus on would-be human translator and his or her changing position vis-à-vis technology (see Kenny, 2017 for a similar perspective). The above-discussed challenges indicate some areas where machine translation forces both translation instructors and trainee translators to rethink this position. In the first case, the question comes down to determining and highlighting the line between human and machine skills. The second challenge points out the need to accept that some aspects of the profession are no longer la chasse gardée of human translators and that autonomy has to be found elsewhere. In turn, the last challenge demonstrates that post-editing requires redefining the added value of human translators. Taken together, these difficulties, however, do not question the translation profession or translator training as such (see also Pym & Torres-Simón, 2020). What they do is rather stimulate redefinitions and adaptations, which should not be seen as threatening as long as translation curricula and translator instructors teach students how to make sober assessments and, above all, take an active stance vis-à-vis technological and market pressures.

References Austermühl, F. (2013). Future (and not-so-future) trends in the teaching of translation technology. Revista Tradumàtica, 11, 326–337. Bogucki, Ł., & Deckert, M. (Eds.). (2020). The Palgrave handbook of audiovisual translation and media accessibility. Palgrave Macmillan. Bowker, L. (2015). Computer-aided translation: Translator training. In S. Chan (Ed.), The Routledge encyclopedia of translation technology (pp. 88–104). Routledge. Bowker, L. (2020a). Terminology management. In E. Angelone, M. Ehrensberger-Dow, & G. Massey (Eds.), The Bloomsbury companion to language industry studies (pp. 261–283). Bloomsbury. Bowker, L. (2020b). Fit-for-purpose translation. In M. O’Hagan (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation and technology (pp. 453–468). Routledge. Bowker, L., & Fisher, D. (2010). Computer-aided translation. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 1, pp. 60–65). John Benjamins. Chesterman, A. (2018). Translation ethics. In L. D’hulst & Y. Gambier (Eds.), A history of modern translation knowledge (pp. 443–448). John Benjamins. Cronin, M. (2010). Globalization and translation. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 1, pp. 134–140). John Benjamins. ELIA et al. (2021). European language industry survey. 9th edition. https://euatc.org/elis2021/ EMT Board. (2017). European master’s in translation. Competence framework 2017. https://ec.eur opa.eu/info/sites/default/files/emt_competence_fwk_2017_en_web.pdf Flanagan, M., & Christensen, T. (2014). Testing post-editing guidelines: How translation trainees interpret them and how to tailor them for translator training purposes. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 8(2), 257–275. Forcada, M. L. (2010). Machine translation today. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 1, pp. 215–223). John Benjamins. Guerberof Arenas, A., & Moorkens, J. (2019). Machine translation and post-editing training as part of a master’s programme. Journal of Specialised Translation, 31, 217–238.

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Hurtado Albir, A. (Ed.). (2017). Researching translation competence by PACTE group. John Benjamins. Jiménez-Crespo, M. A. (2017). Crowdsourcing and online collaborative translations. John Benjamins. Jiménez-Crespo, M. A. (2020). Technology and non-professional translation. In M. O’Hagan (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation and technology (pp. 239–254). Routledge. Katan, D. (2016). Translation at the crossroads: Time for the transcreational turn? Perspectives, 24(3), 365–381. Kelly, D. (2010). Translation didactics. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 1, pp. 389–396). John Benjamins. Kenny, D. (2011). Electronic tools and resources for translators. In K. Malmkjær & K. Windle (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of translation studies (pp. 455–472). Oxford University Press. Kenny, D. (Ed.). (2017). Human issues in translation technology. Routledge. Kenny, D. (2020). Technology and translator training. In M. O’Hagan (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation and technology (pp. 498–515). Routledge. Kenny, D., & Doherty, S. (2014). Statistical machine translation in the translation curriculum: Overcoming obstacles and empowering translators. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 8(2), 276–294. Kiraly, D. (2013). Towards a view of translator competence as an emergent phenomenon: thinking outside the box(es) in translator education. In D. Kiraly, S. Hansen-Schirra & K. Maksymski (Eds.), New prospects and perspectives for educating language mediators (pp. 197–224). Narr Francke Attempto. Kornacki, M. (2017). Technologia w codziennej pracy tłumacza. In B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (Ed.), Kompetencje współczesnego tłumacza (2016–2017) (pp. 161–177). Wydawnictwo PWSZ w Koninie. Massey, G., & Ehrensberger-Dow, M. (2017). Machine learning: Implications for translator education. Lebende Sprachen, 62(2), 300–312. Meer van der, J. (2020). Translation technology—Past, present, and future. In E. Angelone, M. Ehrensberger-Dow & G. Massey (Eds.), The Bloomsbury companion to language industry studies (pp. 285–309). Bloomsbury. Melby, A. K. (2020). Future of machine translation. In M. O’Hagan (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation and technology (pp. 419–436). Routledge. Mellinger, C. D. (2017). Translators and machine translation: Knowledge and skills gaps in translator pedagogy. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 11(4), 280–293. O’Hagan, M. (Ed.). (2020). The Routledge handbook of translation and technology. Routledge. Poibeau, T. (2017). Machine translation. The MIT Press. Pym, A. (2011a). What technology does to translating. Translation & Interpreting, 3(1), 1–9. Pym, A. (2011b). Training translators. In K. Malmkjær & K. Windle (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of translation studies (pp. 475–489). Oxford University Press. Pym, A. (2013). Translation skill-sets in a machine-translation age. Meta: Journal des traducteurs, 58(3), 487–502. Pym, A. (2020a). For a sociology of translator training. In J. Zhao, D. Li & L. Tian (Eds.), Translation education (pp. 9–19). Springer. Pym, A. (2020b). Quality. In M. O’Hagan (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation and technology (pp. 437–452). Routledge. Pym, A., & Torres-Simón, E. (2020). Is automation changing the translation profession? International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 270, 39–57. Rodríguez de Céspedes, B. (2017). Addressing employability and enterprise responsibilities in the translation curriculum. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 11(2–3), 107–122. Salamah, D. (2021). Translation competence and translator training: A review. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Translation, 4(3), 276–291. Sawyer, D. B., Austermühl, F., & Enríquez-Raído, V. (Eds.). (2019). The evolving curriculum in interpreter and translator education. John Benjamins.

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Schnell, B., & Rodríguez, N. (2017). Ivory tower vs. workplace reality. Employability and the T&I curriculum—Balancing academic education and vocational requirements: A study from the employers’ perspective. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 11(2–3), 160–186. Trojszczak, M. (2019). Dydaktyka przekładu w dobie nowoczesnych technologii tłumaczeniowych. Koni´nskie Studia J˛ezykowe/Konin Language Studies, 7(3), 341–360. Vieira, L. N. (2020a). Automation anxiety and translators. Translation Studies, 13(1), 1–21. Vieira, L. N. (2020b). Post-editing of machine translation. In M. O’Hagan (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation and technology (pp. 319–335). Routledge. Way, A. (2020). Machine translation—Where are we at today? In E. Angelone, M. EhrensbergerDow, & G. Massey (Eds.), The Bloomsbury companion to language industry studies (pp. 311– 332). Bloomsbury. Zetzsche, J. (2020). Freelance translators’ perspectives. In M. O’Hagan (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation and technology (pp. 166–182). Routledge.

Marcin Trojszczak holds a PhD in Linguistics and MA in Philosophy. He works at the University of Białystok and the State University of Applied Sciences in Konin. His research interests include metaphorical conceptualisations of mental and emotional processes, the impact of translation technologies on translation education, normativity and genericity in language and cognition, as well as offensive language. His recent publications include “Normative generics and norm breaching—a questionnaire-based study of parent-child interactions in English” (with Daniel Karczewski) in the journal Studies in Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric, “Metaphors for regulating emotions—a cognitive corpus-based study of English, Italian, and Polish” (with Chiara Astrid Gebbia) in the edited volume Language, Heart, and Mind published by Peter Lang and „Grounding mental metaphors in touch: a corpus-based study of English and Polish” in the monograph Perception Metaphors published by John Benjamins.

Cross-Cultural Identity and Reflective Memos in American and Polish Student Online TAPP Cooperation Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and Saveena Chakrika Veeramoothoo

Abstract The paper focuses on the identification of cultural and linguistic aspects discussed in selected Reflective Memos from a TAPP collaboration project between the University of Minnesota students of writing courses, and MA translation and media and business students of the State University of Applied Sciences in Konin in the years 2018–2020. The paper discusses analogies and differences between cultural and study contexts in both cultural settings as well as the students’ linguistic and professional competences during stages of their cooperation. It is argued in the paper that the development of discourse strategies in the communicative skills of both groups positively influences the development of students’ personal identity and intercultural awareness in in the researched contexts. Keywords Collaborative tasks · Culture · Identity · L1 · L2 · Online peer contacts · Professional communication

1 Introduction The main focus of the paper is a presentation of analogies and differences of cultural and study contexts between US and Polish students as well as their linguistic and professional competences during stages of their cooperation within the TAPP project on the basis of Polish and US post-task reflective memos. It is argued that the development of discourse strategies in the communicative skills of both groups positively influences students’ personal and cultural identities in terms of their intercultural awareness and communicative skills both in their private and future professional contexts.

B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (B) State University of Applied Sciences, Konin, Poland e-mail: [email protected] S. C. Veeramoothoo University of Houston-Downtown, Houston-Downtown, TX, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_12

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2 Identity The concept of personal and cultural identity is a fluid notion. The collocational forms closely connected with the concepts of personal and cultural identities can be studied in the data of language corpora such as the British National Corpus (BNC), Corpus of American English (COCA) or National Corpus of Polish (NKJP). The main lexical forms collocating with the English form identity (Infomap Stanford University http:// infomap-nlp.sourceforge.net/) involve race, age, gender, language, culture, which dominate the collocates referring to history, art, politics, society, information, and education. Simultaneously, the form language is directly connected with the levels of religion and literature. The whole field of integrity, related both to community, role, purpose and participation, and to the concepts of independence, honesty, truthfulness and trustworthiness, and linked with taking decisions, involvement, practice as well as consultation and effectiveness, plays a particularly important role in the blended concept of identity (Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, 2020). The whole concept of identity is thus a cluster of personal emotive, rational, and social properties of an individual, immersed in larger geographical, historical, and social contexts. The personal cluster of these attributes is not a stable unchanging bundle. Identity is a dynamic notion, transforming both within time, place as well as in a broader and narrower context. Although not always mentioned explicitly identity cannot be divorced from a biological, genetic set of personal predispositions of an individual either, such as age, sex, colour, abilities, health, particularly genetic predispositions or disorders (Klitzman, 2009). Reassuming, one can propose that identity is immersed in biological and cultural contexts that both create the origin, background as well as the transformation conditions for a particular identity cluster to change and develop. Student identity components and their dynamics portray what was discussed with regard to general identity parameters above. Additionally, we might propose that the lecture room and classroom surrounding in which the student spends time are further constitutive settings of identity formation. Taken from the outside world, the relations of power and dominance are partly reproduced in the classroom contexts with professors’ and lecturers’ presence, while at the same time the development of inter-student links of various kind contributes to their social sensitivity upgrade. This appears to be of a particular importance in the student inter-cultural contacts discussed in the present study. What we investigate in the present paper, apart from the general procedure and outcomes of the native- non-native student cooperation, are also insights from individual and class discussions with the students and from reflective memos students wrote after the tasks ended. What can be learned from them is more contextual detail concerning the students’ identity transformation expected to be taking place during the period of the students’ contacts with peers coming from a different culture.

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3 Cross-Cultural Differences One of the first attempts to measure differences between world cultures involves a model of cultural dimensions proposed by Geert Hofstede (1980, 2011), which covers six measures. To gain an approximate picture of how US and Polish cultures locate on Hofstede’s scales we compared the results of the dimensional scales as generated by means of Hofstede’s country comparison tool https://www.hofstedei nsights.com/product/compare-countries/ (Fig. 1). On a scale from 1 to 100 Poland is identified as a culture with a higher Power Distance (68) than the USA (40). Poland’s value for Individualism (60) is strikingly lower than that for the USA (91). Both cultures have similar Masculinity towards Femininity index (PL 64 vs. USA 62), which refers to similar values attached to interpersonal relations as well as to achievement and success. With the significantly lower Uncertainty Avoidance index (USA 46 versus PL 93), an average-term Orientation, though indicating a higher level of Polish reserve (USA 26 versus PL 38), and a culture of a considerably higher Indulgence measure (USA 68 versus PL 29), the USA is diagnosed as having a profile of a highly individual culture, not strongly affected by uncertainty or unknown situations, significantly less focused on power distribution and with a stronger emphasis on self- gratification than Poland. Although Hofstede’s system has been subject to a number of critical reviews (e.g., Touburg, 2016; Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1997), the criteria Hofstede proposes and the results obtained constitute an interesting point of reference and provide reliable grounds to elaborate on some of the issues related to culture-specific identity types. The culture model system, considered from the perspective of cultural conceptualization with regard to a number of criteria, has been extensively developed by Sharifian (2017) in his cultural linguistic models, which foster the conveyance of cultural connotations.

Fig. 1 Cultural dimensions compared Poland—Unites States (https://www.hofstede-insights.com/ product/compare-countries/)

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What should be additionally emphasized in the context of our study is the indication of differences in the politeness strategies between Polish and American cultures, which has some bearing on the discourse behavior of our student groups. As noted in Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and Wilson (2021), the behavioural and expression features in various cultures, also those related to language, can be correlated with and interpreted in terms of the type of politeness culture models developed by Brown and Levinson (1987). The USA is considered to be characterized by what Brown and Levinson (1987) name ‘positive politeness cultures’, rather than for instance the British ‘negative politeness culture’. In positive politeness cultures the behavioural and language styles involve fuller expression of one’s emotions rather than refraining from the imposition of one’s own judgments on the interactant, typical of negative politeness cultures such as Britain. Compared to other positive-politeness cultures, American politeness is even more of a smaller-social-distance type. Poland, similarly to the United States, is also considered a positive politeness culture, and also emotionally fairly expressive (Wierzbicka, 1999), however, when contrasted with American English, it can be placed on a lower scale of expression and presents more discourse reserve, albeit relatively higher than British culture. Both politeness forms and forms of address Polish students used in the interactions with their American student-partners could be accounted for both by this character of Polish culture as well as an outcome of the foreign language models used in the course of their studies.

4 Background of the Trans-Atlantic & Pacific Project1 The Trans-Atlantic & Pacific Project (TAPP) to which we refer in the present study began in response to the need for students to develop intercultural and international collaboration skills. The project was first started in the 1999–2000 academic year by Bruce Maylath and Sonia Vandepitte (Maylath et al., 2013a, b). The project involves the collaboration of students taking classes in two or more universities in different countries. Over the years, TAPP has grown to include 41 universities in 19 countries (see TAPP site). The TAPP NDSU web page describes TAPP as follows: “TAPP’s main aim is to share insights into collaborative writing across borders and cultures, and, in the course of this work, to gain knowledge of others’ cultural bases.” The collaboration varies among pairs or groups of instructors, but typically consists of USbased students in technical and professional writing classes creating documents and students abroad translating these. Oftentimes, the collaboration also involves students providing feedback on each other’s work. The TAPP collaboration is an excellent opportunity for students to practice intercultural collaboration (Vandepitte et al., 2015; Verzella, 2017; Verzella & Tommaso, 2014). TAPP participants have discussed 1

Sections 2, 3 and part of the Discussion section have been presented at an international AELFE-TAPP conference in Villanova in July 2021 and published in the conference proceedings (Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk & Veeramoothoo, 2021).

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various aspects of the collaborations, focusing on the collaboration, intercultural and translation aspects in particular (Mousten et al., 2008, 2012; Vandepitte et al., 2015).

5 Description of the TAPP Collaboration This paper focuses on the collaboration between students at the State University of Applied Sciences in Konin and the University of Minnesota. Students at the State University of Applied Sciences in Konin are MA students, studying translation, media and business, while students of the University of Minnesota are upper-level undergraduate students, enrolled in various majors. The latter are enrolled in either a Business and Professional Writing course or a Technical and Professional Writing course. The course, Business and Professional Writing, aims at teaching students business communication genres and rhetorical principles applicable to these various genres. For this course, students collaborated with their TAPP partners for the Job Package assignment. This assignment involves students choosing a job advertisement. Then they composed a cover letter tailored to this position. They also created a resume and an online presence (which could either be a LinkedIn profile or a website). Finally, they wrote a memo to discuss the rhetorical choices they made in their job package materials. In addition, students composed TAPP-specific assignments. These included a prelearning report, weekly reflections and a post-learning report. The pre-learning report served as an introduction for TAPP partners to get to know each other. The weekly reflections provided students with a space in which they could reflect on their ongoing collaboration, helping them analyze the progress of the collaboration and their own roles as collaborators. The post-learning report served as a space where students could share insights about their collaboration at the end of the collaboration. The course, Technical and Professional Writing, aims at teaching students technical communication genres and rhetorical principles applicable to these various genres. For this course, students collaborated with their TAPP partners for the Instructions assignment. This assignment involves students writing a set of instructions (for example, about building a Lego model) for a particular audience of their choice. Students then conducted usability tests for these instructions and revised the instructions based on the feedback they received from the usability tests. Finally, they wrote a memo to discuss the rhetorical choices they made in composing the instructions. Similar to students in the Business and Professional Writing course, students in the Technical and Professional Writing course also work on a pre-learning report, weekly reflections and a post-learning report. The Konin students who took part in the collaboration were two groups of firstyear students of two MA programmes, one in Translation Studies and the other in Foreign Languages in Media and Business. Both the curricula combined theory and language practice in general English and in the respective domains, so the TAPP cooperation provided an opportunity for them to use and develop their language

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skills. The format of their cooperation was the same as the one presented in the above paragraph for US students. Essentially, the TAPP collaboration between the Polish and US students functioned as a peer review activity. Students at the University of Minnesota received feedback on their Job Package materials or instructions from their TAPP partners. They then revised their Job Package materials or instructions and submitted their revision for grading. Similarly, students at the State University of Applied Sciences in Konin received feedback on their essays from their TAPP partners. Students usually shared feedback by email. Although instructors encouraged students to virtually meet through a video call, many students preferred written communication through email. Students often used Google docs, PDFs and Word documents to provide feedback on each other’s work. Students have not reported many technological issues during the collaboration. We should note that the COVID-19 pandemic has also impacted the TAPP collaboration. As classes moved online, many students at the University of Minnesota left university housing and went home. This meant that some students did not have access to the same resources they would have had at their disposal if they still lived on campus (such as strong and reliable wifi connections, etc.). In addition, students had to cope with taking all their classes in an online setting, which often required a certain adjustment from students (e.g., in terms of dealing with more self-paced courses, etc.). These added stress on students as they struggled to complete all assignments. Despite these difficulties, students were able to successfully complete the TAPP collaboration.

5.1 Instructor Preparation for TAPP The instructors from the State University of Applied Sciences in Konin and the University of Minnesota typically start planning the TAPP collaboration well before the start of each semester. The planning starts with a discussion of which assignments will be involved in the collaboration. The instructors share a Google doc, where they decide the schedule for the collaboration, including the deadline for each major phase of the collaboration. These include sharing the pre-learning report and translation brief, sharing the first draft of their respective assignments, sharing feedback on these drafts, submitting the post-learning report and finally submitting the revised drafts. While each phase has specific deadlines, students are encouraged to regularly communicate with their partners so that they can truly learn from each other, beyond fulfilling the basic requirements for the collaboration. As the semester starts, each instructor shares their list of students and their corresponding email addresses. One instructor pairs Polish and American students. These pairings are then shared with both classes. It is rare that each class contains the same number of students. Therefore, there is often an asymmetry in the pairings, with some students needing to pair with more than one TAPP partner.

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The collaboration moves smoothly for most pairs of TAPP partners. Whenever a problem arises, the instructors step in to resolve the problem. One of the biggest issues that can arise is lack of communication between partners. In such cases of lack of communication of one partner, the non-responsive student’s instructor usually reaches out to the student and this action often results in improved communication between the partners. Fortunately, lack of communication between partners has been a rare occurrence.

6 Student Cultural Background 6.1 University of Minnesota Students Students at the University of Minnesota who took part in the TAPP cooperation in the academic year 2019/2020 were undergraduate students, typically juniors (3rd year of their BA/BS) and seniors (4th year of their BA/BS). Both the Business and Professional Writing, and Technical and Professional Writing courses are writingintensive courses. Since they fulfill university writing requirements, these courses attract students from various majors. They were majoring in a range of different areas, mostly from the university’s College of Liberal Arts although a few students also came from other colleges at the university. There were about 21 students participating in TAPP each semester. It is difficult to describe the cultural background of the students from the University of Minnesota. Most students did not offer detailed descriptions of their backgrounds. In the pre-learning reports, students detailed the languages they speak and provided their experiences abroad. All students spoke English, with many describing various levels of expertise with a second language (often Spanish). Very few students spoke more than two languages. Students reported a broad range of travel experiences, with some students having visited multiple countries and others having never left the United States. Most students were from the United States, mainly from the state of Minnesota, although there were a few international students each semester. While students typically had some experience collaborating, most students did not have experience working with students studying at a foreign institution. So, this collaboration gave them an opportunity to learn the nuances of communicating in English cross-culturally. Since students are likely to go on to work for global companies, it is essential that they practice such cross-cultural communication. The University of Minnesota is located on the traditional, ancestral and contemporary lands of various Indigenous people (i.e., Native American people), including Dakota land. Similarly, the cities of Minneapolis and St Paul (i.e., the Twin Cities) are located primarily on the traditional lands of various Indigenous people, primarily Dakota (who are a Native American tribe) lands. The Twin Cities are home to the headquarters of several Fortune 500 corporations. Fortune 500 is an annual list

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published by the Fortune magazine. This list ranks 500 of the largest United States corporations by total revenue for their respective fiscal years. In such an environment, it becomes crucial to familiarize our students with working in virtual and international teams.

6.2 Konin Students The Konin students who took part in the TAPP cooperation in the academic year 2019/2020 were MA students of Translation Studies, majoring in English Philology (a group of 10) and MA students of Foreign Languages in Media and Business (a group of 14) at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. Most of them graduated in English for their BA degree (Polish: licencjat), and a few others took their BA in psychology and social sciences. Their native language was Polish, while the courses they were taking were conducted in English as the major foreign language and in German as an elective. English as a language of global communication is considered a necessity in the modern world, while the choice of German by Konin students seems to be linked to a growing number of international businesses, mostly owned by German corporations, in the region of Great Poland (Wielkopolska) and in the Konin municipality. Furthermore, local agencies active on the market, aim to develop regional companies internationally and need to employ foreign language and business graduates to efficiently communicate with international partners. The Konin County history dates back to the second half of the fourteenth century and its first location acts were issued a century earlier.2 Through a course of years Konin became an important municipal centre, although the region kept its mostly agricultural character. The era of industrialization which followed after WW2 was primarily connected with the development of lignite mining and power stations in Konin. However, after a period of prosperity they are in retreat at present, so new smaller businesses and foreign investments have been replacing the vanishing industry. In their majority Konin students come from this town or from smaller neighbouring localities, they are graduates of the local schools and they are eager to gain experience of a more varied, possibly international, character. For that reason, they were interested in the TAPP peer cooperation with US university students. The Konin students had some experience in teaching English as a foreign language, therefore they were more accustomed than their US pairs to employing corrective feedback to texts authored by others. They also took basic training in TEFL, although, as can be observed in their post-cooperation comments, they did not seem to be using a full range of their metalinguistic knowledge in the interactional contexts in which the exchange partners were native speakers of the language. The feeling of embarrassment and shame, apart from anxiety, are the emotions 2

https://powiat.konin.pl/historical-outline.

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that frequently accompany the contexts of native- non-native speakers interaction (Wilson & Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, 2019, 2020).

7 Discussion of the Collaborative Impact: Post-Task Reflective Memos The TAPP collaboration between the Polish and US students functioned essentially as a peer review activity. Students at the University of Minnesota received feedback on their Job Package materials or instructions from their TAPP partners. They then revised their Job Package materials or instructions and submitted their revision for grading. Similarly, students at the State University of Applied Sciences in Konin received feedback on their essays from their TAPP partners. Excerpts from the students’ Reflective memos identify both positive (1, 2, 4) and more negative (3, 5) sides of the cooperation. 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Polish student A: as they are native speakers and without any doubt they are far more proficient in English, I had a perfect opportunity to learn from my new colleagues some new structures. It was also a chance to notice how important is being punctual, disciplined, and methodical. Yet another advantage is that I could have better insight into my partners’ culture and mentality. In the case of such cooperation it is particularly essential to be broad-minded, well-mannered and amiable. Polish student B: They told about their expectations, barriers, and skills. Both of them wrote e-mails in nicely and kind way. Polish student C: The issue that could have been improved in the collaboration is enhancing the contact with our partners. I mean that we and they should answer on almost every e-mail in order to confirm the receipt of e-mails. This should be done because of the fact that sometimes I sent the file, such as an instruction or a usability test and I did not get any information if my partners received these files. US student A: [The collaboration] allowed me to open my eyes to the world and realize that our two worlds are very similar. US student B: Overall, I received mediocre feedback for my instructions. I was not able to make many changes because she only critiqued me on 2 of my steps out of a total of […]

A combination of pleasant experiences and certain problems non-native students experience in such a cooperation format can be exemplified in still another reflective memo, which is also an indication of the transforming identity traits during this period: 6.

Thanks to this collaboration, I learnt that intercultural and international communication is not as easy as it seems to be. Firstly, I was afraid of problems with more sophisticated words or structures as well as problems with

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the adequate equivalences of measurements terms. I was not sure if I or my interlocutor will understand some ideas. Moreover, I was afraid if we correctly understand what we were going to express. Furthermore, if it comes to intercultural and international communication, problematic are particular terms which are related to specific culture. I tried to avoid such terms and colloquialisms. […] I became more familiar with my interlocutors’ culture and mentality of their country. Extremely significant in such communication is being open-minded for ideas of the other person, being respectful and kind. These excerpts show that students learned a lot about collaboration even as they may have faced difficulties. Some of the major difficulties could be resolved through improved communication. For example, if US student B and their partner had clearly stated the kinds of feedback they were looking for, they might have had a better collaborative experience. Similarly, establishing clear collaboration guidelines would have benefited students. For example, if Polish student B and their partner had discussed the communication guidelines for the collaboration, the collaboration might have gone more smoothly. Therefore, in future collaborative endeavors, students could be encouraged to follow the heuristics set forth by Burnett et al. (2012). By discussing and negotiating about the factors Burnett et al. present in their heuristics (namely, interactions, people involved, goals, settings, tools and complexity), students will likely improve their experience of TAPP. Having said that, we should note that students reported mostly positive feedback about their TAPP collaboration. Students not only learned a lot about collaborating in virtual and cross-cultural settings, they also learned about themselves as collaborators, students and people. As collaborators, students reflected and learned about their needs (including communication needs) and those of their partners. As students, they learned about the education system and requirements of an institution located in a different country. As people, they learned about the cultural differences and overwhelming similarities that linked them to their partners. Therefore, the cross-cultural element of the TAPP collaboration provides a rich experience for students. It also helps them stand out as job candidates. Several students have informally reported that they have discussed the TAPP collaboration in job interviews as an academic experience that stands out. Turning to different elements of the collaboration, we discuss the tools students used. Students usually shared feedback by email. Although instructors encouraged students to virtually meet through a video call, many students preferred written communication through email, at least in the first stage of the cooperation. Nevertheless, when asked by Polish students to arrange a video call and discuss both the TAPP tasks and the current pandemic situation in respective regions the students lived, most of the partners got involved in this activity and made the video recording of their discussions. Students often used Google docs, PDFs and Word documents to provide feedback on each other’s work, they did not report many technological issues during the collaboration and did not discuss their preference for written communication in the reflections. However, students often expressed in informal conversations that video

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calls were difficult to plan due to time difference between Poland and the US. They also expressed unease at face-to-face conversations with virtual strangers on video call platforms (that is, they did not know their partners enough to feel comfortable doing these video calls). We should note that these comments were made before the COVID-19 pandemic during which most classes and meetings moved online for the US-based students. The COVID-19 pandemic has also impacted the TAPP collaboration. As classes moved online, many students at both the University of Minnesota and the State University in Konin left university housing and went home. The students developed their collaborative skills respecting differences in their cultural and linguistic background, which was tested both in their inter- and post-task reports and in oral interviews. Since the collaboration involved a number of steps, both on the part of lecturers and students, it allowed students to develop project management skills. The students collaborated with task planning, negotiating collaboration deadlines, tools to use (writing, peer review, communication) and finding ways to deal with conflict (e.g., when to involve instructors if there is lack of participation from their partners). Polish students developed their additional professional skills in terms of language corpus use, in particular Corpus of American English (COCA Davies) (Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, 2017) for the application to learn details concerning meaning and use of American English professional terminology as well as to perform TAPP-related translation tasks.

8 Conclusion As quoted in Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and Slomski (2016), collective intelligence and the wisdom of crowds exceed those of an individual person (see also Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk & Bogucki, 2016; Surowiecki, 2021). The student collaborative tasks are inspired by development in computer-mediated communication and language tools that have been accompanying these changes. In this sense, our study analyzes the collaborative tasks which combine the processes of conscious reflection with those of writing skill development. Furthermore, the students from both cultures developed their professional skills in the form of professional job application writing on the one hand and task-oriented exchange, as well as interviewing on the Polish part on the other. Both groups learned to consider different linguistic and cultural identities, which, on the part of US students, involved a more colloquial style of exchanges, and on the Polish part, it was combined with the introduction of this more friendly idiom, accompanying the students’ concern about the grammatical rigor and structural correctness of written discourse. An additional aspect of the study is the Polish students’ development of translational competency and skill in the students of Translation and an interview communication practice for the Media and Business students.

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What can be finally emphasized is that in both US and Polish groups it is interaction in discourse, as originally proposed in Long’s Interaction Hypothesis (1991/1985), that was observed to lead to professional development, fuller comprehension and mutual inter-cultural understanding. Both the discussions with the students as well as their post-task reflective memos indicate the primary role of direct interpersonal contacts and exchange of views and opinions in shaping further contacts and collaboration with their peer partners and which function as the salient formative elements in the personal and cultural identity development.

Appendices Appendix A Pre-Learning Report To get better acquainted with your partner in Europe and to understand his/her background, please fill in the following form before you send it to your partner(s). In the Cc: line, please include my address and that of Dr. Barbara LewandowskaTomaszczyk ([email protected]) Fill in your name (or initials) How old are you? Gender? What educations do you have before university? What are you studying at university? How far are you in your studies? What subjects are included in your studies? What work experience have you got before university? How many languages do you know? Have you stayed in other countries, and if so, which ones? Other information you would like your cooperation partner to know.

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Please fill in this page with some of your expectations for learning experience from the project. What barriers do you expect to meet? Technical? Please specify!

.

Language? Please specify! Communication problems? Please specify! Differences between countries? Please specify! Other problems or barriers? Please specify! What do you expect to learn? About cooperation? Please comment. About language use? Please specify. About

cross-cultural

differences?

Please specify. About email conversation? Please specify. About contacting and communicating with an unknown foreigner? Please specify. What shortcomings do you think your partner may have in relation to the project? What skills do you think you need for this project? Language skills? Please specify. Social skills? Please specify. Communication skills? Please specify. Collaboration skills? Please specify. Other skills? Please specify. What skills do you think you need that you do not have? Please specify. What technologies/tools did you use? What internet devices/programmes/applications / webpages do you use (a) to communicate with others (b) to get information/learn new things (what kind of information do you typically look for?) (c) for entertainment (what are your preferences?) (d) for collaborating with coworkers/ classmates What is the average frequency and duration for each of the activities mentioned in (a,b,c,d) above? What video conferencing programs do you use? What is the average frequency and duration for using the video conferencing programs mentioned above? What collaboration and document authoring tools do you use? What is the average frequency and duration for using the collaboration and document authoring tools mentioned above?

206

B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and S. C. Veeramoothoo Emotions/Feelings As you embark on this project, how are

you

feeling

about

the

collaboration, your TAPP partner, their country, the assignment, etc.? On a scale of 1-5, how interesting do you think the TAPP collaboration will be? Why? Other comments Please state all other comments you may have that relate to expectations to the project or reservations about it. Thank you!

Appendix B Translation Brief To give your partner(s) in Europe a better overview of the purpose of the translation, please fill in the following form, and you send it to your translator(s). In the Cc: line, please include my address and that of Dr. Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk ([email protected]). Also, please post the completed form on Canvas. Fill in your name (or initials) Who is the intended reader of the translated text? Is this reader different from the one who you originally intended the text for, and if so, how? Who is the reader of the translated text going to see as the sender of the text? Is the message (this is what I want to tell you) of the text going to be exactly the same in a translated version. If not, what changes do you envision? What medium is the text intended for (magazine, brochure, instruction insert with a product, other things?)

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Is there anything in the ‘code’ (pictures, wording, level of formality, tone) of the text that you would like the translator/localizer to pay special attention to? If so, what? Are there references in the text (to materials, institutions, other things) that you see as problematic for non-American people? If so, what? In what situation do you think the reader will actually read this text? Questions to translator/localizer Other comments

Appendix C Post-Learning Report Please post the completed Post-Learning Report on Canvas. Fill in your name (or initials) Which writer/tester/translator/reviser did you communicate with? Which text did you work on? What role did you have? (writer/tester/translator reviser) Did you mediate with your translator/reviser about the text along the way, and if so how many times? What kinds of

Question about terminology

questions/comments did

Question about grammar

Question about phrase

you make?

Questions/comments about contents

Question about spelling

Other questions/Comments, please specify Please state an example, or examples

How did you communicate?

By mail

In person

By telephone

Skype SMS

Other (please specify):

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B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and S. C. Veeramoothoo Number of times: Were you satisfied with the

Please comment on your yes/no.:

communication with your partner? Were you satisfied with the

Please comment on your yes/no above and

communication with your

your role in the situation:

writer/tester/translator/reviser?

Collaboration: What did you learn about collaboration? (Draw from class readings) What did you learn about yourself as a collaborator as a result of this project? Overall, what did you learn about collaboration in digital spaces? On a scale of 1-5, how interesting was the collaboration? Can you elaborate on your rating? What did you want to achieve through this collaboration? Did you achieve it? What were your emotions/feelings throughout this collaboration about the collaboration, your TAPP partner, their country, etc.? How did these emotions/feelings change as the collaboration progressed? International/Intercultural Communication: What did you learn about international/intercultural communication? (Draw from class readings) On a scale of 1-5, how interested were you about learning about Polish/American cultures? What did you learn about Polish/American cultures? Tools/Technologies: What did you learn about collaboration tools for long-distance collaboration? What tools/technologies did you use throughout the collaboration? How frequently did you use each tool/technology? Rate each tool/technology on a scale of 1-5 in terms of ease of use? Rate each tool/technology on a scale of 1-5 in terms of usefulness for the collaboration?

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How did you negotiate which technologies to use? What tools did you wish you had used and why? What barriers did you encounter? Communication problems? Please specify. About cooperation? Please comment. In e-mail or other types of written conversation? Please specify. In oral conversation? Please specify. How did you overcome the barriers mentioned above? What are the most challenging aspects of this activity? Why? How did you overcome them? Professional: What challenges and opportunities for business writing/translation and your professional work have you discovered as a result of TAPP? Other comments in general Please state all other comments you may have that relate to your experience from the project or reservations about it. Thank you!

References Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge University Press. Burnett, R. E., Cooper, L. A., & Welhausen, C. A. (2012). What do technical communicators need to know about collaboration. In J. Johnson-Eilola & S. A. Selber (Eds.), Solving problems in technical communication (pp. 454–478). The University of Chicago Press. Davies, M. (n.d.). Corpus of Contemporary American English COCA. https://www.english-corpora. org/coca/ Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage. Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014

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Klitzman, R. (2009). “Am I my genes?”: Questions of identity among individuals confronting genetic disease. Genetics in Medicine, 11(12), 880–889. https://doi.org/10.1097/GIM.0b013e 3181bfd212 Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B. (2017). Cluster equivalence, general language, and language for specific purposes. In M. Grygiel (Ed.), Cognitive approaches to specialist language (pp. 384– 418). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B., & Bogucki, L. (2016). Volunteer translation, collaborative knowledge acquisition and what is likely to follow. In Ł Bogucki, B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, & M. Thelen (Eds.), Translation and meaning (pp. 37–46). Peter Lang. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B. (2020). Culture-driven emotional profiles and online discourse extremism. Pragmatics and Society, 11(2), 262–292. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B., & Slomski, H. (2016). Collaboration in language development between American and Polish university students. Konin Language Studies, 4(3), 305–330. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B., & S. Veeramoothoo (2021). Language and technology skills development in cross-cultural virtual teams. In E. Arnó, M. Aguilar, J. Borràs, G. Mancho, B. Moncada, & D. Tatzl (Eds.), Multilingual academic and professional communication in a networked world. Proc. AELFE-TAPP 2021 (19th AELFE conference, 2nd TAPP conference) (pp. 1–9). Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B., & Wilson, P. A. (2021). Expressive and reserved cultural linguistic schemas: British and American pride clusters. In M. Sadeghpour & F. Sharifian (Eds.), Cultural linguistics and world Englishes (pp. 261–293). Springer. Long, M. (1991/1985). Input and second language acquisition theory. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 377–393). Newbury House. Maylath, B., King, T., & Arnó Macià, E. (2013a). Linking engineering students in Spain and technical writing students in the us as coauthors: The challenges and outcomes of subject-matter experts and language specialists collaborating internationally. Connexions, 1(2), 159–185. Maylath, B., Vandepitte, S., Minacori, P., Isohella, S., Mousten, B., & Humbley, J. (2013b). Managing complexity: A technical communication translation case study in multilateral international collaboration. Technical Communication Quarterly, 22, 67–84. Mousten, B., Humbley, J., Maylath, B., & Vandepitte, S. (2012). Communicating pragmatics about content and culture in virtually mediated educational environments. In K. St. Amant & S. Kelsey (Eds.), Computer-mediated communication across cultures: international interactions in online environments (pp. 312–327). IGI Global. Mousten, B., Vandepitte, S., & Maylath, B. (2008). Intercultural collaboration in the Trans-Atlantic Project: Pedagogical theories and practices in teaching procedural instructions across cultural contexts. In D. Starke-Meyerring & M. Wilson (Eds.), Designing globally networked learning environments: Visionary partnerships, policies, and pedagogies (pp. 129–144). Sense Publishers. Sharifian, F. (2017). Cultural linguistics. John Benjamins. Surowiecki, J. F-W. (2021). The wisdom of crowds, collaborative networks & public policy. Retrieved from https://www.crosscollaborate.com/tag/james-surowiecki/ Touburg, G. (2016). National habitus: An antidote to the resilience of Hofstede’s ‘national culture.’ Journal of Organizational Change Management, 29(1), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM11-2015-0219 Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1997). Riding the waves of culture: understanding cultural diversity in business, 2nd ed. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Vandepitte, S., Mousten, B., Maylath, B., Isohella, S., Musacchio, M. T., & Palumbo, G. (2015). Translation competence research data in multilateral international and interprofessional collaborative learning. In Y. Cui & W. Zhao (Eds.), Teaching language translation and interpretation: Methods, theories, and trends (pp. 137–159). IGI Global. Verzella, M. (2017). Making culture relevant in technical translation with dynamic equivalence: The case of bilingual instructions. Rhetoric, Professional Communication and Globalization, 10(1), 54–77.

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Verzella, M., & Tommaso, L. (2014). Learning to write for an international audience through cross-cultural collaboration and text-negotiation. Changing English, 21(4), 310–321. Wierzbicka, A. (1999). Emotions across languages and cultures: Diversity and universals. Cambridge University Press. Wilson, P. A., & Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B. (2019). Shame and anxiety with foreign language learners. In C.-H. Mayer & E. Vanderheiden (Eds.), The bright side of shame: Transforming and growing through practical applications in cultural contexts (pp. 315–332). Springer. Wilson, P. A., & Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B. (2020). Effects of non-native versus native teaching scenarios on L2 student emotions. In G. Dro˙zd˙z & B. Taraszka-Dro˙zd˙z (Eds.), Foreign language pedagogy in the light of cognitive linguistics research (pp. 3–15). Springer.

Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk is full Professor Dr habil. in Linguistics at the Department of Language and Communication at the State University of Applied Sciences in Konin (Poland), formerly at the University of Lodz. Her research focuses on cognitive semantics and pragmatics of language contrasts, corpus linguistics and their applications in translation, media studies, and incivility in online discourse. Saveena (Chakrika) Veeramoothoo is an Assistant Professor of Technical Communication in the English Department at the University of Houston-Downtown (USA). Her research focuses on collaboration, digital writing, immigration, and social justice.

Challenges Faced by the University Students During COVID-19 Pandemic in Poland Katarzyna Papaja

Abstract Online learning and teaching have increasingly become a part of education in recent years worldwide. However, this type of education was optional and usually chosen by older students. The spread of COVID-19 at the beginning of 2020 led to the closure of schools and universities all over the world and forced the transition to compulsory online learning. The current research presented in the following pages aimed to investigate the challenges that students were facing while studying online as well as the advantages and disadvantages of online learning. Additionally, it aimed to determine the ways that online education can be improved from the perspective of the university students. Keywords Online learning · Online teaching · University students · Higher education · COVID-19

1 Introduction The outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic has affected all areas in our life. The sudden and unexpected transition from face-to-face education to online learning and teaching involved a number of challenges that both teachers and students had to face. The debates concerning the advantages and disadvantages of online learning were postponed, and the most important task was to discover various ways to develop online learning environments so that learning would become the most beneficial for students. The main aim of the study presented in the following pages was to investigate the challenges that students were facing while studying online as well as the advantages and disadvantages of online learning. Furthermore, it aimed to determine the ways that online education can be improved from the perspective of the university students.

K. Papaja (B) Institute of Linguistics, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and M. Trojszczak (eds.), Language Use, Education, and Professional Contexts, Second Language Learning and Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96095-7_13

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2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Learning Online learning is defined as learning performed from a distance, delivered through networks and supported by electronic devices such as computers, smartphones and tablets which require internet connection (Gonzalez & Louis, 2018). Much research has been conducted on the advantages of online education, which is considered to have enormous potential for increasing access to broader knowledge and education across the world (Traxler, 2018). Additionally, new technologies, which are developing all the time, provide the students with opportunities to learn from anywhere, anytime, and anyone (Brown, 2017), and allow them to set their own learning schedule and become more independent individuals (Dumford & Miller, 2018). Nagrale (2013) states that from the economic point of view, online learning helps the students to save a lot of money and time because they do not have to live in the same city or country where they study, as they do not need to rent a room or a flat and what is more, they do not need to commute. Finally, Vlassenko and Bozhok (2014) add that online learning allows the students to work and learn simultaneously and also gain practical experience. When referring to the drawbacks of online learning, one of the most often mentioned disadvantages is the lack of social interaction (Brown, 2017; Costley & Lange, 2017, 2018; Hutt, 2017; Kruse, 2001). The students have to study alone, and they might feel isolated. Even though they can interact with other students or teachers through chat rooms, e-mails and video-conferencing, it is not the same when compared to social physical interaction, which has a positive impact on selfdevelopment. The lack of physical interaction in the education process might lead to many problems connected with communication, academic performance, or even mental and physical health (Kelly et al., 2021). Additionally, the students might get easily distracted and have problems with being focused and motivated (Nagrale, 2013). Online learning requires a lot of selfdiscipline and good work organization. Another considerable disadvantage is the difficulty staying in touch with the teachers. Even though the students can stay in touch with the teachers through e-mails, chat rooms, or other communicators, if they have problems with some assignments or questions about a lecture, they will not get the answer immediately (Krish, 2008). What is more, explaining something through online communicators is more difficult and time-consuming than doing it face to face. Moreover, some students might have problems with the Internet connection or the complicated nature of technology, which, when functioning improperly, might be a major drawback to online learning (Uhlig, 2002). The numerous advantages and disadvantages discussed above concern online learning. However, they might also concern online teaching, which is beneficial and detrimental to teachers. This year experience of online education has shown that opinions remain divided and planning and preparation should be done for better online learning and teaching.

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3 Online Learning During COVID-19 Pandemic The outburst of COVID-19 at the beginning of 2020 has been one of the biggest challenges faced by education worldwide. Due to the increasing spread of the pandemic, the governments decided to close all educational institutions and continue education online. On the 11th of March 2020, the Ministry of Higher Education in Poland released a formal statement according to which all face-to-face classes should be suspended and, if possible, conducted online. In order to continue online education, higher education institutions decided to use Microsoft Teams, Google Meet, Edmodo, Moodle, Zoom or Skype. However, the decisions were very quick, and there was no time to think about preparations that were required for the transition from face-to-face education to online teaching and learning. Many teachers were left alone and had to cope with the new situation on their own, which, on the one hand, was very challenging but, on the other hand, frustrating (McCarthy, 2020). There is no doubt that the lockdown period had a negative impact on educational institutions and recent research shows that academic organizations have to improve their curriculum with utmost attention being paid to instructional methods and strategies (Manzoor, 2020; Toquero, 2020). Raju (2020) argues that innovative teaching for continuing education has to be adopted with the view of overcoming mental stress and anxieties experienced by the students during the lockdown. Moreover, Mailizar et al. (2020) who conducted a study focusing on the students’ experiences with online learning during pandemic, suggest that in order to understand the teaching–learning process in this crisis period and improve the educational system, students’ voices have to be taken into consideration.

4 The Current Research Bearing in mind the difficult circumstances teachers and students are facing, the present study aims at identifying the challenges of online education from the perspective of University students. Additionally, it aims to determine the ways that online education can be improved. Based on the literature review and the present author’s own experience, it can be assumed that there is a need to investigate the challenges that university students face during pandemic. It is also believed that such a focus seems to be fully warranted since pandemic is not over and online teaching and learning is the type of education we will have to rely on. Therefore, the research questions were the following: 1. 2. 3.

What are the challenges of online education that university students face during the COVID-19 pandemic? What are the advantages and disadvantages of online education? In what ways can online education be improved?

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4.1 Research Participants and Procedure A total number of 130 university students from the English Department at the University of Silesia in Katowice were contacted through e-mail and asked whether they wanted to participate in the research. 109 participants returned the questionnaires: 68 females and 29 males. Twelve students preferred not to indicate their sex. As for the university level, 39 of them were from the 1st year, 19 from the second year, 10 from the 3rd year and 41 from the 4th year. The research was conducted in June 2020 and the students returned the questionnaire within a week.

4.2 Data Collection Instrument The questionnaire consisted of 18 questions concerning online education during the COVID-19 pandemic and 2 questions measuring independent variables such as sex and university level. Fourteen questions were closed-ended, and the students’ responses were measured on a 5-point Likert scale covering the range: strongly agree; rather agree; don’t know; rather disagree; strongly disagree. The responses were transformed into numerical values ranging from 1 to 5 for a statistical analysis. Three questions were open-ended and they concerned advantages and disadvantages of online education, and students’ suggestions for improvement of future online education. The data from the open-ended questions was put into an Excel file under three different categories i.e., advantages of online education, disadvantages of online education and suggestions for improvement. Finally, the answers were examined using the Topic analysis technique.

5 Research Results As far as the data of the current research is concerned, firstly, I will focus on presenting the results provided to the closed ended-questions, and then I will discuss the answers provided to the open-ended questions. The data obtained from the closed-ended questions is to be presented in Table 1. In the case of all statements, the obtained mean (M), as presented in Table 1, equals 21.8 (M = 21.8), and therefore, it will not be repeated when discussing the other data. When describing the data obtained from statement 1, namely I feel that it is difficult to improve my English through online education SD equals 14.1 (SD = 14.1), while S2 equals 201.2 (S2 = 201.2), which indicates that the values in a statistical data set are rather close to the mean of the data set. As for the answers given by the research participants, it can be noticed that the same percentage of the respondents (26.6%) agrees and disagrees with the statement. However, 33.9% chose the answer “I don’t know” which might indicate that at the moment of taking

43.1

44

I do not get any feedback 21.8 15.5 241.7 18.3 from the teacher regarding my mistakes in my assignment/exercise and on how to improve it

21.8 18.1 330.7 25.7

21.8 20.9 437.7 23.9

I have problems with understanding what the teacher is saying during the class

I prefer having online classes because I don’t have to be active

48.6

47.7

45

The teacher does not give 21.8 19.2 370.7 22.9 an immediate answer whenever I pose a question

21.8 16.9 285.7 13.8

I feel that it is difficult to ask the teacher for guidance

29.4

26.6

22.9

21.1

20.2

17.4

20.2

22.9

33.9

3.7

8.3

13.8

11.9

18.3

33

26.6

0.9

0.9

4.6

0

2.8

4.6

2.8

(continued)

1—strongly agree (%) 2—agree (%) 3—I don’t know (%) 4—disagree (%) 5—strongly disagree (%)

21.8 13.3 178.7 10.1

S2

I feel that there is a lack of interaction between a teacher and students as well as among students

SD

21.8 14.1 201.2 10.1

I feel that it is difficult to improve my English through online education

Questionnaire statements M

Table 1 Data obtained from the closed-ended questions

Challenges Faced by the University Students During COVID-19 … 217

SD

S2

21.8 18.5 345.2 22.9

21.8

21.8

There are technical problems when I download the materials

I feel less motivated to learn than during regular classes

I have problems with organising my learning time

6.2

39.2 18.3

37.7 19.3

21.8 15.9 253.7 1.8

There are technical problems during the classes

6.1

41.3

21.8 16.0 258.7 9.2

I feel there is a lack of training for communication skills using the English language

27.5

22

46.8

26.6

11.9

34.9

12.8

13.8

17.4

19.3

15.6

20.2

16.5

23.9

28.4

11.9

40.4

28.4

44

23.9

17.4

16.5

0.9

11.9

5.5

23.9

11.9

1—strongly agree (%) 2—agree (%) 3—I don’t know (%) 4—disagree (%) 5—strongly disagree (%)

21.8 10.4 108.2 12.8

I feel overwhelmed with 21.8 17.7 314.2 0 the number of assignments we are given

I cannot concentrate during online classes

Questionnaire statements M

Table 1 (continued)

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part in the research, the participants were unable to state whether their progress was connected with the online education. The data obtained from statement 2 I feel that there is a lack of interaction between a lecturer and students as well as among students with SD = 13.3 and S2 = 178.7 indicates that the values in a statistical data set are closer to the mean of the data set than the values from the previous statement. It can also be noticed that most of the respondents (33%) do not agree with the statement; however, quite a considerable number of the respondents (29.4%) agree with the statement. Interaction between a teacher and students and students themselves might depend on the type of classes the students had (lectures vs. classes) and many other factors connected with personality, learning styles, and the types of tasks they were faced with. Had the students been from the same year and had the same classes, the results could have been less ambiguous. A considerable number of the respondents who provided the answer to statement number 3 (I feel that it is difficult to ask the teacher for guidance) agreed with the statement (45%), while 20.5% did not know what to answer and 18.5% disagreed. The standard deviation equals 16.9 (SD = 16.9) and the variance equals 285.7 (S2 = 285.7). In this case, variance is high, indicating that the data points are spread out from the mean, and from one another. The data also shows that a considerable number of the respondents feel that it is difficult to ask the teacher for guidance during online classes, which might be due to the lack of physical contact with the teacher and face-to-face communication. As for statement number 4 The teacher does not give an immediate answer whenever I pose a question standard deviation equals 19.2 (SD = 19.2) while variance equals 370. 7 (S2 = 370.7). As in the previous case, the high variance indicates that the data points are considerably spread out from the mean and one another. A considerable number of the respondents (47.7%; 22.9%) agree and strongly agree with the statement, suggesting some communicative problems between the teacher and the students. Only 11.9% of the respondents disagree with the statement. A similar percentage of the respondents (43.1%; 18.1%) agree and strongly agree with the following statement I do not get any feedback from the teacher regarding my mistakes in my assignment/exercise and on how to improve it (SD = 15.5; S2 = 241.7), which is quite surprising as there are many tools available which can be used by the teachers when correcting mistakes. On the other hand, teachers might feel overwhelmed with the online work, and therefore, they might find it difficult to provide feedback to each student. The answers provided to statement number 6, namely I have problems with understanding what the teacher is saying during the class, suggest that there are some communicative problems between the teacher and the students as 44% and 25.7% of the respondents agree and strongly agree with the statement, respectively. The standard deviation equals 18.1 (SD = 18.1), while the variance equals 330.7, suggesting that the data points are considerably spread out from the mean and from one another. Even though the data described above suggests that the students have problems with online learning, the answers provided to the statement number 7 I prefer having online classes because I don’t have to be active are very surprising as 48.6% and

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22.9% agree and strongly agree with the statement. Most of the students prefer having online classes and are happy about being inert during the classes. The standard deviation (SD = 20.9) is the furthest one from the mean (M = 21.8) in comparison to the other data, and the same can be noticed in the case of the variance, which equals 437.7 (S2 = 437.7), and therefore, the data points are considerably spread out from the mean. The data concerning the answers provided to statement number 8 I cannot concentrate during online classes shows that 34.9% agree with the statement, 23.9% disagree and 16.5% do not know what to say. The data is startling when comparing it to the data obtained from the previous statement. On the one hand, a considerable percentage of the participants claim that they prefer online classes, and on the other hand, they state that they cannot concentrate during the online classes. The standard deviation equals 10.4 (SD = 10.4), while the variance equals 108.2 (S2 = 108.2), which indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean. A remarkable percentage of the participants, 44% and 23.9% agree and strongly agree with the following statement I feel overwhelmed with the number of assignments we are given. Only 11.9% of the participants disagree with the statement, and 20.2% have no opinion. The standard deviation amounts to 17.7 (SD = 17.7), and the variation amounts to 314.2 (S = 314.2), which implies that the data is spread out from the mean. The results obtained from recent research on online education and assignments (Crawford et al., 2020; Kaur, 2020) go in tandem with the research results obtained in this study. The students also state that they receive too much homework and feel inundated with the amount of work. When looking at the data obtained from the following statement, namely I feel there is a lack of training for communication skills using the English language, it can be noticed that the standard deviation equals 16.0 (SD = 16.0) and the variance 258.7 (S2 = 258.7). In the answers, 41.3% of the participants disagree with this statement, while 28.4% agree with this statement. Even though some of the participants agree with the statement or do not know the answer, the percentage of the participants who disagree or strongly disagree with this statement is higher, which indicates that communication skills are improved though online education. The next two items aimed at investigating technical problems during online classes and while downloading the materials. In the case of the technical problems during the classes, 40.4% of the participants agree with the statement, and 26.6% of the participants disagree with the statement. The standard deviation totals 15.9 (SD = 15.9) and the variation amounts to 253.7 (S2 = 253.7). As for the technical problems when downloading the materials, a considerable percentage of the participants (46.8%) claim that they do not have any problems, and only around 13% of the participants state that they have problems while downloading the materials. The standard deviation equals 18.5 (SD = 18.5), and the variation amounts to 345.2 (S2 = 345.2), which implies that the data is spread out from the mean. Other researchers (Bozkurt et al., 2020; Miller, 2020; Onyema et al., 2020) also report technical problems as one of the major disadvantages of online education. As for the statement concerning motivation (I feel less motivated to learn than during regular classes), 19.3% and 22% of the participants strongly agree and agree

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with the statement, while 28.4% and 16.5% disagree and strongly disagree. The standard deviation equals 6.1 (SD = 6.1), and the variation equals 37.7 (S2 = 37.7), which suggests that the data points are close to the mean and one another. The data concerning motivation as presented above is not unambiguous, however, recent research shows that students feel less motivated when they learn online due to feelings of isolation, frustrations with technology, and time constraints (Hartnett, 2016; Kaufmann & Vallade, 2020). The final statement concerns problems with organising learning time. As is the previous case, the answers vary considerably as 18.3% and 27.5% of the participants strongly agree and agree with the following statement I have problems with organising my learning time, while 23.9% and 17.4% disagree and strongly disagree with the statement. The standard deviation equals 6.2 (SD = 6.2) and the variation amounts to 39.2 (S2 = 39.2). The data goes in tandem with the data concerning motivation, however, there is one more factor, which might have an impact on organising learning time, namely students’ autonomy. The higher the level of perceived autonomy, the more organised the students are in their learning (Butz & Stupnisky, 2017; Deci & Ryan, 2014; Escobar Fandiño et al. 2019). In the last part of the questionnaire, the students were asked to enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of online education, and provide suggestions for further improvement. The selected answers are the following: Advantages of Online Education I don’t have to spend so many hours at the University and I can spend this time on working on my assignments. Now, we have more assignments and homework but less time is “wasted” on sitting and doing nothing. Moreover, we can decide on how to manage our own time, we can spend 12 h learning one day and the next day, we can do nothing. It is very convenient for people with other responsibilities such as work or professional trainings. Online classes can be very enjoyable :)—students can use their laptops during classes, which improves the accessibility to materials. Some students live far from their universities, so this way of learning is saving their time to get to the university.—when you are not feeling well, you can still participate in classes from your bed ☺; your kitchen is close ☺, the lunch break is usually to short too eat proper dinner at university, you can eat it at home within 40 min :) I don’t waste time on commuting to the university (3 h every day), I have more time to relax, and I don’t have to worry about being constantly observed during a lecture; I prefer to work in my own pace, and not be given strict time span to do something. More flexible timetable, one can choose when to engage in some tasks (i.e., when being tired, one can postpone some activities until the next day). Lectures and presentations are available all semester. I can always go back to them if I don’t understand something and I have a feeling that I learn more. Most of the students, when asked about the advantages of online learning, mention time and time management. In their opinion, online classes help them save a lot of

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time as they do not have to commute to the university every day and spend this time on learning. At the same time, they also save money, as most of them do not have to rent flats, pay for rent, and other expenses. Another essential advantage mentioned by most of the participants is convenience. The students can stay at home and choose when they want to do particular tasks, especially that most of the presentations and lectures are available throughout the whole semester. Finally, the students mention some practical aspects such as the possibility to eat proper lunch, sleep longer and have more breaks to relax. Disadvantages of Online Learning Sometimes students do not take part actively in classes and there are only a few people who are active and answer lecturer’s questions. Sometimes lecturers cancel classes and provide students with materials to analyse on their own, which is difficult and it would take less time to analyse the material with the teacher. Lack of social interaction. Not enough exercises regarding speaking. Some students are not able to print out materials, hence learning/filling out these materials can be really difficult for them. Disruptions during the classes; sometimes students may not hear the crucial points of the lecture. Most of the teachers do not use tools to communicate with students, they only send materials to do on our own, communicating via e-mail is not very efficient and creates a lot of misunderstandings. As we were not prepared how to organize learning only at home, I sometimes have problems with forcing myself to learn. However, I think that the problem lays within the isolation, and that I can’t change the place I work. I can’t meet my university friends and have a real conversation. The participants of the research mention more disadvantages of online learning than advantages. Most of them point to the lack of social interaction, which is the biggest disadvantage, and the lack of interaction of some students during the classes. Additionally, they feel that they do not have enough opportunities to develop their speaking skills, as there are not enough speaking exercises. They also mention technical problems, disruptions, and misunderstandings. Apart from that, they signal that the teachers often cancel classes sending them assignments via e-mail, and as a result, they have to do the tasks on their own, which might be difficult and time-consuming. Finally, some of the participants state that they have problems with organizing their learning time, as there are many other temptations such as watching a film, playing a game, or just relaxing. Lastly, the students were asked about their suggestions for improving online education. The selected answers were the following:

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Teachers need to check students’ emails regularly, as well as to help students relax and think positively in terms of education as we are in such an important and tense period. First and foremost, the most important thing is for the university to make sure that the lecturers have a stable Internet connection and a decent microphone, because those were the most common issues. I think that the lecturers do their best and this current online learning is really well-prepared, but I think that the online learning should only be implemented during the situations like this one. I cannot imagine online learning on a daily basis. Less strict deadlines for different assignments, as we sometimes deal with stress connected with the situation, and it is impossible to be focused all the time. Empathy between lecturers and students, as well as the other way around :) Better insight into what students do in real-time, more communication, materials specifically designed for online education, organizing interest group meetings and special events online, office hours. Offer some additional classes for those who have some problems, encourage students with interesting projects. In the case of the suggestions for improving online education, the participants of the study often point to materials, which should be specifically designed for online education and proper equipment that the teachers should be provided with by the university. Furthermore, they suggest that the teachers should organise some interest group meetings, think about interesting projects for students, and organise additional classes for those who have problems. The teachers should also give less strict homework deadlines, as many of the students feel overwhelmed with the number of assignments they are given, and answer their e-mails regularly. Last but not least is the teachers’ attitude to the students—the teachers should be more emphatic and encourage the students to think positively.

6 Discussion Without any doubts, COVID-19 has had a considerable impact on academic institutions all over the world. Both teachers and students had to adapt to the new situation, which turned out to be very challenging. As the research results show, the participants of the study still cannot say whether their English has been improved through online education probably due to the fact that the research was conducted at the early stage of online education. The same can be said about communication skills—at this stage of the research, most participants chose the answer “I don’t know.” However, the students often mention problems with the interaction during the online classes, which might be due to technical problems, and as Miller (2020) states, the comfort that they cannot be seen and the feeling that they are far away from the teacher and other students.

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One of the factors which has not been mentioned in the previous studies is the teacher himself/herself. In the current study, 45% of the participants agree with the statement that it is difficult to ask the teacher for guidance and that the teacher does not give an immediate answer to the questions. Additionally, 43.1% and 18.1% agree and strongly agree with the statement that they do not get enough feedback from the teacher. When looking at the answers to the question suggesting further improvements, the participants often refer to the teacher who should not be that demanding, but rather more responsive and emphatic. It would be worth conducting similar research among academic teachers in order to find out what the challenges they are facing in online education. They might be overwhelmed with the number of e-mails they need to check and the time spent in front of the screen, especially that their other duties such as conducting research, writing articles, reports etc. have not been reduced. Furthermore, many respondents in the current research state that they cannot concentrate during the online classes and get easily disrupted by other things they have to do at home. Mailizar et al. (2020) as well McCarthy (2020) also report on students having problems with concentration and motivation, which might be caused by the fact that the students spend most of the time closed in their rooms. The students from the current study do not have a lot of problems with motivation as they state that they have a feeling they have more time and therefore can do more things. However, a considerable percentage, especially of the 1st year students, have problems with organising their time. The answer is not surprising, as the 1st year students did not get the opportunity to get used to the university education and therefore might feel lost, especially in the current situation. A similar conclusion was provided by Toquero (2020), who claims that some of the students are not autonomous enough, and that is why they experience more problems in the current situation. When asked about the preferences concerning online classes and face-to-face classes, most of the participants of the current study prefer online classes because they do not have to be active. However, on the other hand, when mentioning disadvantages of online education they often point to lack of interaction with the teacher and other students. Among other disadvantages, they mention misunderstandings and communicating via e-mails, which was also pointed to by Crawford et al. (2020) and Kaur (2020) in their studies. Finally, the participants of the current study agree that technical issues might be real obstacles while learning online, as both teachers and students might not have proper equipment. This situation has probably changed recently as higher education institutions invested a lot of money into proper online tools and equipment.

7 Conclusions and Future Implications Bearing in mind the current situation, it can be concluded that online learning is the only alternative and provides the students of higher education institutions with the opportunity to gain new knowledge and continue their education. However, the

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current study, as well as the studies conducted by other researchers (Dumford & Miller, 2018; Hutt, 2017; Mailizar et al., 2020; McCarthy, 2020), show that there are many challenges that both students and teachers need to face during online education. Students lack interaction, proper feedback, and motivation. What is more, they have problems with organising their learning time and feel overwhelmed with the number of assignments. Even though, there are many advantages of online learning such as convenience, flexible learning time or saving money, teachers and higher institutions need to take into consideration the students’ suggestions for further improvement such as introducing more communicative tasks, organising additional classes for those who have problems with online learning or just showing empathy.

8 Limitations of the Research The interpretation of the above-presented findings is limited by certain methodological constraints connected with selecting and using the research instrument. The study was mainly based on a questionnaire, which did not contribute to its reliability. A recommendable direction for future studies could be the adoption of a mixedmethods approach enabling a combination of quantitative and qualitative tools that would lead to a cross-verification of the obtained results, thus allowing potential researchers to look at the challenges of online learning from a wider perspective. Finally, it has to be mentioned that the limitation of the present research is also connected with the participants of the study—English Philology university students. It would be a good idea to investigate both teachers and students from other Departments (e.g., biology, maths, geography, etc.), so as to receive more data, which could be compared.

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Katarzyna Papaja received her PhD degree in Applied Linguistics and works as an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Linguistics, University of Silesia (Poland). She is a former Deputy Dean for Philology and Business Linguistics at the European Tischner University in Kraków. She specialises in Methods of Teaching English as a Foreign Language and Bilingual Education. She has published widely on bilingual education methodologies (mainly Content and Language Integrated Learning—CLIL). She was a part of the team, which conducted groundwork leading to the publication of Profile Report—Bilingual Education (English) in Poland. She was also awarded scholarships and, as a result, was able to gain teaching experience in countries such as Great Britain, the USA, Germany and Switzerland. She is one of the founders of the international LIF (LANGUAGE IN FOCUS) and FOL (FOCUS ON LANGUAGE) conferences during which she organises special CLIL and CLILiG symposia. Additionally, she has been an editor of LIF Journal published by DeGruyter and a reviewer of a few academic journals published all over the world.