Higher Education in Development : Lessons from Sub Saharan Africa [1 ed.] 9781617355431, 9781617355417

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Higher Education in Development Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

Higher Education in Development Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

Kate Ashcroft Philip Rayner

INFORMATION AGE PUBLISHING, INC. Charlotte, NC • www.infoagepub.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ashcroft, Kate. Higher education in development : lessons from sub-Saharan Africa / Kate Ashcroft, Philip Rayner. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-61735-541-7 (pbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-61735-542-4 (hardcover) -ISBN 978-1-61735-543-1 (e-book) 1. Education, Higher--Africa, Sub-Saharan--Case studies. I. Rayner, Philip, 1947- II. Title. LA1503.A845 2011 378.00967--dc23                         2011028007

Copyright © 2011 Information Age Publishing Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America

Contents List of Acronyms..................................................................................... xi 1 Introduction.................................................................................... 1 The Reflective Approach................................................................... 5 The Process of Critical Enquiry...................................................... 10 Ethical Issues.................................................................................... 13 How Readers Might Use the Book.................................................. 15 Key Themes Within the Book......................................................... 17 Content of the Book........................................................................ 21 Notes................................................................................................. 23 2 The Context for Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa........... 25 Massification.................................................................................... 27 Globalization.................................................................................... 31 Sustainability.................................................................................... 36 The Purposes of Higher Education................................................ 37 Stakeholders..................................................................................... 40 Private Higher Education Institutions........................................... 42 Brain Drain...................................................................................... 44 HIV/AIDS......................................................................................... 45 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)...................................... 46 Conclusion........................................................................................ 48 Notes................................................................................................. 49 3 Managing Expansion......................................................................51 Higher Education and Economic and Social Development......... 52

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vi   Contents

Expansion, Autonomy, and Accountability.................................... 58 Quality and Expansion.................................................................... 60 Graduate Unemployment and Underemployment........................ 61 Managing the Change..................................................................... 63 Sharing the Financial Burden of Expansion................................. 65 Staffing Issues.................................................................................. 67 Higher Education Post-Financial Crisis......................................... 68 Conclusion........................................................................................ 70 Notes................................................................................................. 70 4 Structures and Systems...................................................................73 Diversification.................................................................................. 75 Collaboration and Linkages........................................................... 83 Institutional Collaboration...........................................................83 Structures for International Collaboration........................................ 85 Structures to Support and Monitor Performance......................... 89 Structuring Higher Education Qualifications and Learning...... 91 Accreditation of Learning............................................................... 94 Open and Distance Learning......................................................... 95 Conclusion........................................................................................ 95 Notes................................................................................................. 96 5 Leadership and Governance.......................................................... 99 The Role of National Governance................................................ 100 The Role of Management.............................................................. 105 The Links Between University Management and National Government............................................................................. 106 The Role of University Boards...................................................... 106 Promoting Sustainability Through an Enabling Culture........... 109 Strategic Planning......................................................................... 113 System Support Units.....................................................................116 Conclusion.......................................................................................117 Notes................................................................................................118 6 Higher Education Management.................................................... 119 The Role of Governance and the Executive................................ 120 The Manager as Leader................................................................. 123

Contents    vii

The Manager as a Reflective Practitioner.................................... 126 Management and Leadership Challenges in Sub-Saharan Higher Education................................................................... 127 Policy and Planning as Management Issues in Development..... 130 Herding Cats: Managing People in Sub-Saharan African Higher Education................................................................... 132 Management and Gender............................................................. 134 Ethical Issues.................................................................................. 135 Conclusion...................................................................................... 138 Notes............................................................................................... 139 7 Quality and Standards..................................................................141 Quality Assurance and Control.................................................... 143 Standards........................................................................................ 148 The Link Between Quality, Quality Assurance, and Standards... 149 Approaches to Quality Issues........................................................ 150 Processes to Ensure Minimum Standards........................................ 150 Processes to Measure Volume........................................................... 151 Processes to Rank Excellence........................................................... 152 Processes to Foster Improvement...................................................... 152 The Legacy and Dilemmas of Quality Assurance in Sub-Saharan Africa............................................................ 153 Relevance as a Quality Concept.................................................... 159 Conclusion...................................................................................... 161 Notes............................................................................................... 162 8 Developing a Curriculum.............................................................165 The Discipline Mix Within Universities....................................... 167 Diversity in the Curriculum.......................................................... 169 National Considerations in the Curriculum Mix........................ 170 Ethical Issues in the Curriculum.................................................. 172 Access to the Curriculum.............................................................. 175 The Organizational Framework for Curriculum Development.180 The Organization of Curriculum Elements................................ 181 Formalization of the Curriculum Development Process............ 183 The Relationship Between the Curriculum and the Economy..... 185

viii   Contents

Conclusion...................................................................................... 188 Notes............................................................................................... 189 9 Teaching, Learning, and Student Experience..............................191 Pedagogy and the Student Experience........................................ 193 Pedagogy and New Forms of Learning........................................ 194 Obstacles to Pedagogic Improvement.......................................... 198 Supporting Women Students........................................................ 200 Supporting Diversity...................................................................... 205 Student Services............................................................................. 206 Student Unions and Representation............................................ 207 HIV/AIDS....................................................................................... 208 Conclusion...................................................................................... 210 Notes............................................................................................... 211 10 Research and Community Service................................................213 The Place of Research and Community Service in the University................................................................................. 215 Divisions Between a Higher Education Teaching Institution and a Research University...................................................... 216 The Influence of Ideas from More-Developed Countries on Sub-Saharan African Universities.....................................217 Purposes of Research and Community Service in Sub-Saharan Universities................................................... 220 Problems with Respect to Research and Community Service...... 221 Ethical Issues.................................................................................. 224 The Relationship Between the Research Purpose and Methodology........................................................................... 226 The Role of Supportive Management and Infrastructure.......... 227 Human Capacity Building............................................................ 228 Models for Research to Inform Development............................. 232 The Funding of Research and Community Service.................... 233 Conclusion...................................................................................... 237 Notes............................................................................................... 239 11 Administrative Support Structures..............................................241 Support for Students..................................................................... 242

Contents    ix

A New Paradigm?........................................................................... 247 Managing Budgets and Procurement.......................................... 249 The Process of Change.................................................................. 252 The Use of ICT............................................................................... 255 ICT as Support for Managers........................................................ 257 Management Information Systems (MIS)................................... 258 E-Learning..................................................................................... 259 Conclusion...................................................................................... 260 Notes............................................................................................... 261 12 Conclusions..................................................................................263 Dilemmas: More is Less?............................................................... 265 Dilemmas: Globalism and National Needs.................................. 266 Dilemmas: The Cultural Context................................................. 268 Dilemmas: The Political Context.................................................. 270 Arab Spring.................................................................................... 271 Finally . . ......................................................................................... 271 Notes............................................................................................... 272 Resources..............................................................................................273

List of Acronyms

AAU ACU AIDS AfriQAN AVU ADRC BRICs CEO CIS/VU CHE CHET DIF DfID EAU ECTS ENQA EQUIP ETQAA GATS GDP GER ICT INASP

Association of African Universities Association of Commonwealth Universities Acquired immune deficiency (or immunodeficiency) syndrome African Quality Assurance Network African Virtual University Ethiopia’s Academic Development and Resource Centres Brazil, Russia, India, and China Chief executive officer Center for International Co-operation, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam South Africa’s Council on Higher Education South Africa’s Centre for Higher Education Transformation World Bank’s Development Innovation Fund UK’s Department of International Aid European University Association European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education Educational Quality Improvement Program in Ethiopia Ethiopia’s Education and Training Quality Assurance Agency World Trade Organization’s General Agreement on Trade in Services Gross domestic product Gross enrollment rate Information and communication technology International Network for the Availability of Science Publications

Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages xi–24 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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xii    List of Acronyms INQAAHE International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education IPAGU Pan-African Institute of University Governance ISO 9001 International Organization for Standardization accreditation for quality management IUCEA Inter-University Council for East Africa HERQA Ethiopia’s Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency HECSU Higher Education Careers Services Unit HEFCE Higher Education Funding Council for England HESA Higher Education South Africa HESC Ethiopia’s Higher Education Strategy Centre HESO Higher Education System Overhaul HEQC South Africa’s Higher Education Quality Committee HIPC Highly indebted poor countries HIV Human immunodeficiency virus HRM Human resource management LMD Licence, Master, Doctorat MADEV Management Development Workshop MDG Millennium Development Goal MIS Management information systems NGO Nongovernment organization NICHE Netherlands Initiative for Capacity Development in Higher Education NUC Nigeria’s National Universities Commission Nuffic Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in Higher Education OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OfSTED UK’s Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills PERii Program for the Enhancement of Research Information PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper QAA UK’s Quality Assurance Agency for higher education QANU Quality Assurance Netherlands Universities QIF World Bank’s Quality Enhancement and Innovation Facility SIG Special interest group SARUA Southern African Regional Universities Association SSRs Staff student ratios TB Tuberculosis TDA UK’s Teacher Development Agency TRQ Tariff rate quota UNDP United Nations Development Program UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

List of Acronyms    xiii UNIFY VLE VSO

Science and mathematics foundation program at the University of the North in South Africa Virtual learning environment Voluntary Service Overseas

1 Introduction

What Ethiopia needs is . . . —A newly arrived VSO volunteer Ethiopia’s problems are just so complicated . . . —The same volunteer a few weeks later

Main points in this chapter: ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

Attitudes and skills required for working in sub-Saharan Africa Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Judging “success” and unsuspected consequences The World Bank Development Innovation Fund in Ethiopia The action research cycle The Centre for International Cooperation/VU University Amsterdam (CIS/VU) philosophy of collaboration ◾◾ How to use this book

W

e have lived and worked in sub-Saharan African countries for a number of years, working in higher education at the government level

Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 1–24 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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2    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

and within universities and higher education institutions. During this time, we have seen development workers, volunteers, and consultants fly in and out, some staying a few days, some for years, sometimes as part of a longterm project, and sometimes as part of a shorter program, sometimes individually, and sometimes as a group enterprise. We have noticed each of these groups trying, with varying degrees of success, to improve the quality of education in the country and, often, to promote other agendas, such as good governance and poverty reduction. During this time, we have often noted a disconnect between the knowledge and expertise that development workers bring to the situation and the needs and interests of those working permanently in the country. Very often the ideas are good, the intentions are good, the methods are good, the values are good, but somehow the results are disappointing. Generally, this has not been because of any lack of willingness and interest on the part of the recipients; frequently consultancy missions and volunteers placed in institutions are very highly evaluated by those with whom they work. Very often the changes suggested by the development worker have been enthusiastically embraced, only to wither and die after quite a short time. On other occasions, we have noticed some slower-burning initiatives, initiated through a development intervention, that have apparently sunk without trace and yet some time later reemerge within various contexts, having undergone a “sea change”: the ideas, techniques, and knowledge that have been applied in the longer term have almost invariably been “Africanized,” look far different from those originally presented, and seem to have a greater chance of taking root and effecting longer-term change. We became interested in this process of successfully achieving some deep change and the ways that change might become embedded, owned, and adapted over time. We wanted to tease out what the elements are in the mix of context, ideas, concepts, attitudes, behaviors, and qualities that makes it more likely that a development intervention will (a) be adopted in some form and (b) will then improve the situation. In this book, we are trying to distill our thinking and our reflections so that readers intending to work (or already working) to develop higher education in sub-Saharan Africa might be helped to be a little more insightful about the reality of the dilemmas Africa and its people face and a little more sensitive to the complexity of the development worker’s task. This is what this book is about. We felt that this book was needed to set out as clearly as possible the complex ways that higher education systems are changing, partly in response to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), but also because of a new focus on the value of higher education and its relationship with

Introduction    3

particular countries’ own poverty-reduction strategies. We were also motivated by a strong belief in the importance of higher education in enabling developing countries to reduce poverty. We draw from experiences across sub-Saharan Africa, but focus particularly on South Africa, Ethiopia, and Zambia as representing a range of political and colonial histories. Ethiopia is the only African country not to have been colonized and was until recently a monarchy that spanned millennia; Zambia having experienced British colonialism and a relatively peaceful democracy in recent times; and South Africa emerging to democracy from apartheid and protracted struggle for freedom in the second half of the 20th century. We have undertaken intensive research into parts of the sub-Saharan African higher education system and listened carefully to what those within higher education at every level have to say. We have talked extensively to a range of stakeholders to find out what they expect, want, and need from higher education in a developing country. This book is intended to reflect their voices. It is in part the outcome of numerous interviews of top and middle managers, academic and support staff, and students in each of 26 public and private universities as well as interviews with employers and other external stakeholders. It is also based on insights from studies into the higher education systems of various countries undertaken by us and by others, and of working with staff in Ministries of Education and many universities on areas such as improved management and governance, pedagogy, strategy and policy development, and quality and standards. We draw on our experience of working with and acting as advisers to Ministers of Education and Vice Ministers of Higher Education and as leaders of major sector support units in Ethiopia. We also bring insights from our work in Scotland, England, and Wales, including quality-assurance training with the Quality Assurance Agency for Scotland, senior university management, faculty management, management of teaching and learning, and research and also of senior management in the Higher Education Funding Council for England. We have mediated this experience through the African perspectives and voices we encountered. Over our time in Africa, we heard many people newly arrived say, “what Ethiopia (or Zambia or wherever) needs to do is . . .” and then propound a nice tidy theory—perhaps about land reform, investment in ICT, laws against early marriage, or female genital mutilation. After a few weeks, these people became more thoughtful as they realized the economic, practical, cultural, and resource complications of their prescription and the complexity of the situations for which they are suggesting (easy) solutions. We are particularly concerned to discourage our readers from too-easy assumptions.

4    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

As a result of our observations, we have become particularly interested in the dilemmas these higher education systems face within a context of scarce resources but increasing and urgent demand for a more professionalized workforce and expert services. We realize how important it is to have a book that discusses with some sympathy and understanding the strength of the factors inhibiting development such as historical conflicts, a legacy of colonialism, trade and other imbalances with the rest of the world, cultural attitudes inimical to innovation, the challenges created by poor infrastructure, and the history of authoritarianism and centralized control of many aspects of the economy and public sector institutions. We also realize that it is not just an easy matter of transferring a simplified version of “what works” in more-developed countries to the sub-Saharan context; that systems, ideas, and practices need to be questioned and modified in the light of particular local, national, and cultural situations. More-developed higher education systems are not fault-free, and there is an opportunity for sub-Saharan countries to learn from the experiences and mistakes that have been made during the expansion of higher education in countries such as Britain, the Netherlands, or the United Sates. Working in Africa is a learning experience too, and one that should lead us to question taken-for-granted assumptions that we know what is “right” and what is “the right way.” Sub-Saharan countries cannot wait for higher education systems to grow and mature as they have done in more-developed countries. The first European university opened in 1088, the first African universities opened in the 1820s; Europe has been refining its quality-assurance methods for higher education for nearly 30 years while many sub-Saharan countries still do not have any quality-assurance processes in place. So, sub-Saharan African countries are in a hurry; they cannot wait a millennia for their universities to fulfill their role in helping countries to develop; they cannot wait 30 years before they have effective quality-assurance systems. In the words of a state minister, “We cannot wait so long when we have people starving.” Sub-Saharan African countries need effective and efficient higher education systems in place now to help them address the problems and opportunities of the 21st century. We set out to write a book that is based on and informed by research (our own and that of others), but which is not solely (or mainly) designed to speak to other researchers. We want our book to be both practical and well informed; not to oversimplify the issues that very poor countries face, but rather to explore research and look for lessons from particular reforms in sub-Saharan African higher education that may be applied to other contexts. We draw on case studies of reform in higher education in Africa; the stories of what has been tried, sometimes with mixed success, are useful as a

Introduction    5

means to explore underlying theoretical ideas of development and higher education management and bring these to life so that they can be analyzed and a critique developed about their strengths and limitations. Therefore, in this book, we use actual examples to describe reforms, and from these, develop ideas as to the means to increase the effectiveness of higher education systems as a means of fighting poverty and stimulating economic and social development. Higher education in these countries exists within a context of a hostile international and historical situation that has often influenced the establishment of inadequate democratic institutions, ethnic and political tensions, volatile civil relationships, systems run on influence rather than competence, and a lack of human capacity and modern infrastructure systems. “Higher education” is a term that has many meanings, and although we generally use the term to refer to education within degree-awarding institutions, these might not be universities in name but also colleges, university colleges, institutes, polytechnics, and so on.

The Reflective Approach We approach the issues of higher education in development through the idea of reflective practice. The concept of reflective practice was developed by Dewey and others (Ashcroft, 1999; Dewey, 1916; Zeichner, 1982),1 and its application is based on the notion that development is a multifaceted issue, with layers of meaning and complexity. There is a danger of imagining that some relatively simple intervention, such as a training workshop, will result in changes in behavior and transform the problems of an institution, when in reality, it can only touch the issues that need addressing at the very periphery. Most problems faced in sub-Saharan African higher education involve deep cultural and practical questions. We suggest that it is useful for those who wish to make positive interventions to base their actions on deep enquiry into the development context. Unfortunately, our experience is that there are few simple questions in development and no simple answers, so it seems important that potential solutions are properly problematized. This is not to say that one stands as a helpless bystander until one can be certain of having all the available evidence. Each of us working within the development context must do the little we can based on our state of knowledge and capability, and each of these little interventions, together, may make a real difference. Rather, what we advocate is that such interventions are conducted in a spirit of humility and willingness to learn from those inside of the situation and from those who are more experienced. These insights should encourage a partnership strategy and influence the way to approach

6    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

a problem at each stage; in the beginning, as progress is made and toward the end in the evaluation of actions. Working well within development contexts requires knowledge of the subject (for example, management or pedagogy), but just as important, a responsiveness to the context and a willingness to adapt the approach, the content of actions, and the methods used in the light of an openness to new ideas that emerge from the context. This brings us to the first of our prerequisite qualities for reflection: open-mindedness. Open-mindedness implies a willingness to seek out and reflect on alternate perspectives to your own. These alternative perspectives may be found in the literature or in the development field. Some of them may be discovered just by being approachable; allowing and encouraging people to talk, communicating ideas, and seeking feedback from those who have more experience of development issues, listening, observing, and testing out emerging ideas. This is a good start for development work and is the very minimum for effective action. However, it is not enough. There is also a need to actively research the issues and contexts. This implies a process of critical enquiry into what you are doing, what the effects are, and how people you are working with interpret what you are doing. It also implies that you seek out the wisdom of people who are separated from you in time and space; through reading the research and through discussion (for example, using ICT-based SIGS2). There have been a great many critiques of the development process and those who have worked within in it; some suggest interventions are based on the pursuit of self-interest rather than the interests of those living with the consequences of underdevelopment (see, for example, Hancock’s The Lords of Poverty, 19893). Dambisa Moyo (2009) suggests that aid is in fact counterproductive and produces a culture of dependency;4 Paul Collier (2008), a former director of research at the World Bank, indicates that for the “stagnant bottom billion,” aid is often ineffective and can exacerbate poverty by encouraging corruption and kleptocracies.5 Many schemes set up by the developed countries lead to resources flowing, not into the developing country, but rather back into the donor country. It is common in capacity building for contracts to be awarded to universities or other bodies within the donor country to manage the scheme. Most of the funds might be used to pay for experts sent from the donor country or to the managing body for their administration costs. The less-developed country benefits to the extent that the scheme does indeed increase capacity, though the extent this might happen is likely to be limited by the terms of reference for the scheme set up by the donor organization. However, it gains few of the incidental benefits from spending the donor funds on goods, services, and

Introduction    7

expertise in the country itself. All or most of these considerable benefits accrue to the donor country and the organizations within it. In addition, donors will want to support higher education for a variety of political reasons that might have to do with their own security, maintaining their own sphere of influence, and their own economic markets. This may affect how they support higher education and might mean that the southern partners’ needs are not fully addressed. The priority becomes what suits the donor rather than what the recipient wants or needs; it may create particular problems in capacity-building projects in countries that have little or no capacity in the design of projects. At an individual level, problems can be caused by the (sometimes unwarranted) self-satisfaction that development workers get from having undertaken an intervention that appears to have “gone well.” We hope that this book will encourage you to look deeper into the success of your interventions than, for example, the level of short-term satisfaction expressed by your clients or partners within the development context. In many cultures, people are very polite and will say complimentary things because it would be rude not to, but this does not always reflect the level of satisfaction that they feel or the long-term benefits of the intervention. This brings us to the second of the prerequisite qualities for reflection: responsibility. If you are to act responsibly, you will need to look at not just the short-term responses to your interventions, but to the long-term impact and consequences of your actions. For example, if you have been involved in a short-term training, you might ask yourself the question, “Did the participants learn what I intended them to learn?” This is an important question that bears some investigation, but it is not the central one. Slightly deeper questions exist such as, “Did this learning lead to any changes in participants’ actual behavior and practice?” and (deeper still), “If so, was this change beneficial?” and “Was it the best intervention possible in the circumstances?” The reflective practitioner will undertake enquiries into the longer-term effects of their actions in order to explore the issues of whether the intervention was really worthwhile and whether there were unintended as well as intended consequences. The method we suggest for achieving this understanding is through critical enquiry. The point of this enquiry is to inform yourself so you can become more open-minded and responsible, but also so that you can really learn and develop as a practitioner. Such enquiry-based action is more tiring and difficult than using your taken-for-granted assumptions about what will work, but is likely to lead to longer-term benefits. It requires that you are wholehearted about your continuing learning and development and in examining your

8    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

prejudices and assumptions. Thus, wholeheartedness is the third prerequisite quality for reflective practice. This means that you continually look beyond assumptions of “what works” and “what I know” to explore worthwhileness: you explore the history, meanings, and priorities of your partners in the development process. It means that you are a lifelong learner and continuously engage in a cycle of critical enquiry and reading and updating, and then more questioning. You recognize that you can never be the “expert” from whom others should expect to learn the truth, but only an evermore expert facilitator of development, working with people who have as much to contribute as you do.

Case Study: The World Bank Development Innovation Fund in Ethiopia The World Bank set up a Post Secondary Education Project in Ethiopia in 2004,6 which was designed to support the expansion and strengthening of human capacity in higher education and to lead the transition from an agrarian economy to a service- and production-oriented one by improving university education. A substantial part of this support was through the Development Innovation Fund (DIF). This was designed to stimulate innovation, promote modernizing changes, and reward quality-enhancing efforts within universities. In the mid-term review, it was stated that more than 250 awards had been made, totaling US$19.5 million. In assessing the impact of DIF projects, the World Bank at this time found that university managers viewed them in a favorable light and said that they enabled some problems to be solved. However, the rate of spending meant that 3 years into the 4-year project, only around a quarter of the available funds had actually been dispersed. A year later, the project had been closed and designated “moderately unsatisfactory.”7 Did this mean that the project was a failure, if so what went wrong? From our observation and discussions with World Bank and Ministry of Education officials and others, there appeared to be various problems with the project from the start: the Ministry of Education lacked the capacity to manage the World Bank procurement in a timely manner, and evaluation systems were weak. University managers peer-reviewed proposals from other universities against World Bank criteria, but were overgenerous in their assessments, allowing inadequate and unrealistic proposals to be accepted. There might have been a variety of reasons for this: a culture of politeness and nonconfrontation; the close-knit network of friendships within a relatively small system; or the hope that if they pass others’ proposals, others will pass theirs. Universities also put forward more proposals than they could reasonably manage at any one time.

Introduction    9

These problems were discussed and attempts made to resolve them by experienced World Bank officials and ministers and officials in Ethiopia. These discussions progressed with goodwill, but were ultimately unsuccessful. The problems that were identified were very real, but, it seemed to us, did not get to the heart of the matter. The biggest problem was that Ethiopian higher education was going through a massive expansion during the project period, growing from 8 universities to 22, and each university more than doubling in size. The sector was only just coping. It had no spare energy or attention to give to innovation, however worthwhile. The help given by the World Bank DIF was wrong for the time. Had officials and university managers been asked how they would best spend tens of millions of U.S. dollars to improve quality, efficiency, and effectiveness, they would have been unlikely to opt for an innovation fund. However, when money was offered to them under these terms, they accepted it willingly rather than receive no funds. The World Bank made every effort to ensure that the innovations would support the reforms that the government had planned, and so neither partner saw any of the problems with the approach. However, just at that time, university staff needed help to do what they were doing already on a larger and more efficient scale, rather than help to introduce new things. This case study illustrates how the presenting achievement of an intervention (in this case, university managers assessment of the fund as useful in the midterm evaluation) and its presenting problems (for example, the lack of ministry capacity in procurement), might not get at the heart of the matter (in this case, that it probably was the wrong type of intervention for that particular time). Another central issue that seems relevant is that the World Bank imported a solution that had worked well elsewhere, without full consideration of whether it was really workable and a priority in the new situation. A similar fund had operated very successfully in other parts of Africa, and the World Bank wanted to use this experience to help Ethiopia rather than take a more uncertain approach of creating something custom-made but untested to suit the Ethiopian situation; but Ethiopia was operating within a very particular context, so the apparently “safe” option was in reality riskier. It seems to us that all the partners in this enterprise needed to undertake deeper questioning and gain more insight into the situation. Officials needed to move beyond assumptions of “what might work here” to really think about “what might be the most worthwhile thing to do within this context?”

There are other issues raised by the DIF project that might indicate systemic weaknesses in this approach, such as that the World Bank is a large multinational organization and so has limited ability to respond flexibly to particular situations. The World Bank offered to provide a DIF unit at the Ministry of Education, but this was refused, perhaps because of political reasons or because of national pride. At the time, there was a geopolitical incen-

10    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

tive to support Ethiopia at a time of the war on terror, which might have led to the project being rushed in to show goodwill. It is also very tempting to say “yes” when an organization such as the World Bank offers to lend at a very cheap rate millions of dollars without really thinking through what the effects of such a large influx of money might have on an already overstretched system. Of course, some of the projects within DIF worked to some extent, but probably not as effectively as they should have with the sums of money involved. There is a danger of raising expectations on both sides. Ethiopians seem now to be more wary of donors bearing gifts, and the World Bank seems more wary of investing such large sums in Ethiopia.

The Process of Critical Enquiry We have implied that reflective practice depends upon prerequisite qualities. It also depends upon skills of critical enquiry to really develop an understanding of the context for development. The skills of critical enquiry overlap with research skills but are not exactly the same. We are not implying that you must conduct a research project before you can act, but rather that you engage in a continuous process of collecting information and reflecting upon it when you plan your action, as you undertake it, and when you evaluate its effectiveness. Critical enquiry is particularly appropriate for development work as it is based in reality and provides the opportunity to try out new ideas and solutions to problems. Enquiry is part of the job, and not an “add on.” The enquiry you undertake will often be “quick and dirty”: the idea is not to achieve a perfectly presented research publication, but rather to ensure that you have rapid feedback to base solutions on and to evaluate your actions. The point is that it encourages reflection and further development. Although the enquiry might not meet strict research standards, this does not mean that it has no validity within the context. Enquiry allows you to base your decisions on “primary” information collected from real life. Unlike much research, it is not an analysis of data and published articles, though these may be used to increase your knowledge base. A simplified action research cycle is a useful model for the process of critical enquiry. This involves a cyclical process that may operate through the following steps: 1. Survey the field of action : This implies that you find out all you can about the context for any interventions, for example, by reading published relevant reports, looking at available data, and talking to people. 2. Identify the problem : This is a crucial stage in the cycle. There is considerable scope for getting the problem wrong if the analysis is

Introduction    11

rushed. It is important to collect the views of these within the situation and to reflect on these in order to assess what might be the real problem. From this analysis, you (and those you will be working with) should be able to make an initial assessment of what the underlying problems or issues are, not just their presenting symptoms. This allows you to discuss some preliminary hypotheses that might be modified in each of the stages below as you add to your understanding. 3. Collect and analyze information : Once you have a clearer idea of the problems to be addressed, you can start to look for evidence as to the underlying causes and what might be suitable interventions. Again, this is a provisional assessment that might be modified in the light of further information. The evidence might be in the form of numerical data, but is more likely to be “soft” data gained from talking, observing, and reading that you can validate by triangulation with people who are more experienced in the area and partners you will be working with. 4. Discuss action : You are now in a position to discuss with your partners and make positive plans for how you and they will intervene to help to solve the problems identified. Once you have outlined your ideas, again it is important to talk to those who you are working with to gain feedback as to their appropriateness and their feasibility. 5. Implement action : You can now work with your partners on the implementation phase. It is generally important that you all remain flexible in your approach even at this late stage so that together you can adapt plans to the reality that you will face. In our experience, such adaptation is often crucial to success and depends upon getting continuous feedback from your partners in the field of action. 6. Evaluate action : Evaluation is important to the idea of wholeheartedness that we discussed above. It enables lifelong learning and you and your partners to adapt your thinking, adapt the interventions, and move to evermore informed and effective interventions. It is always tempting to evaluate either those things that seemed to have succeeded or only the intended consequences of your intervention. Because development work by its nature is fluid and changing, it is important to look at changes in intentions as you discover more, unintended consequences, failures, and partial failures. Some of these can be more valuable and relevant to the participants than the original plan, and indeed if you have

12    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

all been really responsive, some of the objectives should change as the result of feedback in action. Failures also are inevitable and can be opportunities for learning so that the next stage may be more effective. It allows you to go to the next stage on the cycle: 7. Reassess the problem, until eventually: 8. Desirable change happens and can be sustained. Critical enquiry employs certain principles that are useful for development work in general. It is based on interpretive assumptions, therefore your own subjectivity and stance must be acknowledged. It is part of the philosophy we are advocating, that it is democratic in effects, and aims to empower all those involved in the process; good sustainable development work empowers participants in the field and allows their voices to be heard and acted upon. The enquiry is directed at solving practical problems and increasing your and your partners’ “wisdom in action” rather than creating generalizable knowledge that can be directly applied elsewhere. In this way, in critical enquiry, internal validity is valued over external validity, and reliability is not a relevant issue. Thus, the form of knowledge produced is very different from that produced by scientific approaches to knowledge, but quite closely related to that produced by action research. This difference may be conceptualized as follows: Practical purpose

Main methods

Forms of knowledge

Scientific research

To give a “proven” base to improve

“Objective,” leading to generalizations

Action research

To improve practice directly through addressing a real problem, suggesting a solution and taking action There is no notion of proof, but rather the purpose is to provide insight into a particular context for action so it can be more effective

Systematic design; large sample, quantitative data; testable hypothesis Cyclical; based on evaluation of data (quantitative and qualitative) collected and discussed

Critical enquiry

Evaluative, describing, analyzing, and improving practice

Action is based on data, Developing and especially “soft” data implementing actions collection, evaluation that address the through discussion and real and perceived reflection. The cycle of problems of partners collection, discussion, in the development and evaluation is less field—“wisdom in organized and tidy action”; evaluation and than that of action improving practice8 research, but is nonetheless continuous and conscious

Introduction    13

Thus, critical enquiry provides a method for analyzing and understanding dilemmas. Dilemmas are inherent in the development process and are often brushed over rather than explored. Critical enquiry is one means of looking at dilemmas in terms of costs and benefits. It takes account of people and their thoughts, feelings, and attitudes, rather than creating a spurious logic about “what should work.” The enquiry process requires consideration of the nature of evidence that might be relevant to the work within that context and addresses the problems in validating conclusions. Reflection Identify a problem in higher education that you wish to solve and that might be in your control as a development worker, e.g., Developing curriculum content to deepen knowledge about and change attitudes to HIV/AIDS in university students Developing and implementing a strategy for encouraging more informal assessment methods in class Working with other academics to identify specific weaknesses in textbooks and to improve them by writing notes, adding illustrations, and developing exercises. Design the outline of a critical enquiry to inform action to solve the problem you have identified using some of the steps within the action research cycle outlined above: ◾◾ Identify information collection methods that might enable you to

“survey the field of action” ◾◾ Identify possible solutions to the problem ◾◾ Identify data collection methods that might enable you to

“evaluate action” How useful do you find this model?

Ethical Issues Ethical considerations are central to the process of critical enquiry and so inform all development work. The ethical issues to be taken into account include the issue of consent. If you are collecting evidence, however informally, you will need to seek out and obtain the consent of all parties to the enquiry and its uses. Since your enquiry is unlikely to be published, this might take the form of an informal discussion where you make clear that you want to find out more about the partners’ perceptions of the problem in

14    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

order to create more appropriate interventions. You will also have to assess your actions so as not to harm any parties. This is not as obvious as it seems; for example, if you advocate affirmative action for female students’ admission to university after collecting evidence of their underrepresentation in the student body, you will also need to think about how such students are to be supported once on a course. If this is not undertaken, these students are likely to fail in large numbers, wasting their time, creating humiliation and shame, and perhaps even causing them to feel they cannot return to their home after having disappointed their families. Thus, an intervention with benevolent intent can cause real harm if consequences are not considered in the planning stage. The ethics of critical enquiry also require that you make confidentiality rules clear. You cannot expect people to open up to you about problems within what are sometimes volatile political contexts unless they can be sure that their comments will not be fed back to those in power. If you do intend to provide such feedback, perhaps to justify your plans, you will need to make sure that your informants are clear about this, and you will need to think of ways to feedback so that individuals or groups cannot be identified. Perhaps the most important ethical issue is to truthfully record “voices.” It is always tempting to “filter” what you are told through the prism of your beliefs and assumptions about what will work best. If your interventions are to operate in partnership and really effect sustainable change, you will need to record people’s views and expectations accurately. This does not imply that you simply assume that these views are the “truth,” but rather that they are part of the reality that you must deal with in your discussions and in making any decisions. In order to take this issue of voice seriously, we have included direct quotations from people we have talked to in sub-Saharan Africa over the years. These quotations all come from people working in Africa, most of them from people living there permanently or for many years. We have found a wisdom and critical insight in their pithy and sometimes acerbic comments from people dealing firsthand with developmental dilemmas, and we hope the reader will find that some of them have a profound meaning and others show an insight into the feelings of those grappling with the day-to-day challenges. All forms of research, including critical enquiry, require you to seek out and honestly declare threats to validity. This means that in your discussion with partners, you should make clear where your plans are based on interpretations of data that can be disputed, and it means that you

Introduction    15

should not overstate your case in order that the intervention you propose is approved. Development work very often involves making an imaginative leap from the problems you are presented with to a possible solution; this is what you might be employed for and is different from merely taking what you hear and reflecting it back to your partners. You are likely to be expected (quite rightly) to listen carefully, collect evidence about problems and solutions, read around the subject, and then envisage processes and ways of working that those within the development context have not yet considered. Thus, the process of critical enquiry above informs but does not determine the actions and solutions that you bring to the discussion.

How Readers Might Use the Book We wrote this book with the intention that it will be of interest to students or teachers of students who are interested in learning about or developing strategies for the improvement of higher education systems and institutions in developing countries. Those working in education development, perhaps within an NGO or as a volunteer in the education development sector, and who want to upgrade their skills and knowledge, should find this book useful too. People who are part of the staff within a university or Ministry of Education, Finance or Capacity Development in a less-developed country and are interested in management and strategic knowledge and skills, should find the book adds to their understanding of the context within which they are working. It should enable them to look at what is happening within similar contexts and how people there are struggling with the same issues. We hope that the reader will reflect upon and develop an understanding of the complexity of the development context. We do not propose simple solutions, but do suggest the importance of developing a deep understanding of the context and the people within it before coming to conclusions. We have written our case studies so that they demonstrate some of the dangers inherent in importing models developed from industry, business, or higher education systems that are operating with very different challenges; but also to indicate how they might be used and adapted intelligently to provide new models and productive ways forward. Nobody can be competent enough to offer solutions or ideas or models that will always be successful, but we can talk about what has been tried and to what extent they have failed or succeeded. We offer suggestions as to how solutions that work may be developed in particular situations and suggest some general principles. The book refers to, and draws upon, relevant authoritative research to pro-

16    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

vide an outline of the complexity of, and the dilemmas inherent within, change and development. Thus, the case study approach is designed to tell stories about actual reforms. We discuss ideas within each particular context and in this way, theoretical constructs can emerge from the practicality of the situation. You can think about how they are problematized and, if appropriate, generalized and applied to other contexts. Within each chapter, there will be issues and questions for the reader to reflect upon, and often we suggest critical enquiry tasks as a starting point. These reflections can be used as a starting point for personal enquiry into your own work or as a starting point for a research topic for the dissertation element of a degree program. Practitioners or lecturers in development studies might use the content sections as information, or take reflective tasks as starting points for capacity development work with their students, clients, or staff. We intend this book to be useful as an orientation tool for people intending to work within the development context or for managers within higher education systems in less-developed countries. Reflection List qualities and skills that you think are essential for development work in higher education, for example: Listening skills Cultural sensitivity —— Talk to someone who is more experienced than you are in working within the development context. What do they think are the essential skills? How is their list similar and different from yours? Think about one of the skills or qualities that you have both chosen as important and decide what it means in practice; how would you behave and think if you were demonstrating the skill or quality? Talk again to your more-experienced colleague about how they would define this skill or quality and what it means to them. Did anything they said surprise you? What did you learn from this exercise?

Introduction    17

Key Themes Within the Book We have identified a set of key themes that will recur throughout the book. These are matters that we have seen recurring as issues almost irrespective of the nature and forms of intervention. Thus, the following will be explored and problematized (as appropriate) in relation to the subject matter of each chapter:

1. Autonomy and accountability 2. Ethical issues 3. Sustainability 4. Managing people and promoting an enabling culture 5. Dilemmas relating to inputs, processes, and outcomes 6. Stakeholder perspectives 7. Access and equality 8. HIV/AIDS challenges

Autonomy and accountability are important issues and create dilemmas throughout sub-Saharan Africa. The countries that have either suffered a colonial past and/or years of relatively centralized rule have particular problems because the systems from which they are emerging were authoritarian. This leaves a legacy of unwillingness to take initiative among the university staff and some reluctance among government ministers and officials to trust universities to exercise freedom responsibly. At the same time, there is often a realization on both sides that modern and effective higher education requires some exercise in autonomy. Powerful donors such as the World Bank encourage greater autonomy as a prerequisite for increases in funding, but the move toward this is can difficult and problematic. The journey depends on adequate systems of accountability, but the forms and extent of these are equally under dispute. Ethical issues are central to effective development. Where there is a climate of low trust, corruption, lack of responsibility, and unethical behavior toward vulnerable staff and students, countries find it harder to develop and alleviate poverty. Most of the countries we discuss in this book take these issues seriously, and part of the work of those intending to intervene within the development context is the consideration of ethical issues and the provision of ethical safeguards. Sustainability is central to much development work. The intention is to create lasting change. Sustainability requires that those who continue to work within the context have the skills and opportunity to continue with the interventions, build upon them, and improve and change them for the better.

18    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

This requires changes in the human capabilities of the partners in the field, but also changes in the culture and context within which they work. Managing people and promoting and enabling culture are always issues in development work. These are contexts of scarce resources, and there is no easy solution. It is also true that within many of these contexts, people are mismanaged, so that the universities do not get the best value for money out of them. Staff are often underskilled, underqualified, and lack motivation. Development workers have to take note of this context and work to improve it if their interventions are to be even marginally successful Higher education within developing contexts always faces dilemmas relating to inputs, processes, and outcomes. Inputs are scarce or inadequate in their quality, and so it is hard to hold people to account for the quality of processes and outcomes. Resources and equipment are also neglected, scarce, and underutilized. How to manage existing resources and increase quality without an influx of new resources is a central development dilemma that will be faced within this book. Stakeholder perspectives are important factors in the development process. Internal stakeholders (staff, students, and managers) have particular interests and needs. Development work often focuses upon these—and quite rightly. However, higher education within the development context cannot operate in the interests only (or even perhaps primarily) of the higher education community. The external stakeholders (such as employers and the community) are the ultimate beneficiaries of the system. Their insights and interests are hard to establish and might be relatively neglected. To fail to take them into account is to miss the main point of the development agenda: the alleviation of poverty. Access and equality remain important issues within sub-Saharan African higher education systems. There is increasing demand for skilled professionals to improve all major sectors such as health, education, and construction. Thus, generally these systems are increasing intake at a faster rate than resources and qualified staff, leading to a variety of threats to quality. At the same time as intake is increasing, inequality in terms of gender, ethnicity, and regional and social background remain problems. This inequality means that a country is wasting talent. In some cases, the drive toward greater equality is driven by a human rights and equality of opportunity agenda. In others it is driven by the need to unravel the legacy of apartheid as well as reduce ethnic and regional tensions that are exacerbated by disadvantage. As in more-developed countries, there are no easy or risk-free solutions to these problems. There are deep-seated cultural, educational, and economic issues underlying the disadvantage, which are

Introduction    19

problems in themselves and that provide the excuse for partners to shift blame and responsibility from their own shoulders. HIV/AIDS presents a formidable challenge to development. It is prevalent among teachers and students, and therefore presents a particular problem for the development agenda in higher education. Talent is wasted, and human losses may accumulate because of a lack of effective action. Even now, there is a lack of openness about the problem; staff and students die, but it might be stated that the cause is TB or pneumonia rather than AIDS. Senior staff might pay lip service to testing but do not set an example by being tested themselves. Staff might fail to see how the issue is relevant to curriculum development or the administrative service they lead. HIV/AIDS is the elephant in the room that is hardest for those involved in the field to address directly and effectively. However, it must be addressed if much development work is not to be wasted through death and illness.

Case Study: The Centre for International Cooperation/VU University Amsterdam (CIS/ VU) Philosophy of Collaboration CIS/VU operates over a range of sub-Saharan countries. Over time, we have observed some common features in the approach taken by CIS/VU staff within capacity-building projects and in project documentation. It seems to have developed a “theory in action,” which we feel able to support. Some of its essential features may be summarized as follows:

Change Management Reform and transformation requires committed management and leadership. Generally, in African countries, the university management is highly committed but needs additional capacity and support to implement the required changes in an adequate way, especially with respect to the exercise of autonomy and accountability. Overcentralized management needs to decentralize; this implies a completely different way of working for the managers involved at all levels and new ways of being accountable. Learning to manage in this way also implies unlearning established behavior that might have built over many years and is evident in the culture of an organization. Changing behavior does not happen overnight, but implies a consistent and long-term approach involving the university as a whole, the management teams, and individuals.

Integrated Model of Institutional and Personal Learning Training activities are not enough to achieve organizational changes. Welltrained staff cannot operate without supportive organizational frameworks.

20    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

Integrated institutional and personal learning opportunities are needed, such as workshops; “working alongside” through coaching and mentoring; modeling; document analysis; systems and structure review; and strategic and operational planning. The approach should not only introduce new concepts but also provide the opportunity for participants to apply these concepts to their own reallife cases. Practical, interactive, and problem-oriented interventions mean that fewer topics can be covered, but they are likely to make more impact than theoretical transmission of ideas through “chalk and talk” approaches. This model of institutional and personal learning does not assume that there exists a theory that can be “delivered” by a Northern partner, “applied” by the Southern partner, or models that can be simply “copied” or learned. Project partners will offer advice and guidance based on learning from across the world only if it is contextualized and focused on the real problems the Southern partners must confront.

Long-Term Commitment Effective management training is not a one-off occurrence, because attitudes and behaviors change slowly. Capacity building can best occur through a coherent and evolving program over an extended period to achieve a sustainable developmental impact. The integration of theory and practice will evolve over time based on the actual experiences of the participants in realizing change projects. A set of interlinked capacity-building events can build on each other, leading to a gradually increasing impact on operations, systems, leadership, and management and will have far more added value than a range of independent interventions.

Alignment with Current Developments Change takes place within the context of a higher education sector that is struggling with multiple challenges and initiatives. A system will have several supporting policies, processes, structures, and institutes, each making particular demands. Capacity-development projects as well as core and support structures and processes already in training in the country need near-perfect alignment to maximize impact. A project should support the implementation of the existing plans. Resources should be combined as much as possible to avoid any unnecessary inefficiency or adding to the burden of what might be already an overloaded agenda for the sector.

Integrating Quality Assurance Projects should adapt and change in the light of experience and changes within the system. In less-developed countries, government policy and processes often change rapidly; people within the system cannot always articulate their needs well at the start of the planning process, and new issues and needs

Introduction    21

sometimes emerge during the project period. For this reason and to maximize learning by the Northern as well as the Southern partner, evaluation and qualityassurance aspects should be part of all stages and for all subprojects rather than an issue just at the later stage in the project.

Reflection To what extent would you subscribe to this philosophy? Are there aspects missing from the outline above that you would like to include? What does the philosophy imply about the behavior, skills, qualities, and attitudes needed for development work? What does it imply for your own learning?

Content of the Book As well as addressing the key themes and approaches outlined above, in this book, we cover different content in each chapter, interspersed with case studies to illustrate theories and concepts, enquiry tasks, and issues for reflection. In Chapter 2, we explore the context for higher education and trends in higher education across the world. We outline models of the purposes of higher education and their influence on its forms and the roles of higher education in a developing economy and society. This leads to a discussion of the challenges and opportunities faced by sub-Saharan African higher education that result from the legacy of colonialism and conflict. We consider the relationship of higher education to the rest the education sector. The implications of the expansion of private higher education and the move from extreme centralization toward institutional autonomy are explored. The opportunities and threats for the system as a whole of these changes are outlined. Chapter 3 deals with the challenges of managing expansion and explores the evidence of the link between higher education expansion and economic and social development. We look at managing the risks of expansion and the forms and rate of expansion in sub-Saharan Africa and their relationship to development and poverty reduction. Chapter 4 addresses structures and systems. We look at the international experience of structures for a higher education system and categories of institutional structure. We explore the trends toward curriculum special-

22    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

ization and potential frameworks for qualifications and institutional and curriculum structures in sub-Saharan Africa. We look at the relevance and potential adaption of Northern models such as the Bologna Process. We discuss the potential for a new ladder of opportunity and a new qualifications structure for Africa. In Chapter 5, we focus on issues of leadership and governance of higher education. We look at the international experience of the roles of government boards and managers. Strategic planning and strategic issues at the systems level and institutional level are explored. In this chapter, we discuss ethics and leadership within the sub-Saharan African system and the development of more active and expert boards. In Chapter 6, we discuss higher education management within the context of international trends in the role of the manager. The challenges of managing change and models of management are looked at in the light of their potential for application to higher education development. The demands of modern management techniques and planning as a management issue in a data-poor environment are also considered. Chapter 7 is concerned with quality and standards. We consider various models of quality and quality assurance, and their purposes. Measurement and control of volume, ensuring minimum standards, rewarding and ranking excellence, and quality enhancement are each analyzed, together with the problems in applying such purposes. Chapter 8 looks at developing a curriculum suitable for development purposes. International experience in developing relevant curriculum, regional demand, and areas of common and distinctive studies between universities are raised as pertinent issues. We explore relevance in the curriculum, pedagogic principles, and qualifications. Chapter 9 looks at the student experience. We consider international trends in student/institutional relationships. The voice of the student and their representation, access and equality, and mass versus the elite system are looked at from the student perspective. We explore pedagogic development as relevant issues in employability and the employment market. Student services and support and the role of higher education in relation to student services are discussed together with the costs and benefits. Privatizing student services and quality of outcome are discussed. Chapter 10 covers the research and community service agenda. We explore the international experience of developing relevant research and consultancy and the relationship between the research purpose and methodology. The rationale for research choices, ambiguities, assumptions, dilemmas, and contradictions in research strategies are discussed.

Introduction    23

Consideration is given to validation, reliability, and ethical issues within the development context. Chapter 11 looks at administrative support structures, particularly the role of the administrative and support staff within the university. We explore changes to university delivery, functions, and effects on the administrative substructure: ICT, open and distance learning, demand for new management data, and new forms of student support. In Chapter 12, we draw conclusions about the nature of a coherent higher education system within the development context and the ways that the higher education institutions might contribute to such a system. We analyze the forgoing chapters for what might be learned about approaches to progress, sustainability, adaptation to the context, and embedding change in the system and in the institution. We look at the role of the dissemination of practice and strategy across the system and finish by outlining some challenges for the future. Reflection What started your interest in development issues in higher education? Make a list of positive attitudes and skills you think you will bring to this kind of work. Look at the summary of the content of this book outlined above. In what areas do you feel that you lack competence and knowledge? What do you still need to learn in terms of skills, attitudes, and knowledge? How might reading this book help you?

Notes 1. Ashcroft, K. (1999). The Creative Professional. London: Falmer Press; Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education, New York: The Free Press; Zeichner, K. (1982). Reflective teaching and field-based experience in teacher education. Interchange, 12(4). 2. http://groups.yahoo.com/group/GenderEth/ Accessed November 25, 2010. 3. Hancock, G. (1989). Lords of poverty: The power, prestige, and corruption of the international aid business. New York: 1st Atlantic Monthly Press. 4. Moyo, D. (2009). Dead aid. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux. 5. Collier, P. (2008). The bottom billion. Oxford, UK: O.U.P. 6. For more information see World Bank http://www-wds.worldbank.org/ external/default/main?pagePK=64193027&piPK=64187937&theSitePK= 523679&menuPK=64187510&searchMenuPK=64187283&theSitePK=523679 &entityID=000104615_20031020162100&searchMenuPK=64187283&theSite PK=523679DIF. Accessed November 25, 2010.

24    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa 7. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64193027 &piPK=64187937&theSitePK=523679&menuPK=64187510&searchMenuPK= 64187283&siteName=WDS&entityID=000356161_20101020000729. Accessed November 25, 2010. 8. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Module 4, Higher National Diploma for Teacher/Educators, Ministry of Education, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

2 The Context for Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa

People think ideology is the final goal, the last outcome. They should know that ideology is only a means to reach the goal. Taking ideology as the final outcome will cause national consensus not to happen. People are not ready to bring cultural revolution. But at least higher education should bring this change. —A deputy prime minister

Main points in this chapter: ◾◾ Gross tertiary enrollments ◾◾ Dilemmas raised by higher education expansion in Ethiopia ◾◾ The development of global networks that include sub-Saharan African universities ◾◾ Post-colonial higher education ◾◾ Higher education and freedom of speech in South Africa ◾◾ Cost sharing ◾◾ Private universities in Nigeria

Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 25–50 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

25

26    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

W

hen you first visit a university in sub-Saharan Africa, one of the first things that you will notice is that it will probably often look very different from a counterpart university in a more-developed country, especially if it is a new university in a relatively poorer country. The stereotype of a sub-Saharan university has, like all stereotypes, an element of truth in it: the buildings will often generally be poorly finished and maintained, with little of the high-tech equipment that is deemed essential in more-developed countries. Libraries might be stocked with multiple copies of standard textbooks, many of which might be quite old, and might be placed in reference sections to be lent out on very short terms. The students might be working in crowded conditions, whether it is in classrooms or the library, seated on plain wooden furniture, sharing books and facilities. Lecturers might be teaching from the front of the class, often dictating factual material for students to write down and learn. Classes are likely to number well over a hundred students with a premium on seats near the front and with students sharing photocopied handouts. A more-positive difference is that students are often much more passionate about being at university than those in more-developed countries. Students will often express a sense of privilege in being at university and welcome the opportunity higher education presents for them to “serve their country.” In many sub-Saharan countries, there can be ethnic tension between members of faculty and between students. Generally, the population of the university will be much more urban, affluent, and male than that of society as a whole. Staff might be coping with poorly devised and often disrupted timetables, lack of technical back-up, and a scarcity of equipment and materials. Management might have to cope with changes in government policies, underresourced administrative facilities and capability, and there might be occasional deficiencies of initiative and/or discipline among staff. Despite these problems however, faculty will often be hardworking, keen to help students succeed, and dedicated to the idea that higher education is central to their country’s economic and social development. In other respects, the university will be remarkably similar to those in developed countries. Academics will gain status from research rather than teaching even if, often, the teaching is more demanding. Faculty will complain about student numbers (too many, too few), the standard of the student entrants, and their teaching and assessment loads. Employers and students will be dissatisfied with the transferable skills such as communication and ICT skills developed in the university. Most of the subjects offered and the curriculum will be similar to those in developed countries, as will the organizational structures, committee systems, and qualification frameworks.

The Context for Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa     27

These similarities result from a shared history often involving a colonial legacy, a professional ethos, and the pressures of globalization. The differences will be the result of the local cultural, economic, and social contexts, and a historical legacy.

Massification One of the key trends in higher education throughout the world is “massification,” a process that has enabled many young people (perhaps like yourself) to be the first in their family to experience higher education. The United States now spends 1% of its GDP on its universities; Nordic countries spend between 1.5% and 2%, and the UK 0.7% (Hutton, 2010; “Topping the league,” 2010).1 These figures look relatively modest, but they disguise a great increase in recent decades in the spending on higher education and the numbers of students being educated. It is estimated that the proportion of adults with higher educational qualifications in the OECD countries almost doubled between 1975 and 2000, from 22% to 41%.2 Altbach, Reisberg, and Rumbley (2009) estimate that currently there are some 150.6 million tertiary students globally, roughly a 53% increase over 2000.3 They calculate that the percentage of the age cohort enrolled in tertiary education worldwide in 2007 was 26%, a rise from 19% in 2000. This rapid growth in the number of students attending higher education courses reflects one of the key transformations to have taken place in higher education in the late 20th century and early 21st century—what is often called the massification of higher education. Africa has seen a particularly rapid expansion of higher education. Between 1985 and 2002, the number of tertiary students increased by 3.6 times (15% pa) from 800,000 to about 3 million; higher education enrollment in various sub-Saharan African countries has grown as follows (Materu, 2007): Rwanda Namibia Uganda Tanzania Cote d’Ivoire Kenya Chad Botswana Cameroon

55% 46% 37% 32% 28% 27% 27% 22% 22%4

28    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

However, the participation rate is still low in most sub-Saharan countries. The average rate in 2006 was 5%, with South Africa among the highest at 15%. This compares poorly with the average rate for Latin America and the Caribbean (31%), Central Asia (25%), and East Asia and the Pacific (25%). The average participation rate for North America and Western Europe in 2006 was 70% (Council on Higher Education, 2009).5 In our experience however, the term massification can be misleading, as it is often used in different ways to describe different scenarios. When we use the term massification, we need to be clear whether we are talking about the scale of the increase or the size of the system. Sub-Saharan Africa can be said to have “massified” its system in terms of the scale of the increase, but it is still relatively small in terms of the participation rate. On the ground, the increase seems very challenging, with class sizes growing, student numbers in many disciplines doubling within a short period but having to fit within the same resources and with the expansion of the numbers of staff trailing behind. Management and organizational structures are generally struggling to cope, and staff often feel that managers are remote from their day-to-day concerns.

Soon every barbershop will be a university. —Deputy principal of a private college

When talking about the size of a country’s higher education system, we often refer to its gross tertiary enrollments, or GER. This refers to the total enrollment in tertiary education regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population in the 5-year age group following on from the secondary school-leaving age. The rates vary considerably across the globe; for example, the Republic of Korea currently has the highest GER in the world—95% of its potential student cohort are enrolled in higher education establishments, while North America’s GER in 2007 was 82%, with Britain and Japan at 59% and 58%, respectively.6 In comparison, the average GER for sub-Saharan countries is much smaller at 6%. However, there has been a rapid improvement in GERs in higher education in sub-Saharan countries in a short period of time; Ethiopia’s GER has increased from 0.5% in 2000 to nearly 2% in 2007, an increase of 400% percent.7 In comparison, the GER of Australia has increased from 65.5% to 77% in the same period, a much less dramatic percentage increase.8 Thus, while Australia has a larger number of students enrolled in higher education than Ethiopia and has had to cope with expanding its higher educa-

The Context for Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa     29

tion system to absorb extra students, Ethiopia has had to build a system from almost scratch. Despite the difference in numbers, both countries can claim to be massifying their higher education; Ethiopia in terms of the scale of its higher education system and Australia in terms of the size of its higher education population. The expansion in sub-Saharan African universities has prompted a debate about the purpose(s) of higher education in a massified system. Generally, it has positive connotations of democratizing higher education, reducing elitism, and opening up higher education to a larger proportion of the population. However, massification does also raise a series of dilemmas; for example, how to fund the expansion; how to address a more diverse student population (in terms of ethnicity and gender especially); how to recruit more faculty and/or adapt teaching methods to reflect the larger size of the student cohort; how to maintain standards; how universities are to be held accountable in an expanded system where old methods of centralized control are no longer possible; what role the private sector should play in this expansion.

Case Study: Dilemmas Raised by Higher Education Expansion in Ethiopia9 Ethiopia’s higher education sector has grown from two public universities just over a decade ago to 22 today, with another 10 due to open. At the same time, the number of students in each university has doubled and is expected to double again. It is estimated that Ethiopia’s GER has increased by 800% between 2000 and 2010. Private higher education has also increased as part of a general liberalization of parts of the economy. The expansion of higher education institutions in Ethiopia leads to more complex organizations, which requires more well-qualified administrative staff than are available. Many administrative staff members have very limited abilities to develop systems to cope with more students. To overcome this problem, the government set up a national review. They adopted a business process reengineering model that requires frequent meetings of and reports from presidents and administrative vice presidents from all public universities; itself a considerable opportunity cost that might or might not prove to be good value in the longer term. Until recently, every university proposed a budget with every line of expenditure agreed-upon with government and very little opportunity for decisions between budget heads without explicit government permission. This centralized Ethiopian system makes local innovation and responsiveness difficult and has

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led to financial constraints and deteriorating conditions of study. The system struggles to achieve more graduates without a noticeable loss of quality. However, there is still a lack of match between employer and stakeholder requirements and the curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment methods. Employers need graduates who display self-confidence, initiative, inquisitiveness, and creativity and who require teaching methods that are difficult with large groups. Faculty find it hard to cope with increased class sizes and rely on traditional teaching methods, which seem easier, increasing the danger of graduate unemployment or underemployment that is inherent in an expanding system. Some Ethiopian universities have received World Bank funds to develop distance and open learning enabled by ICT. Unfortunately, extreme unreliability of the electricity supply and of the ICT network, a lack of understanding how best to use it to support learning, and the problem of providing face-to-face backup in a predominantly rural country make development very difficult; and there have been concerns over the quality of some distance-learning providers. Ethiopia suffers a shortage of academic staff. It is estimated that 70% of faculty in the new universities are qualified only to bachelor’s degree level. The government is trying to overcome the problem of the chronic shortage of qualified academic staff by establishing a massive program of in-country provision of master’s and PhD programs, supported by the more-established universities in the country and foreign universities. Some decentralization of funding has occurred, and plans include a radical change to a system of funding based on university performance, defined by numbers of student completions and graduations in various subject groupings. This change will require more-sophisticated systems for internal decision making, monitoring, and accountability than are presently in place. The expansion cannot be funded entirely by government. Students now make some (limited) contribution to the costs of their programs when they graduate and so they become more demanding. Even so, expansion is stretching resources, so income must be generated from new sources that are not yet fully identified. Shifting priorities in the system presents a challenge for the system. Government sees higher education as an engine for growth, but there is no settled view of how this works. For example, the new universities were expected to focus on social sciences in the first instance and to open science and technology faculties in a later phase of their development. A change of policy required all universities to move their curriculum within the academic year so that 70% of students would study subjects based on science and technology. Thus, the new universities were sent science and technology students before laboratories and workshops were built or staff trained to teach them. The challenges of massification are not going away; population growth and the numbers of well-educated young people leaving secondary school suggest that the demand for higher education will continue to outstrip supply. In

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addition, Ethiopia’s development is progressing fast and is likely to fuel demand for a more professional, university-trained workforce. The Ethiopian government has been courageous in taking forward its higher education expansion program in the face of some vociferous criticism by donors and others. It will need to show equal leadership and determination in the next phase, where its policies must be fully implemented.

Mohamedbhai (2008) conducted a study on the effects of massification in African universities for the Association of African Universities (AAU).10 He points out that massification has numerous consequences for higher education systems, not only in terms of student population and staff but also for the variety of institutions; the range and diversity of courses offered; the demands for reform; changes in governance, structures, and funding mechanisms; as well as the demand for greater accountability; and in particular, the demand for relevance and responsiveness both to the beneficiaries and to societal needs. Reflection Think about the higher education system in your own country; would you describe it as a massified system? If so, in what ways is it massified? What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of the system?

Globalization One of the other main trends in contemporary higher education is the way in which globalization is affecting universities. Globalization is the closer integration of the countries and peoples of the world, which has been brought about by the enormous reduction of costs of transportation and communication, and the breaking down of artificial barriers to the flows of goods, services, capital, knowledge, and (to a lesser extent) people across borders. (Obasi & Olutayo, 2009)11

Globalization is described as a process that increases the flow of people, culture, ideas, values, knowledge, technology, and economy across borders, resulting in a more interconnected and interdependent world. Globalization can present many opportunities for higher education in sub-Saharan Africa; for example, it removes constraints on knowledge

32    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

created by national boundaries by widening opportunities for research and collaboration between academics in different countries. In theory, it increases access to international databases, journals, and special interest groups. However, the increasing speed, efficiency, and ubiquity of ICT technology has seldom kept pace with the demands from academics. For the opportunities of globalization to be realized, sub-Saharan African universities require a significant investment in technology—both hardware and personnel—so they can access these international databases and knowledge banks. Working in a developing country, you will quickly discover that accessing the “information superhighway” can be problematic, as not only does it require good ICT facilities but also a guaranteed supply of electricity and access to a fast, reliable, and sufficient broadband bandwidth. In Africa, less than 7% of the continent’s population have access to the Internet. In Northern America and the United Kingdom, nearly 75% of the population have access to the Internet.12 In more-developed countries, we take a regular supply of electricity for granted, but in many developing countries, outages can be common, perhaps 1 or 2 days a week on a regular basis, or sometimes unexpectedly for shorter periods of time. In some countries, such as Ethiopia, the authorities want to maintain a state control over their telecommunications system, and so there is only one Internet Service Provider (ISP). In some Ethiopian universities, it is not uncommon to have a broadband speed of 2 mbps for a whole campus, a broadband capacity that many domestic homes in the UK would find too slow. While donors seem happy to give funds for hardware such as computers, printers, and servers, they do not seem so keen to fund ongoing costs such as a technician’s salary or the cost of licenses for new or upgraded software. Up-to-date and effective virus protection is also a major problem as slow download speeds and the cost of software licenses means that many computers are so riddled with viruses that they cannot work properly. Donors like to see “impact”; for example, a new computer laboratory where their ambassador can be photographed cutting a ribbon.

Case Study: The Development of Global Networks that Include sub-Saharan African Universities13 The growth in global networks of universities was most marked from the 1990s onwards with the end of the Cold War. Now, it is accepted that universities in different parts of the world need to be closely linked. Sub-Saharan Africa is linked through such organizations as the Association of African Universities (AAU) and the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU). There are many more such networks focused on other parts of the world and some that

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claim to be global alliances but largely exclude much of Africa. Alliances of specialist institutions also focus more on North American and Western European universities and those in East Asia and South America.14 These networks are likely to provide advantages such as ◾◾ A globally focused research perspective among member universities ◾◾ Creating more opportunities for accessing funding than they would be

able to achieve operating independently ◾◾ Facilitating work across disciplines on the global problems

Where sub-Saharan African universities have participated in such global networks, they have not generally found themselves equal players with their Northern counterparts in terms of producing and disseminating new knowledge. Various reasons might underlie this problem, especially the operation of neocolonialism and dependency. In higher education, the powerful academic systems continue to dominate the production and distribution of knowledge. On the other hand, this has not continued to hold back many universities in Asia and Latin America from benefiting from such alliances. There needs to be more research that looks at what sub-Saharan African universities gain from membership in international consortia and the factors that increase those benefits.

Globalization has tended to favor universities in more-developed countries, those who are powerful in determining “what counts” as academic respectability and who have easier access to research journals and other indicators of status because of tradition and language. The form of many sub-Saharan African higher education systems and institutions can be traced back to colonial influences. Even though universities might have been created postindependence, they were largely modeled on Western institutions. Universities from Northern countries, often the previous colonial power, initially opened campuses in several African countries; for example, the University of London in Zimbabwe or Ghana, and French universities in francophone West Africa. One of the consequences of this history is that universities in African countries generally reflect a desire to replicate institutions from developed countries, and that the term “university” is therefore defined in largely European or American terms rather than creating something original that might have been more suited to the conditions and needs of African countries, African knowledge, and African students. This can often be seen in the way that knowledge is organized and the systems and processes that African universities therefore develop.

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When you talk to academics from sub-Saharan Africa, you will discover that some see globalization and the Anglicization of higher education (such as the spread of English-language journals) as a threat to indigenous cultures and to their autonomy. According to Teferra and Knight (2008)15 English, French, and to a lesser extent, Portuguese are the sole languages of research and academia in African institutions of higher education, and virtually all African countries retain the colonial languages as a medium of instruction (even Ethiopia, a country that has never been colonized, has English as its medium of instruction in both secondary schools and higher education institutions). Sudan is an exception in enforcing the use of Arabic as its main medium of instruction in higher education. One of the reasons given for the use of English, French, or Portuguese is that most of the knowledge that is available internationally is found in these languages and that it is too costly to try to reproduce it. It is certainly true at this time that few books suitable for higher education are produced in indigenous African languages, but it is hard to be sure whether this is a cause or a result of the dominance of a few European languages in academia and academic publication. Common language makes it easier for donors and foreign development workers to intervene to facilitate improvements, but it might prove a barrier to understanding the context for learning. Talking to those involved in higher education in sub-Saharan countries, you will discover that this dominance of ex-colonial languages in higher education proves problematic for several reasons; not only for its reminder of a colonial past but perhaps more significantly because of the poor language skills that many students and academic staff possess. Where faculty have difficulty in explaining complex ideas as a result of poor language skills, students will struggle to understand, especially if their own competence in the language is limited. On the other hand, many African universities have to contend with a multilingual, multi-ethnic mix of staff and students who might resent any one of the indigenous languages becoming the official mode of instruction. A European language can be useful as a safer, more neutral mode where there are ethnic tensions. Another aspect of globalization is the increase in the movement of students between countries and institutions. Competition is usually fierce for funds to study overseas. If graduates undertake higher degrees in other countries, they might be handicapped by their ability to communicate effectively, to understand lectures, to write dissertations in a foreign language, so that they might take much longer than average to complete, say, a master’s degree.

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Thus, the notion of a global market for higher education is impacting on sub-Saharan Africa in the opportunity to choose from different national higher education systems. African students increasingly prefer those countries, and those institutions, that have the most prestigious reputations. There is increasing competition between national higher education systems for certain types of international students: those who can afford to pay often inflated fees. North America is most popular as an overseas destination, but Western Europe, particularly France, Germany, and Britain, as well as Australia, have been particularly aggressive in recruiting overseas students, and many universities in these countries are now heavily dependent upon the income produced by overseas students. Other higher education systems, less prestigious, might then lose out. African universities for example, have found it extremely challenging and complex to find their footing on the global higher education stage—they barely register on world institutional rankings and league tables and produce a tiny percentage of the world’s research output. (Altbach, Reisberg, & Rumbley, 2009)16

Recently, universities from northern countries have been trying to establish partnership agreements with Asian universities by opening branches in Asian cities; for example, Australia’s Monash University has recently opened a campus in Kuala Lumpur, hoping to attract Malaysian students to Australia. This trend toward increased internationalization however is viewed with some reservation by some African governments, particularly in relation to the inclusion of higher education as a service under the World Trade Organization’s General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). GATS aims to lower trade barriers around the world and to allow countries to increase trade globally. In 2004, following a regional workshop organized by AAU, UNESCO, and South Africa’s Council on Higher Education (CHE), participants issued the “Accra Declaration on GATS and the Internationalization of Higher Education in Africa.”17 The declaration highlighted concern over the consequences of higher education being included in the GATS agreement. The signatories to the declaration are worried that higher education would no longer be considered a public service; instead it would be categorized as merely another commercial enterprise and that governments then would be required under GATS to give access to their country’s higher education market to organizations from any of the GATS signatory countries. Some are also critical of the way in which European countries are trying to extend the Bologna Process into Africa, seeing it as promoting the

36    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

European system of higher education as a subtle process of recolonization (Obasi, & Olutayo, 2009).18

Sustainability The sustainability of sub-Saharan higher education systems in terms of quality and the employability of their graduates depends upon finding ways to fund them into the future, and developing systems and structures that are as cost effective as possible. Without such sustainable resources, the graduates will be of inferior quality and will inhibit the development of the country and the ability of the universities within it to regenerate themselves and the economy. As someone interested in higher education, you will be aware that following the economic recession experienced by developed countries, there has been an increase in the debate about the purpose(s) of higher education, who benefits, and who should pay. This debate is perhaps even more intense in sub-Saharan African countries where the higher education sector is being massified, where governments are increasingly looking for alternative sources of funding, as they can rarely finance the cost of expansion solely through the public purse. As in more-developed countries, this means that increasingly, students are being asked to contribute to their education, a price that they are expected to pay for the “privilege” of a higher education. Student fees are increasingly making a contribution to recurrent budgets, but vary considerably. According to the World Bank, in Ghana, student fees contributed 31% of university budgets in 2005, but at the University of The Gambia, student fees account for about 70% (Materu, 2007).19 Cost sharing is often met with student resistance, in part because of a lack of adequate mechanisms to ensure transparency in the use of resources and the relationship of these resources to the quality of outputs of higher education institutions. As students and their families are increasingly being asked to shoulder the burden of financing their own higher education, it is important that countries establish an effective and independent quality-assurance system to demonstrate transparency and accountability to stakeholders. Students in sub-Saharan African universities are increasingly thinking of themselves as clients. Development workers need to consider ways to assist universities in adjusting to the changing relationship between themselves and students. Students increasingly ask for “value for money”; that what they pay for both directly (through fees to private universities and through cost sharing at public universities) and indirectly (through other costs such as the sacrifices that they or their families might make to support

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a student through higher education or loss of income while studying) are matched by the benefits that they receive after graduation. Benefits may include good employment opportunities (but graduate unemployment can be a problem for some). Other, more nebulous benefits include greater independence in their intellectual life, greater autonomy in being able to make life decisions, and a better quality of life in general. There is much research, both in developed, as well as developing countries, that indicates that the higher the educational attainments of an individual, the more their life improves in many ways; improved health, longer life, higher income, more security in the provision of basic necessities, etc. (see for example, Hauptman, 1999; Johnstone & Marcucci, 2003; World Bank, 2002).20 Reflection With a colleague, think about what motivated you to go into higher education: The prospect of a better job? A more satisfying career? To learn more and understand the world better? Because all the rest of your family have always gone to university? To what extent did the “cost” of studying affect your decisions of what to study and where to study?

The Purposes of Higher Education As higher education becomes massified, as students are increasingly asked to pay for their education, so discussions arise on what the purpose of higher education should be, especially in developing countries that are investing a large proportion of scarce resources. We contend that the purposes of universities include ◾◾ Questioning, and so the protection of democracy; ◾◾ The creation and transfer of new knowledge and practice; and ◾◾ The creation of today and tomorrow’s notions of professionalism (see, for example, Ashcroft, 2003).21 The first of these, higher education’s role in questioning authority and so protecting democracy and minority views, is perhaps especially important within the development context. Universities sit alongside the judiciary, a free media, and Parliament as one of the pillars of democratic society. Northern intellectuals, irrespective of context, often see the notion of democracy as self-evidently a “good thing.” However, the process of creat-

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ing and maintaining democracies can destroy traditional and effective local systems. In many societies, these structures have already been damaged beyond repair, and so democracy might be the best of a range of imperfect governance solutions available. Even so, within the development context, academic freedom might not be seen as the precious commodity it is in more-developed democracies.

Case Study: Higher Education and Freedom of Speech in South Africa Two media laws have been proposed at the time of writing that will restrict freedom of speech by South Africa’s press. Leaders in the country’s universities who are concerned about freedom in a democratic society see these laws as highly relevant and controversial. The bills are likened by some to apartheid-era secrecy laws and seem inimical to the ethos of the university. The debate is one in which the universities feel they must intervene because the consequences of restricted access to information will affect research and analysis of public policy by the sector. The university is clearly seen as one of the foundation of a just society where power of government is subject to academic and other debate. Critics of this stance see the media as essentially in thrall to capitalist interests and the universities as intent on serving those interests to the extent that they criticize the new laws. There are concerns that the Minister of Education no longer represents universities in their mission of free inquiry and the search for truth. It is interesting that universities see the proposed laws and their threat to freedom of speech as also threatening their own position as one of the cornerstones of a democracy. Their influence is such that there is real doubt as to whether the laws will be passed.

In many sub-Saharan countries, the alleviation of poverty might be a greater priority than the challenging of authority. On the other hand, it is possible to argue, but difficult to prove, that democracy is one of the conditions for developing countries to achieve the alleviation of poverty. Without this proof, the Northern development advisor who insists on imposing their notion of democracy as the “answer” cannot be certain of doing more good than harm. The second of the main purposes for higher education—the creation and transfer of new knowledge and practice—enables universities to challenge orthodoxies; for example, in disciplinary practice and forms of knowledge. It is likely that universities within development contexts will not

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be just about servicing the economy and society as it exists, but also about shaping it into what it could and should be. Part of the job of leaders within sub-Saharan Africa’s universities is to envision other ways of being and new definitions of, and approaches to, problems and issues. Conversely, institutions’ job must also include the upgrading of basic skills and knowledge, and here standards from more-developed countries may be seen as desirable. The problem with Northern models of quality is that they have the potential to take the Europeanization of knowledge further. Experts from developed countries will need to be willing to challenge the orthodox assumptions about quality that they bring with them. Imposing conceptions of the “right” way to study or manage an institution, of itself, leads to deficiency culture and the overvaluing of forms of knowledge in which resource-starved education systems can never excel. The third purpose of higher education is to train today’s professionals and create tomorrow’s notions of professionalism. This implies that subSaharan African university managers should be directly concerned with standards in the economy and society. They have a responsibility to act in morally as well as educationally defensible ways and to influence students and other stakeholders toward notions of professional standards, including ethical ones. For this reason, development workers will need to take a longterm view of the possible consequences of their actions. This third purpose has resonance within the sub-Saharan African context. It allows the conceptions of the “right” way to know and study imported from other contexts to be challenged. Thus, forms of knowledge within the development context might appropriately move away from the notion of applying given knowledge to that of constructing it within the African context. Many countries in sub-Saharan Africa see higher education as one of the engines of development. There is some justification for this. For example, the Global Competitive Report 2009–10 describes 12 pillars of competiveness that help to drive an economy from being a factor-driven economy (one based on raw materials and cheap labor), toward increased efficiency, and finally to one that is driven by innovation (such as is the case of the most-developed countries such as the UK and United States).22 In this model, higher education is seen as the fifth pillar and key for the movement from a factor-driven economy toward an efficiency-driven one. This is exactly the transition that most sub-Saharan African counties aspire to make. According to the Global Competitive Index scores, in this report, out of 134 countries in 2008–2009, Ethiopia ranks 118th, Zambia 112th, and Mozambique 129th. Thus, improved quality higher education and training is crucial for less-developed economies to develop beyond sim-

40    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

ple production processes and products. Sub-Saharan African countries are recommended by the report to develop a well-educated labor force that is able to adapt rapidly to a changing environment.

Stakeholders I feel donors have no influence over government policy and that the minister does not listen to them or respect them. There is no sanction since the donors give in the form of budget support and will continue to do so unless some key noneducation sectors like security or finance go haywire. Education policy is not pivotal to (my) government’s support. —Education adviser from the donor community

Higher education’s purposes relate to the needs of the various stakeholders in education. In sub-Saharan Africa, these include society itself, the academic community, the subject discipline, professional bodies, funders, government, staff, students, employers, and employees. Questions of power are central to all systems. Within the development context, this becomes particularly pertinent. Leaders need to take account of the interests of the primary stakeholders in education within that context; for example, the poorest members of the society, community leaders, funders (including international agencies), and government. Students across the world want to be reassured that their particular program meets certain minimum standards. However, in Ethiopia, when consulted for the Higher Education System Overhaul (HESO) (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2004),23 students complained that courses are too theoretical and insufficiently focused on the world of work or the Ethiopian context. Students generally welcome some opportunity to contribute to the development of curricula, but this does not seem to be the norm in sub-Saharan Africa. Where they are involved, students tend to press for more practical teaching and process-based assessments such as reports, projects, and placements. They welcome more relevant workorientated curricula, which enables them to develop problem-solving and other relevant skills. Reflection Working with a colleague, identify what you think are the key transferable skills that employers require from graduates. Then think about your own degree; what relevant skills do you think you have developed?

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In what ways were these skills embedded in your curriculum? Then look at the curriculum from universities in sub-Saharan Africa. Do they include the development of transferable key skills? What (if anything) is missing? How can these be improved?

Students who pay for their education demand good teaching that allows them to learn effectively and that is supported by an assessment process that is transparent and clearly understood. Students also expect a system that eliminates bias or quirks in marking and ensures no gender or ethnic discrimination. “Good” teaching and learning for students within sub-Saharan contexts are seldom supported by adequate resources such as libraries and ICT centers; other support systems such as tutorials and counseling; and additional support for women students may also be lacking. Parents in both developed and developing countries make sacrifices to give their children the opportunities that they never had (many distinguished academics in the UK are the first person in their families to go through higher education, a result of the massification that took place in the UK system in the 1960s and 1970s). Thus, for parents, value for money is likely to be judged by the extent to which parents and their children’s aspirations are realized, the type of job they attain after graduation, the financial security and status they experience as graduates, and in less-developed countries, the contribution they make to the well-being of other family members.

Reflection Think about your own experiences of studying at university. How much have you had to pay in direct costs (fees, etc.), and how much in indirect costs (loss of income, etc.)? To what extent have you had financial support from your parents or other members of your family? Do you feel a sense of obligation and expectation as a result of this support? To your family? To your country? Will you still be paying for your university education after you graduate? If so, for how long, and will this represent a sacrifice on your part?

It is axiomatic that parents will always worry about the quality, value, and cost of their children’s education, whatever the level, whatever the country. For parents of higher education students in much of sub-Saharan Africa,

42    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

there is now the additional burden of cost sharing; for example, once in employment, their children might be required to pay back a percentage of their education. However, it is often the more obvious and immediate costs that concern parents. If a son or daughter is at university, it is unlikely that they are also in employment and able to either bring in some income to the family home or even support themselves. In addition, they might have to pay up-front fees. Particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where there is still generally only a small middle class that is able to support their children financially through higher education, most students coming from rural families will demand some kind of financial sacrifice from their families. This may be exacerbated by the study of certain subjects, such as certain areas of medicine or science that require the purchase of specialist equipment, clothing, or other items. Sub-Saharan African higher education institutions are generally not in a sufficiently strong financial position to provide these additional items themselves free of charge. Governments are concerned about their interests as representatives of the community stakeholders. They are concerned to see higher education make its proper contribution to the economy and, in sub-Saharan Africa, to poverty reduction in particular. They might influence the curriculum toward the disciplines that can reasonably be expected to aid development such as health, education, and the economy, especially agriculture. There is a trend across the world toward more-refined and rigorous quality-assurance systems focused on stakeholder interests, particularly students and society (in the form of government, parents, and employers). This is discussed in a later chapter.

Private Higher Education Institutions Private higher education institutions are not always competent. A good system of quality assessment is essential. The private sector accommodates more women partly because of flexible hours, but also because they offer a lower intellectual challenge. —Director of women’s support NGO

In many African countries, public investment has not been able to keep up with the demand for increased higher education places, and so there has been a rise in private investment in tertiary education in Africa. According to the World Bank, out of roughly 300 universities operating today in subSaharan Africa, about one third are privately funded. The majority of these have been established since the year 2000 (Materu, 2007).24

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Reflection To what extent do you think financial considerations affect the decisions students and their families in developing countries make about what they study and where to study? In what ways would you help prospective students and their families identify the benefits of a university education? In what ways would you help universities identify the benefits for students and their families of a university education?

Private investment in higher education in sub-Saharan Africa now makes a significant contribution to meeting the demand for higher education, accounting for more than 20% of enrollments in some countries. However, in many instances, there is a distrust of private institutions as profit-driven “qualification mills” and concern that the education offered by these institutions is inferior to that offered by public higher education institutions. There are some private higher education institutions that are keen to show that students can succeed at their establishment, and this is sometimes enabled through a lowering of standards or even attempted deceit. In other cases, this distrust might be ideologically driven, where a left-wing statist government has a distrust of the private sector. In some cases, the staffing and state of facilities in some private higher education institutions raise major doubts about the quality of the education offered, but in others, it is superior to much of the public sector. This is why it is important that countries develop strong and independent quality-assurance systems that can provide objective evidence about the quality offered in public and private institutions.

Case Study: Private Universities in Nigeria25 Private universities in Nigeria were prohibited between 1984 and 1999. Under the present government, the private sector has been expanding rapidly. Various explanations have been given for this: ◾◾ Government regulations facilitate quality: Private universities have to

conform to standards with respect to staffing, finance, establishment of infrastructure, and provision of facilities and services, thus offering students a relatively good experience. ◾◾ Relatively poor performance and conditions in public sector universities: The new private universities have more cost-effective, leaner and more-collegiate systems and governance and so can spend their available funds more effectively on their core functions. They also maintain

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stable academic calendars unlike the (often) disrupted public universities. Private universities represent safe havens of study away from the sort of violence that has been found in the public sector. ◾◾ The growth of demand for higher education from an expanding educated population. ◾◾ Differentiated services offered by private universities proving popular with students: The role of religion in the new private universities is interesting. Religious foundations (Christian and Islamic) own a majority of new universities, enabling investment from the faithful and from church and mosque wealth reserves. Enrollments show significant growth. Presumably, some students prefer to attend an institution with a religious ethos that fits with their own beliefs, but many choose to pay for an education where the teaching and learning environment is superior to that in the public universities and standards (as measured by the National Universities Commission) are higher. This allows the most prestigious private universities to charge fees comparable to those in more-developed universities, though there is considerable variation between universities and disciplines. By investing wisely in the teaching infrastructure, pushing for efficiencies and effectiveness of operation, maintaining student discipline, and developing effective and cost-efficient leadership and management, the private universities are helping to develop a highly competitive sector that should drive up quality and enable the higher education sector finally to be able to make a proper contribution to Nigeria’s social and economic development.

Brain Drain There is a need for outcome-based appraisal systems. On the other hand, there is a lack of qualified staff. Even if we advertise, we do not get any applications because of the brain drain. —A faculty leader in a well-established university

One of the most serious aspects of the context within which sub-Saharan African universities operate is termed “brain drain”—the movement of highlevel experts from developing countries to industrialized nations. It has been estimated that brain drain loses Africa over US$13 billion in income tax and potential contribution to GDP. In 2005, it was estimated that Ethiopia lost one third of its medical doctors to other countries while spending US$53 million annually on expatriate staff (Teferra & Knight, 2008).26 In Ethiopia, the government now provides scholarships to other developing countries such as India, rather than as previously to the United States, Can-

The Context for Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa     45

ada, or Europe, in the hope that more Ethiopian scholars will return home after completing their studies. For many academic staff, a post in a university in the developed world is very attractive; it offers greater financial reward and a higher standard of educational opportunity for their children. Often, when higher education is highly politicized, as in many African countries, moving abroad is a means of escaping political oppression. Brain drain is not just limited to those leaving the country; in-country brain drain can also be a problem as provincial universities in sub-Saharan Africa can often find it hard to retain qualified staff. Often, faculty prefer to work in universities in the capital cities as facilities and opportunities for earning extra income might be better. Larger cities generally offer better health and educational facilites for faculty and their families. Major cities often offer more employment opportunities, and faculty may be tempted to move from the universities to better-paying nongovernmental agencies and private institutions and firms that might be able to utilize their expertise and talent effectively. Nongovernment organizations (NGOs) in particular tend to offer better pay, better working conditions, more staff development opportunities, the chance to improve their foreign language skills, and the possibility of working abroad in the NGO’s home country.

HIV/AIDS You are probably already aware of how important the fight against HIV/ AIDS is. There is often a misapprehension that as university staff and students are “more educated,” they are somehow less likely to be affected by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. This is not true. HIV/AIDS affects university faculty disproportionately and causes the loss of scarce-skilled human capacity through incapacity and death. All 20 of the countries in the world with the highest adult prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS are African, with 9 of the top 10 rates (2007 estimates) in double figures:27 1. Swaziland 2. Botswana 3. Lesotho 4. South Africa 5. Namibia 6. Zimbabwe 7. Zambia 8. Mozambique 9. Malawi 10. Kenya

26.10 23.90 23.20 18.10 15.30 15.30 15.20 12.50 11.90 6.70

46    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

A tracer study in three African countries of students who have graduated since 1980 highlights the impact of HIV/AIDS. “Very sizeable proportions of the oldest (1980) graduates were deceased by 2001 in Malawi (25%), Uganda (33%), and Zimbabwe (18%).” This is comparable to, or in excess of, the graduates who leave these countries through brain drain (AlSamarrai & Bennell, 2003).28 In Mozambique, it is estimated that in a few years time, 8% of teachers will die annually of AIDS-related illnesses. This is more than the number of teachers that graduate each year, so the country will be confronting a declining pool of teachers. Discussion about HIV/AIDS and its prevention can be a sensitive subject in many sub-Saharan countries, and you might encounter resistance or complacency when trying to discuss the issue. To avoid the common error of assuming that the promotion of safe sex (the use of condoms, for example) is something that can be easily undertaken, you will need to gain a good understanding of the cultural, ethical, and religious constraints that surround debates about HIV/AIDS, sex education, gender roles, and family planning. This might be difficult to do, although it is likely that there will be several NGOs working in this field, and they might be able to provide help and advice on what strategies could be introduced into universities.

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) The Millennium Development Goals are an important part of the context for higher education in sub-Saharan Africa as they have dominated most donor activity since their inception in 2000. The MDGs are eight international development goals that all 192 United Nations member states and at least 23 international organizations have agreed to achieve by the year 2015. The MDGs aim to spur development by improving social and economic conditions in the world’s poorest countries. The MDGs are as follows: Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger ◾◾ Target 1A: Halve the proportion of people living on less than $1 a day ◾◾ Target 1B: Achieve decent employment for women, men, and young people ◾◾ Target 1C: Halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education ◾◾ Target 2A: By 2015, all children can complete a full course of primary schooling, girls and boys

The Context for Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa     47

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women ◾◾ Target 3A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015 Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rate ◾◾ Target 4A: Reduce by two thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate Goal 5: Improve maternal health ◾◾ Target 5A: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio ◾◾ Target 5B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases ◾◾ Target 6A: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS ◾◾ Target 6B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it ◾◾ Target 6C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major disease Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability ◾◾ Target 7A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs; reverse loss of environmental resources ◾◾ Target 7B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss ◾◾ Target 7C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation (for more information see the entry on water supply) ◾◾ Target 7D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum-dwellers Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development ◾◾ Target 8A: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, nondiscriminatory trading and financial system ◾◾ Target 8B: Address the special needs of the Least Developed Countries (LDC) ◾◾ Target 8C: Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and small island developing states

48    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

◾◾ Target 8D: Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through national and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term29

Reflection Which of these goals do you think should have the most influence on the operation of a sub-Saharan Africa university in a country that interests you? Discuss your list with someone who shares your interest. Where do you agree and disagree? Choose two sub-Saharan countries and research how successfully they are progressing toward meeting the MDGs. How do you account for any differences in the progress that they are making?

The MDGs have indirectly influenced the way in which higher education has been financed by donors, as donors have made the meeting of the MDGs their priority; for example, by supporting their role in basic and secondary education. The training of teachers and school principals is often one of the primary responsibilities of education faculties in universities.

Conclusion It is often difficult for someone outside a culture to fully understand the context within which decisions are taken or actions happen; there may be language difficulties or you may be outside some of the communication loops where decisions are made and actions agreed upon. Some of these communication loops you might be aware of, others you might not. Often, what can on the surface appear to be an irrational decision, taken out of context, will with further examination and discussion with colleagues who are more attuned to cultural and political nuances, turn out to be understandable and, within the context of that situation, both rational and desirable. As someone who might be working in development within sub-Saharan higher education, it is important that you understand the context for action and to approach development problems with some humility, so you help the actors within the context to find their own answers (using the development worker’s knowledge as a resource), rather than assuming that you can “offer” solutions based on experience gained in a developed society.

The Context for Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa     49

Notes 1. Hutton, W. W. (2010, March 21). Don’t destroy our universities. Our future depends on them. Observer p. 40; Topping the league . . . (2010, September 8). Guardian p. 3. 2. Free degrees to fly. (2005, February 24). Economist. Retrieved 15 June 2011, from http://www.economist.com/node/3690585 3. Altbach, P. G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, L. E. (2009). Trends in global higher education: Tracking an academic revolution. Report prepared for the UNESCO 2009 World Conference on Higher Education, Paris, UNESCO, July 6–8. 4. Materu, P. (2007). Higher education quality assurance in sub-Saharan Africa. Status, challenges, opportunities, and promising practices. World Bank Working Paper No. 124, World Bank, Washington, DC. 5. Council on Higher Education. (2009). Annual report. Pretoria, South Africa. Retrieved November 25, 2010, from http://www.che.ac.za/documents/ d000200/CHE_annual_report_20090929.pdf 6. Gross enrolments at tertiary level. New South Wales Government. Sydney, Australia. Retrieved November 25, 2010, from http://www.business.nsw.gov.au/ aboutnsw/labour/C12_gross_enrolment_tertiary.htm 7. Ethiopia. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Montreal, Canada. Retrieved November 25, 2010, from http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=121&IF_Language=eng&BR_Country=2300. It is estimated that Ethiopia’s GER in 2010 was 4%, an increase of 800% since 2000. 8. Gross Enrolments at Tertiary Level. New South Wales Government. Sydney, Australia. Retrieved November 25, 2010, from http://www.business.nsw.gov.au/ aboutnsw/labour/C12_gross_enrolment_tertiary.htm 9. This case study is based on an article by Ashcroft, K. (2010, September 5). Ethiopia: Dilemmas of higher education massification. University World News, 61. 10. Mohamedbhai, G. (2008). The effects of massification on higher education in Africa. Accra, Ghana: Association of African Universities. 11. Obasi, I., & Olutayo, A. (2009). Globalization, the Bologna Process and African universities: Limits and contradictions of market-oriented higher education reforms. Journal of Higher Education in Africa, 7(1–2), 159–187. Dakar, Senegal: Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa. 12. http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm. Accessed November 25, 2010. 13. This case study is based on an article by Qiang Zha and Kumari Beck (2010). In the Academic Matters blog, The Global Campus. Retrieved November 25, 2010, from http://www.academicmatters.ca/bloggers.blog_article. gk?catalog_item_id=3736&category=/blogger/globalcampus 14. For example, see the British Educational Leadership Management and Administrative Society, http://www.belmas.org.uk/belmas/home.eb 15. Teferra, D., & Knight, J. (Eds.). (2008). Higher education in Africa: The international dimension. Accra, Ghana: Association of African Universities.

50    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa 16. Altbach, P. G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, L. E. (2009). Trends in global higher education: Tracking an academic revolution. Report prepared for the UNESCO 2009 World Conference on Higher Education, Paris, July 6–8. 17. www.aau.org/wto-gats/declaration.htm. Accessed June 18, 2010. 18. Obasi, I., & Olutayo, A. (2009). Globalization, the Bologna Process and African universities: Limits and contradictions of market-oriented higher education reforms. Journal of Higher Education in Africa, 7(1–2), 159–187. Dakar, Senegal: Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa. 19. Materu, P. (2007). Higher education quality assurance in sub-Saharan Africa. Status, challenges, opportunities, and promising practices. World Bank Working Paper No. 124, World Bank, Washington, DC. 20. Hauptman, A. M. (1999). Student-based higher education financing policies. International Handbook of Higher Education, 14 5–146. Berlin: Springer-Science; or Johnstone, D. B., & Marcucci, P. (2003). Cost sharing and higher education in southern and eastern Africa. International Handbook of Higher Education, 30(9–11). Berlin: Springer-Science; or World Bank. (2002). Constructing new knowledge societies: New challenges for tertiary education. Washington, DC: World Bank. 21. Ashcroft, K. (2003). Emerging models of quality, relevance and standards in Ethiopia’s higher education institutions. The Ethiopian Journal of Education, 13(3), 1–26. Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. 22. See http://www.weforum.org/pdf/GCR09/GCR20092010fullreport.pdf. Accessed November 25, 2010. 23. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2004). Higher education systems overhaul (HESO): Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Governance, Leadership and Management in Ethiopia’s higher education system. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Ministry of Education. 24. Materu, P. (2007). Higher education quality assurance in sub-Saharan Africa. Status, challenges, opportunities, and promising practices. World Bank Working Paper No. 124, World Bank, Washington, DC. 25. This case study draws on information reported in Isaac N.Obasi (2006). New private universities in Nigeria. International Higher Education, 45,14–15. Boston College Center for International Higher Education. 26. Teferra, D., & Knight, J. (Eds.). (2008). Higher education in Africa: The international dimension. Accra, Ghana: Association of African Universities. 27. See https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/ 2155rank.html. Accessed June 8, 2010. 28. Al-Samarrai, S., & Bennell, P. (2003). Where has all the education gone in Africa? Employment outcomes among secondary school and university leavers. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex. 29. For more information, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals

3 Managing Expansion

The university should contribute to the conscience of society. It should have a strong historical and ethical base. —A university council member

Main points in this chapter: ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

“Public good” vs. “private gain” The purpose of higher education in Ethiopia Granting universities autonomy Unemployment and underemployment The dilemmas of expansion in South Africa Establishing new universities in Ethiopia

A

s we have mentioned, higher education has been expanding throughout the world, and even the most developed of higher education systems have had to struggle to adapt to the changes in student numbers. More-developed countries have struggled to find sufficient resources to meet this new demand but are relatively well endowed compared with university systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 51–72 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Initially, postcolonial countries tended to focus on the provision of basic and then secondary education. However, as the numbers of students graduating from secondary education increased, and as the research evidence from the World Bank and others started to demonstrate the economic and social returns from higher education across the world, the focus has moved onto higher education (see, for example, World Bank, 2000).1 In the same way that the expansion of higher education has changed the nature of higher education in more-developed countries, so too the increases in enrollments have changed the nature of sub-Saharan African academe in a similar way: from a relatively privileged enclave for the elite, to a more crowded, pressured, and interesting environment. Universities have been under pressure to modernize, and where this has been too slow, they have seen relevance, student completions, and teaching quality decline. Enrollment has included students who are less able and less well-educated than in the past, and the challenge has been to educate these students without a commensurate increase in resources and staffing. African universities are now generally very different places from a decade or two ago, and there is no let up in the pace of change that will be required. The importance attached to higher education as a vehicle for development can be seen by the amount of aid that is provided to support the development of sub-Saharan Africa’s higher education; in 2006 bilateral donors contributed nearly US$3 billion in aid to postsecondary education. Yet, according to a report published in 2008 by the Southern African Regional Universities Association (SARUA), aid to African higher education lacks consistency and coordination.2 Those working in development play a crucial role in ensuring that both donors and recipients feel that the money is being spent in an efficient and effective manner. This is a large task and cannot be done by one person alone, however in this chapter we try to suggest what needs to be done and to explore the challenges of managing expansion and the evidence of the link between higher education expansion and economic and social development.

Higher Education and Economic and Social Development Today, knowledge is seen as crucial to a country’s economic and social development and its place in the global market. Increasingly, economic wellbeing is dependent upon the ability to access and contribute to a worldwide knowledge economy. This knowledge economy has been fostered by globalization, research, advances in technology, investments in education, and a new openness to innovation. Alongside an efficient and effective ICT system, developing human capital is seen as central to sustaining this new

Managing Expansion    53

economy, and higher education is increasingly seen as vital to the development of this human capital. Students must be questioning and not take for granted knowledge as unchanging, but recognize its dynamic nature, and reflect and think about the implications of knowledge for various options. —A government official responsible for ICT and science development

Higher education can therefore be seen as a “public good” in terms of what a vibrant and confident higher education system can offer to wider society. It is also a “private benefit” to individuals who successfully undertake a university education in terms of better employment prospects, increased social mobility, prospects of increased affluence, and attendant benefits (see, for example, “It still pays,” 2009).3 Certain forms of higher education can educate an innovative and highly skilled workforce that is more likely to be entrepreneurial and more able to adapt to changing labor markets. It can nurture the ability to incorporate new technologies and new ideas to solve old problems, to produce new knowledge, and boost production (see, for example, World Bank, 2002).4 Well-educated individuals are likely to earn more and therefore pay more tax; they are also likely to spend and consume more, which again can result in more tax income but also boosts a country’s producers. In England, it is said that graduates can expect to earn £100,000 more over their working lives after tax than teenagers who get a job straight after leaving school.5 Recent research in South Africa found that South Africans who obtain a degree earn on average between 2.5 and 4 times more than people who do not complete schooling, and degree-holders are also 3 times more likely to get a job—an important advantage in a country where more than one in four people are unemployed (Cloete, 2009).6 Reflection Think about the reasons you and your friends decided to enter higher education; was it because of the prospect of a better job and a good salary? Was it to make a difference, or was it because you did not know what else to do?

Until recently, the returns on higher education were mainly seen in financial terms, however recent research suggests that higher education can provide broader benefits such as entrepreneurship, good political gover-

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nance, and increasing regard for democratic processes and institutions (see Bloom, Canning, & Chan, 2006).7 Ultimately, as a section of the population becomes wealthier, it is argued that they will have more of a vested interest in ensuring a country’s economic and political stability. In sub-Saharan Africa, social and economic progress requires more and better trained professionals; for example, teachers to manage the increased participation demanded by the MDGs, and to provide the next generation with a higher standard of teaching. Health workers are needed to work alongside the population to treat and prevent health problems such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, and infectious diseases. As the population grows and becomes more affluent, expectations such as access to doctors and dentists become more urgent. These benefits to an individual’s well-being also have an economic payback: A healthier and better educated population will be more stable and economically productive. Good governance is a basic prerequisite to social and economic development. An expanded higher education sector can produce the kind of reflective and knowledgeable officials and leaders sub-Saharan Africa needs, not just in the capital cities, but also in the regions. Universities can train future lawyers, judges, and decision makers in the numbers that will contribute to the security and justice that allows businesses and people to thrive.

Case Study: The Purpose of Higher Education in Ethiopia In 1997, the Ethiopian Ministry of Education published a document, “Future Directions of Higher Education in Ethiopia,” which played a significant role in the planning and implementation of expansion and reform agendas of the higher education sector. In 2002, both the government’s Capacity Building Strategy and Programs and the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development’s Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Programme, and in 2005, its Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP) identified Higher Education as crucial for the country’s future development. Over recent years, there has been a process of defining what exactly the purpose of higher education is and what benefits it offers in return for the investment of scarce economic and human resources. According to the Education Sector Development Program-III (ESDP-III), the major goals of higher education in Ethiopia are ◾◾ To develop responsible and competent citizens who meet the quan-

titative and qualitative demand for a high-level trained labor force based on the socio-economic development needs of the country.

Managing Expansion    55 ◾◾ To ensure democratic management and governance in Higher

Education systems. ◾◾ To set up cost effective, efficient and results-oriented systems in order

to develop an appropriate range of modern and effective human resources management and resource practices and procedures. ◾◾ To develop the volume, quality and relevance of research and consultancy services which are necessarily directed to the needs of the country (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 1997, 2002a, 2002b, 2003, 2005a, 2005b).8 The 2009 Higher Education Proclamation includes articles related to technology transfer; freedom of expression based on reason and rational discourse; community and consultancy services; participation of stakeholders; institutional autonomy with accountability; upholding justice, fairness and the rule of law; multiculturalism; and the expansion of access (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2009).9 Thus, the massification of higher education can be seen to fulfill various economic and social imperatives. In Ethiopia, over 82.6% of the population is engaged in subsistence farming. Without a substantial middle class to tax, infrastructure investment can only occur through loans. However, in the past, capacity building based on loans led to a substantial debt legacy with devastating effects on the lives of the most vulnerable people. Higher education might be one way of creating a larger middle class. It is also a way for the country to produce the professionals it needs to help the populace to lead more-productive lives: teachers to raise levels of literacy, agricultural and civil engineers to create more productive ways of feeding and providing economic necessities for the population, and health professionals to help combat threats to the health of the population such as HIV/AIDS.

However, the case for the benefits of increased higher education comes at a cost; apart from the question of “who benefits,” there has been added the question “who pays?” The 2000 World Bank report, “Higher Education and Developing Countries: Peril and Promise,” was a seminal work that has profoundly influenced policy priorities for donors and governments in developing countries. The World Bank report concluded that without more and better higher education, developing countries would find it increasingly difficult to benefit from the global knowledge-based economy, as knowledge supplants physical capital as the source of wealth. Technology is driving much of this process, with information technology, biotechnology, and other innovations leading to fundamental changes in the way we live and work. This poses a serious problem for the developing world as, since the 1980s,

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many national governments and international donors have assigned higher education a relatively low priority. As a result, higher education systems in developing countries are under great strain. As knowledge becomes more important, so does higher education. Countries need to educate more of their young people to a higher standard— a degree is now a basic qualification for many skilled jobs. The quality of knowledge generated within higher education institutions, and its accessibility to the wider economy, is becoming increasingly critical to national competitiveness.10

“Peril and Promise” points to an urgent need for developing countries to expand both the quantity and quality of higher education. The report highlights key development issues for higher education: ◾◾ expanding the numbers of students, especially those from disad-

vantaged backgrounds ◾◾ producing a body of students who have attained a general edu-

cation that encourages flexibility and innovation ◾◾ developing a culture of lifelong learning so that students will

keep their knowledge up-to-date and be able to refresh their skills as the economic environment changes ◾◾ increasing the amount and quality of in-country research to create new knowledge

Reflection Read the higher education development plan from a sub-Saharan African country that interests you, and talk to someone with more knowledge of the country than you have. Which of the issues listed above are being actively addressed in the plan? To what extent has the government’s action shown commitment to these issues up till now? What might be the factors that contribute to more successful outcomes? What might be the factors that contribute to failure?

“Peril and Promise” concludes that there are many difficulties in achieving these aims, and that commitment and creativity are key. Visionary leadership, effective planning, good management, and utilizing all capabilities,

Managing Expansion    57

whether in the public or private sectors or the international community are essential for success. Bloom, Canning, and Chan (2006), reviewing evidence about the impact that tertiary education can have on economic growth and poverty reduction in sub-Saharan Africa, conclude that higher education has an important role in technological “catch-up” and in enabling more productivity and output from available resources. They point out that sub-Saharan Africa’s current production level is about 23 per cent below its production possibility frontier. Our analysis indicates that, given this shortfall, increasing the stock of tertiary education by one year would . . . (result) in a 0.63 percentage point boost to income growth in the first year and an income gain of roughly 3 percent after five years.11

Within a context of competing pressures on the education budget, higher education has to compete in terms of value for money compared with other education spending options. It costs something like 40 times as much each year to educate a university student as to educate a primary-age child. With so many children remaining uneducated even to primary level, this means that an expansion of higher education can be justified only if it becomes both more cost-effective and more directly relevant to the developing country’s poverty reduction strategy. When providing financial support, donors such as the World Bank or the International Monetary Fund require a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP). PRSP prioritizes measures to improve the country’s economic situation and are drawn up by national governments. Updated every 3 years, they serve as a country’s road map for addressing the first MDG of reducing extreme poverty. Many countries are also required to complete PRSPs to gain access to the Highly-Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) debt relief. Research conducted in 2005–2006 suggests that except for larger projects in Ethiopia, Ghana, Mauritania, and Mozambique, only about 20 countries mention tertiary education in their PRSPs (see Bloom, Canning, & Chan, 2006).12 In Ethiopia, the government has instigated an economic growth strategy based on agriculture-led development (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2002).13 This is complemented by efforts to enhance overall labor productivity through improved education and health services, to foster an emergent private business sector, and to reform aspects of the civil service. One of the drivers of the present reform is for the country’s higher

58    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

education system to produce graduates with the technical knowledge and research skills to support economic diversification. The students should be prepared for individual leadership, self-motivation and self-reliance. They should be committed to the country. —An UNDP official

Expansion, Autonomy, and Accountability We have noted in other chapters that, as higher education systems expand, it becomes increasingly difficult for centralized bodies such as Ministries of Education to be involved in the day-to-day management of each university. This might have been possible when there were only 5 or 6 universities, but when there are more, then the Ministry of Education cannot micromanage them all. As a consequence, there is a movement throughout the world toward higher education institutions being granted more management and academic freedom and institutional autonomy. In most cases, this autonomy is tempered with increased accountability to the stakeholders of the institutions. Many countries in sub-Saharan Africa are struggling with the tensions between centralized control and academic freedom. Accountability should occur within the context of a country’s overarching political governance and constitution. This has implications for the rights of staff and students and the interaction between them, the university, and the state. It also protects the government’s rights, on behalf of the people it represents, to ensure that higher education meets the economic, cultural, and social needs of the country. In short, accountability aims to ensure that appropriate value is derived from public investment. Higher education’s role in questioning authority and so protecting democracy and minority views is perhaps one of its most important functions in countries in sub-Saharan Africa where democracy is still evolving. Universities sit alongside the judiciary, a free press, and a parliament as representing one of the pillars of a democratic society. This implies that academic freedom is a precious commodity. To protect this institutional autonomy, governments should be distancing themselves from direct interference in funding and quality assessments; for instance, by setting up or allowing “arms-length” autonomous agencies to manage aspects of oversight. This presents a challenge to more-authoritarian regimes.

Managing Expansion    59

Many central governments and their ministries and agents in sub-Saharan Africa are struggling to make adjustments to new systems of accountability and autonomy. Accountability works best where there is a clear and transparent information and communication stream from the ministries to the higher education institutions, and vice versa. All of this requires systems for timely and appropriate information flow that are not always in place or working efficiently. In addition, where government makes demands on higher education institutions, the infrastructure to enable achievement is not always in place. Such infrastructure includes the definition of the extent and limitations of autonomy, guidelines for its application, the logistical planning of resources supplied by the ministry and other agencies to enable targets to be achieved and training and capability development support. This can be an area where the development worker can provide useful support. He or she can also help institutional managers to address the challenge of autonomy, including the engagement in “what if” planning and scenario analysis and to move from a dependency culture where they “ask” the ministry to solve problems, to one where they predict problems and seek and plan solutions themselves.

The UNESCO definitions of academic freedom, institutional autonomy, and accountability provide a useful framework for considering the implications for higher education systems that are in the process, or are about to, grant their institutions greater autonomy (UNESCO, 1997).14 UNESCO formulates the reasons that academic freedom and institutional autonomy is important: The right to education, teaching and research can only be fully enjoyed in an atmosphere of academic freedom and autonomy for institutions of higher education. The open communication of findings, hypotheses and opinions lies at the very heart of higher education and provides the strongest guarantee of the accuracy and objectivity of scholarship and research. UNESCO recognizes the decisive role of higher-education teaching personnel in the advancement of higher education and the importance to the development of humanity and modern society.

UNESCO defines institutional autonomy as follows: Autonomy is that degree of self-governance for effective decision-making by institutions of higher education regarding their academic work, standards, management and related activities consistent with systems of public accountability, especially in respect of funding provided by the state and respect for academic freedom and human rights. Autonomy is the institutional form of academic freedom and a necessary precondition to guarantee the proper fulfillment of the functions entrusted to higher-education, teaching personnel and institutions.

60    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa

Self-governance, collegiality and appropriate academic leadership are essential components of meaningful autonomy for institutions of higher education.

UNESCO also demands that the accountability meets some criteria: Systems of institutional accountability should be based on a scientific methodology and be clear, realistic, cost-effective and simple. In their operation they should be fair, just and equitable. Both the methodology and the results should be open.

Reflection Think about a university system that you are familiar with. To what extent does it conform to these criteria? What are the factors within the development context that make university autonomy and accountability problematic?

Proper autonomy and accountability is not easy for any country to undertake and achieve, especially developing countries where infrastructure and capacity are still being developed and where national governance might be fragile. For example, complete university autonomy is still an ambition rather than a reality for many European countries, according to a survey by the European University Association (EAU) (University World News, 2009).15 The report covers 33 countries and finds that genuine autonomy is lacking in several critical sectors, above all in that of finance. Universities in Europe have less ability to manage their own affairs than is generally realized and (perhaps) less than is desirable.

Quality and Expansion As higher education systems become more diverse, the center has to relinquish some of its powers. It is not possible in a massified system for the centralized state organizations or ministries to be sure of the quality each institution. Massification of higher education in developing countries often exacerbates the problem of a lack of quality-assurance systems. Many universities have ad hoc quality-assurance methods that rely on the individual action, competence, and ethics of each instructor to ensure the quality of their programs and teaching, and to eliminate bias and poor practice. An expanded system needs more checks and balances built in and less reliance on individual effort and knowledge. This makes various demands upon corporate management and governance. These demands also apply to the

Managing Expansion    61

mushrooming of private higher education institutions. The quality of many of these might be good, but often there is little checking to ensure minimum standards of process and output. We discuss these issues of quality in more detail in Chapter 7.

Graduate Unemployment and Underemployment Critics of massification in both developed and developing countries often cite an imbalance in the supply of job openings for graduates and the number of students graduating each year. In the UK, this has been exacerbated by the economic recession; it is common to read articles in the national press about graduates, a year after leaving university, still unable to find jobs appropriate for their level of education. Some 7.9% of students who left university in 2008 were still out of work in January 2009, the Higher Education Careers Services Unit (HECSU) found, up from 5.5% the previous year.16 Underemployment might also be a problem; this is where someone with high skill levels is employed in a low-wage job that does not require such abilities; for example, a graduate working in a bar or an engineer who works as a taxi driver. Another example of underemployment is where a graduate is unable to find full-time work and can only work part-time. One of the problems associated with graduate unemployment is the frequent complaint by employers that graduates are not suitably prepared for the world of work. In Nigeria, research indicates that a large mismatch appears to exist between university output and labor market demand. There is an abundance of university-trained labor, but the most worrisome feedback from employers of Nigerian graduates is just how serious quality deterioration has become. Most employers observe that the qualities of university graduates have worsened. (Adeogun, Oyebade, & Osifila, 2009)17

There is a need for people to design, manage, problem-solve and repair software and systems. The need for generalists is greater than for specialists. —A factory manager

Stakeholder research conducted in 2008 in Ethiopia (see Ashcroft, Meles, & Rayner, 2009) 18 identified vocational and practical skills (e.g., ICT skills) as being especially important for graduates, as well as intellectual skills such as problem solving, critical thinking, and communication. These are given as much, or more, emphasis than knowledge, and have implications

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for the forms of pedagogic training given to instructors. What is particularly interesting is the extent that stakeholders emphasized attitudes and behaviors—ethics, work discipline, gender awareness, HIV/AIDS, and environmental issues seem to be very high up the agenda of stakeholders. They also want to see students able to act as entrepreneurs, creating jobs and productive enterprises. Students who are committed to the rural development of the country and who are able to act as local role models are needed. These are subtle and difficult matters to include in curricula and might need to be an important element of pedagogic training; mere coverage of the issues theoretically is not effective in creating the changes needed. China is often cited as an example of a country where the employment opportunities for graduates have not kept up with the numbers of graduates leaving university each year. It is a common complaint of employers in China that the poor quality of those graduating is a serious problem. In 2005, it was estimated that there were 4 million new graduates entering the job market, and while new employment opportunities are estimated to have grown by 8 million in the same year, most of these would have been low-skilled, low-paid manual jobs.19 It might also be the case that many of the graduate jobs available are in rural areas, and that graduates prefer to stay in the more-sophisticated urban areas and face unemployment or underemployment rather than have employment in a remote rural area with poor infrastructure and limited career opportunities. Governments in countries like China have become wary of having large numbers of young people (predominantly men) frustrated and with nothing to do, as they can be a difficult and volatile force to keep under political control. This can then result in overemployment, the practice in which the public sector or government organizations employ workers who are not fully occupied, creating new posts to “soak up” the graduate pool rather than on the basis of need or economic viability. One of the ways of avoiding this dilemma in sub-Saharan Africa is to try and ensure that the higher education that students receive is linked to employment and self-employment opportunities that are likely to be required in the future. In South Africa, in an effort to ensure that the higher education system produces graduates in line with national needs, the Department of Education set national targets for the proportion of enrollments and graduates by field of study (The state of higher education in South Africa, 2009).20 The targets are 30% for business, commerce, and management; 40% for human and social sciences; and 30% for science, engineering, and technology; but it is unclear the extent to which these targets are based on sound labor-market forecasts. In an attempt to make higher education more relevant to the country’s needs, in 2008 Ethiopia decreed that all

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universities should modify their curricula so that 70% is science and technology based and 30% arts and humanities (Yizengaw, 2007).21 In the short term, this has caused many existing universities extreme difficulties, as they have had to modify teaching accommodation and staff expertise to meet these new targets. It is not clear what benefits will accrue in the future, nor is it clear what research was undertaken as a basis for these calculations. There is too little practical application in degree courses and too much focus on abstract concepts. Students are given no strategies as to how to put their ideas into practice in the workplace. This leads to stagnation as a natural conservatism operates to stifle change. —A senior UNICEF official

Labor market forecasting is a complex task that many developed countries find difficult, and many sub-Saharan countries lack the data or the resources to compile trustworthy forecasts. It can be very difficult to try and gauge what subjects and working practices will be most in demand in 20 years time. The alternative of a laissez faire approach, however, can result in wasting public money that sub-Saharan Africa cannot afford, as graduates study programs and qualifications that are no longer needed or will become redundant in the near future. We found that in Ethiopia, stakeholders appear to be willing to support the universities in preparing programs fitted to the world of work. They are prepared to contribute directly to curriculum development and review, and to offer on-the-job training to students, share their experience and facilities, and even contribute in minor ways to the teaching. Employers can also be a useful resource in the human capacity building of students and faculty and might usefully be seen as (minor) partners in this respect; for example, instructors and university managers’ engagement in job shadowing in local businesses and public sector organizations is one way of helping them to develop the awareness needed to design really practical programs and develop some entrepreneurial awareness and skills.

Managing the Change One of the major tasks facing managers and leaders in higher education institutions is how to manage the many fundamental and substantial changes that are taking place in their institutions and in the sector as a whole as a result of expansion, globalization, and increased autonomy. Managers in sub-Saharan Africa face the challenge of leading the transformation of

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their institution so they can take the positives of massification and ensure that all stakeholders are beneficiaries of these changes. The major drive is to enable and encourage university communities to change and transform themselves so that they can more effectively enhance learning and development, generate new knowledge, serve the community, and empower universities to become agents of positive social change in the larger society and meet the development needs of their country. Exceptional scholars, teachers, or skilled practitioners do not automatically become effective leaders, but in much of Africa, there is little training for the leadership role. Effective change management requires leaders with particular skills, including self-knowledge (awareness of the talents, strengths, and limitations that one brings to the leadership effort); integrity (honesty, consistency of actions with deeply felt values and beliefs); commitment (passion, intensity, and persistence that supply the mental and physical energy to serve); empathy and understanding of others (the capacity to see oneself in the other person’s place, which requires the skill of “listening”); and last, but not least, competence (which refers to the knowledge, skill, and technical expertise required for successful completion of the transformation efforts). Those managing change in sub-Saharan Africa can be distracted by the immediate problems created by sudden and unplanned expansion, so they might neglect the strategic issues of enhancing organizational success and influencing the thinking, attitudes, and behavior of others. Those managing change need to be able to inspire, enable, empower, and educate others. It is not about title or control; it is about impact. Effective change management requires group as well as individual qualities that are mutually reinforcing, but difficult within resource-poor contexts and with overstretched staff. The leadership paradigm is characterized by collaboration, powersharing facilitation, and empowerment, rather than hierarchy and control, which are more common in many parts of sub-Saharan African society. This new view of the world is complex and diverse, mutually shaping and spontaneously changing. Change that is not the work of a single person but a collaborative endeavor among group members does not come naturally in traditional societies, but its facilitation can be a valuable contribution from the development worker. Massification means that many new people are promoted to managerial posts or given additional responsibilities, and they might not be adequately prepared for them. In many higher education institutions in sub-Saharan Africa, especially in some of the newer ones, there are leaders who show

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great talent and ability in dealing with formidable challenges. Others appear to lack the ability to think divergently. Managers need time and opportunity to reflect and a context within which to learn if they are to acquire these skills and qualities. Such reflection involves enquiry into one’s own practice and the collection and analysis of evidence (for instance, about colleagues’ perceptions of the manager’s strengths and weaknesses, the manager’s use of time) These skills and qualities require changes to attitudes (for instance, in the willingness to reflect upon one’s own weaknesses and traditional views); an understanding of what autonomy actually means and the responsibilities it brings; and the realization that the whole environment must facilitate coaching, enabling, and development. Leadership and management structures in sub-Saharan African universities generally permeate several layers, including ministries, boards, university presidents and their deputies, senates, deans, faculty academic committees, department heads, departmental councils, teachers, and learners. Enhancing the capacity of all is a developmental challenge. I am concerned that sufficient qualified staff may not be available for new HEIs. Taking staff from abroad is not sustainable in the longer term. There must be a plan to build local capacity, but using new forms of training that include subject knowledge, pedagogy and world of work focus. An instructor’s “license to teach” should depend upon such training and regular upgrading. —An industry trainer

Sharing the Financial Burden of Expansion Despite the rise in private higher education, the expansion of higher education in many sub-Saharan countries is still primarily financed through the state. As these countries try to expand their higher education sectors, so the burden on the state and the taxpayer increases. Scarce funds are directed away from other important development objectives. As a way of easing this burden, governments are trying to find different funding models. In Ethiopia, it is proposed to introduce a block grant for each university based on outcomes. It is anticipated that as a by-product of the increased autonomy given to universities, there will be more economies and increased efficiencies as universities learn to make their own financial decisions and stop depending on “them” (the state) to bail them out if and when they run short of money.

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Many sub-Saharan African countries provide substantial subsistence and welfare services for its full-time students in higher education. The provision of food, accommodation, and health services can represent a significant proportion of the cost of higher education. Research suggests that, for Ethiopian universities, this represents around 15% of all recurrent costs (Saint, 2004).22 As enrollments rise, so too does the cost of providing these services. As individual universities become larger, so the management effort required to oversee the provision of three meals a day, adequate dormitories, sanitation, and health services become increasingly burdensome for senior management. Outsourcing, a solution used by many universities in developed countries, might not be an option where there are no local or national companies with sufficient capacity or skills to take over these responsibilities. University managers can thus find themselves dealing with issues about the quality of food and hostels rather than dealing with strategic or academic matters. Increasingly, countries are introducing the notion of sharing the costs of education or charging for more services. Sometimes these are paid for by the student or through graduate taxes. However cost-sharing schemes have limited effect, especially in the short term. Poorer students might be discouraged from taking on debt. Cost sharing also does little to ease the management burden of providing these services on a day-to-day basis.

Case Study: The Dilemmas of expansion in South Africa23 The South African higher education system is among the most robust and productive on the African continent and plays a leading role in education in Africa. It epitomizes the dilemma suffered by many developing countries: how to expand higher education, and especially how to increase participation of underrepresented and disadvantaged groups while at the same time keeping the cost to the state manageable. Public higher education in South Africa has recently been “reconfigured” and now consists of 23 public institutions, including 11 universities, 6 comprehensive universities, and 6 universities of technology. Higher education is financed through a combination of state subsidies, student fees, and other sources such as research grants and commercial activities. State funds are still the main source of funding for public universities, although universities are slowly increasing their proportion of income from other sources. An analysis of the sources of income of institutions in 2007 by the South African Council on Higher Education (CHE) shows that on average, 40% of income is from state subsidies and 28% is from student fees. Fee increases are contentious; there have been student protests every year since 2004 over fee increases, financial exclusions, and lack of

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adequate financial assistance, but the capacity of institutions to generate new funding streams is limited. South Africa has a goal of 20% participation by the age range in higher education. Currently, it is around 16% but has shown a small decrease between 2004 and 2007. White students continue to be overrepresented in the system, relative to their proportion of the population, as do students classified as Indian. Black Africans make up 61% of the student population but are 79% of the population as a whole. The proportion of women enrolled in the public higher education system reached 55.5% in 2007. Although all South African students are supposed to pay fees, many default, and there is a high dropout rate, and many leave due to financial problems. It is estimated that 44% of the 2000 student cohort eventually graduated, compared with 78% in England’s 2000–2001 cohort. Most poor students receive statesponsored bursaries and loans. South Africa is seeking new ways of dealing with the problems and shortcomings of higher education expansion, including the following: ◾◾ A new draft higher education policy is to be implemented in 2011–

2012 ◾◾ A working group will review the funding framework next year ◾◾ A second working group will probe the state of student housing, the

need for more accommodation, and how it could be financed ◾◾ Introducing teaching development grants to be distributed on the

basis of actual teaching outputs (graduates) and earmarked funding for teaching development ◾◾ Targeting ways to improve the success and graduation rates of disadvantaged students.24

Staffing Issues Another common trend in sub-Saharan Africa is the deterioration in lecturers’ conditions of study and research as enrollments rise faster than the institution’s income. A move away from tenure toward part-time employment of academic staff is common. Staff student ratios (SSRs), academic salaries, and morale have deteriorated. The school-leavers coming into higher education might be less well-prepared, therefore universities have to provide remedial teaching to address gaps in school-level education and to develop basic literacy and numeracy skills, increasing the teaching burden on staff. These problems make it difficult to recruit staff to some sub-Saharan African higher education institutions, especially those outside the main urban areas, because graduates, especially those with higher degrees, are

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also in demand by the private and government sectors. Experienced faculty might be recruited into managerial positions in new institutions, thus weakening the older universities. Staff in higher education institutions experience major changes in the nature of their work with increased teaching and administrative workloads, a rapidly changing student body, pressure to transform curricula and teaching practices, as well as the increasing expectation to seek outside funding. At the same time, their salaries might not keep up with inflation, encouraging (or forcing) them to moonlight in second jobs. Our teachers are underqualified. They don’t have PhDs and experience of industry. —A student representative They go to Moscow and after 4 years come back with a PhD in potato harvesting. —Vice president, private university

Higher Education Post-Financial Crisis As the world becomes more globalized, countries have felt the effects of the economic downturn, albeit in different ways and with different consequences. One consequence is a speeding up of the shift in the global financial paradigm based on a rich “first world” philanthropy aimed at helping poorer “third world” countries. According to the World Bank, developing countries have contributed almost all of what recent economic growth there has been (In 1980, they accounted for 33.7% of economic income; in 2010, it was 43.3%) (Seeing the world differently, 2010).25 Markets in developing countries are now important as trading partners for the developed countries, helping them to grow out of recession. Brazil, Russia, India, and China (the so-called BRICs) are now aid donors as well as, in some cases, aid beneficiaries. Higher education in sub-Saharan Africa is still highly dependant on government funding and direct budget support from donors. Both of these sources of funds are threatened by tightening fiscal circumstances caused by the global downturn. Although in 2005, the G8 countries pledged to raise aid budgets to 0.7% of GNP by 2015, the average EU figure in 2009 was only 0.42%, with the Netherlands and Sweden as the only countries to achieve, and exceed, the 0.7% target (Waylaid, 2010).26 Probably in fu-

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ture years, even this funding will be severely reduced as a result of the economic crisis; for example, at the time of writing, the UK’s Department of International Aid (DfID), although still committed to the 0.7% target, has announced a “review” of its priorities so as to make British aid “more effective in reducing poverty through improved transparency and value for money,”27 and the NICHE project in the Netherlands has had a “commitment freeze” pending a government financial review.28 Money from the diaspora is also likely to become more scarce as people abroad lose their jobs and worry about their own security. Ironically, demand for university education might increase at a time of financial recession as more young people delay starting their careers. As students are required to pay for more of their university education, and as they receive less assistance with the costs from relatives abroad, so they will expect programs to be more directly focused on their needs, usually expressed in terms of “guaranteeing a good job” and as the government focuses more on vocational qualifications so the nature of what “higher education” means will change. It might be that it is time for the notion of the traditional university to evolve into something more oriented to the needs of sub-Saharan Africa, but the danger is that change will be made in the name of financial expediency and without any informed debate about quality and relevance. The expansion of higher education often serves national purposes that go beyond the economic. It can be a useful method for nation building and promoting regional pride in a way that also reinforces national loyalty. The case study below illustrates this.

Case Study: Establishing New Universities in Ethiopia In 2004, the Federal Republic of Ethiopia established 12 new public universities in addition to the existing 9. They admitted their first cohort of students in 2007. The locations for the 12 new universities were selected on the basis of a number of criteria, which largely took into account equity in geographic distribution relative to population and area, presumed size of the town in terms of population, accessibility, and the possibility of providing some services to students and staff of the institutions being established. They were not necessarily located in regions where the services would be easy and cheap to provide and where there was a ready supply of eager and well-qualified entrants and staff. In fact, some of the universities were located in towns such as Semera and Jijiga, which had barely any infrastructure in terms of transport, ICT linkages, and security of water and electricity supply. Some of these towns had civil security problems and a barely functioning secondary school system. The idea was to take students from all around the

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country and educate them together so that ethnic divisions would break down. It was also hoped that some of these students would develop a liking for their new environments and stay on to contribute to the region after graduation. Thus, while some institutions built upon existing infrastructure and a number of years of teaching experience, many institutions were established from scratch. The government not only wanted to increase the size of its higher education sector but it also wanted to use these new universities as economic drivers for the local communities and for national unity. Partly as a concession to local civic pride (local politicians wanted a “proper” university), it was decided that all of the new regional universities would be “comprehensive” universities, offering a full range of programs rather than specializing in particular subject areas that could have reflected local interests and specialisms. By building a university in a hitherto small market town, the university would bring in new economic activity through the provision of goods and services to both the university staff and the students. We observed over a very short period of time the development of infrastructure needed to service a university: new hotels to accommodate visitors and parents as well as restaurants and cafés. New roads were also built and the communications infrastructure improved. Local people expressed great pride in their new university and welcomed the development. However, some staff and students expressed dismay at the lack of infrastructure and facilities in some of the more remote locations.

Conclusion There is much to be done if sub-Saharan African countries are to develop effective and efficient higher education systems. Aid alone will not be sufficient; it is how that aid is used, to what ends and with what (long-term) effect that is important. In this chapter, we have outlined what we think are the main issues in relation to managing the current expansion that is taking place in sub-Saharan Africa. You as a development worker will be one of the many people who will be responsible for the setting of targets, the implementation of plans, the allocating of resources, and the monitoring and evaluation of the success (or otherwise) of projects. This perhaps appears to be a rather daunting task, but if successful, it will have a positive effect on many peoples’ lives. That is one of the joys of development work as well as one of its challenges.

Notes 1. World Bank. (2000). Higher education in developing countries: Peril and promise. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Managing Expansion    71 2. Southern African Regional Universities Association (SARUA). (2008). Mainstreaming higher education in national and regional development in Southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa. 3. It still pays to study. (2009, October 12). Economist. Accessed 15 June 2011, http://www.economist.com/node/14428647 4. World Bank. (2002). Constructing knowledge societies: New challenges for tertiary education. Washington, DC: World Bank. 5. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/8556307.stm. Accessed June 21, 2010. 6. Cloete, N. (2009). Responding to the educational needs of post-school youth: Determining the scope of the problem and developing a capacity-building model. Wynberg, South Africa: CHET/ African Minds. 7. Bloom, D., Canning, D., & Chan, K. (2006). Higher education and economic development in Africa. Boston: Harvard University. 8. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (1997). Future directions of higher education in Ethiopia; (2002a) Capacity building strategy and program; (2002b). Sustainable development and poverty reduction programme; (2003). Proclamation No. 351/2003 Higher Education Proclamation; (2005a). Education Sector Development Program III (ESDP III); (2005b). Plan for accelerated and sustained development to end poverty (PASDEP). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 9. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2009). Proclamation No. 650/2009 Higher Education Proclamation. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 10. http://www.tfhe.net/report/overview.htm. Accessed June 7, 2010. 11. Bloom, D., Canning, D., & Chan, K. (2006). Higher education and economic development in Africa. Boston: Harvard University. 12. See Bloom, D., Canning, D., & Chan, K. (2006). Higher education and economic development in Africa. Boston: Harvard University. 13. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2002). Sustainable development and poverty reduction programme; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 14. UNESCO. (1997). Recommendations concerning the status of higher education teaching personnel. Adopted by the General Council of UNESCO, Paris, France. 15. University World News. (2009, December 6). Universities still lack full autonomy, 104. 16. http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2009/nov/02/graduate-job-losses-increase. Accessed June 15, 2010. 17. Adeogun, A. A., Oyebade, S. A., & Osifila, G. I. (2009). Higher education and youth preparation for the labour market: The case of universities. Makerere Journal of Higher Education, 2. Nigeria: Makarere University. 18. Ashcroft, K., Meles, T., & Rayner, P. (2009). Methodological issues in qualitative research investigating human capacity needs in new public—Universities in Ethiopia. Presented at the First International Conference on Educational Research for Development, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, May 13–15. 19. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_unemployment. Accessed June 6, 2010.

72    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa 20. The state of higher education in South Africa (2009, October). HE Monitor, 8, Council on Higher Education, Pretoria, South Africa. Retrieved November 25, 2010, from http://www.che.ac.za/documents/d000200/CHE_annual_report _20090929.pdf 21. Yizengaw, T. (2007). Undergraduate and graduate degree programs mix and student placement in the expanding higher education system in Ethiopia. Policy white paper prepared by the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Capacity Building, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 22. Saint, W. (2004). Higher education in Ethiopia: The vision and its challenges.. Journal of Higher Education in Africa, 2(3), 83–117. Boston: Boston College. 23. Much of the data in this case study can be found in The state of higher education in South Africa in HE Monitor No.8 October 2009, Council on Higher Education, Pretoria, South Africa. 24. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=2009121310065 6657. Accessed November 25, 2010. 25. Seeing the world differently. (2010, June 12). Economist. Accessed 15 June 2011, http://www.economist.com/node/16329442 26. Waylaid. (2010, December 4). Economist. Accessed 15 June 2011, http://www. economist.com/node/17633128 27. http://www.number10.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/SRP-DFID.pdf. Accessed December 1, 2010. 28. http://www.number10.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/SRP-DFID.pdf. Accessed December 1, 2010.

4 Structures and Systems

There should be greater differentiation in higher education curricula in order to respond to labor market demands and to local and national needs . . . A dimension of this is the modification of curricula to take account of the country’s diversity, such as the variety of languages and cultures. —An African businessman

Main points in this chapter: ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

Structures and systems of higher education Diversity of higher education institution missions Institutional and cross-national collaboration Structures to support and monitor performance Higher education qualifications Accreditation and modes of learning Restructuring Mozambique’s university system Library in a box Ethiopia’s qualifications structure

Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 73–97 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. .

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W

hen you are studying or working in a university, you might focus on your workload, your courses, and perhaps your department; it is harder to stand back and to look at your institution as a whole with all its various departments and administrative sections, its offshoots and, perhaps, outlaying campuses and to get a sense of it as a whole, complex institution. It is even harder then to think of your university as part of a much wider system, a system that might operate locally (through your university), nationally, and internationally. Yet if your university is to be effective, it will have to exist and interact as part of a much wider, integrated system; a higher education system. Higher education systems themselves cannot exist in isolation; they are part of a wider social, political, and economic structure that reflects the society in which the universities function. In developed countries, these are largely sophisticated, complex postindustrial societies that have much intellectual, financial, and organizational capacity to help support and develop the higher education system. In many developed countries, higher education might have a history going back several hundred years; the University of Bologna, acknowledged as the world’s first university, was founded in 1088, Oxford University in 1096. In sub-Saharan Africa, the oldest universities are the University of Sierra Leone, founded in 1827 and the University of Cape Town, founded in 1829. The majority of the continent’s universities were established during the second half of the 20th century. In sub-Saharan countries, it is likely that the society in which the university exists will be constrained by limited amounts of money, modern organizational experience, or history. This effects not only the higher education institutions themselves but also the structures and systems within which they operate.

Reflection Choose a sub-Saharan country you are interested in. Research the history of its higher education. When did the first postsecondary institutions open? What subjects did they specialize in? Were they assisted by organizations from more-developed countries? Chart the expansion of the sector; are there other providers (religious, private, military, colleges, institutes, university colleges) as well as state-run public universities? To what extent do you think the country’s higher education system meets its needs and the demands for postsecondary education?

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Diversification If a higher education system is defined as a set of interrelated institutions each with its own function, each with its own goals, and each of which makes a particular contribution to the functioning of the country, at the present time it could be said that many sub-Saharan African countries have a collection of institutions rather than a higher education system. Across Africa, higher education as yet fails fully to meet student demand and societal needs. Governments have recognized this as a problem. The massification of higher education across the world has led to a trend toward a diversification of mission and type of institutions. Once a country has developed several public higher education institutions, the possibility of more specialization occurs alongside the opportunity to concentrate scarce resources to enable higher-level expertise. I would prefer short courses and distance-learning modes. I would like to see a credit accumulation system from grade 10 to BA and master’s to be achieved in “steps.” I would like there to be more second chances to do degrees and higher degrees. —An African businesswoman

In sub-Saharan Africa, development is fueling the demand for both undergraduate and postgraduate education. This is leading to new in-country provision of master’s and PhD programs, rather than relying on sending students abroad to study. Related to this, the speed of development increases the need for a professionally qualified workforce that can be met only through full-time degree programs. In order to support the up-skilling and the lifelong learning needs of a developing country’s workforce, new qualifications and modes of learning will be needed. In many sub-Saharan African countries, the linkage between study and work is weak. There is toolittle discussion between business leaders and educators. Employers need work-based higher-level training for their skilled labor force that will not necessarily be in the same form as that supplied to school-leavers. This requires the development of new qualification frameworks and mechanisms for the articulation of different routes into higher-level learning including part-time, shorter, accredited, and nonaccredited programs in addition to traditional degrees. There are differing views as to what constitutes a coherent higher education system as opposed to a collection of institutions, but in our view, such a system within the development context is likely to include a range

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of different forms of institution, each with their particular and different mission and that each contributes their part to the differing development needs of the country. Once less-developed countries develop to the point of having more than a handful of universities, they cannot afford the additional expense, inefficiency, and redundancy that is implied by a collection of comprehensive universities, each trying to do everything. In many middle-income countries, new types of higher education institutions are emerging (private as well as public universities, specialist colleges, junior colleges, affiliated colleges, polytechnics, postgraduate institutions, and so on, as well as universities) and so higher education is able to serve morediverse groups. The private sector is growing fast, and indeed, the distinction between the private and public systems is being blurred as many public higher education institutions are becoming privatized, at least in part, for example, by students paying for services that were previously free. A mature system would be likely to have different institutions that each make special contributions to fulfilling some (but not all) of the following: national requirements for knowledge creation and transfer; the provision of each of full-time and part-time subdegree, undergraduate and postgraduate programs; open and distance-learning programs; regional foci including continuing professional development for local people; specialist expertise in science, technology, arts, and humanities; professional discipline training; research focused activity; vocational training; and links with commerce and industry through consultancy. Together, the higher education system would meet all of these needs, but each institution, whether a university, a specialist institute, or a higher education college, would develop expertise in certain key aspects and make their contribution to those aspects. Higher education must not alienate the graduate from the environment. They should be equipped to be successful in their environment . . . They should expect to have survival skills and their own vision for themselves, including the ability to create their own employment if necessary. —A government official responsible for ICT and science development

In much of the rest of the world, there is a clear demarcation between different institutions that contribute to higher education; for example, in the UK, there are specialist institutions that focus on high-level teaching and research within particular disciplines (for example, the School of Oriental and African Studies), or vocational areas (such as the Royal Agricultural College), as well as universities that focus on a broad range of vocational

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Employment

Undergraduate Colleges

Specialist Institutes

Comprehensive Universities

Polytechnics

Graduate Institutes

Figure 4.1  A diverse higher education system.

subjects (such as the University of the West of England) and others that are more focused on research and higher degrees (such as Imperial College London). There are new forms of higher education institutions emerging all the time; for example, India is intending to set up 14 “innovation universities” (Mishra, 2010)1 and Ethiopia 10 science and technology universities. Figure 4.1 illustrates different types of institutions, which have elements of their mission that are particular to themselves, but also some overlapping relationships, missions, and programs with other institutions. Each of these forms of higher education could include private as well as public universities or institutes. The arrows show the movement of some students between different types of institutions and between employment and learning as their learning and careers develop. The World Bank defines articulation within higher education and comments upon its effectiveness in African higher education as follows: The mechanisms that enable student mobility within and among the institutions that comprise the tertiary system, for example, academic credit ac-

78    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa cumulation and transfer, recognition and equivalence of degrees, recognition of prior learning, and so forth . . . For the most part, articulation within Africa seems to be in its infancy. The mobility of staff and students between university and non-university tertiary institutions suffers from a lack of cooperation and absence of dialogue between the two institutional groups. In fact, an unhealthy rivalry often characterizes their relationship. Polytechnic graduates seeking “academic progression” into the university system often encounter a void in which there are no clearly defined articulation pathways to follow, the level to which they are admitted being dependent on the course they wish to pursue and the regulations of the particular university to which they are applying. Credit transfer mechanisms rarely exist between similar polytechnic and university programs. In fact, some universities do not even recognize any prior learning or skills acquired at the polytechnic level in their admission requirements. (Ng’ethe, Subotzky, & Afeti, 2008)2

Reflection There are a number of benefits that can be gained through high levels of articulation between different forms of institution. These include For Students: ◾◾ Improved access and freedom of movement; ◾◾ Lower rates of dropout or failure without credit; ◾◾ Increased program choice; ◾◾ The possibility of nontraditional learning experiences being credited toward a degree; ◾◾ Opportunities to change concentrations or institutions midstream, or to delay final choices while still carrying forward relevant credits; ◾◾ Less wastage of time, endeavor, and money; ◾◾ The possibility of moving between institutions in accordance with aspirations; ◾◾ Opportunities to pursue lifelong learning through the flexible accumulation of credits over a long or short time period. {/BL} For Institutions: ◾◾ Proving an effective means of facilitating equity under conditions of interinstitutional and intrainstitutional differentiation; ◾◾ The possibility of greater interdisciplinary program linkage across institutions; ◾◾ Fewer repeaters and dropouts; ◾◾ Less curriculum duplication/overlap ◾◾ Increased academic collaboration; ◾◾ Increased pass rates;

Structures and Systems    79

◾◾ Improved internal institutional efficiency; and ◾◾ The possibility of increasing student numbers (Harris as cited in

Ng’ethe, Subotzky, & Afeti, 2008).3 Take the higher education system in the less-developed country that you are interested in. To what extent can students move between institutions and between study and work? Discuss Harris’ list with someone who has more experience of developing countries than you have. Do they see any of them as priorities for development? Do they agree that these priorities would be improved by better articulation between institutions?

Differentiation in higher education systems is apparent within Africa, although the nature and extent of it varies from country to country. Uganda has a two-tier higher education system—universities and polytechnics—and tries to develop centers of excellence in both types of higher education institutions that fulfill their mission particularly well. South Africa is planning the introduction of a 2-year associate degree. In some sub-Saharan Africa countries, there is an urgent need to establish more-diversified systems. There are not enough resources to enable every university in a relatively poor country to have a sufficiently expert and numerous team of academic staff and the necessary equipment, library, and other resources to support all sciences, all technologies, and all professional subjects and to delivery quality undergraduate and postgraduate programs, consultancy, and research. Where this is tried, resources are spread too thin, programs are not supplied with the full complement of expertise to deliver all the necessary constituent parts to a desirable standard, and in most cases, there are insufficient experienced and competent researchers to create the critical mass needed to take the subject forward in a way that suits that context and train in-country the next generation of academics to an adequate standard. A system that includes planned diversification requires certain structures to facilitate understanding of the outcomes to be achieved by each institution, progression for students from one institution to another that specializes in higher level study, and negotiation of mission and rewards for performance. These are lacking within many development contexts. For example, it implies a national agreement between institutions, national and regional governments, and other stakeholders such as employers that expresses a negotiated framework for the achievement of development goals. This would need to cover the national and regional needs for particular forms of research, consultancy, the initial training, and continuing profes-

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sional development and progression of students. It implies a funding framework and quality system that could then hold each institution to account for their contribution to some, but not all, of these needs. We need to see a wider and more flexible structure of training and qualifications gained through higher education institutions. The structure should involve diplomas and other nondegree programs, though these should offer later access to degree programs. In particular, this would be important because, there was a great need to respond to problems and demands by making more use of teams of people qualified at different levels but working together. —A World Bank education adviser

A collection of comprehensive universities with similar missions might grow into a coherent and cost-effective system through “mission drift”: this might create some useful change as institutions independently look for niche markets for their expertise and build up centers of relative excellence. However, development in sub-Saharan Africa should not have to wait for this evolution to occur; efficiency and effectiveness in most situations might be better achieved through institutions agreeing to have differentiated missions and designated as being responsible for different levels and forms of knowledge, each making their respective and particular contribution based on these strengths. Coherence also implies that institutions within the system will work together and with other sectors of education to maximize access, opportunity, and knowledge creation and transfer. Such a system is likely to be underpinned by funding mechanisms that ensure parity of reward (and so parity of esteem) for the same quality of outcome, whichever institution achieves them. If it is to achieve all it could, the system will need structures to encourage cooperation (for example, the progression of students between levels and support for different forms of research and consultancy); to develop national policy and strategy to inform institutional actions and planning (for example, through higher education institution leaders’ associations and professional and academic forums); and support bodies to maintain and assess quality and distribute equitable funding. These underpinning structures for negotiation, cooperation, and reward are not always present within many African higher education systems, and so truly differentiated systems are relatively rare. However, a few countries have developed diversified systems. For example, South Africa has a range of institutional structures, each with a particular mission: specialist universities, comprehensive

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universities, technological universities, university colleges, polytechnic/ technical training institutes, and colleges. In common with many other African countries, the private sector is developing fast; as of January 2010, there were 78 registered and 22 provisionally registered private higher education institutions in South Africa.4 Other sub-Saharan countries are at the start of the process of developing a coherent system. For example, in Ethiopia, there is some limited progress: in 2003, the Ministry for Education developed its institutional and sector development program. However, there is still a lack of a systematic approach to higher education development, which is the result of a deficiency of definition and differentiation among the individual higher education institutions as to their particular mission and part to play in the country’s development. Many of the present universities have remarkably similar programs of study, offer much the same mix of qualifications, and undertake limited and nonspecialized research and consultancy. This similarity appears to only slowly diminish over time. One exception is Addis Ababa University, which offers a wider set of programs, especially at the postgraduate level and gives some assistance to other universities in matters such as curriculum development. It had started to rethink the postgraduate training that is demanded by the new pedagogies in higher education institutions, however Addis Ababa University has yet to rise fully to the challenge represented by its place as the premier university in Ethiopia. For example, its press is not commissioning many text books and other materials, and supporting teams of authors from other higher education institutions to produce them, and it is slow to take up the challenge of hosting the National Pedagogic Resource Center as a lead support institution in the country. Recently, institutions themselves have started to work out some morefocused specialisms that can make a specific contribution to the development of the country; for example, Adama University grew out of a technical teacher training college and is retaining this specialism while diversifying its mission to focus on economic development and university-enterprise cooperation according to the German paradigm and to become a model for other universities in this respect.

Case Study: Restructuring Mozambique’s University System In the early 2000s, the Mozambique government was keen to move its higher education system from an elite system to increased participation. It realized the

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that country did not have sufficient resources to achieve this solely through the university sector. It envisages some form of “new” postsecondary sector that would take a variety of forms but be predominantly professional oriented and have strong relationships with regional employment and enterprise. It decided to set up a series of regional workshops, facilitated by the thenVice Minister of Higher Education and a consultant from the Center for Higher Education Policy Studies in the Netherlands, involving local employers, educationalists, and others in order to obtain advice on the programs of study that would suit regional needs and insights into the forms of institution that could deliver them. The participants of the workshops were asked to “build” the programs that would meet local needs using Lego bricks (children’s building blocks in different sizes and colors that click together to form structures with varying dimensions) to create “buildings” that would symbolize priority needs. In these buildings, the colors of the bricks symbolized the subject groupings (for example, blue bricks representing economics and management, and yellow representing science, veterinary subjects, and medicine). The height of the “buildings” represented the minimum numbers of years of study in programs needed to meet local needs: one layer representing each year of study (thus, if expertise in economics and management was needed locally mainly at a technical level, a one- or twostory building was built from blue bricks or if the local need was for doctors, a five-story yellow building was built). The relative importance of different subject groupings was represented by the size of the building bricks used (large, medium, and small). In this way, local people were able to express and prioritize what they saw as local needs for expertise in broad terms. It was then for the politicians to decide which should be supplied locally and which nationally and what forms of institution would best suit the totality of needs. The government recognized that the way that higher education programs are distributed (and provided) is a key factor in efficiency, and that they are the primary “carrier” of quality. The workshops provided information about potential program suitability in different subjects in terms of academic level (e.g., underor postgraduate); duration of study (higher education certificates and diplomas as well as degrees); their educational purpose (general or career focus); some ideas about methods of delivery; and the relative size of student enrollments between program types. Mozambican Higher Education changed to include comprehensive universities; specialized universities; comprehensive institutes (institutes that would offer undergraduate subdegree programs), specialized institutes; and a new group of higher Education polytechnics. The intention was to move from the then-Mozambique student mix—0% PhD students; 1% master’s; 80% bachelor’s honors (4 years); 20% bachelor’s

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(3 years); 0% in subdegree higher education programs (Associate in Arts/Science degrees and Associate Diplomas and Certificates)—to something a little closer to the U.S. mix—2% PhD students; 8% master’s; 30% bachelor’s; 20% associate degrees (2 years of study); and 40% associate diplomas and certificates. Mozambique is now planning to promote a greater variety in courses’ length through introduction of higher education courses with diploma as well as bachelor’s and master’s levels. To this end, the government intends to introduce a system of equivalencies between academic credits, courses, and qualifications. The number of higher education institutions has grown in the last 35 years from 1 to 38, but without appropriate legislation to regulate them or to cater for distinctions between universities, polytechnics, and other higher education institutions. To rectify this, the government approved new regulations on the licensing and functioning of higher education institutions in 2010. They establish criteria on the composition, function, and supervision of the institutions on matters such as a minimum number of teachers, the appointment of rectors or directors, and a mission statement for each institution.

Collaboration and Linkages Institutional Collaboration Certain qualities characterize and underpin a mature higher education system, including the willingness to work with others to influence the direction of the system and to develop and share expertise; for example, senior staff in the universities seeing it as their duty and in their interest to respond to policy documents produced by government. In a mature system, it is likely that a government document would be discussed at the senate level (or another senior committee), and nearly every university would send a considered response. Universities would have the machinery for processing such reports and formulating and communicating their responses. In this way, most senior university staff would be involved in and informed about national policy and national strategy, and policy would be better informed to the benefit of the country. Once institutions have developed these skills and systems, there is the possibility of them combining through a vice chancellors or university presidents association to discuss and influence national policy and strategy. However, currently, this model is difficult to implement in many sub-Saharan African countries where a culture of authoritarianism still lingers, and it is accepted practice to accede to demands imposed from above rather than try to engage in dialogue and/or consensus.

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There has to be clear links from technical education to higher education curricula; this would enable students from technical colleges to move across to higher education if they are capable of research. Both curricula should be directly linked to the priorities of the country; these priorities should not be political but should be established through research and analysis, which could be undertaken by higher education institutions. —A UNESCO education officer

However, if higher education institutions are to make a proper contribution to the development of the system, they will need mechanisms for establishing professional and academic communities and dialogue. In some sub-Saharan countries, there are functioning subject associations in which the subject content, pedagogy, research, and knowledge transfer opportunities can be discussed, such as the Association of African Universities (AAU) and the Management Development Workshop (MADEV) series hosted by the Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration in Ghana in 2008.5 These, however, are exceptions. Where institutions do get together, rather than working out how each will make a special contribution, more often the tendency is to work on a common curriculum. For example, in Ethiopia, fully operational subject associations are largely lacking, so the government convenes workshops under the auspices of the Higher Education Strategy Centre (HESC) to look at core content and learning outcomes for different disciplines. This can lead to the establishment of standards that help to maintain quality, but if the curriculum is overprescribed, there is a danger that it will lead to all higher education institutions looking essentially the same This is especially true where a conservatism leads to “copying” models of curriculum from the country’s leading university, the United States, or Europe, rather than looking at what would be particularly appropriate for a particular region or for the country as a whole. The development of higher education professional groups for the various support managers in higher education, such as finance directors and heads of learning and research centers, are less common even than discipline-based groups but are just as important and again are common in the more-mature higher education systems. Without such associations and networks, higher education institutions will remain isolated islands, unable to cooperate and learn from each other how best to achieve efficiency and effectiveness in academic and support services and unable to plan how each will make its own unique contribution to the development needs of the country.

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Education cannot be the catalyst for development on its own. In order to be effective, it must be well integrated with employment and the needs of areas such as health, infrastructure development, and financial institutions among others. —A Ministry of Finance official

Structures for International Collaboration Collaboration between higher education institutions is one of the means by which universities are able to draw on the widest possible expertise to achieve their mission. Within the development context, where higher education institutions might be relatively weak in terms of staff skills and knowledge, international collaboration is especially important if they are to make their proper contribution to economic and social development. Collaboration has been identified by Wilen-Daugenti and McKee (2008) as one of the major trends in higher education in the 21st century across the world. Collaboration takes varying forms, some of which might be appropriate to the development context. The worldwide web has created virtual meeting places that make such collaboration easier, whether to set up staff or student exchanges, to exchange texts; undertake joint research and co-author papers; create curriculum materials; or to mentor staff who might be entering senior management.6 Recently, a number of the more-developed and middle-income countries have been developing more-substantial programs of collaboration than the one-to-one university collaboration that was common in the past. For example, China has set up linkages with nearly 50 African countries, which involves scholarships for higher degree study, research links, science and technology, and higher education development projects (Sawahel, 2009).7 The eagerness for such collaboration might be a symptom of a 21st-century “scramble for Africa”; different power blocs are sometimes seen as neocolonialists, and those in development roles might need to consider the costs and benefits of involvement in each case, so as to ensure that the needs of African development are being met in an appropriate way. Horta (2009) points out that China is largely adopting a no-strings-attached approach to aid, which is in contrast to other developed countries that provide aid tied to political objectives. However, its interventions have caused some social and environmental damage and are not welcomed by some African people.8 During our time in sub-Saharan African countries, we have noted that international collaboration can have a number of benefits to individual uni-

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versities and to systems as a whole. Higher knowledge is boundary-free and thrives on insights from academics working within different contexts and facing different challenges. There is a range of international projects that enable African academics and students to gain from research and development achieved in better-resourced countries at an affordable price. An example of this is the INASP/PERii initiative, which provides free online access to journals for registered institutions in developing countries.9

Case Study: Library in a box For those countries that do not have the sort of access to the Internet that enables easy downloading of materials, initiatives such as the eGranary digital library from the WiderNet project enables millions of free journal articles and other resources to be provided in prerecorded form, which can be stored on a local server at a very low cost. The eGranary developers have obtained permission to use a huge range of digital resources and copied Web sites. These are then loaded on servers inside partner institutions in developing countries. By adding local content such as recommended reading for undergraduate courses, institutions can supply staff and students with a multitude of resources with rapid download times and at no additional cost via the local intranet.10 Ethiopian teaching and research had long been restricted by a lack of access to recent journals and materials, and the Internet service was inaccessible to most staff and students and, where available, unworkably slow. It could take a couple of hours to download a few e-mails and frequently broke down. The “Library in a box” was seen as a way to ameliorate this problem. As part of the Nuffic funded EQUIP project in Ethiopia,11 each of the universities in the system was supplied with a computer suite comprising over 25 refurbished computers equipped with a server computer and digital library. The cost of each complete installation was US$9,000. This was equivalent to the local cost of purchasing 10 new international brand computers with fully licensed operating systems and a 1-year warranty. Unfortunately, the introduction of the system produced varied and, at times, disappointing results. While some universities quickly installed the hardware and provided eGranary access across campus, others simply locked the resources in store. Technicians trained and capable of installing the equipment were not contracted to complete the task and were hard-pressed by duties elsewhere. Staff turnover was also high, so institutional memory of the intentions and potential of the project was lost as the laboratories took so much time to become established; momentum was lost and eventually stalled altogether in some places. Despite approving the importation of used computers, some managements later resented the use of secondhand equipment; this affected the status of the project. The debate wrongly focused on the used computers and lost sight of the

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huge potential of the digital library system. In the end, the EQUIP project supplied additional training and support for Academic Development and Resource Centres (ADRCs) to remediate some of these difficulties. Even so, eGranary has not reached its full potential as an aid for teaching and research, while Internet connectivity continues to be problematic on many campuses. The lesson for development workers seems to be that it is people, not the software or hardware, that determine whether a venture such as this fails or succeeds. People management is needed to maintain momentum and solve problems that arise. Recipients that are used to generous donor funding need to make choices themselves; in this case, many secondhand computers or fewer new ones. In some circumstances, it is better to start at the smallest scale. This would have meant the purchase of only the eGranary server that could have been attached to existing computers, rather than attempting to install a full laboratory. The laboratory could then be installed as, and when, demand became strong enough to overcome the problems. Unfortunately, short donor-project timescales often prevent a phased approach to setting up such a system, even though long-term gradual expansion, adaptation, development, and maintenance is preferable.

Other forms of collaboration include the training or mentoring of staff in African universities in their discipline area, pedagogy, or management. There are numerous programs for such development, such as the NICHE (Netherlands Initiative for Capacity Development in Higher Education) program funded through the Dutch development organization Nuffic, which works on higher education capacity-development projects in a number of sub-Saharan African countries such as Ethiopia, Mozambique, and Kenya.12 The World Bank also supports higher education in countries such as Ethiopia, Mauritius, Uganda, and Mozambique through specific capacity-building projects and also sponsors research and conferences.13 These projects can be very useful in opening up the system to ideas and skills developed elsewhere, but too often African needs have to be shoehorned into the objectives of a particular funding scheme. This process might be hidden, as governments in African countries know that they must “play the game” if they are to get any funding, so even where a project is so-called demand driven, it is usually confined by the expressed and covert expectations of the donor community as to what desirable processes and outcomes should look like. Development workers therefore might need to be wary of taking these schemes as self-evidently a good thing, and explore how they are, or how they might be, adapted to the context of the country. If it is to be of any real benefit, capacity building must move beyond a notion of importing “how it is done” in Northern countries into Southern partners.

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I feel donors have no influence over government policy and that the minister does not listen to them or respect them. There is no sanction since the donors give in the form of budget support and will continue to do so unless some key noneducation sectors like security or finance go haywire. Education policy is not pivotal to (my) government’s support. —Education adviser from the donor community

There are encouraging signs that relatively more developed African countries are willing to share their expertise with less-developed countries, and that these are pooling resources so that problems can be understood and solved within context. One example of this is the Association of African Universities, which is running a range of projects, organizing networks, and setting up study opportunities, journals, and conferences.14 The existence of the Internet, teleconferencing, Skype, and e-mail has greatly facilitated the operation of collaboration and made networking and online interest and research-grouping much more effective. Although connectivity is still a problem in many countries, it is slowly improving; the East African highspeed cable should improve matters greatly in the next few years as towns and cities are connected to it.15 Of course, the ideal collaboration is more equal than those normally seen in the African system. It would be characterized by both sides receiving benefits in terms of exchange of opportunity, knowledge, and expertise. Such collaborations are being achieved through the Association of African Universities but are relatively rare between developed and less-developed systems. Universities in developed countries generally feel (probably wrongly) that they will only gain a few nonmonetary benefits from these collaborations and so require donor funding to support initiatives rather than funding them from their own resources. This leads to such activity being seen as an income-generating activity rather than a good in its own right. The unfortunate consequence is that universities “sell” what they have to offer rather than looking at what is needed and what they themselves (rather than just their southern partners) need to learn. Probably the best kind of international collaboration is one that helps the Southern partner to develop its own capacity-building mechanisms: higher-degree programs set up and developed in the country itself rather than by the Northern partner in its own country; training and mentoring of staff and organizations in-country that will take over the management, leadership, and discipline for their peers’ development in due course; and

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the development of enabling systems at the national level for matters such as quality assurance, strategy development, and pedagogic and other training. Reflection Think about what form of international collaboration between Southern and Northern universities might be particularly useful to a university in a less-developed country in which you have some knowledge. List the potential advantages and disadvantages of such a partnership from the point of view of each of the partners. Discuss your list with someone with more experience than you have. As a development worker, how might you advise those negotiating to establish a partnership in the light of these potential advantages and disadvantages?

Structures to Support and Monitor Performance Once a higher education system has developed beyond a handful of higher education institutions, there emerges a need for a more hands-off management of the system by government. Necessity, in the form of the impractability of micromanaging larger numbers of universities and their students and staff by the center, as well as more market-orientated philosophies, are leading many countries to decentralize the management of the system. Alongside the increases in autonomy that this implies comes a justified concern of governments to steer the general direction of the system toward desirable goals and to hold institutions accountable for the resources they consume and the quality of their output. This has led governments to establish central support structures to oversee matters such as quality assessment, policy development, pedagogic and management training, and funding distribution. National structures for quality across the world have been articulated into international frameworks; for example, in Europe, as part of the Bologna Process,16 quality policy goals are being set jointly and then negotiated and scrutinized within each context. Thus, the international discussion and the record of the ongoing negotiations influences national policies and processes. In this way, a transnational model of quality assurance is developing (Saarinen, 2005).17 In sub-Saharan Africa, some of the larger systems have started to develop their own support structures. South Africa is probably the furthest advanced with the Council on Higher Education (CHE) as a key body responsible for advising the Minister of Education on strategic issues in higher

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education and disseminating information on higher education. It undertakes national quality-assurance functions through the Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). Higher Education South Africa (HESA) is an organization that represents the public higher education institutions. It exists to provide leadership and expertise for the sector and to influence national policy and development imperatives with respect to higher education. South Africa is also the home of the Southern African Regional Universities Association (SARUA), which promotes higher education, training, and research through expanded interinstitutional collaboration and capacity-building initiatives across the region.18 Other sub-Saharan African countries are also developing such support agencies. Where they are staffed with the expertise to do their work well, ministers are willing to provide them with the freedom to operate in the interests of all stakeholders rather than as an arm of government. They then hopefully do not slavishly follow the models presented by more-developed countries that might be unsuitable for resource and data-poor environments, but rather they present a range of indigenous opportunities for the development of the system. However, they might also create threats to the system. Governments might be overcontrolling and insist on overly bureaucratic or burdensome processes that divert resources within universities from teaching and research. Ministers might be unwilling to consider advice from such bodies that does not reflect their own preformed opinions, or they might devote too-few resources to enable the support structures to operate effectively. The establishment of Sector Support Units in Ethiopia in 2003 illustrate some of the opportunities and problems. The Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency (HERQA) has been highly successful in developing a framework for quality assessment and assurance across the country, which is helping to improve practice across the sector. It has had a committed director general who has taken advice from across the world, but then adapted it to the local context. He has also been willing to inform and consult with university leaders in the country to produce a system that works and is well supported by documentation. Its sister agency, the Higher Education Strategy Centre (HESC), has had some impact on national strategies, for example, related to funding and the reform agenda, but has been limited in its role by a lack of qualified staff and its involvement in administrative duties on behalf of the Ministry of Education; for example, providing the secretariat for the business process reengineering meetings for the whole sector.19 Another sector-support unit set up at the same time, the National

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Pedagogic Resource Centre, was intended as a major initiative to drive improvements in higher education pedagogy in the country but has had a very limited impact so far. The reasons for this probably include a lack of drive and leadership from within the center, staff with multiple roles and duties that distracted them from the task at hand, a lack of expertise, a lack of clear direction and objectives, as well as a separate budget to do its task. There is a danger that because an SSU might exist in name, there is an assumption that it exists in practice; often this is not the case.

Structuring Higher Education Qualifications and Learning As countries across the world have become more responsive to their stakeholders, they have moved away from the traditional full-time degree model to encompass other models of qualification and models of study. For example, employers often want to upgrade the qualifications of their graduate employees, but do not wish to lose them to (or pay for) full-time master’s degree study. They often find that part-time nonaccredited programs or part-time postgraduate programs that might lead to a certificate or a diploma are more appropriate to their needs. The curriculum should be more focused on the workplace, which implies competence-based assessment. —An African employers’ representative

The economies of developed countries are highly responsive and tend to need an increasingly well-qualified workforce. This cannot be supplied solely by training recent school-leavers. These systems are now encouraging more mature students into undergraduate study. This had led many countries to develop a range of access programs for those insufficiently qualified to enter higher education as well as a set of undergraduate qualifications at the subdegree, certificate, and diploma level that can be taken full-or parttime and “count” toward a degree after further study. The Bologna Process in Europe has enabled a qualifications framework to be developed with definitions of first-cycle study (postsecondary up to bachelor’s degree equivalent), second cycle (up to master’s degree level), and third cycle (to doctoral level). Within each of these cycles, qualifications at different levels can be established according to the needs of the participating country.

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The curriculum should be determined by an examination within each region of the necessary field of development and associated content areas within the curriculum. Many of these needs may require higher education training only up to first- or second-year level. Few will require postgraduate degree study. Assuming all higher education should be centered on degrees will lead to a waste of money. —An embassy education specialist

In many parts of the world, different institutions specialize in providing particular types or levels of qualification; for example, in the UK, local technical (further education) colleges provide foundation degrees and subdegree certificates. Mature and other students can study these qualifications close to home, and then if they so wish, apply for a bachelor’s degree at a university that will recognize their qualification. As is fairly typical among middle-income countries, the Chilean tertiary education system includes three types of institutions: universities offer undergraduate first-degree and postgraduate programs; professional institutes deliver 4-year programs and are authorized to award professional certificates in many fields; and technical training centers offer 2-year programs that lead to a Higher Technical Level Certificate. In India, diploma courses are available at the undergraduate and postgraduate level as well as degrees, and in many regions, associate colleges provide taught programs that are accredited by a local university and which can count toward a degree. Denmark has colleges and universities in their system with the college sector dealing mainly with subdegrees and vocational degrees and with a parallel further-education system for adults. Many sub-Saharan African countries have not yet considered developing a qualifications framework for higher education beyond the establishment of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees (or their equivalent). Some countries have made limited progress toward a comprehensive qualifications framework. South Africa is planning the introduction of a 2-year associate degree and presently offers undergraduate and postgraduate diplomas with coursework structured in modules, with students registering in a unit/credit system.

Case Study: Ethiopia’s Qualifications Structure As part of the 13 new university study, we conducted 35 interviews with employers or employer groups to see what they needed from the Ethiopian higher

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education system. We also held meetings with groups of education, health, capacity-building, and finance and economic development bureaus and representatives of local business or industry from eight of the country’s regions to try to determine the types of student qualification that they predict would be needed within that region in the foreseeable future. The existing system includes bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral level degrees, but apart from teacher training certificates, no intermediate qualifications. It was clear from both the interviews and the workshops that the present structure was not well suited to the present or predicted needs of the country in terms of a qualified workforce. For example, for many technical, managerial, and scientific roles, a school-leaving diploma or its technical equivalent is insufficient, but a bachelor’s degree is an unnecessarily high qualification. The participants in the study saw a role for an undergraduate certificate and 2-year associate degree, especially for skilled technical staff and lower-level managers. For professional staff, such as higher-level managers and higher technical staff, a postgraduate certificate and diploma-level training would prepare them for their role. As a result of our findings, we recommended that a change to the framework to allow intermediate qualification would meet employment needs and represent considerable economies in terms of the number of students that could be trained to a level that enabled them to contribute to the country’s development. Our recommendations characterized the system and the gaps that should be filled within it as follows: Gaps

MA/MSc+1 absent

Present System

PhD (MSc + 3) MA/MSc (BA/BSc + 2)

BA/BSc+1 absent BA/BSc 12+1 & 12+2 absent Grade 12

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The 13 new university study therefore argued for a more elaborate qualification framework with intermediate qualifications between the present levels. This recommendation was not accepted. In considering why this rejection occurred, it became evident that there are various functions that the higher education institutions were designed to fulfill that were not related to employment needs. These included nation building, through more regions being supplied with a federally funded university. The idea that economies could be achieved and more students educated if some of these institutions focused on intermediate qualifications was not acceptable to any of the towns or regions that were welcoming a new “university” and which considered a higher education college or institution as having a much lower status. There was no tradition or mechanism for ensuring parity of esteem for different types of qualification or institution. Reflecting upon this, we should have realized that the political context and the emotional impact of “losing” a promised university would have discouraged the audience from accepting our rather utilitarian proposals. Another problem was that the government saw the new universities as federal institutions, accountable to the center and fulfilling national rather than local needs. Thus, even though a more diverse and differentiated qualifications framework would mean that higher education institutions are able to respond more flexibly to labor force requirements and the local context, we were made to realize that in development work, it is not rational to ignore or label as irrational the impact of national agendas, local civic pride, and tradition.

Accreditation of Learning In the more-developed countries, systems are being developed to accredit higher learning that might occur outside of formal learning structures; for example, through the acquisition of on-the-job knowledge, reflection, and competence, which can be supported by evidence of specific learning outcomes. The EU has been developing a European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS).20 The aim is to make teaching and learning more transparent and enable the recognition of formal, nonformal, and informal learning; facilitate credit transfer and student mobility and credit accumulation; and allow various learning paths toward recognized higher education qualifications. Such systems are useful in socially mobile societies that value and encourage lifelong higher education learning. At present, African societies and economies largely have higher education provision (especially at undergraduate level) that is most suitable for younger people (usually school-leavers) who are not in work. This is prob-

Structures and Systems    95

ably an appropriate priority in societies where there is an overwhelmingly youthful demography and where higher education cannot yet be offered to all of the school-leavers who are qualified to benefit from it. As they develop beyond this point and start to need and value continuing accredited education across the lifespan of a worker, such systems might become better developed.

Open and Distance Learning One way of increasing access to education geographically, through the age groups, and across the economic classes is through open-learning structures. These are being developed rapidly in many sub-Saharan African countries. For example, South African universities offer distance education, mainly by correspondence, for about 35% of enrolled students. The Open University of Tanzania was established in 1993 in Dar es Salaam and now has centers in all regions. There are courses in law, science, arts, and education and for untrained teachers. Other countries such as Ethiopia have extensive distance-learning programs offered by the private higher education sector and have plans to develop an Open University. Programs based on print media have generally been successful in African countries, but those relying on ICT have experienced problems. The African Virtual University (AVU) is a Pan African initiative with the aim to significantly increase access to quality higher education and training using Open Distance and eLearning methodologies.21 It has not yet achieved its great potential. This is probably because overcoming the drawbacks of limited connectivity and poor access to ICT terminals is difficult and expensive; to be worthwhile, e-learning must have much more to offer than print media. A better model for Africa might be to develop mixed-media programs that rely mainly on print media but are gradually enriched by online resources. In this respect, a very useful initiative is the University of Cape Town’s Open Content Directory, which allows academics to share teaching and learning materials (Moodie, 2010).22

Conclusion Reading through this chapter, you might feel that there is nothing that you can do in terms of helping to develop a country’s higher education system; the task is too big for one person. You might ask yourself, “What can I do?” or “What difference can I make?” Our experience suggests that it is often not easy to judge what effects your intervention is having, or may have. Sometimes something that we

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have worked on appears to have disappeared into a cupboard to collect dust, forgotten and apparently a wasted effort; yet several months, or even years later, it can reemerge and apparently be the right thing for that particular time. You need to wait several years before you can judge the success or otherwise of your interventions. It is important that you do your best, however unpromising the situation. We believe that every contribution, however small, helps. Your contribution might be the final piece in a jigsaw that is too big for you to see. Your contribution might be the first piece, the foundation, of a longer-term change. Our experience in working to develop higher education systems in African countries has led us to understand that it is systems and structures that allow certain changes to become embedded and sustainable. As a development worker, it might not be best to behave just as a “hero innovator”— someone who comes from a more-developed system, comes into the context with the best of intentions and with considerable expertise, who works effectively with their Southern partners and facilitates useful change. Rather, it is better if you can operate in this way on the system itself, alongside and taking account of the perspectives of the political leaders in the system, therefore perhaps being able to influence the creation and operation of structures within the system as a whole, and so the change you facilitate is likely to be more far-reaching and make a greater difference.

Notes 1. Mishra, A. (2010, April 18). India: Innovation universities need foreign help. University World News, 120. Retrieved June 17, 2011 from www.universityworldnews.com/article/php?story=20100416174234535 2. Ng’ethe, N., Subotzky, G., & Afeti, G. (2008). Differentiation and articulation in tertiary education systems: A study of twelve African countries. World Bank Working Paper No. 145, p. xvii. Washington, DC. (This paper provides a much more detailed exploration of differentiation and articulation than we have been able to include here.) 3. Harris (1996) quoted in Ng’ethe, N., Subotzky, G., & Afeti, G. (2008). Differentiation and articulation in tertiary education systems: A study of twelve African countries. World Bank Working Paper No. 145. 4. /www.che.ac.za/heinsa/overview/. Accessed November 25, 2010. 5. See http://www2.aau.org/e-courier/issue.htm?no=48. Accessed November 28, 2010. 6. Wilen-Daugenti, T., & McKee, A. G. R. (2008). 21st century trends for higher education. Top trends, 2008–2009. San Jose, CA: Higher Education Practice. Cisco Internet Business Solutions Group. 7. Sawahel, W. (2009, November 29). China-Africa: Three-year partnership plan announced. University World News, 0042. (Africa Edition). Retrieved

Structures and Systems    97 November 25, 2010, from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article. php?story=20091127124452958 8. Horta, L. (2009, November 29). China-Africa: Development partner or neo-coloniser? University World News, Africa Edition, 0042. Retrieved June 17, 2011 from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20091127134020463 9. See http://www.inasp.info/. Accessed November 28, 2010. 10. See http://www.widernet.org/digitalLibrary/ 11. See http://www.cis.vu.nl/en/regions/africa/ethiopia/educational-qualityimprovement-programme/index.asp 12. See http://www.nuffic.nl/international-organizations/services/capacity-build ing/niche 13. See http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICA EXT/ 14. See http://www.aau.org/ 15. See http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8165077.stm 16. For a short summary of the Bologna Process, see http://www.europeunit. ac.uk/bologna_process/index.cfm 17. Saarinen, T. (2005). “Quality” in the Bologna Process: From “competitive edge” to quality assurance techniques. European Journal of Education, 40(2), 189–204. The South African Council on Higher Education. 18. See http://www.che.ac.za/about/heqc/ and http://www.hesa.org.za/ and http://www.sarua.org/ 19. http://www.higher.edu.et/ 20. See http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc52_en.htm 21. See www.avu.org/home.asp 22. Moodie, A. (2010, February 28). South Africa: OpenContent: Sharing teaching and learning. University World News, 0049 (Africa Edition).

5 Leadership and Governance

A leader is constrained here. It doesn’t matter how visionary you are if your hands are tied behind your back. There is a Catch-22 situation: if the university is not able to demonstrate that they can manage on their own, the government will not be very much willing to delegate authority; on the other hand, if there is no space for visionary leaders, they will never be able to demonstrate that they are able to manage effectively. —A member of the senior management team in a university

Main points in this chapter: ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

The relationship between governments and universities Dilemmas raised by politics and ethnicity of universities in Kenya Burundi’s higher education system postconflict Legal frameworks and autonomy System support units The crisis in higher education planning in francophone Africa

T

hose who work in a university in a more-developed country might take for granted the professionalism and structures of governance and

Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 99–118 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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leadership that are in place, especially those at the top of the system— government ministries, quasi-autonomous sector support units, and the university’s own board of management. In sub-Saharan Africa, these things cannot be taken for granted. If you are working in development, it is important that you understand that the leadership and governance in much of the sub-Saharan African higher education system has to operate within a context that is far more challenging than in more-developed countries. The systems often operate within unstable, highly politicized contexts, sometimes facing ethnic tensions and generally having to cope with systemic economic crises. Whereas in more-developed countries there is a clear distinction between the roles of the ministry, the university board, the internal university executive, and the deliberative systems, for a variety of reasons this is not the case in much of sub-Saharan Africa. The mission and values of academe are generally understood in more-developed countries; for example, the protection of academic freedom, the public service ethos of honesty and trustworthiness, and the centrality of academic integrity in dealings with students are not always so well established and stable.

The Role of National Governance There is a tension at the heart of many of the higher education systems in sub-Saharan Africa that are going through a process of massification. As the sector gets bigger and more diverse, the government is less able to micromanage and so has to delegate authority to the university leaders. However, often the government is unwilling to relinquish its control because it does not always trust those appointed as leaders of universities or because many of those who are appointed are political appointees who might not be appropriately qualified or competent for the task given them. Effective autonomy needs qualified leadership, but there is a fear among some politicians that, if the university leaders are chosen because of the skills and experience that they bring to the position, it might decrease the political influence exerted over universities and increase dissent in situations that are already unstable. Ideally, governance should set the broad context for leadership: from government at the national level, the framework for higher education strategy for the nation; at the regional level, the local framework; and at the university level by the board through establishing vision, mission, and the overall direction of an institution and its ethical framework and values. However, this is not always a simple matter.

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Case Study: Dilemmas Raised by Politics and Ethnicity of Universities in Kenya1 The Kenyan education sector is at the time of writing at risk from political instability. For example, there was a flare-up of ethnically based violence in 2007 following disputed presidential elections that severely affected university education. The damaging effects included a legacy of ethnic resentment among faculty and students, damage of property and other violence toward faculty from (local) minority ethnic groups, and closure of institutions in the face of threats of student unrest. Most universities were closed for extended periods, but Kenyatta University opened almost immediately, having put in place measures to manage possible student and staff unrest, including ◾◾ Joint meetings of administrative and academic staff ◾◾ A temporary ban on social get-togethers ◾◾ Counseling services for students and staff directly affected ◾◾ Conciliatory talks with the local communities potentially hostile to

students from other ethnic groups ◾◾ A waiver of the full-fee payment requirement before admission of

students If universities espouse certain values, then they can promote national cohesion. However, in Kenya, this promotion occurs in a somewhat hostile political environment that includes ◾◾ A highly politicized and ethnicized political bureaucracy and univer-

sity administration ◾◾ A close political linkage between public institutions and government:

university heads remain political appointees ◾◾ A culture of political compliance ◾◾ Ethnic and political manipulation of university senates and councils ◾◾ The election of students from specific ethnic blocs to the student lead-

ership positions ◾◾ Hiring procedures that are ethnically influenced ◾◾ The privileging of the use of the mother tongue of the dominant ethnic

group Kenyatta University sought to contain unrest by restricting some lecturers from teaching specific topics or giving particular examples. Thus, academic freedom has been compromised by efforts to prevent ethnic tensions. The Kenyan experience shows the importance, and also the difficulty of, university leadership and mission in promoting diversity and academic freedom.

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Working in universities in developed countries, we are used to a system where universities, and the higher education sector in general, has a strong sense of independence and autonomy; where there is a clear demarcation between the government-of-the-day and the higher education sector and where decisions are made through dialogue and consensus. This is sometimes not the case in sub-Saharan Africa. Many of the problems facing the massification of higher education in sub-Saharan Africa are due to a lack of clear demarcation between the political governance and management of universities. Neave and Van Vught (1994) have described the changes in governance associated with dealing with the challenges of massification as moving from a state control to a state supervision model.2 It is a fundamental change that can be discerned in Western, Central, and Eastern European countries. Basically, it is a shift away from command and control to a mode of coordination that relies more heavily on the self-steering capacities of the institutions, where the government is only supervising whether certain indicators (e.g., in the areas of student numbers, finance, and quality) are being met. In terms of government-higher education relations in the developed world, higher education institutions have been granted more autonomy; firstly, because a growing higher education system is simply too complex and too large to be governed adequately by government; secondly, because decentralization is believed to create greater diversity. In terms of financing, line budgeting is increasingly complicated as systems grow and become more complex. Lump-sum budgeting on the basis of formula has been the most common response. In terms of quality control, the move to massified systems has meant that the old systems of internal peer review are not sufficient for an ever-growing and more anonymous massified higher education system. Also, as governments have been investing more and more money in higher education, they increasingly demand some indication that their money is being well spent. Decentralized systems are relatively efficient, and many Northern consultants have recommended that they be applied to sub-Saharan Africa. However, they are highly dependent upon trust—trust that university managers and administrative staff are competent and trust that they will act with integrity and honesty. This trust is not always present, and mistrust might be well deserved; for example, for several years the University of Zambia failed to issue audited accounts. This presents dilemmas for governments who might be in any case more inclined to centralized control than to devolve power.

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There are problems with the Ministry of Education. It has a generic view of the needs of the university. They throw resources without fitting into the university’s plan. —An ICT officer

The increased size of higher education institutions in a system undergoing massification has important implications for the management and governance of higher education institutions themselves. The increased size in terms of budgets and learners as well as the greater autonomy puts more pressure on university boards, as they must oversee (and be accountable to government) for much larger budgets and the systems to ensure probity and equity. Fully centralized management structures are also inadequate within this context. Paradoxically, while central systems of monitoring and control within the institution have to be strengthened, decision making and accountability have to be both devolved and formalized. Higher education institutions have been growing more like corporations. The handling of greater autonomy (including the hiring and firing of staff), lump-sum budgets, and formal quality-assurance systems, require the attention of central managers and boards in the institutions. They are increasingly responsible for strategic planning and ensuring sound management, meeting the targets set out by government, and providing the information on finance and quality that are part of their accountability to governments. All of this requires the setting up of central systems within institutions, applied across all departments, for finance, quality assurance, human resource management, strategic planning and management, as well as structures that allow central management to fulfill their tasks. Thus again, there is the paradox of managing a more-autonomous institution, with more departmental decision making, but with a firm regulatory and procedural system dictated and monitored from the center. Sub-Saharan African universities face dilemmas in this more-complex situation. Administrative staff are not necessarily competent; hiring and firing practices might be operated unfairly in terms of political and family allegiance, ethnicity, and gender; and government funding and policies might be unreliable and unpredictable. In addition, the financial and political context might present boards and management with challenges and problems that are entirely outside of their control. Above all, good governance and management at the university level depends on good governance and stability at the national level. Universities cannot be well managed or governed within contexts where the country is not. Unfortunately, many sub-

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Saharan African countries have a recent history and legacy of poor governance, political unrest, and occasionally, extreme violence and even war.

Case Study: Burundi’s Higher Education System Postconflict3 Burundi is one of the poorest countries in the world, with an annual per capita income of US$138. More than half the national budget comes through international aid. Ethnic tension was actively promoted during colonization and continued after independence and culminated in a 12-year civil war between the majority Hutu and minority Tutsi ethnic groups that lasted until 2006. Only a small minority of the appropriate population is enrolled in secondary schooling, and the university sector comprises one public university and three private universities. There is also a technical institute and the Supérieur Normale Institut. The continuing ethnic tensions and economic situation affect the entire sector. There are far too few resources for capital, buildings, and libraries. Faculty and students are inadequately served by poor ICT and Internet connectivity. There are inadequate resources for instructors to engage in research. In order to earn a living wage, lecturers frequently moonlight at other institutions. Many academics are lost to brain drain to other countries. There are a few professors who are active researchers, and some are addressing national issues. The curriculum in public universities is based on outdated and undemanding processes and content. On the other hand, the private universities offer nontraditional and vocational areas of study to students and thus provide an alternative. Even so, ethnicity affects the employment of graduates as much as their achievements. In order to overcome this legacy of poverty, discrimination, and unrest, the universities are making links with Northern universities and actively working on a range of projects together; for example, educating villagers on health and nutrition issues, and providing counseling about, and testing for, HIV/AIDS. The ethnic wars, continuing tension, and poor governance hold back progress in education as in the rest of the country. However, the sector is utilizing help from more-developed countries to modernize their administration and curricula. The demand for higher education is increasing in both ethnic groups. Development work might focus most usefully on helping universities to realize their potential to find new ways to promote a constructive discussion of national issues and reconciliation.

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The Role of Management Within many sub-Saharan African universities, institutional leaders have found themselves at the nexus of contradictory tendencies. The managerialization and corporatization of higher education institutions have been characterized by the concentration of executive authority in the office of the university president (or vice chancellor or rector). In Ethiopia, presidents are still expected to fulfill the role of an academic leader, but financial and administrative affairs are increasingly becoming a central component of their responsibilities. The role of presidents, rectors, or vice chancellors is becoming more and more that of an academic chief executive officer (CEO). This shift to academic CEOs is testimony to the growing reality that higher education institutions are not merely communities of academic peers whose only concern is scholarship, but also major enterprises that place a premium on effectiveness, efficiency, and public accountability. One of the main challenges for central managers is to get the institution to think and act more strategically, and to convince the academics that “being managed” and working in an institution that is run on sound management principles, does not constitute a threat to the traditional values of academe, such as academic freedom (although in some cases it may do so). Many institutions might have originally been small institutions—perhaps a teachers’ training college, or an institute of agriculture that has grown into a comprehensive university. Other institutions might be new, but the managers are again drawn from smaller organizations. This means that those put into positions of leadership and the management of universities might have no previous experience of working or managing a large organization. To help develop an effective higher education sector, you need to understand that university leaders and managers in sub-Saharan Africa are confronting new realities in the most challenging circumstances and that the massification of the system will require new systems and processes. They face the absolute necessity of addressing development agendas in terms of employment, student involvement, curricula, research, and consultancy. Development might focus on helping managers within institutions at every level and governments and their agencies to develop and maintain a range of leadership qualities, such as the ability to think divergently and contemplate solutions to problems that involve redefining the nature of difficulties and the possibilities for response; the ability to motivate, involve, and draw out creativity from individuals; and the ability to manage and understand the dynamics of groups.

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The Links Between University Management and National Government We must tell these universities how to use their autonomy. —A minister for higher education

This new way of overseeing the university sector has been difficult for some governments in sub-Saharan Africa that are reluctant to relinquish their centralized control while at the same time exhorting universities to use their (apparent) autonomy. In systems where governments control the purse strings that finance higher education, ministers have an ultimate sanction over a higher education system that they feel is not heading in the right direction. This is not possible, for example, where there is a large private sector—control might be operated through regulation and accreditation mechanisms. However, most governments, extolling the virtues of democracy, will be reluctant to be seen using “blunt instruments” and therefore rely on more-covert forms of control or influence. This will vary hugely from country to country depending on the culture, confidence of the academic community, and permitted levels of scrutiny of the government. The tradition of very centralized government sometimes stems from the liberation struggles in the colonial era that created movements based on socialist, centralizing ideologies. Some might now be described as emerging democracies, with more enlightened government. However, the governments might still seek to maintain influence and to some degree, control, over the various institutions in the higher education sector. For example, system support units such as quality-assurance agencies and state universities might have the Minister of Education (or other political appointee) as chair of their boards. Government might issue declarations about what universities can and cannot teach; for example, in Ethiopia in 2007, the government ordered that all university curriculum should be 70% science and technology and 30% arts and social sciences. It can be argued that the amount of public money being invested in higher education in a developing country means that the government has a right, if not a duty, to ensure that this money is being spent correctly; however it is often difficult to judge where the line should be drawn between responsible government and political interference.

The Role of University Boards In a university, the board is usually the highest authority, and the board of autonomous higher education institutions will have a very important role;

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in a devolved system it will take over some of the powers and responsibilities of the government. The board carries responsibility for ensuring the effective management of the institution and for planning its future development. This means that university boards must comprise competent persons who understand their roles and responsibilities as board members. Even so, they might need a systematic program of orientation. Reflection UNESCO (1997) suggests that the boards of institutions should also be accountable for ensuring (or assuring themselves that institutional managers have ensured) that policies exist for, among others, the following: ◾◾ A commitment to quality and excellence in teaching, scholar-

◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

◾◾ ◾◾

◾◾ ◾◾

◾◾

ship, and research functions, and an obligation to protect and ensure the integrity of their teaching, scholarship, and research against intrusions inconsistent with their academic missions; Effective support of academic freedom and fundamental human rights; Ensuring high quality education for as many academically qualified individuals as possible; Ensuring that learners are treated fairly and justly, and without discrimination; Ensuring the equitable treatment of women and minorities and eliminating sexual and racial harassment; Ensuring that higher education personnel are not impeded in their work in the classroom or in their research capacity by violence, intimidation or harassment; Honest and open accounting; The creation of statements or codes of ethics to guide higher education personnel in their teaching, scholarship, research, and extension work; Assistance in the fulfillment of economic, social, cultural, and political rights; Ensuring that they address problems facing society; respond to the current and future needs of the local community and of the society at large; enhancing the labor market opportunities of their graduates; Ensuring that classified research will not contradict the educational mission and objectives of the institutions and will not run counter to the general objectives of peace, human rights, sustainable development, and environment.4

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Do you think any of these duties would be compromised or promoted by a board of a university that has political appointees as:

a. members, or b. the chair?

The board is (in theory at least) fundamental to the way individual universities are governed and managed, to their vision and mission and their ethos and values, and must be an example of integrity for all members of the community of the institution. The membership of the board should reflect the gravity of this task and that all responsibilities are covered by the expertise within the board. In many countries, the board must uphold an established set of principles of ethical public service; for example, in Ethiopia, these include honesty, loyalty, transparency, confidentiality, integrity, accountability, serving the public interest, exercising legitimate authority, impartiality, respecting the law, responsiveness, and exercising leadership. Within contexts where poverty, scarce resources, and the temptation to corruption are constant problems, it is very important that the members take very seriously their responsibilities to operate in the overall interests of the institution and all its stakeholders. Ideally, members of the board will have leadership qualities and have knowledge and/or experience of one or more of the following: entrepreneurial vision, financial and resource matters, and knowledge of the higher education sector or strategic planning. They should be innovative, visionary, have both an international and local orientation as appropriate, be excellent communicators, and have good relationships with and feel committed to the local community—difficult qualities to find or to cultivate in the best of circumstances. In addition to the problem of political or ethnic interests in appointments, it can be difficult to recruit a sufficiently large group of competent people who are prepared to meet regularly and to commit themselves to the task. This might be because of a lack of suitably qualified people in the country as a whole, or because the university is based in the provinces, where there is an even smaller pool of suitable people. Reflection Using as an example a university that you know well, research the membership of its board. Try to determine why they have been appointed to this body.

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Do they appear to bring particular skills and experience? Do they represent particular stakeholder interests? Are they representatives of influential bodies such as local or national political parties? Do you think there are any obvious gaps in the composition of this body? Can you suggest ways in which these gaps might be filled?

Promoting Sustainability Through an Enabling Culture The history of authoritarian rule in many sub-Saharan countries means that the road toward autonomous, freestanding institutions requires a paradigm shift in thinking and action at every level of the sector and institution. This could be described as a move toward an “enabling culture” that stimulates creative thinking, risk taking and the expression of opinions throughout the institutions. This culture might be encouraged by reflective management that is willing to enquire into its own strengths and weaknesses, the development of democratic fora to give learners and staff a voice in the organization, proper human resources management, the development of a service and community orientation, and a proper concern for the social problems of the country. Such involvement helps to ensure that change and development are internalized and embedded in the system, and therefore that they are sustainable. An enabling culture is one where all people at all levels, including all categories of staff and learner representatives, are involved in the formulation and implementation of the mission and vision of the institution; where they feel their voices are heard and their creativity can be applied. Learners, staff, and managers each have much to offer if they are willing and enabled to contribute to the country’s needs in their own way. However, in many sub-Saharan African higher education institutions, especially those in the public sector, there can be a pervading negativity that is associated with a blame culture, seeking excuses for failures and a lack of initiative. Staff might be reluctant to take responsibility and seek to avoid the real issues. We have observed a fear of risk, experimentation, and failure that can result in passivity and a deficiency of creative thinking at all levels. This is possibly symptomatic of cultures where jobs are scarce and job security even scarcer. Holding onto a state job usually also means that the recipient will receive a state pension upon retirement—an important matter in poor countries.

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In some cases, there is also an authoritarian management culture and style that is inappropriate for modern organizations; for example, arbitrary decision making without appropriate consultation. Such authoritarian attitudes can be evident at every level. Managers can be reluctant to let go of decision making and their involvement in trivia and administration to the detriment of more-strategic issues and leadership. This might then result in a lack of empowerment for those below them in the decision-making hierarchies and can reinforce the sense of dependency and passivity. Paradoxically, this authoritarian culture also disables managers and leaders at more senior levels from taking and fully using the autonomy that they have been granted. Higher education institutions leaders also can be too dependent upon permission from above and, even when provided with the tools of autonomy, can be reluctant to lose their dependency on government to solve their problems. In an enabling culture, staff and learners would be considered as partners in the decision-making process and in the evaluation of the services that they receive. Their critical input would be sought and welcomed as a means for sustaining improvement in the services, both academic and nonacademic, provided to them. The culture and history of the people leads to attitudes of deference within the workplace and political sphere. This discourages initiatives and ideas that have not been generated by the “boss.” —An embassy education secretary

Staff are sometimes not organized (in many countries there exists no formal association of university teachers). Where institutions do not put other mechanisms in place (such as open meetings and one-to-one meetings with line managers), they have very little voice to influence the management process. It is through such processes that issues can be resolved, academic and administrative staff made partners committed to the institutional endeavor, and their creativity and insights used to improve the operation and group working. Creating an enabling culture is not just a responsibility of university management. Government also needs to honor the autonomy of institutions and not be tempted to occupy itself within their internal management, such as in determining details of curriculum development or hours taught per credit. Steering can be achieved by focusing on the input or output indicators; for example, through a financial-allocation model and a

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sound quality-assurance system. The process of achieving the required outputs and outcomes with the inputs provided might then be mainly a matter for higher education institutions to deal with. The creation of an enabling culture requires changes in the management of higher education institutions in many sub-Saharan countries. Specifically, it requires management to create autonomy for decentralized units while at the same time creating systems that secure accountability of these decentralized units; for example, human resource management policies and learner rights that uphold standards and safeguard democratic participation of all actors within the institution. This is difficult, but not impossible within contexts where there might be ethnic tensions, a danger of corruption, and a paucity of resources and staff time. Creating a more enabling culture requires transparency in decision making and good communication that explains what decisions have been made, how the decision has been reached, and why particular decisions were decided upon. Senior managers could, for example, ensure that all committee and senate documents are open and available to all staff, unless they are specifically designated confidential, when particular items might be omitted. An enabling culture is also one that subscribes to the norms of good professional life within that country, public expenditure management and control, human recourses management, ethics, top management systems, and service delivery improvement. This implies that university leaders have a responsibility to act in morally as well as educationally defensible ways and to influence learners and other stakeholders toward notions of professional standards, including ethical ones. This requires a long-term view; for instance, to equip graduates as employers (as well as employees) who are equipped to develop workplaces that operate according to principles of entrepreneurial risk taking, openness, and professional standards as well as achieving depth in their subject. It implies that there are checks and balances to ensure ethical dealing; for instance, in relation to the assessment of students, in the openness of the board, in the transparent dealings of managers with their workforce, and in the recruitment and reward of staff. This philosophy of enablement also applies to organizations that seek to contribute to development and the ways that they work with their partners. The single most important challenge is to get people to take on leadership willingly. They always ask me what they should do next, and I say they are in a better position than I am to answer that. —Director of an institute of technology

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The role of a development worker might be to engage in interpersonal discussion and reflection with those who can influence the organizational culture, and to encourage continuous action to ensure that such principles are sustained. Models such as the notion of reflective practice and tools such as enquiry into practice can be used to develop leadership skills and an enabling culture. It can be difficult then for someone who comes from outside the system, culture, and country to try and establish a more proactive attitude among staff. They might face a resistance to the changes, and there can be many reasons for this; for example, it might be because of a belief in tradition (it has always been done this way), or because of a sense of insecurity (if we do things differently and they do not work out, I might lose my job), or perhaps because the people involved do not feel confident about their ability to undertake new tasks and responsibilities. Sometimes this apathy or hostility may be because they have seen development workers come along before, try to change things, and then leave after a relatively short period of time, and then everything reverts back to the original ways. Those who are more successful in achieving sustainable change establish a culture that, long term, will be beneficial to the institution, the sector, and the country as a whole. If successfully implemented, an enabling culture is tolerant of different ideas and recognizes that sustainable change takes time, but also needs support. It fosters creative thinking and encourages the consideration of novel ideas, and it might be the only way to transform a country’s higher education sector so it can make its proper contribution to poverty reduction.

Reflection Think about your own attitudes to change and especially to situations where you have felt uncomfortable about what someone is asking you to do. What strategies help you to adapt to changing situations? What can other people do to support you through a process of change? How can these strategies be modified to work in a development situation? Are there other strategies that you can think of that have not been mentioned so far?

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Strategic Planning Strategic planning is the point where national governance and institutional governance through the board and management come together. Each provides leadership of different parts of the process, and the extent that they do so determines the success of development plans for the institution and, collectively, of the sector as a whole. Local and national government is responsible for providing clear and reliable predictions about funding streams and national and local social, economic, and academic priorities and (most importantly) the civil and financial stability that makes rational planning possible. Where there is extreme volatility in the economy, perhaps caused by factors such as commodity prices or climate variation that are not within the government’s control, this is very challenging, but without some certainty, strategic planning is not viable. Strategic planning is the process whereby a university sets the long-term direction and priorities. It is the responsibility of the board to set the overall long-term direction of a university (through determining its mission and vision) and to approve and monitor a strategic plan that takes the external context (national and local developmental objectives, funding, and social challenges) and internal aspirations, resources, and capacity into account. Senior management is responsible for the strategic planning process. This is increasingly important as higher education institutions become more autonomous and less dependant upon the direction being imposed from the center. Management at every level is then responsible for implementation and monitoring—taking action to achieve the agreed-upon goals and monitoring progress or nonachievement in order to adapt the future strategy. Sometimes planning is ineffective because of a failure at each of these three levels to the detriment of the sector as a whole and the staff and students within it. The following case study illustrates the challenges in the operation of the three levels.

Case Study: The Crisis in Higher Education Planning in Francophone Africa5 Higher education in francophone Africa has suffered constant financial crises since independence. These result from a range of problems caused by central government planning: ◾◾ Periods of unsustainable spending and increasing enrollments

114    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa ◾◾ Worsening economic conditions and the constraints of structural

adjustment ◾◾ Government closure of universities ◾◾ The devaluation of the currency of these countries (the CFA Franc) in

January 1994. But poor planning at institutional level has also contributed to university problems: ◾◾ Declining quality, and irrelevance to national needs ◾◾ Graduate unemployment and underemployment ◾◾ Lack of innovation and knowledge creation ◾◾ The low quality of teaching ◾◾ High dropout rates, which increases the cost per graduate ◾◾ Unnecessarily high costs of higher education ◾◾ Student unrest and riots on campuses.

Some of these failures have been exacerbated by the colonial legacy. The tradition of free university education inherited from France has led to unsustainable increases in enrollments, leading to overcrowding and poor quality teaching and overstretched facilities and resources. Universities are often organized like very old-fashioned French higher education institutions and so are ill-adapted to modern requirements. Management is also old-fashioned, authoritarian, and hierarchical and does not involve students in the planning process. Planning deficiencies are at the heart of the failure of academic programs to meet the needs of students and the economy. The promotion of faculty and assessment of students has not adapted well to modern requirements and sometimes remains rigid and potentially unfair. University course structures are generally linear and traditional and cannot adapt easily to changing priorities. At the national level, the devaluation of the currency has created an environment of uncertainty and increases in costs of books and equipment, while income for maintenance and salaries is severely constrained, leading to staff moonlighting in second jobs and an acute shortage of academic staff. The conditions imposed by the structural adjustment funds supplied by donors has led to higher education being among the lowest priorities for public spending, and there has been a failure by government and university management to develop plans to fill the spending gap. Rectifying these problems requires better planning and action at all levels— central government, university boards, and institutional management.

In most African universities and systems, the importance of good strategic planning is recognized at least in theory. Sometimes the reality is more difficult to implement in a way that offers benefits and guidance rather

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than being just another fruitless and time-consuming process. One of the key tasks of governance and leadership in a university is to oversee a strategic planning process that helps generate ideas and encourages creative thinking; therefore a purely mechanistic approach can stifle creativity and be an obstacle to flexibility and opportunity. Most university senior managers that we meet in sub-Saharan Africa understand the need to clearly identify their institution’s vision, mission, and objectives. They see the relevance of establishing priorities and targets for improvement, but they do not always take the actions to achieve them. In developed higher education systems, strategic planning is a routine governance matter, and progress has been made over a long period to improve the rigor of universities’ strategic plans. In African systems going through a rapid growth and change without adequate resources, the challenges are considerable. The decisions and choices that institutions must make become evermore complex. For many senior managers, the strategic planning process is something new, and they might have to experience several cycles of the strategic planning process before they can fully understand how it works. For example, it is quite likely that a higher education institution’s long-term objectives will not be achieved exactly as stated, as unforeseen changes in the internal and external environment are inevitable and can mean that objectives need to be reviewed or revised. This means that the implementation and monitoring process is vital to retain the flexibility to adjust as circumstances change, exploit unexpected opportunities, and respond to unforeseen threats. Senior management is also responsible for overseeing the implementation plan that follows the strategic planning process. Within resource-poor contexts, it might be that the higher education institution cannot do everything immediately that comes out of the strategic planning process, and so it is senior management who are responsible for making decisions regarding which priorities should be resourced and consequently, which priorities are not to be resourced and in effect are sacrificed. We are keen however to point out that nothing we have said should be taken to imply that strategic planning is some sort of “magic bullet” that will solve the problems that sub-Saharan African systems face. Done properly, it can help to clarify and choose between options, it can help to ensure that faculty sign up to the objectives and goals of the institution, and it can ensure a consistency of direction. On the other hand, strategic plans can be a means to demonstrate nominal compliance with government expectation, but thereafter sit on a shelf gathering dust. Often the university’s strategic plan is the story the university leadership tells to create a coherent narrative out of things it is doing, or intends to do, sometimes

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with, but often without, a planning process. Alternatively, the plan can be a wish list summing up and justifying everything that might possibly be done in a planning period and thus avoiding the hard and unpopular decisions that real prioritizing of scarce resources requires. Reflection Think about a university that you know well, name all the stakeholder groups you can think of, and prioritize them in order of importance for the strategic planning process. Discuss your list with a colleague with more experience than you have. Consider how easy or difficult it might be for a university in a lessdeveloped country to get feedback on its plans from each group of stakeholders. Also consider how you might prioritize the feedback from different stakeholders; for example, is the feedback from students more important than the feedback from local government officials?

System Support Units Some countries have established autonomous or quasi-autonomous organizations to provide for good governance and leadership or management accountability of the sector. Examples include Ethiopia’s Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency, set up to monitor and report on quality; or South Africa’s Centre for Higher Education Transformation (CHET). CHET is a nongovernmental organization whose mission is to mobilize transdisciplinary skills for specific research and capacity development projects by tapping available expertise in the national and international higher education sector.6 It coordinates a network of higher education researchers and provides a forum for dialogue between the different structures, stakeholders, and constituencies in higher education. Another example is Mozambique’s Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology, which was established in 2000 to coordinate expansion of tertiary-level education in Mozambique and promote equity of access to higher education.7 The ministry prepared Mozambique’s strategic plan for higher education and the operational plan for the higher education project, as well as other activities. In addition, there are international bodies that support leadership and governance, such as the Pan-African Institute of University Governance (IPAGU).8 This is a new institute, established in 2010 and based in Cameroon, which aims to strengthen the governance and management of African uni-

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versities throughout sub-Saharan Africa. It is anticipated that the institute will take an interest in all areas of governance (academic, administrative, financial, social, digital, and scientific) and function as an observatory of higher education in Africa. Other international organizations include the Forum for African Women Educationalists, which brings together African women ministers in charge of national education systems, female university vice chancellors, and other senior women policymakers in education in Africa9; and the Inter-University Council for East Africa (IUCEA), which works with institutions of higher learning in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.10 The activity of these sector-support units are of concern to all senior people responsible for higher education and research governance in Africa—ministers and their officials, vice chancellors, rectors, deans, general secretaries, and administrators as well as donors. Sometimes it is not clear if the benefits that these organizations bring to the higher education sector outweigh the costs of establishing and running them. One objective of development workers supporting such units is to bring all the actors together to make them construct their own functioning models of governance, leadership, and management that take account of Northern knowledge but that are constructed within the context by those with responsibility for the context. Reflection How might you support a university management seeking to improve within a context where there is systemic corruption or ethnic discrimination?

Conclusion The governance of higher education systems in sub-Saharan Africa is likely to be very different from the experience of governance in universities in developed countries. For someone educated in a more-developed higher education system, it can be difficult to appreciate the issues of capacity; much of sub-Saharan African higher education suffers from problems of governance at every level. In situations of routine corruption, nepotism, ethnic hostility, and civil and financial instability, development of the higher education system and universities seems almost impossible. Development workers will need to recognize that these factors are part of the problem and that they must be faced. However, it is not all negative; good leadership and management does exist in many places that face deep problems, and this demonstrates that it can be achieved even in a hostile environment. In many cases, the leaders and managers understand the constraints that they operate under, know how things should be done, and want to make their

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institution work better. The role of someone working in development is to help them do this. The case studies above show how the quality of leadership and management decisions can alleviate problems or alternatively allow them to grow and become systemic.

Notes 1. This case study draws extensively on an article by Otieno, W. (2008, Summer). Politics, ethnicity, and the mission of the university: The Kenyan example. International Higher Education, 52, 24–25. Boston College Center for International Higher Education. 2. Neave G., & Van Vught, F. (1994). Government and higher education in developing nations: A conceptual framework. In G. Neave & F. Van Vught (Eds.), Government and higher education relationships across three continents. New York: Pergamon. 3. This case study is largely based on an article by Finnegan, D. E. (2009, Fall). Burundi: Challenges and conflicts. International Higher Education, 57, 15–16. Boston College Center for International Higher Education. 4. UNESCO. (1997). Recommendations concerning the status of higher education teaching personnel. Adopted by the General Council of UNESCO, Paris, France. 5. This case-study is based on Brossard, M., & Foko, B. (2008). Costs and financing of higher education in francophone Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. 6. http://www.chet.org.za/mission/. Accessed August 31, 2010. 7. http://www.mesct.gov.mz/ 8. http://www.ipagu.org/IMG/pdf/IPAGU_news_bulletin_n001_3rd_nov _2010.pdf 9. http://www.fawe.org/ 10. http://www.iucea.org

6 Higher Education Management

The leaders that we have should be trained. It takes political awareness, knowing how to play the game. Leaders don’t listen. —A faculty head in a university

MAIN POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER: ◾◾ Governance and management ◾◾ Roles of the executive ◾◾ The Ethiopian Higher Education Systems Overhaul Study (HESO) and its outcomes ◾◾ The management of people and resources ◾◾ Team building in Zambia ◾◾ Equality ◾◾ Health issues

U

niversities in developed countries are generally large organizations. In countries such as the United States, they often generate revenues equivalent to hundreds of millions of dollars and include thousands of staff and many tens of thousands of students. However, it is important to under-

Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 119–140 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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stand that in sub-Saharan Africa, the situation is very different in that, by Northern standards, universities might have relatively small budgets, but nonetheless they are major employers in their locality and among the most significant regional enterprises. It is therefore surprising that so little attention is given to preparing staff for management positions and that there is often little support and training once staff are appointed to managerial positions. University management is not necessarily seen as a distinct (and wellrewarded) career path. When you talk to managers in many sub-Sahara African universities, you will discover that the rewards for university management are relatively low (often set by the government), so that management is not seen as an attractive option for the most able staff. This is not a situation that would be tolerated by a major private company and creates a systemic problem that probably contributes to underperformance by the sector as a whole in relation to its contribution to poverty reduction. As we have mentioned, universities in sub-Sahara African countries are being given more autonomy and accountability. This means that it is no longer viable for management to be “amateur” or the reward for a good academic life or political loyalty. In more-developed countries, the need for more professional managers has been recognized and organizations set up to develop expertise (such as the Higher Education Academy in the UK1). Staff are prepared and rewarded for management roles, with mentoring and systematic training of new managers at all levels now routine. Pay for university managers has been increased and accountability in the form of appraisal linked to performance-related bonus systems is now commonplace. We maintain that university sectors seem to perform better where governments oversee and establish systems for financial probity but do not get involved in the details of university management or leadership; such interference is both inefficient and an infringement of academic autonomy.

The Role of Governance and the Executive With this increasingly professionalized management has come a clearer definition of the roles of the board (or governing body) of the institution, the executive (the top management) and the middle-management layer (the deans and section heads). Boards are responsible for appointing and holding the executive to account. They are not involved in the day-to-day management of the institution, but will approve institutional budgets and auditing systems, estate plans, strategic plans, and other major directional documents prepared by the executive, and receive and consider a variety of external and internal auditing reports.

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The executive will have the role of overall management of the institution and drafting the general direction and major investment decisions for the approval of the board. The executive will also have oversight of the management of all systems, staff, teaching, research, community service, student services, estates, and resources within the institution. They will set out and communicate policies and the strategic direction to the staff. Faculty managers will manage staff, teaching, research, community service, and resources, and section heads will look after systems, services, resources, and facilities for their areas of responsibility. Each of these middle managers will set the direction for their area of responsibility within the general framework set by the board and the executive, and these plans and their execution will be approved and overseen by the executive. In some countries such as the United States, where there is a strong privatized higher education sector, the government might have very little influence over the system. In others such as the UK, they might set general guidelines and conditions of funding that ensure that higher education institutions work within some national targets for areas such as student enrollments and access for underprivileged groups. In some other European countries, there remain obstacles to the sort of autonomy for universities that is necessary for modernization; public authorities still play too central a role in the regulation of the higher education system and sometimes exert direct control (Osborn, 2009).2 In many sub-Saharan African countries, this separation of function and responsibility might not be so clear. For example, the board might interfere with decisions (micromanagement) that are rightly within the purview of the executive. Governments might interfere in policy areas and the direction of the institution that are not rightly within their set of responsibilities, such as the payment and reward of staff or the content of the curriculum. This lack of clarity is more likely where there is a culture of authoritarianism and low trust. Governments and boards might not feel confident that institutional managers are truly competent to make the important decisions, and in some cases, this lack of trust and confidence might be justified. A fear that government might overrule decisions taken by institutional managers can inhibit initiative and decision making. Researchers have noted that in the last decade or so, development in higher education in sub-Saharan Africa has focused on institutional approaches to create maximum impact (Teferra, 2009).3 The role of a development worker might therefore be usefully concentrated on the competence and skills of university management and leadership at all levels and on the ways that they work together.

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CASE STUDY: THE ETHIOPIAN HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEMS OVERHAUL STUDY (HESO) During the period 2003 to 2005, we worked in Ethiopia as Higher Education Management Advisors to the Minister of Education. The Vice Minister of Higher Education requested we lead a study to inform higher education strategy in Ethiopia: the Report of the Higher Education Strategy Overhaul Committee of Inquiry into Governance. Leadership and Management in Ethiopia’s Higher Education System (HESO) (Ashcroft, 2004).4 The vice minister established a team of presidents and academic vice presidents of public and private sector higher education institutions, higher education management advisors to two of the universities, and a senior official from the Ministry of Education to examine and analyze the leadership, governance, and management of the higher education sector and to suggest ways that the higher education system should be overhauled to enable it to better meet Ethiopia’s development needs. The HESO team undertook research by visiting public and private sector higher education institutions, reading a range of documents from Ethiopia and abroad in hard copy and on the Internet, reading reports of other visits to higher education institutions, and interviewing a range of experts. The study also drew upon visits undertaken by us (with others) during 2004 to eight of the nine then-existing Ethiopian public higher education institutions, four of the private institutions that aspire to university status, the Civil Service College, and a higher education institution that is funded by the Ministry of Defense. During the visits to the institutions, we generally conducted a series of meetings with groups of senior managers, academic staff, and students. Thus, the HESO study drew upon group interviews with top and middle managers; academic and administrative staff, students in almost all of Ethiopia’s then-existing public sector higher education institutions, plus four others; and observation of facilities in 10 institutions and discussion with facilities managers in 6 institutions. The HESO team identified central problems related to governance, management, and leadership that lead to a range of other related problems that could threaten the expansion and reform of higher education in Ethiopia including ◾◾ Higher education institutions, government, and its agencies had not

been preparing sufficiently for the new situation of expansion, autonomy, and accountability. ◾◾ The institutional culture exhibited by government, its agencies, and higher education institutions was disabling and authoritarian, and inhibited progress toward the development needs of the country. ◾◾ Higher education institutions, government, and its agencies had responded inadequately to the challenge of HIV/AIDS

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The Higher Education Proclamation of 20035 created the conditions for universities to enjoy relative autonomy, but in 2004, the sector was ill-equipped to deal with the leadership, governance, and management challenges this would bring. The Ministry of Education had not yet informed universities about the details of and the phasing in of the funding formula and block grant. Government, higher education institution managers, and boards had not yet developed new structures and ways of operating to take account of the new autonomy given to universities nor developed new and more-rigorous forms of accountability. The government recognized these problems, which is one reason why the HESO study was set up. The Ministry of Education itself was not prepared, nor had it thought through the implications for itself of the new proclamation and the change in relationship between the universities and the ministry that it presupposed. Higher education is a people-based business. This implies that the management of staff is central to the success of the operation. With respect to human resources management, we found the new situation of autonomy and accountability placed new burdens and responsibilities on managers and boards, and presented them with new opportunities for improvement. University and college managers felt there was ambiguity in the Proclamation and were reluctant to develop an appropriate range of modern and effective practices and procedures, such as regular and systematic staff appraisal and differential rewards for those staff who became outcome oriented and responsible, independent employees. The problem was that they believed that policies might change at any time and they might be found culpable for their decisions made in good faith. The HESO team found aspects of a disabling culture within higher education institutions, in particular, a “blame culture.” Institutional managers were insufficiently outcome oriented and were not yet empowering staff to take appropriate responsibility or appropriately encouraging and rewarding them for so doing. The HESO team’s research indicated that higher education institutions did not have a culture that put stakeholders at the heart of the quality process, although the responsibility for the development of robust quality systems and standards that would meet national needs was located with higher education institution managers and boards.

The Manager as Leader Education needs to create a strong academic element of leaders and analytical thinkers who were prepared to problem-solve and move things forward. This applies across most professions; there seems to be a cultural hurdle to cross where individuals don’t take responsibility for problems as they occur for fear of being blamed if things go wrong. —A UNESCO education officer

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Management is not just about getting work done efficiently and effectively. Higher education depends upon the attitudes of people at all levels and their willingness and ability to work hard and inspire others. The top and middle management in universities and colleges (generally, directorate, deans, and service managers) must therefore lead the institution, or a part of the institution, and the people within it in terms of ideas and direction, as well as manage resources, ensure quality, organize, delegate, supervise, evaluate, and motivate. Thus, managers have a leadership role. This role is shared with others in the sector: government officers, ministers, and board members. These other individuals and bodies set the overall direction of the sector or the organization, but are unwise if they do not consult with and take seriously the advice of top managers within the institutions. The manager of a university, faculty, or department should have a clear idea of the direction that should be taken within the overall direction set for the country as a whole (or for the institution for section mangers). This should be based not only on an accurate assessment of the circumstances of the organization (or section), but also on a clear perception of what it should aspire to and the contribution it should be making. The extent to which the manager can visualize a better future and communicate this vision is an important factor in his or her success. Academics are motivated by ideas and values. They are relatively idealistic. Therefore a manager who appears to be only interested in getting the best out of resources will ultimately not be successful. Although, of course, he or she must take account of the best use of resources; this is insufficient in itself. Academics will never be motivated by a dream of moving “cheaply into the future.” They wish to see how their individual actions will contribute to the collective good. Staff do have a tendency to see things from their own point of view and to equate their own interests with those of society as a whole. It is a leadership challenge to inspire them to work for a university that exists to further development, not merely to pursue their own studies and interests. Less-developed countries cannot afford academic self-interest to be a prime motivator. Academics in particular must be led to a more idealistic view of their contribution to their country. Summing this up in a way that can be internalized and shared with staff is an important skill. REFLECTION Think about the university managers that you know; which ones did you like? Which ones did you think were effective? Do some managers appear on both lists?

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What attributes did the effective managers have? Are there any attributes that were particularly inappropriate for managers?

There is a misunderstanding in many sub-Saharan universities that higher education institutions should be democracies that can be run effectively and make their best contribution if each matter is decided by voting and if all officers are elected. In our opinion, this idea is fundamentally flawed. The votes would privilege the interests of one set of stakeholders (staff, and especially those who sit on key committees) over others (students, external stakeholders, and so on) and deny the interests of these others’ consideration. It also tends to lead to progress being blocked where change requires adaptation by those so privileged. Most Western university sectors have become more managerial precisely to counter the provider centeredness (as opposed to customer focus) that has often proven a brake on development. Less-developed countries might need to go in this direction too if their higher education sectors are to make the real contributions that are needed. There is, of course, a tension between managerialism and leadership that requires a creative resolution. Increased managerialism should not be taken to mean that autocracy, however benign, is an effective form of leadership. Interestingly, we have noticed in some sub-Saharan African countries a tendency, alongside an overly producer-centered system, for appointed managers to adopt autocratic leadership styles. These styles have fundamental flaws when it comes to the leadership of a people-centered operation such as a university, where staff motivation is key to success. What we are advocating instead is a consultative style of leadership, where voices of various stakeholders are heard, including, but not exclusively, those of the academic staff, but where the leaders are not afraid to make hard decisions and then explain them to the workforce and others when that is necessary. Thus, participation, not democracy, is the key. This style is likely to be particularly difficult for managers in less-developed countries, since it requires that they work against what might be a predominant culture of deference to authority and avoid oversimplistic interpretations of what defines academic freedom. It will require them to take a sophisticated and disinterested view of what constitutes the common good. Good managers are required in this model to be able to make the imaginative leap from “what is” to “what should be,” communicate this vision, and to decide and communicate a set of steps that will lead the institution to this better place.

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REFLECTION Ask to look at documentation within an institution where you work or study relating to the role of the board (or governing body) and the executive (or top management). What leadership roles are ascribed to each of these? Look at the terms of reference for key committees (for example, the senate, academic board, or academic commission). Are any of these given a leadership role? Are there overlaps between the roles of these various bodies? What problems and advantages can you see with the way leadership might operate within these formal structures?

The Manager as a Reflective Practitioner The role of the manager is to enable the staff in the organization to work productively and effectively toward the direction that has been agree-upon through the leadership function. In this sense, it is allied to, but distinct from, the leadership role. There are various models that have been developed that may apply to a greater or lesser extent to management in sub-Saharan universities. We do not advocate any one in particular but suggest that the learning that is needed to improve management is personal and interpersonal Those who wish to support that learning might find models useful only insofar as they help university managers to diagnose their own problems and discuss together how they will change their attitudes and behavior to overcome them and share strategies that work. In this spirit, we suggest that the 1 Minute Manager (Blanchard, Zigarmi, & Zigarmi, 1985) might be a useful starting point.6 This is an easy-to-grasp set of ideas that centers around people empowerment and motivation: the notion of explaining carefully the goals and achievements that a manager needs from his or her staff, helping them to diagnose their strengths and where they need to develop more competence, catching staff doing the right thing and praising and rewarding them for so doing, and helping them to improve their work when it is not up to standard. The point of such models is to provide a language and framework to enable people to analyze their own skills, their relationships with others, and their particular context, and so come to an understanding of how they can be better in their role. No one model can provide a prescription for “good” management for all people in all situations.

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Senge’s (2006) work suggests that those who wish to support institutional managers to change and to support organizational learning should focus on the contributions that people can make to the purpose of the organization as a whole.7 His work suggests that a development worker should never accept blaming others (in or outside of the organization) at face value. If he is correct that true proactiveness comes from seeing how we contribute to our own problems as a product of thinking, the role of the development worker should be to support such thinking rather than to train people. A focus on gradual progress and changes to the self and to processes of interaction, rather than a focus on particular events is more likely to result in the kind of deep learning that will lead to real change. Thinking, reflecting, and contemplating take time. There is a temptation to break up decisions into components, but it might be more useful to support a process that enables those within the context to see the broader picture. The manager in the leadership role will need to lead discussions that enable his or her staff to make accurate assessments of the situation from their point of view but also from the perspectives of others. Leaders have to look forward to try and predict consequences of various courses of action, generally in consultation with those affected. Raising difficult questions is more important than solving urgent problems, though it might not seem so at the time. The skill is to use the different perspectives within a management team and not to be afraid to disagree.

Management and Leadership Challenges in Sub-Saharan Higher Education We have mentioned elsewhere in this book that sub-Saharan Africa is experiencing trends within its higher education system that occur in many countries elsewhere; for example, the move from an elite to a mass system, increasing expectations of students who are contributing to the cost of their education, and increasing accountability demands. The expansion of the university system often leads to financial difficulties and deterioration in conditions of study and research as increasing student numbers are not matched by the expansion of facilities and staff. The privatization of higher education is also increasing. In part, this is a consequence of governments’ desire to increase enrollments to match the increase in the educated schoolleavers and deteriorating standards in public sector universities (Tamrat, 2008).8 Students are more willing to pay for what they might see as a better product. In addition, as fast as the increase generally is in the public sector, population increases and increased numbers of well-educated young

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people leaving secondary school often mean that the demand for higher education still outstrips supply, further fuelling the growth in the private sector and increasing pressure to expand the public higher education system even faster. There is a lack of evidence of a link between learning outcomes from HE, jobs, and poverty reduction in Africa. —Education adviser from the donor community

In many countries, there is a growing demand for accountability centered on academic productivity and funding: the intention to achieve more graduates without a noticeable loss of quality while at the same time diminishing the unit of resource. If this challenge is to be met, administration must be more professionalized. There is a lack of match between employer and stakeholder requirements and the curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment methods developed by some African universities. The employers and others we interviewed for various studies in these countries consistently emphasized the need for graduates that display self-confidence, initiative, inquisitiveness, and creativity. These can best be developed through particular pedagogic skills that require more time than traditional teaching. This creates a challenge for academic managers within systems that are often highly centralized, making local innovation and responsiveness more difficult. We have discussed in the previous chapter the lack of an enabling culture. This has been recognized by staff at all levels in our interviews but, despite this recognition, they have not found it easy to change. This lack is not the result of incompetence as managers in each of these countries use creativity to solve the problems they face. The difficulty is that they focus mostly on the immediate and urgent logistics of managing an expanded system that can barely cope. This means that management development is generally ad hoc, occurring in small pockets in individual universities. It might not be systematized or sectorwide. Too often there is a negativity that is associated with a blame culture, seeking excuses for failures, and a lack of initiative. Managers report that their subordinates are reluctant to take responsibility, and they do not see that there might be ways to change this. It seems to be, in part, a result of a fear of risk at all levels as experimentation can result in failure, and if this is accompanied by blame, it will result in passivity and discourage creative thinking at all levels.

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CASE STUDY: TEAM BUILDING IN ZAMBIA Senior managers in two of Zambia’s universities decided that they wished to develop more of a team or “we” spirit and asked for help in the form of a residential workshop. As part of this, the managers were asked to do the following task: ◾◾ Individually list the two most important qualities or actions that you

expect from each of your colleagues so that you can do you job well ◾◾ In which qualities were your expectations well met and which are the

aspects where you would like improvements? ◾◾ List what each of your colleagues can expect from you to support

them in their role ◾◾ In which aspects do you think their expectations are well met and in

which aspects might they reasonably hope for improvements? ◾◾ Present your lists to your colleagues and the potential benefits of your

suggested improvements ◾◾ Discuss which changes are required for the management team as a

whole to improve your functioning ◾◾ Report the headlines of the results to your colleagues of the other university To begin with, the managers were very concerned and worried about the task and started very hesitantly. After quite a bit of discussion, they agreed to “give it a go,” and each started to make their individual list and prepared for the discussion. We allowed an hour for the group discussion, but in the end the teams took far longer, voluntarily continuing into the evening free time and even after supper. All the members of the group found that they had learned things about themselves that surprised them and would enable them to be a better team member in the future. All reported that their colleagues had been supportive and understanding in their comments and that the exercise had been far less threatening than they had thought. What was interesting and surprising was that, although all had recognized group working as a problem, none had previously addressed how they were working together explicitly. There seems to be a reluctance to discuss matters that touch on personal style, even though everyone recognizes that they are important. A number of headline learning matters emerged from the management team exercise, including the importance of ◾◾ Supporting each other ◾◾ Giving timely feedback ◾◾ Effective and regular communication ◾◾ Recognition of each others’ responsibility and authority ◾◾ Coordination between the separate departments

130    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa ◾◾ Regular consultation ◾◾ Accuracy in communication

What was interesting to us and to them was that they knew the importance of each of these matters before the exercise, but that knowing was at a much more detailed and deeper level following it. The evaluation in the following months indicated that there had been real and lasting changes as a result of this learning. The point we took from the exercise and its success in changing behavior is that learning that is solely based on information and knowledge is much less effective than learning that touches emotions in changing behavior. What these people needed in order to make changes was not knowledge about management styles that work within more-developed contexts, but to take what they already knew about good management and really unpack its meanings for them, as a team, working together within that context.

Policy and Planning as Management Issues in Development We have noticed a tendency in less-developed countries for the urgent to drown out the important. Some of this might be because of poor time management, but much of the problem is because of a lack of willingness to think through the tasks that are delegated by government and by the higher education institution management. This does not create adequate time for two-way discussion and for managers to brief staff on their duties. Problems are often compounded by a lack of monitoring systems. Too often we have seen government and managers give their subordinates totally unrealistic deadlines and fail to take account of the overload of other duties. This leads to plans that are never properly implemented and tasks being done badly, or late. We have previously mentioned planning as a strategic issue, but it is important to reiterate that managers need to get away from the view that plans created quickly are any sort of answer to problems, and that doing things sooner is always better than doing them thoroughly. In the sub-Saharan African countries we have worked in, the most frequent complaint from managers is that they cannot rely on their subordinates to get on with the jobs they are given and constantly have to be checking or find that they are let down. At least some of this problem seems to result from a lack of direction in the beginning: managers themselves have not thought through the steps that would be needed to complete the tasks, they have not looked at the resources such as time and equipment that might be needed for it and provided the means to achieve these, and they have not talked through with

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the person delegated as to how they will achieve the task. This leads to failure and a slippage of timescales and ultimately, to frustration of objectives. Ministers might not have the time to properly consider the effects of their decisions. The results can be whimsical changes of direction that are not thought through and that waste time, energy, and resources. In observing this phenomenon within various contexts, we have been led to the conclusion that there are various forces at work that allow governments to interfere in this unhelpful way that are largely absent in better-functioning systems. Firstly, governments might be impatient for reforms to have the desired effect. Secondly, the turnover of top management in universities is also too high. Thus, university leaders are inexperienced and unable to protect their institutions from inadequately formulated policies. Thirdly, university managers are too often political appointees. This means that they are unduly influenced by political party considerations and might even be in danger of losing their jobs if they challenge government decisions. Finally, there tends to be very weak lobbying mechanisms in the university sector. Public sector universities might not always club together to agree on desirable policy lines and then work together to influence government. They do not mobilize their alumni in the defense of academic freedoms, and they do not work with a free press (or sometimes even have access to a free press) to allow other stakeholders such as students and the community to have access to their arguments.

CASE STUDY: THE OUTCOMES FROM THE HESO STUDY (ASHCROFT, 2004)9 The lack of trust and confidence between the elements of the sector described in an earlier case study remains a systemic problem that impedes progress. The fears of higher education institution managers were sometimes well founded: presidents and vice presidents of universities who offend ministers do find themselves demoted, and new ministers do appear to interpret the proclamation differently from their predecessors. On the other hand, higher education institutions have worked together on mechanisms for monitoring quality and standards with the HERQA having a supervisory and supportive role. HIV/AIDS represented one of the most serious challenges to Ethiopia’s potential for development. Universities contain two of the groups most vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection (young people and teachers). Students represent a major investment for the country’s future and HIV/AIDS jeopardizes this investment. Higher education managers have worked with staff and students to introduce student-oriented policies and HIV/AIDS clubs.

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On the other hand, higher education institutions are training future employers, teachers, health professionals, and so on who will influence the Ethiopian population’s attitude and response to the HIV/AIDS challenge. Even though the HESO study pointed this out, higher education institutions and government agencies are only beginning to develop appropriate employment and other practices that represent good examples of responses to HIV/AIDS. Most do not yet have adequate planning systems to take account of the effects of HIV/AIDS on their own employees. The development of curriculum content and means of delivery that will ensure a well-educated population with respect to HIV/AIDS is at an early stage in many subject disciplines. HESO represented a new way of operating for the government that was a paradigm shift. The HESO team was, to a large extent, able to undertake it’s thinking freely. It’s conclusions were accepted by ministers in education and widely discussed and endorsed by all university managers. Each university was expected to report its plans on how to implement its recommendations quarterly to ministers. Nonetheless, although some good things came out of the study (for example, HIIV/AIDS as a university issue), progress has been limited. There has not been a noticeable increase in the system’s ability to operate accountably and autonomously; the enabling culture has not been widely adopted; and HIV/AIDS initiatives, though increased, are relatively unimaginative and routine. These problems are indicative of the effects of cultural resistance and workand initiative overload. It takes time and focus to overcome deep-seated problems. In Ethiopia, government is in a hurry. Initiatives come and go, and new priorities emerge with sometimes bewildering rapidity, so that institutional focus is not maintained for long enough to overcome the cultural barriers of a conservative and still rather authoritarian society.

Herding Cats: Managing People in Sub-Saharan African Higher Education One of the most important, and difficult, roles of the manager in any higher education institution is managing academics. By their very nature, academics are independent, intelligent, free-thinking, and (often) quirky people. They do not take quickly to being told what to do. In more-developed countries, there is a saying that managing academics is like trying to herd cats. There is no system to reward well-achieving academic staff and get rid of those who are not performing. There is an evaluation system . . . Promotion depends on publications and other factors but not based on teaching competence. —A faculty leader in a well established university

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This is even more difficult in less-developed countries as the recruitment and retention of well-qualified staff for administrative and academic staff positions is a major difficulty. Because of a variety of factors (brain drain to developed countries, poor pay, a lack of highly qualified staff in the country, and so on), staff turnover tends to be high. This presents a challenge to higher education institution managers who therefore have to find nonmonetary means to reward staff, such as motivational strategies. In more-developed universities, Human Resource Management (HRM) departments have grown exponentially as they have to address and incorporate additional legislation and policy requirements. In sub-Saharan Africa, too few institutions in the higher education sector have a proper HRM department, with an HRM policy and implementation of this policy. Often HRM departments have a limited assignment of recruitment and basic administrative tasks such as managing the payroll. The skills, knowledge, and quantity of the HRM staff are not always considered in the light of the need for them to facilitate the achievement of management objectives. As a development worker, you might usefully work with institutional managers to assist them to develop HRM departments that can predict and plan for a changing situation; you might look for expertise gaps that are likely to emerge or worsen or problems in the quality or quantity of staff that will be a feature of an expanded higher education system and the effects of HIV/AIDS, and develop action to cater for such contingencies. Proper supportive appraisal and staff development systems could be something that a development worker could help to develop and so improve the productivity of existing staff. Many employees in higher education institutions work very hard and are really dedicated to developing higher education, but we have sometimes observed a lack of ownership and dedication that is aggravated by insufficient rewards (both in salary and in appreciation) for the work done. Management in some systems is not seen as a career; indeed, being a manager might cause financial disadvantage as they can no longer do all the overtime teaching that had previously boosted their income. Management needs to be professionalized and recognized as a career with its own rewards. I am concerned that sufficient qualified staff may not be available for new HEIs. Taking staff from abroad is not sustainable in the longer term. There must be a plan to build local capacity, but using new forms of training that include subject knowledge, pedagogy, and world-of-work focus. An instructors “license to teach” should depend upon such training and regular upgrading. —An industry trainer

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The expansion of the higher education institutions leads to a more complex organization, which has consequences for the supporting departments. The expansion also leads to more demand for better-qualified staff (both academic and administrative), who are not available. Managers within sub-Saharan universities we have studied report that many administrative and academic staff are insufficiently qualified for the positions they hold. Human resource management problems of capability and basic educational level are often particularly severe with respect to administrative staff, who might have very limited opportunities for training. Their needs generally include the updating of educational qualifications and specific training and qualifications related to their work and roles. Training by itself is unlikely to solve the problem: there will need to be follow-up in the form of coaching or mentoring to make sure the new knowledge is adapted to the workplace. The relation between the long-term needs of the organization and the training needs of the staff has to be well articulated, and evaluation into the impact on working practices of development opportunities will, of itself, create greater impact. In our HRM process, gender is taken into account. Among academic staff, there are very few women. We are going to work out how to meet the gap. Retention is also an aspect to that—it is multidimensional. —A member of the senior management team in a university

Management and Gender Higher education staff often do not reflect the population as a whole. The percentage of female academic staff is generally relatively small and the participation is often low. In Ethiopia, in 2009 there was only one (acting) president of the 22 universities who was a woman, and the situation is not a great deal better in other countries (MacGregor, 2008).10 Monitoring information on equality matters (disability and ethnicity as well as gender) is important as a management tool and so needs to be collected, after all, higher education institutions cannot afford to ignore talent wherever it comes from. Women can bring particular perspectives to management—they can help the management team realize the importance of motivational aspects of management and the role of team building. The lack of female managers means that management teams might not have a balance of strengths and perspectives that takes advantage of the particular skills and quality that are more commonly found in one sex or the other. We therefore advocate female empowerment in management as a matter not just of human justice or in order to maximize

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the pool of potential managers, but also because of pragmatic considerations of likely effectiveness of the management team as a whole. The disadvantage that women and some regional groups suffer in society and the economy are a systemic reflection of society as a whole. Class as well as rural and ethnic access remain problems also. Existing higher education institutions have often developed imaginative support and affirmative action programs for female and disadvantaged students. This is not enough however; universities are educating tomorrow’s leaders. This implies that ethnic and gender awareness, a determination to take action to combat discrimination and abuse, and so on should be permeating themes in curricula and management systems. Equality needs to be seen as an issue that concerns both sexes, staff, students, and processes and curriculum as well. REFLECTION Find out what actions have been introduced to combat gender inequality in the higher education institution you work in or are studying in with respect to women in management positions. Classify these actions under the following headings: ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

Human resources policies and practices Administrative action and management data collection Pre-recruitment preparation of potential women candidates Recruitment training, practices, and equality monitoring In-post support and training for women managers

Are any categories of action missing or underrepresented? Read around the subject and discuss with a more experienced colleague what further actions might be possible. Add to your list. Reflect upon the difficulties in facilitating new forms of action and how you might overcome these difficulties.

Ethical Issues Bias in marks is common. Some instructors assign random marks to save time, and there is no second marking system to ensure fairness. Ethnic bias is particularly common—ethnicity is often inferred from students’ names. —Director of woman’s support NGO

We have already mentioned the need for higher education institution managers to foster an enabling culture. One aspect of this is the adherence to norms of professional life. Leaders within higher education institutions and

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government agencies have a responsibility to take account of, and ensure they and their staff subscribe to, ethical principles with respect to issues such as public expenditure management and control, fair human recourse practices and, equitable and transparent student assessment and service delivery. This implies that higher education institution leaders have a responsibility to influence staff, learners, and other stakeholders toward notions of professional standards, including ethical ones. For this reason, they must take a long-term view: for instance, to equip their graduates as employers as well as employees and to influence workplaces to operate according to principles of entrepreneurial risk taking, openness, and professional standards as well as achieving depth in their subject. It implies that there are checks and balances to ensure ethical dealing; for instance, in relation to learners, in the openness of board and management thinking and communication, in the transparent dealings of managers with their workforce, in the recruitment and reward of staff and so on. REFLECTION What might be the essential ethical qualities possessed by a good manager in higher education? Make a list of these and think about what forms of support or training could facilitate the development of each quality Think about the behavior that would demonstrate that these ethical qualities were being manifested by individual managers and by management teams.

One aspect of ethical behavior and leadership is the issue of HIV/AIDS. Leaders within government, its agencies, and higher education institutions have a duty and responsibility to consider the impact of HIV/AIDS, to develop enabling and nondiscriminatory systems for staff and students to permit them to be open about the problems that the virus might be causing for their own health or in supporting their family’s health, and to provide support when such disclosure occurs. They also have a duty to educate their students as future employers, managers, teachers, health workers, and so on in ethical and socially responsible action with respect to the challenge of HIV/AIDS. Changing unhelpful beliefs and practices, raising awareness, and enabling families to behave in a healthy way would do far more to improve the health of the nation and increase the productivity of its people, and be more costeffective, than many expensive treatment programs. —A senior World Bank health officer

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Overseas funders also have their own aims. For example, the UK government’s Department for International Development (DfID)11 and Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO)12 have a global mission to fight poverty and disadvantage, but also more-specific goals related to gender equality, participation, governance, and HIV/AIDS awareness. These goals might or might not be shared (or defined in the same way) by the in-country authorities. Development workers are often recruited for qualities such as sensitivity, respect, and professional competence. These might be necessary but insufficient for work within a development context, where, if management systems are genuinely to reflect contextually appropriate values, assertiveness, and critical and analytical skills might be equally important. Much of the investment by overseas agencies and African governments in higher education is justified in terms of benefits to stakeholders, including the poorest people in the society, who might be outside of the decision-making loop and almost entirely removed from the higher education process. Where benefits for stakeholders are described as a key driver for capacity building, their needs and interests might usefully be accessed directly. There appears to be little empirical study in the literature about higher education development work relating these peoples’ needs to the fundamental purposes of higher education. It is likely that there will be problems if the richer sections of the local population determine what would be “good for” the poorest sections and what would “work” to achieve this good. The limitations are likely to be similar to those documented when Northern experts assume that they can usefully advise Southern ones on how to apply their economic models to the local context. Despite the well-documented problems, many less-developed countries are now involving Northern experts in developing the quality of their higher education.13 There are strong motivations behind this; the best higher education management has the potential to fulfill various economic and social imperatives. The validity of these objectives and the assumptions that underpin them are not unquestionable. Neither is the extent to which development advisors might reasonably be expected to contribute to their realization. Nevertheless, many sub-Saharan authorities believe that their systems can benefit if they draw upon the experience of more-developed countries in developing quality systems. However, before a northern model of management can be applied or adapted, it is important that those incountry and their advisors reflect on their limitations; the core values and assumptions underpinning each of them should be uncovered in order to assess their applicability to novel contexts.

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Conclusion In each of the sub-Saharan African countries that we have worked in, and during visits to higher education institutions, we heard about and observed the need for more development opportunities to be made available on how to be a good manager and on how to improve leadership skills. Our case studies above suggest that such opportunities might usefully focus on matters such as enquiry tools for self- and group-reflection, planning, systems development and review, finance, human resource management, HIV/ AIDS issues and so on, rather than training per se. One of the paradoxes that you will discover is that there is a plentitude of training being offered to managers in sub-Saharan universities, but that for some reason, long-term change is not effected. This might be because those being trained often attend training courses that purport to provide models of management that they then struggle to operate in their day-to-day practice, often isolated from any ongoing support to do so. Often the “new” methods of management and leadership being promoted are presented in a vacuum, isolated from the day-to-day realities that managers face in their institutions. Often training is therefore presented as “this is how it should be done,” rather than offering solutions or a “road map” as to how to get from where they are today to where they want to be in the future. Therefore, outside intervention within the development context might usefully focus on a move toward collective ownership and empowerment at each level and support in the workplace for those grappling with management problems. Recognition of current realities is important and should be the starting point for any development. Since few managers believe that they are authoritarian (but staff reports and observation reveal many instances where they exhibit such behavior), your ongoing support could help each manager to reflect on their own behavior and attitudes to see where they need to change in order to empower and enable those they manage to do their jobs better. This suggests a model of working alongside rather than training, discussion in teams rather than instruction, and engaging with real behavior and feelings and not with theoretical models. This implies that each of the leaders in the sector’s institutions and in ministries of education engage in personal reflection and take continuous action to ensure that such principles are clearly evident. The role of a development worker is to help them achieve this.14

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REFLECTION After reading this chapter, what do you think are the three main priorities for improving management of higher education in a less-developed country? What methods do you think could be employed so that change might be most effectively facilitated? What pitfalls will need to be avoided in this process of change?

Notes 1. The Higher Education Academy, York, UK: http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/ 2. Osborn, A. (2009, December 6). Universities still lack full autonomy. University World News, EUROPE, 104. Retrieved June 17, 2011 from http://www .universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20091204102023185 3. Teferra, D. (2009). Building capacity in Africa: The need for coherent policy and informed action, Boston College Center for International Higher Education. Retrieved November 25, 2010, from http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/ cihe/inhea/editorial/Editorial06_Teferra.htm 4. Ashcroft, K. (2004). Report of the Higher Education Strategy Overhaul Committee of Inquiry into Governance. Leadership and Management in Ethiopia’s Higher Education System. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Ministry of Education. 5. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Proclamation No. 351/2003; Higher Education Proclamation, Addis Ababa. 6. Blanchard, K., Zigarmi, P., & Zigarmi, A. (1985). Leadership and the one minute manager: Increasing effectiveness through situational leadership. New York: Blanchard Management Corporation. 7. Senge, P. M. (2006). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization (2nd ed.). New York: Random House Business Books. 8. Tamrat, W. (2008). The anatomy of private higher education in Ethiopia: Current landscape, challenges and prospects. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: St. Mary’s University College Press. 9. Ashcroft, K. (2004). Report of the Higher Education Strategy Overhaul Committee of Inquiry into Governance. Leadership and Management in Ethiopia’s Higher Education System. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Ministry of Education. 10. For South Africa, see MacGregor, K. (2008). South Africa: Where are the women?’ University World News, 0002; for Nigeria, see: Onokala P. C., & Onah F. O. (1998). Women in academic positions in the universities in Nigeria. Retrieved June 17, 2011 from http://rc.aau.org/en/node/517 11. http://www.dfid.gov.uk/About-DFID/ 12. http://www.vso.org.uk/about/

140    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa 13. See, for example, Dutch initiatives through NUFFIC at http://www.nuffic.nl/ international-organizations/services/capacity-building/niche. 14. Models such as the notion of reflective practice, and tools such as enquiry into practice, have been successfully used in other countries to develop leadership skills and an enabling culture; see, for example, Sergiovanni, T. J. (2001). The principalship: A reflective practice perspective (4th ed.). London: Allyn & Bacon/ Longman Publishing.

7 Quality and Standards

The quality of higher education in the country is good, but it is old-fashioned. It does not address contemporary functional areas, especially business processes. It is not future oriented. —A factory manager

Main points in this chapter: ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

Multiple definitions of quality Multiple purposes of quality South Africa’s Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) The development and future of Ethiopia’s Higher Education Relevance and Quality Assurance Agency (HERQA)

I

n the sub-Saharan African countries that we have observed, the quality of higher education is an intense topic of debate within governments, in the media, and within the higher education sector itself. This is not surprising given the rate of expansion, resource constraints, management and governance issues, and so on that we have discussed in previous chapters. Many government officials, academics, and members of the public hark Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 141–164 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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back to a “golden age” of high quality higher education, usually shortly after the independence struggle had been resolved or when they were young. During this golden age, there was generally just one (or very few) relatively small universities that catered to a tiny elite (usually male) from the educated classes who were taught a “traditional” (i.e., ex-colonial) curriculum. Of course, it is relatively easy to produce a quality education when all available resources are concentrated on relatively few people and institutions, and where change is gentle and manageable; life in such institutions was no doubt more pleasant for staff and students.1 However, the sector in the golden age did not produce enough graduates to staff industry, the professional services, and government offices in a rapidly developing society and economy. Nor did it produce the research and consultancy services that could transform production and the lives of the people. In addition, it generally favored an ethnic and cultural elite group of men, and so wasted the talents of a large majority of those potentially able to benefit. This institutionalized discrimination sometimes contributed to a damaged civic society. In the discussion in sub-Saharan Africa, as in other countries, there is confusion about what is meant by the vocabulary of “quality”: “standards,” “outcomes,” “quality assurance,” and so on. The multiple definitions used by those engaged in discussion often confuse policy decisions and outcome. We argue that quality is a not a unitary concept, rather that it represents a complex set of ideas and quality-assurance approaches and practices that have developed over time and within different contexts to achieve various ends in the interests of various stakeholders. This means that definitions, meanings, practices and approaches can vary and are sometimes in conflict, or at least in tension with each other. Someone working in the development sector needs to remember that quality can simultaneously mean different things to different people. This can cause confusion, disappointment, and often incoherence, but it also has the advantage that the concepts of quality, standards, and quality assurance can be questioned, refined, and adapted to meet a variety of circumstances and needs. They can take account of what it is that an increasingly sophisticated higher education system wishes to quality assure. We suggest that contradictions and dilemmas have developed from the original ideas regarding the purpose and processes of quality assurance developed in more-mature higher education systems. When transplanted to the developing higher education systems of sub-Saharan countries, their conflicting definitions and the ways that they are being adapted to specific contexts throw up particular tensions. However, these tensions are being

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dealt with in creative and interesting ways: control vs. autonomy, modernization vs. “government knows best,” democracy vs. need to control dissident voices. Dilemmas arise within institutions themselves because of these tensions and the need for managers to work out the hidden as well as overt agendas, but again, there are creative opportunities within these tensions that can be resolved as the sector matures. Reflection Quality is said to be “Doing the right thing in the right way.” How useful do you think this is as a definition?

Quality Assurance and Control Quality assurance has recently become a key idea in sub-Saharan African higher education. It is seen as the most important element in accountability for public funding and to protect a variety of stakeholders. Universities are also accepting it as a means of providing some public reassurance while protecting the university’s essential autonomy. One of the problems with the concept is its multiple meanings and purposes and (sometimes) confusion between quality assurance, control, and quality enhancement. Quality enhancement is the process of improving the educational experience of students, research quality, the services to the local community, and the management of the institution. Quality control is the precise delimitation of what should be done and to what standards, usually by an independent internal or external inspection system; and quality assurance is the means by which a higher education institution assures itself that systems and processes are in place to ensure the best possible outcomes. Quality assurance is usually operated through an auditing system. Reflection Think about a university, faculty, or department that you are familiar with. Does it have a quality-assurance policy? If so, is it widely distributed? Are all staff familiar with its existence (if not its contents)? If not, who do you think is responsible for leading the process of developing a quality-assurance policy? Who else do you think should be involved? Does it have a quality-assurance committee? If so, who sits on it? Are there any stakeholders not represented (for example, administrative

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staff)? How often does it meet? Are its decisions widely circulated; for example, through published minutes? If not, who do you think is responsible for establishing such a committee? Who else do you think should be involved?

Quality assurance is closely related to quality control. Quality control is an idea that travelled from manufacturing to business and thence to education. Within the manufacturing context, it is the means to ensure that each manufactured item is standardized so that it does not exceed minimum tolerances of variation from a norm. This is generally in terms of matters such as exact size, materials, and strength. Factories will have testers who take samples from a production line and subject them to various measurements and tests to ensure that the process is producing consistent products that are “fit for purpose.” These ideas, developed by business and manufacturing, have been taken by governments and turned into legislative and other standards that often relate to the acceptability of processes as well as products. For example, in the UK, the Trading Standards Institute2 has been developed to support businesses in this respect and the Supply of Goods and Services Act (1982)3 protects the interests of consumers by establishing minimum levels of acceptable standards. In addition, businesses and service providers have been keen to demonstrate to potential customers and staff that they go well beyond their legal requirements in terms of standards and voluntarily undergo assessments by inspectors and others to meet such expectations. When business started to move from quality control toward the idea of quality assurance, it took the notions of standardization and measurement and applied them to processes that were more inherently subjective and conducted in situations that are much more various and unstable than a factory production line, such as service levels and the use of resources. Quality assurance thus should be understood as a metaphor that helps managers to control the human environment to create a standardized service and service culture. As the role of higher education has changed, so higher education institutions have seen increased competition for research grants and students that bring funding for teaching and learning with them. Moredeveloped universities increasingly use quality standards to improve their services and give them a marketing edge; for example, by achieving Investors in People accreditation4 for the management and training of staff or ISO 90015 (International Organization for Standardization) accreditation for quality management. Higher education institutions also market themselves by highlighting their (high) ranking in various league tables.

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Governments as well as students and staff have a vested interest in the quality of the education they fund. In mature systems, some concepts from quality assurance of business processes have been adapted and applied to education to ensure that they are fit for purpose. This has proven problematic when it comes to teaching, where “correct” methods and results are highly debatable. To overcome this problem, inspection and other forms of government controlled or funded systems have been developed, such as in the Netherlands, QANU (Quality Assurance Netherlands Universities);6 or in the UK, OfSTED7 (the Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills), which inspects schools and children’s services; the Quality Assurance Agency for higher education (QAA),8 which aims to safeguard the public interest in the standards of higher education qualifications and inform and encourage continuous improvement in the management of higher education; and the TDA (the Teacher Development Agency),9 which determines the content of teacher training courses as well as other duties. Reflection In Europe, a European Higher Education Area has been established through the Bologna Process. The rationalization of the various quality assurance regimes across Europe is being spearheaded by ENQA (the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education).10 ENQA disseminates information, experiences, and good practices in the field of quality assurance in higher education to European quality-assurance agencies, public authorities, and higher education institutions. There are, however, certain preconditions that need to be in place before this can be implemented: ◾◾ Transparency of the system; i.e., a focus on the information

needs of students and external partners. ◾◾ Compatibility; i.e., an emphasis on credit transfer and a degree

system that facilitates academic and professional mobility. ◾◾ Flexibility; i.e., the development of a differentiated supply and

delivery system for diversified needs. ◾◾ Comparability; i.e., the creation of a credible quality-assurance

system and the need for a quality label to be given to institutions and programs.11 The African Quality Assurance Network (AfriQAN) has been set up to provide assistance to institutions concerned with quality assurance in higher education in Africa.12 Some African countries also have links to European higher education institutions that are involved in the Bologna Process. The licence, master’s, doctorat (LMD) degree structure, which was

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developed for the purpose of harmonizing academic programs across the European Higher Education Area, has now been adopted by the majority of French-speaking countries in Africa. According to the World Bank, there are concerns as to how best to adapt the LMD system to the African environment, what might be its implications for quality assurance, and what might be the impact of consequent student and skilled labor mobility on African economies. In addition, the World Bank claims that many African academics, particularly those in English-speaking countries, do not fully understand the Bologna Process and its influence on global higher education (Materu, 2007).13 Think about a sub-Saharan African higher education system with which you are familiar. What are, or have been, the obstacles to adopting such a system of comparable quality assurance? Can you suggest ways in which some of these obstacles can be overcome? What could be the benefits of such a system to students, government, and other stakeholders?

The International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE) is a worldwide association of some 200 organizations active in the theory and practice of quality assurance in higher education.14 The great majority of its members are quality-assurance agencies that operate in many different ways, although the network also welcomes (as associate or institution members) other organizations that have an interest in quality assurance in higher education. It is already active in sub-Saharan Africa. The development of private higher education, the expansion of the university sector, and the extension of open and blended learning formats have presented challenges to sub-Saharan African governments with respect to how to ensure the quality of higher education. Regulation (for instance, through imposing a national curriculum), which can be enforced through inspection, has tended to be seen as inappropriate for higher education, where academic autonomy has been jealously guarded. In higher education, donors and others have encouraged a move toward the “evaluative state,” replacing the “regulatory state”: The regulatory state prescribes the processes by which institutions function to produce outputs through an array of detailed legal instruments including laws, line-item budgets, guidelines and rules. The evaluative state, on the other hand, sets forth institutional missions, qualitative and quantitative in-

Quality and Standards    147 put and output targets and confines itself to evaluating achievements, while allowing institutions to determine their own ways of achieving those missions and targets. Among the major changes that occurred were lump-sum budgets, resource diversification through the introduction of or increase in tuition fees, and provision of incentives for income generation, increased institutional powers, including professorial appointments and discretion in financial matters. (INQAAHE)15

Sub-Saharan African governments are sometimes uncomfortable with the lack of direct control this implies, but the differences with industry and business are still marked when one comes to the higher education culture. Higher education is not a standardized forum, and perhaps it should not aspire to be. Universities are quite rightly jealous of their autonomy and as one of the pillars of a (potentially) free society, and so they try to protect against government interference in their curriculum and processes. However, they are aware of the need to reassure stakeholders, particularly government funders and, increasingly, students who now share the cost of their higher education and so demand “probity,” “value for money,” and appropriate outcomes, often expressed in the form of a guarantee of a “good job.” One solution in countries such as Ethiopia and South Africa has been to establish systems that are heavily influenced by the universities themselves to review and report on standards, sometimes with partial or complete government funding. In developing quality assurance systems for higher education, mature systems have tended to take account of the purposes of higher education and, in particular, the protection of democracy and the creation of new knowledge, both of which require academic freedom and a certain nonconformity within the system. At the same time, funders such as government are keen to ensure that the funding they provide contributes to the employability of students and that universities are an engine for entrepreneurship and, in the case of developing countries, support the aims of economic sustainability and poverty reduction. These important aspects of quality have not always been reflected in the criteria used in assessments and accreditation by governments or quality agencies of public and private universities in sub-Saharan Africa, which tend to focus more on compliance issues; for instance, with policy directives, regulations, staffing norms, and credit hours. Quality is a must, not a choice. —Visiting foreign academic

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Standards Standards can be seen as a subsection of quality. Quality is about more than standards, but establishing standards is one way of creating a measure of aspects of the quality of inputs and outcomes. Standards have little to say about the quality of processes or those aspects of inputs and outcomes that cannot be measured (inspirational teaching, creativity, new life views), which can create and result from a quality education. Harvey (1995) suggests that standards might be expressed in various ways: academic standards (for example, students fulfilling the requirements of the course); standards of competence (such as the achievement of key skills); and service standards (for example, student charters).16 In the UK, it is argued that standards (academic, competence, service, and so on) can be defined only within the context of an institution’s mission. Thus, a new higher education institution with a specific vocational mission and niche market might wish to set different standards of competence from a research-focused university; for example, stressing practical skills rather than theoretical knowledge. One of the most frequent dilemmas facing development workers is that, in order for standards to be established, there needs to be an initial benchmark comparison for “acceptable” standards: should this be a moredeveloped university system that the development worker is familiar with (probably not), and if not, should it be the most established university in the country (only if one can be sure that this higher education institution entirely meets the country’s needs), or the achievements within a more mature system in sub-Saharan Africa? Once this first link is agreed upon, the next problem is how to measure and assess the comparison. One possible solution is to take standards that are already established, say the subject benchmarks established by the QAA in the UK, and hope that they fit or can be adapted to meet the country’s needs. A more satisfactory alternative might be for the country to develop its own standards, but this requires a degree of infrastructure and sophistication that might not yet exist in many sub-Saharan African systems. Often what happens is a combination of the two; a benchmark from a more-developed system is used and then modified to meet local needs. Reflection Think about establishing standards for university education in a sub-Saharan African country.

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Who should take responsibility for setting up a process for establishing standards? The government? Some sort of national body? A sector support unit? A universities association? How might bodies representing industry and commerce be included in establishing such standards? Who else might be included and how? What would be the problems and advantages of setting up a system to establish standards for university education? Having formed a body of people, what should be their first steps in establishing standards?

Decisions regarding how the universities are assessed in relation to any standards once they are established might be made through the government, say a ministry or through an independent body such as a qualityassurance agency (again, this might not yet be established). In some cases, industrial bodies themselves might monitor the quality of the outcomes and perhaps accredited professional courses or universities. In some subSaharan African countries we have visited, there is a lack of capability within ministries and a lack of professional and other associations to fulfill these functions without considerable outside support. The expansion of the higher education system should not occur without an analysis of the education pyramid of existing education and higher education and consideration of quality issues and affordability. —An embassy education specialist

The Link Between Quality, Quality Assurance, and Standards There can be tensions between establishing standards and recognizing different university missions. Governments have sometimes tried to resolve these dilemmas through neoliberal ideas of education as a “public good” that needs to be regulated through a quasi-market. This has raised dilemmas as to how to create this market. In the UK, this has been partially resolved by the requirement for universities to collect and publish performance data and their compilation into league tables that include matters such as employability outcomes, completion rates, quality assurance scores, research assessment scores, and the development of a funding formula and

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research funding that rewards outcomes. As yet, most sub-Saharan African countries do not have sufficiently robust data-collecting systems to enable this to be implemented, and so quality assurance in sub-Saharan countries often is still very much at a developmental stage, where the emphasis and resources are largely focused on producing a “snapshot” of what is actually happening in universities in the country. The work of the university is creative and is about new ideas and new ways of doing things. One of the strengths of the quality-assurance model is the way that it can be adapted and changed to meet the very challenging environment of the university. The downside of this adaptability is the confusion it can lead to about the definition of terms and its key purposes. In short, quality assurance means different things and serves different purposes for different sets of people. These differences matter because they lead to different outcomes and can be used to make misleading comparisons and faulty policy decisions which, if they are ignored, produce a distorted picture that can be used for unfortunate ends. Reflection Consider a university with which you are familiar: In what ways does it ensure that it is providing relevant and appropriate education? Consider especially ways in which the student and business “voices” are recorded.

Approaches to Quality Issues The quality assurance processes in the developed world for teaching and research have been designed to perform various bureaucratic, political, and developmental functions (see Ashcroft & Foreman-Peck, 1995).17 These include ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

Processes to ensure minimum standards Processes to measure volume Processes to rank excellence Processes to foster improvement

Processes to Ensure Minimum Standards Processes to measure standards are the cornerstone of higher education quality systems throughout the world. In most systems, such processes are considered essential (though some would consider them insufficient)

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to ensure the quality of education and educational services provided by higher education institutions. Institutions can ensure that programs of study meet minimum standards through a variety of internal mechanisms that include checks against benchmarks, validation and review checklists, and so on.

Processes to Measure Volume Some of the indicators used in quality assessments in sub-Saharan African countries are measures of volume. Examples of these are GER, numbers of students recruited relative to those completing each year of a program and graduating, numbers obtaining employment on graduation, and numbers completing programs successfully from certain underrepresented groups. These measures do not look at quality itself, but have some validity as indicators of quality. They depend upon clear definitions and effective data-collection systems that might be missing in sub-Saharan African countries. Sometimes it is possible to work with what data there is available, but often this might be too unreliable or fragmented to be used for sound judgments. Some governments (Ethiopia is one) are looking at the notion of a block grant distributed via a funding formula based on outcome measurements rather than the line-by-line, historical budget common in most centralized systems. As yet, in Ethiopia, this has not been implemented despite several years of discussion. Again, there is nervousness at the lack of infrastructure to implement such a change, a question over the reliability of data collection, and concern that such a change of funding might lead to the destabilization of some universities. As a compromise or interim measure, the government in Ethiopia has specified that there will be set standards for the qualification levels of staff that every institution will have to comply with; and the accreditation criteria for private universities include a range of quantitative measures in terms of (for instance) numbers of students and programs that indirectly indicate quality as through measures of volume as proxy for capability. The validity of these as indicators of quality is, of course, contestable. Universities all over the world tend to be a bit complacent. We look in the mirror and think we are a bit better than we are really. —Tertiary Education Coordinator, the World Bank

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Processes to Rank Excellence Research assessment exercises are one way of fulfilling the intention of ranking of excellence and so ensuring that differential funding follows quality of output. In the UK, quality reviews of teaching conducted by the Quality Assurance Agency were not originally planned as a ranking exercise, but rather a means of auditing quality within each institution against its expressed mission and objectives. However, during the late 1990s, scores for different aspects of provision were added together to create quality rankings. More recently, these scores have been combined with other sorts of performance data to create ranking of institutions themselves, which have been published by newspapers in the form of league tables. These have a profound influence on academic and institutional behaviors, and many researchers have questioned their validity and utility. Since such league tables are comparing institutions against different yardsticks (their missions) and the league tables add together scores for items that have completely different values for different audiences (for example, employment outcomes of graduates and research ratings) as if they are equal, these criticisms are justified (see, for example, Bowden, 2000).18 A report by the OCDE (Walshe, 2007)19 highlighted how league tables and ranking systems of universities, nationally and internationally, have had unexpected consequences and have moved away from purely quality issues to wider issues of funding and influencing government policy. The report shows that there appears to be a near-obsession with the status and trajectory of the top 100 universities. This disadvantages universities in subSaharan Africa, who might be meeting different needs with more cogency to the development of the subcontinent.

Processes to Foster Improvement Quality audit processes generally focus on the institution’s own qualityassurance mechanisms for identifying poor quality and practices, and rectifying them and identifying and building on good quality and practices. There are certain preconditions necessary for the development of an internal quality-assurance audit that are not present in all sub-Saharan African systems. These include ◾◾ A high degree of institutional autonomy: Institutions must have a capacity for long-term strategic planning in order to develop quality monitoring of their activities in a meaningful way;

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◾◾ Effectiveness: Universities should have effective internal and external governance structures in order to optimize decision making, engagement of students and stakeholders, and have effective administrative structures, and; ◾◾ Transparency: Once the internal quality culture is developed, external accountability procedures should take the form of an institutional audit that evaluates the robustness and embedding of internal quality processes. The aim is to enhance quality within an institution either as its primary activity or as a side effect of the reflection on data compiled. Quality-assurance systems are increasingly promoting the idea of quality enhancement where institutions are encouraged to develop systems for improvement to operate alongside those for quality control and assurance. There is a general broad agreement in much of sub-Saharan Africa that quality can be defined as “fitness for purpose,” meeting or conforming to generally accepted standards as defined by an institution, quality-assurance bodies, and/or appropriate academic and professional communities, but most importantly, producing outcomes that meet the development needs of the country (Materu, 2007).20 Generally, there is a quality problem in the education of the country. The main reason can be the decline in the quality of teachers. So much should be done in upgrading and maintaining the quality of teachers. Mixing younger competent teachers with the older ones will pave the way to solving some of the problems. —A businessman

The Legacy and Dilemmas of Quality Assurance in Sub-Saharan Africa Historically, quality assurance in higher education in Africa can be traced back to the first universities in Africa (for example, Fourah Bay College in Sierra Leone in 1827) and their affiliation with partner universities in colonizing countries such as the United Kingdom, France, and Portugal. As part of this affiliation, African higher education institutions automatically became part of the British, French, Portuguese, or other systems of quality assurance through their partner universities and were therefore, in theory at least, subject to the same kinds of quality control as were British or other

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European universities. These affiliations were not always fit for purpose in the postcolonial era. According to the World Bank, the first national accreditation agency was established in Kenya by the Commission for Higher Education in 1985.21 The commssion was set up because of “general concern” about the quality of higher education and the existence of several institutions offering “university education whose establishment and development was uncoordinated and unregulated” (Materu, 2007).22 The actual accreditation process began in 1989 in Kenya and was only for private universities. Nigeria was the second of the pioneers in university-level accreditation in Africa. The National Universities Commission (NUC) was established in 1962 to provide oversight to the national higher education system.23 It was given accreditation responsibilities in the 1990s. A second round of program accreditation was carried out in 1999–2000, and a third was done in 2005. Between 1991 and 1997, Cameroon, Ghana, Tanzania, and Mauritius all established quality-assurance agencies, although these agencies limited their activities to the accreditation of private universities. According to a World Bank study published in 2007, today only about one third of African countries have established structured national qualityassurance mechanisms, and most of these have been established only in the last 10 years (Materu, 2007).24 The main challenges to establishing quality-assurance systems in African countries are cost and human capacity; apart from the costs of establishing a separate organization, there are considerable labor costs. Suitably trained or experienced staff are not readily available, and so the quality-assurance agency either has to work with staff not yet suitably qualified (and thereby threatening the credibility of the agency) or else needs to find funds to invest in the training of staff to work for the agency (although there is then no guarantee that having been suitably trained, staff do not then move off to work at a higher salary for other organizations). Training takes time, and the agency might not be able to perform adequately if staff are absent undergoing training. If there are suitably qualified staff available in the higher education system who are then recruited to work for an agency, there is a danger that the capacity of the universities themselves are depleted. This is made more acute if faculty staff are also taken from universities to assist in peer reviews or audits of other universities. While this might be good staff development for those members of the faculty involved in peer reviews, the practice can be disruptive for students and their teaching schedules.

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Education needs to create a strong academic element of leaders and analytical thinkers who were prepared to problem solve and move things forward. This applies across most professions; there seems to be a cultural hurdle to cross where individuals don’t take responsibility for problems as they occur for fear of being blamed if things go wrong. —A UNESCO education officer

Quality assurance in sub-Saharan Africa has often been seen as input based, with little attention being paid to process, outputs, and outcomes. This is more mechanistic, requires less qualified staff, and is therefore easier (and cheaper) to implement. For members of the higher education community for whom quality assurance is new and perhaps threatening, there is also a reassurance in the counting of numbers (number and qualifications of staff, number of students and their entry qualifications, and financial resources relative to number of students, as well as checking the documentation of mission and vision, academic programs, library resources, physical and technological resources) where there is little room for bias and political interference. The World Bank is refocusing on learning. The definition of quality is: are our youth learning and are they learning the right thing? —Cluster Leader, Africa Region, the World Bank

As quality assurance becomes more sophisticated, in some sub-Saharan African countries there is a shift in methodology to some form of institutional audit based on an institution’s self-assessment, followed by peer review and feedback to the institution so that it can develop a follow-up plan to improve areas where weakness has been identified. The findings of these quality audits are sometimes criticized for being less objective, and this might delay or limit their wider circulation to inform stakeholders such as employers, parents, and prospective students and so lose some of their potential as a means of disseminating good practice. The process itself is valuable and can provide those who participate with a form of staff development by increasing their knowledge and experience and also seeing how other organizations deal with similar problems. The self-assessment process, undertaken at either institutional or unit level, often has positive effects on the culture of quality within an institution or unit. Because it is usually conducted within a mutually respectful atmo-

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sphere without any pressure from an external body, the self-assessment, if done well, can foster social cohesion and teamwork among staff, and also enhances staff accountability of the results of the process. The purpose of a self-assessment is to help institutions identify their own strengths and weaknesses while generating awareness of key performance indicators. This process of self-assessment is often seen as the most valuable aspect of quality-assurance reviews because it helps institutions to build capacity from within. This is valuable within any context, but it is particularly important in the countries of sub-Saharan Africa, where capacity remains very weak. Irrespective of whether a country has a full-scale national quality-assurance agency or not, regular self-assessments at the institutional and unit levels are a good starting point for the development of a culture of quality. There has been a range of donor-funded initiatives to develop quality in Africa; an example of this is the Quality Enhancement and Innovation Facility (QIF) in Mozambique.25 This is a fund, financed through the World Bank and managed by the Ministry of Education and Culture, to provide financial support for investments in capacity building and innovation in higher education, designed to enhance quality and relevance of teaching and research, improve efficiency of management and administration, and create more flexible and responsive programs and courses. The QIF provides three kinds of award: 1. Institutional Awards, in the form of grants or repayable loans to selected higher education institutions (higher education institutions) and support improvements in quality and efficiency of teaching and management of resources and innovations in the design and delivery of academic programs and courses; 2. Academic Staff Awards provide grants to groups of academic staff from higher education institutions (including collaborative teams involving more than one higher education institution) to enable them to invest in development of new skills, teaching methods or learning materials, design and introduction of innovations and improvements in curriculum, delivery of courses, and academic support of students; 3. Research Awards provide grants to support basic or applied research and to develop linkages or other forms of collaboration with Mozambican industry and the productive sector, other national or international research, and higher education institutions. One problem with these kinds of donor-initiated projects is that innovation is prioritized over consolidation. Universities are encouraged to initi-

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ate too many new projects that they might not have the management and staff capacity to monitor and evaluate. Although universities must make a link to their strategic plan to achieve the funding, such planning has often failed to make hard choices between alternatives or make an assessment of the opportunity-casts of different initiatives. South Africa has one of Africa’s most developed higher education systems, and in 1997, the Council on Higher Education (CHE) established the Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC).26 The HEQC has executive responsibility for quality promotion and quality assurance in higher education. Its functions are to ◾◾ Promote quality in higher education ◾◾ Audit the quality-assurance mechanisms of higher education institutions ◾◾ Accredit programs of higher education ◾◾ Provide quality-related capacity development. The HEQC is responsible for conducting audits of public and private higher education institutions’ systems for ensuring good quality of provision in teaching and learning, research, and community engagement. It re-accredits existing programs in specific disciplines and is responsible for accrediting the learning programs of public and private higher education institutions. It has some responsibility for implementing the country’s policies related to quality promotion and capacity development programs, which disseminates information and knowledge about quality assurance, and prepares individuals and institutions to participate in implementing the HEQC’s quality-assurance system.

Case Study: The Development of Ethiopia’s Higher Education Relevance and Quality Assurance Agency (HERQA)27 In Ethiopia, the idea that quality assurance is necessary and should be developed is enshrined in the 2003 Higher Education Proclamation (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2003). 28 Although described in the legislation as “semiautonomous,” HERQA relies almost entirely on funding from the government. The agency was established partly because the government needed to demonstrate that expansion had been successful and had not resulted in a lowering of quality. It was also seen as a means of managing a rapidly expanding private higher education sector.

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HERQA had to establish what quality meant within the Ethiopian context. Using development organizations such as the World Bank, VSO, and Nuffic, the Ministry of Education sought the help of Northern experts in developing appropriate concepts and models of quality that would work for Ethiopian higher education. HERQA has taken various approaches to the measurement of quality. The first of these was to measure volume. HERQA looked at matters such as student numbers, courses and subjects opened and run to completion, and matters of resources when determining whether a private institution might receive accreditation. However, there is little sophisticated analysis of this data by HERQA, the Ministry of Education, or any other organization in Ethiopia. In relation to quality assessment rather than accreditation, HERQA sees its role as one of supporting the higher education institutions and auditing institutional systems to determine whether they represent good practice and are fit for purpose, as well as suggesting ways for improvement. In doing this, it has established performance indicators. A major process of business processes reengineering has been undertaken by the Ethiopian higher education system, where higher education institutions are expected to benchmark their own performance in administrative and academic areas against national and international best practice and come up with plans for improvements. Thus, higher education institutions compare themselves with the standards and achievements of others and set targets to improve. This is a radical and sophisticated exercise to undertake, and higher education institutions, at the time of writing, struggle to do this. HERQA methodology starts with institutional self-evaluation. It stems from the Dutch and UK quality-assurance systems. Peers from other higher education institutions working with HERQA professionals visit the higher education institution to report upon the validity of these self assessments of strengths and weaknesses as well as what is going on in terms of teaching and learning and research. They use a checklist, which is based in part on those from the UK, but has been developed and refined in workshops of staff from Ethiopian higher education institutions. Thus, the main feature of the system is self-evaluation and peer review against peer-generated criteria, and in this sense it can be seen as a democratic and consensual system. However, participation in these workshops excluded the views of other stakeholders, particularly students and employers. This in part is due to the fact that both employers and students are not currently sufficiently organized in Ethiopia to lobby effectively. HERQA in Ethiopia has developed a process that results in a narrative account of each institution’s strengths and weaknesses. Apart from listing the numbers of commendations and recommendations, there has been no attempt to turn this narrative into quantitative scores that might be compiled into a league table, and indeed there does not seem to be an intention to do so.

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Ethiopian higher education institutions are also being encouraged to introduce external and second-examiner systems, external representation on course validation, and periodic course review panels as other ways of measuring their own quality for internal and external purposes. This is an idea that relates closely to quality-assurance systems in the UK and the Netherlands. Thus, HERQA has drawn on the expertise of foreign development workers to create a functioning system of quality assessment and reporting, but has thoroughly “Ethiopianized” it through discussion and modification of models so that it is now truly “owned” by the sector.

Relevance as a Quality Concept The focus on quality in sub-Saharan Africa generally also encompasses relevance. It is important for economic and social development that students have practical problem-solving skills as well as theoretical knowledge, and that universities themselves create new practical knowledge and social and other theories appropriate to their situation. This generally requires improvements and changes to teaching and research, greater responsiveness to the labor market, and careful curricula review. Another focus for many societies moving from authoritarianism to moredemocratic systems—student and community orientation—also relates to relevance. This encompasses active learning and practical education/training for almost all students and disciplines throughout their courses and more student involvement in matters such as evaluation and governance. Across the subcontinent, there is a demand that courses prepare students for specific niches within the labor market and by producing graduates imbued with a public service ethos. There is a long way to go. The employers and government officials we met complain of the lack of employability skills developed in particular faculties or universities. They are looking for new employees with communication, ICT, interpersonal, and other skills and/or work ethics, but the system in many countries is not producing “work-ready” graduates. The “new economy” requires much more than substantive knowledge; it needs entrepreneurial skills and attitudes, the ability to think and act with flexibility and creativity. Universities across sub-Saharan Africa now have a wider range of vocational programs, the content of which is probably nearer to market demand than used to be the case. However, there is still the need for curriculum reform.

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Case Study: Ethiopia’s Higher Education Relevance and Quality Assurance Agency (HERQA) into the future? In 2009, the Ethiopian government introduced a new Higher Education Proclamation (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2009) 29 that suggests that HERQA be renamed the Education and Training Quality Assurance Agency (ETQAA) and take an inspection role with respect to the rest of education. This might have some backwash effect for the higher education sector. For example, it is not yet clear to what extent the model developed for higher education with its emphasis on academic freedom will transfer to a more-rigid secondary sector. The issue of whether inspectorates are to be seen as a threat to autonomy and therefore to be avoided has not yet been fully debated or resolved. There is also a danger that any additional roles and responsibilities for ETQAA/ HERQA will distract from a model that seems to be, at least in its early stages, working well and has the support of the higher education sector. There is also a dire shortage of suitably experienced and qualified staff in Ethiopia to meet current HERQA commitments. There is a danger that any additional workload will negatively affect the quality of ETQAA/HERQA’s own performance. There is also still a question over the autonomy of ETQAA/HERQA itself, when the Minister of Education heads its management board. Higher education in Ethiopia has been in a fairly constant state of change and development since the early 1990s, and there is no guarantee that ETQAA/HERQA’s independence and mode of operation can be maintained as its remit is extended to cover the whole of the education sector. The government of Ethiopia has taken a brave political gamble in going for such rapid higher education expansion and in setting up ETQAA/HERQA. It risks exposing a range of contradictions and dilemmas, for example, between control, autonomy, and modernization, or democracy and the need to control dissident voices. However, the resulting debate is likely to enrich the development of the system and reflect the dilemmas that inevitably arise within institutions themselves because of these tensions and the need for managers to work out the hidden as well as overt agendas. It is becoming clearer which of the original ideas should be rejected, which might be salvaged, and which have been added and improved by Ethiopian adaptations. In a system such as the Ethiopian one, instances of poor quality provision are not rare. In the early stages, ETQAA/HERQA has focused on questions of “Is it good enough?” However, it has not ignored those of “How might it be made better?” The recommendations contained within each ETQAA/HERQA external audit report focus very much on this aspect and, if taken seriously by institutions, should provide a blueprint for the enhancement of standards and quality, or in

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the short term and at a time of rapid expansion, at least mitigate the effects on quality of overstretched human and other resources.

Conclusion Quality is not a static definition . . . by the time you got there, the definition of quality will have changed. —Visiting foreign academic

As sub-Saharan African countries look to tertiary education to make a significant contribution to economic growth and competitiveness and to achieving the MDGs, improvements in the quality of programs and institutions is critical. This means that the quality of competences, such as adaptability, teamwork, problem-solving communication skills, and the motivation for continual learning will increasingly need to be assured and reported upon, as well as standards of knowledge creation and transfer. Higher education institutions will need to continually adjust their program structures, curricula, teaching and learning methods to adapt to these new demands. Quality assurance is central to making this shift possible and thus to the degree to which higher education contributes to a country’s economic development and poverty reduction. Quality assurance as a concept has proved to be “leaky” and malleable as it has moved to sub-Saharan countries. Often those ideas that seem to fit a country’s particular agenda have been incorporated and others rejected, and indigenous priorities, suited to a country’s particular context, are added. When working with colleagues on quality-assurance issues, the development worker should ensure that everyone shares similar ideas and understanding about what quality assurance means and what the process(es) is trying to achieve. Development workers need to be realistic in acknowledging what is possible and to match discussion about quality system reform to available resources (financial and human). This means recognizing that what is considered mandatory in a mature higher education system might not at first be possible or desirable, and that traditional support mechanisms (training, exposure visits, workshops, and so on) might be insufficient for an indigenous quality-assurance system that meets the particular needs of a particular higher education system.

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It is important to recognize that developing a functioning quality-assurance system takes time and considerable resources, and so can only be built up gradually alongside expertise and resources. It is important that there is realistic awareness about the stage a country’s higher education system is at; the level of knowledge, understanding, and experience its participants have in relation to quality assurance; and what strategies will be built upon this. An effective, credible, and worthwhile quality-assurance system cannot be achieved quickly and easily, but it is central to the effectiveness of a massified higher education sector. Reflection Working with others, or on your own, draw up a list of the key processes that your university uses to ensure that it is providing relevant and appropriate education for its students. Then think about how you would introduce these processes into a university in a developing country; what would be the first steps? What would need to be place for this/these to happen and be effective? What obstacles might you encounter? How would you overcome them?

Notes 1. Of course, this referring back to a golden age is not just limited to developing countries; throughout our careers in higher education in the UK, we have always been made aware that a golden age has just ended and that in this golden age students were intelligent and worked hard, respected the knowledge and gravitas of their lecturers, and presumably even handed in assignments on time. 2. Trading Standards Institute. http://www.tradingstandards.gov.uk/advice/ advice-business.cfm. Accessed August 19, 2009. 3. Supply of Goods and Services Act. (1982). http://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/ consumers/fact-sheets/page38337.html. Accessed August 19, 2009. 4. Investors in People. http://www.investorsinpeople.co.uk/Pages/Home.aspx. Accessed August 19, 2009. 5. International Organization for Standardization. http://www.iso.org/iso/ about/international_standardization_and_education.htm. Accessed August 19, 2009. 6. Quality Assurance Netherlands Universities. http://www.qanu.nl/. Accessed August 19, 2009. 7. Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills. http://www. ofsted.gov.uk/. Accessed August 19, 2009. 8. http://www.qaa.ac.uk/. Accessed August 19, 2009.

Quality and Standards    163 9. Teacher Development Agency. http://www.tda.gov.uk. Accessed August 19, 2009. 10. European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education. http:// www.enqa.eu/. Accessed April 15, 2010. 11. See Handbook for quality assurance in higher education: A road map to quality. (2007). The Inter-University Council For East Africa, Kampala, Uganda. p. 122. 12. http://www.ohmeslogistics.com/afriqanbeta/. Accessed November 30, 2010. 13. Materu, P., (2007) Higher education quality assurance in sub-Saharan Africa. Status, challenges, opportunities, and promising practices. World Bank Working Paper No. 124, World Bank, Washington, DC. 14. The International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education. http://www.inqaahe.org/ 15. INQAAHE, Quality Assurance Program, Module 1, unit 2, p. 13. http://www.inqaahe.org/admin/files/assets/subsites/1/documenten/1254907433_module-1-unit-2-final.pdf. Accessed November 30, 2010. 16. Harvey, L. (1995). Editorial. Quality in Higher Education, 1(1), 190–214. London: Routledge. 17. Ashcroft, K., & Foreman-Peck, L. (1995). The lecturer’s guide to quality and standards in colleges and universities. London: Falmer Press. 18. Bowden, R. (2000). Fantasy higher education, university and college league tables. Quality in Higher Education, 6(1), 41–60. London: Routledge. 19. Walshe, J. (2007, November 11). OECD: Worldwide “obsession” with league tables. University World News, 0005. Retrieved June 18, 2011 from http://www. universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20071108145803689&mode= print 20. Materu, P. (2007). Higher education quality assurance in sub-Saharan Africa. Status, challenges, opportunities, and promising practices. World Bank Working Paper No. 124, World Bank, Washington, DC. 21. http://www.che.or.ke/. Accessed November 30, 2010. 22. CHE 2006, quoted in Materu, P. (2007) Higher education quality assurance in sub-Saharan Africa. Status, challenges, opportunities, and promising practices (p. 19). World Bank Working Paper No. 124, World Bank, Washington, DC. 23. http://www.nuc.edu.ng/. Accessed November 30, 2010. 24. 16 out of 52 (31%) African countries have national quality assurance agencies in place. 36 countries (69%) have none. Materu, P. (2007) Higher education quality assurance in sub-Saharan Africa. Status, challenges, opportunities, and promising practices World Bank Working Paper No. 124, World Bank, Washington, DC. 25. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRREGTOPTEIA/Resources/Mozambique_Quality_Innovation_Facility.pdf. Accessed November 30, 2010. 26. Further details can be found at http://www.che.ac.za/about/heqc/ 27. http://www.higher.edu.et/index.php/herqa. Accessed December 1, 2010. 28. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2003) Proclamation No. 351/2003; Higher education proclamation. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Negarit Gazette 29. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2009) Proclamation No. 650/2009; Higher education proclamation. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Negarit Gazette. Further details of the development of HERQA can be found at Tesfaye T., & Kassa-

164    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa hun K., (2010) Quality assurance for enhancement of higher education in Ethiopia: Challenges faced and lessons learnt. In M. Cantrell, R. Kool, & W. Kouwenhoven (Eds.), Access & expansion: Challenges for higher education improvement in developing countries. Amsterdam: VU University.

8 Developing a Curriculum

There is a much a more subtle but no less important challenge. It relates to the deeply rooted Ethiopian tradition of social order and hierarchy. Such a tradition may have been important in maintaining social stability in the past. But it has also tended to perpetuate discrimination against women and certain social or occupational groups, stifle upward feedback (especially when it is negative), and discourage innovation and risk taking. Both in government institutions and private businesses, an outsider is often struck by how tradition-bound people tend to be. Many people are exceedingly well qualified. Yet, the environment seems to discourage thinking out of certain boundaries. It is as though many people subconsciously contain their own creativity. For Ethiopia to succeed in global competition, it must become more nimble and innovative. Domestically, too, Ethiopians will face increasingly complex and diverse issues. In the 1990s, the problem was in some sense simple. Needs for basic things were so obvious and yet the resources so few that the leaders at the center could readily determine what the priorities were: hire more teachers, build and staff health centers, repair and build key roads, and so on. Now that Ethiopia is moving past that phase, it needs to face different challenges in different areas or sectors. It requires local ingenuity, which in turn demands the space for local solutions . . . Decentralization of government and the shift toward a market economy have been the government’s strategy to bring about such fundamental changes. In a society accustomed to a strong and often controlling role of government, however, one should not underestimate the challenge of a real change in mind set and attitude. —World Bank Country Director Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 165–190 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Main points in this chapter: ◾◾ The role of curriculum development, implementation, and review ◾◾ Supporting and improving the curriculum ◾◾ Science and mathematics foundation program at the University of the North in South Africa (UNIFY) ◾◾ The model of the ideal graduate

T

here are many elements necessary for a higher education sector to flourish and, as we point out in this book, many of these elements are interdependent. It is not possible to have success in one element without equal attention to another. However, in our opinion, if there is one element that is more important than any of the others it is perhaps that of curriculum. Curriculum is fundamental to what goes on in a university and what a student takes away from their time studying and then takes into society. It is essential that the curriculum being taught in universities is appropriate to the present and future needs of that particular country. It is essential that what is being delivered is relevant and appropriate. This is a complex, disputed, and often fractious process in more-developed countries; it is even more so in countries with limited resources and experience to draw upon. We suggest that effective curriculum development, implementation, and review depends on ownership of content and processes by stakeholders: government, employers, students, and others, but most crucially academic staff. If improvements are to be deep-seated and sustainable, this ownership needs to be supported by appropriate national and institutional structures. This is an area where you can make a direct impact by working with stakeholders (faculty, students, local employers, university managers) to review and update curricula and curriculum development processes.

Reflection Think about the curriculum of the various courses that you have studied; do you know how these curricula have been developed? Compare the curricula of your courses with similar courses from other institutions, both at home and abroad (this can be done via university Web sites); what are the similarities and differences? How do you account for these?

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Much of the present curriculum is moving from narrow Soviet-style ones where courses of “thin, tall” courses specialized on very specific job families to the more open-ended liberal and occasionally modular approach. A tendency to design by committee means being overstuffed with content. This may result in too much teaching and not enough skill learning. —A member of the British Council

The Discipline Mix Within Universities The disciplines that have been considered suitable for university-level study have changed over time. In the early days of the ancient universities of Europe, the subjects that were generally considered appropriate were those that related to disciplines of the mind (such as philosophy and theology) or certain learned professions (such as the law and medicine). Gradually, what are now considered as traditional subjects such as science, engineering, English, and geography were introduced. Later, and especially after the second world war, practical professional subjects such as teacher training became recognized as disciplines that could be studied at the degree level, and they began to move from the training college sector into universities. At the same time, new forms of learning developed that were not related to particular professions, nor to traditional school subjects, such as economics and sociology that then became a recognized part of the university curriculum (see, for example, Halhoun, 2007).1 Since the later 20th century, as the economies of developed countries have become more reliant on knowledge-based and service industries, a wide range of university-level disciplines have been developed. These include subjects such as media studies and business administration. Alongside of these, specialisms have been introduced aimed at preparing students for specific niche career opportunities (for example, forensic medicine). As the technical skill level needed for careers such as social work and nursing have become more demanding, the training for these too has moved from the college sector to the universities. The common thread has been a developing relationship between the subject mix offered by universities and increasing knowledge and skills demands of the world of work. Leadership and management require students trained in thinking, guiding, and leading, rather than listening and reproducing. The curriculum for all subjects should encourage creativity and problem solving. —A trainer for industry

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Despite the objections to these forms of study from establishment figures (see, for example, Utley, 2002),2 these new forms of learning have proved popular with students as preparation for a wide range of careers in different sectors of the economy. In fact, contrary to the predictions of many, the employment rates in developed countries for the newer disciplines such as business studies have often been better than for more traditional subject areas such as physical science (HEFEC, 2002).3 In sub-Saharan Africa, many universities have embraced subjects that relate to their economies such as agriculture, forestry, and engineering, but curricula still tend to be rather traditional in terms of content and format. In some cases, the desire for academic integrity has led African academics to be unduly influenced by curricula developed for more-developed countries and advisers from those countries who might not have sufficient understanding of the particular context within which the eventual graduates of programs would work. Thus, universities might produce health workers well adapted to the situation in, say, the United States, but inadequately equipped for the very different challenges of rural Tanzania. This is not to say that African academics should ignore the state of their subject knowledge in other parts of the world, but that this is not the only consideration. We have observed that there is sometimes a lack of match between community, employer, and stakeholder requirements, and the curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment methods commonly developed by African universities. To ensure sustainability at the design and curriculum development stage, academic staff developing and refining curricula and development workers supporting them in this process will need to engage in consultation over these matters as widely as possible with local and national stakeholders. At a national level, pooling of expertise in order to analyze the country’s needs in terms of each broad discipline area is often desirable. This implies that subject associations across universities can be a useful means to discuss curricula and agree on some common learning outcomes essential for students to achieve at the bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral levels. In some countries, such discipline groups have been set up and have the potential to be a useful support for curriculum development. For example, in Ethiopia, under the auspices of the Higher Education Strategy Center, discipline-based groups of academics have been deciding together what are the essential elements that should be included in the curriculum. This provides a framework for each university to add its flavor, depending on the expertise that it can offer and its local circumstances. This does not imply that we are advocating a national curriculum for universities, but rather that curriculum development is likely to be enriched if it is not undertaken in isolated units within each university, uninformed by the wider academic

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community within that subject. National academic discipline groups might also be useful in garnering and organizing information about employer and community needs. Undertaking such market research into desirable curriculum content and processes can be (and generally is) valuable at local level, but this might be insufficient if the institutions are also to serve national interests. The curriculum should focus on the reality of the country and must not be imported from abroad. Each higher education institution should involve local industry and others in creating a curriculum that relates to that region. —An employers’ representative

Diversity in the Curriculum Of course, there is always a balance to be struck between regional and national needs when it comes to the development of a higher education curriculum. As African higher education systems grow and take advantage of the opportunity to become more diversified, some (often postgraduate or specialist) institutions might focus almost exclusively on national needs. Others, including comprehensive institutions might seek a more even balance between local and national needs within their programs. Others, especially those with a teaching-focused mission, might become more focused on the regional context. Many African countries have borders that were set by their colonial histories and so have to cope with heterogeneous cultures and geography, incorporating huge diversity. It is important that account is taken of this in curriculum design so as to reflect the requirements of very different social needs and economic production systems. At the same time, diversity might mean that countries are at risk of, or subject to, ethnic tensions; this implies that university curricula also have a role in promoting national identity and unity. The pressure between these demands can and should produce a creative tension that will result in real and productive diversity. Thus, this process of reflection and consultation is likely to lead to some greater differentiation in higher education curricula as universities respond flexibly to labor market demands and to local and national social needs. This enables the modification of curricula to take account of the national context and regional diversity, such as the variety of local economic opportunities, languages, and cultures. Without such flexibility and

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differentiation there is a danger that the universities will produce too many graduates that are ill-prepared to contribute to the regions’ and country’s development and so will be vulnerable to graduate unemployment. The political benefits of expanding enrollments cannot be seen in isolation from the economy and society. Graduate unemployment, even if it is a temporary, transitional phenomenon, is undesirable within a context where one student receiving a university education might pay many times more than a primary school student.4 Graduate unemployment can be very costly in both social and economic terms. Unemployed youth are more likely to become HIV positive, use drugs, get pregnant, engage in petty crime, and contribute to political unrest (Delaney, 2010).5 At present, the curriculum is designed to meet the needs of an urban population and the government offices. There is insufficient attention given to the needs of rural areas or teaching. —A worker in an NGO

As university curricula become more diversified and more closely related to local opportunities and particular national needs, some will develop special expertise in specialist areas. In this way “centers of excellence” (not just at postgraduate level) can evolve. Over time, such centers will provide an example for other centers of higher learning and encourage quality education at each level and specialist research. Such developments, growing from an expansion of local know-how and experience are likely to be more successful and sustainable than a so called center of excellence, which might be based on little more than aspiration.

National Considerations in the Curriculum Mix In any African country with a number of universities, there are likely to be certain subjects offered by many of the universities because of the needs of the country for large numbers of graduates in certain subject areas (for example, teacher training) and/or because they need less specialist equipment and facilities and so can be managed without great economies of scale (for example, business studies). Universities need to analyze where the introduction of new disciplines will have most impact. For example, in Ethiopia, the training of adult educators and adult education planners is one of the most neglected areas. This is despite its potential as a potent weapon for poverty reduction and the improvement of social conditions. According to the Institute for International Cooperation of the German Adult Education

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Association, apart from Jimma Teacher’s College, there is no higher learning institute that trains adult educators, and there is none at all that trains the managers and teacher trainers for the sector.6 Each country is likely to have similarly underdeveloped sectors that require a national framework and response. For 50 years, the HE system has borrowed curriculum from developed countries. This results in uncontextualized knowledge that does not contribute to the country’s particular needs. —A telecom manager

The area of health is an important one for most African countries and provides a useful illustration of the difficulties in designing relevant curricula in other professional areas too. African universities generally do a good job of turning out graduates of international standard. However, there are various problems with their present output. One is that the graduates are very attractive to the developed world; their training is generally based on models from more-developed universities, and this makes them highly suited to the needs of developed countries. The problem is exacerbated because graduates are not always oriented to remain in their home country, and a proportion looks for opportunities to emigrate. Thus, moredeveloped countries benefit from the health training supplied by the scarce resources of Africa. In addition, where the training is based on more-developed health training, it might be insufficiently focused on some of the most urgent issues in African societies (for example, health education at the community level, HIV/AIDS, harmful traditional practices, tuberculosis and other communicable diseases, malaria, and intestinal and parasitic problems). Other professional areas will suffer from similar problems and will need to be discussed at the national level in order to seek solutions appropriate to the development context while still drawing on the best knowledge and practice from around the world. Across the world there has been a tendency toward increasing diversity within higher education systems, with different types of institutions moving different functions and missions (World Bank, 1994).7 This might be particularly important in sub-Saharan Africa where subjects such as engineering and science, which are very expensive and require specialist facilities, cannot be properly resourced across a number of institutions: resources might be best used if these disciplines are concentrated in a few centers. A national debate might help to rationalize the provision of scarce and ex-

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pensive resources to ensure that graduates are well trained and oriented to the particular needs of the country. The private sector also has a part to play, as many private colleges and universities prefer to offer courses in subjects where there is a high demand but low capital costs, such as business studies or public relations and marketing. This then has a consequence for what curricula the public universities should be offering.

Ethical Issues in the Curriculum In the social science area, there should be changes. Programs like gender, demographic, and governance issues should be incorporated. —A United Nations development official

It is clear that sub-Saharan Africa will be greatly assisted in its development if its elite are aware of, and sensitive to, ethical issues. Too often, the problems of the subcontinent have been exacerbated by corrupt and self-interested actions by those in a position of influence and power. Universities are in a powerful position as educators of the next generation of employers and leaders to influence attitudes and behavior for the better. It seems to us to be desirable for the ethical aspects of each subject to be thematically discussed and considered, and the ethical responsibilities of students emphasized, both in their conduct as students and as future employees and leaders/managers. This ethical awareness will encompass gender and the need to work for gender equality and fairness; multi-ethnic/multicultural education, tolerance, and understanding; the need to respect others’ rights and fulfill responsibilities; and the ethical response to HIV/AIDS in terms of personal responsibility and nondiscriminatory attitudes. Development work in curriculum planning and implementation might usefully focus on discussions with course development teams about the kinds of qualities that are needed by the country with this respect and how they might be approached.

Reflection: Exploring ethical issues in the curriculum Think about the kinds of ethical qualities, behaviors, and attitudes needed for effective leadership in a country you are interested in. Make a list of them.

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Discuss these with a person with more experience than you and add to your list. Think about what are the possible approaches to developing some of these ethical qualities, behaviors, and attitudes in the curriculum and what might be the advantages and disadvantages of each. Record your analysis in a grid as follows: Approach

Advantages

Disadvantages

Incorporating anticorruption as an add-on module for all students

Will not require changes to the standard curriculum Not all staff need to be trained in anticorruption . . .

Will not be integrated into the rest of the students’ learning Is unlikely to influence students’ future behavior . . . 

Developing a “bank” of curriculum materials that can be used across a variety of subjects covering a variety of ethical issues . . . 

Staff will not all have to develop their own materials and ideas The materials can be integrated and contextualized within the subject . . . 

All staff will need training to use the materials Many staff might neglect to use the materials . . .

. . .

. . . 

. . . 

Read around the subject of pedagogic approaches to attitude change. Add to and modify your grid in the light of this reading.

Civics education is important in an emerging democracy; civic-minded citizens will support their emerging democracies. Some universities in subSaharan Africa incorporate civics education as an add-on module. Others integrate notions of democracy, participation, and responsibility into aspects of the curriculum and into the pedagogic process, although this second approach is generally more ad hoc than systematic. If students should be encouraged to celebrate diversity and to question outdated cultural ideas, new forms of pedagogy might be needed that allow the free flow of ideas in all curricula. Perhaps the curriculum should also include the aspects of civics education as a permeating theme. Related to this, students will be better citizens and contribute more to development if they understand that they are accountable for their actions. As higher education students, they have been privileged above most others in their country who have not had the investment of long-term education, many of whom, with the right support and background, would have also

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benefited from higher education. Curriculum developers might need to consider how to encourage students to think about how they might demonstrate their commitment to their country and how their studies might be used to benefit others who are less fortunate. University departments should address the issue in relation to their subject, so sociology should incorporate the study of behavioral change, and there should be more interaction and exchange of information between departments. The curriculum should be based on local research and books and resources developed which identify the priorities and issues related to the country. —A worker for an HIV/AIDS charity

It is now evident that HIV/AIDS is one of the most important threats to development in sub-Saharan Africa and that students are particularly vulnerable in this respect. As future leaders and employers, higher education students will be in a position to make a difference. Even in countries that were not badly affected 10 years ago, the problem is growing. For example, it is now recognized that HIV/AIDS is potentially devastating to Ethiopia’s higher education system and its economy and society. The Federal HIV/ AIDS Protection and Control Office (HAPCO)8 estimates that at least 1.5 million people are infected already and that the urban infection rate is 12.6% (most higher education institutions are in urban areas); students, teachers, and young people are high-risk categories. The South African experience of HIV/AIDS indicates a range of actions that should be taken by all higher education institutions. One of the most important of these is integrating HIV/AIDS into the curriculum with appropriate depth and scope and paying special attention to distance learning. This suggests that development work should focus on providing practical and ongoing training on how to integrate HIV and AIDS policy into the curriculum in each discipline area and to increase infusion across courses and course material. Instructors and students are not always clear how to develop curricula that will build their students’ understanding of behavior change. Subject associations and managers could be useful forums for discussing and replicating best practices among national and international higher education institutions. In the end, students of every subject will need to be very knowledgeable in HIV/AIDS prevention and believe that they have an important role to play in controlling the disease. It seems to us to be very important to develop this spirit of determination and optimism through all curricula. The economic rate of return to AIDS prevention within a university setting is particularly

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high. A few years ago, a World Bank economist calculated an extremely high economic rate of return to investments in AIDS prevention within the Nigeria higher education system, assuming that they reduced the mortality rate for staff and students by just 5% (World Bank, 2002).9 Such a reduction will help to guarantee the investment being made by the government in higher education; reduce the risk that the country’s development fails to be triggered by higher education expansion; and increase resource efficiency by maximizing the number of graduates per unit of government investment. Reflection Find out the prevalence of HIV/AIDS among higher education students in a country you are interested in. What action is taken within the curriculum to counter this prevalence at present? Read the literature concerning methods for attitude and behavioral change with respect to HIV/AIDS. Which of these has potential for inclusion in the higher education curriculum? What do you think are the main barriers to promoting AIDS awareness in a sub-Saharan higher education institution? How you think these might be overcome? How might a development worker go about encouraging colleagues to incorporate action against HIV/AIDS into the curriculum? Discuss these strategies with someone with more experience than you.

Access to the Curriculum As national economies develop, the requirement of the workforce to engage in lifelong learning becomes greater. This changes the forms of the curriculum in new ways: part-time and distance learning have become common for people in work, and universities have developed higher learning programs commissioned by employers for their employees. This process has started in African too; for example, Ethiopian Telecom sponsors the Graduate School of Telecommunication and Information Technology to ensure that the curriculum meets its needs for suitably qualified employees.10 University first-degree study is no longer seen as being exclusively for school-leavers: access programs have been developed for people who did not achieve a secondary school-leaving diploma to add to their learning as mature students and enter university study. Postgraduate programs are offered in part-time, open, and distance modes (or mixed modes) so that employees can study alongside full-time work.

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I would like to see an attitude to life that includes a commitment to lifelong learning inculcated in students. They should realize that as new graduates they have a lot to learn and should learn on the job and through skills updating . . . students should be inculcated with work disciplines: arriving on time and being disciplined. —An African banker

As in more-developed countries, so as the countries in sub-Saharan Africa develop further, the need for lifelong learning will grow. Various developed countries have responded to this challenge; for example, in Germany, the UK, the United States, and other countries, undergraduate and postgraduate programs have been modularized to allow students to study in bite-sized chunks and build up credit over time and transfer them into advanced standing on programs leading to higher qualifications. This process has begun in some African countries; for example, the University of South Africa offers bite-sized programs in its Centre for Software Engineering, where students receive a UNISA certificate upon successful completion of the course.11 Some of these programs focus on practical issues while others focus on theoretical principles. In the UK and United States, short courses, associate degree/foundation degree, diploma, and certificate courses represent steps toward undergraduate degrees or a postgraduate or might be taken as qualifications in their own right. Mozambique is moving toward a similar system (Republic of Mozambique Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology, 2000).12 A movement toward such lifelong provision will allow many of these programs to be paid for by the individual studying part-time alongside of their work. If the higher education curriculum is to meet the needs of a developing country, it must also provide opportunities for those members of society that are relatively disadvantaged. A well-developed and presented curriculum can allow access for potentially talented students that might otherwise find their abilities wasted. There are various groups whose interests should be considered, such as those disadvantaged because of disability, gender, ethnicity, or because they come from a relatively disadvantaged region. Thus, the principles of equality of opportunity are an important part of curriculum planning, organization, and implementation. Equality of opportunity can be seen as ensuring that all students have a route into and through study and do not suffer active discrimination. This can be a starting point, but of itself is inadequate. We see a better approach to be the identification and removal of barriers to achievement.

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These barriers can be the prior experience of potential students (the level of qualifications they have obtained might be lower because they have been denied access to good quality secondary education); the ways that subjects are described and conceived (for example, female students might be more interested in the social implications of the subject and so are less likely to succeed where these are ignored); or the ways that curriculum is organized (open learning can offer opportunities to potential students in remote areas, but only of it is offered in accessible modes). Each society in sub-Saharan Africa will have its own structural and cultural barriers to achievement for certain groups. It is part of the role of the development worker to assist those designing the curriculum to identify these and to help them to think of creative and practical ways to assist students and potential students to overcome them. It is not clear that the curriculum should be only agriculturally related. In the lifetime of graduates, it is to be expected that many other industry sectors should develop and that these will help to employ the mass of the people. —An employers’ representative

Many African countries have come to the view that they are educating insufficient science and technology graduates (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2006).13 They therefore see the expansion of these discipline areas within the higher education system as a strategic priority. Unfortunately, the secondary-school sector is not well equipped to provide the intake with the skills and experiences they need to achieve at degree level in these subjects; often teachers are underqualified, teaching methods are didactic rather than practical and experimental, and school laboratories inadequate. There is a need therefore for universities and higher education institutions to work with governments on creative ways to up-skill the intake of students so that they can achieve at the level that their country needs. Below is a case study of one such attempt:

Case Study: Science and Mathematics Foundation Program at the University of the North in South Africa (UNIFY) (Zaaiman, 1998)14 During the 1980s, the (then) White universities in South Africa started to admit Black students into bachelor’s programs. Most of these students were from disadvantaged education backgrounds. Problems soon emerged, especially with

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those entering the priority subjects of mathematics and science. These Black students had not been adequately prepared by their secondary education for degree-level study. Despite academic support programs being provided with extra tutorials and assistance, failure rates were high because too many could not cope with the pace and content. Unfortunately, the students felt stigmatized by the programs and found the extra workloads excessive. Ideally, what was needed was an improvement in the quality of teaching at the secondary level through better preservice and in-service training of teachers. However, this would have taken too long and, in any case, was not within the control of the universities. The University of the North, a historically Black institution, accepted the basic problem of poor prior education and looked for an innovative solution. The university therefore decided to introduce a preentry science foundation program called UNIFY. This program recruited 150–250 students per year from disadvantaged education backgrounds who, despite weak formal qualifications, demonstrated potential for further studies in special aptitude tests. This program lasted a year before students entered their chosen degree program. Tracer studies showed that the program was largely successful in its goal to substantially increase the number and quality of students entering the science faculties and reduced failure rates. In fact, ex-foundation students who had been previously judged to be too weak even to be admitted to degrees, consistently outperformed others who came though the normal entry routes in their degree studies. In terms of pass rates, some ex-foundation students were even “top of the class” in mainstream courses. By the beginning of the new millennium, virtually every higher education institution in South Africa had created a student support system, many based on the University of the North model, which was hailed by external evaluators as “the single most important intervention in the field of academic development in South Africa. Through its design, impact and relevance, UNIFY has become a model in the higher education sector, and is widely known and even copied within institutions nation-wide” (Zaaiman 1998). The lesson for development work is that creative solutions to access problems will operate to increase equity and can greatly enhance the learning of students who would otherwise be disadvantaged, to the benefit of themselves and their country.

Because of the poverty of its health and education services, sub-Saharan Africa has more than its fair share of people with disabilities. Many of these people have untapped capacities and can become useful members of society able to contribute to its development. Without access to education, such people might become a drain on resources rather than an asset. Access is in part a matter of facilities and resources, but it also requires changes in

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pedagogy, curriculum materials, and approach, supported by good institutional admissions and support systems. This is an area where it should be relatively easy to get donor funding and technical support. Much can be achieved through the better training of staff in adapting their teaching and attitudes to the special needs of disabled students. In countries that are short of resources, it might not be possible for all institutions to pay for the facilities and adaptations to meet the needs of all talented but disabled students. Where specialist equipment is needed, it might be necessary for different higher education institutions to specialize in catering to students with particular disabilities—one having hearing loops for deaf students, another special facilities for the blind, and yet others specializing in supporting problems such as dyslexia. Training for staff can be concentrated in this way too, so that, for example, a higher education institution catering to deaf students in mainstream classes will have teachers who have been trained to understand the importance of facing the class, speaking slowly and clearly, and using PowerPoint and other visual prompts. This specialism already happens in some countries; for example, in Ethiopia, Addis Ababa University makes special provision for blind students, and they are now able to achieve degrees in large numbers. One of the key problems in much of Africa is the disadvantage that women and girls suffer in society and the economy that severely limits their life chances and their ability to help in the development of the country. Although there are deep-seated cultural and other problems that underpin such disadvantage, universities can make some contribution to ameliorating the worst effects. For historical and geographical reasons, members of certain ethnic minorities also suffer discrimination. Support for disadvantaged students initiatives, though useful, might not be enough; universities are educating tomorrow’s leaders of communities and the economy. This implies that ethnic and gender awareness, a determination to take action to combat discrimination and abuse should be permeating themes in all curricula for all students; these are important matters for male as well as female students and for students of majority as well as minority ethnic groups. The aspiring manager can learn what s/he can do to develop good equal opportunities policies; the health worker can learn what community actions are effective to promote female health empowerment and combat disadvantage; the science students can be encouraged to work on problems that would make women’s lives more productive and easier and be motivated to work in disadvantaged regions to promote development and so on.

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Students who are not studying in their first language, and who might be from rural areas where they have received a secondary education from teachers who also are not fully fluent, might also find access to the curriculum difficult. They might rely on textbooks to supplement their problematic understanding of lectures and which are likely to be in an unfamiliar language also, produced in developed countries and use examples that are unfamiliar to Africans. Such students will need help and support if they are to reach their full potential. I would especially like to see students given the opportunity to learn Swahili, as many trading partners in Africa have this as their first language. An engineer with Swahili would be able to communicate in the preferred language of the client and therefore secure more business. —A businessman

The Organizational Framework for Curriculum Development If curricula are to meet the needs of all stakeholders, and most especially students, employers, and the community, certain enabling structures need to be in place. These can ensure that expertise is shared and well utilized and that curricula are well integrated into the needs of the country. We have already mentioned that universities operating within a context of scarce resources must take account of national plans and funding priorities in designing their curriculum plans. These are generally reflected in university strategic plans. In an ideal situation, these would specify the research into economic and social priorities that have been undertaken and, stemming from this, the priority subject areas to be developed, the resources to be diverted to these areas, and (importantly), the areas of the existing curriculum that should be terminated, reduced, or changed because they fail to meet market needs as well as they should. In our experience, many of these aspects are neglected in less-developed countries. It is more satisfying to develop curricula than to modify or reduce the disciple mix. This sometimes means that the development of the new is enthusiastically embraced, and diseconomies of scale and underperformance of other subject areas in terms of economic or community relevance are not analyzed or, if they are, not acted upon. Thus, there is a tendancy toward curriculum inflation, which can be hidden within the expansion of higher

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education that is common in sub-Saharan Africa, resulting in suboptimum performance. In relatively poor countries, resources planning (cost-benefit analysis) and financial planning (costing and pricing) are especially important. Where this is rigorously carried out, it might be discovered that in any one institution, a narrower but better resourced discipline coverage would enable students to be exposed to a wider range of subject expertise within their programs and offered more choices of modules. With more specialization, the institution will find it easier to monitor and improve outcomes more effectively. There tends to be a shortage of high-level staff expertise in sub-Saharan universities, which makes the existence of effective organizational frameworks for carrying out such analysis highly desirable.

The Organization of Curriculum Elements Alongside changes in the traditional pattern of subjects studied, there have been developments in the organization of learning in the developed world. Modular programs, often organized into semesters rather than terms, have become very common. These have the advantage of allowing the students to choose pathways of modules toward a named qualification that suits their interests and their career aspirations. Thus, business studies students working toward a degree might take a different mix of modules (for example, more or fewer modules in human resource management, marketing, or finance), depending upon their aptitudes and goals. Our classes need to be more practical; for instance, more product design, supported by resources. —A student representative

From the institutional point of view, the modular system means that, where subject disciplines overlap, modules can be shared between programs of study, thus, for example, business studies students can learn about marketing in a module alongside of students who are studying travel and tourism. This enables the university to realize economies of scale and both sets of students to be exposed (at least in mass lectures) to professors who are at the cutting edge of their subject, while applying that learning in smaller seminars with lecturers within their particular specialism. This can enable improvements in student learning at the same time as reductions in the per capita costs of education.

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The modular format also facilitates flexibility in the range of degrees offered. Universities can offer more specialisms without commensurate increases in costs by sharing modules between different degree programs. The system allows a range of new learning opportunities, such as the introduction of two (or three) subject degrees that have proved to be useful in employment (for example, computer science with business studies). Universities can also offer the opportunity for all students to add optional modules to their programs of study in aspects such as business planning or a modern foreign language. In competitive higher education sectors, where institutions must attract students to their programs to maintain their funding and demonstrate good employment outcomes to their potential students and to the funders, these flexibilities can create viable and vibrant programs that meet student and employer needs. The process of assessment should be continuous and include a variety of tasks. It should link with the objectives of the course. It should test basic concepts and their application through data collection and analysis. It should include group and individual assignments to develop and test skills such as listening and cooperating. —A trainer for industry

Sub-Saharan African countries have sometimes copied curriculum frameworks, such as modularity, from the developed world without fully embracing their implications and advantages. The economies of scale and student choice represented by modular frameworks have not always been experimented with, and seldom fully embraced. Thus, institutions might organize chunks of learning into modules and semesters, but are still offering essentially linear programs so that students cannot take advantage of the many different pathways a truly modular program might offer. Modular programs might have little overlap of modules between named degrees, especially where these are located in different departments. This conservatism seems to result from a lack of organizational expertise to manage the complex systems that are needed to enable student choice and the allocation of shared resources. Development workers might usefully center their efforts on such aspects rather than concentrating solely on developing new curriculum content. A system for such organization creates sustainable change by supporting interdisciplinary sharing of scarce human and other resources and the enrichment of curriculum content, and so create real economies of scale. This is important in countries where expert and well-qualified professors and senior lecturers are scarce and where

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the needs of the economy cannot necessarily be met by batches of students who have all had the same curriculum and set of learning experiences.

Formalization of the Curriculum Development Process Because the target is moving (on which the economy focuses), the curriculum has to also change with this move. —A United Nations development official

Another issue of relevance to sub-Saharan Africa in developing the higher education curriculum is the codifying of good practice with regard to curriculum development processes and structures. In the late 1970s in the UK, especially in the oldest universities, a curriculum description for, say, a law degree might run over several pages and contain much useful information, while another for inorganic chemistry might read, “There will be two papers in inorganic chemistry.” This inconsistency of practice is not acceptable today. In some African countries, it is still not unusual for curriculum development to be seen as an essentially private activity conducted by a subject department and documented as the department sees fit. This idiosyncrasy of development disadvantages students; there are not the checks and balances that ensure that what they will be taught is clearly laid out and subject to peer or external scrutiny. Without a system of setting out the curriculum under defined headings, students might not be informed about how they will be assessed and how their curriculum will be updated. The country is generally paying through its taxes and fees for curricula that has not been rigorously assessed and subject to outside scrutiny to ensure that it is as good as it can be, given the available resources. As the system develops, universities usually have to become more managerial. As mechanisms for accountability for quality and standards are developed, it is reasonable to expect that any university would set out curriculum for students in some detail and in a standard format; perhaps describing the learning intentions of a program, the content, duration, contribution to the final degree, assessment, recommended reading, and so on. Increasingly, curricula might be approved by a clearly defined process that would include faculty, management, and university committee scrutiny. Regular periodic review would generally be required and carried out according to a specified format and process. In order to achieve this formalization of curriculum development and review, there is a need for a well-developed academic infrastructure of academic committees and advisory councils for students and employees. These

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are often in place in African universities, but might not be well managed. If the agendas are cluttered with nonstrategic and minor issues rather than being focused on the scrutiny role, or if they are not well managed (for example, with agenda and papers being distributed in a timely manner and meetings being called regularly), or if they are poorly chaired (for example, with voices being silenced or some members being allowed to dominate or repeat points), they will not perform the scrutiny role adequately. Where committees work well, they can set the pedagogic principles, curriculum design regulations, and academic regulations, which can ensure the appropriate expertise is deployed to ensure relevance of the curriculum. The process maximizes community and stakeholder interest so that students are provided with a good education and treated fairly. The procedures before a program is introduced also need an executive approval processes. The executive needs to be rigorous in exercising planning approval with respect to finance, resources, market research, strategic plan fit, and so on. It might set up and approve membership of the course planning committee or group, and ensure that the scrutiny committee system operates properly. Wherever I go, I ask employers about whether they are happy with the graduates they get, and they say they are good at the engineering or whatever, but they do not know how to work together and express themselves, and so on. —Tertiary Education Coordinator, the World Bank

The academic committee system and executives have to determine their duties with respect to course review procedures; ensuring evaluation (student, staff, and employer outcomes) occurs, and the results are analyzed; scrutinizing and approving modified curricula; examining program processes and outcomes; and so on. The rigor that is applied to these systems represents the stakeholder assurance that standards will be maintained once the curriculum is implemented, funding will be well spent on programs that will benefit the economic and social development of the country, and student interests will be safeguarded. Determining that a proposed development should not go ahead because it does not represent the optimum value to society, or determining that course review has been insufficiently rigorous and critical is challenging for academic scrutiny committees or the executive, but within a development context this is particularly important. Development work can usefully focus on empowering these systems so they can ensure sustainability of improvements and innovations to the curriculum.

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Higher education is part of a wider educational structure. Therefore, there are advantages in a system of formal linkages between higher education institutions and between higher education institutions and technical colleges in the development of curricula to allow smooth progression between levels and to allow a balanced pyramid of qualifications with credit accumulation and transfer between institutions and levels. It is important to articulate the opening of new higher education programs with the existing universities and to ensure an acceptance of, say, a new higher education diploma as giving advanced standing on awards in the existing higher education institutions. A series of formal associations with local colleges through, for example, places on the board, advisory committees, or joint planning forums can help to promote synergy across and between levels. Systems for staff and facilities sharing can help to raise the aspirations and achievements of local secondary and technical college students. For example, compact schemes might allow students in their final year of school or college study to undertake “taster” courses at their local higher education institution, be mentored by university students, or even guarantee them a place in the higher education institution if they achieve certain outcomes. Such linkages can help higher education institutions to be more firmly embedded within the local education system and help them achieve their role in contributing to the development of the country.

The Relationship Between the Curriculum and the Economy The Commission for Africa (2005)15 emphasizes the importance of the development of small enterprises with particular emphasis on young people and women as entrepreneurs. Higher education institutions have a role in educating and supporting tomorrow’s entrepreneurs. Curriculum planners might consider how to incorporate the skills, knowledge, and attitudes for entrepreneurial activity across the undergraduate, postgraduate, and short-course curriculum; for example, whether to develop short or longer programs to enable students (who might be in work) to work up a business plan and to understand matters such as cash flow, pricing, costing, and cost control as well as developing programs in the languages of geographically close trading partners. Entrepreneurship requires a workshop approach: simulations of the world of work, work placements, and ICT. Women should especially be encouraged as entrepreneurs. —An employers’ representative

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If entrepreneurialism is included in the curriculum, it needs to be fostered by appropriate pedagogy—entrepreneurs are willing to take risks, they are ambitious, they are creative in their thinking, and they are able to plan in a logical way. Development workers might need to discuss with curriculum planning teams how to encourage student initiative and experimentation. In less-developed countries, graduates need to be equipped to make their own jobs. Depending on the context, this might require training in business planning, ICT, obtaining microfinance, and so on, and these aspects can be integrated into many vocationally oriented curricula. In addition, a successful entrepreneur is likely to be well organized, hardworking, self-motivated, and able to manage his or her own time. An overcrowded, spoon-feeding curriculum and pedagogy is unlikely to achieve these qualities. Employers across the world want to employ graduates with a variety of communication skills: ICT, verbal communication, different forms of writing (report writing, discursive writing, reasoned argument, précis, and so on), and sometimes presentation skills also (for example, seminar leadership, poster displays, and leaflet production). Curriculum development teams might need to work out how to meet these aspirations within resource-poor contexts: how to develop students’ abilities to work as part of a team in various roles (team leader, project manager, group member, group secretary, or organizing officer), and what learning situations they should encounter (for example, group projects, community tasks, and investigations). Another feature of a curriculum that is designed to meet development needs is an emphasis on work readiness through mechanisms such as the inclusion of work experience. Some countries have made great progress in this respect; for example, in South Africa the system has been reconfigured to take account of the changing nature of knowledge production in today’s world. Finding work placements for thousands of undergraduates and postgraduate students is not easy, but it helps if the student “intern” is perceived to be potentially of use to the employer. This might require changes to the structure of programs to allow students to spend a concentrated period of time in a workplace (say, a semester) and for outcomes-from-work placements to be assessed and count toward the final grade.

Case Study: The Model of the Ideal Graduate In 2005, we conducted 35 interviews with employers and employer groups as part of the study into the 13 new higher education institutions planned for Ethiopia (Ashcroft, 2005).16 They had a perception that graduates who were coming out

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of the higher education institutions lacking practical skills that are needed in the workplace and argued for these skills to be addressed within the curriculum of academic, professional, and vocationally oriented subjects. Practical work takes more time than “chalk and talk” and, in the workshops conducted with other stakeholders, we were advised it would be necessary to empty programs of some content to make this a reality. It was agreed that active learning should be built into the planning of pedagogic processes—curriculum development, teaching methods, resource purchasing, and assessment. Practical work was seen by employers as closely tied in with problem solving. If students were trained to become efficient problem solvers, the employers felt that they would apply their knowledge in creative and innovative ways to help solve their country’s development dilemmas. To achieve this, they need to be equipped with certain skills and knowledge—to become “self-managers” who understand business processes and independent learners able to express themselves and work efficiently. Employers and others interviewed for the study consistently emphasized the need for graduates who display self-confidence, inquisitiveness, and creativity. Again, this implies that the curriculum will not be overcrowded with content. The development of these qualities implies that students have time to experiment with ideas and investigate their consequences. Discussion with the stakeholders in workshops concluded that students need the opportunity to discuss issues in small peer groups (not always with a lecturer present), disagree, and formulate arguments. These qualities depend upon students achieving depth in their studies rather than skimming the surface. All of this takes much more time than rote learning facts, so the number of topics that can be fitted into the curriculum would need to be reduced. Some of the employer requirements are now being implemented. Discipline groups are meeting at the national level to decide together what is absolutely essential as outcomes in a curriculum for, say, a civil engineering student and what has become part of custom and practice and can be cut if necessary. However, in 2009, from studies carried out in the Capacity Building Needs Analysis (Melis et al., 2008),17 it was evident that pedagogy has not changed a great deal even in the new universities, where there is a younger staff with fewer pedagogic habits developed over the years. This means that the rationalization of the curriculum is not sufficient to ensure that practical problem solving actually takes place; it requires more sustained interventions and commitment to change behavior. From our study, we learned that many academic staff have been acculturated to didactic methods of instruction and that a practical curriculum will not be successful unless ownership of the change can be secured by those who will implement it. Staff will need new skills and support to change their teaching and to become more open to students who might develop challenging ideas of their

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own. This is especially testing (though not impossible) in difficult circumstances of few learning resources, little equipment, and large classes.

If universities are to achieve the kind of education that is needed for economic and social development, they will need to think carefully about their assessment strategy. Examinations and tests are useful in checking students’ coverage of the syllabus, but they are relatively ineffective measures of their problem-solving abilities, teamwork capability, or of many communication skills. Curriculum development teams might need to look at other assessment techniques—group work and team assessment, peer assessment, self-assessment (these last three can be moderated by the instructor), oral presentation, report writing, leaflet and advertisement production, independent community-based projects, reflective diaries, and competence-based skills assignments that test a wide range of work-related skills and abilities. These skills and qualities (of the ideal graduate) imply changes in approaches to pedagogy and assessment with more group work, more emphasis on cooperation, and more experimentation. —A Minister for Trade and Industry

Conclusion Over recent decades, there has been considerable change in curriculum development across the world, and this is affecting higher education systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Further development will be needed in a range of different aspects of curriculum planning, organization, implementation, and review. These changes are a response to the changes in the balance of the power relationship between academics as guardians of academic integrity and other stakeholders such as students and employers; changes in the student population in terms of their diversity and academic qualifications; increasing demands from government and funders for practical and utilitarian solutions to human resource needs in a changing economic landscape; the need for increasing cost effectiveness; and changes in accountability for quality and the maintenance of academic standards. Development workers will need to work with others on the disciplines included in curriculum: subject organization, modes of learning, the process of development, and the format for curriculum descriptors.

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“Ownership” of the changes—by staff first and foremost, but also by other stakeholders—will be critical to the success of such endeavors. External stakeholders such as employers and government will wish to see more focus on economic and social needs and graduates with qualities such as practical focus and problem solving. However, the changes depend upon academic staff being willing and able to integrate curriculum intentions with pedagogic changes. This is not easy and will require structural support from subject associations, government agencies, donors, and development workers. Reflection In this chapter, we have looked at ◾◾ The discipline mix for developing economies ◾◾ Ethical issues ◾◾ Access and equality of opportunity ◾◾ The organizational framework for curriculum development ◾◾ The formalization of the curriculum development process and ◾◾ The relationship between the curriculum and the economy

Which of these would you prioritize for action in the higher education system of a country where you have some experience? What goals would you set for these priorities? What do you think are the barriers to the achievement of these goals and how might they be overcome?

Notes 1. Halhoun, C. (2007). Sociology in America: A history. University of Chicago Press. 2. See for an example of a discussion of the controversy over nontraditional degree subjects: Utley, A. (2002, November, 15). Analysis: Those “Mickey Mouse” degrees are having the last laugh. Times Higher Education. London. http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=172965§i oncode=26 3. In 2002, 92.1% of business and administrative studies graduates were employed after 6 months, compared with 89.4% for physical science graduates; see HEFEC. (2002) Performance indicators in higher education. Bristol, UK: Annex G, HEFCE 2002/52. http://www.hefce.ac.uk/Learning/perfind/2002/ annad.asp 4. For a discussion of the relative rates of return of investment in different sectors of education, see World Bank Higher education in developing countries: Peril and promise, Chapter 2, Washington, DC: World Bank http://siteresources

190    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa .worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/278200-1099079877269/5476641099079956815/peril_promise_en.pdf 5. Delaney, M. (2010, August 11) Student unrest unnerves the Chinese. Times Higher Education. London. Retrieved December 1, 2010, from http://www.times highereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=204768§ioncode=26 6. www.unesco.org/fileadmin/. . ./INSTITUTES/UIL/. . ./Ethiopia.pdf 7. World Bank. (1994). Development in practice, higher education: The lessons from experience. Washington, DC: World Bank. 8. See http://hapco.gov.et/ 9. World Bank. (2002). Education and HIV/AIDS: A window of hope, Washington, DC: World Bank 10. For more details, see http://www.gstit.edu.et/ 11. See http://cs-cert.unisa.ac.za/ 12. Republic of Mozambique Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology. (2000). Strategic plan of higher education in Mozambique 2000–2010. Maputo, Mozambique. 13. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2006). New type of Ethiopian universities: Premises, concept, and strategies, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Ministry of Education. 14. Zaaiman, H. (1998) Selecting students for mathematics and science: The challenge facing higher education in South Africa. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. 15. Commission for Africa. (2005). Our common interest: An argument. London: Penguin Books Ltd. 16. Ashcroft, K. (2005). 13 new higher education institutions for Ethiopia: Analysis and discussion of curriculum, resource and organizational issues. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Education, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. 17. Melis, T., Ashcroft, K., Macfarlane, I., Rayner, P., Semela, T., & Yizengaw, T. (2008, April 1–September 30). A study on human capacity building needs analysis of Ethiopian new public universities. Addis Ababa and Amsterdam: The Centre for International Cooperation of the VU University Amsterdam/UNDP.

9 Teaching, Learning, and Student Experience (There needs to be) consideration of the role of men and women and social constructs of masculinity and femininity in each curriculum, especially as they relate to traditions and practices in Ethiopia . . . Entrepreneurship for women students in the curriculum (is needed), so that they can develop as “champions for change” . . . they should focus on discussion of reproductive health such as discussion of early marriage and abortion and the reasons behind them and their effects—such discussion should include boys. —A UNDP senior official

Main points in this chapter: ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

The changing nature of a student The changing relationship between students and institutions The voice of the student Access and equality The importance of employability and the employment market Student services and support Ethiopia’s Higher Diploma Program Affirmative action for Ethiopian female students

Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 191–212 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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typical female student in sub-Saharan Africa will have a very different experience from one in a more-developed country (see Gunawardena et al., 2004).1 The teaching she experiences might be more traditional than is now the norm in the more-developed world. Her instructors might not have received pedagogic training and most likely will not have a higher degree. She will find that resources for independent learning are relatively scarce and intensively used. The library will be crowded, with most desks occupied by students throughout the day (and night). There might be few books on open shelves with most on short-term loan, so she will do most of her reading in the library; in any case, there will be few other spaces suitable for study. The classes she attends might use chalk and talk techniques; the instructor will usually be dealing with large classes and will need to get across much information that is not available in the scarce resources of the library. She will have very limited access to a computer, and most of the online materials available might be on a PC shared with many other students. In most sub-Saharan countries, she will experience higher education as a very male environment, with most of the teaching staff and students being men (In the UK, the majority of undergraduates are female). She might feel relatively powerless in the face of harassment and bias (sexual and ethnic) from other students and some teachers. However, in some universities, she might have access to a gender office to air her concerns. She will often sleep in a dormitory, shared with several other woman students, with a single locker for all her possessions rather than a singlebedded room with sink, cupboards, and a desk that her counterpart in a more-developed country would consider a minimal level of comfort. She might have to cope with water shortages, uncertain power supplies, and a lack of functioning showers and toilets. Her higher education institution might close sometimes because of political unrest, and classes might be cancelled or start late from time to time without explanation. This student will probably consider herself lucky to be studying in a higher education institution. She is one of a relatively small elite who has had access to good secondary education and passed some stringent examinations. She will often have a strong sense of obligation to her family and to her country and a determination to use her education to pull herself and others out of poverty (see Rihani, 2006).2 She will probably have access to more sports and other facilities than in her home environment. She might be guaranteed accommodation, her own bed, access to sanitation,

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and three meals a day, and these might mean that her standard of living at university is as good as, if not better, than her standard of living at home. Nowadays, she might be aware of the dangers of HIV/AIDS and that she is in a high-risk group as a student. She might know how to protect herself, even if she lacks the social confidence to put her knowledge into practice. Her religious beliefs might or might not deter her from sexual activity but, together with a lack of confidence, they will probably deter her from using any contraception. Once at university, she might be exposed to radical ideas and a highly politicized student environment as well as students from other ethnic groups.

Pedagogy and the Student Experience Are we really preparing our youngsters well for these new sophisticated skills (expert thinking and complex communication). I don’t think so . . . close to 90% of them are not ready in some developing countries? New competencies are needed: It’s not about skills anymore, its about creativity. —Education expert from the World Bank

What the students will be taught, how they will be taught, and how they will learn are questions that should depend upon the sort of graduates that are needed for the development task. Thus, the a priori question is: What skills and qualities should graduates have in order to contribute to the development of their country? We have explored this question and the question of “what should be taught?” when we discussed the curriculum. In this chapter, we look at the student experience of teaching and learning and how to improve it, but first it is important to understand the context that graduates will be operating within. Africa faces a range of local problems that are context-specific, and therefore often they are not susceptible to solutions that are copied without adaptation from elsewhere. Graduates will need special skills and qualities to meet the development needs of their society; for example, the listening and communication skills to work with local people to exploit local resources in a sustainable way and to solve their specific problems. Such graduates will need to be able to find and draw on information and research from the rest of Africa and the world so that their solutions are well informed, but they will

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need to critically assess this data in order to determine the strengths and weaknesses within their particular context. Many of the social, health, and economic problems that Africans face are exacerbated by cultural practices and traditions. If graduates are to help others in their country, no matter if they are working in science, technology, or other fields, they will need cultural sensitivity and social and interpersonal skills to get the best out of those that they are trying to help. Many African graduates might not find employment easily. African economies are underdeveloped and therefore cannot always use the skills and abilities of graduates to best effect. This implies that graduates will need the skills, creativity, and astuteness to create business opportunities; to start up their own enterprises and thus supply employment for themselves and ultimately for others too. These demands require skills and attitudes that are not necessarily found in traditional engineering, university courses. Students are not ready for the workplace; it is some time before they become productive and equipped with the right skills. Higher education institutions need to become more connected with private and public operations and incorporate more of an apprenticeship model into their curriculum. —A minister for Trade and Industry

Pedagogy and New Forms of Learning In the discussion about the curriculum, we noted that employers are looking for graduates that display self-confidence, inquisitiveness, and creativity. These are not easy to teach, but they are central to public and community service, employment, and self-employment. They imply as much, if not more, about the graduate’s attitudes and skills as they do about the knowledge he or she has acquired. The development of attitudes and skills depends as much on the methodologies of teaching and learning as its content. Thus, an instructor might inform his or her students that employers will expect them to turn up on time, show initiative, think about other and better ways of doing things, be creative, communicate well, and work as part of a team, but this “telling” will not necessarily mean that the students will behave in this way. To effect changes in attitudes and behavior, lecturers have to change their teaching and behavior too. Good timekeeping might be taught by example (the lecturer turning up on time) and through the expectations of the student as to time discipline (for example, the class being closed to late-

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comers). Graduates will be less likely to show initiative if they are spoon-fed the curriculum, than if they have to work things out for themselves. Students that have always been taught that there is a “right answer” and who get into trouble when they question what the instructor, higher education institution, or even the government tells them will not “think outside of the box” when they graduate. Students who are to develop their creativity must have the chance to experiment in their studies. Experimentation cannot happen without the freedom to be wrong. If they are punished or embarrassed when they make mistakes, or see their colleagues suffering in this way, students will quickly learn to suppress any unconventional thoughts or solutions. Students whose assessment comprises written tests and examinations will find it hard to excel at other kinds of writing (report writing, for example), verbal communication, negotiation, and presentational skills. Finally, students who have always produced individual work and who have never had a group assignment will probably not have acquired the team-working skills required of the team member and leader in the workplace. Innovation needs more than basic undergraduate training; it needs intellectual free spirit and entrepreneurs—graduates not looking for jobs but to create jobs. —African Country Director from the World Bank

The challenge is to find pedagogies that encourage students to develop the qualities that allow new attitudes, behaviors, and being creative and entrepreneurial in the way to see the world. These pedagogies will need to be personal, emotionally engaging, and make the understanding “real.” The African tradition of “instruction” is not good for these forms of learning— that of storytelling is better, but it might be necessary for African academics to move outside of their comfort zone to experiment with methods such as role playing, games, simulations, and group tasks. For example, a business studies lecturer wishing to mainstream HIV/AIDS in the curriculum might tell the students about how important it will be for the business manager to plan for its effects. Alternatively, he or she might bring in business people to talk to the students about what it means for them. A different approach would be to get groups of students to interview people with HIV/AIDS and those who work with them and care for them, to research the subject, and to design a marketing campaign to “sell” tolerance when dealing with people with HIV/AIDS and to encourage safer sex. This last methodology would get across useful subject information (about marketing) but also encourage

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really deep emotional engagement on the issue of safer sex that might actually affect their attitudes and behavior. Similarly, the lecturer might talk about the principles of business planning in order to encourage entrepreneurial skills. Alternatively, he or she could ask groups of students to think up and research a money-making product or service related to the subject being studied (engineering, art, health, or whatever), interview potential customers, and then develop a business plan that is assessed by their peers who would be working on a similar project. This second approach would be more likely to develop creative, practical thinking and group working skills that entrepreneurialism needs, while at the same time, as a deeper knowledge of what should go into a business plan. From this analysis, it is clear that graduates who can help their country’s development might need to experience a radically different pedagogy from that presently offered in many African universities. Nowadays, there is a move across many African countries to bring in new forms of pedagogy—active learning and problem solving particularly. For this to be successful, lecturers need to be equipped with skills and resources. To this end, many capacitydevelopment projects are directed at improving the repertoire of lecturer methodologies. This is an area where the development worker can make a sustainable contribution; for example, through working together with others on capacity development, curriculum materials, and “ideas banks.”

Case Study: Ethiopia’s Higher Diploma Program3 In 2002/2003, two development workers from the UK were asked by the Ethiopian Ministry of Education to design a diploma program for trainers of lecturers in education and later for the lecturers themselves, to teach them personal pedagogic skills that they could use in their own teaching and pass on to the students who were being educated as school teachers. The program was developed in cooperation with Ethiopian partners. It lasted at least a year and included the theory and practice of active learning and involved enquiry and active learning tasks in every module as well as observation of, enquiry into, and reflection on teaching. Thus, the message of the program and the methodologies used within it were complementary. On the whole, the program was well received, and it has influenced the development of pedagogic training programs now being introduced in many universities for new lecturers in other subjects. However, the results in terms of actual changes to classroom practice were decidedly mixed. Some lecturers were initially inspired by the program and made permanent changes in their teaching, but others soon reverted to their traditional methods.

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Some years on however, there is anecdotal evidence that the modalities in teaching in education departments are considered by their colleagues to be more advanced than in the rest of the sector. This residual effect of the program is most marked in those higher education institutions where the senior management of the institution has been consistently supportive, and encouraged staff and leaders in the program to take it seriously. Although the effects have been diluted over time, the program has proved to be more sustainable than many other interventions. It is likely that this is because of the following factors: ◾◾ The original program was well conceived with the learning outcomes,

methodologies of teaching and learning, and the assessments consistent with each other. ◾◾ The program was developed in collaboration with the sector and received the endorsement of government ministers and many heads of higher education institutions. ◾◾ The program was led by staff who had been well trained in the methodologies ◾◾ The program was supported by high quality support materials that were made available free of charge to every institution. The impact of the program was not seen in every institution, and this seems to be especially the cases where ◾◾ Senior management did not provide the leaders of the program and

the course participants sufficient time off from other duties ◾◾ Senior management were not supportive of course leaders who tried

to ensure discipline with respect to course attendance and assessment deadlines ◾◾ Success in course assessments had no impact on promotion prospects ◾◾ Participants did not feel that they had anything to learn from the program because they believed (sometimes wrongly) that their teaching was already fully competent.

Training for lecturers in pedagogic methods is necessary, but insufficient as a solution to the development of graduates with the skills, attitudes, and qualities developing countries need. A skills toolbox might be useful, but it will not achieve its objectives if the lecturer does not also change his or her attitude. If they think that active learning focused on problem solving is just too hard (and it is hard), or if they feel it is more important to get through the curriculum than to allow the space and time for exploration, experiment, group working, and discussion, or if they feel threatened by students who challenge their thinking or statements, they will quickly kill

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off any nonconformity and creativity in their students. Development workers helping to build sustainable change in pedagogy therefore have the same challenges as the lecturers have with their students—how can they provide and transmit the skills and knowledge those working in the situation need at the same time as working on basic attitudes to students, their learning, and the behavior of staff in the classroom? Another aspect of the “ideal” graduate for the development context is an orientation to lifelong, independent learning. Our research indicates that employers are seeking graduates who will be keen to develop further in the job, who do not think they know it all, and who will continue to learn and adapt as they work through their careers. For this reason, it is important that the pedagogic process encourages students to develop positive attitudes to independent learning and study skills. Students who undertake small pieces of research and field study they plan and execute themselves might be more inclined to seek out knowledge and understating through reading and discussion outside of the classroom. If they have some choice in the foci of assessment, they can follow up their own interests. This implies a change in the role of the lecturer and in his or her relationship to the student and the curriculum. They will need to “let go” of curriculum content to some extent, allow choice, and help the students plan their noncontact time to make their independent study time more productive. This is challenging and might require support from the development worker, as the lecturer learns how to support and trust students to learn without being directed every step of the way.

Obstacles to Pedagogic Improvement There have been improvements to teaching and learning recently, but there are not always good and supportive relationships. —A student representative

Unfortunately, we have noticed (and sometimes led) pedagogic workshops, or even whole courses, that have been well received by recipients, where tests and evaluations show the participants have understood the course content and the importance of more active and participative methodologies of teaching and learning, but that have not made the slightest difference to what happens in or out of the classroom thereafter. This has led us to ask: What causes the difficulties that many lecturers have in changing their teaching and learning methods? We believe that the answer lies in a complex set of factors.

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Firstly, is the issue of trust. Often staff in African universities operate in an atmosphere of low trust. University management or the government might overdetermine what should be included in the curriculum and how it should be assessed. Staff might have experienced problems, or witnessed a colleague getting into trouble, because their students have not done well in an examination or because they have not followed a conventional path. This will lead a lecturer to be very wary of change and foster an unwillingness to experiment. The lecturer will be aware that students who have experienced active learning might not be as good at regurgitating the content of the curriculum in an examination or an essay; after all, this has not been the main focus of what they have learned. If the assessment does not take account of the skills and attitudes they have developed, the lecturer might fear that he or she will be perceived as having failed. Students might be aware that their assessments will only be based on subject knowledge and omit any testing of skills and attitudes. This means that students are sometimes hostile to the lecturer who attempts a more participative pedagogic style; they are only interested in learning what is necessary to pass the assessment. Another issue is the lack of role models. In many African countries, the traditional way of learning in the home and in schools is through transmission—rote and repetition. Lecturers might never have experienced active learning themselves—their undergraduate and school education might not have included opportunities for problem solving. The teachers that they respect and even admire are likely to be those who know a great deal about their subject and make classes interesting and amusing, with the student group as an audience rather than as active constructors of their learning. This lack of role models and personal experience might discourage many from more-active forms of learning that are challenging and difficult for students. Lecturers might also experience resistance to change from students who might also have had little opportunity to develop appropriate skills and attitudes before they enter higher education and who might resent not being supplied with answers from the experts teaching them (especially if they lack confidence). Managing active learning and problem solving is more effortful for hardpressed teaching staff. A lecturer cannot merely reproduce his lecture notes from his own undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in an interesting form for students. He or she will have to rethink curriculum content, interpret it in the form of tasks, challenging activities and problems to be solved by the students. More-complicated assessments need to be designed and marked. Lecturers might need to set up study groups and peer-support groups for stu-

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dents as a resource outside of classroom contact time, and set and assess the tasks that students undertake outside of, as well as inside, the classroom. Changes in pedagogy cannot operate where assessment practices remain traditional. Nontraditional assessments are often difficult to design and manage. Lecturers might be worried about the reliability of assessments of practical activities. They might distrust the objectivity of problem-solving tasks, where they are many right answers and where judgments have to be made about solutions students propose that the lecturer might not have predicted. They might be concerned as to whether assessments of group performance are fair to all participants. Each of these are real concerns: nontraditional assessment practices are harder to manage, reliability might be lower than with traditional assessments (though this reliability is often assumed, rather than real), but if the skills that are needed by the country are part of course objectives, they will be more valid as assessments of the learning outcomes than traditional forms of assessment. Students should be required to self-assess and to use that self-assessment as the starting point for them to develop an individual or organizational “breakthrough plan” for improvement and problem solving that relies on their own commitment. —A UNDP senior official

The final barrier to change in pedagogy in many African countries is the problem of resources. Where classes are large, active learning is more difficult (but not impossible, provided the lecturer trusts the students to discuss and work on paper-based problems in small groups at their desks). It is also often true that books and other resources for independent learning are in short supply. Fieldwork and other opportunities for practical application of learning is expensive and difficult to organize in resource-poor environments where local capacity is often low. These are real difficulties, and it is part of the role of the development worker to mobilize the creativity of the local staff to solve them at least in part; perhaps through the design of tasks that require thought and discussion rather than equipment, through the use of free online texts, learning resources, simulations, and so on.

Supporting Women Students From her birth, an Ethiopian female in most families is of lower status and commands little respect relative to her brothers and male counterparts.

Teaching, Learning, and Student Experience     201 As soon as she is able, she starts caring for younger siblings, helps in food preparation and spends long hours hauling water and fetching firewood. As she grows older, she is valued for the role she will play in establishing kinship bonds through marriage to another family, thereby strengthening the community status of her family. She is taught to be subservient, as a disobedient daughter is an embarrassment to her family. Low status characterizes virtually every aspect of girls’ and women’s lives. Given the heavy workload imposed on girls at an early age, early marriage without choice, and a subservient role to both husband and mother-in-law, girls and women are left with few opportunities to make and act on their own decisions. —Women’s Empowerment in Ethiopia: New Solutions to Ancient Problems, 2007, Pathfinder International Ethiopia

If male students in a sub-Saharan university face many difficulties, those facing a female student are considerably more numerous. She might already have been exceptional by the mere fact of completing both her primary and secondary education before going onto higher education. As we have already said, she will probably be living and studying in a predominantly male world. In an environment of limited and insufficient resources, she will have to overcome the cultural diffidence and submission to men that she might have been taught since infancy. She, and her other female colleagues, will have to exert themselves to ensure that they get copies of books from the library, equal access to the computers, and are not relegated to the back of a classroom where, with perhaps over 100 students, it might be difficult to hear the lecturer speak and to read what he/ she writes on the blackboard. However, across the world, more women students are entering higher education than a decade ago, although they tend to cluster in certain disciplines—education and social sciences—and are underrepresented in science and technology. In sub-Saharan Africa, progress is being made, but it is uneven. In South Africa, women make up 53% of the students in higher education. At Makerere University, Uganda, women comprise 42% of the student population, mainly as a result of an affirmative action program introduced in 1990. In Ethiopia, 22.5% of undergraduates are female. A few instructors tell girls that they must give sex so they can have good grades . . . The girls are scared to tell anyone in case the instructor is biased against them. —A student in a well-established university

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Sexual harassment is not a problem in this university . . . a female student once had a problem about two years ago, but we sorted it out then. They all know that they can just come to me with their problems. My door is always open. —The (male) principal of the same university

However, increasing female student enrollment is in itself not enough; often female students have a higher dropout rate than male students. There are many possible reasons for this including violence, harassment, and lack of security. Attention needs to be given to personal security, material support, and assertiveness training in addition to academic needs. Other causes might include poor academic preparation at the secondary level (if female students are accepted with a lower entrance qualification). A lack of female lecturers sometimes means female students do not have sufficiently strong role models or have university staff that they feel that they can confide in. Some female students might not be able to cope with the cultural changes involved in going to university or might face pressure from their families to return home. There is much discussion and many initiatives in African universities and within ministries of education and with donors to rectify the imbalance and to provide female students with more opportunities and support. However, as with much development work, the situation is complicated and what appears to be a solution, might cause problems of its own. Increasingly, universities are recognizing that woman students need extra support and so will perhaps offer “women only” seminars, dormitories, study rooms, or library spaces. Many universities now have a gender office where woman students can seek additional support. However, the gender office is sometimes underfunded and seen as a sop to alleviate criticism, and often these (meager) measures are criticized by male students who complain of “positive discrimination.” One area of relative success has been the proportion of female students undertaking private higher education in some sub-Saharan countries. It is not usual to find that female students represent around 50% of the student cohort. It is not immediately clear why this should be the case; it is probably not the case that the private higher education institutions are doing something different to the public universities that makes female enrollment and success more probable; rather, because private universities are nonresidential and so students return to their families and homes at the end of each day, they are considered safer and more suitable for female

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students. Whether it is the female students who feel this, their families, or both, is unclear. Private universities also tend to focus on those disciplines, such as the social sciences, that require less investment in hardware but are, at the same time, more popular with female students. In the university, there are 18% female students; in science even less. Affirmative action is very bad for us: female students are getting priority, but they are underperforming. —A faculty head

Woman students seem to be particularly vulnerable in the area of assessment. When talking to students, the authors were told of incidents where lecturers demanded sexual favors from woman students in return for good marks. It is unclear the extent of this practice, although there is no doubt that incidents do occur. This a consequence of a lack of proper accountability processes in relation to assessment and the awarding of marks/grades. In developed countries, it is common for at least a selection of examination scripts and coursework to be double-marked by internal examiners. It is also common for a sample to be sent to an external examiner who can then provide a report assuring the institution that the standards reached by the students, the marks awarded to them, and the feedback of their work provided by internal markers are appropriate. Many international higher education institutions also have a system of published criteria at the institutional level that is then finessed at the course or departmental level that describes the characteristics of an A grade piece of work, a B grade, and so on. There is not enough qualitative feedback; not all lecturers give comments on our work. Most lecturers are fair in their assessments, however, we don’t meet the external examiners. The dean of students’ response is variable; he does not always respond to student views. He needs to be more independent from management. —Student representatives

These safeguards are not always in place in African universities. This creates the opportunity for unscrupulous lecturers to take advantage, in some cases demanding sexual favors, in others favoring particular ethnic groups. We did come across examples of good assessment practice in the

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course of our research, especially in medical schools and postgraduate departments. Such examples included the use of external examiners to verify internal assessments of students’ work, the scrutiny by a departmental panel of examination papers to ensure that they are sufficiently clear and appropriately rigorous, and moderation panels looking at assessment of student work overall to ensure that markers are using the same standards. What is often missing is a systemization of such practices across an institution. Women students are often threatened with adverse marks unless they give sexual favors to instructors. This can lead either to failure if they refuse or a loss of confidence and extreme health risk if they do not. In either case, it makes dropout more likely. Women students fear reprisals if they complain. —Director of woman’s support NGO

This is an area where a development worker with experience of assessment practices in universities in developed countries can be particularly effective. They can assist in the development of a system that ensures fair, equitable, and transparent assessments at the departmental or institutional level. Using their own experience, they can offer guidance on how to establish a system that might include double marking, moderation meetings, published marking criteria, external examination, an automatic right for all students to have their marked work returned to them, and to request their work to be double marked by an external examiner. Gender issues in higher education are not limited to student equity; they also concern the distribution of women in universities as academics and managers and the gendered division of labor in academia (see Gunawardena et al., 2004).4 Many of these problems reflect a wider cultural problem that relates to the role of women in general in many sub-Saharan societies. Maybe it is only when women are considered equal that they will be able to participate equally in all facets of higher education.

Case Study: Affirmative Action for Ethiopian Female Students In Ethiopia, the government has introduced affirmative action, allowing female students entry to higher education with a lower high school-leaving score than is required by male students. Since the most popular subject choices are offered to potential students on the basis of their high school scores, this has left females disproportionately represented in unpopular subjects, such as physics. Since these subjects are not their first choice, and they are ill-prepared for higher

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education, they find them very difficult. They therefore fail in large numbers, often bringing shame to themselves and their families. To counter this problem, most Ethiopian universities have tried to develop imaginative support and affirmative action programs for female students, with gender offices established to provide peer support and organize additional tutorials. Some have set aside dedicated study spaces and created smaller class sizes for female students Such support structures are now being extended to students from disadvantaged areas, alongside small grants of money to help them with the financial problems they face because of their extreme poverty. A new funding methodology is now being planned that, if implemented, will reward universities that succeed in getting a higher proportion of their female and other disadvantaged students to a level where they are able to achieve their degree. This should allow beacons of good practice to be rewarded and provide models of support for others in the sector.

Supporting Diversity The rapid expansion of higher education across the world and the rise in student numbers has led to an increasingly diverse student body in universities, especially in developed countries. Students enter higher education with an increasing range of qualifications, understanding, and expectations about what higher education can offer them. This means that the traditional model of higher education where a small number of “elite” students sit at the feet of a learned professor is no longer viable. The changing nature of the students has led universities to develop stronger support services, such as academic and personal counseling, provision for special needs, and support and study groups. Ensuring greater equality of opportunity has also become increasingly important for both funders and higher education institutions as universities try to widen participation and support people from different ethnic groups, disabled people, and other underrepresented social groups. Reflection How would you reply to a prospective student who asks you, “Why study for higher education?”

Linked to these ideas has been an increasing emphasis by funders and from sub-Saharan African universities themselves on ensuring that higher education systems become more efficient and offer better “value for money.” This has resulted in a focus on trying to reduce dropout rates as well

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as a greater emphasis on preparing students for the world of work—what is termed “employability skills.” For students and their families who are increasingly asked to contribute toward the cost of their higher education, this has meant that they are now beginning to be more demanding of universities and have clearer ideas about what it is they expect to gain by the investment of their time and money. For governments who still subsidize higher education in sub-Saharan African countries, there is an inclination to look at the way institutions support students to ensure that they minimize dropout or students repeating years so as to maximize returns for the investment of public funds, and that programs of study have direct relevance to the economic needs of society and contribute to the country’s development.

Student Services In more-developed countries, this shift has resulted in the development of student support programs aimed at helping students cope with the transition from school to higher education and supporting students academically and personally throughout their time in higher education.5 Many universities also provide advice and guidance on employment after graduation. Many sub-Saharan universities are beginning to invest time and resources into induction programs, fresher’s weeks, and other activities aimed at helping the student during their first few weeks at university which, for some, can seem a little daunting and intimidating. Some students, of course, welcome the freedom and responsibility that they experience at university. However, support is also sometimes needed for those not sufficiently disciplined or mature to cope with the freedom that higher education offers. Student support services therefore have to maintain a fine balance between allowing students the opportunity to mature and develop as adults as well as ensuring that there is a “safety net” should things go wrong, and hopefully be able to identify problems before they become too serious. Individual universities will organize their student support in their own way, but it is now common for there to be a large cross-faculty unit responsible for the welfare and development of all its students. However, lecturers are usually the first “port of call” for any difficulties the student might encounter. For this relationship to work, there needs to be an element of trust on both sides, but especially from the student’s perspective; they need to be reassured that anything that is discussed will remain confidential unless expressly stated otherwise, and that the tutor has their interests at heart and wants to provide help and support. Some sub-Saharan African universities are also introducing systems of student mentors—second- or third-year students who help new entrants find their way around.

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Sub-Saharan universities often take on responsibility for the day-to-day life of students; for example, by providing accommodation (usually in dormitories on campus) and all meals as well as other welfare such as medical and counseling support. However, the universities generally do not have many resources they can devote to these areas, and they can take up much management time and resources. The accommodation and facilities available for students therefore are sometimes quite basic—cramped accommodation, lack of study areas, poor sanitation facilities, and so on. Reflection Using the example of a university that you are familiar with, consider the ways in which the university ensures that it provides an appropriate learning experience for its students. What do you consider to be examples of good practice and what (if anything) do you feel is missing or could be improved?

Student Unions and Representation There is a distance between us and them. They don’t talk to student leaders directly, and so there is insufficient attention to student concerns, overcrowded accommodation, and library. We should really have a student alliance to ask government for more money. —A student leader

Universities on the whole try to uphold democratic principles, and so it is important to universities that the student voice is heard and responded to. Many will have structures in place to ensure that students are represented throughout a university’s hierarchy, from the individual course to the academic board or senate. This means that in theory, students can participate in the running of their course, department, or higher education institution, but for this to be effective, it is dependant upon various factors. Although a student representative might sit on a committee or academic board or senate, they might not always be given the opportunity to speak, or might feel intimated by being in the presence of various senior managers, professors, and others (this might be particularly true if those other members of the committee will be responsible some time in the future for the grading of that student’s work). The chair of these committees might need to ensure that student representatives are encouraged to speak. To be an effective student representative, it is important to solicit the views of other students on matters that are going to be raised. This can

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sometimes be difficult because other students might not be easily available (especially true in the final year of a degree course when student groups might be smaller and more fragmented) or students might be apathetic and unwilling to express opinions. One way of helping the student representative to do this is to give them time in lectures or seminars to talk to other students and so to be able to more accurately reflect student opinion. It can be demoralizing for lecturers and university managers, when having fought for student representation, they find that no student is interested in taking on the role. As higher education in sub-Saharan Africa becomes increasingly costly for students, they might increasingly focus on gaining a “good” degree and employment after graduation. Some students question the value of putting aside time to try and solicit student views and attend what can seem to be quite long, boring, and (to them) irrelevant meetings, where nothing is resolved or changed. Some students might feel intimidated at the thought of having to stand for election as a student representative. There is also a danger within highly politicized contexts that student representatives might not work in the interests of all students or to further academic quality. They might be more interested in stirring up discontent or ethnic rivalries. Where managers have had to cope with student unrest, they might be understandably wary of giving any section of students more power.

HIV/AIDS Misinterpretation of religion (creates) very harmful and abusive sexual practices such as marriage before puberty and the priest having sex with girls who menstruate before marriage to “purify” them, leading to an HIV/ AIDS risk. —A director of a women’s support unit

HIV/AIDS affects female students in Africa disproportionately and is estimated to be the leading known cause of illness and death among teachers. Female students are being taken out of study to care for family members dying of AIDS. HIV/AIDS-infected and/or affected students are less effective in their study, compromising the quality of education. A recent study of the knowledge and risk behaviors on HIV/AIDS of 1,600 students (male and female) from two colleges of Education in Osun State, Nigeria, concluded that many of the students in these colleges still do not have much knowledge about HIV/AIDS. Misinformation about HIV/AIDS prevention still persists and is pronounced among the youths despite all the efforts of the national

Teaching, Learning, and Student Experience     209 and international organizations. There is need for HIV/AIDS education in all Colleges of Education and other tertiary institutions in Nigeria to be taken more seriously than before. Despite the high level of knowledge of some of the students, their risky-behavior has not changed. (OlubayoFatiregun, 2009)6

In the absence of a cure for HIV/AIDS, education remains the social vaccine. Universities have central and strategic roles in creating a sustainable and effective response to the pandemic both in terms of intervention as well as educational programs. Even with better education, there will be students at risk who will need testing facilities, counseling, and care. These are likely to be areas of increasing concern for students’ services departments in sub-Saharan African higher education institutions. There has been progress in recent years. In 13 countries where UNAids research was carried out, young people were reported to be waiting longer before first having sex.7 Usually this was young women rather than young men, but in Cameroon, Ethiopia, Malawi, and Zambia, both sexes were waiting longer. The study also found that both were having fewer sexual partners, and that condom use has increased among young women as well as among young men. However, a survey undertaken at Addis Ababa University suggests that 50% of the students are sexually active, but only half of them use condoms. According to Biniam Eskinder, project coordinator of Modeling and Reinforcement to Combat HIV/AIDS (MARCH), going to university is a chance to experience life; there is no family, there are no restraints . . . Some use it in a good way but some do risky things, such as chewing khat [a mild stimulant] . . . having [unprotected sex] and using commercial sex workers.8

Recently, more than 20 Ethiopian university presidents initiated a request to the Ministry of Education and Ethiopia’s Federal HIV/AIDS Prevention & Control Office (FHAPCO) for more HIV activities, including a national HIV/AIDS policy and strategy for universities, an HIV/AIDS research and information center, gender and HIV/AIDS advocacy efforts, and sustainable training and discussion forums.9 Donors are also concerned about the impact of HIV/AIDS on the higher education sector: HIV/AIDS should be the foremost concern for both the government and the higher education institution community because it holds the potential to undermine the country’s increasing investments in education . . . Tertiary

210    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa education communities are particularly vulnerable to HIV/AIDS due to their age group (which constitutes the peak period for sexual activity and consequent risk of HIV infection), close physical proximity, relative autonomy from adult or community supervision, and inclination toward sexual networking. This vulnerability introduces a sizeable risk to the expected returns on investments made by families and government in the education of tertiary students. (World Bank, 2004)10

From our own research, we have noted that HIV/AIDS and gender mainstreaming, and to a lesser extent other cross-cutting issues such as special needs and education for diversity, are usually defined as issues for students to deal with through offices and clubs supported by the individual university. Although the importance of these issues is acknowledged throughout the sector, there is still too little reflection and understanding by staff and managers that mainstreaming of these issues is their concern; that they should be role models in terms of ethical and moral behavior. We suggest that there needs to be more direct intervention by political leaders in this area; for example, by establishing policies within the higher education sector that require that any staff development should include these issues and support for staff and management to reflect on their own attitudes and practices. There have been many projects in the past that take these issues and claim to mainstream them. We would certainly advocate such an approach, since it has been proven to be effective (at least to an extent) in raising awareness and knowledge. However, we question whether such an approach is enough in itself; attitudes and behavior often remain resistant to change, and it is only when change occurs that the full benefits of an expanded and massified higher education sector will truly be available.

Conclusion We need communication to be better at all levels and more student focused. Students are part of the team; we can share the vision of the future. —A student representative

Not everyone involved in sub-Saharan African higher education has been happy to accept the challenges of improving the student experience outlined above; some tutors and institutions have been less wholehearted about this increased diversity of the student body. Some of the people in higher education look back nostalgically on the days when, as they see it, they taught small groups of highly motivated, bright, and respectful students. Some lecturers claim that students today are not sufficiently prepared for

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higher education and are not capable of achieving the desired standards, and they will blame schools, parents, or the government for this situation. Being a student in sub-Saharan Africa is a very different experience from being a student in the United States, the UK, or the Netherlands, where students are privileged both in the resources that are available to them and in the way that the higher education systems are increasingly becoming student focused; designed to meet their needs rather than those of the professors or the institutions. This is more difficult in sub-Saharan Africa. Although many of those working in the higher education sector recognize the need to change to give a wider range of students more opportunities and support, the lack of resources (financial and professional) make more of a long-term aspiration than a short-term goal. Reflection Think about your own studies and the ways in which quality, transparency, and equity were assured in the marking of your assessments. Look at the assessment practices of some courses being taught in subSaharan African universities; do they have the same safeguards? If not, how can these be incorporated?

Notes 1. Gunawardena, C., Kwesiga, J., Lihamba, A., Morley, L., Odejide, A., Shackleton, L., Sorhaindo, A., & Harvey, L. (2004, July). Gender equity in commonwealth higher education: Emerging themes in Nigeria, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Uganda. Presented at the Third Pan-Commonwealth Forum on Open Learning, Dunedin, New Zealand. Retrieved May 5, 2010, from http://www. col.org/pcf3/Papers/index.htm 2. Rihani, M. A. (2006). Keeping the promise: Five benefits of girls’ secondary education. Washington, DC: Academy for Educational Development. 3. http://www.vso.org.uk/story/25507/dave-and-deb-ethiopia. Accessed December 1, 2010. 4. It is also true that there is no significant difference between high-income countries and low- and middle-income countries in the Commonwealth regarding the percentages of full-time women academic staff employed. Examples from across the Commonwealth demonstrate that women comprise less than a quarter of professional and executive heads. See Gunawardena C., Kwesiga J., Lihamba A., Morley L., Odejide A., Shackleton L., Sorhaindo A., & Harvey, L. (2004, July). Gender equity in commonwealth higher education: Emerging themes in Nigeria, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Uganda. Presented at the Third Pan-Commonwealth Forum on Open Learning, Dunedin, New Zealand. Retrieved May 5, 2010, from http://www.col.org/pcf3/Papers/index.htm

212    Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa 5. See http://www.aau.edu.et/index.php/housing-a-dining. Accessed December 2, 2010. 6. Olubayo-Fatiregun, M. A. (2009). Knowledge of HIV/AIDS and risk behaviour among students of colleges of education in Osun State, Nigeria. African Research Review, 3 (5). Retrieved June 18, 2010, from http://ajol.info/index. php/afrrev 7. http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/Resources/FeatureStories/ archive/2010/20100713_Outlook_launch.asp. Accessed December 1, 2010. 8. http://www.aau.edu.et/march. Accessed December 1, 2010. 9. http://www.esai.org/myESAi/viewtopic.php?p=120038. Posted November 2009. 10. World Bank. (2004). Higher education development for Ethiopia: Pursuing the vision. Washington, DC: World Bank.

10 Research and Community Service

Higher education will be another important forum for research into health, education/ awareness, management, and social issues. However, it is crucially important that research efforts and funding are coordinated in order to avoid duplication and waste. —A manager of an HIV/AIDS NGO

Main points in this chapter: ◾◾ The role of research and community service in northern higher education ◾◾ The divisions between a teaching university and a research university ◾◾ Social science research and publication ◾◾ The problems facing sub-Saharan universities and what a subSaharan African university might realistically do in terms of research and community service ◾◾ The management of research and community service ◾◾ Barriers to publication in Kenyan universities ◾◾ St. Mary’s University College research strategy ◾◾ The state of Ethiopian research and community service Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 213–239 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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university is not just a teaching institution, perhaps with some original research undertaken, but it is also an organization that involves itself with its local community. This additional aim is well developed in most universities in more-developed countries but, just as the teaching element is still being developed in some universities in sub-Saharan Africa, so too research and community service are still largely at an embryonic stage. Academics who have worked for years in many sub-Saharan African countries might have seen their work change substantially over time. They will be teaching more students, in larger classes, and with fewer resources. As the institution has grown and they have become more senior and experienced, they might be more involved in an increasingly complex committee system and in various management and administrative tasks. Alongside of these duties, there will be an increasing expectation that they contribute to research and income generation. No longer might it be enough to engage in scholarship; status is depending more upon the publication of original research, ideally in peer-reviewed international journals. As many of these journals are run by universities in more-developed countries, they demand standards in terms of language and research scope and methodologies that even experienced African academics might find hard to match. These academics might grapple with poor resources in terms of journals and ICT support and a scarcity of funds to support the sort of large-scale research and development projects that might attract the editors of international journals. Such research associations and research councils as there are might not be well supported or funded at the national level. The increasing pressure on institutional funds will in turn create pressure on experienced academics to sell services on behalf of the institution, perhaps in the form of consultancy drawing on research or the design of short courses that can be offered on a full-cost basis. The challenges of resources, infrastructure, and support will also increase the difficulty for the academics in undertaking research that might have commercial potential in the future. Unlike in a more-developed country, the beleaguered academic will not generally be supported by a fully professional marketing service, nor is there likely to be a business, science, or technology park on the university doorstep to attract potential customers. There is unlikely to be expert pricing and costing support or a clear system of reward and profit sharing from any business the academic draws in. This might cause frustration, but there might be little that the cash-strapped university can do to rectify the situation, as the necessary infrastructure cannot be maintained on a long-term basis without a stream of secure funding from government, and so the expertise within the support services will not have been built up over the years.

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The Place of Research and Community Service in the University The ideal academic who can do research and teaching alongside is a beautiful picture but not a reality. —Director of an institute of technology

For the purposes of this discussion, it is useful to have a definition of research. According to the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) research can be defined as original investigation in order to gain knowledge and understanding. It includes work of direct relevance to the needs of commerce and industry, as well as to the public and voluntary sectors and scholarship (including pedagogic research); the invention and generation of ideas, images, performances and artifacts including design, where these lead to new or substantially improved insights; and the use of existing knowledge in experimental development to produce new or substantially improved materials, devices, products and processes, including design and construction. It excludes routine testing and analysis of materials, components and processes, e.g., for the maintenance of national standards, as distinct from the development of new analytical techniques. It also excludes the development of teaching materials that do not embody original research.1

It should be noted that, in this definition, research can inform scholarship but excludes scholarship per se, which the HEFCE sees as “the creation, development and maintenance of the intellectual infrastructure of subjects and disciplines.” Thus, scholarship supports both teaching and research by creating the framework for these activities, and so is not research but an important activity in its own right. Research might be seen as knowledge creation, and community service generally involves the transfer of knowledge generated, or at least accumulated and organized, by the higher education institution. Knowledge transfer in its widest sense reflects the core business of a university; it integrates research, scholarship, and teaching. The research role is about generating new knowledge. The teaching role is directed at producing knowledgeable graduates who can apply their education to the real world. Community service is also about applying and transferring that new knowledge in the form of ideas, industrial and commercial processes, research results, and skills between educational and public service organizations, business, and the wider community. At its best, it can develop human capacity in the workplace, enable innovative

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new products and ways of achieving goals, and create a range of services. Examples of knowledge transfer include consultancy, continuing professional development and short-course provision, licensing agreements and patents, and incubation and spinout activities. Many universities are involved in useful activities that are not related to the knowledge mission. Thus, we would include providing advice to poultry farmers as community service, but selling eggs from the university farm to local consumers, while it has its merit as a money-making exercise, we would not view as relevant to our discussion here.

Divisions Between a Higher Education Teaching Institution and a Research University Within more-developed contexts, there has long been a discussion about whether all higher education institutions should engage in research. For example, in many countries, there were (and in some cases there still are) polytechnic and specialist colleges that have a purely teaching function, often centered on the world of work. In others such as the United States and the UK, there are junior colleges or further education colleges that offer sub-bachelor’s degrees and do not have a research role. Some lecturers within such institutions might engage in personal research, and this might be encouraged, but the institution itself is not expected to have a research function nor to contribute to knowledge creation (as opposed to knowledge transfer) to any extent. These teaching-centered institutions often have a strongly applied focus that enables them to perform a variety of community service activities very effectively; for example, continuing professional development, outreach classes, and links with schools to raise the aspirations of secondary pupils. However, their community service tends to be restricted in scope; for example, they seldom have large consultancy programs, nor spin out companies and science parks, since customers for these services are generally attracted by a strong research profile. Over time, a hierarchy of esteem has built up, and these teaching-centered institutions and the staff within them are seen as having a lower status than those that are research funded. This has been reflected in the funding for different kinds of activity. For example, in the UK, research universities had historically received a higher unit of funding for teaching than polytechnics and the college sector. After a unified system of funding was introduced in the UK in 1992, which enshrined the principle of equal funding for equal work, the funding for teaching and the allocation for research were permanently adjusted so as to protect the historically higher funding

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of the old universities vis à vis the ex-polytechnics. As “new” universities increased their research activity, concern was expressed about the dilution of research funds among more universities, and research funding became increasingly selective, with the “quality premium” being raised, resulting in the allocation to the “best” rising sharply and the rest of the research-active institutions allocations falling drastically. In addition, research councils across the world fund projects on the basis of their institutional research track record as well as the quality of the proposals themselves. Industry and alumni funds are easier to attract if a university is seen as a high-status research establishment. This funding advantage means that research-intensive universities have higher status and are richer. It often leads to “mission-drift,” with institutions catering to bachelor’s students seeking higher degree-awarding powers and research funding so that they can become recognized as being “proper” members of the university sector. There is a debate in more-developed countries about this tendency, which is recognized as problematic: on the one hand, some of these “new” universities will develop over a generation to overtake some of their more-established neighbors in research, but on the other hand, some will produce poor-quality research at the expense of their teaching and local orientation, and the available research funding might be spread over too many institutions, thus diluting its impact.

The Influence of Ideas from More-Developed Countries on Sub-Saharan African Universities We have discussed in a previous chapter the limited qualifications framework offered by most sub-Saharan African higher education institutions. This is in part a result of higher education institutions seeking to copy the pattern of offering by “proper” universities. In resource-poor countries, if all or most universities engage in teaching that is dependent on a research base such as master’s degrees, it stretches the availability of well-qualified staff almost to breaking point. Many cannot find sufficient qualified staff to teach bachelor’s programs. For example, in Ethiopia, many degree students are getting their education from teachers with only a bachelor’s degree (Tamene, 2010).2 Such “universities” are more realistically at a level to teach subdegree programs but eschew this option partially because of status problems and the lack of infrastructure to allow students to move easily between institutions at different levels to add to their qualifications. This is unfortunate, since the few qualified staff capable of quality research are teaching at levels that too often preclude them from finding the time to engage in high-quality re-

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search. Teaching loads are too high and resources, such as support staff and equipment, are overstretched by the teaching mission of the institution. Unfortunately, the question of whether all higher education institutions should aspire to university status and whether they should all have a research mission often is seen as threatening. We would argue that it might be better for research to occur in a limited number of institutions and within each of these, in a limited range of subjects and for staff with research degrees to be concentrated within these institutions. The World Bank finds that in most sub-Saharan African countries, the expansion of student numbers has outstripped resources, causing a crisis of decline in the quality of operations (World Bank, 2010).3 Public funding in most countries is stretched to the limit, and governments are not facing up to the hard questions about sustainable funding for the expanded sector. This severe shortage of wellqualified faculty is just part of a wider problem with university finances that threatens the ability of universities to undertake credible research. Without some concentration of scarce resources, it is doubtful whether sub-Saharan African universities will ever develop research outcomes of sufficient quality and relevance to meet the development needs of the continent. We have observed plenty of talk about developing centers of excellence within the system, but are concerned about a lack of commitment to the differential allocation of human and other resources that such a policy requires. Within a context of scarce resources, proper investment will always be at the expense of other areas, and so it requires the sacrifice of other desirable goals to make “excellence” a reality.

Case Study: Social Science Research and Publication (Mweru, 2010)4 The research undertaken by the International Social Sciences Council indicates that social science research and publication is still dominated by Northern universities (75% of output coming from the United States and Europe). However, it is increasing in Asia and in Latin America, especially in China, India, and Brazil. Africa lags far behind, even though as the report makes clear, social science is desperately needed to inform business, intercultural understanding, good governance, and commerce—all vital for development and poverty reduction and to understand and deal with problems such as structural adjustment, gender, the spread of armed conflicts, citizenship and rights, and HIV/AIDS. Within sub-Saharan Africa, the overwhelming majority of social science publications (75%) come from South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria. The authors put lack of research in most African countries down to various interlinked, contributing factors that include

Research and Community Service    219 ◾◾ The brain drain leading to a lack of professorial-level and other well-

qualified staff ◾◾ The lack of relevance of much of the research presently undertaken to

respond to social and economic challenges and poverty reduction ◾◾ Government perception of the social sciences: social science research

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is not considered essential to development, the natural sciences receiving all the attention The precarious state of many of the social science and humanities research centers, and the lack of a research infrastructure, disciplinary networks for staff, libraries, and laboratories Lack of research capacity at system, institutional, and individual levels, including the lack of reputable local publication outlets, the collapse of the tutorial system, and the paucity of many universities’ internal academic staff-development programs Student unrest leading to shutting down of entire academic disciplines during the 1980s and 1990s Moonlighting and consultancy activity disconnected from research, which diverts effort from scholarly activity Private higher education institutions that poach academics from public universities to teach programs but do not invest in staff development. The shortage of public funding and the dominance of donor community leading to northern interests gaining control of the research agenda The north’s leading position in output enables them to determine which issues are relevant and which methodologies and analytical tools are “respectable” The appropriation by northern academics of local issues with potential global relevance The dominance of English as the publication language (85% of journals) The funding practices of NGOs and consultants privileging short-term studies that do not facilitate theorization NGOs and consultants not paying enough attention to the empirical validity of research findings The proportion of researchers in the field from consultancy firms or think tanks rather than universities.

In order to reduce the effect of brain drain, incentives will be needed, such as the guarantee of an academic position to persuade graduates to return. The establishment of international networks and collaborations with national researchers working abroad might also create an incentive to return, as would better working conditions. In any case, building cooperation between academics in the Diaspora and their country of origin will help sub-Saharan African universities and their staff to integrate into international research networks.

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The report also suggests that if academics are given the chance to work on long-term projects alongside NGOs and consultants, their skills and research output would improve provided that the research involves strong theoretical considerations. Governments will need to revisit their attitudes toward the status and utility of social science research, including policies involving the implementation of postgraduate degrees in top-level universities. It could help to reduce barriers to cooperation across the social/physical sciences divide to create fruitful foci for research into the country’s social and economic problems. The report implies that development work might focus on the facilitating networks for training and mentoring, the joint production of teaching materials, and the enhancement of connectivity and collaborations involving Diaspora and local social scientists. It could help local researchers to start to construct interpretative frameworks and outcomes from their data that are theorized, universal, and relevant beyond their local context.

Purposes of Research and Community Service in Sub-Saharan Universities Although research capacity might be limited in many sub-Saharan African universities, it is nevertheless important that some universities are able to generate knowledge to provide society and the economy with relevant solutions that ensure development, address problems at the grassroots level, and contribute to poverty alleviation. For example, agriculture, manufacturing, public service, or political activity, needs workers to be conversant with and supported by studies and by empirical research conducted within the reality of the development context by those who really understand that context. Business people, policymakers, and practitioners need to be informed by best international practice; scholarship can help to achieve this, but is likely to be insufficient. Knowledge about the problems and solutions within particular contexts is useful, but much international research is conducted in situations very different from sub-Saharan Africa, and so new knowledge acquired from such contexts will require further enquiry to contextualize it and determine its relevance to development needs. Thus, research instigated by academics in “advanced” universities in Africa can respond to the problems that they see around them and provide properly tested and validated solutions in which the community can have confidence. It is now generally accepted that research cannot successfully be taken “off the shelf” and applied to development contexts (see, for example, InterAcademy Council, 2004).5 Farmers, business people, govern-

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ments, and so on should not have to risk basing their actions on research that is not first-rate. In marginal economies, the results of mistakes can be devastating. There is not the spare capacity to proceed by trial and error; the consequences of error are far too serious.

Problems with Respect to Research and Community Service (With respect to research) there is severe understaffing and a lack of resources. We find it difficult to publish in renowned journals. There are some local journals, but these tended to be discontinued. —A dean of faculty

Research tends to be underdeveloped in sub-Saharan African universities for a variety of reasons, many of which are related to resources and human capacity development (see, for example, Swayrr, 2004).6 Nevertheless, there are various forms of research that are commonly conducted. These include pure research, applied research, evaluation studies, surveys, and so on. The situation is similar with community service, although consultancy, outreach services, short courses, and commercial services are generally offered in at least a minority of discipline areas. However, it is likely that the research and consultancy programs of universities are of varying levels of relevance to the problems and issues that sub-Saharan Africa faces and to the mission of a higher education institution in this region. Our central argument is that sub-Saharan African higher education systems have to balance their various competing demands (massification, limited public purse, need for high numbers of graduates, maintaining quality, etc.) with the requirement to undertake original, indigenous research, and that the difficult choices this balance requires are sometime evaded. The government, the private sector, and public bodies should be able to look to higher education to provide research-based information and evidence-based advice to help inform policy and develop strategy, and to develop new knowledge, understandings, and techniques. Research is often seen as a scientific activity, and this can be useful in areas such as medicine, food production, and manufacturing. However, research knowledge and understanding can be used to solve a number of other problems; for example, to critically evaluate ideas and concepts; inform policy; understand what the labor force, employers, and society need; or develop an accurate picture of a situation that exists or existed in the past in the social and economic worlds. Ideally, research can also inform and improve the operation of the university sector itself; it can help those working in the sector to

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understand what pedagogy works to develop skills; develop the abilities of academics and their students in critical analysis, data collection, and assessment; and so on. These problems require a range of sophisticated research methods and approaches that are often poorly understood by many subSaharan African academics.

Case Study: Barriers to Publication in Kenyan Universities Maureen Mweru’s (2010) 7 research demonstrates that few of the papers in the most respected journals come from sub-Saharan African academics, even when the subject is directly relevant to African concerns. She looked at one of Kenya’s main public universities to see why this might be the case, using in-depth interviews and focus-group discussions with academics. She found the following factors contribute to a low publication rate in Kenya: ◾◾ Lack of time: overloaded teaching, supervision, and assessment duties

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caused by large classes as well as time taken up by meeting and committee work Low salaries leading to moonlighting in private higher education institutions to supplement incomes Lack of research funding and grants so academics have to subsidize their own research work and pay sometimes large publication fees to journals out of meager wages Lack of resources such as recent and relevant books and journal articles Harsh and discouraging reviews of submissions to journals Lack of support by administrative services and colleagues, lack of reward and encouragement for publishing in international journals, low incentives to continue research once publication targets are reached to achieve promotion, and a lack of a link between continued tenure and publication Lack of training for junior staff on how to write journal articles

Many of the suggested measures for boosting publication rates would require additional resources that are lacking in the medium term. Reducing teaching and nonteaching workloads, rewarding prolific academics, salary increases, and moreadequate research funds would be positive but are probably unaffordable. With most more-developed countries reducing their commitments, academics in Kenya will not find it easy to gain access to the additional funds that they need. Other incentives require management commitment, such as requiring all academics to publish at least one journal article per academic year.

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Mweru’s work implies that development work might usefully focus on aspects such as ◾◾ Facilitating systems and developing managers who can support aca-

demics at various stages in their careers ◾◾ Facilitating nonmonetary ways of valuing research efforts of staff ◾◾ Identifying and finding funding for a few key journals ◾◾ Developing and supporting self-help groups to exchange advice and

feedback on drafts of articles ◾◾ Publicizing the positive and lasting impacts research findings could

have on society. Mweru’s study shows that it is difficult to develop a research and publications culture in a resource-poor country, but nonetheless, it is important to make the effort to do so or the country’s social and economic development will be impeded.

Government is often keen that research and community service bolster higher education institutions’ finances; for example, through income generation and for research and knowledge transfer to make a contribution to the financial strength of the institution. However, the reality is that this is not easy. Income generation depends not only on the establishment of a saleable research base and services but also a market where consumers are able to pay for the expertise that the higher education institution offers. Such a market depends on wealth being available to generate more wealth. This is a central dilemma in developing countries. Thus, governments would be wise to expect only a limited financial return on research investment, though nonmonetary returns might be great. The situation with community service is particularly difficult. Good community service will not necessarily generate money, but often there is no separate income stream to pay for it, so the institution subsidizes the activity from other budgets. For example, work with school teachers to improve classroom practice is unlikely to cover its costs, never mind make a profit, but is valuable for local and national long-term human development. If community service does not make a profit, the question arises as to how it gains a place in a higher education institutions’ activities, and a lecturer’s timetable, when there are so many other demands of scarce time and resources. It is important to address this problem since community service can enhance excellence through the dissemination of high-quality research and so extend and sustain the economic and societal development of its region and nation and (in some cases, such as universities in South Africa8) internationally.

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Within the field of community empowerment, much of the implementation will not require practitioners trained at higher education level. We need more health extension agents working at “house level”; but this does imply a potential role for HE in providing the trainers of such practitioners . . . Moreover, the designing and implementing of community approaches will require the multidisciplinary input, including not only social workers but sociologists, social scientists, economists, and even agricultural scientists. —A manager of an HIV/AIDS NGO

A central problem with respect to the quality and quantity of research and community service in higher education is a lack of infrastructure. Facilities are poor, staff training and administrative and technical support are often inadequate, and there is a lack of good accounting procedures to manage the finances and differentiate income from profit. Systems are lacking to guide the management of research grants and other funds and to determine how any profits are shared between the researchers, the faculty, the university as a whole, or the state.

Ethical Issues Ethical issues are emphasized by governments, donors, and universities across sub-Saharan Africa as they seek to instill ideas such as honesty and integrity into the work of staff. The relevance and impact of ethical values that inform and infuse academic judgments about research and knowledge transfer are of utmost importance within the development context. It is part of the duty of the development worker to influence systems so that research and knowledge transfer activities are underpinned by robust and transparent procedures that safeguard ethical practices and outcomes. There are certain ethical and practical problems that are highly relevant to the development context and that deserve special emphasis in their own right. For example, equality and HIV/AIDS issues will need to be integrated within educational, research, and outreach programs. Lack of appropriate training and motivation of staff and management have sometimes hindered the process of the integration of equality and HIV/AIDS concerns into the universities programs. This can result in research, consultancy, and outreach programs being isolated and individualized. The role of a development worker might be to help managers to look at research, consultancy, and other strategies to ensure a proper focus on equality and HIV/AIDS and other key development issues. Universities will need to come up with the necessary institutional flexibilities and adminis-

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trative simplicity to respond to training and consultancy demands of agencies working on equality and HIV/AIDS. They will have to address the special needs of their faculty members and learners who are willing and able to engage in such activities. Another ethical issue of relevance in sub-Saharan higher education systems is the handling of research and community service funds so as to prevent corruption. Research and community service activity often depends upon the actions and abilities of individuals who need to be rewarded. How those rewards are managed is crucial. Integrity can be compromised, and this will act as a strong disincentive for the honorable academic. On the other hand, the high status of top academics can result in opportunities for them to appropriate funds dishonestly without the likelihood of challenge. Reward systems can create perverse incentives. Macleod (2010) 9 points out that the South African system means that academics can subsidize their personal income by publishing prolifically rather than when they have something important to say. If the institution allows a research account that is not tied to a set budget, it can encourage money to be wasted by attendance at conferences in far-flung places, the purchase of unnecessary equipment, and expensive journals and books that are not shared with the institution as a whole. Overall, such systems can encourage selfishness and self-aggrandizement rather than a collaborative and team approach that is in the best interests of the country as a whole. A set of related issues exists around the falsifying of scientific and other data. Sharma (2010) states that international guidelines are needed because codes of conduct for research drawn up by the European Science Foundation and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development do not address the emergent science frameworks in less-developed countries. A new code and guidelines for research integrity are now being drawn up in order to “combat rising incidences of scientific fraud, plagiarism and other research falsification and serve as a guide for professionally responsible research practices throughout the world.”10

Reflection Find and analyze: A statement of research ethics for a discipline area issued by a Northern research association or university. A statement of ethical principles of public life issued by the government of a country in sub-Saharan Africa that you are interested in.

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Draft a statement of ethics that you feel would be a starting point for discussion in a university in the sub-Saharan African country that you have chosen. Discuss it with an academic with more experience of that country than you have. What have you learned from this exercise?

The Relationship Between the Research Purpose and Methodology In many cases, African universities lack expertise in modern research methodologies. Of course, quantitative and statistical methods have an important place, but cannot solve all research questions that are necessary to inform development policy and strategy. During a series of qualitative research methods workshops, we were told at the start by course members that such methods are “easy” and “not proper research.” By the end of a week-long program, members had revised their opinion substantially and realized the complexities of research methodology choices and the sophistication of understanding that is needed to make research judgements. Successful research for development also requires competence in the design of a research project, practical skills needed to manage and carry out research, and an understanding of considerations of validation and reliability, skills in bidding for funding, and structures to encourage cross-discipline working. The focus for research is of course highly relevant within the development context. Research councils and other funders develop criteria to judge the relevance of a research proposal. These often (and quite rightly) relate to development issues such as agricultural productivity and health. Many of such problems could benefit from a multifaceted, multidisciplinary approach, which is difficult in the faculty-led structures common in many sub-Saharan African universities. The human issues involved in disseminating and implementing research findings beyond any initial study are also important enquiry questions as well as technical ones, such as the effectiveness of treatments or interventions. Too often the end point of a research study, however relevant to the wider community, is the publication of a journal article. Publication and the peer-review process are important in validating the worth of a piece of research, but are likely to be more-or-less useless in implementing any findings. One focus for development work could be the development of

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funding streams, effective systems and processes to monitor dissemination to the community of research through (for example) community service. Enhanced quality would result from community attachments in rural areas. This would encourage graduates to work with the 85% of the population who live in rural areas . . . This would encourage students to be health problem solvers and to take a team approach. —A health minister

The Role of Supportive Management and Infrastructure Individuals and teams are each fundamental to the success of research and knowledge transfer. Because research demands persistence, inspiration, ability, and creativity, it cannot easily be “managed” into existence by strategic or policy documents. However, managers can support and incentivize people to engage in research, and they can help them to develop strands of research of relevance to their country and the skills to carry them out. Researchers need to be nurtured. Because the best of them have to think differently from other people if they are to develop new insights, and because the persistence they demonstrate often comes from passion about the issue they are studying, they can sometimes seem focused on their own work rather than the interests of the higher education institution as whole. Their management therefore requires tolerance of non-conformity within boundaries that may be difficult to establish in some more-authoritarian African university cultures. Thus, university management needs to be enabling rather than controlling if it is to attract, retain, and develop excellent staff in order to grow the quality and quantity of the research and community service that they need. In resource-poor environments, this requires nonmonetary rewards to create an inspirational environment within which excellence can grow, and which supports those who try (even if at first they fail), and defines and celebrates success where it occurs. Not all African universities have developed institutional and management systems to support and ensure the quality of research and community service activity. Responsibility between the committee system and the executive for the development, delivery, and monitoring of research and knowledge transfer at an institutional level is not always clear. Frameworks for the relative responsibilities for reports on research and knowledge transfer activities, ethical matters, and performance against targets can facilitate re-

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search and community service activity. In many sub-Saharan African countries, universities have set up central offices to lead the development of research activities. Fewer have comparable support for knowledge transfer. The marketing function is even less fully developed, although this should be the university’s front door for research and knowledge transfer services and might be vital for effective dissemination. In many African universities, faculties might act as the principal institutional interface for major sponsors, stakeholders, and partners to interact with the research and knowledge transfer activity of the university. Development work in these cases might focus on developing faculty members’ ability to represent and promote the university to local, regional, national, and international agencies. What is important is that the university has developed frameworks and trained individuals to positively promote and encourage research and scholarship; the interaction with other faculties in the university; other universities; regional partners; staff participation in the research and knowledge transfer agenda; and increasing the quantity and quality of, and income from, activity in this area. The need for appropriate management applies equally to academic and professional support staff. If community service is really to expand, high-level expertise among the administrative and support staff can provide an appropriate, efficient, and timely “front of house” service for clients. The costing, pricing, and marketing service is necessary for the university to maximize its returns and minimize the risks from such activity. The skills to undertake these functions are not generally found among academic staff, and if they are expected to take on an extra administrative burden, they might be less likely to willingly and effectively engage in community service. It is probable that most sub-Saharan African universities as yet do not have a fully functioning infrastructure for research and community service (Materu, 2007).11 This means that ideas will be less likely to be turned into funded research or consultancy products that the community might be willing to pay for. We have observed that research and knowledge transfer activities often have to compete both internally and externally for resources, and that investment is lacking to support the physical and administrative infrastructure. It is also unusual to find sufficient “seed corn” funding for initiatives that might later grow into externally funded research and knowledge transfer.

Human Capacity Building Staff (especially academic staff) that can successfully engage with community problems and see that their university’s services to business and other

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clients are rare and need to be recruited carefully, rewarded, and valued. Since staffing is so important to both research and community service, and because skilled staff in these areas are relatively scarce, the sector as a whole (generally through the relevant ministry and its agencies) will need to develop mechanisms for training academic and support staff. The problem of academic staff is particularly acute, as most sub-Saharan African countries suffer brain drain of their well-qualified academics to more-developed countries. Different kinds of PhD and master’s programs, such as part-time courses, distance learning, and other measures in-country might need to be expanded to replace some of the education abroad. If such programs are focused on the problems in-country, the staff might become more engaged in the national research agenda and be less attracted to emigration opportunities. This is quite a challenge in many systems where the lack of staff with PhDs in universities means that few lecturers have credible research experience and no one to guide them. Massification also diverts skilled staff to management and teaching roles. Poor salaries lead to skilled staff taking additional classes to increase their salaries. Development work might usefully focus on systems to manage staff deployment and rewards to alleviate these problems. We have observed that there is often a requirement to undertake research within academic contracts that is not generally honored by staff or the institution for a variety of reasons: a lack of skills and confidence, a lack of time, poor incentives, and a lack of monitoring of workloads. Staff are not always required to produce evidence of their research activities in annual appraisal processes. These problems need active management. In-house training and support of academic staff might be necessary to give them the skills and confidence to engage in research and community service. If research and community service are to be achievable as part of the normal workload of the academic, teaching might need to change, with more independent learning for students Unfortunately, print-based learning materials and other resources might be insufficient to support newer forms of learning. Online learning material might eventually fill this gap, though it will need considerable investment and training. Meanwhile, larger teaching loads for those teaching staff who are not research active might be one way to release time to undertake research and community service for those with the necessary abilities. Institutions will need to develop the ability and the autonomy to manage workloads more fairly; for instance, it would be reasonable for a member of staff with no other duties who is not productive in research to teach 20 hours a week. On the other hand, it might be unreasonable to expect

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someone who is leading a research project to teach more than a token amount. In some African countries, tradition or statutes prevent the sensible distribution of teaching loads to staff who are not research active; this implies that change will be necessary. In other countries, workload management will require a move away from an overtime culture. Many African countries face the dilemma of poor pay for academic staff leading to overtime (or second jobs) to support a family. Unfortunately, this encourages poor work practices and mitigates against the kind of commitment and single-mindedness that research and community service demand. If research and community service is to grow to be a large-scale activity, it is desirable to establish policies and procedures for matters such as project management and reporting, costing and pricing, fair employment of project staff, marketing, support for work-based placement- and businessuniversity staff exchanges. Universities might seek out and appoint visiting fellows and professors in appropriate areas in order to encourage exchange of good practice and to enhance capacity with respect to the delivery of relevant research and knowledge transfer as well as seeking support from donors and others for international exchange programs for staff and postgraduate research degree students to strengthen intellectual capital. There is a lot of research going on at the faculty—we get a lot of money per project. Yet the staff do not have project management skills and management tools, including successful proposal writing and narrative and financial reporting. —A faculty leader in a well-established university

Many higher education institutions in sub-Saharan Africa have started to develop journals to publish their research work such as Addis Ababa University’s Ethiopian Journal of Science.12 Where certain standards are demanded and achieved, for example, through peer reviewing of articles, these are proving a great support to research activity. However, sometimes boards do not meet regularly, the institutional home fails to provide oversight of the quality of the operation, and international experts are named as members of the editorial board but never contribute to peer review or the development of the journals. Where they operate with rigor and integrity, such journals can be a means for higher education institutions to develop links with the international academic community, perhaps through partnerships with other African countries, to share research resources and findings and through the participation of African academics from other countries on editorial boards.

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There is a great shortage of advanced text and other academic books in many African universities. Few are produced locally. There are organizations such as the Carter Center13 that encourage publications in certain subject areas, support authors by providing guidance, and maintain standards by rigorous proofreading. In some countries, the leading university takes a similarly active role to encourage research and publication.14 An African publishing industry that actively seeks authors and series editors to write books for which they believe there is a market is still in its infancy, but hopefully will develop from some of these university presses.

Case Study: St Mary’s University College Research Strategy15 St. Mary’s University College has developed in a decade from a small college offering nonadvanced programs to perhaps the foremost private higher education institution in Ethiopia, rivaling all but a couple of the public universities in the quality of its work, including its research output in the social sciences. It has achieved this through a strategy involving the following: ◾◾ Annual research conferences, properly funded, with international

◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

speakers and open to the nations’ researchers, and held in prestigious venues Timely production of resulting research reports An emphasis on staff development of research skills and a continuing training program Staff appraisal systems that emphasize research An active central office for the promotion of research and publication Opening of a university press that publishes books and other materials by academics and opinion formers such as the ex-Vice Minister for Higher Education.

Observing the development of the research strategy over time, we have noted a few key elements in its success, including ◾◾ Absolute commitment by the president and his senior management to

the research agenda ◾◾ An exceptionally strong emphasis on quality assurance and enhancement for all activities of the University College ◾◾ A lack of parochial interest and an openness to influences beyond its own institution.

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Models for Research to Inform Development If research is to be a key engine of economic growth, specialized research agendas will be needed to meet these needs in terms of quality and economic relevance. Development workers might usefully help academics to understand the link between purpose, methodology, and the form of knowledge that is generated. The testing, adaptation, and application of such research might focus on a range of specific and relevant issues and take different forms; for example, scientific or quasi-scientific enquiry, evaluation of the impact of new ways of doing things, and/or the identification and illumination of critical issues to inform policy.

Understanding different research methodologies Below is a simplified model comparing two approaches to research that illustrates this linkage that was developed as part of the Higher Diploma for teachers in Ethiopia: Approaches

Practical purpose

Main methods

Forms of knowledge

Scientific research

To give a “proven” base to improve

Systematic design; large sample, quantitative data

Objective, leading to generalizations/ explanations

Action research

To improve practice directly through addressing a real problem, suggesting a solution and taking action

Cyclical; based on evaluation range of types of data (quantitative and qualitative) collected and discussed

Evaluative, describing, analyzing, and improving practice

Reflection Look at the research produced in a university that you are interested in and the methodological approaches that were used. Add to and refine the matrix above in the light of your enquiry so that it reflects the range of approaches used, their purposes, methodologies, and the forms of knowledge produced. Reflect on the problems facing a sub-Saharan African country that you are interested in. What sort of research might illuminate each of these problems and suggest solutions? From this analysis, draw up a schedule of each approach’s strengths and weaknesses within the development context. What strategies can you suggest so that the strengths might be maximized and the weakness minimized?

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One of the most interesting and relevant areas for research is policy development. The place of theory in achieving the “imaginative leap” that policy development requires illustrates how different models of research and knowledge acquisition are essential if complex problems are to be approached. In science, a hypothesis is generally developed and then systematically tested. In contrast, in policy research, theory is often constructed from those in the situation or emerges from the data in documents. Thus, the focus is not generally on trying to apply outsiders’ theories but analyzing what emerges from perspectives and practices in the light of professional knowledge. It is the case that the knowledge generated might not be generalizable to other contexts, and often theoretical understanding has a lesser place than a holistic understanding of the complexity of the policy context. Development work might therefore concentrate on enabling understanding that “knowledge” brought to the context and constructed within it can be problematic, and useful insights can emerge from a developing conceptual “map” of the context and practices. With careful construction of the enquiry process, beliefs embodied in existing practices are likely to be challenged and new theories of practice to emerge. This process works best where there is an essentially democratic orientation: issues are clarified in open and respectful collegiate debate, and any hypotheses are treated as provisional to be tested in practice.

The Funding of Research and Community Service Resource management requires as much leadership as any other aspect of higher education. Good management in this area can ensure people are committed to and understand the need for efficiency and cost-effectiveness. It can help them to seek resources and use them efficiently. It can motivate them to seek income-generation opportunities, to try to do “more with less,” and/or create additional resources through research and consultancy. A higher education institution that is seeking to develop its research and community service portfolio of activity will need to look at the provision of library and information services. Researchers will need to be able to process and record their work using efficient and reliable computer networking systems. They will need books and journals (though not necessarily or primarily in hard copy). Librarians and learning center technical staff will need to assist them in this and should be a repository of knowledge about online discussion groups and special interest groups. This is a challenge within resource-poor contexts. Donors frequently invest in hardware and software start-up costs, but the ongoing revenue stream to keep systems and training going is just as important.

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Research and community service also thrive where there is an appropriate infrastructure of support at a macrolevel. African governments will need to find a way of fairly rewarding and encouraging volume, quality and relevance of research, and community service, perhaps through its funding distribution model. Many university systems have set up research funding bodies where individual universities may bid for funds on a project basis. This is unlikely to be sufficient to stimulate development or maintain a research infrastructure. University systems that have excellent research tend to have the means to fund ongoing infrastructure (for example, in England, through the funding allocated on the basis of the research assessment exercise and in the United States, through long-term foundation funds). Project-by-project funding is not attractive to universities. It is too insecure; teams and infrastructure should not be disbanded between funded projects, and the necessary investment within the institution might not occur if this is the sole method of research funding. African universities are unlikely to be able to generate sufficient foundation or alumni funding to secure such stability in the medium term, so another solution will be needed. A relatively modest, but stable, pool of research funding provided by government to higher education institutions based on the quality, relevance, and volume of their research and knowledge transfer activity is one way of getting around this problem. If such a central and stable mechanism is set up, government will have an important role overseeing research in the sector. There are real dangers of conflict of interest if it conducts the overview and also determines the funding itself. An arms-length agency might be in a better position to advise the ministry of the quality, volume, and relevance of research produced by the various higher education institutions and to what funding should follow. The chosen organization might start by undertaking a baseline review of existing and planned research activities. Competitive research funds are scarce in sub-Saharan Africa, and keen but inexperienced researchers do not generally know how to apply for funding or are aware of the investment of time needed to put together a proposal. Development workers might be able to assist in the process of understanding the funder’s agenda, matching criteria, and developing the quality processes and training that make success more likely. Higher education institutions themselves might be at an early stage in establishing policies to support for proposal and bid writing. They need to develop ways of ensuring quality and relevance, to address the need for transparency in the allocation of funds, to disseminate research findings and clear parameters regarding ownership of research work undertaken (this might require the introduction of “exclusivity” clauses in contracts of employment).

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If a team wins a bid or a contract for consultancy or other services, an institution will need mechanisms in place to ensure that delivery is up to standard. Institutional reputation and the success of other teams within a university depend upon the effectiveness of early projects. The institution will have to be certain that the work will be managed and that the proposal is not too ambitious; for example, in terms of the time scale, the identification of the necessary steps, processes for ensuring that money will be claimed on time and accounted for, and so on. The institution will also need to consider whether the institution will be able to sustain any additional costs once the project and its funding stream come to an end. If research is to develop to meet sub-Saharan Africa’s development needs, it might be necessary to invest funds selectively at the national level in support of existing and emerging research and knowledge transfer strengths and to invest capital in new facilities, renovations, and equipment that will support excellence in new areas of relevant research and knowledge transfer. This investment is a real challenge in resource-poor countries. Some progress might be made by enhancing opportunities for interdisciplinary and cross-campus collaborations in research and knowledge transfer and in this way, maximizing the return on investment. National strategies can encourage higher education institutions to develop research excellence in targeted areas so that the university can compete for and benefit from public and private funds for research and development. In many cases, governments will need to seek funding from donor and other sources. They might be able to set up forums and other mechanisms to strengthen research and knowledge transfer planning within and between higher education systems. This might help to align institutional and national objectives with donor agendas. These mechanisms can help individuals and groups within universities to obtain external funding for their research and knowledge transfer activity.

Case study: The state of Ethiopian Research and Community Service There is little quality research being undertaken in Ethiopia’s universities, and consultancy and income generation through knowledge creation and transfer are at a development stage (although some have developed particular research strengths in areas such as medical sciences and forestry). A number of higher education institutions intend to develop applied research and consultancy relevant to Ethiopia’s development needs. These plans include the development of technology packages for farmers and research related to poverty and underemployment. It is too early to know whether such

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consultancy will indeed meet the development needs of the country. There does not appear at present to be any overall coordinating or overseeing body to ensure that the research undertaken by the sector as a whole is meeting the country’s development needs. Most higher education institutions recognize that they are in an early stage of development and that staff need to develop further their research skills. Several are planning to develop or have recently developed their own journal for research publication. Most have aspirations to expand the publication rate of their academic staff in the next few years. The model for such development is Addis Ababa University, which itself produces research of variable quality and seems overly dependent upon quasi-experimental research design as a benchmark of good practice; a model that is often unsuitable in the social sciences and in policy-related research. Higher education institutions are keen to develop new postgraduate master’s and occasionally PhD programs in areas that they see as relevant for Ethiopia’s needs such as education, although they also recognize that this will be difficult with their present staff profiles. Many higher education institutions are therefore keen to secure scholarships to enable their staff to travel abroad to gain postgraduate qualifications. This might be a poor use of limited staff development resources, as often these staff do not return to the country. Other more cost-effective ways of developing postgraduate faculty are being developed, in particular a huge expansion of the master’s and PhD programs offered at Addis Ababa University in partnership with other national and international universities. Some higher education institutions are intending to expand or establish distance education (with the assistance of ICT) and other forms of in-service training. Much of this work will be in partnership with and associated with the needs of regional government in areas such as business and law. Although this is an admirable ambition, in the short term it is not clear whether the higher education institutions have the pedagogic and technical skills to make such development a success. The funding and support of research and consultancy appears to be largely in the form of bids from particular individuals for particular projects to funding agencies, especially donors. This often results in individual members of faculty claiming ownership of particular resources and being unwilling to share them with the rest of the academic community. A means to reward quality, relevance, and volume of research and consultancy work through the funding formula is being actively pursued. This will help to ensure that research and consultancy infrastructure is fairly and adequately supported to meet the country’s development needs for knowledge creation and transfer. Research in Ethiopia is at an early stage of development and does not yet serve the country’s development needs. There is a need to find a method of funding to encourage appropriate development, new ways of developing skills

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of researchers for the country’s benefit, and means to encourage the relevant and quality research efforts of individuals and organizations. There is also a need to establish systems for the publication and dissemination of the results of Ethiopia’s research and scholarship for the benefit of students and others that moves beyond the establishment of learned journals.

Conclusion As we have tried to show in this chapter, a university ideally should also encourage study and research between academics, the university, and members of the community. However “selling” the products of research and engaging the community with knowledge transfer requires help. A development worker might be able to provide this help by assisting the university to develop a coherent communications strategy and a plan to develop and communicate the products, services, and solutions to institutional, regional, and national problems. Such communication will also enable collaboration with external partners. To facilitate this, it might be helpful for universities to establish and apply customer service standards across all departments and faculties with respect to research and knowledge transfer inquiries, preparation of tenders, and modes of delivery. However, they will need help in doing this, and this is an area where someone with wider experience, especially of research and community engagement in universities in developed countries, can be useful. We have mentioned the importance of staff capability and motivation to these activities. This implies that staff development to develop capacity for research and knowledge transfer activities will be useful for new appointees and those with emerging interests (including mentoring and shadowing). The logic of staff motivation implies that activity to support the retention of staff through an internal career structure (e.g., promotion to reader and/ or professor) that rewards success with respect to research and knowledge transfer activities that accord with the university’s mission might be useful mechanisms. These might be new ideas for the university, its faculty, and managers or they might understand the need but be unable to implement the process. Again, someone with wider experience, especially of the practices of more-developed universities can be a valuable catalyst in getting new systems and ways of doing into practice. In some systems, it is possible to increase the proportion of staff engaging in research and knowledge transfer activities by setting goals in relation to research and/or knowledge transfer as a mandatory requirement for the probation of all new academic staff and to require existing staff to make

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clear, through annual appraisal, personal objectives for research and knowledge transfer. However, these mechanisms are blunt instruments that, if they are not judiciously applied, can have the perverse effect of demotivating staff. Similarly, incentivizing staff by allowing a proportion of profits of research and consultancy to be returned to individuals is often used within more-developed contexts. However, these are not risk free where management and monitoring are not strong. Income is not the same as profit, and income sharing can lead to an escalation of costs. Where monitoring is poor, there might be opportunities for corruption and other undesirable outcomes. In addition, staff working in important but nonprofitable areas such as education might be disincentivized if they see community service purely in instrumental terms rather than a good thing in its own right. There is a limit to what an individual academic or an individual university can achieve in terms of developing a viable research and community service portfolio without a more supportive national and international framework than presently exists in many countries and globally. Long-term investment in infrastructure (human and other) and reforms in systems and regulations are needed. Internationally, a more enabling and partnership-oriented culture could support African higher education in its efforts to achieve the research and community service volume and standard that the development of their societies and economies require. There are many difficulties in the process of setting up effective research and community service cultures in universities, but in our experience, most university staff are willing to try new ways of doing but often are unable to stand back and review what needs to be done. This is why someone who has experience of research in a university in a developed country is so important to the development of higher education in sub-Saharan Africa. Reflection What do you think are the six most important contributions that research and community service can make to poverty reduction in a country you are interested in? What are the barriers to universities achieving this contribution? What might you, as a development worker, do to help a university and its staff overcome some of these barriers?

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Notes 1. http://www.rae.ac.uk/pubs/2006/01/docs/genstate.pdf . Accessed December 1, 2010. 2. Tamene, B. (2010, August 16). University enrolment skyrockets, but are teachers qualified? Capital, 12(609). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 3. World Bank. (2010). Financing higher education in Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. 4. Mweru, M. (2010). Why Kenyan academics do not publish in international refereed journals. World Social Science Report: Knowledge Divides. Paris: International Social Sciences Council/UNESCO. 5. InterAcademy Council. (2004). Realizing the promise and potential of African agriculture. InterAcademy Council Report. http://www.interacademycouncil. net/CMS/Reports/AfricanAgriculture/PDFs.aspx?returnID=7226 6. Swayrr, A. (2004). African universities and the challenge of research capacity development. JHEA/RESA, 2(1), 211–240. 7. Mweru, M. (2010). Why Kenyan academics do not publish in international refereed journals. World Social Science Report: Knowledge Divides. Paris: International Social Sciences Council/UNESCO 8. See, for example, the work of The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in South Africa, http://www.csir.co.za/ 9. Macleod, C. (2010, June 6). South Africa: Incentive system bad for scholarship. University World News, 00550. Retrieved June 18, 2011 from http://www. universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=21006050563654105 10. Sharma, Y. (2010, July 28). Conference agrees global science ethics code. SciDev. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20100806175728593 11. Materu, P. (2007). Higher education quality assurance in sub-Saharan Africa: Status, challenges, opportunities, and promising practices. World Bank Working Paper No. 124. Mentions the quality of publishing and dissemination outlets as an example of this and suggests that governments need strategies to ensure that academic and research outputs are published in internationally recognized media. 12. http://ajol.info/index.php/sinet . Accessed December 2, 2010. 13. See http://www.cartercenter.org/health/ephti/learning_materials/index. html. Accessed December 2, 2010. 14. See, for example, http://www.ug.edu.gh/index1.php?linkid=284&sublinkid=113. Accessed December 2, 2010. 15. http://www.stmarycollege.edu.et. Accessed December 2, 2010.

11 Administrative Support Structures

Universities are so conservative. They are doing the same things they were doing 2 years ago, 10 years ago, 100 years ago . . . We live in a competitive learning environment. It is stressful—but you cannot afford to stay put. There is no favorable wind for those that do not know where they are going. —Tertiary Education Coordinator, the World Bank

Main points in this chapter: ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

The current state of administration The Ethiopian administrative system Managing budgets and procurement Supporting university management and leadership Developing ICT processes and skills

U

pon entering the administration block of a typical university in subSaharan Africa, one is often struck by the number of staff that are not apparently occupied. Young staff might sit around waiting in case one of the more senior secretaries or managers wishes them to deliver a message or fetch tea; senior secretaries might do little other than arrange diaries

Higher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 241–261 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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and do copy typing. Accountants and their support staff might undertake bookkeeping and keeping (paper) records, but do not always contribute to finding ways of collecting and presenting management information that can help the top management and faculty heads to measure and improve performance and make strategic decisions. In many sub-Saharan African universities, it feels that the purpose of the administration and support service is not so much to provide an efficient and effective support to the university’s teaching and learning, but rather to provide employment opportunities for poorly educated local people who otherwise would not have sufficient income to support their families. Universities in sub-Saharan Africa are complex organizations, many are the size of small towns, and they therefore need a bureaucracy to manage and run the nonacademic aspects of the organization. While it is a truism to say that students are at the heart of what a higher education institution does, the bureaucracy (the administrative and support services) often seem designed to meet the needs of managers, administrators and (sometimes) lecturers rather than students. For example, enrollment processes often involve a student queuing up at several different points, clutching multiple photographs of themselves, to fill in numerous forms by hand, to provide largely the same information to each branch of a university’s administration. All of this matters. Administration that is inefficient and ineffective gets in the way of managers and academic staff doing their work. Equipment takes too long to arrive; building maintenance is not done; and senior staff do not have good, timely information on which to base their decisions. Possibly, the most important problem with poor administration is that incompetence can shield corruption. African universities cannot afford to divert their resources to pay for goods that are substandard because they are supplied by crooks, staff appointed because they are a friend or relative of a senior person, or students who lack the resources to support their learning.

Support for Students In recent years, universities in more-developed countries have undergone an almost seismic shift to a situation where administrative and support services for students, lecturers, and managers are much more geared to their needs; for example, many universities now offer new students the opportunity to enroll online and to download information prior to arriving at the campus so that their first experience of university life is now something different from the endless form-filling, shuffling along queues in large impersonal halls. Staff and students now feel comfortable with online services that can be accessed when the “customer” wants rather than when the particular office staff feel the need.

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Even though such online registration might be impractical in many sub-Saharan higher education institutions, they can recognize that students and staff should be treated as customers rather than as an inconvenience that interferes with the smooth running of the institution. Administrative and support services need to develop a customer-friendly focus. Already, the “student voice” has become an important part of quality assurance in some countries, both at the national level and through universities’ own quality-assurance processes.1 As this trend continues, it will have implications for administrative services as well as for teaching and learning. As more sub-Saharan countries introduce funding that rewards performance, universities will need to increase the emphasis on avoiding student dropout or students repeating years. They will need responsive administrative structures that can create and organize management information that will help them identify where fallout is above the desirable level and take management action to improve it. The achievement of a fully supportive administrative structure requires that administrative managers and some other staff have an understanding of, and involvement in, the strategic decision-making processes of the institution, perhaps encouraged by an appraisal and promotion based on how well they perform these functions. There might need to be more investment in training that involves the administration and support services. A better-trained staff will have the added advantage that the institution can then reconfigure administrative services that are leaner but more efficient. In any case, it will become necessary to reconsider student support services in the light of increased numbers and diversification. As universities develop more-varied attendance modes and the modularization of their curriculum, effective student record keeping will become more important and more complex. This shift from administrative systems designed around the needs of the organization and the way it is managed to one that is much more focused on management imperatives and the student’s learning might need changes in the philosophy of the services; in the same way that Personnel is now Human Resource Management, so Administration might move to see itself as a Learning Support resource. Reflection Examples of good practice in student support services identified by the QAA in the UK include ◾◾ Ensuring links between teaching, a university’s research environment,

and industry to enhance the quality of learning opportunities

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◾◾ Targeted support for particular categories of students, such as dis-

abled, mature, postgraduate, and part-time students ◾◾ Library and [information technology] support services that are well

◾◾

◾◾ ◾◾ ◾◾

◾◾ ◾◾

resourced and informed about and responsive to the needs and preferences of users and that are increasingly available to students when they want them (i.e., 24/7). A scheme that involves second-year and higher-level students being trained to work on a one-to-one basis with other students to help them identify and solve study skills problems Placing the student experience at the heart of a higher education institution’s enterprise The active use and continuous development of staff and student intranet portals A student-focused culture to support the development of students through, for example: ◾◾ representation, consultation, and collaboration with the Students’ Union, ◾◾ the open-door policy of academic staff, ◾◾ the tutoring system, the proactive institutional support mechanisms, and the extent and usage of the Student Experience Survey A clear link between student feedback and action at all levels within an institution The effective way in which a higher education institution deploys its financial and physical resources in support of learning and teaching, in particular, the mechanisms to identify and respond to user need and to assure the quality of its learning support resources, and that resource allocation is linked to the focus on learning and teaching.

Think about a higher education institution in a sub-Saharan African country that you know about: Are any of the examples of good practice listed above transferable to that context? What would be the problems in advising such a higher education institution to base their administrative and support systems on such a northern model at this time? How might improvement be initiated?

Central to the provision of effective and efficient learning-support resources is a central management and decision-making process and an effective means of ensuring that such resources meet student needs. Within the sub-Saharan African context, this might require some clarification of

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the relationships between and among relevant senior managers, departments, schools or faculties, and service departments. Communication can be a problem in many sub-Saharan African higher education institutions, so it is important to establish an understanding and communication between service groups and academic units about their roles and the ways that they interconnect.

Case Study: The Ethiopian Administrative System Administrative systems can enable or disable the achievement of higher education development. In Ethiopia, there is evidence of serious problems in virtually all the higher education administration systems. They are unsuitable for the present context; they do not cope with the needs of learners and management information that is required by the higher education expansion.

The Present Situation The existing internal management problems and issues include a lack of planning and monitoring of administrative activities and actions. Many institutions have a large number of administrative staff and are unsure of how effective they are or how to improve their effectiveness. Systems and staff tend to be process oriented—focused on rules and regulations rather than on outcomes or on creating and enabling service. This problem is made more acute by the demands of central government, perceived or real, for forms of accountability that focus on such processes rather than what has been achieved; for instance, accreditation of higher education institutions does not presently focus on outcomes. ICT infrastructure investment is undertaken on the basis of higher education institutions’ reported need, with no associated demand from government for improved efficiency or services. Particular services are insufficiently modernized to provide for the future needs of an accountable organization: registries cannot provide the management information that accountable organizations will need; libraries supply a limited range of books but do not provide a learning support service; where they exist, research and consultancy offices are generally newly established and inexperienced. At every administrative level there is a fear of decision making, a lack of confidence, and a lack of ambition. There are, however, pockets of good practice and appropriate aspiration; one university has worked hard to develop a student-friendly and efficient library system; and some in the private sector have digitalized various administrative services. Following the HESO study and the introduction of business-process reengineering, it has been recognized by those managing the universities that

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successfully forging change within the Ethiopian higher education context critically depends upon the following set of principles:

A focus on results The lesson of the most successful reforms is that change begins when policymakers and system managers focus on what they seek to achieve instead of what they spend. Enhanced performance measurement that focuses on outputs and outcomes is the critical first step toward a reinvented higher education system.

Decentralization of decision making Local problems are best solved locally, enabling interventions to be tailored to meet stakeholders’ needs rather than being imposed from the center.

An orientation toward customer service and customer choice The main incentive for focusing on results is serving the customer. For higher education, this means centering the system on learners, who need to prepare for the 21st-century economy; on parents and taxpayers, who pay the bills; and on policymakers, who shape the system’s goals.

The use of external alternatives Relying more on outsourcing could produce significant savings for higher education institutions. Relying more on private suppliers could provide a market-test of the cost of providing services and create strong incentives for reducing costs while improving quality However, it has proved challenging to keep to these principles. Government ministers, officials, and higher education institution managers do not trust those under them to manage decentralized control adequately. It is difficult to restructure an organization to concentrate on customers instead of internal goals. It is even harder when there are multiple customers who might have conflicting objectives. There are significant barriers to contracting out in terms of local expertise to take on the work. Yet it is essential that higher education administration is reformed if it is to meet the challenges the system faces.

The case study above demonstrates that higher education cannot be reinvented in a vacuum. Public higher education institutions are deeply embedded in a national and state political-economic system. If higher education is to change, it must be part of a broader and more energetic effort to focus national and state governments on results and customers. If national government is to be reinvented, it is also true that higher education must be a central part of the strategy. The reform requires changes in the attitudes of state policymakers and institutional leaders toward client-

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centeredness. There needs to be better collaboration between institutions and their communities and between institutions and their learners’ potential employers. A focus on student-centered initiatives, including stronger student advisory services, will improve these services and also boost innovative educational strategies, which have the potential to increase instructional flexibility while reducing costs, including distance learning. Improving administrative efficiency in sub-Saharan Africa requires radical rethinking about the problems and a move away from traditional solutions. There are, however, a number of cultural barriers to process redesign, which include tradition, hierarchical structure, vertical communication, command and control, distrust of management, functional expertise, individual work/accountability, low work discretion, accepting the status quo, status differentiation thriving on “fire fighting,” and the treatment of IT as the “enemy.” However, despite these formidable challenges, more and more organizations are realizing that the marketplace is changing, customer needs are changing, and processes are changing; all of which requires a removal of the above barriers in order for industry to survive, and therefore, resisting change is not an option. The only way to change behavior is by maintaining the pressure for change, monitoring it, measuring it, going back to revisit it, and leading by example at all times. For example, Ethiopia’s higher education administration systems have been subjected to business-process reengineering, and these were directed at the national level. This approach can have some disadvantages if the change is not “owned” by administrative managers. They need to be “onboard” if internal reinvention is to be accelerated; for example, the streamlining of accounting and purchasing systems, the application of flexibility-driven initiatives, and greater use of information technology to reduce paperwork. In many African countries, systems are still needed that take advantage of the opportunities for economies of scale and efficiencies as numbers of learners and the volume of other related activities increase.

A New Paradigm? My goal is to see a digital university with all administration processes driven by IT and IT supporting all teaching, making it efficient and effective. —A faculty leader in a well-established university

Sub-Saharan African countries that are opening several new universities have the opportunity to design and implement their administrative systems from scratch and so to create a new paradigm in the way that higher

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education institution systems are run—one that looks to the future and is ICT-based rather than paper based. Some administrative managers we interviewed who were appointed to newly established universities talked of the need to create a cultural shift toward greater efficiency with perhaps a smaller but more highly qualified administrative staff, a customer orientation, and service-level agreements to ensure that the system is client orientated and delivers what is required to the appropriate level. Such a shift implies that the administration system helps managers and the academic staff to do their jobs better. It also implies a user-friendly service for students. This shift can be exemplified by a change of the term from “administrative staff” to “support staff,” where greater emphasis is placed on the role of the support processes in strengthening and facilitating the higher priority core processes. For example, improving the student support services could prevent these from taking much of the time of the senior management away from education quality, research, and community services. Alternatively, if the registry would increase its performance, its output will simplify the lives of the department heads, and this will enable them to spend more time on teaching and less time on fire fighting. Universities in sub-Saharan Africa are likely to face a future where changes are the norm. It is possible to anticipate that these will include moves toward performance-based funding, devolution of financial management and decision making to individual universities and then to faculties, and other administrative changes that are not presently anticipated. In addition, the challenges of HIV/AIDS and gender will have an impact on administrative services in a variety of ways: the need to collect data for planning purposes, the need to change HRM practices, and so on. Administrative staff capacity in many sub-Saharan African higher education institutions is very low at present, but their willingness to learn is probably much higher. Staff development programs that focus especially on the administrative support services would be particularly useful, resulting in better-organized secondary processes and less burden for academic staff members and managers. Administrative competence needs to be developed and those incapable dismissed. We need job evaluation and minimum competences. There should be an institutional process for redundancies. —Member of university senior management team

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Managing Budgets and Procurement At the systems level, there has been a move in various sub-African countries away from line-by-line negotiations between higher education institutions and government, toward block grants, often based on some sort of funding formula (World Bank, 2010).2 This movement has the potential to modernize the system. Line-by-line negotiations encourage inefficiencies through perverse incentives; universities that gain the most resources are those that are able to “talk up” their likely costs and that spend their budgets up to the limit. Any end-of-year (or end-of-period) savings are not only likely to be put back into government coffers, they might also be assumed as surplus to requirements and therefore lead to reductions to the university’s budget in the following year. Similarly, if a university finds that it could save money on, say, its administrative staffing budget, far from being able to spend it on more academic staff or services, they might lose that money in subsequent years. This system has the unintended effect of encouraging universities to inflate their costs and minimize possible savings in their budget discussions— the precise opposite of what is desirable. It can also lead to numerous inefficiencies; there is no incentive for the higher education institution to make rational spending decisions. Sometimes, any virement between budget heads requires long and sometimes fruitless discussions with ministry officials. If a pragmatic manager finds that funds can be better spent in one way rather than another that was predicted when the budget was set up, s/he would do so only in extreme circumstances. It is clear that if sub-African universities are to improve and manage expansion without an unaffordable increase in funding or a disastrous decrease in quality, they must become more efficient and effective, and structural disincentives to look at value for money in expenditure must be eliminated. One important mechanism to achieve this is the block grant. However, a block grant funding system requires efficient and adequate financial information procedures, systems, and controls. These have to be in place before the block grant is implemented in full, and the staff need to be qualified to implement and monitor the new financial processes. This will require long-term support.

Reflection If historical funding encourages extravagance and inefficiency, the allocation of a block grant poses the a priori question, “How should it be determined with respect to each university?” Allocation to a university can be based on

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◾◾ input (for example, or staff numbers) ◾◾ processes (for example, student enrollments as a proxy for

teaching costs) ◾◾ performance

Performance can be judged on ◾◾ outcomes (for example, the numbers of graduates gaining em-

ployment) ◾◾ outputs (for example, the numbers of students graduating).

The “pure” output focus might be modified somewhat by the decision to give a weighting to the discipline studied by the student. This provides some recognition of process costs (the weightings can be based on the costs of teaching subject groups), but also of outcomes (the weightings can also reflect the potential value of the graduates in different disciplines to society). What do you think might be the advantages and disadvantages of each of these models in an African higher education system with which you are familiar?

A block grant is incompatible with a dependency culture; higher education institutions must make their own decisions and manage their own resources to achieve their strategic ends, without making special cases to government. If their costs are not managed, that is the institutions’ problem, and they must solve it without recourse to additional funding. If they fail to anticipate some additional in-year expenditure, they must deal with the consequences themselves and learn to plan for contingencies in future years. However, devolution is not risk free. Even in the absence of any corruption, the devolution of financial responsibilities and budgets creates certain threats (for example, from a lack of competence, especially in the early stages). The allocation of a block grant raises the dilemma of how the government can be sure that the budget allocated will be managed with probity and competence. This dilemma can only partially be answered by risk management, control, and governance in the sector. There will also need to be adequate systems of openness and transparency of decision making so that evidence that value for money can be seen to be achieved in terms of student outcomes and that the block grant can be seen to fulfill its promise in terms of efficiency and effectiveness. In many sub-Saharan African universities, budget management is highly centralized and inefficient. The benefits and risks of devolved budgets at the national level apply to devolution within the institution too. Devolution of budgets puts decision making close to the action, but there is always the

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potential for funds to be mismanaged or misused, especially given the general level of competence of many administrative managers If devolution of budgets within an institution is to realize greater efficiency and effectiveness, and if risks are to be minimized, budget holders will need to understand their responsibilities and duties. They will need to be trained in how to manage devolved budgets and read statements of accounts, the higher education institutions central distribution model, and accountability systems. Again, openness is key to ensuring the system works without corruption, with decisions occurring in “public” (for example, though departmentally based decision-making meetings with defined membership and minutes that are published). The decentralization of budgets will require new financial monitoring and evaluation processes and safeguards that fit within the annual funding cycle. Higher education institutions will need to develop quality-assurance systems for the verification of the data they create so that they can be absolutely confident that they are accurate. Financial rules and regulations will need to be appropriate for governing the devolved system, risk management will need to be systematized at all levels, and mechanisms for ensuring financial probity put in place. The devolution of budgets depends upon a system to monitor local cost commitments (i.e., orders placed but not yet paid for) as well as actual outgoings. The higher education institution will need a system of predictions of expenditure over the year so that primary budget holders can check that any budget head is not overspending according to the prediction for that month or quarter (or whatever accounting period is chosen for monitoring purposes) and so also be alerted to the possibility of trouble before the end of the financial year. Such systems have the potential to improve management as a whole. They depend upon good local planning and for managers of services to live with and learn from the consequences of having made poor decisions. Once there is a system that can classify financial data in such a way that the higher education institution local managers can accurately track and record the costs of each kind of activity, they are in a position to make better decisions. In addition, more senior managers have data on which to judge relative performance and on which to base staff appraisal. Procurement in many sub-Saharan African systems can also be highly centralized, labyrinthine, and slow. Systems put in place to prevent corruption and nepotism can lead to delays and poor value for money. While it is always good practice to separate the person who places an order from the person who actually manages the process, multiple signatures do not necessarily prevent corruption. The person who manages purchasing can

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always find a way to behave corruptly; for example, to purchase off their brother, however many signatures the approval slip has on it. The only true protection lies in openness, so that everyone knows who placed an order, who managed the purchase, who was the supplier, and what was the cost. If there is an open scrutiny process, and more than one person is involved in the decision (not just signing a piece of paper), and the result is public, it is harder to hide incompetence or wrongdoing. If purchasing decisions involve those close to the action, and from a local budget, local managers will have an interest in the results and are more likely to notice and report when something untoward has occurred. Reflection A colleague of ours in an African university decided to follow a piece of paper—a requisition form—through the university’s administration to see if the system could be streamlined. She discovered that this piece of paper passed through the hands of 13 different people, all of whom had to register their approval of the requisition in some form or another. In two cases it went back to the same people twice. Working with a colleague, try to undertake a similar exercise, if possible in two contrasting universities, one that had modernized its administrative systems and one that was still using a more traditional paper-based system: Record all the stages that a document has to go through; how many people are involved, how long it takes. Can you suggest ways in which the process(s) might be speeded up, made more efficient?

The Process of Change Administration in sub-Saharan African universities must no longer be seen as a “Cinderella” service. It will need to receive the management attention that its importance and present lack of capability deserve. The challenge is to establish a vision for an effective service and obtain the staff backing for that vision. Given the present capability of most of the administrative staff, this is a complex matter: managers will need to provide the tools, such as training, and set targets to measure and encourage better performance. Many for-profit organizations in sub-Saharan Africa countries such as Ethiopia (for example, Ethiopian Airlines) have established change strategies in order to address changes in their environment. These are in part driven by technological innovation, competition, and the need to develop

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a customer focus and can also be applied to higher education institutions. At the same time, educational institutions are struggling to identify a management paradigm that advances and supports core educational values and outcomes. The increased competition for public resources is inexorably privatizing educational enterprises, for example, as universities charge for student services that were previously free. As a result, while the effects of increasing change and competition might lag or be less apparent in higher education institutions than in the business sector, it is inconceivable that they will be exempt from the same forces. Often, the greatest change and therefore the greatest level of resistance in a process redesign occurs in the roles of managers. Recognition of this fact is critical because the attitude of middle management is likely to be one of the greatest predictors of the success or failure of organizational changes. Providing administrative managers with the skillset to successfully navigate the transition from a traditionally structured organization to a redesigned organizational model is critical. Within other contexts, it has been found that, after process reengineering has occurred, managers in the organizations become more like coaches—they do not order, they guide; they do not direct the work of others, they coordinate, facilitate and empower. This change of role is challenging and requires a complete reconceptualizing of their function and considerable skill development on the part of administrative managers in sub-Saharan African universities. The ultimate success of any reengineering depends upon the people who do it and on how well they can be motivated to be creative and to apply their detailed knowledge to the redesign of business processes.

Reflection It is generally expected that management roles after process review change so as to no longer be based on hierarchical relationships as follows: Management roles in hierarchical organizations

Management roles in redesigned enterprises

Managers are responsible for direction and supervision of groups of functional specialists.

Managers achieve objectives by building self-directed teams, creating a vision that motivates and energizes team members, and creating an environment that enables and facilitates their achievement.

Spans of control relatively small.

Spans of control much larger.

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Scope of responsibilities is consistent with hierarchical organization, and the ability to affect outcomes is limited as a result of fragmentation of an end-toend stream of activities between many departments.

Individual accountability and control over outcomes is increased through the creation of cross-functional teams responsible for an end-to-end value stream of activities.

Measurements and rewards often based on cost containment, budgetary compliance.

Measurements and rewards based on outcomes resulting from the ability to please customers.

Managers collect, control, and “own” information.

Management information is widely available and easily accessed throughout an organization.

Time and energy is invested in protecting organizational boundaries and “turf.”

Time and energy is invested in producing better outcomes.

How realistic do you think this change is for the administrative management in a sub-Saharan African country that you know something about? What are the obstacles to change? As a development worker, how might you help to overcome some of these obstacles?

One aspiration appropriate for development workers based in sub-Saharan African universities is to facilitate efficient and transparent systems and processes that, if achieved, can lead to better operation across the board. Tackling this problem implies a common understanding, common language, and conceptual base as well as the opportunity to establish networks so that problems can be discussed and solutions shared; for example, for administrative management to conduct reviews or audits of structures and systems currently used within universities and to identify how they might be improved. Staff at all levels might need to be made aware of different ways of doing things. At present, international exposure visits funded by donors for staff in sub-Saharan African universities generally exclude managers of services such as registry, libraries, finance, procurement, and human resources, but could be highly beneficial if focused on concepts such as customer orientation. Where resources are scarce, it is possible to focus on one or two universities as a “pilot,” modeling improvements in selected systems. Because problems are urgent, systematic and quick dissemination to other universities would need to be part of the original plan or contract. This is just one poten-

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tially effective mechanism for developing university expertise; peer-learning across the universities can be a useful mechanism to ensure the ideas are owned by the sub-Saharan system and adapted to the particular circumstances and constraints. Such peer learning might be facilitated by periodic meetings of functional specialists and managers, and for visits to other universities or commercial organizations to gather information and discuss issues and plans. E-mail, Yahoo groups, and video conferencing can be another way to ensure peer support for administrative managers coping with change. Reflection The ratio of support staff to academic staff in much of sub-Saharan African higher education institutions is two administrative posts for each full-time equivalent academic post; in other words, four times as many as are considered the norm in the UK. Many of these administrative staff are poorly educated, have limited literacy skills, and speak only their local language rather than that used as the medium for teaching. Many are underemployed. There is therefore the potential for much trimming of excess staff. However, most of these posts are filled by women, and each employee may use their wages to support around five other members of their family. Their salaries are probably very low. This means that the savings for the higher education institution of each individual post cut would be small but that the consequences for the employee and their family might be considerable. And yet, if the situation is allowed to carry on as it is, it can be seen to be condoning inefficient and wasteful practices. What do you think should be done to address this situation in a typical sub-Saharan African higher education institution?

Some sub-Saharan African universities are beginning to focus on the way managers, staff, and students are supported in their research and learning, the quality of the information they receive, the ways in which their work and learning is facilitated and supported. Systems are being adopted (or very occasionally developed from scratch) that utilize information and communication technologies (ICT), especially in areas such as e-mail, accessing online research journals, and managing records in accounts and registry.

The Use of ICT Top management do not have a notion of the difference an MIS could make. —An ICT officer

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There is some criticism of the size of administrative and support services in many sub-Saharan African universities. To some extent, this reflects the expansion and resulting increased complexity of managing and running an organization like a higher education institution. There is less need for low-skilled clerical support staff today than a few years ago and more for professional nonacademic specialists. The main trends in developed higher education systems are a reduction in the number of administrative staff and a shift away from purely clerical functions to an expansion of ICT-based support for both lecturers and students. The ratio of lecturers to support staff that, for example in the UK, is considered desirable is one administrative post for two full-time equivalent academic posts. In Africa, the number of administrative and support staff in universities is often disproportionately large, for example, ◾◾ At the National University of Lesotho, there are twice as many nonacademic support staff as there are academics, and more than 60% of the institution’s budget goes to staff costs. ◾◾ In Madagascar, the student-to-administrator ratio is high, with 6 students to each administrator, and high relative to the ratio of students to teachers (47 to 1 in 1993, and 22 to 1 in 1996). ◾◾ Togo has 1,136 administrative and technical staff in higher education, yet the academic staff numbers fewer than 730, of whom only 55% are full-time (Teferra & Altbach, 2004) ◾◾ One third of the personnel employed in South African public universities are academics, the remaining two thirds are support and administrative staff.3 Administrative and support staff in African universities, while high in number, are generally low in skills, and the support to teaching and learning is minimal. They are generally poorly educated and carry out basic functions (generally inefficiently). They are unlikely to receive staff development, as universities tend to focus on upgrading their faculty rather than administrative staff, and the poor educational level of the administrative staff means that benefits might be considered inconsequential. Thus, the administrative and support function in sub-Saharan universities will have to undergo a major review and a fundamental redesign if it is to fully support the university mission. Hammer (1990)4 advocates process redesign and the use of ICT to challenge the assumptions inherent in the work processes that have existed since long before the advent of modern

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computer and communications technology. He argues that at the heart of process reengineering is the notion of discontinuous thinking—or recognizing and breaking away from the outdated rules and fundamental assumptions underlying operations . . . These rules of work design are based on assumptions about technology, people, and organizational goals that no longer hold. (Hammer 1990, p. 107)

He suggests the following “principles of reengineering”: (a) Organize around outcomes, not tasks; (b) Have those who use the output of the process perform the process; (c) Subsume information processing work into the real work that produces the information; (d) Treat geographically dispersed resources as though they were centralized; (e) Link parallel activities instead of integrating their results; (f) Put the decision point where the work is performed, and build control into the process; and (g) Capture information once and at the source. Information Technology provides the infrastructure and tools, which fundamentally change organizations, but management provides the strategic business vision that transforms technology into competitive advantage. (Hammer, 1990, p. 104)

ICT as Support for Managers IT has impact on leadership—online communication is a rather new and unknown phenomenon for senior management. IT awareness for the leadership is needed. —A member of the senior management team in a university

Building and sustaining organizational efficiency in sub-Saharan African universities cannot be achieved solely by enhancing individual capabilities. Individual development needs to be aligned with human resource systems and practices and with organizational (and systemwide) development initiatives that create the conditions in which leaders can lead. The challenges facing higher education require an integrated development agenda in three related areas: modernizing human resource strategies and procedures; revitalizing business processes and structures; and investing in development and support for leaders, managers, and governors. In many sub-Saharan African universities, there is no clear business vision driving administrative decisions, and so it is often difficult for ICT to support the leadership role. The World Bank suggests that there is a need to define the priority areas for application and use of ICT in line with

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higher education sector objectives. With respect to administration, it can be used to collect and improve data that will help to monitor and improve quality. ICT-based resources can also be used to improve teaching, learning, and research. With increased enrollment, better administration, and record keeping become essential. Cost recovery and the development of new revenue streams (for example, from research projects or consultancy) also require excellent record keeping. ICT offers the opportunity to collect, organize, and manipulate datasets for various purposes. The biggest obstacles that change agents in this area face are a lack of management commitment and sustained leadership. Managers who do not have a good understanding of ICT can demand systems that are unrealistic in their scope and have expectations of it that cannot be realized. Conversely, they might face resistance to change from those who must implement the change. These negative conditions might be improved by careful consideration of change strategies; for example, starting small so that success can be seen, working on the mindset and objectives of the managers who have to implement the change, and getting key opinion influencers on their side. Research into the success factors in process reengineering indicates that the most important thing is not the exact transformation methodology selected, but rather the organizational environment, leadership, and motivation for change. This suggests that universities in sub-Saharan Africa that are aiming for sustainable improvement in their administration might devote more time to addressing the inevitable internal obstacles that can and will arise.

Management Information Systems (MIS) The university infrastructure connectivity is excellent . . . BUT with information online and applications online it is near zero; it is only used for e-mail and Internet. There is very little resource sharing and no management information sharing. —An ICT officer

A number of higher education institutions in sub-Saharan Africa are in the process of setting up and running an MIS system. This is a highly complex and potentially one of the most difficult areas of development, nevertheless, it can lead to improvements in the future functioning of all parts of any higher education system. We have found that administrative managers in many universities do not have a clear concept of what such a system might look like, what it

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might do, and how to specify the requirements of any supporting ICT. The managers therefore need support on what an MIS is in order to select appropriate MIS systems, costs, steps involved in establishing an MIS in individual higher education institutions, and redeployment/training of staff. Administrative managers in most sub-Saharan African universities are likely to need long-term support after the initial setup of the MIS, including training of key staff. At the national level, government officials might need help to tackle issues of infrastructure and policy frameworks; for example, the issue of whether all the universities in a country should have the same system(s) or whether they should be developed independently. Fear among employees that their jobs are endangered and that years of experience will account for nothing are obstacles to the development of MIS. To overcome these apprehensions, those supporting the implementation will need to constantly communicate their plans and expectations. Systems cannot be radically improved without empowering process workers. Many employees would simply prefer to be told what the organization’s goals are, what that means for them and their jobs, and what, in consequence, they will be required to do. There are a number of cultural barriers to effective MIS specification and implementation in sub-Saharan Africa. Adherence to traditional ways of doing things and hierarchical management can result in poor communication leading to distrust of management. There is often a lack of functional expertise in the administrative departments, which leads to a culture where staff have little discretion over their work and so feel relatively helpless in the face of change. Massification and sudden changes in institutional and national policies can lead to a culture of fire fighting that makes innovation and the kind of planning that an MIS requires difficult. Administrative staff who are not well educated might have a fear of technology. However, more and more sub-Saharan African universities are realizing that expectations of them are changing, student needs are changing, and processes are changing, all of which leads them to face the challenge of introducing MIS, even in these challenging circumstances.

E-Learning Universities in sub-Saharan Africa have started to experiment with e-learning. E-learning can be used in a variety of ways: to offer resource support by supplying necessary learning and teaching documentation, to provide independent learning activity within a traditionally delivered module (blended learning), and to replace face-to-face delivery.

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In many cases, e-learning is used to teach students at a distance. The lack of connectivity, poor technical backup, and unreliability of electricity supplies in many sub-Saharan African higher education institutions limits the access to computers for many students. Staff also might lack skills in developing appropriate virtual learning environments (VLEs). VLEs are defined as “an electronic system that can provide online interactions of various kinds that can take place between learners and tutors, including online learning.”5 A program of study might be designed to be complemented by some online material that might include course administrative details, course assessment details, reading lists, and so on. A VLE might be merely an electronic version of a course handbook or might include curriculum elements that are each assessed online and the students’ progress recorded. It might contain additional material where a student is struggling with particular concepts or parts of a course; links to student study groups, online tutorials, and/or links with other administrative systems such as the library catalogue. E-learning is not straightforward, and in a resource-poor higher education institution, the considerable investment in time and resources needs to be balanced against other ways of improving student services and learning. Middle-class urban students from families with access to computers might lead the demand for online resources; they might be more comfortable with the technology and prefer the flexibility of being able to access resources where and when it suits them, but students from less-advantaged and rural communities might need considerable support in order to benefit. Some sub-Saharan African higher education institutions will have to ensure that higher education institution staff are competent in the design, implementation, and management of online resources and are given sufficient time to develop new learning environments. This might not be the first priority for staff development programs or technical support. There is a danger that managers will see e-learning as a cheap way to deliver teaching to large numbers of students. However, e-learning will rarely, of itself, deliver the required economies and teaching outcomes. It also requires that both staff and students have adequate access to technology and technical backup and a significant financial investment in hardware, software, and suitably qualified and experienced technicians.

Conclusion To achieve the vision for higher education, institutions in sub-Saharan Africa need to be well managed and well governed. They need to motivate, value, and reward their administrative staff as much as the academics. Lead-

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ership skills are required at all levels. Management has to ensure that administrative and support systems are in place and that governing bodies provide scrutiny with respect to these services. This requires strong leadership and effective management. In many cases, the development worker can help to develop management and board members’ understanding of the role of professional administrators and support service managers in higher education in order to ensure that they have the right developmental support. The leaders might need help to develop a clear articulation of institutional strategy with respect to administrative and support systems and their contribution to national priorities. Government officials and policies can contribute too. Within a national strategy for the improvement of administrative and support systems, it is possible to maximize the effective use of scarce assets within and across institutions and to support specialist nonacademic expertise to ensure available resources are used to provide the best possible quality of support. Policies can ensure that there is appropriate accountability through the collection of relevant data. The leadership of administrative services requires the same level of creative and divergent thinking as any other area. Leaders need to be clear about where they want the service to be in the future and develop feelings of pride and ambition in the achievement of excellence at the same time as undertaking the sometimes painful business of setting appropriately demanding service-level targets and streamlining staffing requirements.

Notes 1. http://www.qaa.ac.uk/students/studentEngagement/default.asp and http:// www.upsu.net/support/academic/qaa. Accessed December, 3, 2010. 2. World Bank. (2010). Financing higher education in Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. 3. Higher Education Monitor: The State of Higher Education in South Africa. A Report of the CHE Advice and Monitoring Directorate. HE Monitor No. 8 October 2009 Retrieved June 19, 2011 from http://www.che.ac.za/documents/d000201/Higher_Education_Monitor_8.pdf p. 5 4. Hammer, M. (1990). Reengineering work: Don’t automate, obliterate. Havard Business Review (July–August) 104–112. 5. QAA (2009) Learning from ELIR 2003-7. The emerging impact of information and communication technologies (including virtual learning environments) on quality enhancement. Gloucester, UK Pg.11

12 Conclusions

What is the difference between poverty and wealth: there will be only one thing left to build the economy and that is talent—everything else can be pumped in from outside. —Tertiary Education Coordinator, the World Bank

Main points in this chapter: ◾◾ Reflection and critical enquiry as the basis of an emerging theory of practice ◾◾ The issues raised by expansion, globalism, and the sub-Saharan African context ◾◾ The language of dilemmas as a way of understanding the development process

I

n this book, we have focused more on the practical wisdom that emerges from working in the reality of sub-Sahara African higher education than on particular theories that might be applied. This practical wisdom has been related to “theory in use” by Argyis (1993).1 The idea is that your theHigher Education in Development: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa, pages 263–272 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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ories of action can inhibit real understanding because your need to protect your sense of self; taken-for-granted ways of knowing can get in the way of real understanding and working well in a situation. If you don’t check your understanding against actual evidence collected in the situation, you are likely to make inferences about what is the “right” thing to do that are not valid or useful. It is comfortable to advocate your own theory, or to bring a theory into the context that you have learned elsewhere and are familiar with, without really looking deeply at your reasoning. It is harder, but more fruitful, to painstakingly look at what is right for a particular set of people, at a particular moment and in a particular place. This is why we do not advocate theories or methodologies that can be applied across contexts, whether they are sociological (such as notions of neocolonial legacies), psychological (for example, theories of group dynamics), or managerial (for example, business process reengineering). We hope that readers will meet some of these ideas in the course of the book, not as “answers,” but as notions, the relevance of which, and their limits, they will need to explore for themselves in the course of working in the real situation trying to solve real problems. If we have a theory of action that we advocate, it is that personal attributes are important “to do the job properly,” and these include a willingness to engage in critical enquiry and reflect on what one finds out in partnership with others: the ideas of openmindedness, responsibility, and wholeheartedness that we described in the introduction as prerequisite to reflective practice. We also subscribe to the view that development work is fraught with dilemmas that must be faced within the reality of the situation and so require engagement with the “language” of dilemmas, and that engagement with these dilemmas requires critical enquiry and reflection. It is very easy for ideology to get in the way of the reality of the situation. We once asked an American academic if he could see any dilemmas in advocating immediate democracy in any African country, and he said he could not. This was a man who had travelled in Africa and must have noticed that ethnic tensions might lead to particular dominant groups, if given the chance to vote on the issue “democratically,” to choose to leave certain national federations, especially where such groups occupied an area rich in national resources. He should have been aware of the possibility of such secession leading to civil war. He must have noticed other situations where entrenched corruption and nepotism disadvantage certain groups to such an extent that democratic elections would be meaningless, in the short term at least. None of this interferes with his understanding that introducing democracy is unproblematic within all contexts. We have noticed many others from developed countries working in Africa who have developed a

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theory of management, a theory of teaching and learning, or even a theory of life, assume that they would be of benefit everywhere, to everyone, at all times, without any modifications at all. These ideas worry us, and we hope that, after reading this book, they would worry you too.

Dilemmas: More is Less? There are 13 other sectors apart from education that must be catered to, and these may suffer. I do not see that it is conceivable to increase education’s share of public funds, and the increase in funds available is insufficient to support such expansion without a loss of quality. I am concerned at the effect on primary education and a possible loss of quality there too. —An education adviser from the donor community

In this book, we have discussed many dilemmas that must be recognized in sub-Saharan African higher education. One of the most important of these is the problem of quality versus quantity. We have discussed at length the issues raised by massification. A reader wanting to make a difference in subSaharan African higher education will understand the idea that developing countries cannot manage without more professionals, but that they have scarce resources to manage the expansion that producing these professionals requires. They will therefore need to consider how to work with others to transform the dilemma by getting more out of those resources (human or otherwise) that are available. Sub-Saharan African higher education also has to contend with the dilemma of whether to value the speed of change over its depth and sustainability. The massification is one example of this; another is the introduction of new ways of doing things by dictat rather than consensus. Ordering change is certainly quicker and less complicated than embedding it in people’s hearts and practice, but the results might not be sustainable, and some results at least, unintended. It is a tension that development workers often have to face. For example, if you have a week to give a workshop, it might seem a good idea to deal with several pressing issues in the hope that participants can take them away with them and work on them in their own institutions. This approach might be well received by the recipients. However, our experience is that sustainable change does not result from this approach. On the other hand, if a single issue is thoroughly dealt with, if people work together on one real problem that they face, and if their emotions and behaviors are challenged by each other, more sustained change can result. If the only evaluation is at the end of the program, a development worker might never know if their

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approach has proved useful in the longer term. If the intention is to change behavior, attitudes, and practices, such end-of-program evaluations are generally pleasantly reassuring, but they can tell you absolutely nothing about the intended learning outcomes. High financial returns from higher education go to the individual, so the trend worldwide is toward cost recovery. If even government funding is affordable, there is an equity issue given high returns to graduates; why should they be subsidized by others? —Ethiopian Country Director from the World Bank

Related to the dilemma of expansion versus affordability is the question of access and equality. Financing expansion creates real issues for the poorest in a country and those most disadvantaged, such as women. If the expansion of higher education is to be fully, or partially, funded, extra money has to come from somewhere, and there is an argument that it should be the beneficiary—the student—who pays. In this way, the extra professionals the country needs can be educated at an affordable cost to the government. On the other hand, whether students pay through fees or through a graduate tax, those least able to make the payments (or those whose families or community least values their investment potential) will suffer. In this way, fees and graduate tax have the potential to entrench disadvantage. There are no easy answers to this, but the problems might be ameliorated if student support and financial help can be concentrated on the disadvantaged so that, if they do enter higher education, they are most likely to be successful and can earn back the investment.

Dilemmas: Globalism and National Needs It is a truism that world trade is unequal. It could be argued that, until this is rectified, all the money for development that goes into sub-Saharan African higher education is merely a Band-Aid. It is true that such aid and support does not address this unfairness, and so is (ultimately) problematic—improving systems might treat but not cure the causes of poverty. For example, some countries in sub-Saharan Africa produce sugar that they might want to export to the United States, but the United States has a tariff rate quota (TRQ) for refined sugar that benefits certain (non-African) countries over others. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture Foreign Agriculture Service (2008), “In recent years the refined sugar TRQ

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has been allocated . . . to Canada, Mexico, a portion which is open to all importers on a first-come, first-served or ‘global’ basis.”2 On the other hand, the World Trade Agreement of 1996 scraps tariffs worldwide on technology goods. Technology goods are predominantly produced by northern countries, so this tariff ban favors developed countries, while raw materials tariffs penalize Africa. This analysis raises the dilemma of whether development work must ultimately be ineffective because the central problem of the terms of trade is not being addressed. We cannot resolve the dilemma of unequal trading conditions, except to say that improvements in sub-Saharan African higher education will empower people to make a difference, whether in solving practical problems (perhaps not for everyone, but nonetheless for some) and so lead to some, and perhaps many, people having better lives. It might also empower sub-Saharan African countries to develop their economies, despite the global constraints, to the point where they have enough “clout” in trade talks to change the balance of argument in their favor. Sub-Saharan African higher education is part of the global society. Although we do not necessarily subscribe to the notion that the information superhighway is open for business to everyone, it is true that the Internet means that knowledge is to some extent global. Sub-Saharan African higher education started late and (generally) is left with a colonial legacy that does not always suit its needs today. Higher education is both important to a country’s development and demanding of its resources. It is no coincidence that the older universities in the world are generally the most prestigious. They have had longer to “get it right,” therefore to attract and retain the most talented academics and access larger resources for research. Nowadays, such universities commonly recruit worldwide and so can “poach” the brightest and best from sub-Saharan African higher education as well as elsewhere. They also have the built-in advantage that, as the oldest universities, they were in the position to be the first to define what is worth knowing. This definition will suit their traditions and historical development more than it will suit sub-Saharan African higher education. As they strive to international standards and academic respectability, African universities therefore face the dilemma that international standards might not entirely suit their local needs nor yield local solutions to local problems. Development workers from developed countries sometimes compound this dilemma by unthinkingly advocating international standards and international methods for achieving them as the only possibilities. They do not address the question of whether this approach will lead most of sub-

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Saharan African higher education institutions to see themselves as relative, or even absolute failures. Perhaps people from outside of the context need to pause and ask themselves (and others within the context), “Is this the point?” Or is the point to find a context-appropriate form and standard of higher education that can meet more local, sub-Saharan African, needs. It is certainly true that sub-Saharan African higher education has to develop to meet their own society’s needs and reduce poverty. Standards can be different, but the question is how to ensure that they are just as high as international ones; for example, how can universities bring the same academic rigor to social and medical problems in Africa without adherence to Northern notions of scientific excellence? Or, would it be correct to keep faith with such notions, not to impress the rest of the academic world, but because it is a good thing to do for society? Of course, Northern development workers cannot and should not bring ready-made solutions to sub-Saharan African higher education’s problems. Many foreign experts bring in ideas such as a particular model of “good practice” and sell it as the answer. This does not work. They need to find African solutions that might draw on Western ideas, but should also include a healthy skepticism. Most sub-Saharan African problems are multilayered, requiring social, cultural, economic, and scientific solutions that work together. This is more difficult than finding a scientific “cure” to a problem and applying it. It needs people to work together, people to respect each other, and people to question taken-for-granted assumptions.

Dilemmas: The Cultural Context This way of working can be difficult in traditional, authoritarian societies. Cultural change is often necessary—change is difficult and long term— but cultures can change. As an example of this, it is worth looking at the changes in assumptions about gender in developed countries in our own lifetimes. In the 1940s, Kate’s mother was prevented from taking paid work because her father’s pride would be hurt by the notion that he could not support his wife. In the late 1960s, Kate had better school-leaving qualifications than her husband, but it was she who worked to support her husband while he went to university (at that time, university education was mainly for boys; only about 7% of the students were female). Nowadays, almost no one in the UK would understand or hold these ideas. A majority of higher education students are female, and it is assumed that no one would have the right to tell a woman not to work. Cultural attitudes toward gender have changed radically in two generations.

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This raises the dilemma of whether it is right to respect traditions even where they inhibit social progress, and if not, how to work to change them. Development work is complex and subtle and requires people to get “inside” the context. People working in a country have expert knowledge that needs to be accessed, but that does not mean that the local perspective cannot be questioned.

Case Study When we were working in Ethiopia as higher education management advisors, we encouraged universities and others to look at and address various forms of discrimination. We made progress in talking about, and helping develop, policy and practice in areas such as gender, HIV/AIDS, and disability. The one area where we made no progress was antidiscrimination on the grounds of sexuality. We found it hard to get any managers to engage with the issue, and where we managed to open a dialogue, we were firmly told that homosexuality is a Western problem and (more or less) does not exist in Ethiopia. From our personal observation, this is obviously not the case. On the other hand, as far as we could see, gay people were not being actively harassed in the universities we visited. But if nobody discussed the subject, how could we tell? In the end, we decided not to pursue sexuality as an area of equality of opportunity in Ethiopia. This was not as a matter of principle, but a matter of pragmatics. We still worry about this decision. Gay students and staff in Ethiopian universities cannot be true to themselves within a context where the very existence of homosexuality is denied. There is also the possibility that, if these attitudes of denial are not countered, they might develop into active discrimination and even harassment at a later date (or that it might be occurring at the moment, with no possibility of redress). It is, of course, important to take into account social sensitivities when dealing with cultural problems and harmful practices or beliefs. On the other hand, development workers should do what they can to counter harmful practices and beliefs, provided that their action is not counterproductive.

Reflection What would you have done in the situation that has been described in this case study? Do you see any dilemmas raised by each decision open to you? How would you have come to a decision?

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Dilemmas: The Political Context The HE system is too politicized, which hinders the airing of views and creates a threatening situation for those wishing to practice freedom of expression or ask for their rights. —Director of woman’s support NGO

Another dilemma that much of sub-Saharan African higher education has to deal with is the fact that it must work in cooperation with some very nasty and corrupt regimes, while at the same time trying to protect freedom of thought and speech. Development workers face similar dilemmas when working with repressive regimes: should they help to develop higher education in a country and hope that better education might lead to democracy? Or are they lending legitimacy to corruption and repression by working with the system? We have faced this dilemma and come to the conclusion that, in all but the most extreme circumstances, higher education can be a force for good. By producing graduates who can think for themselves and who have looked beyond their own borders to encounter more-universal ideas about human rights and government responsibilities, these graduates can be peacefully empowered to make changes in their societies. Of course, it is equally possible, that some will become more efficient oppressors, and there are certainly ethical limits to where we would agree to work. However, on the whole, we are optimistic about the potential of development in sub-Saharan African higher education to be a force for good governance. There can be dilemmas created by both centralization and devolution; for example it is generally agreed that devolution, and autonomy, are “good things” to be desired and worked toward. However, sometimes those to whom power and responsibility are devolved are not suitable for such a role and might lack the skills and/or qualifications to carry out such a role or, worse, might be corrupt and use such powers for their own ends. It might sometimes be the case that there is a need, both nationally and institutionally, for a strong leader, someone who has vision and drive and can bring about the desired outcomes. Perhaps this might not be as democratic as some people from developed countries might wish, but sometimes democracy is no more than cynical window dressing aimed at appeasing donors. Dissent might be allowed and elections conducted, but only until such time as autocratic rulers feel threatened.

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Arab Spring When we stated writing this book at the beginning of 2010 it seemed inconceivable that a year later Hosni Mubarak of Egypt and Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia would have been deposed by popular uprisings and that Bashar al-Assad of Syria and Muammar Gaddafi of Libya would both be fighting civil wars to try and stay in power. The “Arab Spring” that has affected many countries in North Africa and the Middle East is an example of how unpredictable and fast-changing events can be in less developed parts of the world. Reports that the 26-year-old Tunisian who immolated himself in December 2010, Mohamed Bouazizi, was an unemployed university graduate turned out to be false but he inspired the protesters, many of whom are unemployed university graduates. Frustrated by their inability to get a proper job, one for which their university studies should have prepared them, many students are demanding that higher education be reformed. Demands include a halt to the appointment of political appointees as senior managers of universities, a halt to the surveillance of students by ‘secret’ police, a halt to the decline in quality of their qualifications and an end to poor teaching and resources.3 This combination of frustration, raised expectations, too much spare time and repressive kleptocracies that has proved to be a dangerous mix in many parts of the Middle East and North Africa. It also applies to many parts of sub-Saharan Africa. At the time of writing it is unclear the extent to which this demand for change will spread to other countries on the continent or how various regimes will react. It is a risky assumption that graduates can ‘create’ their own employment, even were entrepreneurial skills properly taught in universities.

Finally . . . Ultimately, solutions emerge from real situations, are complex and messy, and do not conform neatly to any one theory. We believe that the actions that development workers take should be principled and will be more effective if they are based on evidence collected in the situation, and people working together, each bringing their expertise and good faith. Working to develop sub-Saharan African higher education will not cure all of Africa’s ills, but cumulatively, small changes and improvements will make a real difference and eventually help sub-Saharan African countries reduce poverty and, instead, share more equitably in the benefits of a rapidly developing world.

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We can find new answers to old problems; there are no surefire fixes to anything. —Cluster Leader, Africa Region, the World Bank

Notes 1. Argyris, C. (1993). Knowledge for action. A guide to overcoming barriers to organizational change. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. 2. United States Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service. (2008, December). Fact Sheet: U.S. sugar program. Retrieved December 7, 2010, from http://www.fas.usda.gov/info/factsheets/sugar.asp 3. Altbach, P. (2011). Reforming higher education in the Middle East and elsewhere, International Higher Education, 64(Summer), 2–3.

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Teshome, Y., (2007). The Ethiopian higher education: Creating space for reform. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: St. Mary’s University College Press. UNAIDS. (2009). Outlook: Fresh perspective on the AIDS epidemic and response. Geneva: UNAIDS. UNESCO. (1998, October 9). World declaration on higher education for the twentyfirst century: Vision and action and framework for priority action for change and development in higher education. World Conference on Higher Education Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Vision and Action, Paris. Retrieved December 2, 2010, from http://www.unesco.org/education/ educprog/wche/declaration_eng.htm Universities UNESCO. (2004). Higher education in a globalized society. Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved December 2, 2010, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ 0013/001362/136247e.pdf UNESCO. (2007, September 13–14). Learners and new higher education spaces: Challenges for quality assurance and the recognition of qualifications. Third Global Forum on International Quality Assurance, Accreditation and the Recognition of Qualifications in Higher Education, Dar es Salaam. Retrieved December 2, 2010, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0015/001559/155919E.pdf Universities UK. (2010). Universities and development: Global cooperation, London: UUK. Retrieved November 30, 2010, from http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/ Publications/Documents/UniversitiesAndDevelopment20101011.pdf World Bank. (2000). Higher education in developing countries: Peril and promise, Washington, DC: World Bank. Retrieved December 3, 2010, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/278200 -1099079877269/547664-1099079956815/peril_promise_en.pdf World Bank. (2002a). Constructing knowledge societies: New challenges for tertiary education. Washington, DC: World Bank. Retrieved December 3, 2010, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/TERTIARYEDUCATION/Resources/Documents/Constructing-Knowledge-Societies/ConstructingKnowledgeSocieties.pdf World Bank. (2002b). Financing higher education in Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. Retrieved December 3, 2010, from http://siteresources. worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/278200-1099079877269/ Financing_higher_edu_Africa.pdf

Index 1 Minute Manager 126

A Access 52, 54, 55, 78, 86, 95, 91, 121, 131, 135, 177, 178, 201, 266 to curriculum 174–180, 181 to higher education 17, 35, 55, 80 Accountability 17, 19, 30, 31, 36, 55, 58, 59 60, 103, 105, 108, 111, 116, 120, 122, 123, 127, 128, 153, 156, 188, 183 Accra Declaration on GATS and the Internationalization of Higher Education in Africa 35, Accreditation 73, 94, 108, 144, 151, 154, 158 learning 94–95 Action research 1, 10, 13, 232 Addis Ababa University 81, 179, 209 Adeogun, A. A., Oyebade, S. A., and Osifila, G. I. 61, 71 Administrative staff 241, 245, 249, 254, 256, 259 241, 245, 249, 254, 256, 259 Administration 6, 84, 101, 104, 111, 156 and Ethiopian system 245–247 and ICT 255–257 Administration and support 22, 247–248, 252–255, and ICT as support for managers 257–258 and management information systems (MIS) 258–259

and managing budgets and procurement 249–252 new paradigm 247–248 and process of change 252–255 and students 242–247 and teaching 242, 256, 259 Administrative processes 243, 248, 249, 251 Administrative support structures 241–261, 222, 224, 228 Afeti, G., and Ng’ethe, N., Subotzky, G. 71, 78, 79 African Quality Assurance Network (AfriQAN) 95, 145 African Virtual University (AVU) 95 Aid 52, 68, 69 70, 75, 85, 87, 104 Al-Abidine Ben Ali, Zine 271 Al-Assad Bashar 271 Al-Samarrai, S., and Bennell, P. 50 Altbach 272 and Reisberg, L., and Rumbley, L. E. 27, 35, 49, 50 and Teferra, D. 256 Arab Spring 271 Argyris, C. 239, 263, 272 Ashcroft, K. 5, 23, 37, 49, 50, 122, 131, 139, 186, 190 and Foreman-Peck, L. 150, 163 and Melis, T., Macfarlane, I., Rayner, P., Semela, T., and Yizengaw, T. 190 Ashcroft, K., Meles, T., and Rayner, P. 71

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278    Index Assessment 8, 9, 11, 26, 40, 41, 111, 114, 124, 136 and learning 197, 199 methods 13, 30, 90, 128, 168, 188, 200, 193 and quality 42, 58, 90, 144, 146, 151, 158, 159, 203 and research 151, 152, 234 self- 155–156, 188 Association of African Universities (AAU) 31, 32, 35, 84 Autonomy 17, 19, 21, 43, 37, 63, 65, 89, 99, 100, 102, 103, 111, 120–123, 229, 270 academic 120, 146 accountability 17, 19, 58–60 and control 143 and expansion 58–60 financial 229 of Higher Education Relevance and Quality Assurance Agency (HERQA) 160 institutional, 21, 51, 55, 59, 60, 102, 110, 116, 121–23, 147, 153

B Bashar al-Assad 271 Bennell, P., and Al-Samarrai, S. 50 Biniam Eskinder 209 Blanchard, K., Zigarmi, P., and Zigarmi, A. 126, 139 Bloom, D., Canning, D., and Chan, K. 71 Bologna Process 22, 35, 91, 145–146 Botswana 27, 45 Bouazizi, Mohamed 271 Bowden, R. 152, 163 Brain Drain 44–45, 46, 104, 133, 219, 229 Brossard, M., and Foko, B. 118 Burundi, higher education system postconflict 104

C Cameroon 27, 117, 154, 209 Canning, D., and Chan, K. 54, 57 and Bloom, D. K. 71 Cantrell, M., and Kool, R., and Kouwenhoven, W., 164

Carter Center 231 Centre for Higher Education Transformation (CHET) 116 Centre for International Cooperation/VU University Amsterdam (CIS/VU) 1, 19 Chad 27 Chan, K., and Bloom, D., and Canning, D. 71 Cloete, N. 53, 71 Collaboration 1, 19, 64, 73, 78, 87, 247, institutional 73, 83–85, 90 international 73, 85–89, 219, 220, 237 linkages 83–89, 156 Collier, P. 23 Commission for Africa 185 Community service 22, 55, 121, 143, 157, 213–238 Consultancy 2, 22, 55, 76, 79, 80, 81, 105, 142, 264, 270 and research 214, 216, 219, 221, 224, 225, 235–236, 238 Content of book 21–23 Context for higher education in sub-Saharan Africa 25–49 Corruption 6, 17, 106, 107, 111, 174, 225, 238, 242, 251 Cost sharing 25, 36, 42, 66, 127 Cote d’Ivoire 27 Council on Higher Education (CHE) 28, 35, 89, 157 Critical enquiry 6, 7, 10–13, 14, 15, 16, 264 Critical enquiry process of 10–13 Curriculum 21, 22, 26 30, 41, 78, 84, 85, 91, 92, 110, 128, 135, 264, 270 content 13, 42, 104, 106, 121, 166, 168, 182, 186, 187, 199 and discipline mix 167–169 diversity in 169–170 and ethical issues in 172–174 national 146 national considerations 170–172 organization of elements 181–183 relationship with economy 185–188 Curriculum development 19, 22, 63, 81, 110,132, 165–189 formalization of 183–185 organizational framework for 180–181

Index    279

D Debt 48, 55, 57, 66 Decentralization 30, 89, 111, 246–247 Delaney, M. 170, 190 Democracy 3, 37, 38, 58, 125, 143, 147, 160, 173 Department for International Development (DfID) 69, 137 Dewey, J. 5, 23 Dilemmas 2, 4, 13, 14, 16, 17,18, 66–67, 99, 102, 103 and autonomy and cultural context 268–269 and development workers 148 and expansion 25, 29, 51, 67, 265–266 and globalism 266–268 and management 143 and national needs 266–268 and political context 101, 270 and quality 142, 148, 153–159 and resources 4 Discipline mix in universities 167–169 Distance and open learning 23, 30, 76, 95, 175 Diversification 58, 75–83, 147 Donors 7, 10, 17, 30, 32, 34, 40, 48, 52, 55, 56, 57, 68, 88, 117, 146, 209, 254, 270 and research 219, 224, 230, 233, 235, 236

E E-Learning 30, 259–260 Economic and social development 26, 44, 52–58, 85, 107, 137, 159, 223 eGranary 86, 87 Egypt 271 Employability 22, 36, 149, 159, 206 Employment 22, 30, 37, 42, 45, 46, 53, 62, 67, 76, 77, 82, 85, 93, 94, 104, 105, 132, 151, 152, 170, 194, 206, 230, 234 Enabling culture 17, 18, 109–112, 128, 132, 135, 227, 238, 245 Equality 17, 18, 22, 47, 119, 134, 135, 137, 172, 176, 205, 224–225, 266, 269 Ethical issues 13–15, 17, 23,46, 101, 135–137, 210, 270 and curriculum 172–174

and research 224–6, 227 Ethics 14, 22, 39, 60, 62, 107, 111, 159, 225–226 Ethiopia 3, 40, 57, 66, 61, 79, 81,90, 96, 105, 106, 108, 116, 131, 132, 134, 174, 175, 209, 252, 247, 269 administrative system 245–246, affirmative action for female students 204–205 and brain drain 45 and curriculum 62–63, 84, 165, 166, 175 and Development innovation Fund (DIF) 8–10 and expansion 28, 29–31, 55 and Higher Diploma Program 196–197, and Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency (HERQA) 90, 116, 131 and Higher Education Systems Overhaul Study (HESO) 122–123 and internet 30, 32, 86–87 and new universities/higher education institutions 69–70, 77 purpose of higher education 51, 54–55 and qualifications 73, 92–94 and quality 151, 157–159, 160–161 and research and community service 235–237 Ethiopian Journal of Science 230 Ethnic tension 5, 18, 21, 26, 34, 46, 100, 101, 104, 111, 169, 208 European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) 145 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) 94 European Science Foundation 225 European University Association (EAU) 60 Expansion 1, 4, 8, 9, 21, 29–31, 36, 51–79, 74, 87,127, 134, 176, 177, 180, 205, 236, 256, 266 and autonomy and accountability 58–60, 122 and quality 141, 149, 157, 161,146, 218

F Finance 57, 65–66, 110, 147, 223, 224 devolution 30, 248, 250, management 36, 67, 69, 103, 186

280    Index systems 42, 47, 120, 251, 259 problems 113, 127, 205, 218 Financial burden 42, 65–67 Finnegan, D. E. 118 Foko, B., and Brossar, M., 118 Foreman-Peck, L., and Ashcroft, K. 150, 163 Francophone Africa 33, 99, 103–104 and crisis in higher education planning I113–114 Funding 17, 87, 88, 113, 121, 123, 147, 153, 157, 180, 249 methods 65–66, 67, 80, 144, 151 research 150, 214,216–217, 226, 228, 233–234, 235 shortage 36, 66–67, 68–69, 219, 222

G Gaddafi, Muammar, 217 Gay students and staff 269 Gender 18, 29, 42, 46, 47, 62, 103,134–135, 137, 192, 210, 248, 268–269 and curriculum 172, 176, 179 and supporting women students 200–205 Gender Forum for African Women Educationalists 117 Ghana 33, 36, 57, 84, 155 Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration 84 Global Competitive Index 39 Global Competitive Report 39 Global networks 25, 32–33 Globalization 27, 30–36, 52, 63, 266–267 Graduate School of Telecommunication and Information Technology, Ethiopia 174 Gunawardena, C., and Kwesiga, J., Lihamba, A., Morley, L., Odejide, A., Shackleton, L., Sorhaindo, A., and Harvey, L. 204, 211

H Halhoun, C. 167, 189 Hammer, M. 256, 257 Hancock, G. 6, 23 Harris, J. 71 Harvey, L. 148, 163

and Gunawardena, C., Kwesiga, J., Lihamba, A., Morley, L., Odejide, A., Shackleton, and L., Sorhaindo, A. 204, 211 Hauptman, A.M. 37 Higher Education Careers Services Unit (HECSU) 61 Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) 3, 215 Higher Education Management 119–139 Higher Education Post-Financial Crisis 68–70 Higher Education Proclamation 55, 123, 157, 160 Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) 90, 141, 157 Higher Education Relevance and Quality Assurance Agency (HERQA) 90, 116, 131, 141, 157–159, 160–161 Higher Education South Africa (HESA) 90 Higher Education Strategy Centre (HESC) 84, 90 Highly-Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) 57 HIV/AIDS 13, 45–46, 47, 208–210, 62, 104, 122, 131, 137, 138, 248 and curriculum 171, 172, 174, 176, 195 and gender 208–210 and prevention 54, 55 and research 218, 224, 225 and staff 46, 132, 133, 136 HIV/AIDS Modelling and Reinforcement to Combat HIV/AIDS (MARCH) 209 HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control Office 174, 209 Horta, L. 85, 97 Hosni Mubarak 271 Human capacity building 8, 45, 54, 63, 157, 154, 187, 197 and research 109, 116, 216, 221, 228–231, 237 Human resource management (HRM) 133, 134, 181, 243 Hutton, W.W. 27, 49

I ICT 3, 6, 23, 27, 52, 53, 61, 64, 77, 95, 159, 186, 236 and E-Learning 259–260

Index    281 and management information systems (MIS) 258–259 and support for managers 257–258 Inequality 18 Infrastructure 5, 58, 43, 44, 55, 59, 60, 62, 69, 70, 85, 149, 183, 245, 259 and research 214, 215, 219, 224, 227–228, 234, 236, 238 Institute for International Cooperation of the German Adult Education Association 170–171 Institutional and personal learning 19–21 Inter-University Council for East Africa (IUCEA) 117 Inter-Academy Council 220 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 57 ISO 90015 (International Organization for Standardization) 144 It still pays 53

J Johnstone, D. B., and Marcucci, P. 37, 50

K Kenya 27, 45, 87, 99, 101, 107, 155, 218 barriers to publication in universities 222–223 politics and ethnicity of universities 101–3 Knight, J., and Teferra, D. 34, 44 49, 50, Kool, R., Cantrell, M., and Kouwenhoven, W., 164, Kouwenhoven, W., and Kool, R., and Cantrell, M. 164 Kumari Beck and Qiang Zha 49 Kwesiga, J., and Gunawardena, C., Lihamba, A., Morley, L., Odejide, A., Shackleton, L., Sorhaindo, A., and Harvey, L. 204, 211

L Language 33, 34, 45, 73, 126, 169, 180, 182, 185, 214, 219, 245, 255 Leadership 20, 22, 31, 44, 60, 64, 58, 65, 88, 90, 91, 120–122, 124–127, 136, 138, 233, 258, 261 and governance 99–118, 121, 123

Lesotho 45, 256 Library 26, 42, 79, 104, 155, 192, 201, 203, 207, 233, 245, 260 in a box 73, 86–87 Libya 271 Licence, master’s, doctorat (LMD) 145–146 Lihamba, A., and Gunawardena, C., Kwesiga, J., Morley, L., Odejide, A., Shackleton, L., Sorhaindo, A., and Harvey, L. 204, 211 Lords of Poverty 6

M Macfarlane, I., and Melis, T., Ashcroft, K., Rayner, P., Semela, T., Yizengaw, T. 190 MacGregor, K. 134, 139 Macleod, C. 225, 239 Madagascar 256 Makerere University 201 Malawi 45, 46, 209 Management 85–88, 89, 90, 105–106, 110–118, 119–139, 269 and administration 243, 250, 254, 261 and ethical issues 135–137 of finance 36, 67, 69, 103, 186 and gender 134–135 and Higher Education System Overhaul (HES0) 40, 131–132 information systems (MIS) 258–259 and leadership challenges 127–130 link with national government 106 and policy and planning 130–132 and quality 143, 144, 145 156, 157 and research 213, 222, 224, 227–8, 229, 230, 231, 233 and role of governance 120–123 and team building 129–130 Management Development Workshop (MADEV) 84 Manager as a Reflective Practitioner 126–127 Manager as Leader 123–126 Managing budgets and procurement 249–252 Managing change 19–21, 63–65, 64 Managing expansion 51–70 Managing people 132–143

282    Index Marcucci, P., and Johnstone, D. B. 50 Mass versus elite system 22 Massification 28, 29 –30, 41, 55, 60, 61, 64, 75, 100, 102, 103, 105, 221, 229, 259 Materu, P. 27, 41, 49, 50, 36, 146, 153, 154, 163, 228, 239 McKee, A. G. R., and Wilen-Daugenti, T. 71, 85 Meles, T., Ashcroft, K., and Rayner, P. 71 and Macfarlane, I., Semela, T., and Yizengaw, T. 190 Millennium development goals (MDGs) 1, 2, 46–48, 54, 161 Mishra, A. 72, 77 MODEL OF GRADUATE 186–188 Modes of learning 73 Mohamed Bouazizi 271 Mohamedbhai, G. 31, 49 Monash University 35 Monitoring 103, 105, 113, 130, 131, 134, 135, 152, 227, 229, 238, 246, 251 and accountability 30, 31 Moodie, A. 95, 97 Morley, L., and Gunawardena, C., Kwesiga, J., Lihamba, A., Odejide, A., Shackleton, L., Sorhaindo, A., and Harvey, L. 204, 211 Moyo, D. 6, 23 Mozambique 39, 45, 46, 57, 73, 81–83, 87, 116, 156 restructuring of university system 81–83, 176 Muammar Gaddafi 271 Mubarak, Hosni 271 Mweru, M. 218–220, 222–223, 239

N Namibia 27, 45 National Universities Commission (NUC) 154 National University of Lesotho 256 Neave G., and Van Vught, F. 118 Neocolonial 85, 264 Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE) 146 Ng’ethe, N., Subotzky, G., and Afeti, G. 71, 78, 79

NICHE (Netherlands Initiative for Capacity Development in Higher Education) 69, 87 Nigeria 25, 43–44, 61, 154,175, 204, 208, 219 private universities 43–44 Nuffic (Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in Higher Education) 86, 158

O Obasi, I. 50 and Olutayo, A. 49, 50 Odejide, A., and Gunawardena, C., Kwesiga, J., Lihamba, A., Morley, L., Shackleton, L., Sorhaindo, A., and Harvey, L. 204, 211 OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) 27, 225 OfSTED (Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills) 145 Olubayo-Fatiregun, M. A. 209, 212 Olutayo, A., and Obasi, I. 49, 50 Onah, F. O., and Onokala P. C. 139 Onokala, P. C., and Onah, F. O. 139 Open and distance learning 23, 30, 76, 95, 175 Open University of Tanzania 95, Open-mindedness 6, 264 Osborn, A. 121, 139 Osifila, G. I. ,and Adeogun, A. A., and Oyebade, S. A. 71 Otieno, W. 118 Oyebade, S. A., and Adeogun, A. A., and Osifila, G. I. 71

P Pan-African Institute of University Governance (IPAGU) 116 Partnership 5, 14, 37, 45, 89, 96 Pedagogic development 22, 89, 173, 186, 189, 195 Pedagogic improvement, obstacles 198–200 Pedagogic principles 22, 184, 187 Pedagogic Resource Centre 81, 91 Pedagogy 87, 91, 94, 128, 133, 222 and new forms of learning 194–198 and student experience 193–194

Index    283 Peril and Promise 55, 56, 70 Policy and planning 130–132 Population 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 44, 54, 55, 67, 69, 104, 127, 132, 134, 137 Post-colonial 25 Post-financial crisis 68–70 Poverty reduction 2, 3, 21, 42, 46, 54, 57, 69, 112, 120, 128, 147, 161, 170, 260, 268 and research 218, 219, 220, 238 Private higher education 21, 25, 29, 36, 61, 65, 77, 95, 106, 123, 128, 146, 157, 165, 172 institutions 42–44, 74, 76, 81,104, 123, 147, 151, 154, 158, 202, 203, 219, 222 Nigeria 43–44 Problems with research and community service 221–222 Processes 4, 15, 17, 18, 20, 33, 40, 54, 87, 89, 90, 104,105, 110, 127, 135, 203, 235, 239 administrative 243, 248, 249, 251 of critical enquiry 10–13 of curriculum development 166, 169, 183, 184 to ensure minimum standards 150–151 to foster improvement 152–153 to measure volume 151 and quality 142, 148, 150, 153, 156, 234 to rank excellence 152 Purposes 37–40, 137 of quality 143, 147, 150, 159 and of research and community service 220–221, 232

Q QANU (Quality Assurance Netherlands Universities) 145 Qiang Zha and Kumari Beck 49 Qualification frameworks 22, 26, 27, 75, 91–94, 185, 219 Qualifications 22, 27, 56, 63, 73, 75, 134, 145, 155 entry 177, 178, 188, 202, 205 modules 176, 181 staff 134, 236 Quality and approaches to issues 150–153 and expansion 60–61, 265

links with quality assurance and standards 149–150 and relevance 159–161 and research 217, 218, 223, 224, 227, 230, 232, 234, 235, 236 and standards 131, 139–162, 183 Quality assurance 3, 4, 21, 20, 21–22,42, 43, 60, 89, 90, 103, 106, 111, 231, 243, 251 and control 143–147 legacy and dilemmas 153–159 Quality Assurance Agency 3, 145 Quality Enhancement and Innovation Facility (QIF) 156 Quality processes 152–153 to measure volume 151 to rank excellence 152

R Rayner, P. 44, 61, 74, 193 and Ashcroft, K., and Meles, T. 61, 71 and Melis, T., Ashcroft, K., Macfarlane, I., Semela, T. and Yizengaw, T. 190 Reflective approach 5–10, 196 Reflective practice 5, 8, 10, 126–127, 264 Reisberg, L., and Altbach, P. G., and Rumbley, L. E. 49, 50 Relevance 159–161 Research 213 and administration 255, 258 and barriers to publication 222–223 centres 84 choices 22 and consultancy 55, 80, 81, 85, 105 and development 86 divisions between a teaching institution and a research university 216–217 and ethical issues 224–226 funding 150, 214,216–217, 226, 228, 233–234, 235 groupings 88 human capacity building 228–231 influence of more-developed countries 217–220 links 85 market 169, 184 methodologies 232 models to inform development 232–233

284    Index and quality 142, 143, 144, 149, 150, 152, 156, 157, 158, 159 relationship between purpose and methodology 226–227 role of management and infrastructure 227–228 social science research and publication 218–220 St Mary’s University College research strategy 231–232 and standards 214, 215, 230, 231 strategy 22 Research and community service 213–239 funding of 233–237 problems 221–222 purposes of 220–221 Responsibility 7, 17, 19, 108–111, 113, 264, 270 Rihani, M. A. 192, 211 Role 46, 85, 91, 90, 93, 118, 158, 160 of development worker 70, 96, 99, 112, 121, 138, 177, 200, 224, 232, 234, 237 of governance and executive 120–123 of management 105 227–228, 253 of national governance 101–104 of university boards 106–109, 126 Rumbley, L. E., and Altbach, and P. G., Reisberg, L. 49, 50 Rwanda 27

S Saarinen, T. 89, 97 Saint, W. 72 Sawahel, W. 85, 96 Science 30, 42, 53, 62, 76, 79, 82, 83, 169, 171, 179, 225, 233, 235 and mathematics at University of the North in South Africa (UNIFY) 177–178 and technology 30, 63, 77, 85, 106 Semela, T., and Melis, T., Ashcroft, K., Macfarlane, I., Rayner, P., Yizengaw, T. 190 Senge, P. M. 127, 139 Sergiovanni, T. J. 140

Shackleton, L., and Gunawardena, C., Kwesiga, J., Lihamba, A., Morley, L., Odejide, A., Sorhaindo, A., and Harvey, L. 204, 211 Sharing financial burden of expansion 65–67 Sharma, Y. 225, 239 Sierra Leone, Fourah Bay College 153 Sorhaindo, A., and Gunawardena, C., Kwesiga, J., Lihamba, A., Morley, L., Odejide, A., Shackleton, L., and Harvey, L. 204, 211 South Africa 3 25, 28, 35, 45, 51, 66, 67, 79, 80, 81, 89, 90, 92, 95, 116, 147, 157, 174, 176, 186, 218, 223, 225, 256 South Africa higher education and freedom of speech 38 Science and Mathematics Foundation Program (Unify) 177–178 Southern African Regional Universities Association (SARUA) 52, 90 Staff 67–68, 110, 101, 109, 133–136, 154 academic staff awards 156 administrative 103, 241, 245, 249, 254, 256, 259 brain drain 44–45 development 87, 88, 120, 144, 156, 173, 210, 228–229 and HIV/AIDS 19 gay 269 incentives 238, 217 and research 219, 228, 229, 236, 237 student ratios (SSRs) 67 Stakeholders 38, 39, 40–42, 61, 62, 63, 79, 90, 108, 109, 110, 111, 125, 129, 248 and accountability 59 and curriculum development 166, 168, 180, 184, 186, 187, 189 participation 55, 63 perspectives 3, 17, 18 and quality 142, 143, 147, 153, 155 Standards 3, 10, 22, 29, 39, 40, 43, 49, 59, 61, 148–149, 112, 121, 123, 127, 131, 136, 141–162, 184, 203, 204, 211, 237 and research 214, 215, 230, 231 Strategic planning 20, 22, 103, 108, 113–116, 157, 162, 180, 184

Index    285 Structures 20, 21 22, 23, 26, 28, 31, 36, 38, 65, 99, 103, 114, 116, 123, 153, 226 and administrative support 241–261 and curriculum development 166, 180, 184 and international collaboration 85–89 support and monitor performance 73, 89–91 and systems 73–96 Structuring higher education qualifications and learning 91–94 Student 242–245 demand 41, 75, diversity 205 enrolments 28, 82, 95, 202 exchanges 85 experience 22, 191–211 mobility 94 numbers 27, 29, 52, 57, 79, 102, 127, 151, 155, 158, 218 perspective 22 progression 79, 80 services 22, 121, 206–207 support 23, 191–211, 242–245, 248, 266 unions and representation 207–208 Students 191–211, 242–245 with disabilities 179, 205 gay 269 mature 91, 92 and quality 142, 143, 147, 148, 153, 155, 158, 161 women 4, 14, 67, 200–205, 209 Subotzky, G., and Ng’ethe, N., and Afeti, G. 71, 78, 79 Sudan 34 Supporting diversity 205–206 Sustainability 17, 36–37, 47, 109–112, 147, 168, 184, 258 Swayrr, A. 221, 239 Swaziland 45, Syria 271 System support units 90, 99, 106, 116–117

Tanzania 27, 95, 117, 152, 168 Tariff rate quota (TRQ) 266–267 Tax 44, 55, 56, 66 TDA (Teacher Development Agency) 145 Teaching 3, 26, 29, 30, 44, 59, 63, 76, 90, 101, 128, 133, 191–211 and administration 242, 256, 259 and assessment 26, 30, 29, 195, 197, 198, 199, 200, 204 and learning 3, 42, 44, 94, 144, 157, 158, 161, 191–211 and learning and student experience 191–211 quality 41, 52, 54, 60, 67, 114, 145, 148, 150 152, 156, 158, 159, 178, 200 and research 59, 76, 86, 87, 90, 107, 121, 195, 196, 198, 214, 215, 218–219, 229 Technology 30, 31, 32, 52, 53, 55, 62, 66, 77, 76, 85, 177, 235 Teferra, D. 121, 139 and Altbach, P.G. 256 and Knight, J. 34, 44, 49, 50 Themes in book 17–19 Togo 256 Trade 4, 35, 266 Trading Standards Institute 144 Tunisia 271

T

Van Vught, F., and Neave G. 102, 118 Virtual learning environments (VLEs) 260 Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO) 1, 137, 158

Tamene, B. 239 Tamrat, W. 127, 139

U Uganda 27, 46, 79, 87, 117, 201 Underemployment 30, 51, 61, 115, 235 Unemployment 37, 51, 61, 62, 115, 170 UNESCO 35, 59, 60, 85, 107, 123, 155 University of Cape Town 74, 95 University of Sierra Leone 74 University of The Gambia 36 University of Zambia 102 Utley 168

V

286    Index

W

Z

Walshe, J. 152, 163 Waylaid 68 Wholeheartedness 7–8, 264 Wilen-Daugenti, T., and McKee, A. G. R. 71, 85 World Bank 1, 6, 8, 9, 10, 17, 30, 36, 37, 42, 52, 53, 55, 57, 68, 77, 80, 87, 154 156, 158, 175, 210, 218, 249, 258 Development Innovation Fund (DIF) 1, 8–10 World Trade Agreement 267 World Trade Organization’s General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) 35

Zaaiman, H. 177, 190 Zambia 3, 39, 45, 119, 129–130, 209 team building 129–130 Zeichner, K. 5, 23 Zigarmi, A., and Blanchard, K., and Zigarmi, P., 126, 139 Zigarmi, P., and Blanchard, K., and Zigarmi, A. 126, 139 Zimbabwe 33, 45, 46 Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali 271

Y Yizengaw, T. 72 and Melis, T., Ashcroft, K., Macfarlane, I., Rayner, P., and Semela, T., 190